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2,800 | Ham | Ham with cloves Ham is the thigh and rump of pork, cut from the haunch of a pig or boar. Although it may be cooked and served fresh, most ham is cured in some fashion. Cuts referred to as ham in the U.S. are called gammon in the U.K. and Ireland. Types Ham can be dry-cured or wet-cured. Dry A dry-cured ham has been rubbed in a mixture containing salt and a variety of other ingredients (most usually some proportion of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite). This is followed by a varying period of drying and aging. Dry-cured hams may require a period of re-hydration prior to consumption. Some ham curing methods begin with the ham being wet but are followed by dry aging. Dry-cured varieties include Italian prosciutto crudo [pro.ut:to 'kru:do] (prosciutto di Parma, prosciutto di San Daniele, prosciutto di Carpegna, prosciutto di Modena, prosciutto Toscano, prosciutto Veneto Berico-Euganeo, Valle d’Aosta Jambon de Bosses, prosciutto di Norcia) and the Spanish Jamon serrano and jamón ibérico. The United States has country ham (including Virginia ham), which might or might not be smoked. England has the York ham. Germany's Westphalian ham is usually smoked over juniper, in Belgium there is the smoked Ardennes ham, and from China there is the unsmoked Jinhua ham. In Bulgaria the specific Elenski but is produced. Wet A wet-cured ham has been cured with a brine, either by immersion or injection. The curing solution typically contains salt, sodium nitrate, smoke flavoring as well as other additives. Wet cured hams typically are sold packaged with their curing brine. Wet cured ham is often commonly sold in tins or 'cans' for preservation. Ham is also processed into other meat products such as Spam luncheon meat. Regional use China Chinese dry-cured hams have been recorded in texts since prior to Song dynasty and used in myriad dishes. Several types are existent in Qing dynasty and used in dishes of stewing hams (火腿炖肘子), and vegetables, or for a wide variety of soup and important soup stocks. One of the most famous Chinese hams is the Jinhua ham, which is used to produce a dish known as "Buddha jumps over the wall". France Bayonne Ham or Bayonne is an air dried salted ham that takes its name from the ancient port city of Bayonne in the far South West of France (Le Pays Basque or the Basque country). Jambon de Paris is a wet-cured, boneless ham and baked in shape. The ham is of superior quality product prepared from fresh, unfrozen pork thighs without adding polyphosphates. Germany Black Forest ham, known as Schwarzwälder Schinken, is from the Black Forest region of Germany. It is seasoned, dry cured, then smoked over sawdust and fir brush. Westphalian ham is created from pigs raised in the Westphalian Forest and fed acorns. The resulting meat is dry cured and then smoked over a mixture of beechwood and juniper branches . Italy In Italy, ham is called prosciutto, and can be either raw (prosciutto crudo) or cooked (prosciutto cotto). Earliest evidence of ham production in Italy comes from the Republican Roman period (400-300 BCE). Modern Italian and European Union legislation grants a protected designation of origin to several raw hams, which specify where and how these types of ham can be produced. There are several such hams from Italy, each one with a peculiar production process. Parma ham, the so called Prosciutto di Parma, has almost 200 producers concentrated in the eastern part of Parma Province. Its production is regulated by a quality consortium that recognizes qualifying products with distinctive mark. Only larger fresh hams are used (12-13 kilograms). Curing uses relatively little salt, but can include garlic salt and sugar producing a sweeter meat. After salting, the meat is sealed with pig fat over the exposed muscle tissue, which slows drying. Curing occurs over a minimum 12 months. This curing method uses only salt, without nitrates and without spices. No conserving substances added. San Daniele ham (Prosciutto di San Daniele) is the most similar to Parma ham, especially the low quantity of salt added to the meat, and is the most prized ham. Other raw hams include the so called "nostrani" or "nazionali" or "toscani", they are more strongly flavoured and are produced using a higher quantity of salt. Philippines In the Philippines, ham, or hamon as it is called (from the Spanish Jamon) is normally associated with the Yuletide season. There are local variants of Jamon Serrano, and there is Hamon de Bola, which is a ball-shaped wet cured ham, among other varieties. There is also sliced processed ham--the type used for making sandwiches--available year round in groceries. The main Christmas ham, similar to a Chinese ham and served in some Noche Buenas, is similar to a dry cured one, and it has to be cooked in a special sweet broth after being soaked to eliminate the salt. Then the ham is scored and glazed, and roasted. King Sue is the main local manufacturer of this type of ham. Hamon de Bola, produced by the major Philippine food manufacturers (CDO-Foodsphere, Purefoods-Hormel, Swift's, among others), is usually offered as gifts to employees in most companies and government offices during the Yuletide season. This can be either baked or fried. As with the other dishes "localized" from foreign sources, the Philippine palate favors the sweeter variety of ham. Portugal Portuguese Presunto from Chaves Portuguese Presunto from Chaves, ready to be sliced In Portugal, besides several varieties of wet-cured hams called fiambre (not to be confused with the Guatemalan dish, also called fiambre), the most important type of ham is presunto, a dry-cured ham similar to Spanish jamón and Italian prosciutto. There is a wide variety of presuntos in Portugal; among the most famous are presunto from Chaves and presunto from Alentejo (made from black iberian pig; see also pata negra). Romania In Romania, ham is called şuncă/şonc/jambon. Usually dry cured, always with granular salt, in Transilvania and Banat paprika might be added. Spain Spanish Jamon serrano of Huelva One of the more exacting ham regulatory practices can be found in Spain, where ham is called Jamón. Hams in Spain are not only classified according to preparation, but the breed, the pre-slaughter diet and region of preparation are considered important. The Jamón serrano (Serrano Ham) comes from the white pig. The regional appellations of Spanish Serrano ham include the following: Cured ham of Trevélez, cured at least 1,200 meters above sea level. Cured hams from Trevélez are qualified to be among the “sweetest” cured hams due to the low degree of salting necessary for the drying and maturing processes to succeed properly. This is caused by the north winds coming from the high tips of Sierra Nevada. Teruel, cured at least 800 meters above sea level, with a minimum of a year of curing and aging. Regulator Agency of the Serrano Ham D.O. Jamón de Teruel Jamón Ibérico (Iberian Ham) comes from the Black Iberian Pig, and is also classified depending on the amount of acorns they eat, which determines the ham quality. Spanish regulators Campaña informativa sobre los Productos del Ibérico del Ministerio de Agricultura de España recognize three qualities: Jamón Ibérico Cebo hogs are fed only commercial feed. Jamón Ibérico Cebo Campo hogs are fed only commercial feed. Jamón Ibérico Recebo hogs are raised on commercial feed and fed acorns for the last few months of their lives. Jamón Ibérico Bellota hogs are fed a diet almost exclusively of acorns (bellotas), the most famous. The regional appellations (D.O.) of Iberian ham include the following: D.O. Los Pedroches with Protected Denomination of Origin, from Córdoba (Andalusia). D.O. Jamón de Huelva and Jabugo, a full-flavored ham made in Huelva (Andalusia). Jabugo is a small village in Huelva. Regulator Agency of the Iberian Ham D.O. Jamón de Huelva D.O. Guijuelo, in the province of Salamanca, in the cities of Guijuelo, Gredos and Béjar. D.O. Dehesa de Extremadura, made in Cáceres and Badajoz. United States The United States largely inherited its traditions relating to ham and pork from 17th century U.K. and 18th century France, the latter especially in what is now present day New Orleans: the French often used wet cure processed hams that are the foundation stock of a lot of modern dishes, like certain gumbos and sandwiches. Up until the very early twentieth century men living in the Southern Appalachians would drive their pigs to market in the flatlands below each autumn, fattening up their stock on chestnuts and fallen mast, much like their Scottish forebearers did for centuries. Further, archaeological evidence suggests that the early settlers of Jamestown (men largely from the West Midlands) built swine pens for the pigs they brought with them and, once established, also carried on an ancient British tradition of slaughtering their pigs and producing their pork in mid November. To this day the result is that in many portions of the Southeast a large ham, not a turkey, is the centerpiece of a family Christmas dinner. Sliced ham In the United States, ham is regulated primarily on the basis of its cure and water content. The USDA recognizes the following categories: Fresh ham is an uncured hind leg of pork. Country Ham is uncooked, cured, dried, smoked-or-unsmoked, made from a single piece of meat from the hind leg of a hog or from a single piece of meat from a pork shoulder. Virginia's famous Smithfield ham, a country ham, must be grown and produced in or around Smithfield, Virginia, to be sold as such. Similar, lesser known hams from Tennessee and the Appalachians have a similar method of preparation but are more likely to include honey or hickory in their cures. For most other purposes, under US law, a "ham" is a cured hind leg of pork that is at least 20.5% protein (not counting fat portions) and contains no added water. However, "ham" can be legally applied to such things as "turkey ham" if the meat is taken from the thigh of the animal. If the ham has less than 20.5% but is at least 18.5% protein, it can be called "ham with natural juices". A ham that is at least 17.0% protein and up to 10% added solution can be called "ham—water added". Finally, "ham and water product" refers to a cured hind leg of pork product that contains any amount of added water, although the label must indicate the percent added ingredients. If a ham has been cut into pieces and molded, it must be labelled "sectioned and formed" or "chunked and formed". Sugar is common in many dry hams because of its prevalence in the United States. The majority of common wet-cured ham available in U.S. supermarkets is of the "city ham" variety, in which brine is injected into the meat for a very rapid curing suitable for mass market. Traditional wet curing requires immersing the ham in a brine for an extended period, often followed by light smoking. In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labelling. A 'smoked' ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in a smokehouse, and a "hickory-smoked" ham must have been smoked over hickory. Injecting "smoke flavour" is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was "smoked". Hams can only be labelled "honey-cured" if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used and has a discernible effect on flavour. So-called "lean" and "extra lean" hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and cholesterol per 100 grams of product. One of the most popular and expensive hams in the United States is Smithfield or Virginia ham. Through a special curing process Smithfield ham ages. In that time a fungal coat forms over the outside of the ham while the rest of the meat continues to age. This process produces a distinctive flavour, but the fungal layer must be scrubbed off the ham before being cooked or served. Turkey ham, a boneless product made from pressed dark turkey meat, a popular low-fat alternative to traditional ham in the US. Turkey Ham A spiral-slicing process has become popular for boneless hams sold by delicatessens in the US. Patents & Press Releases: Benefits to the Franchisee of Logan Farms Spiral Slicing Technologies Tinned Ham Tinned ham (more commonly known in the United States as "canned ham") is a meat product that is sold exclusively in tins (or 'cans'). The ham itself is usually formed from smaller cuts of meat, cooked in the can, and is often covered in an aspic jelly during the canning process. Tinned ham is usually sold in supermarkets and convenience stores. See also Christmas ham Prosciutto York ham Canadian Bacon Beef aging Jamón External links Ham history United States Department of Agriculture: Focus on Ham Ham Varieties and Terminology at About.com Iberian ham ForumForum in English,Spanish,French and Italian, about Iberian ham Cook´s Thesaurus: ham References | Ham |@lemmatized ham:116 clove:1 thigh:3 rump:1 pork:8 cut:4 haunch:1 pig:9 boar:1 although:2 may:2 cook:6 serve:3 fresh:4 cure:33 fashion:1 refer:1 u:7 call:10 gammon:1 k:2 ireland:1 type:6 dry:17 wet:12 rub:1 mixture:2 contain:4 salt:12 variety:9 ingredient:2 usually:6 proportion:1 sodium:3 nitrate:3 nitrite:1 follow:3 varying:1 period:4 age:6 cured:6 require:2 hydration:1 prior:2 consumption:1 method:3 begin:1 include:7 italian:4 prosciutto:15 crudo:2 pro:1 ut:1 kru:1 di:7 parma:5 san:3 daniele:3 carpegna:1 modena:1 toscano:1 veneto:1 berico:1 euganeo:1 valle:1 aosta:1 jambon:3 de:10 boss:1 norcia:1 spanish:7 jamon:4 serrano:7 jamón:13 ibérico:7 united:8 state:8 country:4 virginia:4 might:3 smoke:12 england:1 york:2 germany:3 westphalian:3 juniper:2 belgium:1 smoked:2 ardennes:1 china:2 unsmoked:2 jinhua:2 bulgaria:1 specific:1 elenski:1 produce:9 brine:4 either:3 immersion:1 injection:1 solution:2 typically:2 flavoring:1 well:1 additive:1 sell:6 package:1 curing:3 often:4 commonly:2 tin:5 preservation:1 also:7 process:9 meat:14 product:8 spam:1 luncheon:1 regional:3 use:10 chinese:3 record:1 text:1 since:1 song:1 dynasty:2 myriad:1 dish:6 several:4 existent:1 qing:1 stew:1 火腿炖肘子:1 vegetable:1 wide:2 soup:2 important:3 stock:3 one:5 famous:4 know:4 buddha:1 jump:1 wall:1 france:3 bayonne:3 air:1 take:2 name:1 ancient:2 port:1 city:3 far:2 south:1 west:2 le:1 pay:1 basque:2 paris:1 boneless:3 bake:2 shape:2 superior:1 quality:4 prepare:1 unfrozen:1 without:3 add:6 polyphosphate:1 black:4 forest:3 schwarzwälder:1 schinken:1 region:2 season:3 sawdust:1 fir:1 brush:1 create:1 raise:2 fed:2 acorn:4 resulting:1 beechwood:1 branch:1 italy:4 raw:3 cotto:1 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2,801 | Asexual_reproduction | Asexual reproduction in liverworts: a caducuous phylloid germinating Asexual reproduction is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. Only one parent is involved in asexual reproduction. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which refers to reproduction without the fusion of gametes. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such the archaea, bacteria, and protists. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well. While all prokaryotes reproduce asexually (without the formation and fusion of gametes), mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation, transformation and transduction are sometimes likened to sexual reproduction. A lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, for reasons that are not completely understood. Current hypotheses suggest that, while asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity, allowing adaptation to changing environments. Costs and benefits Because asexual reproduction does not require the formation of gametes (often in separate individuals) and bringing them together for fertilization, it occurs much faster than sexual reproduction and requires less energy. Asexual lineages can increase their numbers rapidly because all members can reproduce viable offspring. In sexual populations with two genders, some of the individuals are male and cannot themselves produce offspring. This means that an asexual lineage will have roughly double the rate of population growth under ideal conditions when compared with a sexual population half composed of males. This is known as the two-fold cost of sex. Other advantages include the ability to reproduce without a partner in situations where the population density is low (such as for some desert lizards), reducing the chance of finding a mate, or during colonisation of isolated habitats such as oceanic islands, where a single (female) member of the species is enough to start a population. A consequence of asexual reproduction, which may have both benefits and costs, is that offspring are typically genetically similar to their parent, with as broad a range as that individual receives from one parent. The lack of genetic recombination results in fewer genetic alternatives than with sexual reproduction. Many forms of asexual reproduction, for example budding or fragmentation, produce an exact replica of the parent. This genetic similarity may be beneficial if the genotype is well-suited to a stable environment, but disadvantageous if the environment is changing. For example, if a new predator or pathogen appears and a genotype is particularly defenseless against it, an asexual lineage is more likely to be completely wiped out by it. In contrast, a lineage that reproduces sexually has a higher probability of having more members survive due to the genetic recombination that produces a novel genotype in each individual. Similar arguments apply to changes in the physical environment. From an evolutionary standpoint, one could thus argue that asexual reproduction is inferior because it stifles the potential for change. However, there is also a significantly reduced chance of mutation or other complications that can result from the mixing of genes. A 2004 article in the journal Nature reported that the modern arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which reproduce asexually, are identical to fossil records dating back to the Ordovician period, 460 million years ago. Teresa Pawlowska and John Taylor, "Organization of genetic variation in individuals of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi", Nature, 2004, volume 427 (6976), pages 733-737. Types of asexual reproduction Binary fission Many single-celled organisms (unicellular), such as archaea, bacteria, and protists, reproduce asexually through binary fission. An exception to the rule are unicellular fungi such as fission yeast, unicellular algae such as Chlamydomonas, and ciliates and some other protists, which reproduce both sexually and asexually. Some single-celled organisms(unicellular) rely on one or more host organisms in order to reproduce, but most literally divide into two organisms. Budding Some cells split via budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a 'mother' and 'daughter' cell. The offspring organism is smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the hydra, which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism. Vegetative reproduction Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new independent individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores. Examples for vegetative reproduction include the formation of plantlets on specialized leaves (for example in kalanchoe), the growth of new plants out of rhizomes or stolons (for example in strawberry), or the formation of new bulbs (for example in tulips). The resulting plants form a clonal colony. Spore formation Many multicellular organisms form spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, who undergo gametic meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals (called gametophytes in the case of plants) without a fertilization event. These haploid individuals give rise to gametes through mitosis. Meiosis and gamete formation therefore occur in separate generations or "phases" of the life cycle, referred to as alternation of generations. Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined as the fusion of gametes (fertilization), spore formation in plant sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction (agamogenesis) despite being the result of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy. However, both events (spore formation and fertilization) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the plant life cycle. Fungi and some algae can also utilize true asexual spore formation, which involves mitosis giving rise to reproductive cells called mitospores that develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found for example in conidial fungi and the red alga Polysiphonia, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. However, mitotic sporogenesis is an exception and most spores, such as those of plants, most Basidiomycota, and many algae, are produced by meiosis. Fragmentation Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms such as animals (some annelid worms and sea stars), fungi, and plants. Some plants have specialized structures for reproduction via fragmentation, such as gemmae in liverworts. Most lichens, which are a symbiotic union of a fungus and photosynthetic algae or bacteria, reproduce through fragmentation to ensure that new individuals contain both symbionts. These fragments can take the form of soredia, dust-like particles consisting of fungal hyphae wrapped around photobiont cells. Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis is a form of agamogenesis in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in many plants, invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps), and vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles, amphibians, fish, very rarely birds). In plants, apomixis may or may not involve parthenogenesis. Agamogenesis Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. Examples are parthenogenesis and apomixis. Apomixis and nucellar embryony Apomixis in plants is the formation of a new sporophyte without fertilization. It is important in ferns and in flowering plants, but is very rare in other seed plants. In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is now most often used for agamospermy, the formation of seeds without fertilization, but was once used to include vegetative reproduction. An example of an apomictic plant would be the triploid European dandelion. Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg within a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as the Saharan Cypress where the genetic material of the embryo are derived entirely from pollen. The term "apomixis" is also used for asexual reproduction in some animals, notably water-fleas, Daphnia. Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction Some species alternate between the sexual and asexual strategies, an ability known as heterogamy, depending on conditions. For example, the freshwater crustacean Daphnia reproduces by parthenogenesis in the spring to rapidly populate ponds, then switches to sexual reproduction as the intensity of competition and predation increases. Many protists and fungi alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction. For example, the slime mold Dictyostelium undergoes binary fission as single-celled amoebae under favorable conditions. However, when conditions turn unfavorable, the cells aggregate and switch to sexual reproduction leading to the formation of spores. The hyphae of the common mold (Rhizopus) are capable of producing both mitotic as well as meiotic spores. Many algae similarly switch between sexual and asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is far less complicated than sexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction one must find a mate. Examples in animals A number of invertebrates and some less advanced vertebrates are known to alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction, or be exclusively asexual. Alternation is observed in a few types of insects, such as aphids (which will, under favourable conditions, produce eggs that have not gone through meiosis, essentially cloning themselves) and the cape bee Apis mellifera capensis (which can reproduce asexually through a process called thelytoky). A few species of amphibians and reptiles have the same ability (see parthenogenesis for concrete examples). A very unusual case among more advanced vertebrates is the female turkey's ability to produce fertile eggs in the absence of a male. The eggs result in often sickly, and nearly always male turkeys. This behaviour can interfere with the incubation of eggs in turkey farming. Savage, Thomas F. There are examples of parthenogenesis in the hammerhead shark and the blacktip shark. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081010173054.htm In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. Bdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have allowed them to survive better in periods of dehydration. Pouchkina-Stantcheva, N.N., McGee, B.M. et al. (2007) Functional Divergence of Former Alleles in an Ancient Asexual Invertebrate. Science 318: 268-271 Notes and references Further reading Graham, L., J. Graham, & L. Wilcox. 2003. Plant Biology. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp. 258-259. Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F., Eichhorn, S.E. 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, NY. See also Alternation of generation Bacterial conjugation Biological reproduction Cloning Parthenogenesis Reproduction Sex External links Asexual reproduction Intestinal Protozoa | Asexual_reproduction |@lemmatized asexual:28 reproduction:44 liverwort:2 caducuous:1 phylloid:1 germinate:1 involve:6 meiosis:10 ploidy:2 reduction:2 fertilization:8 one:5 parent:8 stringent:1 definition:1 agamogenesis:5 refer:2 without:9 fusion:3 gamete:8 primary:1 form:13 single:5 celled:4 organism:12 archaea:2 bacteria:3 protist:5 many:10 plant:20 fungi:8 reproduce:13 asexually:7 well:3 prokaryote:1 formation:13 mechanism:1 lateral:1 gene:2 transfer:1 conjugation:2 transformation:1 transduction:1 sometimes:1 liken:1 sexual:19 lack:2 relatively:1 rare:3 among:2 multicellular:4 reason:1 completely:2 understood:1 current:1 hypothesis:1 suggest:2 may:5 short:1 term:3 benefit:3 rapid:2 population:6 growth:3 important:2 stable:2 environment:5 offer:1 net:1 advantage:2 allow:4 generation:4 genetic:7 diversity:1 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2,802 | East_River | The East River is shown in red on this satellite photo of New York City. The East River is a tidal strait in New York City. It connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end. It separates Long Island (including the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn) from the island of Manhattan and the Bronx on the North American mainland. In reference to its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound River. Montrésor, John (1766). A plan of the city of New-York & its environs. London. History The river was formed approximately 11,000 years ago at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation. The Queens Gazette: The East River Flows From Prehistoric Times To Today The distinct change in the shape of the river channel between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity. The upper portion (from Long Island Sound to Hell Gate), running largely perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering, and has deep narrow bays on both banks, scoured out by the glacier's movement. The lower portion (from Hell Gate to New York Bay) runs north-south, parallel to the glacial motion. It is much narrower, with straight banks. The bays that exist (or existed before being filled-in by human activity), are largely wide and shallow. Channel Historical film of the east river, leading up to a final shot of the Brooklyn Bridge. (1903) The East River is dangerous to people who fall in or attempt to swim in it, although as of mid-2007 the water was cleaner than it had been in decades. Anyone in the channel would find there are few places to climb out. According to the marine sciences section of the city Department of Environmental Protection, the channel is swift, with water moving as fast as four knots (just as it does in the Hudson River on the other side of Manhattan). That speed can push casual swimmers out to sea. A few people drown in the rivers around New York City each year. "Welcome, Students. Now Watch It.", no byline, article in The New York Times, "Metro Section", August 30, 2007, accessed same day The strength of the current foiled an effort in 2007 to tap it for hydroelectricity. "East River Turbines Face Upstream Battle" Gothamist Historically, the lower portion of the river (separating Manhattan from Brooklyn) was one of the busiest and most important channels in the world, particularly during the first three centuries of New York City's history. The Brooklyn Bridge, opened in 1883, was the first bridge to span the river, replacing frequent ferry service. Some passenger ferry service remains between Queens and Manhattan. The Bronx River drains into the East River in the northern section of the strait. North of Ward's Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill. Along the east of Ward's Island, at approximately the strait's midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate, which is spanned by both the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge, formerly called the Triboro Bridge, and the Hell Gate Bridge. On the south side of Ward's Island, it is joined by the Harlem River. Southern view of the Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Williamsburg bridges (front to back), seen from the East River. Newtown Creek on Long Island drains into the East River, forming part of the boundary between Queens and Brooklyn. The East River contains a number of islands, including: Upper section Rikers Island North Brother Island South Brother Island Mill Rock Lower Section Ward's Island and Randall's Island (joined by landfill) Roosevelt Island U Thant Island (Belmont Island) Crossings New York City waterways: 1. Hudson River, 2. East River, 3. Long Island Sound, 4. Newark Bay, 5. Upper New York Bay, 6. Lower New York Bay, 7. Jamaica Bay, 8. Atlantic Ocean East River flows past Upper East Side Bridges The river is spanned by eight bridges, which from north to south are: Throgs Neck Bridge Bronx-Whitestone Bridge Rikers Island Bridge (From Queens to Rikers Island only) Hell Gate Bridge Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge (East River Suspension Span) Roosevelt Island Bridge (east channel only) Queensboro Bridge Williamsburg Bridge (Vehicular traffic & Trains of the subway services) Manhattan Bridge (Vehicular traffic & Trains of the subway services) Brooklyn Bridge Tunnels The river is spanned by thirteen tunnels. From north to south, along with uses as of July 2006: 63rd Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway service) 60th Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) 53rd Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) Steinway Tunnel (Trains of the subway service) Queens-Midtown Tunnel (Vehicular traffic of Interstate 495) East River Tunnels (Long Island Rail Road and Amtrak trains from Penn Station to points north and east) 14th Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway service) Rutgers Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway service) Cranberry Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) Clark Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) Montague Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) Joralemon Street Tunnel (Trains of the subway services) Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel (Vehicular traffic of Interstate 478) See also List of New York rivers Geography and environment of New York City Geography of New York Harbor References External links East River NYC from the Greater Astoria Historical Society LIC Community Boathouse site for free paddling on the East River Hydropower turbines destroyed by East River current Western Queens waterfront information page | East_River |@lemmatized east:21 river:30 show:1 red:1 satellite:1 photo:1 new:14 york:14 city:8 tidal:1 strait:3 connect:1 upper:6 bay:8 south:6 end:3 long:7 island:23 sound:5 north:8 separate:2 include:2 borough:1 queen:6 brooklyn:8 manhattan:6 bronx:4 american:1 mainland:1 reference:2 connection:1 also:2 know:1 montrésor:1 john:1 plan:1 environs:1 london:1 history:2 form:2 approximately:2 year:2 ago:1 wisconsin:1 glaciation:1 queens:1 gazette:1 flow:2 prehistoric:1 time:2 today:1 distinct:1 change:1 shape:1 channel:7 low:5 portion:4 evidence:1 glacial:3 activity:2 hell:5 gate:5 run:2 largely:2 perpendicular:1 motion:2 wide:2 meandering:1 deep:1 narrow:3 bank:2 scour:1 glacier:1 movement:1 parallel:1 much:1 straight:1 exist:2 fill:1 human:1 shallow:1 historical:2 film:1 lead:1 final:1 shot:1 bridge:19 dangerous:1 people:2 fall:1 attempt:1 swim:1 although:1 mid:1 water:2 clean:1 decade:1 anyone:1 would:1 find:1 place:1 climb:1 accord:1 marine:1 sciences:1 section:5 department:1 environmental:1 protection:1 swift:1 move:1 fast:1 four:1 knot:1 hudson:2 side:3 speed:1 push:1 casual:1 swimmer:1 sea:1 drown:1 around:1 welcome:1 student:1 watch:1 byline:1 article:1 metro:1 august:1 access:1 day:1 strength:1 current:2 foil:1 effort:1 tap:1 hydroelectricity:1 turbine:2 face:1 upstream:1 battle:1 gothamist:1 historically:1 one:1 busy:1 important:1 world:1 particularly:1 first:2 three:1 century:1 open:1 span:5 replace:1 frequent:1 ferry:2 service:14 passenger:1 remain:1 drain:2 northern:1 ward:4 join:3 kill:1 along:2 midpoint:1 call:2 robert:2 f:2 kennedy:2 memorial:2 formerly:1 triboro:1 harlem:1 southern:1 view:1 williamsburg:2 front:1 back:1 see:2 newtown:1 creek:1 part:1 boundary:1 contain:1 number:1 rikers:3 brother:2 mill:1 rock:1 randall:1 landfill:1 roosevelt:2 u:1 thant:1 belmont:1 cross:1 waterway:1 newark:1 jamaica:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 past:1 eight:1 throgs:1 neck:1 whitestone:1 suspension:1 queensboro:1 vehicular:4 traffic:4 train:13 subway:12 tunnel:15 thirteen:1 us:1 july:1 street:9 steinway:1 midtown:1 interstate:2 rail:1 road:1 amtrak:1 penn:1 station:1 point:1 rutgers:1 cranberry:1 clark:1 montague:1 joralemon:1 battery:1 list:1 geography:2 environment:1 harbor:1 external:1 link:1 nyc:1 great:1 astoria:1 society:1 lic:1 community:1 boathouse:1 site:1 free:1 paddling:1 hydropower:1 destroy:1 western:1 waterfront:1 information:1 page:1 |@bigram wisconsin_glaciation:1 u_thant:1 atlantic_ocean:1 vehicular_traffic:4 external_link:1 |
2,803 | Brittonic_languages | The Brythonic languages (or Brittonic languages or British languages) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic. History of English: A Sketch of the Origin and Development of the English Language The name Brythonic was derived by Welsh Celticist Sir John Rhys from the Welsh word Brython, meaning an indigenous Briton as opposed to an Anglo-Saxon or Gael. The name Brittonic derives ultimately from the name Prettanic recorded by Greek authors for the British Isles. Some authors reserve the term Brittonic for the modified later Brythonic languages after about AD 600. These languages have been spoken in the British Isles since at least the Iron Age until today, originally as the majority languages but now as minority ones in Wales and Cornwall. In the Isle of Man and Scotland the Brythonic languages were replaced by Goidelic ones in the Middle Ages, and eventually by English. By emigration there are also communities of Brythonic language speakers in Brittany and Patagonia. Evidence Knowledge of the Brythonic languages comes from a variety of sources. For the early languages information is obtained from coins, inscriptions and comments by classical writers as well as place names and personal names recorded by them. For later languages there is information from medieval writers and modern native speakers, together with place names. The names recorded in the Roman period are given in Rivet and Smith. Characteristics The Brythonic branch is also referred to as P-Celtic (like Gaulish) because the Brythonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme *kw is p as opposed to the Goidelic c. Such nomenclature usually implies an acceptance of the P-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis (for a discussion, see Celtic languages). Other major characteristics include: the treatment of -m, -n as -am, -an. initial s- followed by a vowel was changed to h- Irish sean "old", sior "long", samail "similar" Breton hen, hir, heñvel Brythonic retains original nasals before -t Breton kant "hundred" vs. Irish céad sp, sr, sv/sw became f, fr, chw *swero "toy, game" became Welsh chwarae and Breton c'hoari *srokna "nostril" became Welsh ffroen and Breton froen. all other initial s- fell before consonants smero became Welsh mwyar, Breton mouar "fruit" slemon became Welsh llyfn, Breton levn "smooth" v became gw where in Goidelic it is f vindos "white" became Welsh gwenn vassos "servant, young man" became Welsh gwas double plosives transformed into spirants: pp, cc, tt became f, ch (c'h), th (z) before a vowel or liquid cippus > Breton kef "tree trunk", Welsh cyff cattos > Breton kaz, Welsh cath bucca > Breton boc'h, W bochsingle voiceless plosives and voiced d, b, and m in an intervocalic position became soft spirants Welsh dd[ð], th[θ], f [v] Breton z, vClassification The family tree of the Brythonic languages is as follows: Insular Celtic British ancestral to: Western Brythonic ancestral to: Cumbric Welsh Southwestern Brythonic ancestral to: Cornish Breton British Romano-British Western Brythonic Southwestern Brythonic Cumbric Welsh Cornish Breton The major Brythonic languages today are Welsh and Breton, both of which survive as community languages. The Cornish language died out at the end of the 18th century, but attempts at reviving it started in the 20th century and are ongoing. Also notable are the extinct language Cumbric, and possibly the extinct Pictish although this may be best considered to be a sister of the Brythonic languages. The late Kenneth H. Jackson argued during the 1950s, from some of the few remaining examples of stone inscriptions, that the Picts may have also used a non-Indo-European language, but some modern scholars of Pictish do not agree. History and origins Brythonic settlements in the 6th century. The modern Brythonic languages are generally considered to all derive from a common ancestral language termed British, Common Brythonic, Old Brythonic or Proto-Brythonic, which is thought to have developed from Proto-Celtic or early Insular Celtic by the 6th century BC . There are a number of alternative hypotheses, none of which has found wide acceptance. Mario Alinei denies the existence of a pre-Celtic language and says that Celtic languages arrived in the Paleolithic. Stephen Oppenheimer has suggested that the Belgic invasions in the 1st century BC could have brought a Germanic language to Britain. Brythonic languages were probably spoken prior to the Roman invasion at least in the majority of Great Britain south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, though the Isle of Man later had a Goidelic language, Manx. Northern Scotland mainly spoke Pritennic, which became Pictish, that may have been a Brythonic language. The theory has been advanced (notably by R. F. O'Rahilly) that Ireland was populated by speakers of Brythonic before being displaced by speakers of a Q-Celtic language (possibly from the Quarietii tribe of Southern France), although the authors Dillon and Chadwick reject this theory as being implausible. During the period of the Roman occupation of Southern Britain (AD 43 to c. 410), Common Brythonic borrowed a large stock of Latin words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic Britain, such as urbanisation and tactics of warfare, and for rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for "fish" in all the Brythonic languages derives from the Latin piscis rather than the native *ēskos, which may survive, however, in the Welsh name of the River Usk, ). Approximately 800 of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brythonic languages. Romano-British is the name for the Latinised form of the language used by Roman authors. It is probable that at the start of the Post-Roman period Common Brythonic was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups - Southwestern and Western (in addition we may posit additional dialects, such as Eastern Brythonic, spoken in what is now Eastern England, which have left little or no evidence). Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid sixth century the two dialects began to diverge into recognisably separate languages, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh, and the Southwestern into Cornish and its closely related sister language Breton, which was carried from the south west of Great Britain to continental Armorica. Jackson showed that a few of the dialect distinctions between West and Southwest Brythonic go back a long way. New divergencies began around AD 500 but other changes which were shared occurred in the 6th century. Other common changes occurred in the 7th century onward and are possibly due to inherent tendencies. Thus the concept of a common Brythonic language ends by AD 600. It is thought that substantial numbers of Britons remained in the expanding area controlled by Anglo-Saxons, but the only information on their language may be obtained from place names. Over time it is thought they gradually adopted the English language. The Brythonic languages spoken in Scotland, the Isle of Man and England began to be displaced in the 5th century through the influence of Irish (Scots), Norse and Germanic invaders. The displacement of the languages of Brythonic descent was probably complete in all of this territory, (except Cornwall and the English counties bordering Wales), by the 11th century (date of extinction in various parts of the territory is debated). Ivernic is a Brythonic language that may have been spoken in Ireland. Remnants in England, Scotland and Ireland Place names and river names The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the Brythonic languages were displaced is that of toponyms (place names) and hydronyms (river names). There are many Brythonic place names in lowland Scotland and in the parts of England where it is agreed that substantial Brythonic speakers remained (Brythonic names, apart from those of the former Romano-British towns, are scarce over most of England). Names derived (sometimes indirectly) from Brythonic include London, Penicuik, Perth, Aberdeen, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Brythonic elements found in England include bre- and bal- for hills, and carr for a high rocky place, while some such as combe or coomb(e) for a small deep valley and tor for a hill are examples of Brythonic words that were borrowed into English. Others reflect the presence of Brythons, such as Dumbarton - from the Scottish Gaelic Dùn Breatainn meaning "Fort of the Britons", or Walton (several) meaning a 'tun' or settlement where 'walha' (Welsh/Brythons) still lived. The number of Celtic river names in England generally increases from east to west, a map showing these being given by Jackson. These names include ones such as Avon, Chew, Frome, Axe, Brue and Exe. Celtic effects on English Celtic has acted as a substrate to English for both the lexicon and syntax. It is generally accepted that linguistic effects on English were lexically rather poor aside from toponyms, consisting of a few domestic words, which may include hubbub, peat, bucket, crock, noggin, gob (cf. Gaelic gob), nook; and the dialectal term for a badger, i.e. brock (cf. Welsh broch, and Gaelic broc). Another legacy is the sheep-counting system Yan Tan Tethera. Arguably, the use of periphrastic constructions (using auxiliary verbs like do and be) in the English verb (which is more widespread than in the other Germanic languages) is traceable to Brythonic influence. For example in literary Welsh we can have Caraf = I love and Yr wyf yn caru = I am loving where the Brythonic syntax is exactly mirrored in English, whereas in the Germanic sister languages of English we only have one form, for example Ich liebe in German. Some researchers (Filppula et al., 2001) argue that English syntax reflects more extensive Brythonic influences. For instance, in English tag questions, the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (aren't I?, isn't he?, won't we? etc). The German nicht wahr? and the French n'est-ce pas?, by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement. It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brythonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way. This view is far from being generally accepted, though. Brythonic effect on the Goidelic languages Far more notable, but less well known, are the many Brythonic influences on Scottish Gaelic. Like English, periphrastic constructions have come to the fore, but to a much greater degree. Scottish Gaelic contains a number of apparently P-Celtic loanwords, but as there is a far greater overlap in terms of Celtic vocabulary, than with English, it is not always possible to disentangle P and Q Celtic words. However some common words such as monadh = Welsh mynydd Cumbric *monidh are particularly evident. Often the Brythonic influence on Scots Gaelic is indicated by considering the Irish Gaelic usage which is not likely to have been influenced so much by Brythonic. In particular, the word srath (Anglicised as "Strath") is a native Goidelic word, but its usage appears to have been modified by the Brythonic cognate ystrad whose meaning is slightly different. The effect on Irish has been the loan from British of many Latin-derived words. This has been associated with the Christianisation of Ireland from Britain. References Aleini M (1996). Origini delle lingue d'Europa. Dillon M and Chadwick N (1967). Celtic Realms. Filppula, M., Klemola, J. and Pitkänen, H. (2001). The Celtic roots of English, Studies in languages, No. 37, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities, ISBN 9 5245 8164 7. Forster Pa and Toth A (2003). Towards a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic and Indo-European. PNAS 100/15 9079-9084. Hawkes, J. (1973). The first great civilizations: life in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and Egypt, The history of human society series, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 0 09 116580 6. Jackson, K., (1994). Language and history in early Britain: a chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, 1st to 12th c. A. D'', Celtic studies series, Dublin: Four Courts Press, ISBN 1 85182 140 6. Nichols and Gray (2004). Quantifying Uncertainty in a Stochastic Model of Vocabulary Evolution. Rivet A and Smith C (1979). The Placenames of Roman Britain. Vennemann T, (2003). Europa Vasconica - Europa Semitica. Berlin External links Ethnologue report for Brythonic languages Invisible Britons: the view from linguistics | Brittonic_languages |@lemmatized brythonic:51 language:47 brittonic:4 british:10 form:6 one:5 two:3 branch:2 insular:4 celtic:22 family:2 goidelic:7 history:4 english:18 sketch:1 origin:1 development:1 name:16 derive:5 welsh:21 celticist:1 sir:1 john:1 rhys:1 word:12 brython:1 mean:2 indigenous:1 briton:4 oppose:2 anglo:2 saxon:2 gael:1 derives:1 ultimately:1 prettanic:1 record:3 greek:1 author:4 isle:5 reserve:1 term:5 modify:2 later:2 ad:4 speak:6 since:2 least:3 iron:1 age:2 today:2 originally:1 majority:2 languages:2 minority:1 wale:2 cornwall:2 man:4 scotland:5 replace:1 middle:1 eventually:1 emigration:1 also:4 community:2 speaker:5 brittany:1 patagonia:1 evidence:2 knowledge:1 come:2 variety:1 source:1 early:3 information:3 obtain:2 coin:1 inscription:2 comment:1 classical:1 writer:2 well:2 place:7 personal:1 late:2 medieval:1 modern:4 native:4 together:1 roman:7 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2,804 | Glorioso_Islands | Map Island overview Satellite image of the islandsThe Glorieuses or Glorioso Islands ( or officially also Archipel des Glorieuses) are a group of French islands and rocks totalling , at , in the northern Mozambique channel, about northwest of Madagascar. The Glorieuses have an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of . There are anchorages offshore, and Grande Glorieuse has a long airstrip. The archipelago consists of two islands, Grande Glorieuse () and Île du Lys, as well as eight rock islets (Roches Vertes): Wreck Rock (), South Rock () and Verte Rocks () and three others that are unnamed. They form part of a coral reef and lagoon. Grande Glorieuses is roughly circular and measures about across. It is thickly vegetated, mainly by the remains of a coconut plantation and casuarina trees. Île du Lys, located at about five miles (about 8 km) northeast of Grande Glorieuses, is about long and consists of sand dunes and scrub with some mangroves. It was formerly quarried for phosphate (guano). The Glorieuses were named and settled in 1880 by a Frenchman, Hippolyte Caltaux, who established a coconut and maize plantation on Grande Glorieuse. The archipelago became a French possession in 1892. From 1914 to 1958 concessions to exploit the islands were given to Seychelles companies. The islands are today nature reserves with a meteorological station garrisoned by French troops (The French Foreign Legion). They are claimed by Madagascar (because of their strategic importance), the Seychelles (considering the islands part of the Seychelles Archipelago) and the Comoros (considering the islands part of the Comoros Archipelago). The climate is tropical and the terrain is low and flat, varying from sea level to . Île de Lys in particular is a nesting ground for migratory seabirds, and turtles lay eggs on the beaches. | Glorioso_Islands |@lemmatized map:1 island:8 overview:1 satellite:1 image:1 islandsthe:1 glorieuses:6 glorioso:1 officially:1 also:1 archipel:1 de:2 group:1 french:4 rock:5 total:1 northern:1 mozambique:1 channel:1 northwest:1 madagascar:2 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 eez:1 anchorage:1 offshore:1 grande:5 glorieuse:3 long:2 airstrip:1 archipelago:4 consists:1 two:1 île:3 du:2 lys:3 well:1 eight:1 islet:1 roches:1 vertes:1 wreck:1 south:1 verte:1 three:1 others:1 unnamed:1 form:1 part:3 coral:1 reef:1 lagoon:1 roughly:1 circular:1 measure:1 across:1 thickly:1 vegetate:1 mainly:1 remains:1 coconut:2 plantation:2 casuarina:1 tree:1 locate:1 five:1 mile:1 km:1 northeast:1 consist:1 sand:1 dune:1 scrub:1 mangrove:1 formerly:1 quarry:1 phosphate:1 guano:1 name:1 settle:1 frenchman:1 hippolyte:1 caltaux:1 establish:1 maize:1 become:1 possession:1 concession:1 exploit:1 give:1 seychelles:3 company:1 today:1 nature:1 reserve:1 meteorological:1 station:1 garrison:1 troop:1 foreign:1 legion:1 claim:1 strategic:1 importance:1 consider:2 comoros:2 climate:1 tropical:1 terrain:1 low:1 flat:1 vary:1 sea:1 level:1 particular:1 nesting:1 ground:1 migratory:1 seabird:1 turtle:1 lay:1 egg:1 beach:1 |@bigram glorioso_island:1 île_du:2 coral_reef:1 coconut_plantation:1 mile_km:1 sand_dune:1 comoros_archipelago:1 |
2,805 | Geography_of_Burundi | Topography of Burundi Burundi is located in central Africa, to the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, at the co-ordinates . Physical geography Burundi occupies an area equal to 27,830 square kilometres in size, of which 25,650 km² is land. The country has 974 kilometres of land border: 233 km of which is shared with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 290 km with Rwanda and 451 km with Tanzania. As a landlocked country, Burundi possesses no coastline, although it straddles the crest of the Nile-Congo River watershed. Climate Burundi has an equatorial climate, and is sited on a high plateau with considerable altitude variation, from 772 m to 2,670 m. The average annual temperature varies with altitude, from 23°C, to 17°C, although is generally moderate as the average altitude is approximately 1,700 m. The average annual rainfall is about 1,500 mm, with wet seasons from February to May, and from September to November. Dry seasons are from June to August, and December to January. Terrain The terrain of Burundi is hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in the east. There are some plains. The lowest point is at Lake Tanganyika, at 772 m, with the highest point being on Mount Heha, at 2,684 m. Natural hazards are posed in Burundi by flooding and landslides. Natural resources Burundi possesses reserves of: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited) and vanadium. There is also arable land and the potential for hydropower. 140 km² of land in Burundi is irrigated. The table below describes land use in Burundi. +Land use Use Percentage of Area arable land 44 permanent crops 9 permanent pastures 36forests and woodland 3other 8 Environment Current issues Soil erosion is an issue for Burundi, and is as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands. Other issues include: deforestation, due to the uncontrolled cutting-down of trees for fuel; and habitat loss threatens wildlife populations. International agreements Burundi is a party to the following international agreements that relate to the environment: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes and Ozone Layer Protection. The following have been signed but not yet ratified by Burundi: Law of the Sea and Nuclear Test Ban. References | Geography_of_Burundi |@lemmatized topography:1 burundi:13 locate:1 central:1 africa:1 east:2 democratic:2 republic:2 congo:3 co:1 ordinate:1 physical:1 geography:1 occupy:1 area:2 equal:1 square:1 kilometre:2 size:1 land:8 country:2 border:1 km:3 share:1 rwanda:1 tanzania:1 landlocked:1 possess:2 coastline:1 although:2 straddle:1 crest:1 nile:1 river:1 watershed:1 climate:3 equatorial:1 sit:1 high:2 plateau:2 considerable:1 altitude:3 variation:1 average:3 annual:2 temperature:1 varies:1 c:2 generally:1 moderate:1 approximately:1 rainfall:1 mm:1 wet:1 season:2 february:1 may:1 september:1 november:1 dry:1 june:1 august:1 december:1 january:1 terrain:2 hilly:1 mountainous:1 drop:1 plain:1 low:1 point:2 lake:1 tanganyika:1 mount:1 heha:1 natural:2 hazard:1 pose:1 flood:1 landslide:1 resource:1 reserve:1 nickel:1 uranium:1 rare:1 earth:1 oxide:1 peat:1 cobalt:1 copper:1 platinum:1 yet:2 exploit:1 vanadium:1 also:1 arable:2 potential:1 hydropower:1 irrigate:1 table:1 describes:1 use:3 percentage:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 woodland:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:3 soil:1 erosion:1 result:1 overgrazing:1 expansion:1 agriculture:1 marginal:1 include:1 deforestation:1 due:1 uncontrolled:1 cutting:1 tree:1 fuel:1 habitat:1 loss:1 threaten:1 wildlife:1 population:1 international:2 agreement:2 party:1 following:1 relate:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 follow:1 sign:1 ratify:1 law:1 sea:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 reference:1 |@bigram republic_congo:2 co_ordinate:1 square_kilometre:1 annual_rainfall:1 hilly_mountainous:1 lake_tanganyika:1 flood_landslide:1 arable_land:2 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 soil_erosion:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 |
2,806 | Jones_calculus | In optics one can describe polarization using the Jones calculus, invented by R. C. Jones in 1941. Polarized light is represented by a Jones vector, and linear optical elements are represented by Jones matrices. When light crosses an optical element the resulting polarization of the emerging light is found by taking the product of the Jones matrix of the optical element and the Jones vector of the incident light. The Jones vector for polarized light is defined by , where and are the x and y components of the electric field of the light wave. It is common to normalize Jones vectors such that the sum of the squares of their components is 1. This discards the amplitude information needed for absorption calculations, but simplifies analysis in other cases. It is also common to constrain the first component of the Jones vectors to be a real number. This discards the phase information needed for calculation of interference with other beams. The following table gives examples of normalized Jones vectors. ( is the imaginary unit, .) Polarization Corresponding Jones vector Linear polarized in the x-direction Linear polarized in the y-direction Linear polarized at 45° from the x-axis Linear polarized at -45° from the x-axis Right circular polarized Left circular polarized The following table gives examples of Jones matrices. Optical element Corresponding Jones matrix Linear polarizer with axis of transmission horizontal Linear polarizer with axis of transmission vertical Linear polarizer with axis of transmission at 45° Linear polarizer with axis of transmission at -45° Linear polarizer with axis of transmission at angle Left circular polarizer Right circular polarizer Quarter-wave plate with fast axis in the vertical direction. Quarter-wave plate with fast axis in the horizontal direction. Half-wave plate with fast axis in the vertical direction Half-wave plate with fast axis in the horizontal direction If an optical element is rotated about the optical axis by angle θ, the Jones matrix for the rotated element, M(θ), is constructed from the matrix for the unrotated element, M, by the transformation , where . Note that Jones calculus is only applicable to light that is already fully polarized. Light which is unpolarized, partially polarized, or incoherent must be treated using Mueller calculus. See also Mueller calculus Stokes parameters Polarization References E. Collett, Field Guide to Polarization, SPIE Field Guides vol. FG05, SPIE (2005). ISBN 0-8194-5868-6. E. Hecht, Optics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley (1987). ISBN 0-201-11609-X. R. C. Jones, "New calculus for the treatment of optical systems," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 31, 488–493, (1941). Frank L. Pedrotti, S.J. Leno S. Pedrotti, Introduction to Optics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall (1993). ISBN 0-13-501545-6 External links Jones Calculus written by E. Collett on Optipedia | Jones_calculus |@lemmatized optic:3 one:1 describe:1 polarization:5 use:2 jones:17 calculus:6 invent:1 r:2 c:2 polarize:9 light:8 represent:2 vector:7 linear:10 optical:7 element:7 matrix:6 cross:1 result:1 emerge:1 find:1 take:1 product:1 incident:1 polarized:1 define:1 x:5 component:3 electric:1 field:3 wave:5 common:2 normalize:1 sum:1 square:1 discard:2 amplitude:1 information:2 need:2 absorption:1 calculation:2 simplifies:1 analysis:1 case:1 also:2 constrain:1 first:1 real:1 number:1 phase:1 interference:1 beam:1 follow:2 table:2 give:2 example:2 normalized:1 imaginary:1 unit:1 correspond:2 direction:6 axis:12 right:2 circular:4 leave:2 polarizer:7 transmission:5 horizontal:3 vertical:3 angle:2 quarter:2 plate:4 fast:4 half:2 rotate:1 θ:2 rotated:1 construct:1 unrotated:1 transformation:1 note:1 applicable:1 already:1 fully:1 unpolarized:1 partially:1 incoherent:1 must:1 treat:1 mueller:2 see:1 stokes:1 parameter:1 reference:1 e:3 collett:2 guide:2 spie:2 vol:1 isbn:3 hecht:1 ed:2 addison:1 wesley:1 new:1 treatment:1 system:1 j:2 opt:1 soc:1 frank:1 l:1 pedrotti:2 leno:1 introduction:1 prentice:1 hall:1 external:1 link:1 write:1 optipedia:1 |@bigram linear_polarizer:5 polarizer_axis:5 angle_θ:1 addison_wesley:1 prentice_hall:1 external_link:1 |
2,807 | Military_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo () is the state military organisation responsible for defending the Democratic Republic of Congo. The FARDC is being rebuilt as part of the peace process which followed the end of the Second Congo War in July 2003. The majority of FARDC members are land forces, but it also has a small air force and an even smaller navy. Together the three services may number around 130,000 personnel. Number derived from 80,000 estimate for non-integrated land forces (The Economist, note 24, July 2007) plus 2007 IISS estimates: 46,000 for integrated brigades and 5,000 for Air and Naval forces together. In addition, there is a presidential force called the Republican Guard, but the National Congolese Police (PNC) are not part of the Armed Forces. The government in the capital city Kinshasa, the United Nations, the European Union, and bilateral partners which include Angola, South Africa, and Belgium are attempting to create a viable force with the ability to provide the DRC with stability and security. However, this process is being hampered by corruption, Ian Johnston (ed.), Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2007, Center for International Cooperation - Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder/London, p.62 the near-impotence of the government, and inadequate donor coordination. The various military units now grouped under the FARDC banner are some of the most unstable in Africa after years of war and underfunding. To assist the new government, since February 2000 the United Nations has had the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC), which currently has a strength of over 16,000 peacekeepers in the country. Its principal tasks are to provide security in key areas, such as the Sud-Kivu and Nord-Kivu in the east, and to assist the government in reconstruction. Foreign rebel groups are also in the Congo, as they have been for most of the last half-century. The most important is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), against which Laurent Nkunda's troops are fighting, but other smaller groups such as the anti-Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army are also present. International Crisis Group, Congo: Consolidating the Peace, Africa Report No.128, 5 July 2007 History The first organized Congolese troops, known as the (FP), were created in 1888 by King Léopold II of Belgium in what was then known as the Congo Free State. It was first conceived in 1885 by King Léopold who held the Congo Free State as his private property, ordered his Secretary of the Interior to create military and police forces for the state. In 1908, under international pressure Léopold ceded administration of the colony to the government of Belgium as the Belgian Congo. The FP was renamed as the , and remained under the command of a Belgian officer corps through the independence of the colony in 1960. The FP saw combat in Cameroun, and successfully invaded and conquered areas of German East Africa, notably present day Rwanda, during World War I. Elements of the FP were also used to form Belgian colonial units that fought in the East African Campaign during World War II. With independence in 1960, the military elements of the FP were renamed the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), or Congolese National Army. The new army suffered from a dramatic deficit of trained leaders, particularly in the officer corps. This was because the FP had always only been officered by Belgian or other expatriate whites. The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the Colonial period and there were only about 20 African cadets in training on the eve of Independence. Ill-advised actions by Belgian officers led to an enlisted ranks' rebellion five days after independence in 1960, which helped spark the Congo Crisis. During the crucial period of July-August 1960, Mobutu Sese Seko built up "his" national army by channeling foreign aid to units loyal to him, by exiling unreliable units to remote areas, and by absorbing or dispersing rival armies. He tied individual officers to him by controlling their promotion and the flow of money for payrolls. Despite this, by September 1960, following the four-way division of the country, there were four separate armed forces: Mobotu's ANC itself, the South Kasai Constabulary loyal to Albert Kalonji, the Katangan forces which were part of Moise Tshombe's regime, and the Kisanagani dissident ANC loyal to Antoine Gizenga. After five years of turbulence, in 1965 Mobutu used his position as ANC Chief of Staff to seize power in the Congo. As a general rule, since that time, the armed forces have not intervened in politics as a body, rather being tossed and turned as ambitious men have shaken the country. In reality, the larger problem has been the misuse and sometimes abuse of the military and police by political and ethnic leaders. Institute for Security Studies workshop, On 16 May 1968 a parachute brigade of two regiments (each of three battalions) was formed which eventually was to grow in size to a full division. British Military Attache Kinshasa, Report for the Period Ending 30 June 1970, FCO 31/577, accessed at Public Records Office, Kew Zaire 1971–1997 The country was renamed Zaire in 1971 and the army was consequently designated the (FAZ). During 1975–1976, Mobutu directed the FAZ to intervene in the Angolan Civil War assisting the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA)'s fight against the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). This policy backfired when the MPLA won in Angola, and then, acting ostensibly at least as the (Front for the National Liberation of the Congo), occupied Zaire's Katanga Province, then known as Shaba, in March, 1977, facing little resistance from the FAZ. This invasion is sometimes known as Shaba I. Mobutu had to request assistance, which was provided by Morocco in the form of regular troops who routed the MPLA and their Cuban advisors out of Katanga. The humiliation of this episode led to civil unrest in Zaire in early 1978, which the FAZ had to put down. John Keegan, World Armies, New York: Facts on File, 1979, pp. 822–823. The poor performance of Zaire's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses (which extend to this day). Ed. by Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill, Country Study for Zaire, 1993, Library of Congress One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods. Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers, typifying a generally disreputable and inept senior leadership in the FAZ. As a result, many soldiers simply deserted rather than fight. Others stayed with their units but were ineffective. During the months following the Shaba invasion, Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army's dismal performance. He implemented sweeping reforms of the command structure, including wholesale firings of high-ranking officers. He merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again, in addition to the positions of minister of defense and supreme commander that he already held. He also redeployed his forces throughout the country instead of keeping them close to Kinshasa, as had previously been the case. The Kamanyola Division, The Division was formed in 1974 and trained by North Korea. It was named after a June 1964 incident in the eastern town of Kamanyola. In 1993 it consisted of the 11th Infantry Brigade, the 12th Infantry Brigade, and the 14th Infantry Brigade. See Michela Wrong, The Emperor Mobutu, Transition—Issues 81 & 82 (Volume 9, Number 1 and 2), 2000, pp. 92–112 at the time considered the army's best formation, and considered the president's own, was assigned permanently to Shaba. In addition to these changes, the army's strength was reduced by 25 percent. Also, Zaire's allies provided a large influx of military equipment, and Belgian, French, and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force. The army's structure changed during Mobotu's long rule, but as of July 1975, according to the IISS Military Balance, the FAZ was made up of 14 infantry battalions, seven "Guard" battalions, and seven other infantry battalions variously designated as "parachute" (or possibly "commando"; probably the units of the new parachute brigade originally formed in 1968). There were also an armored car regiment and a mechanized infantry battalion. Organizationally, the army was made up of seven brigade groups and one parachute division. IISS Military Balance 1975–76, p.45 In addition to these units, a tank battalion was reported to have formed by 1979. John Keegan, World Armies, New York: Facts on File, 1979, p. 823. The poor state of discipline of the Congolese forces became apparent again in 1990. Foreign military assistance to Zaire ceased following the end of the Cold War and Mobutu deliberately allowed the military's condition to deteriorate so that it did not threaten his hold on power. Protesting low wages and lack of pay, paratroopers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 and were only stopped after intervention by French ('Operation Baumier') and Belgian ('Operation Blue Beam') Tom Cooper & Pit Weinert, Zaire/DR Congo since 1980, 2 September 2003, Air Combat Information Group, accessed August 2007 forces. Map of the DR of Congo In 1993, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, the 25,000-member FAZ ground forces consisted of one infantry division (with three infantry brigades); one airborne brigade (with three parachute battalions and one support battalion); one special forces (commando/counterinsurgency) brigade; the Special Presidential Division; one independent armored brigade; and two independent infantry brigades (each with three infantry battalions, one support battalion). These units were deployed throughout the country, with the main concentrations in Shaba Region (approximately half the force). The Kamanyola Division, consisting of three infantry brigades operated generally in western Shaba Region; the 21st Infantry Brigade was located in Lubumbashi; the 13th Infantry Brigade was deployed throughout eastern Shaba; and at least one battalion of the 31st Airborne Brigade stayed at Kamina. The other main concentration of forces was in and around Kinshasa: the 31st Airborne Brigade was deployed at Ndjili Airport on the outskirts of the capital; the Special Presidential Division (DSP) resided adjacent to the presidential compound; and the 1st Armored Brigade was at Mbanza-Ngungu (in Bas-Congo, approximately 120 kilometers southwest of Kinshasa). Finally the 41st Commando Brigade was at Kisangani. This superficially impressive list of units overstates the actual capability of the armed forces at the time. Apart from privileged formations such as the Presidential Division and the 31st Airborne Brigade, most units were poorly trained, divided and so badly paid that they regularly resorted to looting. What operational abilities the armed forces had were gradually destroyed by politicisation of the forces, tribalisation, and division of the forces, included purges of suspectedly disloyal group, intended to allow Mobutu to divide and rule. Jacques Ebenga & Thierry N’Landu The Congolese National Army: In search of an identity, Evolutions and Revolutions, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2005, p.66–70, 73–74 All this occurred against the background of increasing deterioration of state structures under the kleptocratic Mobutu regime. Mobutu's overthrow and after Much of the origins of the recent conflict in what is now the DRC stems from the turmoil following Rwandan Genocide of 1994, which then led to the Great Lakes refugee crisis. Within the largest refugee camps, beginning in Goma in Nord-Kivu, were Rwandan Hutu fighters, increasingly well-organised, who were launching attacks into Rwanda. Rwanda eventually backed Laurent-Desire Kabila and his quickly organised Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo in invading Zaire, aiming to stop the attacks on Rwanda in the process of toppling Mobutu's government. When the militias rebelled, backed by Rwanda, the FAZ, weakened as is noted above, proved incapable of mastering the situation and preventing the overthrow of Mobutu in 1997. Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Page 289. A good military description of the 1996-97 war was written by William Thom: (1999) Congo-Zaire's 1996-97 Civil War in the Context of Evolving Patterns of Military Conflict in Africa in the Era of Independence, Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. XIX No. 2, Fall 1999 When Kabila took power in 1997, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo and so the name of the national army changed once again. By 1998, formations on the outbreak of the Second Congo War included the 50th Brigade, headquartered at Camp Kokolo in Kinshasa, Human Rights Watch, Democratic Republic of Congo Casualties of War: Civilians, Rule of Law, and Democratic Freedoms, Vol. 11, No. 1 (A), February 1999 and the 10th Brigade — one of the best and largest units in the army — stationed in Goma, as well as the 12th Brigade in Bukavu. The declaration of the 10th Brigade's commander that he no longer recognised Kabila as the state's president was one of the factors in the beginning of the Second Congo War. Herbert Weiss, War and Peace in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Political Evolution in Rwanda and Burundi, 1998-1999, Nordic Africa Institute, 2000, p.13. See web reference at . See also OCHA/IRIN 20 August 1998 The FARDC performed poorly throughout the Second Congo War and "demonstrated little skill or recognisable military doctrine". Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Page 284. At the outbreak of the war in 1998 the Army was ineffective and the DRC Government was forced to rely on assistance from Angola, Chad, Namibia and Zimbabwe. As well as providing expeditionary forces, these countries unsuccessfully attempted to retrain the DRC Army. North Korea and Tanzania also provided assistance with training. During the first year of the war the Allied forces defeated the Rwandan force which had landed in Bas-Congo and the rebel forces south-west of Kinshasa and eventually halted the rebel and Rwandan offensive in the east of the DRC. These successes contributed to the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed in July 1999. Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Pages 284–285. In November 1999 the Government attempted to form a 20,000-strong paramilitary force designated the People's Defence Forces. This force was intended to support the FARDC and national police but never became effective. Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Page 289. The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was not successful in ending the war, and fighting resumed in September 1999. The FARDC's performance continued to be poor and both the major offensives the Government launched in 2000 ended in costly defeats. Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Pages 286–287. President Kabila's mismanagement was an important factor behind the FARDC's poor performance, with soldiers frequently going unpaid and unfed while the Government purchased advanced weaponry which could not be operated or maintained. The defeats in 2000 are believed to have been the cause of President Kabila's assassination in January 2001. Following the assassination Joseph Kabila assumed the presidency and was eventually successful in negotiating an end to the war in 2003. Much of the east of the country remains insecure, however. In the far northeast this is due primarily to the Ituri conflict. In the area around Lake Kivu, primarily in North Kivu, fighting continues among the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and between the government FARDC and Laurent Nkunda's troops, with all groups greatly exacerbating the issues of internal refugees in the area of Goma, the consequent food shortages, and loss of infrastructure from the years of conflict. Current organisation Gén. Kisempia Sungilanga, former Chief of Staff of the FARDC, in December 2006. The President, Major General Joseph Kabila is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Chikez Diemu, Minister of Defence, Disarmament, and Veterans (Ancien Combattants), with the French acronym MDNDAC, succeeded the former Defence Minister Adolphe Onusumba Yemba (of RCD-G) in February 2007. The Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp in the Kinshasa suburb of Ngaliema hosts the defense department and the Chiefs of Staff central command headquarters of the FARDC. There are no local defence industries. Jane's Sentinel security assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Page 314. Below the Chief of Staff, the current organisation of the FARDC is not fully clear. There is known to be a Military Intelligence branch - Service du Renseignement militaire, SRM, the former DEMIAP. The FARDC is known to be broken up into the Land Forces, Navy and Air Force, which are distributed around ten military regions following the ten provinces of the country. There is also a central logistics base. The numberings in the chart below however may not be completely accurate as re-designations have occurred. Military regional commanders were deployed around the country in 2003 as the first move in military reform, superimposed on top of the various groups of fighters, government and former rebels. Chiefs of Staff 1960 - ?: Major General Victor Lundula (promoted in one leap from sergeant-major to major general on the formation of ANC) The Congolaise National Army, Library of Congress Country Study:Zaire, October 1993, accessed April 2008 Early 1960s (1964–1965): Joseph-Desire Mobutu November 1965 Le Potential, 24 novembre 1965 : le communiqué du coup d'Etat du Lieutenant-général Mobutu. Bobozo was made C-in-C under Mobutu when Mobutu seized power, and it was stated initially that he would act as C-in-C 'while Mobutu was acting as President of the Republic.' to at least 1972: Colonel S.C. Davis, British Military Attache Kinshasa, Report on the Zairean Armed Forces for the Period Apr 1971 – Apr 1972, DA/KIN/76, 5 May 1972, FCO 31/1170, accessed at Public Records Office, Kew General Louis Bobozo, Commandant en chef de l’Armée nationale congolaise. Bobozo was a Major General in 1965 and appears to have been a full General by 1972. 1970s – circa 1990: unknown 1991–1993 : General Mahele Lioko Bokoungo, Chief of Staff of the Forces Armées Zaïroises Canadian Government Immigration Review Board, Issue Paper: Zaire: The Balance of Power in the Regions, April 1997 1993–1996 : General Eluki Monga Aundu (February 1993 – 20 November 1996) 1996–1997 : General Marc Mahélé Lièko Bokungu (assassinated 16 May 1997) 1997–1998 : James Kabarebe, Chef d'état-major des FAC, until July 1998. 16 July 1998 – 15 August 1998: Célestin Kifwa http://www.congoned.dds.nl, Congo developments XXIV Chronicle: June 1 – August 26, 1998 August 1998–2001? : Joseph Kabila (given rank of Major General, but has no military training) 2001–2004 : Admiral Baudouin Liwanga Mata Nyamuniobo 2004–2007 : Général de division Kisempia Sungilanga Lombe, Chef d’état-major des forces armées République Démocratique du Congo : L’armée doit arrêter l’utilisation d’enfants soldats, Bruxelles, 19 avril 2007, Human Rights Watch June 2007 : Lieutenant General Dieudonné Kayembe Mbandakulu, former DEMIAP director November 2008: General Didier Etumba http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-11/18/content_10377980.htm Command structure as of January 2005 FARDC chief of staff: Major General Sungilanga Kisempia (PPRD) Many officers have now changed positions, but this list gives an outline of the present structure. Source is the Institute for Security Studies, at Democratic Republic of Congo Security Information (updated: 12 January 2005) FARDC land forces chief of staff: General Sylvain Buki (RCD-G) Still in post January 2006. Le Potential (Kinshasa), Le chef d’état-major de la Force terrestre en visite éclair au centre de brassage de Rumangabo, 7 January 2006 FARDC navy chief of staff: General Major Amuli Bahigwa (MLC) FARDC air force chief of staff: Brigadier General Bitanihirwa Kamara (MLC) 1st Military Region/Bandundu: Brigadier General Moustapha Mukiza (MLC) 2nd Military Region/Bas-Congo: .Unknown 3rd Military Region/Equateur: Brigadier-General Mulubi Bin Muhemedi (PPRD) 4th Military Region/Kasai-Occidental: Brigadier-General Sindani Kasereka (RCD-K/ML) 5th Military Region/Kasai Oriental: General Rwabisira Obeid (RCD) 6th Military Region/Katanga: Brigadier-General Nzambe Alengbia (MLC) 7th Military Region/Maniema: Brigadier-General Widi Mbulu Divioka (RCD-N) 8th Military Region/North Kivu: General Gabriel Amisi (RCD) - Brig. Gen. Vainqueur Mayala in September 2008 http://allafrica.com/stories/200809220171.html 9th Military Region/Province Orientale: Major-General Bulenda Padiri (Mayi-Mayi) 10th Military Region/South Kivu: Major Mbuja Mabe (PPRD) Land forces Congolese soldier near the Rwandan border, 2001. The land forces are made up of about 14 integrated brigades, of fighters from all the former warring factions which have gone through an brassage integration process (see next paragraph), and a not-publicly known number of non-integrated brigades which remain solely made up from single factions (the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD)'s Armee National Congolaise, the ex-government former Congolese Armed Forces (FAC), the ex-RCD KML, the ex-Movement for the Liberation of Congo, the armed groups of the Ituri conflict (the Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais (MRC), Forces de Résistance Patriotique d’Ituri (FRPI) and the Front Nationaliste Intégrationniste (FNI)) and the Mai-Mai). The reform plan adopted in 2005 envisaged the formation of eighteen integrated brigades through the brassage process as its first of three stages. This paragraph is drawn completely from the International Crisis Group's, Security Sector Reform in the Congo report of February 2006, p.17–18 The process consists firstly of regroupment, where fighters are disarmed. Then they are sent to orientation centres, run by the National Commission for Demobilisation and Reinsertion (CONADER), where fighters take the choice of either returning to civilian society or remaining in the armed forces. Combatants who choose demobilisation receive an initial cash payment of US $110. Those who choose to stay within the FARDC are then transferred to one of six integration centres for a 45-day training course, which aims to build integrated formations out of factional fighters previously heavily divided along ethnic, political and regional lines. The centres are spread out around the country at Kitona, Kamina, Kisangani, Rumangabo and Nyaleke (within the Virunga National Park) in Nord-Kivu, and Luberizi (on the border with Burundi) in South Kivu. The process has suffered severe difficulties due to construction delays, administration errors, and the amount of travel former combatants have to do, as the three stages' centres are widely separated. Following the first 18 integrated brigades, the second goal is the formation of a ready reaction force of two to three brigades, and finally, by 2010 when MONUC is anticipated to have withdrawn, the creation of a Main Defence Force of three divisions. In February 2008, the current reform plan was described as: http://www.ssrnetwork.net/ssrbulletin/dr_congo.php, accessed 1 November 2008 “The short term, 2008-2010, will see the setting in place of a Rapid Reaction Force; the medium term, 2008 -2015, with a Covering Force; and finally the long term, 2015- 2020, with a Principal Defence Force.” He added that the reform plan rests on a programme of synergy based on the four pillars of dissuasion, production, reconstruction and excellence. “The Rapid Reaction Force is expected to focus on dissuasion, through a Rapid Reaction Force of 12 battalions, capable of aiding MONUC to secure the east of the country and to realise constitutional missions,” Defence Minister Chikez Diemu said. Amid the other difficulties in building new armed forces for the DRC, in early 2007 the integration and training process was distorted as the DRC government under Kabila attempted to use it to gain more control over the dissident general Laurent Nkunda. A hastily-negotiated verbal agreement in Rwanda saw three government FAC brigades integrated with Nkunda's former ANC 81st and 83rd Brigades in what was called mixage. Mixage brought multiple factions into composite brigades, but without the 45-day retraining provided by brassage, and it seems that actually, the process was limited to exchanging battalions between the FAC and Nkunda brigades in North Kivu, without further integration. Due to Nkunda's troops having greater cohesion, Nkunda effectively gained control of all five brigades - not what the DRC central government had been hoping! Henri Boshoff, The DDR Process in the DRC: a never-ending story, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2 July 2007 However after Nkunda used the mixage brigades to fight the FDLR, strains arose between the FARDC and Nkunda-loyalist troops within the brigades and they fell apart in the last days of August 2007. The International Crisis Group says that 'by 30 August [2007] Nkunda's troops had left the mixed brigades and controlled a large part of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories' (of North Kivu). International Crisis Group, Bringing Peace to North Kivu, Africa Report No.133, 31 October 2007, p.13 Both formally integrated brigades and the non-integrated units continue to conduct arbitrary arrests, rapes, robbery, and other crimes Amnesty International, http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR620012007?open&of=ENG-COD DRC Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) and the Reform of the Army], 25 January 2007, AI Index: AFR 62/001/2007 and these human rights violations are "regularly" committed by both officers and members of the rank and file. Members of the Army also often strike deals to gain access to resources with the militias they are meant to be fighting. The various brigades and other formations and units number at least 100,000 troops. The status of these brigades has been described as "pretty chaotic" and there is no reliable information available on whether they resemble normal brigades in strength (brigades typically have a strength of 3000 to 5000 personnel). Known integrated brigades 1st Brigade (integrated), human rights reports in April and August 2007 place the Brigade in the Mahagi territory, Ituri area, Orientale. MONUC Human Rights report April 2007, paragraph 31 and MONUC via Le Potential Violation des droits de l’homme en RDC: état des lieux de la Monuc, 10 August 2007 At Bavi, 30 km south of Bunia, between August and November 2006 forty civilians were slaughtered and buried in three different graves by soldiers of the 1st integrated Brigade. 2nd Brigade (integrated), Butembo, North Kivu, 28 July 2007 MONUC via Reliefweb, RD Congo : Rapport mensuel des droits de l'homme - juillet 2007, paragraph 14 3rd Brigade (integrated), Bukavu area, late March 2007 MONUC Human Rights Report via Le Potentiel Le Potentiel, 18 April 2007 (now 101st Brigade) 4th Brigade (integrated), elements reported at Lopa, Ituri area, 24–25 July 2007 MONUC Human Rights Report July 2007 (French), paragraph 11 5th Brigade (integrated), previously stationed in North Kivu Charles Gba, Verbatim point de presse MONUC du mercredi 27 juin 2007 but now at Kananga, Kasai-Occidental 6th Brigade (integrated), Jiba, Ituri area, Orientale, May 2007 'Au cours du mois d'avril 2007, des soldats FARDC de la 6ème Brigade Intégrée basée à Jiba -60 km au Nord-Est de Bunia, Ituri-, ont été responsables de 14 cas de viol et de plusieurs cas de mauvais traitements à l'égard de la population locale.' MONUC via Le Potentiel (Kinshasa), Congo-Kinshasa: Violation des droits de l'homme en RDC, 22 June 2007 Ordered to leave Ituri for North Kivu for offensive against Laurent Nkunda, June 2007. International Crisis Group, Congo:Bringing Peace to North Kivu, 31 October 2007, p.12 7th Brigade (integrated), finished forming Kitona March 2006. Stationed in Kinshasa August 2006. Elements of this brigade at Bolobo, Bandundu province, May 2007. MONUC, Droits de l'Homme: Rapport Mensuel - Mai 2007, paragraph 22 8th Brigade (integrated), elements at Luberizi & Luvungi, in South Kivu Societecivile.cd, Imminence d'une mutinerie à Luberizi, à l'Est de la RD.Congo, dans la Province du Sud Kivu, 23 May 2007 9th Brigade (integrated), North Kivu 10th Brigade (integrated), Gemena, Equateur 12th Brigade (integrated), HQ at Baraka, DRC, South Kivu Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Situation humanitaire en RDC (Sud Kivu) - Rapport hebdomadaire du 30 juin au 06 juillet 2007, 6 July 2007 13th Brigade (integrated), Marabo, North Kivu, mid June 2007. MONUC via Congo Tribune, http://www.congotribune.com/nationale/article.php?article=1802 Second battalion of this brigade in process of formation near Bunia mid August 2007. MONUC, http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=15189 14th Brigade (integrated), Kalima, South Kivu, May 2007, now numbered 105th Brigade. MONUC, http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=14799, paragraph 25 Africa Confidential reported in January 2008 that the brigade was a part of a 25,000 strong government attack on 4,000 of Laurent Nkunda's soldiers in December 2007, but was beaten back, with the loss of its 'entire arms and equipment.' 'Central Africa: A slow road to travel,' Africa Confidential, 11 January 2008, Vol. 49, No.1, p.9 15th Brigade (integrated) (waiting for deployment as of May 30, 2007, with 2,837 men assigned. MONUC via allafrica.com at Congo-Kinshasa: La Monuc a rendu hommages aux 85 soldats de la paix décédés en RDC depuis le début de sa mission Ordered to leave Kisangani for North Kivu for offensive against Laurent Nkunda, June, and then routed by Nkunda troops in the Sake area, early September 2007. 16th and 17th Brigades (integrated)(beginning 'brassage' integration process as of May 30, 2007, both over 4,000 strong at the beginning of the process) See also on 12th and 13th Battalions of 17th Brigade - Congo-Kinshasa: Second Monuc Training Session of FARDC Integrated Brigades Ends(06:Feb'08) 18th Brigade Reliefweb and MONUC 103rd Brigade (integrated)—previously designated 11th Brigade. Elements reported at Walungu, 110 km SW of Bukavu, South Kivu in the course of rape allegation 27 March 2007. Le Potential, Congo-Kinshasa: Rapport de la Monuc pour avril 2007, graves violations des droits de l'homme en RDC via Allafrica.com, 21 May 2007. There is an ambiguous reference to the 'eleventh and twelfth brigades' in the ICG's 31 October 2007 report, 'Bringing Peace to North Kivu, Appendix C, page 25, indicating that these two formations may have been principally raised from the all-Hutu Local Defence Force in North Kivu, revived by Governor Eugene Serufuli, probably during the 2000–2002 period. Equipment Attempting to list the equipment available to the DRC's land forces is difficult; most figures are unreliable estimates based on known items delivered in the past. The IISS's Military Balance 2007 and Orbat.com's Concise World Armies 2005 give only slightly differing figures however (the figures below are from the IISS Military Balance 2007). Much of the Army's equipment is non-operational due to insufficient maintenance—in 2002 only 20 percent of the Army's armoured vehicles were estimated as being serviceable. Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa. Issue 11—2002. Page 291. Main Battle Tanks: 50: 30 Type 59, 20 T-55 Reconnaissance vehicles: 40+ Type 62 light tanks, 40+ Panhard AML armoured cars Infantry Fighting Vehicles: 20 BMP-1 Armoured Personnel Carriers: IISS reports M-113, Type 63, and wheeled vech inc Casspir, M-3 Panhard, TH 390 Fahd, Wolf Turbo 2 Artillery: 100 field guns, ranging from M-116 pack 75 mm to D-30 130 mm, and 30 Type 81 MRL Republican Guard In addition to the other land forces, President Joseph Kabila also has a Republican Guard presidential force, formerly known as the Special Presidential Security Group (GSSP). FARDC military officials state that the Garde Républicaine is not the responsibility of FARDC, but the Head of State. Amnesty International, DRC Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) and the Reform of the Army, Section VII A, 25 January 2007, AI Index: AFR 62/001/2007 Apart from Article 140 of the Law on the Army and Defence, no legal stipulation on the DRC's Armed Forces makes provision for the GR as a distinct unit within the national army. In February 2005, President Joseph Kabila passed a decree which appointed the GR's commanding officer and 'repealed any previous provisions contrary' to that decree. The GR is more than 10,000 strong (the ICG said 10,000–15,000 in January 2007), and has better working conditions and is paid regularly, but still commits rapes and robberies nearby their bases. In an effort to extend his personal control across the country, Joseph Kabila has deployed the GR at key airports, ostensibly in preparation for an impending presidential visit. ICG February 2006 SSR report At the end of 2005, there were Guards deployed in Mbandaka, Kindu, Lubumbashi, Bukavu, Kolwezi, staying many months after the President had left. They are still deployed at Kisangani's Bangoka airport, where they appear to answer to no local commander and have caused trouble with MONUC troops there. The GR is also supposed to undergo the integration process, but as of January 2007, only one battalion had been announced as been integrated. Formed at a brassage centre in the Kinshasa suburb of Kibomango, the battalion included 800 men, half from the former GSSP and half from the MLC and RCD Goma. 'Sortie officielle du premier bataillon integre de la Garde Republicaine des FARDC', Xinhua News Agency, 15 September 2006, cited in Amnesty International DRC Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) and the Reform of the Army, Section VII A, 25 January 2007, AI Index: AFR 62/001/2007 Other forces active in the country There are currently large numbers of United Nations troops stationed in the DRC. The United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) currently has a strength of over 16,000 peacekeepers and has a mission of assisting Congolese authorities maintain security. The UN and foreign military aid missions, the most prominent being EUSEC DR Congo, are attempting to assist the Congolese in rebuilding the armed forces, with major efforts being made in trying to assure regular payment of salaries to armed forces personnel and also in military justice. Retired Canadian Lieutenant General Marc Caron has recently been appointed as Security Sector Reform advisor to the head of MONUC. Groups of anti-Rwandan government rebels like the FDLR, and other foreign fighters remain inside the DRC. The FDLR which is the greatest concern, is some 6,000 strong, as of July 2007, while the other groups are smaller: the Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army, the Ugandan rebel group the Allied Democratic Forces, in the remote area of Mt Rwenzori, and the Burundian Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu—Forces Nationales de Liberation (PALIPEHUTU-FNL). Finally there is a government paramilitary force, created in 1997 under President Laurent Kabila. The National Service is tasked with providing the army with food and with training the youth in a range of reconstruction and developmental activities'. Jacques Ebenga & Thierry N’Landu The Congolese National Army: In search of an identity, Evolutions and Revolutions, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2005 There is not much further information available, and no internet-accessible source details the relationship of the National Service to other armed forces bodies; it is not listed in the constitution. President Kabila, in one of the few comments available, says National Service will provide a gainful activity for street children. Air Force All military aircraft in the DRC are operated by the Air Force. Jane's World Air Forces states that the Air Force has an estimated strength of 1,800 personnel and is organised into two Air Groups. These Groups command five wings and nine squadrons, of which not all are operational. 1 Air Group is located at Kinshasa and consists of Liaison Wing, Training Wing and Logistical Wing and has a strength of five squadrons. 2 Tactical Air Group is located at Kaminia and consists of Pursuit and Attack Wing and Tactical Transport Wing and has a strength of four squadrons. Foreign private military companies have reportedly been contracted to provide the DRC's aerial reconnaissance capability using small propeller aircraft fitted with sophisticated equipment. Jane's states that People's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola fighter aircraft would be made available to defend Kinshasa if it came under attack. Like the other services, the Congolese Air Force is not capable of carrying out its responsibilities. Few of the Air Force's aircraft are currently flyable or capable of being restored to service and it is unclear whether the Air Force is capable of maintaining even unsophisticated aircraft. Moreover, Jane's states that the Air Force's Ecole de Pilotage is 'in near total disarray' though Belgium has offered to restart the Air Force's pilot training program. Navy The 2002 edition of Jane's Sentinel described the Navy as being "in a state of near total disarray" and stated that it did not conduct any training or have operating procedures. The Navy shares the same discipline problems as the other services. It was initially placed under command of the MLC when the transition began: the current situation is uncertain. The 2007 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships states that the Navy is organised into four commands, based at Matadi, near the coast; the capital Kinshasa, further up the Congo river; Kalemie, on Lake Tanganyika; and Goma, on Lake Kivu. The IISS, in its 2007 edition of the Military Balance, confirms the bases listed in Jane's and adds a fifth base at Boma, a coastal city near Matadi. Various sources also refer to numbered Naval Regions. Operations of the 1st Naval Region have been reported in Kalemie, DanChurch Aid, Destruction of stockpiles in Kalemie, 2 May 2006 the 4th near the northern city of Mbandaka, Hilaire Kayembe, Naufrage dans une rivière à Mbandaka, Le Potential, 7 August 2006 and the 5th at Goma. Human Rights Division / MONUC, Monthly Human Rights Assessment: April 2007, 17 May 2007. The HR report stated a Goma student was shot by a soldier of the 5th Naval Region for refusing to hand over a cellphone. The IISS lists the Navy at 1,000 personnel and a total of eight patrol craft, of which only one is operational, a Shanghai II Type 062 class gunboat designated "102". There are five other 062s as well as two Swiftships which are not currently operational, though some may be restored to service in the future. According to Jane's, the Navy also operates barges and small craft armed with machine guns. Before the downfall of Mobutu a small navy operated on the Congo river. One of its installations was at the village of N'dangi near the presidential residence in Gbadolite. The port at N'dangi was the base for several patrol boats, helicopters and the presidential yacht. L'Express, 22. December 2008, page 13 References and notes Bibliography Henri Boshoff, The DDR Process in the DRC: a never-ending story, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2 July 2007 Canadian Government Immigration Review Board, Issue Paper: Zaire: The Balance of Power in the Regions, April 1997 Tom Cooper & Pit Weinert, Zaire/DR Congo since 1980, Air Combat Information Group, 2 September 2003, accessed August 2007 Jacques Ebenga & Thierry N’Landu, The Congolese National Army: In search of an identity, in Martin Rupiya (Editor), Evolutions & Revolutions: A Contemporary History of Militaries in Southern Africa, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, October 2005 Human Rights Watch, Democratic Republic of Congo Casualties of War: Civilians, Rule of Law, and Democratic Freedoms, Vol. 11, No. 1 (A), February 1999 International Crisis Group, Security Sector Reform in the Congo, Africa Report N°104, 13 February 2006 John Keegan, World Armies, New York: Facts on File, 1979. ISBN 0-87196-407-4. La Prosperite, Fardc et Police Nationale: la liste complète d'Officiers nommés, 18 June 2007 Sandra W. Meditz & Tim Merrill, Library of Congress Country Study, Zaire 1993 Institute for Security Studies, Democratic Republic of Congo Security Information (updated: 12 January 2005) Further reading Mark Malan, 'U.S. Civil-Military Imbalance for Global Engagement,' Refugees International, 2008 Kisukula Abeli Meitho, 'La desintegration de l'armee congolaise de Mobutu a Kabila,' L'Harmattan, Paris/Montreal, 2001 | Military_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized armed:11 force:79 democratic:16 republic:11 congo:46 state:17 military:44 organisation:3 responsible:1 defend:2 fardc:24 rebuild:3 part:5 peace:7 process:15 follow:8 end:11 second:7 war:18 july:15 majority:1 member:4 land:9 also:17 small:7 air:20 even:2 navy:10 together:2 three:12 service:9 may:16 number:6 around:6 personnel:6 derive:1 estimate:5 non:4 integrated:22 economist:1 note:3 plus:1 iiss:6 brigade:72 naval:4 addition:5 presidential:11 call:2 republican:3 guard:5 national:18 congolese:14 police:5 pnc:1 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2,808 | Gallâ%80%93Peters_projection | Gall-Peters projection of the Earth The Gall-Peters projection is one specialization of a configurable equal-area map projection known as the equal-area cylindric or cylindric equal-area projection. The Gall-Peters achieved considerable notoriety in the late 20th century as the centerpiece of a controversy surrounding the political implications of map design. Maps based on the projection continue to see use in some circles and are readily available, though few major map publishers produce them. Description The projection is defined as: ; that is, ; that is, where is the longitude from the central meridian in degrees, is the latitude, and is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection. For longitude given in radians, remove the /180° factors. The various specializations of the cylindric equal-area projection differ only in the ratio of the vertical to horizontal axis. This ratio determines the standard parallel of the projection, which is the parallel at which there is no distortion and along which distances match the stated scale. There are always two standard parallels on the cylindric equal-area projection, each at the same distance north and south of the equator. The standard parallels of the Gall-Peters are 45° N and 45° S. Several other specializations of the equal-area cylindric have been described, promoted, or otherwise named. Snyder, John P. (1989). An Album of Map Projections p. 19. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1453. (Mathematical properties of the Gall-Peters and related projections.) Monmonier, Mark (2004). Rhumb Lines and Map Wars: A Social History of the Mercator Projection p. 152. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. (Thorough treatment of the social history of the Mercator projection and Gall-Peters projections.) +Named specializations of the cylindric equal-area projection Specialization Standard parallels N/S Lambert cylindric equal-area equator Behrmann cylindric equal-area 30° Craster rectangular equal-area 37°04' Trystran Edwards 37°24' Hobo-Dyer 37°30' Gall-Peters (= Gall orthographic = Peters) 45° Balthasart 50° Origins and naming The Gall-Peters projection was first described in 1855 by clergyman James Gall, who presented it along with two other projections at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA). He gave it the name "orthographic" (no relation to the Orthographic projection), and formally published his work in 1885 in the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Gall, James (1885). "Use of cylindrical projections for geographical, astronomical, and scientific purposes". Scottish Geographical Magazine 1(4): 119–123. The name "Gall-Peters projection" seems to have been used first by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986. American Cartographic Association's Committee on Map Projections, 1986. Which Map is Best p. 12. Falls Church: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. Prior to 1973 it had been known, when referred to at all, as the "Gall orthographic" or "Gall's orthographic." Most Peters supporters refer to it only as the "Peters projection." During the years of controversy the cartographic literature tended to mention both attributions, settling on one or the other for the purposes of the article. In recent years "Gall-Peters" seems to dominate. Peters World Map Arno Peters, an amateur historian, devised a map based on Gall's orthographic projection in 1967 and presented it in 1973 as a "new invention." He promoted it as a superior alternative to the Mercator projection, which was suited to navigation but also used commonly in world maps. The Mercator projection increasingly inflates the sizes of regions according to their distance from the equator. This inflation results, for example, in a representation of Greenland that is larger than Africa, whereas in reality Africa is 14 times as large. Since much of the technologically underdeveloped world lies near the equator, these countries appear smaller on a Mercator, and therefore, according to Peters, seem less significant. On Peters's projection, by contrast, areas of equal size on the globe are also equally sized on the map. By using his "new" projection, poorer, less powerful nations could be restored to their rightful proportions. This reasoning has been picked up by many educational and religious bodies, leading to adoption of the Gall-Peters projection among some socially concerned groups. Peters's original description of the projection for his map contained a geometric error that, taken literally, imply standard parallels of 46°02' N/S. However the text accompanying the description made it clear that he had intended the standard parallels to be 45° N/S, making his projection identical to Gall's orthographic. Maling, D.H. (1993). Coordinate Systems and Map Projections, second edition, second printing, p. 431. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-037234-1. In any case, the difference is negligible in a world map. Controversy At first, Peters's foray into cartography was largely ignored by the cartographic community. Campaigns for new projections spring up now and then, rarely making much of an impression. For one thing, the mathematics that governs map projections does not permit development of a world map that is significantly better in any objective sense than the hundreds of map projections already devised. Peters's map was no exception in that regard, and in fact Peters had (probably unwittingly) based it on a projection which was already over a century old. That projection - Gall's orthographic - passed unnoticed when it was announced in 1855. For another thing, inappropriate use of the Mercator projection in world maps and the size disparities figuring prominently in Peters's arguments against the Mercator projection had been remarked upon for centuries and quite commonly in the 20th century. Edwards, Trystan (1953). A New Map of the World. London: B.T. Batsford LTD. Hinks, Arthur R. (1912). Map Projections p. 29. London: Cambridge University Press. Steers, J.A. (1927). An Introduction to the Study of Map Projections 9th ed. p. 154. London: The University of London Press. Kellaway, G.P. (1946). Map Projections p. 37–38. London: Methuen & Co. LTD. (Mentions allegations of an "imperialistic motive".) Abelson, C.E. (1954). Common Map Projections p. 4. Sevenoaks: W.H. Smith & Sons. Chamberlin, Wellman (1947). The Round Earth on Flat Paper p. 99. Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society. Stewart, John Q. (1943). "The Use and Abuse of Map Projections." Geographical Review 33 (4): 590. (Noting quixotic promotions of new projections.) Fisher, Irving (1943). "A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomonic Projection." Geographical Review 33 (4): 605. (A jab at Mercator and proposal for a replacement.) Even Peters's politicized interpretation of the common use of Mercator was nothing new, with mention of a similar controversy in Kelloway's 1946 text. Cartographers had witnessed a similar campaign twenty years prior to Peters's efforts when Trystan Edwards described and promoted his own eponymous projection, disparaging the Mercator, and recommending his projection as the solution. Peters's map differed from Edwards's only in height-to-width ratio. Cartographers, who had long despaired over publishers' stubborn use of the Mercator, had no reason to think Peters would succeed any more than Edwards had, or, for that matter, any more than any of his predecessors had. Peters, however, launched his campaign in a different world than Edwards had. He announced his map at a time when themes of social justice resonated strongly in academia and politics. Insinuating cartographic imperialism, Peters found ready audiences. The campaign was bolstered by the innuendo that the Peters projection was the only "area-correct" map. Other claims included "absolute angle conformality," "no extreme distortions of form," and "totally distance-factual." (1977) The Bulletin 25 (17) pp. 126–127. Bonn: Federal Republic of Germany Press and Information Office. All of those claims were erroneous. Snyder, John P. (1993). Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections p. 165. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76746-9. (Summary of the Peters controversy.) Euler, Leonhard (1777). "De projectione geographica de Lisliana in mappa generali Imperii Russici usitata". Acta Academia Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae 1:143–153. St. Petersburg. (A proof that no flat map of a sphere can be "totally distance-factual.") Some of the oldest projections are equal-area (the sinusoidal projection is also known as the "Mercator equal-area projection"), and hundreds have been described, refuting any implication that Peters's map is special in that regard. In any case, Mercator was not the pervasive projection Peters made it out to be: a wide variety of projections has always been used in world maps. Bowyer, T.D.; German, G.A. (1959). A Guide to Map Projections p. 16. London: John Murray. (By 1959, long before Peters's campaign, Bowyer et al. were able to write, "The Mercator was used quite often until recently for world maps but in a modern atlas you may have difficulty in finding more than a single example.") Hence, it could be argued that Peters had simply set up a straw man to knock down. Peters's chosen projection suffers extreme distortion in the polar regions, as any cylindric projection must, and its distortion along the equator is considerable. Several scholars have remarked on the irony of the projection's undistorted presentation of the mid latitudes, including Peters's native Germany, at the expense of the low latitudes, which host more of the technologically underdeveloped nations. Snyder, J.P. (1988). "Social Consciousness and World Maps". Christian Century 105: 190–192. Robinson, Arthur H. (1985). "Arno Peters and His New Cartography," American Geographer 12(2): 103–111. The claim of distance fidelity is particularly problematic: Peters's map lacks distance fidelity everywhere except along the 45th parallels north and south, and then only in the direction of those parallels. No world projection is good at preserving distances everywhere; Peters's and all other cylindric projections are especially bad in that regard because east-west distances inevitably balloon toward the poles. Canters, Frank; Decleir, Hugo (1989). The World in Perspective: A Directory of World Map Projections, p. 36. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons LTD. ISBN 0-471-92147-5. (Distortion of distance in world maps. Gall-Peters is structurally very similar to Behrmann.) The cartographic community met Peters's 1973 press conference with amusement and mild exasperation, but little activity beyond a few articles commenting on the technical aspects of Peters's claims. In the ensuing years, however, it became clear that Peters and his map were no flash in the pan. By 1980 many cartographers had turned overtly hostile to his claims. In particular, Peters writes in The New Cartography, This incendiary attack did not endear cartographers, who themselves had long been frustrated by the favoritism publishers showed for Mercator's projection. The two camps never made any real attempts toward reconciliation. The Peters camp largely ignored the protests of the cartographers. Peters maintained there should be "one map for one world" Arno Peters: Radical Map, Remarkable Man. (A DVD documentary.) 2008. —his—and did not acknowledge the prior art of Gall until the controversy had largely run its course, late in his life. While Peters likely reinvented the projection independently, the unscholarly conduct and refusal to engage the cartographic community undoubtedly contributed to the polarization and impasse. Crampton, Jeremy (1994). "Cartography's defining moment: The Peters projection controversy, 1974–1990." Cartographica 31 (4): 16–32. Frustrated by some very visible successes and mounting publicity stirred up by the industry that had sprung up around the Peters map, the cartographic community began to plan more coordinated efforts to restore balance, as they saw it. The 1980s saw a flurry of literature directed against the Peters phenomenon. Though Peters's map was not singled out, the controversy motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including Which Map is Best) designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted the following resolution, American Cartographer. 1989. 16(3): 222–223. Robinson, Arthur (1990). "Rectangular World Maps—No!" Professional Geographer 42 (1): 101–104. which rejected all rectangular world maps, a category that includes both the Mercator and the Gall-Peters projections: The geographic and cartographic communities do not unanimously disparage the Peters World Map. For example, one map society, the North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS), declined to endorse the 1989 resolution, though no reasons were given. Some cartographers, including J. Brian Harley, have credited the Peters phenomenon with demonstrating the social implications of map projections, at the very least. Harley, J.B. (1991). "Can There Be a Cartographic Ethics?" Cartographic Perspectives 10:9–16. Crampton sees the condemnation from the cartographic community as reactionary and perhaps demonstrative of immaturity in the profession, given that all maps are political. Denis Wood sees the map as one of many useful tools. Lastly, Terry Hardaker of Oxford Cartographers Limited, sympathetic to Peters's mission, became the map's official cartographer when Peters, overwhelmed by the technical aspects of cartography, sought to pass on those responsibilities. Uses in the media The Peters projection map was featured in the United States television drama The West Wing (season 2, episode 16), in which the (fictitious) Organization of Cartographers for Social Equality is given access to the White House Press Secretary due to Big Block of Cheese Day. Dr. John Fallow (actor John Billingsley) explains why the President of the United States of America should champion the use of this map in schools, because it correctly represents the size of the countries and therefore gives due prominence to countries in less technologically developed parts of the world that are otherwise underestimated. The map is also a favorite of military strategist Thomas Barnett, who has included it in his presentations of The Brief, which have aired on C-SPAN in the United States. See also Cartography Dymaxion map Map projection Mercator projection Nautical chart Robinson projection Transverse Mercator projection Notes External links The Size of the Matter—An article in the Times of India on why the Gall-Peters projection should be more widely used. Peters Projection vs. Mercator Projection—A critique of the importance of the Gall-Peters projection. 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2,809 | Georges_Braque | Violin and Candlestick, Paris, spring 1910, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Georges Braque (13 May 1882 – 31 August 1963) was a major 20th century French painter and sculptor who, along with Pablo Picasso, developed the art movement known as cubism. Youth Georges Braque was born in Argenteuil, Val-d'Oise. He grew up in Le Havre and trained to be a house painter and decorator, as his father and grandfather were, but he also studied painting in the evenings at the École des Beaux-Arts in Le Havre from about 1897 to 1899. He apprenticed in Paris under a decorator and was awarded his certificate in 1902. The following year, he attended the Académie Humbert, also in Paris, and painted there until 1904. It was here that he met Marie Laurencin and Francis Picabia. Fauvism His earliest works were impressionistic, but, after seeing the work exhibited by the Fauves in 1905, Braque adopted a Fauvist style. The Fauves, a group that included Henri Matisse and André Derain among others, used brilliant colors and loose structures of forms to capture the most intense emotional response. Braque worked most closely with the artists Raoul Dufy and Othon Friesz, who shared Braque's hometown of Le Havre, to develop a somewhat more subdued Fauvist style. In 1906, Braque traveled with Friesz to L'Estaque, to Antwerp, and home to Le Havre to paint. In May 1907, he successfully exhibited works in the Fauve style in the Salon des Indépendants. The same year, Braque's style began a slow evolution as he came under the strong influence of Paul Cézanne, who died in 1906, and whose works were exhibited in Paris for the first time in a large-scale, museum-like retrospective in September 1907. The 1907 Cézanne retrospective at the Salon d'Automne greatly impacted the direction that the avant-garde in Paris took, leading to the advent of Cubism. Cubism Braque's paintings of 1908–1913 began to reflect his new interest in geometry and simultaneous perspective. He conducted an intense study of the effects of light and perspective and the technical means that painters use to represent these effects, appearing to question the most standard of artistic conventions. In his village scenes, for example, Braque frequently reduced an architectural structure to a geometric form approximating a cube, yet rendered its shading so that it looked both flat and three-dimensional by fragmenting the image. In this way, Braque called attention to the very nature of visual illusion and artistic representation. Beginning in 1909, Braque began to work closely with Pablo Picasso, who had been developing a similar approach to painting. Pablo Picasso was influenced by both Cezanne and African tribal sculpture, while Braque was mostly interested in developing Cezanne's idea's of multiple perspectives. “A comparison of the works of Picasso and Braque during 1908 reveals that the effect of his encounter with Picasso was more to accelerate and intensify Braque’s exploration of Cézanne’s ideas, rather than to divert his thinking in any essential way.” Fry 1966, p. 71. The invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre, Paris. These artists were the movement's main innovators. After meeting in October or November 1907, Picasso, P., Rubin, W. S., & Fluegel, J. (1980). Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. New York: Museum of Modern Art. ISBN 0870705288 p. 99, Braque and Picasso, in particular, began working on the development of Cubism in 1908. Both artists produced paintings of monochromatic color and complex patterns of faceted form, now called Analytic Cubism. In 1912, they began to experiment with collage and papier collé. Their productive collaboration continued and they worked closely together until the outbreak of World War I in 1914 when Braque enlisted in the French Army, leaving Paris to fight in the First World War. French art critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the term Cubism, or "bizarre cubiques", in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as 'full of little cubes', after which the term quickly gained wide use although the two creators did not initially adopt it. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described cubism as "the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture - that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas." Ernst Gombrich (1960) Art and Illusion, as quoted in Marshall McLuhan (1964) Understanding Media, p.12 The Cubist movement spread quickly throughout Paris and Europe. Later work Braque was severely wounded in the war, and when he resumed his artistic career in 1917 he moved away from the harsher abstraction of cubism. Working alone, he developed a more personal style, characterized by brilliant color and textured surfaces and—following his move to the Normandy seacoast—the reappearance of the human figure. He painted many still life subjects during this time, maintaining his emphasis on structure. During his recovery he became a close friend of the cubist artist Juan Gris. However, he nonetheless continued to work throughout the remainder of his life, producing a considerable number of distinguished paintings, graphics, and sculptures, all imbued with a pervasive contemplative quality.Braque, along with Matisse, is credited for introducing Pablo Picasso to Fernand Mourlot, and most of the lithographs and book illustrations he himself created in the 1940s and '50s were produced at the Mourlot Studios. He died on 31 August 1963, in Paris. He is buried in the church cemetery in Saint-Marguerite-sur-Mer, Normandy, France. Style Braque believed that an artist experienced beauty "… in terms of volume, of line, of mass, of weight, and through that beauty [he] interpret[s] [his] subjective impression...” Mullins 1968, p. 34. He described "objects shattered into fragments… [as] a way of getting closest to the object…Fragmentation helped me to establish space and movement in space”. Mullins 1968, p. 55. He adopted a monochromatic and neutral color palette in the belief that such a palette would work simultaneously with the form, instead of interfering with the viewer's conception of space; and would focus, rather than distract, the viewer from the subject matter of the painting. Although Braque began his career painting landscapes, in 1908, he, alongside Picasso, discovered the advantages of painting still lifes instead. Braque explained that he, “… began to concentrate on still-lifes, because in the still-life you have a tactile, I might almost say a manual space… This answered to the hankering I have always had to touch things and not merely see them…In tactile space you measure the distance separating you from the object, whereas in visual space you measure the distance separating things from each other. This is what led to, long ago, from landscape to still-life” Mullins 1968, p. 41. A still-life was also more accessible, in relation to perspective, than landscape, and permitted the artist to see the multiple perspectives of the object. Braque's early interest in the still life reappeared in the 1930s. Although, with the emergence of Surrealism, Braque began incorporating Surrealist inspired elements in his later works, such as the exploration of color use and a less abstracted rendering of objects, his still remained strongly devoted to his Cubist ideology of simultaneous perspective and fragmentation. Braque's loyalty to a Cubist approach of painting long after Cubism ultimately hindered his career as a notable avant-garde artist. In relation to Picasso, who continuously innovated and reinvented his approach to painting to adapt with future avant-garde movements, such as Surrealism, Braque was considered mundane and of the past. Notes References Fry, Edward F. (1966). "Cubism 1907-1908: An Early Eyewitness Account". Art Bulletin 48: 71–73. Mullins, Edwin (1968). The Art of Georges Braque. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Picasso, P., Rubin, W. S., & Fluegel, J. (1980). Pablo Picasso, a retrospective. New York: Museum of Modern Art. ISBN 0870705288 External links Artcyclopedia - Links to Braque's works and information Georges Braque works at insecula.com Peintures de Georges Braque (French) | Georges_Braque |@lemmatized violin:1 candlestick:1 paris:9 spring:1 san:1 francisco:1 museum:4 modern:3 art:10 george:5 braque:31 may:2 august:2 major:1 century:1 french:4 painter:3 sculptor:1 along:2 pablo:6 picasso:14 develop:5 movement:5 know:1 cubism:11 youth:1 bear:1 argenteuil:1 val:1 oise:1 grow:1 le:4 havre:4 train:1 house:1 decorator:2 father:1 grandfather:1 also:3 study:2 painting:6 evening:1 école:1 de:2 beau:1 apprentice:1 award:1 certificate:1 following:1 year:2 attend:1 académie:1 humbert:1 paint:7 meet:2 marie:1 laurencin:1 francis:1 picabia:1 fauvism:1 early:3 work:16 impressionistic:1 see:4 exhibit:3 fauve:3 adopt:3 fauvist:2 style:6 group:1 include:1 henri:1 matisse:2 andré:1 derain:1 among:1 others:1 use:5 brilliant:2 color:5 loose:1 structure:3 form:4 capture:1 intense:2 emotional:1 response:1 closely:3 artist:7 raoul:1 dufy:1 othon:1 friesz:2 share:1 hometown:1 somewhat:1 subdued:1 travel:1 l:1 estaque:1 antwerp:1 home:1 successfully:1 salon:2 des:1 indépendants:1 begin:9 slow:1 evolution:1 come:1 strong:1 influence:2 paul:1 cézanne:3 die:2 whose:1 first:3 time:2 large:1 scale:1 like:1 retrospective:4 september:1 automne:1 greatly:1 impact:1 direction:1 avant:3 garde:3 take:1 lead:2 advent:1 reflect:1 new:4 interest:2 geometry:1 simultaneous:2 perspective:6 conduct:1 effect:3 light:1 technical:1 mean:1 represent:1 appear:1 question:1 standard:1 artistic:3 convention:1 village:1 scene:1 example:1 frequently:1 reduce:1 architectural:1 geometric:1 approximate:1 cube:2 yet:1 render:1 shade:1 look:1 flat:1 three:1 dimensional:1 fragment:2 image:1 way:3 call:2 attention:1 nature:1 visual:2 illusion:2 representation:1 similar:1 approach:3 cezanne:2 african:1 tribal:1 sculpture:2 mostly:1 interested:1 idea:2 multiple:2 comparison:1 reveals:1 encounter:1 accelerate:1 intensify:1 exploration:2 rather:2 divert:1 thinking:1 essential:1 fry:2 p:8 invention:1 joint:1 effort:1 resident:1 montmartre:1 main:1 innovator:1 october:1 november:1 rubin:2 w:2 fluegel:2 j:2 york:3 isbn:2 particular:1 development:1 produce:3 monochromatic:2 complex:1 pattern:1 faceted:1 analytic:1 experiment:1 collage:1 papier:1 collé:1 productive:1 collaboration:1 continue:2 together:1 outbreak:1 world:2 war:3 enlist:1 army:1 leave:1 fight:1 critic:1 louis:1 vauxcelles:1 term:3 bizarre:1 cubiques:1 picture:2 describe:3 full:1 little:1 quickly:2 gain:1 wide:1 although:3 two:1 creator:1 initially:1 historian:1 ernst:2 gombrich:2 radical:1 attempt:1 stamp:1 ambiguity:1 enforce:1 one:1 reading:1 man:1 make:1 construction:1 colored:1 canvas:1 quote:1 marshall:1 mcluhan:1 understand:1 medium:1 cubist:4 spread:1 throughout:2 europe:1 later:2 severely:1 wound:1 resume:1 career:3 move:2 away:1 harsh:1 abstraction:1 alone:1 personal:1 characterize:1 textured:1 surface:1 follow:1 normandy:2 seacoast:1 reappearance:1 human:1 figure:1 many:1 still:8 life:7 subject:2 maintain:1 emphasis:1 recovery:1 become:1 close:2 friend:1 juan:1 gris:1 however:1 nonetheless:1 remainder:1 considerable:1 number:1 distinguished:1 graphic:1 imbue:1 pervasive:1 contemplative:1 quality:1 credit:1 introduce:1 fernand:1 mourlot:2 lithograph:1 book:1 illustration:1 create:1 studio:1 bury:1 church:1 cemetery:1 saint:1 marguerite:1 sur:1 mer:1 france:1 believe:1 experience:1 beauty:2 volume:1 line:1 mass:1 weight:1 interpret:1 subjective:1 impression:1 mullins:4 object:5 shatter:1 get:1 fragmentation:2 help:1 establish:1 space:6 neutral:1 palette:2 belief:1 would:2 simultaneously:1 instead:2 interfere:1 viewer:2 conception:1 focus:1 distract:1 matter:1 landscape:3 alongside:1 discover:1 advantage:1 lifes:1 explain:1 concentrate:1 tactile:2 might:1 almost:1 say:1 manual:1 answer:1 hankering:1 always:1 touch:1 thing:2 merely:1 measure:2 distance:2 separate:2 whereas:1 long:2 ago:1 accessible:1 relation:2 permit:1 reappear:1 emergence:1 surrealism:2 incorporate:1 surrealist:1 inspired:1 element:1 less:1 abstracted:1 rendering:1 remain:1 strongly:1 devote:1 ideology:1 loyalty:1 ultimately:1 hinder:1 notable:1 continuously:1 innovate:1 reinvent:1 adapt:1 future:1 consider:1 mundane:1 past:1 note:1 reference:1 edward:1 f:1 eyewitness:1 account:1 bulletin:1 edwin:1 harry:1 n:1 abrams:1 inc:1 external:1 link:2 artcyclopedia:1 information:1 insecula:1 com:1 peintures:1 |@bigram san_francisco:1 george_braque:5 painter_sculptor:1 pablo_picasso:6 le_havre:4 francis_picabia:1 henri_matisse:1 andré_derain:1 salon_des:1 paul_cézanne:1 avant_garde:3 analytic_cubism:1 marshall_mcluhan:1 sur_mer:1 color_palette:1 eyewitness_account:1 n_abrams:1 abrams_inc:1 external_link:1 |
2,810 | Coronary_artery_disease | Coronary artery disease (CAD)(or atherosclerotic heart disease) is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the coronary arteries that supply the myocardium (the muscle of the heart) with oxygen and nutrients. It is sometimes also called coronary heart disease (CHD), but although CAD is the most common cause of CHD, it is not the only cause. CAD is the leading cause of death worldwide. Coronary artery disease at Mount Sinai Hospital While the symptoms and signs of coronary artery disease are noted in the advanced state of disease, most individuals with coronary artery disease show no evidence of disease for decades as the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" heart attack, finally arises. After decades of progression, some of these atheromatous plaques may rupture and (along with the activation of the blood clotting system) start limiting blood flow to the heart muscle. The disease is the most common cause of sudden death , and is also the most common reason for death of men and women over 20 years of age American Heart Association: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2007 Update. AHA, Dallas, Texas, 2007 . According to present trends in the United States, half of healthy 40-year-old males will develop CAD in the future, and one in three healthy 40-year-old women. According to the Guinness Book of Records, Northern Ireland is the country with the most occurrences of CAD. By contrast, the Maasai of Africa have almost no heart disease. As the degree of coronary artery disease progresses, there may be near-complete obstruction of the lumen of the coronary artery, severely restricting the flow of oxygen-carrying blood to the myocardium. Individuals with this degree of coronary artery disease typically have suffered from one or more myocardial infarctions (heart attacks), and may have signs and symptoms of chronic coronary ischemia, including symptoms of angina at rest and flash pulmonary edema. A distinction should be made between myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction. Ischemia means that the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissue is inadequate to supply the needs of the tissue. When the myocardium becomes ischemic, it does not function optimally. When large areas of the myocardium becomes ischemic, there can be impairment in the relaxation and contraction of the myocardium. If the blood flow to the tissue is improved, myocardial ischemia can be reversed. Infarction means that the tissue has undergone irreversible death due to lack of sufficient oxygen-rich blood. An individual may develop a rupture of an atheromatous plaque at any stage of the spectrum of coronary artery disease. The acute rupture of a plaque may lead to an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). Pathophysiology Limitation of blood flow to the heart causes ischaemia (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the myocardial cells. Myocardial cells may die from lack of oxygen and this is called a myocardial infarction (commonly called a heart attack). It leads to heart muscle damage, heart muscle death and later scarring without heart muscle regrowth. Chronic high-grade stenosis of the coronary arteries can induce transient ischemia which leads to the induction of a ventricular arrhythmia, with may terminate into ventricular fibrillation leading to death. Myocardial infarction usually results from the sudden occlusion of a coronary artery when a plaque ruptures, activating the clotting system and atheroma-clot interaction fills the lumen of the artery to the point of sudden closure. The narrowing of the lumen of the heart artery before sudden closure is often not severe, according to clinical research completed in the late 1990s and using IVUS examinations within 6 months prior to a heart attack. The events leading up to plaque rupture are not understood despite many theories. Myocardial infarction is almost never caused by temporary spasm of the artery wall occluding the lumen, a condition also associated with atheromatous plaque and CAD. CAD is associated with smoking, diabetes, and hypertension. A family history of early CAD is one of the less important predictors of CAD. Most of the familial association of coronary artery disease are related to common dietary habits. Screening for CAD includes evaluating high-density and low-density lipoprotein (cholesterol) levels and triglyceride levels. Despite much press, most of the alternative risk factors including homocysteine, C-reactive protein (CRP), Lipoprotein (a), coronary calcium and more sophisticated lipid analysis have added little if any additional value to the conventional risk factors of smoking, diabetes and hypertension. Angina Angina(chest pain) that occurs regularly with activity, after heavy meals, or at other predictable times is termed stable angina and is associated with high grade narrowings of the heart arteries. The symptoms of angina are often treated with betablocker therapy such as metoprolol or atenolol. Nitrate preparations such as nitroglycerin, which come in short-acting and long-acting forms are also effective in relieving symptoms but are not known to reduce the chances of future heart attacks. Many other more effective treatments, especially of the underlying atheromatous disease, have been developed. Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction, and requires urgent medical attention. It may be treated with oxygen, intravenous nitroglycerin, and aspirin. Interventional procedures such as angioplasty may be done. Sex characteristics of coronary artery disease Special Pathophysiology Typically, coronary artery disease occurs when part of the smooth, elastic lining inside a coronary artery (the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle) develops atherosclerosis. With atherosclerosis, the artery's lining becomes hardened, stiffened, and swollen with all sorts of "grunge" - including calcium deposits, fatty deposits, and abnormal inflammatory cells - to form a plaque. Deposits of calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatites) in the muscular layer of the blood vessels appear to play not only a significant role in stiffening arteries but also for the induction of an early phase of coronary arteriosclerosis. This can be seen in a so-called metatstatic mechanism of calcification as it occurs in chronic kidney disease and haemodialysis (Rainer Liedtke 2008). Although these patients suffer from a kidney dysfunction, almost fifty percent of them die due to coronary artery disease. Plaques can be thought of as large "pimples" that protrude into the channel of an artery, causing a partial obstruction to blood flow. Patients with coronary artery disease might have just one or two plaques, or might have dozens distributed throughout their coronary arteries. However, there is a term in medicine called “Cardiac Syndrome X”, which describes chest pain (Angina pectoris) and chest discomfort in people who do not show signs of blockages in the larger coronary arteries of their hearts when an angiogram (coronary angiogram) is being performed . No one knows exactly what causes “Cardiac Syndrome X” and it is unlikely to have a single cause. Today, we speculate that the major contributing factor to “Cardiac Syndrome X” is “microvascular dysfunction”. The term “microvascular” refers to very small blood vessels and, in this case, very small arteries (arterioles, capillaries) of the heart. Studies have also shown that people with “Cardiac Syndrome X” have enhanced pain perception, meaning they feel chest pain more intensely than the average person. The large majority of women have the garden variety of coronary artery disease. Rarely, women with “Cardiac Syndrome X” have typical anginal syndromes that are not associated with the presence of atherosclerotic plaques; that is, the localized blockages are absent. Scientists speculate that the blood vessels in these women are diffuse abnormal. Some have falsely claim that the entire lining of the artery becomes thickened throughout, making the plaques flush with the wall of the artery without any scientific proof. On cardiac catheterization their coronary arteries appear smooth-walled and normal, though they may look "small" in diameter. By the way: in general, female coronary arteries (like all arteries) are somewhat smaller than in males.Coronary angiogram of a manCoronary angiogram of a woman “Cardiac Syndrome X” have never been shown to cause acute heart attacks (myocardial infarction) despite much speculation. The prognosis with syndrome-X coronary artery disease is also known to be better than with typical coronary artery disease, but this is not a benign condition since it can be quite disabling. It is not completely clear why women are more likely than men to suffer from "Syndrome X"; however, hormones and other risk factors unique to women may play a role . Women’s blood vessels are exposed to changing levels of oestrogen throughout their lives, first during regular menstrual cycles and later during and after menopause as oestrogen levels decline with age. Oestrogen affects how blood vessels narrow and widen and how they respond to injury, so changes in oestrogen levels mean changes in the reactivity of the blood vessels. Women’s vessels may be “programmed” for more changes than men’s vessels, which could increase the risk of having problems in the lining of the arteries (endothelial cells) and the smooth muscle cells in the walls of the arteries. The endothelial dysfunction is likely to be multifactorial in these patients and it is conceivable that risk factors such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus and smoking can contribute to its development. Most patients with Syndrome X are postmenopausal women and oestrogen deficiency has been therefore proposed as a pathogenic factor in female patients. In addition to changing hormone levels, there are several other risk conditions for blood vessel problems that are unique to women, such as preeclampsia (a problem associated with high blood pressure during pregnancy) and delivering a low-birth weight baby. Of course, despite these issues women, the female gender as a whole is protective against coronary artery disease. Symptoms Cardiac Syndrome X often is a diagnosis of exclusion where the presence of typical chest pains is not accompanied by coronary artery narrowings on angiography. In considering Syndrome-X, it is important to understand that about 80% of chest pains have nothing to do with the heart. Therefore, the characteristics of typical chest pains must be carefully documented to avoid unnecessary labelling patients with heart disease: Chest pain or Angina with physical stress; the pain may spread to the left arm or the neck, back, throat, or jaw. There might be present a numbness (paresthesia) or a loss of feeling in the arms, shoulders, or wrists. Coronary angiography demonstrates “normal” coronary arteries, i. e. no blockages or stenoses can be detected in the larger epicardial vessels. No inducible coronary artery spasm present during cardiac catheterization. Characteristic ischemic ECG changes during exercise testing. ST segment depression and angina in the presence of left ventricular wall perfusion abnormalities during thallium or other stress perfusion test. Consistent response to sublingual nitrates. Postmenopausal or menopausal status. The diagnosis of “Cardiac Syndrome X” - the rare coronary artery disease that is more common in women, as mentioned, an “exclusion” diagnosis. Therefore, usually the same tests are used as in any patient with the suspicion of coronary artery disease: Baseline ECG Exercise ECG – Stress test Exercise radioisotope test (nuclear stress test, myocardial scintigraphy). Echocardiography (including stress echocardiography). Coronary angiography. Intravascular ultrasound. MRI scan. Therapy A variety of drugs are used in the attempt to treat the Syndrome-X coronary artery disease: nitrates, calcium channel antagonists, ACE-inhibitors, statins, imipramin (analgesia), aminophylline, hormone replacement therapy (oestrogen), even electrical spinal cord stimulation are tried to overcome the symptomatology -all with mixed results. Quite often the quality of life for these women remains poor. While not enough is known about Syndrome-X coronary artery disease to list specific prevention techniques, adopting heart-healthy habits can be a good start. These include monitoring cholesterol and blood pressure levels, maintaining a low-fat diet, exercising regularly, quitting smoking, avoiding recreational drugs, and moderating alcohol intake. However, there might be a new option for women suffering from “Cardiac Syndrome X”: Protein based Angiogenesis Stegmann, T.J.: New Vessels for the Heart. Angiogenesis as New Treatment for Coronary Heart Disease: The Story of its Discovery and Development. Henderson, Nevada 89012, USA, 2004. ISBN 0-976558-30-5 . This new protein-based angiogenic therapy - using fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1) - might be used as sole therapy as well as adjunct to bypass surgery – thus overcoming the limitations of conventional bypass surgery.Neo-angiogenesis in a woman's heart after FGF-1 treatment Beyond drug therapy, interventional procedures, and coronary artery bypass grafting, angiogenesis now offers a new, specific and – so far as we know from three human clinical trials – effective treatment targeted for women’s coronary artery disease Stegmann, T.J.: Protein promise in heart disease. GCPj, March 2007, 21-24 . Risk factors The following are confirmed independent risk factors for the development of CAD: Hypercholesterolemia (specifically, serum LDL concentrations) Smoking Hypertension (high systolic pressure seems to be most significant in this regard) Hyperglycemia (due to diabetes mellitus or otherwise) Type A Behavioural Patterns, TABP. Added in 1981 as an independent risk factor after a majority of research into the field discovered that TABP's were twice as likely to exhibit CAD than any other personality type. Hemostatic Factors : High levels of fibrinogen and coagulation factor VII are associated with an increased risk of CAD. Factor VII levels are higher in individuals with a high intake of dietary fat. Decreased fibrinolytic activity has been reported in patients with coronary atherosclerosis. Hereditary differences in such diverse aspects as lipoprotein structure and that of their associated receptors, homocysteine processing/metabolism, etc. Significant, but indirect risk factors include: Lack of exercise Stress Diet rich in saturated fats Diet low in antioxidants Obesity Men over 60; Women over 65 Women and heart disease | Health News | Find Articles at BNET Risk factors can be classified as Fixed: age, sex, family history Modifiable: smoking, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, etc. Prevention Coronary artery disease is the most common form of heart disease in the Western world. Prevention centers on the modifiable risk factors, which include decreasing cholesterol levels, addressing obesity and hypertension, avoiding a sedentary lifestyle, making healthy dietary choices, and stopping smoking. There is some evidence that lowering homocysteine levels may contribute to more heart attacks (NORVIT trial). In diabetes mellitus, there is little evidence that very tight blood sugar control actually improves cardiac risk although improved sugar control appears to decrease other undesirable problems like kidney failure and blindness. Some recommend a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin C. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends "low to moderate alcohol intake" to reduce risk of coronary artery disease although this remains without scientific cause and effect proof. An increasingly growing number of other physiological markers and homeostatic mechanisms are currently under scientific investigation. Patients with CAD and those trying to prevent CAD are advised to avoid fats that are readily oxidized (e.g., saturated fats and trans-fats), limit carbohydrates and processed sugars to reduce production of Low density lipoproteins, triacylglycerol and apolipoprotein-B. It is also important to keep blood pressure normal, exercise and stop smoking. These measures reduces the development of heart attacks. Recent studies have shown that dramatic reduction in LDL levels can cause regression of coronary artery disease in as many as 2/3 of patients after just one year of sustained treatment. Menaquinone (Vitamin K2), but not phylloquinone (Vitamin K1), intake is associated with reduced risk of CAD mortality, all-cause mortality and severe aortic calcification. Exercise Separate to the question of the benefits of exercise; it is unclear whether doctors should spend time counseling patients to exercise. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), based on a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, found 'insufficient evidence' to recommend that doctors counsel patients on exercise, but "it did not review the evidence for the effectiveness of physical activity to reduce chronic disease, morbidity and mortality", it only examined the effectiveness of the counseling itself. However, the American Heart Association, based on a non-systematic review, recommends that doctors counsel patients on exercise. Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Major Recommendations Preventive diets It has been suggested that coronary artery disease is partially reversible using an intense dietary regimen coupled with regular cardio exercise. Vegetarian diet: Vegetarians have been shown to have a 24% reduced risk of dying of heart disease. Cretan Mediterranean diet: The Seven Country Study found that Cretan men had exceptionally low death rates from heart disease, despite moderate to high intake of fat. The Cretan diet is similar to other traditional Mediterranean diets: consisting mostly of olive oil, bread, abundant fruit and vegetables, a moderate amount of wine and fat-rich animal products such as lamb, sausage and goat cheese. Perez-Llamas, F., et al., J Hum Nutr Diet, December 1996, 9:6:463-471 However, the Cretan diet consisted of less fish and wine consumption than some other Mediterranean-style diets, such as the diet in Corfu, another region of Greece, which had higher death rates. The consumption of trans fat (commonly found in hydrogenated products such as margarine) has been shown to cause the development of endothelial dysfunction, a precursor to atherosclerosis. The consumption of trans fatty acids has been shown to increase the risk of coronary artery disease Foods containing fiber, potassium, nitric oxide (in green leafy vegetables), monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, saponins, or lecithin are said to lower cholesterol levels. Foods high in grease, salt, trans fat, or saturated fat are said to raise cholesterol levels. Aspirin Aspirin, in doses of less than 75 to 81 mg/d , can reduce the incidence of cardiovascular events. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force 'strongly recommends that clinicians discuss aspirin chemoprevention with adults who are at increased risk for coronary artery disease'. The Task Force defines increased risk as 'Men older than 40 years of age, postmenopausal women, and younger persons with risk factors for coronary artery disease (for example, hypertension, diabetes, or smoking) are at increased risk for heart disease and may wish to consider aspirin therapy'. More specifically, high-risk persons are 'those with a 5-year risk ≥ 3%'. A risk calculator is available. Welcome to Med-decisions! Regarding healthy women, the more recent Women's Health Study randomized controlled trial found insignificant benefit from aspirin in the reduction of cardiac events; however there was a significant reduction in stroke. Subgroup analysis showed that all benefit was confined to women over 65 years old. In spite of the insignficant benefit for women < 65 years old, recent practice guidelines by the American Heart Association recommend to 'consider' aspirin in 'healthy women' <65 years of age 'when benefit for ischemic stroke prevention is likely to outweigh adverse effects of therapy'. Omega-3 fatty acids The benefit of fish oil is controversial with conflicting conclusions reached by a negative meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by the international Cochrane Collaboration and a partially positive systematic review AHRQ Evidence reports and summaries 94. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Disease by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Since these two reviews, a randomized controlled trial reported a reduction on coronary events in Japanese hypercholesterolemic patients. Omega-3 fatty acids are also found in some plant sources including flax seed oil, hemp seed oil, and walnuts. Plant sources may be safer as fish products have been shown to contain heavy metals and other fat soluble pollutants. Secondary prevention Secondary prevention is preventing further sequelae of already established disease. Regarding coronary artery disease, this can mean risk factor management that is carried out during cardiac rehabilitation, a 4-phase process beginning in hospital after MI, angioplasty or heart surgery and continuing for a minimum of three months. Exercise is a main component of cardiac rehabilitation along with diet, smoking cessation, and blood pressure and cholesterol management. Beta blockers may also be used for this purpose. Anti-platelet therapy A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by the international Cochrane Collaboration found "that the use of clopidogrel plus aspirin is associated with a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular events compared with aspirin alone in patients with acute non-ST coronary syndrome. In patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease but not presenting acutely, there is only weak evidence of benefit and hazards of treatment almost match any benefit obtained.". Therapy - Principles of Treatment Therapeutic options for coronary artery disease today are based on three principles: 1. Medical treatment - drugs (e.g. cholesterol lowering medications, beta-blockers, nitroglycerin, calcium antagonists, etc.); 2. Coronary interventions as angioplasty and coronary stent-implantation; 3. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG - coronary artery bypass surgery). Recent research efforts focus on new angiogenic treatment modalities (angiogenesis) and various (adult) stem cell therapies. Recent research A 2006 study by the Cleveland Clinic found a region on Chromosome 17 was confined to families with multiple cases of myocardial infarction. A more controversial link is that between Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection and atherosclerosis. While this intracellular organism has been demonstrated in atherosclerotic plaques, evidence is inconclusive as to whether it can be considered a causative factor. Treatment with antibiotics in patients with proven atherosclerosis has not demonstrated a decreased risk of heart attacks or other coronary vascular diseases. Since the 1990s the search for new treatment options for coronary artery disease patients, particularly for so called "no-option" coronary patients, focused on usage of angiogenesis and (adult) stem cell therapies. Numerous clinical trials were performed, either applying protein (angiogenic growth factor) therapies, such as FGF-1 or VEGF, or cell therapies using different kinds of adult stem cell populations. Research is still going on - with first promising results particularly for FGF-1 Wagoner, L.E., Merrill, W., Jacobs, J., Conway, G., Boehmer, J., Thomas, K., Stegmann, T.J.: Angiogenesis Protein Therapy With Human Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF-1): Results Of A Phase I Open Label, Dose Escalation Study In Subjects With CAD Not Eligible For PCI Or CABG. Circulation 116: 443, 2007 and utilization of endothelial progenitor cells. References See also Diet and Heart Disease ApoA-1 Milano Endothelium-derived relaxing factor External links Risk Assessment of having a heart attack or dying of coronary artery disease, from the American Heart Association. The InVision Guide to a Healthy Heart An interactive website on the development and function of the cardiovascular system and cardiovascular diseases and consequences. The website also features treatment options and preventative measures for maintaining a healthy heart. A Mechanism of a Metabolic Induction of Coronary Artery Disease in Chronic Kidney Disease, Rainer K. 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2,811 | Water_(classical_element) | Water has been important to all peoples of the earth, and it is rich in spiritual tradition. Greek and Roman tradition Water is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with the qualities of emotion and intuition. Water was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BC) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Plato (427-347 BC) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with water is the icosahedron which is formed from twenty equilateral triangles. This makes water the element with the greatest number of sides, which Plato regarded as appropriate because water flows out of one's hand when picked up, as if it is made of tiny little balls. Plato, Timaeus, chap. 22-23; Gregory Vlastos, Plato’s Universe, pp. 66-82. Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BC) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the Universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, water is both cold and wet, and occupies a place between air and earth among the elemental spheres. G. E. R. Lloyd, Aristotle, chapters 7-8. In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Phlegm was the humor identified with water, since both were cold and wet. Other things associated with water and phlegm in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of Winter, since it increased the qualities of cold and moisture; the phlegmatic temperament (of a person dominated by the phlegm humour); the feminine; the brain; and the western point of the compass. In alchemy, the chemical element of mercury was often associated with water and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle. Indian Tradition Ap () is the Vedic Sanskrit term for "water", in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the pluralis not an element.v, (sometimes re-analysed as a thematic singular, ), whence Hindi . The term is from PIE hxap "water". In Hindu philosophy, the term refers to water as an element, one of the Panchamahabhuta, or "five great elements". In Hinduism, it is also the name of the deva, a personification of water, (one of the Vasus in most later Puranic lists). The element Water is also associated with Chandra or the Moon, and Shukra or Venus, who represent feelings, intuition and imagination. Water is also linked to the north east direction. In Modern Magic Ceremonial Magic Water and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system despite being considered obsolete by modern science. Practicus (3=8) is the elemental grade attributed to water; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic sphere Hod and the planet Mercury. Israel Regardie, The Golden Dawn, pp. 154-65. The elemental weapon of water is the cup. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p.322; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 149-53. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of water is Gabriel, the angel is Taliahad, the ruler is Tharsis, the king is Nichsa, and the water elementals (following Paracelsus) are called Undines. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p. 80. Earth (Water) is considered to be passive; it is represented by the eagle, and it is referred to the upper right point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Regardie, Golden Dawn, pp. 280-286; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 206-209. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. Wicca In Wiccan tradition, water is associated with the West, autumn, and the color blue on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by a white crescent, a downward pointing triangle, the chalice, the bell, shells, sapphires, lapis lazuli, tears, and the cauldron. Water represents emotions, wisdom, the soul, and femininity. In rituals, it is represented in the forms of pouring water over objects, brew making, healing spells, ritual bathing, and tossing objects into bodies of water. The manifestations of the element of water are rivers, oceans, lakes, wells, fog, all drinks, and the rain. Animals, especially the dolphin, seal, turtle, frog, and all types of fish, are also thought to personify the element of water. The astral creatures of water, known as elementals, are the Ondine/Mermaid, Oreade/Naiad, and Sea Serpent/Dragon. Water’s place on the pentagram is the upper right point. Astrological Personalities People born under the astrological signs of Scorpio, Cancer and Pisces being one of the two drawn elements meaning it is part of two of the classical elements are thought to have dominant water personalities. Water personalities tend to be emotional, kind, nurturing, sympathetic, empathetic and intuitive; however, they can also be needy, sentimental, over-sensitive and irrational. See also Water Sea and river deity Notes External links Different versions of the classical elements Overview the 5 elements | Water_(classical_element) |@lemmatized water:34 important:1 people:2 earth:4 rich:1 spiritual:2 tradition:4 greek:5 roman:1 one:6 four:7 classical:6 element:20 ancient:3 philosophy:3 science:2 commonly:1 associate:8 quality:3 emotion:2 intuition:2 many:2 archai:2 propose:1 pre:1 socratics:1 try:1 reduce:1 thing:2 single:1 substance:1 however:2 empedocles:3 acragas:1 c:2 bc:3 select:1 root:2 air:2 fire:1 become:2 plato:5 take:1 timaeus:2 major:1 cosmological:1 dialogue:1 platonic:1 solid:1 icosahedron:1 form:3 twenty:1 equilateral:1 triangle:3 make:2 great:2 number:1 side:1 regard:1 appropriate:1 flow:1 hand:1 pick:1 tiny:1 little:1 ball:1 chap:1 gregory:1 vlastos:1 universe:2 pp:5 student:1 aristotle:3 develop:1 different:2 explanation:1 base:1 pair:1 arrange:1 concentrically:1 around:1 center:1 sublunary:1 sphere:3 accord:1 cold:3 wet:2 occupy:1 place:2 among:1 elemental:3 g:1 e:1 r:1 lloyd:1 chapter:1 medicine:2 humour:2 phlegm:3 humor:1 identify:1 since:3 medieval:1 include:1 season:1 winter:1 increase:1 moisture:1 phlegmatic:1 temperament:1 person:1 dominate:1 feminine:1 brain:1 western:1 point:4 compass:1 alchemy:1 chemical:1 mercury:2 often:1 alchemical:1 symbol:1 downward:2 indian:1 ap:1 vedic:1 sanskrit:2 term:3 occur:1 pluralis:1 v:1 sometimes:2 analyse:1 thematic:1 singular:1 whence:1 hindi:1 pie:1 hxap:1 hindu:1 refers:1 panchamahabhuta:1 five:1 hinduism:1 also:7 name:1 deva:1 personification:1 vasus:1 later:1 puranic:1 list:1 chandra:1 moon:1 shukra:1 venus:1 represent:5 feeling:1 imagination:1 link:2 north:1 east:1 direction:1 modern:4 magic:2 ceremonial:1 incorporate:1 golden:5 dawn:5 system:1 despite:1 consider:2 obsolete:1 practicus:1 grade:2 attribute:2 qabalistic:1 hod:1 planet:1 israel:1 regardie:4 weapon:1 cup:1 p:2 kraig:2 magick:2 several:1 archangel:1 gabriel:1 angel:1 taliahad:1 ruler:1 tharsis:1 king:1 nichsa:1 elementals:2 follow:1 paracelsus:1 call:1 undine:1 passive:1 eagle:1 refer:1 upper:2 right:2 pentagram:3 supreme:1 invoke:1 ritual:3 association:1 spread:1 throughout:1 occult:1 community:1 wicca:1 wiccan:1 west:1 autumn:1 color:1 blue:1 physical:1 plane:1 white:1 crescent:1 pointing:1 chalice:1 bell:1 shell:1 sapphire:1 lapis:1 lazuli:1 tear:1 cauldron:1 wisdom:1 soul:1 femininity:1 pour:1 object:2 brew:1 making:1 heal:1 spell:1 bathing:1 toss:1 body:1 manifestation:1 river:2 ocean:1 lake:1 well:1 fog:1 drink:1 rain:1 animal:1 especially:1 dolphin:1 seal:1 turtle:1 frog:1 type:1 fish:1 think:2 personify:1 astral:1 creature:1 know:1 ondine:1 mermaid:1 oreade:1 naiad:1 sea:2 serpent:1 dragon:1 astrological:2 personality:3 bear:1 sign:1 scorpio:1 cancer:1 pisces:1 two:2 drawn:1 mean:1 part:1 dominant:1 tend:1 emotional:1 kind:1 nurturing:1 sympathetic:1 empathetic:1 intuitive:1 needy:1 sentimental:1 sensitive:1 irrational:1 see:1 deity:1 note:1 external:1 version:1 overview:1 |@bigram pre_socratics:1 empedocles_acragas:1 dialogue_platonic:1 platonic_solid:1 equilateral_triangle:1 plato_timaeus:1 arrange_concentrically:1 alchemical_symbol:1 vedic_sanskrit:1 golden_dawn:5 israel_regardie:1 regardie_golden:4 kraig_modern:2 wicca_wiccan:1 lapis_lazuli:1 external_link:1 |
2,812 | Henry_Laurens | Henry Laurens Henry Laurens ( December 8, 1792) was an American merchant and rice planter from South Carolina who became a political leader during the Revolutionary War. He was a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, serving for a time as its President, and was the Vice-President of South Carolina and a diplomat. Personal life Henry was born to John and Esther Grasset Laurens in Charleston, South Carolina. According to the Julian calendar, Laurens was born on February 24, 1723/4; according to the Gregorian calendar, which was adopted in Britain and its colonies during Laurens' lifetime, he was born on March 6, 1724. See for example, here. His father was a saddler and his parents had come to Charles Town as part of the Huguenot immigration, drawn by the promise of religious liberty. His family prospered, and in 1744 Henry went to England where he learned the ways of commerce from a merchant who had formerly lived in Charleston. Henry returned to Charleston in 1747. He entered the import and export business and became a prosperous merchant, slave trader, and planter. Laurens was the Charleston business agent for the London-based owners of Bunce Island, a British slave castle in the Sierra Leone River in West Africa. Laurens received slave ships arriving in Charleston, advertised the sale of slaves in the newspaper, organized the auctions, and took a 10% commission on each sale. He sold African slaves to local rice planters, but also purchased some for his own plantations. On June 25, 1750 he married Eleanor Ball, the daughter of another wealthy rice planter and slave owner. The couple would have twelve children. Eight died in infancy or childhood, but others achieved prominence. John Laurens served as a military aide to General Washington and was killed in the Revolutionary War. During the war, John proposed a plan under which a small number of slaves would be enlisted in the American forces and eventually granted their freedom. In a private letter, Henry gently sought to persuade John that this plan was impractical. Henry Laurens to John Laurens, 6 February 1778, The Papers of Henry Laurens, XII: 412-413. Martha married David Ramsay, a physician, historian, and South Carolina Congressman. Henry Jr. married Eliza, the daughter of John Rutledge, and inherited his father's estate. Mary married Charles Pinckney and died in childbirth soon afterwards. In 1772, Henry, like many successful American merchants, began to buy farmland. He purchased 3,000 acres (12 km²) at Mepkin. Although he later bought another 20,000 acres (81 km²) including new rice-growing lands opening up in coastal Georgia, Mepkin became the family seat. By 1776 he had given up his mercantile ventures, although he always ran his plantations in a very business-like way. Political career 1. General George Washington 2. General Horatio Gates 3. Dr. Benjamin Franklin 4. Henry Laurens, as President of the Continental Congress. 5. John Paul Jones / D. Berger sculp. 1784. Laurens served in the militia, as did most able-bodied men in his time. He rose to the rank of Lt. Colonel in the campaigns against the Cherokee Indians in 1757-1761. 1757 also marked the first year he was elected to the colonial assembly. He was elected again every year but one until the revolution replaced the assembly with a state Convention as an interim government. The year he missed was 1773 when he visited England to arrange for his children's education. He was named to the colony's Council in 1764 and 1768, but declined both times. In 1772 he joined the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, and carried on some extensive correspondence with other members. As the American Revolution neared, Laurens first inclination was to support reconciliation with the British Crown. But as conditions deteriorated he came to fully support the American position. When Carolina began the creation of a revolutionary government, he was elected to the Provincial Congress which first met on January 9, 1775. He was president of the Committee of Safety, and presiding officer of that congress from June until March of 1776. When South Carolina installed a full independent government, he served as the Vice President of South Carolina from March of 1776 to June 27, 1777. Henry Laurens was first named a delegate to the Continental Congress on January 10, 1777. He served in the Congress from then until 1780. He was the President of the Continental Congress from November 1, 1777 to December 9, 1778. In the fall of 1779 the Congress named Laurens their minister to Holland. In early 1780 he took up that post and successfully negotiated Dutch support for the war. But on his return voyage to Amsterdam that fall the British Navy intercepted his ship, the Continental packet Mercury, off the banks of Newfoundland. Although her dispatches were tossed in the water, they were retrieved by the British, who discovered the draft of a possible U.S.-Dutch treaty prepared by William Lee. This prompted Britain to declare war on the Netherlands, the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. Laurens was charged with treason, transported to England, and imprisoned in the Tower of London, (the only American ever held prisoner in the Tower). This became another issue between the British and Americans. In the field, most captives were regarded as prisoners of war, and while conditions were frequently appalling, prisoner exchanges and mail privileges were accepted practice. During his imprisonment Laurens was assisted by Richard Oswald, his former business partner and the principal owner of Bunce Island. Oswald argued on Laurens' behalf to the British government. Finally, on December 31, 1781 he was released in exchange for General Lord Cornwallis and completed his voyage. In 1783 Laurens was in Paris as one of the Peace Commissioners for the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Paris. While he didn't sign the primary treaty, he was instrumental in reaching the secondary accords that resolved issues involving the Netherlands and Spain. Ironically, Richard Oswald, Laurens' old business partner in the slave trade, was the principal negotiator for the British during the Paris peace talks. Laurens generally retired from public life in 1784. He was sought for a return to the Continental Congress, the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and the state assembly, but he declined all of these jobs. He did serve in the state convention of 1788 where he voted to ratify the United States Constitution. Later events The British forces from Charleston had burned the main home at Mepkin during the war. When Henry returned in 1784, the family lived in an outbuilding while the manor was rebuilt. He lived there the rest of his life, working to recover the estimated £40,000 that the revolution had cost him. (This would be equivalent to about $3,500,000 in 2000 values). He died at Mepkin, and afterward was cremated and his ashes were interred there. The estate at Mepkin passed through several hands, but large portions of the estate still exist, and are now a Trappist abbey. The city of Laurens, South Carolina and its county are named for him. General Lachlan McIntosh, who worked for Laurens as a clerk and became close friends with him, named Fort Laurens, in Ohio, after him. Laurens County, Georgia is named for his son, who preceded him in death. External links Mepkin Abbey web site Henry Laurens NNDB References Additional reading | Henry_Laurens |@lemmatized henry:14 laurens:27 december:3 american:8 merchant:4 rice:4 planter:4 south:7 carolina:8 become:5 political:2 leader:1 revolutionary:3 war:8 delegate:2 second:1 continental:6 congress:9 serve:6 time:3 president:6 vice:2 diplomat:1 personal:1 life:3 bear:3 john:7 esther:1 grasset:1 charleston:6 accord:3 julian:1 calendar:2 february:2 gregorian:1 adopt:1 britain:2 colony:2 lifetime:1 march:3 see:1 example:1 father:2 saddler:1 parent:1 come:2 charles:2 town:1 part:1 huguenot:1 immigration:1 draw:1 promise:1 religious:1 liberty:1 family:3 prosper:1 go:1 england:3 learn:1 way:2 commerce:1 formerly:1 live:3 return:4 enter:1 import:1 export:1 business:5 prosperous:1 slave:8 trader:1 agent:1 london:2 base:1 owner:3 bunce:2 island:2 british:8 castle:1 sierra:1 leone:1 river:1 west:1 africa:1 receive:1 ship:2 arrive:1 advertise:1 sale:2 newspaper:1 organize:1 auction:1 take:2 commission:1 sell:1 african:1 local:1 also:2 purchase:2 plantation:2 june:3 marry:3 eleanor:1 ball:1 daughter:2 another:3 wealthy:1 couple:1 would:3 twelve:1 child:2 eight:1 die:3 infancy:1 childhood:1 others:1 achieve:1 prominence:1 military:1 aide:1 general:5 washington:2 kill:1 propose:1 plan:2 small:1 number:1 enlist:1 force:2 eventually:1 grant:1 freedom:1 private:1 letter:1 gently:1 seek:2 persuade:1 impractical:1 paper:1 xii:1 martha:1 david:1 ramsay:1 physician:1 historian:1 congressman:1 jr:1 married:1 eliza:1 rutledge:1 inherit:1 estate:3 mary:1 pinckney:1 childbirth:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 like:2 many:1 successful:1 begin:2 buy:2 farmland:1 acre:2 mepkin:6 although:3 later:1 include:1 new:1 grow:1 land:1 open:1 coastal:1 georgia:2 seat:1 give:1 mercantile:1 venture:1 always:1 run:1 career:1 george:1 horatio:1 gate:1 dr:1 benjamin:1 franklin:1 paul:1 jones:1 berger:1 sculp:1 militia:1 able:1 body:1 men:1 rise:1 rank:1 lt:1 colonel:1 campaign:1 cherokee:1 indians:1 mark:1 first:4 year:3 elect:3 colonial:1 assembly:3 every:1 one:2 revolution:3 replace:1 state:4 convention:3 interim:1 government:4 miss:1 visit:1 arrange:1 education:1 name:6 council:1 decline:2 join:1 philosophical:1 society:1 philadelphia:1 carry:1 extensive:1 correspondence:1 member:1 near:1 inclination:1 support:3 reconciliation:1 crown:1 condition:2 deteriorate:1 fully:1 position:1 creation:1 provincial:1 meet:1 january:2 committee:1 safety:1 preside:1 officer:1 instal:1 full:1 independent:1 november:1 fall:2 minister:1 holland:1 early:1 post:1 successfully:1 negotiate:1 dutch:3 voyage:2 amsterdam:1 navy:1 intercept:1 packet:1 mercury:1 bank:1 newfoundland:1 dispatch:1 toss:1 water:1 retrieve:1 discover:1 draft:1 possible:1 u:1 treaty:3 prepare:1 william:1 lee:1 prompt:1 declare:1 netherlands:2 fourth:1 anglo:1 charge:1 treason:1 transport:1 imprison:1 tower:2 ever:1 hold:1 prisoner:3 issue:2 field:1 captive:1 regard:1 frequently:1 appal:1 exchange:2 mail:1 privilege:1 accept:1 practice:1 imprisonment:1 assist:1 richard:2 oswald:3 former:1 partner:2 principal:2 argue:1 behalf:1 finally:1 release:1 lord:1 cornwallis:1 complete:1 paris:3 peace:2 commissioner:1 negotiation:1 lead:1 sign:1 primary:1 instrumental:1 reach:1 secondary:1 resolve:1 involve:1 spain:1 ironically:1 old:1 trade:1 negotiator:1 talk:1 generally:1 retire:1 public:1 constitutional:1 job:1 vote:1 ratify:1 united:1 constitution:1 late:1 event:1 burn:1 main:1 home:1 outbuilding:1 manor:1 rebuild:1 rest:1 work:2 recover:1 estimate:1 cost:1 equivalent:1 value:1 afterward:1 cremate:1 ash:1 inter:1 pass:1 several:1 hand:1 large:1 portion:1 still:1 exist:1 trappist:1 abbey:2 city:1 county:2 lachlan:1 mcintosh:1 clerk:1 close:1 friend:1 fort:1 ohio:1 son:1 precede:1 death:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 site:1 nndb:1 reference:1 additional:1 reading:1 |@bigram henry_laurens:7 vice_president:2 julian_calendar:1 gregorian_calendar:1 slave_trader:1 sierra_leone:1 infancy_childhood:1 soon_afterwards:1 benjamin_franklin:1 lt_colonel:1 cremate_ash:1 external_link:1 |
2,813 | Fortaleza | Fortaleza ("fortress", ) is the state capital of Ceará, located in Northeastern Brazil. With a population of over 3.4 million (metropolitan region), Fortaleza has an area of . To the north of the city lies the Atlantic Ocean; to the south are the cities of Pacatuba, Eusébio, Maracanaú and Itaitinga; to the east is the county of Aquiraz and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west is the city of Caucaia. Residents of the city are known as Fortalezenses. The current mayor is Luizianne Lins a former academic at the local Federal University of Ceará and well known feminist. On Beira-mar Avenue, kiosks and restaurants offer regional seafood, Sushi, Brazilian dishes and many more varieties of food; there are also many bars which provide anything from beer to cocktails. At the handcraft fair (the feirinhá), many stands show embroidery and leather work, as well as jewellery and regional food or artisinal cachaça. Of the urban beaches in Fortaleza, Praia do Futuro is the most frequented and is characterized by restaurants along the beach, each one with its own musical style and decoration. The statue of Iracema refers to the legend of the Indian which was depicted in a novel by José de Alencar, a famous Brazilian author who originated from Fortaleza. Mucuripe Beach holds the Lighthouse Museum. Opened in 1846, the lighthouse was active for 111 years, until it was closed in 1957. Dragão do Mar Art and Culture Center holds the Cearense Culture Memorial, the Contemporary Art Museum and Rubens de Azevedo Planetarium, as well as movies and theaters. Besides this, many old warehouses were refurbished and became bars and restaurants surrounding the central area of town. There are cuisine and show options in the evening. It is most certainly one of the trendiest places to be seen. Nightlife includes bars, nightclubs and restaurants, open every day in the week, besides the characteristic comedy shows that have introduced nationally famous artists. An off-season carnival, Fortal, happens in Fortaleza in July. With a remodeled structure in 2008, the event has parking lots, bleachers, stalls and food court. The event lasts 4 days and around 1.5 million people enjoy the nationally famous axé music bands. Fortaleza also stages music festivals in Brazil, such as Ceará Music. This yearly event includes local artists and international pop rock stars for 3 days. Around 25 thousand people enjoy the fun and several concerts, electronic music tents, and fashion shows. The Pinto Martins International Airport connects Fortaleza with major Brazilian cities and also operates international flights. The city is home to the Federal University of Ceará. Geography Climate Fortaleza has a typical tropical climate, with high temperatures and high relative humidity throughout the year. However, these conditions are usually relieved by pleasant winds blowing from the ocean. Average temperatures are not much different throughout the year. December and January are the warmest months, with a high of and low of . Rainy season goes from February to May (locally called "winter" due to the rain, not the temperature). with average annual temperature of . The relative humidity in the air in Fortaleza is 77% with average annual rainfall of . Generally, Fortaleza is characterized by its hotness. The city is a very hot one, making it appropriate for tanning sessions at the beach. The breeze during hot days is refreshing because wind speed in the city is generally typical of sea-side cities. The wind direction is from the sea towards the land, or from west towards east. This wind direction accompanied by ideal wind speed makes different wind activities like surfing and kite flying ideal activities in Fortaleza. Fortaleza weather is unique in that there is usually rain during the first six months of the year, or from January to June. Expect that during this period, relative humidity is high, making Fortaleza climate extremely uncomfortable during several periods of the day. Relative humidity refers to the condition when water vapor is very much present in the air molecules. This is typical when the day is hot and there is too much moisture in the air from a short or sudden rain pour. Fortaleza climate is usually very dry like summer during the months of august to December, when it is winter in other parts of the world, especially those in the northern hemisphere. Vegetation Fortaleza has a Tropical forest. Rainforests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between and . The soil can be poor because high rainfall tends to leach out soluble nutrients. There are several common characteristics of tropical rainforest trees. Tropical rainforest species frequently possess one or more attributes not commonly seen in trees of higher latitudes or trees in drier conditions on the same latitude. Cityscape History Fortaleza in 1910. Fortaleza's history began on February 2, 1500, when Spaniard Vicente Pinzón landed in Mucuripe's cove and named the new land Santa Maria de la Consolación. Because of the Treaty of Tordesillas, the discovery was never officially sanctioned. Colonisation began when the Portuguese Pero Coelho de Souza constructed the Fortim de São Tiago in the estuary of Ceará River in 1603. Later, the Dutch occupied the Brazilian Northeast and founded the Fort Schoonenborch. When they were expelled from Ceará, the Portuguese renamed it to Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Assunção. In 1726, the town of the fort was raised to the condition of village. In 1799, the Province of Ceará was separated from the Province of Pernambuco and Fortaleza was chosen as its capital. Passeio Público in 1919. During the 19th century, Fortaleza consolidated as an urban center in Ceará, supported by the sprouting of cotton growing. With the increase of the direct navigational communications with Europe the Customs of Fortaleza was created in 1812. In 1824, the city became agitated with the revolutionaries of Confederation of the Equator. Between the years of 1846 and 1877, the city goes through a period of enrichment and improvement of the economic activities and urban infrastructures including the exportation of the cotton and the development of diverse workmanships, such as the creation of the 2 secondary school of the Ceará and Mucuripe Lighthouse in 1845, Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Fortaleza in 1861, Prainha Seminary in 1864, Public Library in 1867 and the Public transportation network in 1870, which began with the construction of Railroad of Baturité. In the decades of 1870 and 1880, a period referred to as abolitionism and republican movements culminated in the release of the slaves in the Ceará, on March 25, 1884. The literary movement Spiritual Bakery appeared in 1892 and pioneered the spreading of modern ideas in literature in Brazil. Other entities of the time included the Ceará Institute and Ceara's Academy of Letters established in 1887 and 1894 respectively. Ferreira Square in 1920. In the twentieth century, Fortaleza underwent through big urban changes, with improvements and the rural exodus, and grows mostly happening towards the end of the decade of 1910 and becoming the seventh city in population of Brazil. In 1954, the first university of the city was created, the UFC. Between the decades of 1950 and 1960, the city went through an economic expansion above 100% and began the more distant occupation of neighborhoods of the center. To the end of the years 70 begins its emergence as the future industrial center of the Northeast with the implementation of the Industrial District of Fortaleza. During the political opening after the Military Regime, the people elected the first woman mayor Will Dine, Maria Luiza and became the first city hall commanded by a leftist party. At the end of the century, the administration of the city hall and the city underwent diverse structural changes with the opening of several avenues, hospitals, cultural spaces and emerging as one of the main tourist destinations of the Northeast and of Brazil. Demographics Cocó Park. View of Fortaleza's seaside. Engenheiro Santana Junior Avenue. Melkite in Fortaleza. According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 3,493,000 people residing in the Metropolitan Region of Fortaleza. The population density was . The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 2,095,800 Pardo (brown) people (60.0%), 1,229,536 White people (35.2%), 153,692 Black people (4.4%), 13,972 Asian or Amerindian people (0.4%). One of the main causes of the city's population growth throughout history was the period of droughts in the hinterland and the consequent escape to the capital city, known as rural exodus, as well as the search for better conditions of job and income. The city's population in the times of Colonial Brazil was estimated in 200 inhabitants, when Fortaleza was only an administrative unit, a village. The first discrepante point of the population growth of Fortaleza happened between 1865 and 1872 when the construction of the Railroad of Baturité was initiated. As a result of the demand for labour force, the population of the city swelled along with the economy. In 1877 another period of droughts made a great amount of homeless people migrate to Fortaleza and its outskirts. Migrations happened again during the droughts of 1888, 1900, 1915, 1932 and 1942. In these three last periods, concentration camps were set up in the hinterland to prevent the arrival of retirantes in the capital, however some surrounding districts like Pirambu and others, most of which with high demographic rates, began having their population grown due to migrations of peasants seduced by the promises of modernity in the greatest city of Ceará. In 1922, Fortaleza reached its first hundred thousand inhabitants with the annexation of the cities of Messejana and Parangaba, now important districts of the city. Parangaba itself had more than 20,000 inhabitants, probably because a railroad station was built there before Fortaleza could have one, which made it receive a great number of retirantes from the dry hinterlands. During the years of 1964–1985 several changes took place in Fortaleza which made the city a central region for industries. Governor Virgílio Távora (1963 - 1966) initiated the implantation of Industrial District of Fortaleza (DIF I). One decade later, the city already had about a million inhabitants, Metropolitan areas were created Brazil (1973), making the city one of them. In 1983 DIF I started to integrate the territory of the new city of Maracanaú, which, just some years ago, was made again part of the Greater Fortaleza (the city's Metropolitan area). In the 1980s, Fortaleza overcomes Recife in population terms, becoming the second most populous city in Northeastern Brazil, with 1,308,919 inhabitants. Throughout the last decades of the 20th century the city "swelled" increasingly until its population exceeded two million inhabitants (in 2000). With a current population estimated in 2,458,545 inhabitants, Fortaleza is the 5th most populated city in Brazil, after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Brasília. Religion Religion Percentage NumberCatholic79.0%1,691,487Protestant12.58%269,469No religion5.99%128,190Kardecist0.83%17,780Jehovah's Witnesses0.64%13,758Other religions0.7%15,923 Source: IBGE 2000. Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática - SIDRA Economy Cocó Park. The economy of Fortaleza has his bigger prescription (the GDP present is of R$ 19 billion) arising from of the its commerce diversified. To main plaza is the most greatest Center concentrating number of commercial establishments. Another important pole of sale of the products industrialized in Fortitude is the Avenue Monseigneur Tabosa, near to the tourist pole of the Iracema Beach. Exist in the several city shoppings among the biggest they have the Iguatemi, North Shopping, Aldeota, Del Paseo, and others, but still has, unfortunately, many problems of Sanitation and slums. The industry has in the output of footwear, products textiles, leathers, skins and sustenances, beyond the extraction of big minerals highlight in the local economy. Presently, Fortaleza offers wide and diversified options of spaces, which allows different kinds of events to be promoted, ranging from small business meetings to national and international congresses and fairs that receive thousands of people. The biggest and best equipped space for events available in the State of Ceará is the Convention Center in Fortaleza. Besides this one, many hotels, business centers and other establishments also offer adequate spaces to stage events with comfort and professionalism. The GDP for the city was R$ 19,734,557,000 (2005). The per capita income for the city was R$ 8,309 (2005). Education State University of Ceará in Fortaleza. UECE campus. Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum. Educational institutions Higher education in Fortaleza is provided by a vast number of public and private institutions. Fortaleza is home to some of the most important universities and research centres in northeast Brazil. Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC), (public, federal, free of charge); Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE), (public, state-owned, free of charge); Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica do Ceará (CEFET-CE), (public, federal, free of charge); Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), (main private university); Universidade do Vale do Acaraú (Uva), (private); Universidade Regional do Cariri (URCA); Faculdade Farias Brito (FFB); Faculdade Integrada do Ceará (FIC); Faculdade 7 de Setembro (FA7); Faculdades do Nordeste (FANOR); Faculdade Latino-Americana de Educação (FLATED); Faculdade Ateneu (FATE); and many others. Culture João Felipe Station in Fortaleza. Acuri Music School in Fortaleza. Since the end of the 19th century, the city has been home to various cultural institutions. The Instituto do Ceará (Ceará Institute) was established in 1887, and conducts research in history, geography and anthropology. The Academia Cearense de Letras (Cearense Academy of Letters) was the first institution of the sort in the country, established on August 15, 1894. In 1892, Fortaleza was the site of a cultural movement of literary expression called "Spiritual Bakery". There are many other cultural centers, such as the Banco do Nordeste Cultural Centre and the Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture. The folklore of Fortaleza is rich and diverse, and has roots in a mixture of beliefs originating from white colonisers and native groups. Minor, but also considered important, are Syrian-Lebanese and African traditions. Some of the cultural manifestations are: Bumba-meu-boi or Boi-Ceará: songs and dances of a religious cult to the ox, with Portuguese roots. Torém: dance originated by the tremembés. Violeiros, cantadores and emboladores: musical manifestations expressing social criticism, has typical northeast origins. Maracatu: Dance and music, the Fortaleza maractu is of the Baque Virado or Nação lines and is celebrated during carnivals. Dança do coco: originated by Afro-Brazilians. On the beach it is just for men and in the hinterland it is danced in pairs. Carnaval/Carnival The Fortaleza Carnival season is famous the world over for its spectacle and display of acrobatic dance and arts performance. Through the streets of Fortaleza, the Carnaval brings the samba together with festivities as a celebration of Fortaleza's past and diverse culture. Throughout the streets of the city during the carnival season, tourists can see dancing and singing, accompanied by processions of brass bands. There are also displays and shows placed on open trucks as part of a parade travelling across the city. In areas like Avenida Beira-mar, the residents organise sessions of dancing in the streets. Landmarks View of Fortaleza's Mucuripe lighthouse. Fortaleza is the home of numerous landmarks. They include: Teatro José de Alencar; Farol do Mucuripe; Fortaleza's Cathedral; Estátua de Iracema; Forte Nan de Praire Statue; Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção; Palácio da Luz; Castelão. Cuisine Feijoada is a typical food in Fortaleza and Brazil. Brazilian cuisine includes feijoada, churrasco, rice and beans. There are some dishes that are typical of the Northeast of Brazil, such as macaxeira, tapioca, carne de sol. The best restaurants in Fortaleza in 2005, as ranked by Veja magazine, were: Best restaurants in Fortaleza Best restaurant in Fortaleza: Alimenta Bistrô; Best Regional Food: Colher de Pau; Best Italian restaurant: Pulcinella; Best French restaurant: Lautrec; Best Japanese restaurant: Kingyo; Best Pizza: Vignoli; Best Beef: Santa Grelha; Best Fish and Seafood: Milmar; Best Feijoada: Mucuripe Grill. Tourism and recreation Iracema Statue in Messejana lagoon. Beach Park near Fortaleza. The warm climate, warm ocean waters and the sandy beaches attract tourists. In recent years, many of the old hotels have been replaced by European-owned international resorts. Nightlife is full of festivities with bars, restaurants and shows as the primary attraction. The city is known for having the "wildest Monday nights in the world" . Some of the best bars and clubs are found near Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture. The Praia de Iracema (Iracema's beach), the first urban nuclei of the city, is home to many bars and restaurants. It includes the Ponte dos Ingleses (Bridge of the Englishmen) which is an ideal location for watching the sunset and spotting dolphins. Fortaleza's urban beaches have warm waters. The scenery is complemented by the jangadas (small rafts used by many of Ceará's fishermen) for catching seafood for the Ceará cuisine. The Praia do Futuro (Beach of the Future) is a popular location with many beachside restaurants, built in the local style using carnauba straw and called "Barracas de Praia" (Beach Huts). Urban beaches in Fortaleza Fortaleza has about of urban beaches. From North to South, the urban beaches of Fortaleza are Iracema, Meireles, Mucuripe and Praia do Futuro. Each beach has its own peculiarities. "Iracema" is the bohemian beach, with bars and nightclubs. "Meireles" is where locals and tourists go to stroll, and is also the area with the highest number of hotels in Fortaleza. "Mucuripe" is the place of jangadas. Still used by fishermen to go into high seas, jangadas can be seen along the way during the afternoon and evenings, and returning from the sea in the morning; part of the catch of the day is sold in an old style fish market. Also, the boat trips leave from this area. "Praia do Futuro" is about long, and is the preferred one for bathing and surfing. Praia do Futuro was made famous by its barracas (rustic restaurants built on the beach sand). Infrastructure International Airport Pinto Martins International Airport (FOR). The passenger terminal at Fortaleza International Airport is totally air conditioned and has four levels. The basement level has parking for 1,000 cars along with automatic teller machines and a stop for regular city buses serving the airport. The ground level has 31 check-in counters, airline offices, car rental agencies, special tourist information, a juvenile court bureau to facilitate travel of minors, a Civil Aviation Department (DAC) office, information counter, passenger arrival area and access to two taxi stops. The second level contains shops, the food court and domestic and international boarding lounges. The top floor has a beer garden and panoramic deck overlooking the maneuvering apron and with a view of the Fortaleza skyline. The apron has 152,857 square meters and can accommodate 14 aircraft at once in pre-established positions ("boxes"). The scheduled airlines operating out of Fortaleza are Cabo Verde Airlines (code-sharing with TAP), TAM, Varig, Gol, Air Italy, Livingston, OceanAir and TAP. The airport also frequently receives domestic and international charter flights. The passenger terminal, opened in 1998, was designed to have a useful life of 50 years. The former terminal, called the General Aviation Terminal, is now used for general aviation and the fire brigade. The control tower is located alongside. Construction of a cargo terminal is the next big step planned by Infraero. The new terminal will have roughly 8,000 square meters, boosting the cargo storage and handling capacity fourfold. Plans then call for this terminal to be integrated with highway and railroad links, making it a truly intermodal system. Roads View of Fortaleza's BR116 entrance. Fortaleza's road traffic is monitored and controlled by a system of intelligent semaphores, traffic cameras, and Led Light Message Boards. This system is known by the acronym CTAFOR which stands for "Controle de Tráfego em Área de Fortaleza" (Portuguese for Area Traffic Control of Fortaleza). Streets in Fortaleza have poor pavement in many areas. One should drive carefully in order to avoid Fortaleza's many potholes. Distances Natal: ; Teresina: ; João Pessoa: ; Recife: ; São Luís: ; Salvador: ; Rio de Janeiro: ; São Paulo: ; Brasília: . Urban Train Map of the Fortaleza metro. The city's railroad system is part of the Brazilian Company of Urban Trains (CBTU) and links Fortaleza to three other cities. It is used mainly by people from distant metropolitan areas (e.g., Maracanaú), since it is rather old and poorly maintained, and does not meet the demands of inner city commuters. Therefore, a new underground system known as MetroFor has been engineered by the state government, which is expected to begin operation in 2010. Port The Port of Fortaleza is located an artificial port located in the Mucuripe inlet. The quay is wide. It contains an exclusive-mooring platform for oil-producing. Its warehouse area is wide and offers more than for container placing. It also contains two wheat mills and is interconnected to the railway system by an extensive maneuver area. Port of Fortaleza. Neighborhoods Regions and Neighborhoods of Fortaleza. Neighborhoods of Fortaleza. Metropolitan Region of Fortaleza. Castelo Branco Museum. Náutico Beach. José Alencar's House in Fortaleza. Fortaleza in the morning. Santos Dumont Avenue. Sunset in Fortaleza. Tree in Passeio Público de Fortaleza. Atlantic Ocean and Fortaleza. Seminário da Prainha. Dom Luís Avenue at night. Meireles Neighborhood. List of neighborhoods in Fortaleza: Aerolândia Aeroporto Alagadiço Alagadiço Novo Aldeota Alto da Balança Álvaro Weyne Amadeu Furtado Acuri Antônio Bezerra Autran Nunes Barra do Ceará Barroso Bela Vista Benfica Bom Futuro Bom Jardim Bom Sucesso Cais do Porto Cajazeiras Cambeba Canindezinho Carlito Pamplona Castelão Centro Cidade 2000 Cidade dos Funcionários Coaçu Cocó Conjunto Ceará Conjunto Cearazinho Conjunto Esperança Conjunto Palmeiras Couto Fernandes Cristo Redentor Curió Damas Demócrito Rocha Dende Dionísio Torres Dias Macedo Dom Lustosa Dunas Édson Queirós Eng Luciano Cavalcante Farias Brito Fátima Floresta Genibaú Granja Lisboa Granja Portugal Guajeru Guararapes Henrique Jorge Itaoca Itaperi Jacarecanga Jangurussu Jardim América Jardim Cearense Jardim das Oliveiras Jardim Guanabara Jardim Iracema João XXIII Joaquim Távora Jóquei Clube José Bonifácio Lagoa Redonda Manuel Sátiro Maraponga Mata Galinha Meireles Messejana Mondubim Monte Castelo Montese Moura Brasil Mucuripe Padre Andrade Panamericano (Fortaleza) Papicu Parangaba Parque Araxá Parque Dois Irmãos Parque Iracema Parque Manibaú Parquelândia Parreão Passaré Paupina Pedras Pici Pirambu Praia de Iracema Praia do Futuro Prefeito José Válter Presidente Kennedy Presidente Vargas Quintino Cunha Rodolfo Teófilo Sabiaquaba Salinas Santa Rosa São Gerardo São João do Tauapé São José Sapiranga Serrinha Siqueira Varjota Vicente Pinzón Vila Eleri Vila Peri Vila União Vila Velha Sports Castelão Stadium in Fortaleza. The most popular sport in Fortaleza, like the rest of Brazil, is Soccer. The main games of the Ceará State Championship are played in Fortaleza. There are several association football (soccer) clubs in Fortaleza. The most important ones are Ceará SC, Fortaleza EC and Ferroviário AC. Ceará Club and Fortaleza Club belong to Brazilian Soccer Championship's second league, while Ferroviário plays no national league this season. Fortaleza is one of the 18 remaining candidates to host games of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. Beside Soccer, Fortaleza is also home to nautical sports. Strong winds make Praia do Futuro beach an excellent place for this kind of practice. Fortaleza commonly hosts world competitions of surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing. Additionally, Fortaleza is a natural brewer of high-level athletes in combat sports, as evidenced by several Fortalezans' recent success in mixed martial arts. Only a 30 minutes drive from Fortaleza there is the center of Kitesurfing , Cumbuco. Great wind from June till February. Cumbuco.com the largest english portal for Cumbuco Notable people Wilson Gouveia Thiago Alves Humberto de Alencar Castello Branco José de Alencar Karim Aïnouz Marcus Aurelio Shelda Bede Hélder Câmara Hermes Franca Mário Jardel Ed Lincoln Alberto Nepomuceno Rachel de Queiroz Sister cities Fortaleza's sister cities are: Caracas, Venezuela Miami Beach, United States Montese, Italy Natal, Brazil Praia, Cape Verde Racine, United States Saint-Louis, Senegal Gallery References External links Official websites Fortaleza City Hall home page Fortaleza City Council home page Fortaleza Tourism Office home page Fortaleza Metro Underground home page <noinclude> be-x-old:Фарталеза | Fortaleza |@lemmatized fortaleza:104 fortress:1 state:8 capital:4 ceará:28 locate:4 northeastern:2 brazil:15 population:11 million:4 metropolitan:6 region:5 area:13 north:3 city:48 lie:1 atlantic:3 ocean:5 south:2 pacatuba:1 eusébio:1 maracanaú:3 itaitinga:1 east:2 county:1 aquiraz:1 west:2 caucaia:1 resident:2 know:6 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2,814 | Judo | , meaning "gentle way", is a modern Japanese martial art (gendai budō) and combat sport, that originated in Japan in the late nineteenth century. Its most prominent feature is its competitive element, where the object is to either throw one's opponent to the ground, immobilize or otherwise subdue one's opponent with a grappling manoeuvre, or force an opponent to submit by joint locking the elbow or by executing a choke. Strikes and thrusts (by hands and feet) — as well as weapons defences — are a part of judo, but only in pre-arranged forms (kata) and are not allowed in judo competition or free practice (randori). Ultimately, the philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for almost all modern Japanese martial arts that developed from "traditional" schools (koryū). In addition, the spread of Judo world wide has led to the development of a number of offshoots such as Sambo and Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. Practitioners of judo are called jūdōka. History and philosophy Kano Jigoro. Early life of the founder The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Jigoro Kano (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō, 1860–1938). Kano was born into a well-to-do Japanese family. His grandfather was a self-made man: a sake brewer from Shiga prefecture in central Japan. However, Kano's father was not the eldest son and therefore did not inherit the business. Instead, he became a Shinto priest and government official, with enough influence for his son to enter the second incoming class of Tokyo Imperial University. Founder pursues jujutsu Kano was a small, frail boy, who, even in his twenties, did not weigh more than a hundred pounds (45 kg), and was often picked on by bullies. He first started pursuing jujutsu, at that time a dying art "Jujitsu fell into disuse with the abolition of the feudal system (1860-1865) and became almost extinct" — 2000 YEARS: Jujitsu and Kodokan Judo by Dennis Helm , at the age of 17, but met with little success. This was in part due to difficulties finding a teacher who would take him on as a student. When he went to university to study literature at the age of 18, he continued his martial arts studies, eventually gaining a referral to Fukuda Hachinosuke (c.1828–c.1880), a master of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū and grandfather of Keiko Fukuda (born 1913), who is Kano's only surviving student, and the highest-ranking female jūdōka in the world. Fukuda Hachinosuke is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis of free practice (randori) in judo. A little more than a year after Kano joined Fukuda's school, Fukuda became ill and died. Kano then became a student in another Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū school, that of Iso Masatomo (c.1820–c.1881), who put more emphasis on the practice of pre-arranged forms (kata) than Fukuda had. Through dedication, Kano quickly earned the title of master instructor (shihan) and became assistant instructor to Iso at the age of 21. Unfortunately, Iso soon took ill, and Kano, feeling that he still had much to learn, took up another style, becoming a student of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of Kitō-ryū. Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on free practice. On the other hand, Kitō-ryū emphasized throwing techniques to a much greater degree than Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū. Founding By this time, Kano was devising new techniques, such as the "shoulder wheel" (kata-guruma, known as a fireman's carry to Western wrestlers who use a slightly different form of this technique) and the "floating hip" (uki goshi) throw. However, he was already thinking about doing far more than just expanding the canons of Kitō-ryū and Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū. Full of new ideas, Kano had in mind a major reformation of jujutsu, with techniques based on sound scientific principles, and with focus on development of the body, mind and character of young men in addition to development of martial prowess. At the age of 22, when he was just about to finish his degree at the University, Kano took nine students from Iikubo's school to study jujutsu under him at the Eisho-ji, a Buddhist temple in Kamakura, and Iikubo came to the temple three days a week to help teach. Although two years would pass before the temple would be called by the name "Kodokan", or "place for teaching the way", and Kano had not yet been accorded the title of "master" in the Kitō-ryū, this is now regarded as the Kodokan's founding. Judo Prior to Kano's use of the term, there was Jikishin-ryū Judo, which is an old school dating from 1724, rarely seen outside of Japan. was originally known as Kano Jiu-Jitsu or Kano Jiu-Do, and later as Kodokan Jiu-Do or simply Jiu-Do or Judo. In the early days, it was also still referred to generically simply as Jiu-Jitsu. For example, Tsunejiro Tomita himself co-authored a book called Judo: The Modern School of Jiu-Jitsu in around 1906 (by Gregory, O.H. and Tomita, Tsunejiro. Published in Chicago by O.H. Gregory.) Meaning of "judo" Formalism and strict conduct are typical of traditional judo. The word "judo" shares the same root ideogram as "jujutsu": , which may mean "gentleness", "softness", "suppleness", and even "easy", depending on its context. Such attempts to translate jū are deceptive, however. The use of jū in each of these words is an explicit reference to the martial arts principle of the . The soft method is characterized by the indirect application of force to defeat an opponent. More specifically, it is the principle of using one's opponent's strength against him or her and adapting well to changing circumstances. For example, if the attacker was to push against his or her opponent he/she would find his/her opponent stepping to the side and allowing his/her momentum (often with the aid of a foot to trip him up) to throw him/her forwards (the inverse being true for pulling.) Kano saw jujutsu as a disconnected bag of tricks, and sought to unify it according to a principle, which he found in the notion of "maximum efficiency". Jujutsu techniques that relied solely on superior strength were discarded or adapted in favour of those that involved redirecting the opponent's force, off-balancing the opponent, or making use of superior leverage. The second characters of judo and jujutsu differ. Where means the "art" or "science" of softness, means the "way" of softness. The use of , meaning way, road or path (and is the same character as the Chinese word "tao"), has philosophical overtones. This is the same distinction as is made between Budō and Bujutsu. Use of this word is a deliberate departure from ancient martial arts, whose sole purpose was for killing. Kano saw judo as a means for governing and improving oneself physically, mentally, emotionally and morally. He even extended the physical principle of maximum efficiency into daily life, evolving it into "mutual prosperity". In this respect, judo is seen as a holistic approach to life extending well beyond the confines of the dojo. Judoka (practitioner) A practitioner of judo is known as a judoka or 'judo practitioner', though traditionally only those of 4th Dan or higher were called "judoka". The suffix -ka, when added to a noun, means a person with expertise or special knowledge on that subject. For example, Benkyo-ka means "scholar". Other practitioners below the rank of 4th dan were called kenkyu-sei or "trainees". However, today the term judoka is used worldwide to refer to any practitioner of judo without any particular level of expertise being implied. A judo teacher is called sensei. The word sensei comes from sen or saki (before) and sei (life) – i.e. one who has preceded you. In Western dojos it is common to call any instructor of dan grade sensei. Traditionally, that title was reserved for instructors of 4th dan and above. Judogi (uniform) The jūdōgi is a heavy weave in order to withstand the strength of throwing and grappling. Judo practitioners traditionally wear white uniforms called jūdōgi, which simply means "judo uniform", for practicing judo. Sometimes the word is seen shortened simply to gi (uniform). The jūdōgi was created by Kano in 1907, and similar uniforms were later adopted by many other martial arts. The modern jūdōgi consists of white or blue cotton drawstring pants and a matching white or blue quilted cotton jacket, fastened by a belt (obi). The belt is usually coloured to indicate rank. The jacket is intended to withstand the stresses of grappling, and as a result, is much thicker than that of a karate uniform (karategi). The modern use of the blue judogi was first suggested by Anton Geesink at the 1986 Maastricht IJF DC Meeting. For competition, a blue jūdōgi is worn by one of the two competitors for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators. In Japan, both judoka still use a white judogi and the traditional red sash (based on the colours of the Japanese flag) is affixed to the belt of one competitor. Outside Japan, a coloured sash may also be used for convenience in minor competitions, the blue jūdōgi only being mandatory at the regional or higher levels. Japanese practitioners and purists tend to look down on the use of blue jūdōgi. Techniques & practice While judo includes a variety of rolls, falls, throws, hold downs, chokes, joint-locks, and strikes, the primary focus is on , and groundwork (ne-waza). Throws are divided in two groups of techniques, standing techniques (tachi-waza), and . Standing techniques are further divided into , , and . Sacrifice techniques are divided into , and . The ground fighting techniques (ne-waza) are divided into , , and . A kind of sparring is practiced in judo, known as , meaning "free practice". In randori, two adversaries may attack each other with any judo throw or grappling technique. Striking techniques (atemi-waza) such as kicking and punching, along with knife and sword techniques are retained in the kata. This form of pedagogy is usually reserved for higher ranking practitioners (for instance, in the kime-no-kata), but are forbidden in contest, and usually prohibited in randori for reasons of safety. Also for reasons of safety, chokeholds, joint locking, and the sacrifice techniques are subject to age or rank restrictions. For example, in the United States one must be 13 or older to use chokeholds, and 16 or older to use armlocks. In randori and tournament (shiai) practice, when an opponent successfully executes a chokehold or joint lock, one submits, or "taps out", by tapping the mat or one's opponent at least twice in a manner that clearly indicates the submission. When this occurs the match is over, the tapping player has lost, and the chokehold or joint lock ceases. Kata (forms) Forms (kata) are pre-arranged patterns of attack and defence, which in judo are practised with a partner for the purpose of perfecting judo techniques. More specifically, their purposes include illustrating the basic principles of judo, demonstrating the correct execution of a technique, teaching the philosophical tenets upon which judo is based, allowing for the practice of techniques that are not allowed in competition, and to preserve ancient techniques that are historically important but are no longer used in contemporary judo. Knowledge of various kata is a requirement for the attainment of a higher rank. There are seven kata that are recognised by the Kodokan today: Free practice forms (Randori), comprising two kata: Throwing forms (Nage no Kata) Grappling forms (Katame no Kata) Old style self-defence forms (Kime no Kata) Modern self-defence forms (Kodokan Goshin Jutsu) Forms of "gentleness" (Ju no Kata) The five forms (Itsutsu no Kata) Ancient forms (Koshiki no Kata) Maximum-efficiency national physical education kata (Seiryoku Zen'yō Kokumin Taiiku no Kata) There are also other kata that are not officially recognised by the Kodokan but that continue to be practised. The most prominent example of these is the Go no sen no kata, a kata that focuses on counter-attacks to attempted throws. Randori (sparring) Judo emphasizes a free-style sparring, called randori, as one of its main forms of training. Part of the combat time is spent sparring standing up, called tachi-waza, and the other part on the ground, called ne-waza. Sparring, even subject to safety rules, is much more practically effective than only practicing techniques on their own, which is what jujutsuka were used to doing. Using full strength develops the muscles and cardio-vascular system on the physical side of things, and it develops strategy and reaction time on the mental side of things, and helps the practitioner learn to use techniques against a resisting opponent. A common saying among judoka is "The best training for judo is judo." There are several types of sparring exercises, such as ju renshu (both judoka attack in a very gentle way where no resistance is applied); and kakari geiko (only one judoka attacks while the other one relies solely on defensive and evasive techniques, but without the use of sheer strength.) Combat phases Tachi-waza ends and ne-waza begins once the jūdōka go to the ground. In judo, there are two main phases of combat: the standing (tachi-waza) and the ground (ne-waza) phase. Each phase requires its own (mostly separate) techniques, strategies, randori, conditioning and so on. Special training is also devoted to "transitional" techniques to bridge the gap. Jūdōka may become quite skilled in one phase and be rather weak in the other, depending on where their interests most lie, although most are balanced between the two. Judo's balance between both the standing and ground phases of combat gives judoka the ability to take down opponents who are standing up and then pin and submit them on the ground. This balanced theory of combat has made judo a popular choice of martial art or combat sport. Standing phase In the standing phase, which has primacy according to the contest rules, the opponents attempt to throw each other. Although standing joint-lock and choke/strangulation submission techniques are legal in the standing phase, Shiai rules they are quite rare due to the fact that they are much harder to apply standing than throws are. Some jūdōka, however, are very skilled in combining takedowns with submissions, where a submission technique is begun standing and finished on the ground. However throwing with a joint-lock is strictly prohibited. Strikes (i.e. punches, kicks, etc...) are not allowed due to their certainty of injury, but an athlete is supposed to "take them into consideration" while training by, for example, not fighting in a bent-over position for long, since this position is vulnerable to knee-strikes and other striking attacks. The main purpose of the throwing techniques (nage waza) is to take an opponent who is standing on his feet, mobile and dangerous, down onto his back where he cannot move as effectively. Thus, the main reason for throwing the opponent is to control the opponent and to put oneself in a dominant position. In this way the practitioner has more potential to render a decisive outcome. Another reason to throw the opponent is to shock his body through smashing him forcefully onto the ground. If an opponent executes a powerful yet fully controlled throw, he can win a match outright (by ippon) on the basis that he has displayed sufficient superiority. A lower score is given for lesser throws. A score for a throw is only given when executed starting from a standing position. In keeping with Kano's emphasis on scientific analysis and reasoning, the standard Kodokan judo pedagogy dictates that any throwing technique is theoretically a four phased event: off-balancing (kuzushi); ; ; and finally . Each phase follows the previous one with great rapidity — ideally they happen almost simultaneously. Ground phase When practicing ne-waza, the practitioners may start from their knees. In competition, combat may continue on the ground after a throw occurs or if the contestants otherwise legally end up on the ground; a contestant is not allowed to simply drop to the ground to commence ground fighting. Legal ways that contestants may commence ground fighting are as a result of a throw; or of a 'skillful' takedown; or if one contestant is dragged to the ground; or if a contestant otherwise loses balance and falls to the ground. (Of course, if an Ippon is scored from the throw, the match is immediately terminated.) On the ground, the contestants aim to either obtain a hold down, or to get their opponent to submit either by using a choke or strangulation or armlock (locks on joints other than the elbow are not allowed for safety reasons.) Hold downs are important since in a real fight the person who has control of his opponent can hit him with punches, knees, headbutts, and other strikes. If osaekomi is maintained for twenty-five seconds, the person doing the holding down wins the match. An osaekomi involves holding an opponent principally on their back, and free of their legs. According to the rules as they stood in 1905, it was only necessary to hold down an opponent, on his shoulders, for two seconds — said to reflect the time necessary for a samurai to reach his knife or sword and dispatch his held opponent. The newer longer requirements reflect the combat reality that a fighter must immobilize his opponent for a substantial amount of time in order to strike effectively. The score for a hold down is determined by how long the hold down is held. A hold down may sometimes result in a submission if the opponent cannot endure the pressure from the hold down. The 'body scissors' If the person being held down has wrapped his legs around any part of his opponent's lower body or trunk, he is pinning his opponent as much as he is being pinned, because his opponent cannot get up and flee unless the person on the bottom lets go. While his legs are wrapped around his opponent, the person on the bottom can employ various attacking techniques, including strangles, armlocks and "body scissors" (do-jime), while controlling the opponent so that he cannot effectively strike from above. In this position, referred to as'do-osae'" in Japanese, meaning "trunk hold" Miller, Chris. Grappling/Submission Fighting. hsma1.com. URL last accessed on March 4 2006. , the person on top does not have enough control over his adversary for the position to be considered osaekomi. (Note that while the guard is commonly used, do-jime is no longer legal in competition judo.) The person on top can try to pass his opponent's legs and in turn hold down or submit him, or he may try to break out of his opponent's guard and stand up. The person on the bottom can try to submit his opponent from his guard or roll his opponent over to get on top of him. Juji gatame, cross armlock Joint locks Joint locks (kansetsu-waza) are effective combat techniques because they enable a jūdōka to control his opponent through pain-compliance, or if necessary, to cause breakage of the locked joint. Joint locks on the elbow are considered safe enough to perform at nearly full-force in competition to force submission from one's opponent. Judo has, in the past, allowed leglocks, wristlocks, spinal locks and various other techniques that have since been disallowed in competition to protect athletes' safety. It was decided that attacking those joints would result in many injuries to the athletes and would cause a gradual deterioration of these joints. Even so, some jūdōka still enjoy learning and fighting each other informally using these techniques that are banned from formal competitions, and many of these techniques are still actively used in other arts such as sambo, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, and jujutsu. Chokes and strangulations enable the person applying the choke to force the adversary into unconsciousness and even death. Strangulation cuts off the blood supply to the brain via compression on the sides of the neck, while a choke blocks the airway from the front of the neck. The terms are frequently interchangeable in common usage, and a formal differentiation is not made by most jūdōka. The Challenges of Shimewaza by Elie A. Morrell, Shichidan (judoinfo.com) In competition, the jūdōka wins if the opponent submits or becomes unconscious. A strangle, once properly locked in, can render an opponent unconscious in only a few seconds, but normally causes no injury. As a sport All-Japan Judo Championships, 2007 men's final. Although a fully featured martial art, judo has also developed as a sport. The first time judo was seen in the Olympics was at the 1932 Games in Los Angeles, where Kano and about 200 judo students gave a demonstration. The Contribution of Judo to Education by Kano Jigoro (judoinfo.com) Judo became an Olympic sport for men in the 1964 Games in Tokyo. With the persistence of Rusty Kanokogi, an American, and many others, judo became an Olympic sport for women as well in 1988. It is often stated that the men's judo event in 1964 was a demonstration event, but according to the International Judo Federation (IJF) and International Olympic Committee, Judo was in fact an official sport in the 1964 games. Dutchman Anton Geesink won the first Olympic gold medal in the open division of Judo by defeating Akio Kaminaga of Japan. Judo then lost the image of being "Japanese only" and went on to become one of the most widely practised sports in the world. The women's event was a demonstration event in 1988, and became an official medal event 4 years later. Men and women compete separately, although they often train together. Judo has been a Paralympic sport (for the visually impaired) since 1988. Judo is also one of the sports at the Special Olympics. Collegiate competition in the United States, especially between UC Berkeley and San Jose State, contributed towards refining judo into the sport seen at the Olympic Games and World Championships. In the 1940s Henry Stone and Yosh Uchida, the head coaches at Cal and SJSU, developed a weight class system for use in the frequent competitions between the schools. In 1953, Stone and Uchida successfully petitioned the Amateur Athletic Union to accept judo as a sport, with their weight class system as an official component. In 1961, Uchida represented the United States at the IJF meetings in Paris, where the IJF adopted weight classes for all future championships. The IJF was created largely based on the earlier European Judo Union, where weight classes had also been used for many years. Weight divisions There are currently seven weight divisions, subject to change by governing bodies, and may be modified based on the age of the competitors: Men Under 60 kg 60~66 kg 66~73 kg 73~81 kg 81~90 kg 90~100 kg Over 100 kg Women Under 48 kg 48~52 kg 52~57 kg 57~63 kg 63~70 kg 70~78 kg Over 78 kg Rules The traditional rules of judo are intended to avoid injuries to the participants and ensure proper etiquette. Some later additions to the rules were motivated by a desire to make the sport more interesting to observers. Penalties may be given for being inactive during the match, or for using illegal techniques. Fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat (tatami). If the referee and judges need to discuss something during groundwork, the referee will call sonomama (which means "do not move") and both fighters must stop in the position they are in. When they are done, the referee says yoshi and the match continues. All scores and penalties are given by the referee. The judges can make a decision that changes the score or penalty given by the referee. There are slight differences to IJF rules to accommodate blind judo. Competition scoring Referee raises his hand to issue a win by 'ippon' The object in a judo match is to throw the opponent to the ground on his shoulder; to pin him to the ground principally on his back; or to force him to submit to a choke, strangle or an armlock. Any of these score ippon (一本), immediately winning the match. Judo has three grades of score: ippon, waza-ari and yuko. An ippon literally means "one point" and wins the match. An ippon is awarded for (a) a throw that lands the opponent largely on their back in a controlled manner with speed and force; (b) for a mat hold of sufficient duration (twenty five seconds); or (c) for opponent submission. A waza-ari is awarded for a throw that does not quite have enough power or control to be considered ippon; or for a hold of twenty seconds. A waza-ari is a half-point, and, if two are scored, they constitute the full point needed for a win. Yuko is a lower grade of score, and only count as a tie-breaker — it is not cumulative with one another. Scoring is lexicographic; a waza-ari beats any number of yuko, but a waza-ari and a yuko beat a waza-ari with no yuko. There used to be a fourth score called koka but it has been removed. When the koka was in use it was a lower score that yuko. Like yuko, koka is purely a tiebreaker and used only when competators had an the same amount of waza-ari and yuko. A yuko beats any number of koka. A fifteen-second hold down scores yuko. If the person who secured the hold down already has a waza-ari, they only need to hold the hold down for twenty seconds to score ippon by way of two waza-ari (waza-ari-awasete-ippon). Throws further lacking the requirements of an ippon or a waza-ari might score a yuko. So-called "skillful takedowns" are also permitted (e.g. the flying arm-bar) but do not score. If the scores are identical at the end of the match, the contest is resolved by the Golden Score rule. Golden Score is a sudden death situation where the clock is reset to match-time, and the first contestant to achieve any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the winner is decided by Hantei, the majority opinion of the referee and the two corner judges. Representation of scores Judo scoreboards show the number of waza-ari and yuko scores scored by each player. Often an ippon is not represented on the scoreboard, because upon award of an ippon the match is immediately terminated. Some computerised scoreboards will briefly indicate that an ippon has been scored. Scoreboards normally also show the number of penalties imposed on each player, and sometimes the number of medical visits for each. (Only two "medical" attentions are allowed for each competitor during a match — most often for minor bleeds.) Electronic scoreboards also usually include timers for measuring both competition time and osekomi time. Note: The score of "Koka" was in fact used, until the rule and regulation changes of USJI, USJF, and other international federations in 2009. "Koka" was the score of 1/8 point, until the new regulation changed. Penalties First penalty given will be a warning which is noted on scoreboard. Second penalty will be scored as "yuko" for the opponent. Third penalty will be scored as "waza-ari". The fourth penalty is called "hansoku make". It will be scored as an "ippon" for the opponent. With an "hansoku make" the match will end permanently. The player who got "hansoku make" will be disqualified. One can also get a direct "hansoku make" for more serious incidents. As self-defense Judo has formed the basis for many military combatives and defensive tactics training around the world Judo as a Martial Art . The Japanese police have trained in Judo since 1886, when Judo (at the time known merely as Kano Jujitsu) defeated several other established schools of Jujitsu in a tournament Judo Arresting Techniques . In addition to the above, Judo's background in traditional Jujitsu combined with its police and military applications, has resulted in kata specifically designed to teach technical principles for self-defense: Kime No Kata (Forms of Decision) and Kodokan Goshin Jutsu (Forms of Self Defense). Various aspects of Judo principles and training methods promote attributes and skills helpful in self-defense Why Sports Judo is Effective Bullshido forum thread - contains some useful posts by vetted instructors and military personnel : Training with full power and speed against fully-resisting opponents: builds speed, stamina, strength, and tenacity. Body and mental conditioning by repeatedly being thrown with significant force. Training in safe methods to take falls. Ability to accurately and quickly use balance, distance, and timing against skilled opponents in fully-resistive sparring. Judo practitioners are experts in controlling their opponent's balance whilst maintaining their own. Sports Judo rules emphasize rapid transition to pins or submissions after a take-down, which builds skills in explosive use of chokes and locks in self-defense situations. Emphasis in controlling one's opponent during throws allow a practitioner to dictate the angle, direction, and force with which his or her opponent lands on the ground. The consequences could be gentle or lethal, depending on the Judo practitioner's intentions. However, there are some criticisms about the use of Judo for self-defense training: Over-reliance on using the Judo-gi (clothing): In order to train Judo for self-defense, it is necessary to have some experience in sparring against partners who are not wearing a gi. Fortunately, the amount of adaptation needed is minor, and many techniques do not strictly rely on grabbing the gi - indeed, some techniques (especially in groundwork or Ne Waza) do not use the gi at all. Over-emphasis on the rules of sports Judo: Some Judo clubs or instructors teach Judo strictly in the context of sport. Lack of striking techniques: Striking techniques in Judo are usually only taught to dan-grades (ie. black belts) for demonstrations and kata. In mixed martial arts Using their knowledge of ne-waza/grappling and tachi-waza/standing-grappling, skillful judo practitioners have also competed in mixed martial arts matches. Former Russian national judo champion Fedor Emelianenko is often ranked as mixed martial arts' number one pound for pound fighter in the world. Karo Parisyan fights in UFC's welterweight division, and Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou and Hidehiko Yoshida, an Olympic gold medalist in 1992 and World Judo Champion in 1999, also were fighters in the now defunct PRIDE FC. Other Olympic gold medalist and world champion judoka such as Pawel Nastula, Yoon Dong-Sik and Jung Bu-Kyung also fight in MMA. Former WEC middleweight champion Paulo Filho has credited judo and jiu-jitsu for his success. Fighters Sanae Kikuta and Hayato Sakurai also come from judo backgrounds. Styles Kano Jigoro's Kodokan Judo is the most popular and well-known style of judo, but is not the only one. The terms judo and jujutsu were quite interchangeable in the early years, so some of these forms of judo are still known as jujutsu or jiu-jitsu either for that reason, or simply to differentiate them from mainstream judo. From Kano's original style of judo, several related forms have evolved—some now widely considered to be distinct arts: Olympic Judo: This is the predominant form of Kodokan judo. American Combat Judo: is Judo mixed with wrestling ,boxing, jujutsu and savate for hand combat develop for u.s coast guards. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: Mitsuyo Maeda introduced judo to Brazil in 1914. Maeda taught judo to Carlos Gracie (1902–1994) and others in Brazil. Gracie named it Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in honor of the fact that in Japan at that time, Judo was also known as 'Kano Ju-Jutsu'. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu did not follow later changes in international judo rules that were added to emphasise the standing phase of the fight, nor those rules that were introduced to ban the more dangerous techniques. Judo-do: In Austria, Julius Fleck and others developed a system of throwing intended to extend judo that they called "judo-do". Kawaishi-ryū jujutsu: Teaching in France, Mikonosuke Kawaishi developed Kawaishi-ryū jujutsu as an alternative approach to instruction that continued to teach many techniques banned in modern Olympic/Kodokan judo competition. : As a sub-style of Kodokan Judo that became popularised in early 20th century Japanese inter-scholastic competition, Kosen style has the same range of techniques but greater latitude is permitted for ground technique. This style of judo - like the late BJJ - is closer to the original early 1900s judo than current Olympic judo is. Russian Judo: This distinctive style of judo was influenced by Sambo. It is represented by well-known coaches such as Alexander Retuinskih and Igor Yakimov, and mixed martial arts fighters such as Igor Zinoviev, Fedor Emelianenko and Karo Parisyan. In turn, Russian judo has influenced mainstream judo, with techniques such as the flying armbar being accepted into Kodokan judo. Sambo (especially Sport Sambo): Vasili Oshchepkov was the first European judo black belt under Kano. Oshchepkov went on to create Sambo from judo's influence, integrating other combative techniques into his new system. Oshchepkov died during the political purges of 1937 for refusing to deny his education in Japanese judo under Kano. In their History of Sambo, Brett Jacques and Scott Anderson wrote that in Russia "judo and SOMBO were considered to be the same thing" — albeit with a different uniform and some differences in the rules. "The History of Sombo — European Judo is really Japanese Sambo?" by Brett Jacques and Scott Anderson Safety Research shows that judo is a particularly safe sport for youths, though adult competitive judo has a relatively higher incidence of injuries compared to non-collision or non-contact ball-sports for example, but similar to other competitive contact sports. Sports Medicine Issues in the Young Judo Athlete — by Robert S. Nishime, M.D., USA Judo Sports Medicine Subcommittee (usjudo.org) http://www.judoinfo.com/research24.htm Judo Research Abstracts] — on performance, safety, etc (from the Judo Information Site) Chokes Although chokes are potentially lethal techniques, a properly-applied chokehold, if released soon enough after submission or unconsciousness, causes no injury. Principles of Judo Choking Techniques — by Neil Ohlenkamp (judoinfo.com) Judo Choking Techniques (judoinfo.com) There is ample data demonstrating the safety of applying chokeholds, How Safe is Choking in Judo? by E. K. Koiwai, M.D. (judoinfo.com) The Safety of Judo Chokes by Leonard I. Lapinsohm M.D. (judoinfo.com) Deaths Allegedly Caused by the Use of "Choke Holds" (Shime-Waza) by E. K. Koiwai, M.D. (judoinfo.com) and training includes emergency care Emergency Care for Choke Holds by John Boulay (judoinfo.com) and resuscitation (kappo). Organizations The international organization for judo is the International Judo Federation (IJF). Although it has no official standing in judo, the International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (FILA) defines judo as one of the four main forms of amateur competitive wrestling practised internationally (the other three being Greco-Roman wrestling, Freestyle wrestling and sambo). Rank and grading An active competitor may not pursue high ranks, preferring to focus on preparation for competition; for example, a silver medal was won by an ikkyu (brown belt) female competitor, Lorena Pierce, in the -70 kg category at the 2004 Paralympics. Apart from knowledge and ability, rank requirements typically include a minimum age. Canadian National Kyu Grading Syllabus Therefore, it is not uncommon to find teenage competitors at national-level competition who have been practicing judo for 10 years who can beat adult practitioners, but who are only purple or brown belts due to being too young to qualify for a dan rank. Once an individual attains the level of a dan rank, further promotions can be granted for a variety of reasons including skill level, competition performance and/or contributions to judo such as teaching and volunteering time. Canadian National (Dan) Grading Syllabus Therefore, a higher dan rank does not necessarily mean that the holder is a better fighter (although often it does.) Jūdōka are ranked according to skill and knowledge of judo, and their rank is reflected by their belt colour. There are two divisions of rank: below-black-belt-level "grades" (kyū), and black-belt-level "degrees" (dan). This ranking system was introduced into the martial arts by Kano and has since been widely adopted by modern martial arts. As initially designed, there were six student grades ranked in descending numerical order, with 1st kyū being the last before promotion to first degree black belt (shodan). There are ordinarily 10 dan ranks, which are ranked in ascending numerical order, though in principle there is no limit to the number of dan ranks. The tenth degree black belt (jūdan) and those above it have no formal requirements. The president of the Kodokan, currently Kano Jigoro's grandson Yukimitsu Kano (Kano Yukimitsu), decides on individuals for promotion. Only fifteen individuals have been promoted to this rank by the Kodokan. On January 6 2006, three individuals were promoted to 10th dan simultaneously: Toshiro Daigo, Ichiro Abe, and Yoshimi Osawa. This is the most ever at the same time, and the first in 22 years. No one has ever been promoted to a rank higher than 10th dan, but: Although dan ranks tend to be consistent between national organisations there is more variation in the kyū grades, with some countries having more kyū grades. Although initially kyū grade belt colours were uniformly white, today a variety of colours are used. Belt colours +Judo belt colours in Brazil White Blue Yellow Orange Green Purple Brown Black +Judo belt colours in Australia, Europe, CanadaWhite Yellow Orange Green Blue Brown Black In Japan, the use of belt colours is related to the age of the student. Some clubs will only have black and white, others will include a brown belt for advanced kyū grades and at the elementary school level it is common to see a green belt for intermediate levels. For dan ranks, the first five are coloured black, 6th, 7th, and 8th dan have alternating red and white panels, and for 9th and 10th dan the belts are solid red. However, holders of grades above godan (5th dan) will often wear a plain black belt in regular training. Some countries also use colored tips on belts, to indicate junior age groups. Historically, women's belts had a white stripe along the centre. Examination requirements vary depending on country, age group and of course the grade being attempted. The examination itself may include competition and kata. The kyū ranks are normally awarded by local instructors (sensei), but dan ranks are usually awarded only after an exam supervised by independent judges from a national judo association. For a rank to be recognized, it must be registered with the national judo organization or the Kodokan. Australia and Europe For Australia and most of Europe, the belt colours in ascending order are white, yellow, orange, green, blue, brown and finally black. Some European countries additionally use a red belt to signify a complete beginner. In some places around the world ther are tag systems. Where on each belt you receive 3 tags when ranking up. Such as when on the second belt, red, you do challenges and for each challenge passed you would get a yellow tag on your belt, whe you have got 3 yellow tags you rank up to the next belt, yellow. There are special belts after black like the brown with white stripe and calligraphy, these are for teachers or senseis. Brazil Brazilian belt rankings are normally white, blue, yellow, orange, green, purple, brown and black. Additionally, a grey belt may be given to very young judoka (under 11 or 13 years old) just before the blue. Competitors are organised into two categories depending on grading; the first is from white to green, and the second is purple through black. Canada In Canada belt rankings for Seniors are, in ascending order: white, yellow, orange, green, blue, brown and finally black. Belt rankings for Juniors use white, white-yellow, yellow, yellow-orange, orange, red- green, green-blue, blue, blue-brown, and brown. United States In the US only senior players (adults, usually those age 16 and over) are allowed to earn dan levels, signified by wearing a black belt. The USJF and USJA recognise dan grades awarded by the other organization. Advanced kyū levels can be earned by both seniors and juniors (children under the age of about 16) and are signified by wearing belts of various colours other than black. The order of belt colours can vary from dojo to dojo, depending on the dojo's organizational affiliation. +Judo kyū belt colors in the United States Japanesekyū names USJFSenior USJFJunior USJASenior USJAJunior USJA Juniorlevel names Jūnikyū White Junior 12th Class Jūichikyū White Yellow Junior 11th Class Jūkyū White-yellow Orange Junior 10th Class Kūkyū Yellow Orange Junior 9th Class Hachikyū Yellow-orange Green Junior 8th Class Nanakyū Orange Green Junior 7th Class Rokkyū White Orange-green White Blue Junior 6th Class Gokyū Green Green Orange Blue Junior 5th Class Yonkyū Blue Green-blue Green Purple Junior 4th Class Sankyū Brown Blue Brown Purple Junior 3rd Class Nikyū Brown Blue-purple Brown Brown Junior 2nd Class Ikkyū Brown Purple Brown Brown Junior 1st Class <tr> <td> </table> Seniors For senior players, both the United States Judo Federation (USJF) and The United States Judo Association (USJA) specify four belt colours for the six kyū, as listed in the table. The USJA also specifies wearing a patch specifying the practitioner's level. This is true for both kyū and dan levels. Juniors The USJF Juniors ranking system specifies ranks to 11th kyū (jūichikyū). The USJA Juniors ranking system specifies twelve levels of kyū rank, beginning with "Junior 1st Degree" (equivalent to jūnikyū, or 12th kyū) and ending with "Junior 12th Degree" (equivalent to ikkyū). As with the senior practitioners, the USJA specifies that juniors wear a patch specifying their rank. The style of belt commonly worn in modern judo. See also Judo techniques, full list of judo techniques The Canon Of Judo, a book by Kyuzo Mifune (1960) The Principle of Ju World Judo Championships Judo at the Summer Olympics List of judoka List of celebrity judoka List of Olympic medalists in judo*martial arts Footnotes Sources Anderson, Victor The Four Pillars Of Judo. Fighting Arts website. Bibliography of over 1500 Judo books. History of the Kodokan — University of Montana Judo website. Kano, Jigoro (1994) Kodokan Judo is the standard reference on judo. ISBN 4-7700-1799-5. Ohlenkamp, Neil (2006) Judo Unleashed another basic reference on judo. ISBN 0-0714-7534-6. External links IJF International Judo Federation. 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2,815 | Month | The month is a unit of time, used with calendars, which is approximately as long as some natural period related to the motion of the Moon; month and Moon are cognates. The traditional concept arose with the cycle of moon phases; such months (lunations) are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days. From excavated tally sticks, researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the Moon's phases as early as the Paleolithic age. Synodic months, based on the Moon's orbital period, are still the basis of many calendars today, and are used to divide the year. Types of months Sidereal month The period of the Moon's orbit as defined with respect to the celestial sphere (known as esthers) is known as a sidereal month because it is the time it takes the Moon to return to a given position among the stars (): 27.321661 days (27 d 7 h 43 min 11.5 s). This type of month has been observed among cultures in the Middle East, India, and China in the following way: they divided the sky into 27 or 28 lunar mansions, identified by the prominent star(s) in them. Tropical month It is customary to specify positions of celestial bodies with respect to the vernal equinox. Because of precession, this point moves back slowly along the ecliptic. Therefore it takes the Moon less time to return to an ecliptic longitude of zero than to the same point amidst the fixed stars: 27.321582 days (27 d 7 h 43 min 4.7 s). This slightly shorter period is known as tropical month; cf. the analogous tropical year of the Sun. Anomalistic month Like all orbits, the Moon's orbit is an ellipse rather than a circle. However, the orientation (as well as the shape) of this orbit is not fixed. In particular, the position of the extreme points (the line of the apsides: perigee and apogee), makes a full circle (lunar precession) in about nine years. It takes the Moon longer to return to the same apsis because it moved ahead during one revolution. This longer period is called the anomalistic month, and has an average length of 27.554551 days (27 d 13 h 18 min 33.2 s). The apparent diameter of the Moon varies with this period, and therefore this type has some relevance for the prediction of eclipses (see Saros), whose extent, duration, and appearance (whether total or annular) depend on the exact apparent diameter of the Moon. The apparent diameter of the full moon varies with the full moon cycle which is the beat period of the synodic and anomalistic month, and also the period after which the apsides point to the Sun again. Draconic month Also called the nodical month. The orbit of the moon lies in a plane that is tilted with respect to the plane of the ecliptic: it has an inclination of about five degrees. The line of intersection of these planes defines two points on the celestial sphere: the ascending node, when the moon's path crosses the ecliptic as the moon moves into the northern hemisphere, and descending node when the moon's path crosses the ecliptic as the moon moves into the southern hemisphere. The draconic or nodical month is the average interval between two successive transits of the moon through its ascending node. Because of the sun's gravitational pull on the moon, the moon's orbit gradually rotates westward on its axis, which means the nodes gradually rotate around the earth. As a result, the time it takes the moon to return to the same node is shorter than a sidereal month. It lasts 27.212220 days (27 d 5 h 5 min 35.8 s). The plane of the moon's orbit precesses over a full circle in about 18.6 years. Because the moon's orbit is inclined with respect to the ecliptic, the sun, moon, and earth are in line only when the moon is at one of the nodes. Whenever this happens a solar or lunar eclipse is possible. The name "draconic" refers to a mythical dragon, said to live in the nodes and eat the sun or moon during an eclipse. Synodic month This is the average period of the Moon's revolution with respect to the sun. The synodic month is responsible for the moon's phases, because the Moon's appearance depends on the position of the Moon with respect to the Sun as seen from the Earth. While the moon is orbiting the earth, the Earth is progressing in its orbit around the Sun. This means that after completing a sidereal month the Moon must move a little farther to reach the new position of the Earth with respect to the Sun. This longer period is called the synodic month (, sun hodō, meaning "with the way [of the sun]"). Because of perturbations in the orbits of the Earth and Moon, the actual time between lunations may range from about 29.27 to about 29.83 days. The long-term average duration is 29.530589 days (29 d 12 h 44 min 2.9 s). The synodic month is used in the Metonic cycle. Month lengths Here is a list of the average length of the various astronomical lunar months. Derived from ELP2000-85: M. Chapront-Touzé, J. Chapront (1991): Lunar tables and programs from 4000 B. C. to A. D. 8000. Willmann-Bell, Richmond VA; ISBN 0-943396-33-6 These are not constant, so a first-order (linear) approximation of the secular change is provided: Valid for the epoch J2000.0 (1 January 2000 12:00 TT): anomalistic month 27.554549878 - 0.000000010390 × y days sidereal month 27.321661547 + 0.000000001857 × y days tropical month 27.321582241 + 0.000000001506 × y days draconic month 27.212220817 + 0.000000003833 × y days synodic month 29.530588853 + 0.000000002162 × y days Note: time expressed in Ephemeris Time (more precisely Terrestrial Time) with days of 86,400 seconds. y is years since the epoch (2000), expressed in Julian years of 365.25 days. Note that for calendrical calculations, one would probably use days measured in the time scale of Universal Time, which follows the somewhat unpredictable rotation of the Earth, and progressively accumulates a difference with ephemeris time called ΔT. Calendrical consequences For more details on this topic, see lunar calendar and lunisolar calendar. At the simplest level, all lunar calendars are based on the approximation that 2 lunations last 59 days: a 30 day full month followed by a 29 day hollow month — but this is only marginally accurate and quickly needs correction by using larger cycles, or the equivalent of leap days. Second, the synodic month does not fit easily into the year, which makes constructing accurate, rule-based lunisolar calendars difficult. The most common solution to this problem is the Metonic cycle, which takes advantage of the fact that 235 lunations are approximately 19 tropical years (which add up to not quite 6940 days). However, a Metonic calendar (such as the Hebrew calendar) will drift against the seasons by about 1 day every 200 years. The problems of creating reliable lunar calendars may explain why solar calendars, having months which no longer relate to the phase of the moon, and being based only on the motion of the sun against the sky, have generally replaced lunar calendars for civil use in most societies. Months in various calendars Beginning of the lunar month The Hellenic calendars, the Hebrew Lunisolar calendar and the Islamic Lunar calendar started the month with the first appearance of the thin crescent of the new moon. However, the motion of the Moon in its orbit is very complicated and its period is not constant. The date and time of this actual observation depends on the exact geographical longitude as well as latitude, atmospheric conditions, the visual acuity of the observers, etc. Therefore the beginning and lengths of months in these calendars can not be accurately predicted. While some like the Karaites Jews still rely on actual moon observations, most people use the Gregorian solar calendar. Julian and Gregorian calendars The Gregorian calendar, like the Julian calendar before it, has twelve months: January, 31 days February, 28 days, 29 in leap years March, 31 days April, 30 days May, 31 days June, 30 days July, 31 days August, 31 days September, 30 days October, 31 days November, 30 days December, 31 days The average month in the Gregorian calendar has a length of 30.4167 days or 4.345 weeks in a non-leap year and 30.5 days or 4.357 weeks in a leap year, or 30.436875 days in a mean Gregorian month overall (365.2425 ÷ 12). Months existing in the Roman calendar in the past include: Mercedonius, an occasional month after February to realign the calendar. Quintilis, renamed to July in honour of Julius Caesar. Sextilis, renamed to August in honour of Augustus. The famous mnemonic Thirty days hath September is the most common way of teaching the lengths of the months in the English-speaking world. The knuckles of the four fingers of one's hand and the spaces between them can be used to remember the lengths of the months. By making a fist, each month will be listed as one proceeds across the hand. All months landing on a knuckle are 31 days long and those landing between them are not. When the knuckle of the index finger is reached (July), go back to the first knuckle (or over to the first knuckle on the other fist, held next to the first) and continue with August. This physical mnemonic has been taught to primary school students for many decades. Days in each Month - Mnemonics to improve memory The Boy Mechanic: A Handy Calendar (1913) from Project Gutenberg Calends, nones, and ides The ides occur on the thirteenth day in eight of the months, but in March, May, July, and October, they occur on the fifteenth. The nones always occur 8 days before the ides, i.e., on the fifth or the seventh. The calends are always the first day of the month. Hebrew Calendar The Hebrew calendar has 12 or 13 months. Nisan, 30 days ניסן Iyyar, 29 days אייר Sivan, 30 days סיון Tammuz, 29 days תמוז , 30 days אב Elul, 29 days אלול Tishri, 30 days תשרי Heshvan, 29/30 days חשון Kislev, 29/30 days כסלו Tevet, 29 days טבת Shevat, 30 days שבט Adar 1, 30 days, intercalary month אדר א Adar 2, 29 days אדר ב Adar 1 is only added 7 times in 19 years. In ordinary years, Adar 2 is simply called Adar. French Republican calendar This calendar was proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about twelve years from late 1793. There were twelve months of 30 days each, grouped into three ten-day weeks called décades. The five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year. A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a Franciade. It began at the autumn equinox: Autumn: Vendémiaire Brumaire Frimaire Winter: Nivôse Pluviôse Ventôse Spring: Germinal Floréal Prairial Summer: Messidor Thermidor Fructidor Iranian/Persian calendar The Iranian / Persian calendar, currently used in Iran and Afghanistan, also has 12 months. The Persian names are included in the parentheses. Farvardin (فروردین), 31 days Ordibehesht (اردیبهشت), 31 days Khordad (خرداد), 31 days Tir (تیر), 31 days Mordad (مرداد), 31 days Shahrivar (شهریور), 31 days Mehr (مهر), 30 days Aban (آبان), 30 days Azar (آذر), 30 days Dey (دی), 30 days Bahman (بهمن), 30 days Esfand (اسفند), 29 days, 30 in leap years Islamic calendar All of the calenders are inspired by Islamic calender, since it was the first one to be based on moon's rotation. There are also twelve months in the Islamic calendar. They are named as follows: Muharram ul Haram (or shortened to Muharram) محرّم Safar صفر Rabi`-ul-Awwal (Rabi' I) ربيع الأول Rabi`-ul-Akhir (or Rabi` al-Tיhaany) (Rabi' II) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني Jumaada-ul-Awwal (Jumaada I) جمادى الأول Jumaada-ul-Akhir (or Jumaada al-Thaany) (Jumaada II) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني Rajab رجب Sha'aban شعبان Ramadhan رمضان Shawwal شوّال Dhul Qadah (or Thou al-Qi`dah) ذو القعدة Dhul Hijja (or Thou al-Hijjah) ذو الحجة Hindu Calendar The Hindu Calendar has various systems of naming the months. The months in the lunar calendar are: Chaitra Vaishaakha Jyaishtha Aashaadha Shraavana Bhaadrapada Aashvayuja Kaartika Maargashiirsha Pausha Maagha Phaalguna These are also the names used in the Indian national calendar for the newly redefined months. The names in the solar calendar are just the names of the zodiac sign in which the sun travels. They are Mesha Vrishabha Mithuna Kataka Simha Kanyaa Tulaa Vrishcika Dhanus Makara Kumbha Miina Tamil calendar Chitirai Vaikasi Aani Aadi Aavani Purratasi Aiypasi Kaarthigai Maargazhi Thai Maasi Panguni Sinhala calendar The Sinhala calendar is the Buddhist calendar in Sri Lanka with Sinhala names. Each full moon Poya day marks the start of a Buddhist lunar month. Sri Lanka – Festival Calendar The first month is Vesak. The Significance of Poya The Sinhala and Tamil New Year Day is the start of the Hindu solar calendar (usually 14 April), an event unrelated to the Bhuddist calendar. Vesak Poson Esala Nikini Binara Vap Il (iL) Unduvap Duruthu Navam Medin Bak Icelandic/Old Norse calendar The old Icelandic calendar is not in official use anymore, but some Icelandic holidays and annual feasts are still calculated from it. It has 12 months, broken down into two groups of six often termed "winter months" and "summer months". The calendar is peculiar in that the months always start on the same weekday rather than on the same date. Hence Þorri always starts on a Friday sometime between January 19 and January 25 (Old style: January 9 to January 15), Góa always starts on a Sunday between February 18 and February 24 (Old style: February 8 to February 14). Skammdegi ("Short days") Gormánuður (mid October - mid November, "slaughter month" or "Gór's month") Ýlir (mid November - mid December, "Yule month") Mörsugur (mid December - mid January, "fat sucking month") Þorri (mid January - mid February, "frozen snow month") Góa (mid February - mid March, "Góa's month, see Nór") Einmánuður (mid March - mid April, "lone" or "single month") Náttleysi ("Nightless days") Harpa (mid April - mid May, Harpa is a female name, probably a forgotten goddess, first day of Harpa is celebrated as Sumardagurinn fyrsti - first day of summer) Skerpla (mid May - mid June, another forgotten goddess) Sólmánuður (mid June - mid July, "sun month") Heyannir (mid July - mid August, "hay business month") Tvímánuður (mid August - mid September, "two" or "second month") Haustmánuður (mid September - mid October, "autumn month") Old Hungarian calendar Historically Hungary used a 12-month calendar that appears to have been zodiacal in nature The Calendar by Marsigli: the ancient Hungarian Calendar but eventually came to correspond to the Gregorian months as shown below Hónapok nevei : Boldogasszony hava (January, ‘month of the happy/blessed lady’) Böjtelő hava (February, ‘month of early fasting/Lent’ or ‘month before fasting/Lent’) Böjtmás hava (March, ‘second month of fasting/Lent’) Szent György hava (April, ‘St. George’s month) Pünkösd hava (May, ‘Pentecost month’) Szent Iván hava (June, ‘St. Ivan’s month’) Szent Jakab hava (July, ‘St. James’ month’) Kisasszony hava (August, ‘month of the young lady [Blessed Virgin]’) Szent Mihály hava (September, ‘St. Michael’s month’) Mindszent hava (October, ‘all saints month’) Szent András hava (November, ‘St. Andrew’s month’) Karácsony hava (December, ‘month of Yule/Christmas’) Old Egyptian calendar The ancient civil Egyptian calendar had a year that was 365 days long and was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 extra days (epagomenes) at the end of the year. The months were divided into 3 "weeks" of ten days each. Because the ancient Egyptian year was almost a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year and stellar events "wandered" through the calendar, it is referred to as Annus Vagus or "Wandering Year". Thout Paopi Hathor Koiak Tooba Emshir Paremhat Paremoude Pashons Paoni Epip Mesori Nisga'a calendar The Nisga'a Calendar coincides with the Gregorian Calendar with each month referring to the type of Harvesting that is done during the month. K'aliiyee = Going North - referring to the Sun returning to its usual place in the sky Buxwlaks = Needles Blowing About - February is usually a very windy month in the Nass River Valley Xsaak = To Eat Oolichans - Oolichans are harvested during this month Mmaal = Canoes - The river has defrosted, hence canoes are used once more Yansa'alt = Leaves are Blooming - Warm weather has arrived and leaves on the trees begin to bloom Miso'o = Sockeye - majority of Sockeye Salmon runs begin this month Maa'y = Berries - berry picking season Wii Hoon = Great Salmon - referring to the abundance of Salmon that are now running Genuugwwikw = Trail of the Marmot - Marmots, Ermines and animals as such are hunted Xlaaxw = To Eat Trout - trout are mostly eaten this time of year Gwilatkw = To Blanket - The earth is "blanketed" with snow Luut'aa = Sit In - the Sun "sits" in one spot for a period of time Rhyme Month belongs to the handful of words which do not rhyme in the English language. See also Table of lunar month correspondences Maya calendar Chinese calendar Egyptian Calendar Notes be-x-old:Месяц (каляндарны) | Month |@lemmatized month:100 unit:1 time:15 use:14 calendar:60 approximately:3 long:6 natural:1 period:13 relate:2 motion:3 moon:41 cognate:1 traditional:1 concept:1 arose:1 cycle:5 phase:4 lunation:4 synodic:9 last:3 day:83 excavate:1 tally:1 stick:1 researcher:1 deduce:1 people:2 count:1 relation:1 early:2 paleolithic:1 age:1 base:5 orbital:1 still:3 basis:1 many:2 today:1 divide:4 year:26 type:4 sidereal:5 orbit:12 define:1 respect:7 celestial:3 sphere:2 know:3 esther:1 take:5 return:5 give:1 position:5 among:2 star:3 h:5 min:5 observe:1 culture:1 middle:1 east:1 india:1 china:1 following:1 way:3 sky:3 lunar:14 mansion:1 identify:1 prominent:1 tropical:6 customary:1 specify:1 body:1 vernal:1 equinox:2 precession:2 point:5 move:5 back:2 slowly:1 along:1 ecliptic:6 therefore:3 less:1 longitude:2 zero:1 amidst:1 fixed:1 slightly:1 short:4 cf:1 analogous:1 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2,816 | Flavor | Flavor or flavour (see American and British English spelling differences) is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, may also occasionally determine flavor. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants, which affect these senses. Flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc. Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (umami) – the basic tastes – the smells of a food are potentially limitless. A food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists. Although the terms "flavoring" or "flavorant" in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same terms are usually used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorants are nature-identical, which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from the source materials. Flavorants or flavorings Flavorings are focused on altering or enhancing the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. There are three principal types of flavorings used in foods, under definitions agreed in the E.U. and Australia: From Australian Food Standards Guidelines Natural flavoring substances: Flavoring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances. Nature-identical flavoring substances: Flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances. Artificial flavoring substances: Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed. Regulations on natural flavoring Food Law defines a natural flavor as: The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavorant" as: The European Union's guidelines for natural flavorants are slightly different. Certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels. Smell Smell flavorants, or simply, flavorants, are engineered and composed in similar ways as with industrial fragrances and fine perfumes. To produce natural flavors, the flavorant must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to squeeze it out. The extracts are then usually further purified and subsequently added to food products to flavor them. To begin producing artificial flavors, flavor manufacturers must either find out the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals and mix them appropriately to produce a desired flavor or create a novel non-toxic artificial compound that gives a specific flavor. Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorist to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist (flavorist) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorants are esters. ChemicalOdorDiacetylButteryIsoamyl acetateBananaBenzaldehydeBitter almondCinnamic aldehydeCinnamonEthyl propionateFruityMethyl anthranilateGrapeLimoneneOrangeEthyl- (E, Z)-2,4-decadienoatePearAllyl hexanoatePineappleEthyl maltolSugar, Cotton candyEthylvanillinVanillaMethyl salicylateWintergreen The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume. In fact, artificial flavors are considered somewhat safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law. Natural flavors in contrast may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption. Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it. Taste While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors are considered taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants. Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers are largely based on Amino acids and Nucleotides. These are manufactured as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include: Glutamic acid salts: This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG) is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono and diglutamate salts are also commonly used. Glycine salts: A simple amino acid that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Guanylic acid salts: Nucleotide salts that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Inosinic acid salts: Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, it is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. 5'-ribonucleotides salts: Certain organic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar these are usually not considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the flavor of a food. Acetic acid: gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive smell Citric acid: found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour taste Lactic acid: found in various milk products and give them a rich tartness Malic acid: found in apples and gives them their sour/tart taste Tartaric acid: found in grapes and wines and gives them a tart taste Dietary restrictions Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant about informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products glycerin, gelatin, and the like, and the use of alcohol in the flavors. Orthodox Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims adhere to religious laws, and vegans to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal by-products and alcohol in foods unless subject to oversight and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief. In many western countries, millions of consumers rely on a Jewish Kosher certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are pure and free of animal products. The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies world wide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings) Flavor creation Most food and beverage companies do not create their own flavors but instead employ the services of a flavor company. Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products) or due to changes in formula or processing for existing products. The flavor creation is done by a specially trained scientist called a "flavorist." The flavorist's job combines extensive scientific knowledge of the chemical palette with artistic creativity to develop new and distinctive flavors. The flavor creation begins when the flavorist receives a brief from the client. In the brief the client will attempt to communicate exactly what type of flavor they seek, in what application it will be used, and any special requirements (e.g., must be all natural). The communication barrier can be quite difficult to overcome since most people aren't experienced at describing flavors. The flavorist will use his or her knowledge of the available chemical ingredients to create a formula and compound it on an electronic balance. The flavor will then be submitted to the client for testing. Several iterations, with feedback from the client, may be needed before the right flavor is found. Additional work may also be done by the flavor company. For example, the flavor company may conduct sensory taste tests to test consumer acceptance of a flavor before it is sent to the client or to further investigate the "sensory space." The flavor company may also employ application specialists who work to ensure the flavor will work in the application for which it is intended. This may require special flavor delivery technologies that are used to protect the flavor during processing or cooking so that the flavor is only released when eaten by the end consumer. Determination Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors e.g. ISO 13301:2002 Sensory analysis -- Methodology -- General guidance for measuring odor, flavor and taste detection thresholds by a three-alternative forced-choice (3-AFC) procedure. or ISO 6564:1985 Sensory analysis -- Methodology -- Flavor profile methods. . In chemical analysis of flavors, solid phase extraction (SPE), solid phase microextraction (SPME), and headspace gas chromatography are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various mass spectrometric techniques Use of Ozone Depleting Substances in Laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf . See also Aroma compound Cooking E number Ester (for list of some artificial flavor chemical compounds) Flavor companies Food additive Fragrance oil Monosodium glutamate, commonly known as MSG Preservative Seasoning References External links How Stuff Works How do artificial flavors work? 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2,817 | Kansas | The State of Kansas () is a Midwestern state http://www.census.gov/geo/www/us_regdiv.pdf in the central region of the United States of America, an area often referred to as the American "Heartland" or "America's Breadbasket" referring to the state's enormous wheat-growing agribusiness. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa tribe, who inhabited the area. John Koontz, p.c. The tribe's name (natively kką:ze) is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south wind", although this was probably not the term's original meaning. Rankin, Robert. 2005. "Quapaw". In Native Languages of the Southeastern United States, eds. Heather K. Hardy and Janine Scancarelli. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pg. 492 Connelley, William E. 1918. Indians. A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans, ch. 10, vol. 1 Residents of Kansas are called "Kansans". Historically, the area was home to large numbers of nomadic Native Americans who hunted bison. It was first settled by European Americans in the 1830s, but the pace of settlement accelerated in the 1850s, in the midst of political wars over the slavery issue. When officially opened to settlement by the U.S. government in 1854, abolitionist Free-Staters from New England and pro-slavery settlers from neighboring Missouri rushed to the territory to determine if Kansas would become a free state or a slave state. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided, and was known as Bleeding Kansas. The abolitionists eventually prevailed and on January 29, 1861, Today in History: January 29 http://www.governor.ks.gov/Facts/kansasseal.htm Kansas entered the Union as a free state. After the Civil War, the population of Kansas exploded when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into productive farmland. Today, Kansas is one of the most productive agricultural states, producing many crops, and leading the nation in wheat, sorghum , and sunflower production most years. Geography Kansas is bordered by Nebraska on the north; Missouri on the east; Oklahoma on the south; and Colorado on the west. The state is divided up into 105 counties with 628 cities. It is located equidistant from the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. The geographic center of the 48 contiguous states is located in Smith County near Lebanon, Kansas. The geodetic center of North America was located in Osborne County until 1983. This spot was used until that date as the central reference point for all maps of North America produced by the U.S. government. The geographic center of Kansas is located in Barton County. Topography The western two thirds of the state, lying in the great central plain of the United States, has a generally flat or undulating surface. However, the eastern third has many hills and forests. The land displays a gradual slope up from east to west; its altitude above the sea ranges from along the Verdigris River at Coffeyville in Montgomery County, to at Mount Sunflower, one half mile from the Colorado border, in Wallace County. It is a popular belief that Kansas is the flattest state in the nation, reinforced by a well known 2003 study Kansas Is Flatter Than a Pancake stating that Kansas was indeed "flatter than a pancake." Study finds Kansas Flatter Than Pancake This has since been debunked, with most scientists ranking Kansas somewhere between 20th and 30th flattest state, depending on measurement method. Fracas over Kansas pancake flap Spring River, Kansas The Missouri River forms nearly of the state's northeastern boundary. The Kansas River (locally known as the Kaw), formed by the junction of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers at appropriately-named Junction City, joins the Missouri at Kansas City, after a course of across the northeastern part of the state. The Arkansas River (pronunciation varies), rising in Colorado, flows with a bending course for nearly across the western and southern parts of the state. It forms, with its tributaries (the Little Arkansas, Ninnescah, Walnut, Cow Creek, Cimarron, Verdigris, and the Neosho), the southern drainage system of the state. Other important rivers are the Saline and Solomon Rivers, tributaries of the Smoky Hill River; the Big Blue, Delaware, and Wakarusa, which flow into the Kansas River; and the Marais des Cygnes, a tributary of the Missouri River. National parks and historic sites Areas under the protection of the National Park Service include: Brown v. Board Of Education National Historic Site in Topeka California National Historic Trail Fort Larned National Historic Site in Larned Fort Scott National Historic Site Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Nicodemus National Historic Site at Nicodemus Oregon National Historic Trail Pony Express National Historic Trail Santa Fe National Historic Trail Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve near Strong City Climate Clouds in northeastern Kansas Kansas contains three climate types, according to the Köppen climate classification: humid continental, semiarid steppe, and humid subtropical. The eastern two-thirds of the state has a humid continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers. Most of the precipitation falls in the summer and spring. The western third of the state has a semiarid steppe climate. Summers are hot, often very hot. Winters are cold in the northwest and cool to mild in the southwest. Also, the western region is semiarid, receiving an average of only about 16 inches (40 cm) of precipitation per year. Chinook winds in the winter can warm western Kansas all the way into the 80°F (25°C) range. The far south-central and southeastern reaches of the state have a humid subtropical climate,HOT summers, mild winters, and more precipitation than the rest of the state. Precipitation ranges from about 46 inches (1200 mm) annually in the southeast of the state, to about 16 inches (400 mm) in the southwest. Snowfall ranges from around 5 inches (130 mm) in the fringes of the south, to 35 inches (900 mm) in the far northwest. Frost-free days range from more than 200 days in the south, to 130 days in the northwest. Thus, Kansas is the 9th or 10th sunniest state in the country, depending on the source. Western Kansas is as sunny as parts of California and Arizona. In spite of the frequent sunshine throughout much of the state, the state is also vulnerable to strong thunderstorms, especially in the spring. Many of these storms become Supercell thunderstorms. These can spawn tornadoes, often of F3 strength or higher. According to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center, Kansas has reported more tornadoes (for the period 1 January 1950 through to 31 October 2006) than any state except for Texas - marginally even more than Oklahoma. It has also - along with Alabama - reported more F5 tornadoes than any other state. These are the most powerful of all tornadoes. Kansas averages over 50 tornadoes annually. NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 25, 2006. According to NOAA, the all time highest temperature recorded in Kansas is 121°F (49.4°C) on July 24, 1936, near Alton, and the all time low is -40°F (-40°C) on February 13, 1905, near Lebanon. Kansas' all time record high of 121°F (49.4°C) ties with North Dakota for the fifth-highest all-time record high recorded in a state, behind California (134°F/56.7°C), Arizona (128°F/53.3°C), Nevada (125°F/51.7°C), and New Mexico (122°F/50°C). Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Kansas Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Concordia 36/17 43/22 54/31 64/41 74/52 85/62 91/67 88/66 80/56 68/44 51/30 40/21 Dodge City 41/19 48/24 57/31 67/41 76/52 87/62 93/67 91/66 82/56 70/44 54/30 44/22 Goodland 39/16 45/20 53/26 63/35 72/46 84/56 89/61 87/60 78/50 66/38 50/25 41/18 Topeka 37/17 44/23 56/33 66/43 75/53 84/63 89/68 88/65 80/56 69/44 53/32 41/22 Wichita 40/20 47/25 57/34 67/44 76/54 87/64 93/69 92/68 82/59 70/47 54/34 43/24 History For millennia, the land that is presently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, who explored the area in 1541. In 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, and the Republic of Texas until the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1848. From 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, New Mexico. Wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state. The Kansas-Nebraska Act became law on May 30, 1854, establishing the U.S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, and Pueblo. Quantrill's Raid on Lawrence, Kansas Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery. The secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas. Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29, 1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. By that time the violence in Kansas had largely subsided. However, during the Civil War, on August 21, 1863, William Quantrill led several hundred men on a raid into Lawrence, destroying much of the city and killing nearly two hundred people. Until the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Quantrill's raid was the single bloodiest act of domestic terrorism in America. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature. His application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre war criminal record (see, Jones, Gray Ghosts and Rebel Riders Holt & Co. 1956, p.76). After the Civil War, many veterans constructed homesteads in Kansas. Many African Americans also looked to Kansas as the land of "John Brown," and led by men like Benjamin "Pap" Singleton began establishing black colonies in the state. At the same time, the Chisholm Trail was opened and the Wild West era commenced in Kansas. Wild Bill Hickok was a deputy marshal at Fort Riley and a marshal at Hays and Abilene. Dodge City was another wild cowboy town, and both Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp worked as lawmen in the town. In one year alone, 8 million head of cattle from Texas boarded trains in Dodge City bound for the East, earning Dodge the nickname "Queen of the Cowtowns." In part as a response to the violence perpetrated by cowboys, on February 19, 1881 Kansas became the first U.S. state to adopt a Constitutional amendment prohibiting all alcoholic beverages. Demographics Population pyramid As of 2007, Kansas has an estimated population of 2,775,997, which is an increase of 20,180, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 87,579, or 3.3%, since the year 2000. State Population Estimates. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, and States and for Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 (NST-EST2007-01). U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Released 2007-12-22. Six year change is from 2000-07-01 to 2007-07-01. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 93,899 people (that is 246,484 births minus 152,585 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 20,742 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 44,847 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 65,589 people. State Population Estimates. Kansas population has increased at a decreasing rate; reducing the number of congressmen from 5 to 4 in 1992 (Congressional Redistricting Act, eff. 1992). Cumulative Estimates of the Components of Population Change for the United States, Regions and States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006 (NST-EST2006-04). U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Released 2006-12-22. The population density of the state is 52.9 people per square mile. [Title=The New York Times 2008 Almanac|Author=edited by John W. Wright|Date=2007|Page=178] The center of population of Kansas is located in Chase County, at , approximately three miles north of the community of Strong City. As of 2004, the population included 149,800 foreign-born (5.5% of the state population). The largest reported ancestries in the state are: German (25.9%), Irish (11.5%), English (10.8%), American (8.8%), French (3.1%), and Swedish (2.4%). Kansas - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1860 to 1990 People of German ancestry are especially strong in the northwest, while those of British ancestry and descendants of white Americans from other states are especially strong in the southeast. Mexicans are present in the southwest and make up nearly half the population in certain counties. Many African Americans in Kansas are descended from the Exodusters, newly freed blacks who fled the South for land in Kansas following the Civil War. See Also British American and German-American Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 405,844; the United Methodist Church with 206,187; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 101,696. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/20_2000.asp Rural flight Kansas is one of the slowest-growing states in the nation. Known as a rural exodus, the last few decades have been marked by a migratory pattern out of the countryside into cities. Out of all the cities in these Midwestern states, 89% have fewer than 3000 people, and hundreds of those have fewer than 1000. In Kansas alone, there are more than 6,000 ghost towns, according to one Kansas historian. At the same time, some of the communities in Johnson County (metropolitan Kansas City) are among the fastest growing in the country. Economy Largest Kansas Based Companies (by number of employees) America's Career InfoNet RankBusinessEmployeesLocation#1 Spirit AeroSystems 21,000 Wichita#2 Fort Riley 12,500 Riley County#3 Van Enterprises 6,000 Shawnee Mission#4 University of Kansas Medical Center 5,000 Kansas City#5 Via Christi St. Joseph Hospital 5,000 Wichita#6 Olathe Medical Center 4,000 Olathe#7 Via Christi St. Francis Hospital 3,300 Wichita#8 Kansas State University 3,030 Manhattan#9 Examone World Wide 3,000 Lenexa#10 Koch Industries 3,000 Wichita The 2003 gross domestic product of Kansas was US$97 billion, an increase of 4.3% over the prior year, but trailing the national average increase of 4.8%. Its per-capita income was US$29,438. The December 2003 unemployment rate was 4.9%. The agricultural outputs of the state are cattle, sheep, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, cotton, hogs, corn, and salt. Eastern Kansas is part of the Grain Belt, an area of major grain production in the central United States. The industrial outputs are transportation equipment, commercial and private aircraft, food processing, publishing, chemical products, machinery, apparel, petroleum and mining. Kansas ranks 8th in U.S. oil production. Production has experienced a steady, natural decline as it becomes increasingly difficult to extract oil over time. Since oil prices bottomed in 1999, oil production in Kansas has remained fairly constant, with an average monthly rate of about in 2004. The recent higher prices have made carbon dioxide sequestration and other oil recovery techniques more economical. Kansas ranks 8th in U.S. natural gas production. Production has steadily declined since the mid-1990s with the gradual depletion of the Hugoton Natural Gas Field—the state's largest field which extends into Oklahoma and Texas. In 2004, slower declines in the Hugoton gas fields and increased coalbed methane production contributed to a smaller overall decline. Average monthly production was over 32 billion cubic feet (0.9 km³). The Kansas economy is also heavily influenced by the aerospace industry. Several large aircraft corporations have manufacturing facilities in Wichita and Kansas City, including Boeing, Beech, Cessna, Learjet, and Hawker-Beechcraft (formerly Raytheon). Kansas has three income brackets for income tax calculation, ranging from 3.5% to 6.45%. The state sales tax in Kansas is 5.3%. Various cities and counties in Kansas have an additional local sales tax. Except during the 2001 recession (March–November 2001) when monthly sales tax collections were flat, collections have trended higher as the economy has grown and two rate increases have been enacted. Total sales tax collections for 2003 amounted to $1.63 billion, compared to $805.3 million in 1990. Revenue shortfalls resulting from lower than expected tax collections and slower growth in personal income following a 1998 permanent tax reduction has contributed to the substantial growth in the state's debt level as bonded debt increased from $1.16 billion in 1998 to $3.83 billion in 2006. Some increase in debt was expected as the state continues with its 10-year Comprehensive Transportation Program enacted in 1999. As of June 2004, Moody's Investors Service ranked the state 14th for net tax-supported debt per capita. As a percentage of personal income, it was at 3.8%—above the median value of 2.5% for all rated states and having risen from a value of less than 1% in 1992. The state has a statutory requirement to maintain cash reserves of at least 7.5% of expenses at the end of each fiscal year, however, lawmakers can vote to override the rule, and did so during the most recent budget agreement. Major company headquarters in Kansas include the Sprint Nextel Corporation (with world headquarters in Overland Park), Embarq (with national headquarters in Overland Park), YRC Corp Overland Park, Garmin in Olathe, Payless Shoes (National headquarters and major distribution facilities in Topeka), and Koch Industries (with national headquarters in Wichita). Transportation Map of the Kansas road system. Kansas is served by two Interstate highways with one beltway, two spur routes, and three bypasses, with over a total of in all. The first section of Interstate in the nation was opened on I-70 just west of Topeka on November 14, 1956. I-70 is a major east/west route connecting to St. Louis and Kansas City, Missouri, in the east and Denver, Colorado, in the west. Cities along this route (from east to west) include Kansas City, Lawrence, Topeka, Junction City, Salina, Hays, and Colby. I-35 is a major north/south route connecting to Des Moines, Iowa, in the north and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in the south. Cities along this route (from north to south) include Kansas City (and suburbs), Ottawa, Emporia, El Dorado, Newton, and Wichita. Spur routes serve as connections between the two major routes. I-135, a north/south route, connects I-70 at Salina to I-35 at Wichita. I-335, a northeast/southwest route, connects I-70 at Topeka to I-35 at Emporia. I-335 and portions of I-35 and I-70 make up the Kansas Turnpike. Bypasses include I-470 around Topeka and I-235 around Wichita. I-435 is a beltway around the Kansas City Metropolitan Area while I-635 bypasses through Kansas City, Kansas. US Route 69 runs north and south, from Minnesota to Texas. The highway passes through the eastern section of Kansas, from the Kansas City area, through Louisburg, Fort Scott, Frontenac, Pittsburg, and Baxter Springs before entering Oklahoma. Kansas also has the second largest state highway system in the country after California. This is because of the high number of counties and county seats (105) and the intertwining of them all. In January 2004, the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) announced the new Kansas 511 traveler information service. By dialing 511, callers will get access to information about road conditions, construction, closures, detours and weather conditions for the state highway system. Weather and road condition information is updated every 15 minutes. The elaborate and efficient transportation system in Kansas has attracted praise from experts nationwide, including the former Mayor of New York City, Ed Koch, who frequents Kansas roadways. The state's only major commercial airport is Wichita Mid-Continent Airport, located along US-54 on the western edge of the city. Most air travelers in eastern Kansas fly out of Kansas City International Airport, located in Platte County, Missouri. For those in the far western part of the state, Denver International Airport is a popular option. Manhattan Regional Airport in Manhattan will commence commercial flights to Dallas in August 2009, making it the second commercial airport of the state Testa, Anthony Manhattan Regional Airport adds connection to Dallas-Fort Worth International The Kansas State Collegian, Published April 6, 2009, Retrieved on 2009-04-29 .Connecting flights are available from smaller airports in Dodge City, Garden City, Great Bend, Hays, and Salina. Forbes Field in Topeka, Kansas sustained commercial flights on Allegiant Air for many years until that service was terminated in 2008. Law and government State and local politics The top executives of the state are Democratic Governor Mark Parkinson (as of April 28, 2009) and Lieutenant Governor Troy Findley. Both officials are elected on the same ticket to a maximum of two consecutive 4-year terms. Parkinson replaced Kathleen Sebelius who was appointed Secretary of Health and Human Services by President Barack Obama. Parkinson will be eligible for election in his own right in 2010, although he has publically stated his intention not to run for a full term. The state's Attorney General is Democrat Stephen Six, a former Douglas County District Court Judge who was appointed to the post. The legislative branch of the state government is the Kansas Legislature. The bicameral body consists of the Kansas House of Representatives, with 125 members serving two year terms, and the Kansas Senate, with 40 members serving four year terms. Kansas has a reputation as a progressive state with many firsts in legislative initiatives—it was the first state to institute a system of workers' compensation (1910) and to regulate the securities industry (1911). Kansas also permitted women's suffrage in 1912, almost a decade before the federal constitution was amended to require it. Suffrage in all states would not be guaranteed until ratification of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. The council-manager government was adopted by many larger Kansas cities in the years following World War I while many American cities were being run by political machines or organized crime, notably the Pendergast Machine in neighboring Kansas City, Missouri. Kansas was also at the center of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, a 1954 Supreme Court decision that banned racially segregated schools throughout the U.S. Kansas was one of the few states where Franklin D. Roosevelt had limited political support, winning Kansas only twice. The state backed Republicans Wendell Willkie and Thomas E. Dewey in 1940 and 1944, respectively. Kansas also supported Dewey in 1948 despite the presence of incumbent president Harry S. Truman, who hailed from Independence, Missouri, approximately 15 miles east of the Kansas-Missouri state line. Since the early 1960s, Kansas has grown more socially conservative. The 1990s brought new restrictions on abortion, the defeat of prominent Democrats, including Dan Glickman, and the Kansas State Board of Education's 1999 decision to eliminate evolution from the state teaching standards, a decision that was later reversed. Los Angeles Times. Vote by Kansas School Board Favors Evolution's Doubters In 2005, voters accepted a constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage. The next year, the state passed a law setting a minimum age for marriage at 15 years. In 2008, Governor Sebelius vetoed permits for the construction of new coal-fired energy plants in Kansas, saying: "We know that greenhouse gases contribute to climate change. As an agricultural state, Kansas is particularly vulnerable. Therefore, reducing pollutants benefits our state not only in the short term – but also for generations of Kansans to come." Kansas Governor Rejects Two Coal-Fired Power Plants However, shortly after Mark Parkinson became governor in 2009 upon Sebelius's resignation, Parkinson announced a compromise plan to allow construction of a coal-fired plant. Federal politics Sam Brownback The state's current delegation to the Congress of the United States includes Republican Senators Sam Brownback of Topeka and Pat Roberts of Dodge City and Representatives Jerry Moran (R) of Hays (District 1), Lynn Jenkins (R) of Topeka (District 2), Dennis Moore (D) of Lenexa (District 3), and Todd Tiahrt (R) of Goddard (District 4). Kansas has not elected a Democrat to the U.S. Senate since 1932, when Franklin D. Roosevelt won his first term as President in the wake of the Great Depression. This is the longest Senate losing streak for either party in a single state. Senator Sam Brownback was a candidate for the Republican party nomination for President in 2008. Brownback has stated he will not be a candidate for re-election in 2010. Historically, Kansas has been strongly Republican. In fact, the only non-Republicans Kansas has given its electoral vote to are Populist James Weaver and Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt (twice), and Lyndon Johnson. In 2004, George W. Bush won the state's six electoral votes by an overwhelming margin of 25 percentage points with 62% of the vote. The only two counties to support Democrat John Kerry in that election were Wyandotte, which contains Kansas City, and Douglas, home to the University of Kansas, located in Lawrence. The 2008 election brought similar results as John McCain won the state with 57% of the votes. Douglas (64% Obama, 34% McCain), Wyandotte (70% Obama, 29% McCain), and Crawford County (49% Obama, 48% McCain) were the only counties in support of President Barack Obama. 2008 Election Results - Kansas State law See also: Alcohol laws of Kansas The legal drinking age in Kansas is 21. In lieu of the state retail sales tax, a 10% Liquor Drink Tax is collected for liquor consumed on the licensed premises and an 8% Liquor Enforcement Tax is collected on retail purchases. Although the sale of cereal malt beverage (also known as 3.2 beer) was legalized in 1937, the first post-Prohibition legalization of alcoholic liquor did not occur until the state's constitution was amended in 1948. The following year the Legislature enacted the Liquor Control Act which created a system of regulating, licensing, and taxing, and the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (ABC) was created to enforce the act. The power to regulate cereal malt beverage remains with the cities and counties. Liquor-by-the-drink did not become legal until passage of an amendment to the state's constitution in 1986 and additional legislation the following year. As of November 2006, Kansas still has 29 dry counties and only 17 counties have passed liquor-by-the-drink with no food sales requirement. Today there are more than 2600 liquor and 4000 cereal malt beverage licensees in the state. State agencies The state's investigative branch is the Kansas Bureau of Investigation. The Kansas Corporation Commission regulates public utilities, common carriers, oil and gas production, telecommunications companies, and motor carriers. The Kansas Department of Agriculture regulates the supply of meat, milk and eggs among other agricultural goods and services. The Secretary of Agriculture is Adrian Polansky, who heads the department as well as operating Polansky farms. Important cities and towns +Cities with population of at least 10,000 CityPopulation*Growth rate**Metro area1Wichita357,6980.29%Wichita2Overland Park166,7221.78%Kansas City3Kansas City143,801-0.34%Kansas City4Topeka122,113-0.13%Topeka5Olathe114,6623.69%Kansas City6Lawrence88,6051.68%Lawrence7Shawnee59,2523.64%Kansas City8Manhattan50,7371.83% ‡9Salina50,0000.13% ‡10Lenexa44,5201.71%Kansas City11Hutchinson41,085-0.29% ‡12Leavenworth34,993-0.23%Kansas City13Leawood30,7021.75%Kansas City14Garden City27,175-0.80% ‡15Emporia26,188-0.40% ‡16Dodge City26,1010.54% ‡17Prairie Village21,414-0.49%Kansas City18Derby21,1012.62%Wichita19Liberal20,3840.58% ‡20Hays19,726-0.23% ‡21Pittsburg19,120-0.12% ‡22Newton18,0930.34%Wichita23Junction City16,106-2.36%Manhattan‡24Gardner15,59710.17%Kansas City25Great Bend15,5370.20% ‡26McPherson13,594-0.23% ‡27Ottawa12,7921.15%Kansas City28El Dorado12,718-0.13%Wichita29Winfield11,741-0.65%Winfield-Arkansas City‡30Arkansas City11,416-0.78%Arkansas City-Winfield‡31Parsons11,237-0.36% ‡32Merriam10,773-0.35%Kansas City33Lansing10,7051.79%Kansas City34Coffeyville10,387-0.97% ‡35Atchison10,154-0.13% ‡36Haysville10,0292.45%Wichita*Estimated as of July 1, 2006 Annual estimates of the population through 2006-07-01. Released 2007-06-28. **Estimated annual growth rate 2000–2006‡Defined as a micropolitan area Kansas has 627 incorporated cities. By state statute, cities are divided into three classes as determined by the population obtained "by any census of enumeration." A city of the third class has a population of less than 5,000, but cities reaching a population of more than 2,000 may be certified as a city of the second class. The second class is limited to cities with a population of less than 25,000, and upon reaching a population of more than 15,000, they may be certified as a city of the first class. First and second class cities are independent of any township and are not included within the township's territory. Northeast Kansas The northeastern portion of the state, extending from the Eastern border to Junction City and from the Nebraska border to south of Johnson County, has a rich history and is home to more than 1.5 million people in the Kansas City, Lawrence,and Topeka metropolitan areas. In the Kansas City Metropolitan Area, the cities of Johnson County have some of the fastest growing populations and highest median incomes in the state and the entire country. Overland Park, a young city incorporated in 1960, has the largest population and the largest land area in the county. It is home to Johnson County Community College, the state's largest community college, and the corporate campus of Sprint Nextel, the largest private employer in the metro area. In 2006 the city was ranked as the 6th best place to live in America; the neighboring city of Olathe was 13th. Olathe is the county seat and home to Johnson County Executive Airport. The cities of Olathe, Shawnee, and Gardner have some of the state's fastest growing populations. The cities of Overland Park, Lenexa, Olathe, and Gardner are also notable because they lie along the former route of the Santa Fe Trail. Among cities with at least one thousand residents, Mission Hills has the highest median income in the state. Several institutions of higher education are located in Northeast Kansas including Baker University (the first university in the state) in Baldwin City, MidAmerica Nazarene University in Olathe, Ottawa University in Ottawa and Overland Park, Kansas City Kansas Community College and KU Medical Center in Kansas City, and KU Edwards Campus in Overland Park. Less than an hour's drive to the west, Lawrence is home to the University of Kansas, the largest public university in the state, and Haskell Indian Nations University. To the north, Kansas City, Kansas, with the second largest land area in the state, contains a number of diverse ethnic neighborhoods. Its attractions include the Kansas Speedway, Kansas City T-Bones and The Legends at Village West retail and entertainment center. Further up the Missouri River, the city of Lansing is the home of the state's first maximum-security prison. Historic Leavenworth, founded in 1854, was the first incorporated city in Kansas. North of the city, Fort Leavenworth is the oldest active Army post west of the Mississippi River. The city of Atchison was an early commercial center in the state and is well-known as the birthplace of Amelia Earhart. To the west, nearly a quarter million people reside in the Topeka metropolitan area. Topeka is the state capital and home to Washburn University. Built at a Kansas River crossing along the old Oregon Trail, this historic city has several nationally registered historic places. Further westward along Interstate 70 and the Kansas River is Junction City with its historic limestone and brick buildings and nearby Fort Riley, well-known as the home to the U.S. Army's 1st Infantry Division, also known as the "Big Red One." A short distance away, the city of Manhattan is home to Kansas State University, the second largest public university in the state and the nation's oldest land-grant university, dating back to 1863. South of the campus, Aggieville dates back to 1889 and is the state's oldest shopping district of its kind. Wichita Wichita, Kansas, the largest city in the state of Kansas In south-central Kansas, the four-county Wichita metropolitan area is home to nearly 600,000 people. Wichita is the largest city in the state in terms of both land area and population. 'The Air Capital' is a major manufacturing center for the aircraft industry and the home of Wichita State University. With a number of nationally registered historic places, museums, and other entertainment destinations, it has a desire to become a cultural mecca in the Midwest. Although Wichita's population growth has been anemic in recent years, surrounding suburbs are among the fastest growing cities in the state. The population of Goddard has grown by more than 11% per year since 2000. Other fast-growing cities include Andover, Maize, Park City, Derby, and Haysville. Up river (the Arkansas River) from Wichita is the city of Hutchinson. The city was built on one of the world's largest salt deposits, and it has the world's largest and longest wheat elevator. It is also the home of Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, Prairie Dunes Country Club and the Kansas State Fair. North of Wichita along Interstate 135 is the city of Newton, the former western terminal of the Santa Fe Railroad and trailhead for the famed Chisholm Trail. To the southeast of Wichita are the cities of Winfield and Arkansas City with historic architecture and the Cherokee Strip Museum (in Ark City). The city of Udall was the site of the deadliest tornado in Kansas on May 25, 1955; it killed 80 people in and near the city. To the southwest of Wichita is Freeport, the state's smallest incorporated city (population 8). Around the state Kansas Population Density Map Located midway between Kansas City, Topeka, and Wichita in the heart of the Bluestem Region of the Flint Hills, the city of Emporia has several nationally registered historic places and is the home of Emporia State University, well-known for its Teachers College. It was also the home of newspaper man William Allen White. Southeast Kansas Southeast Kansas has a unique history with a number of nationally registered historic places in this coal-mining region. Located in Crawford County (dubbed the Fried Chicken Capital of Kansas), Pittsburg is the largest city in the region and the home of Pittsburg State University. The neighboring city of Frontenac in 1888 was the site of the worst mine disaster in the state in which an underground explosion killed 47 miners. "Big Brutus" is located a mile and a half outside the city of West Mineral. Along with the restored fort, historic Fort Scott has a national cemetery designated by President Lincoln in 1862. Little town on KS56, in 1974 A little farm Central and North-Central Kansas Salina is the largest city in central and north-central Kansas. South of Salina is the small city of Lindsborg with its numerous Dala horses. Much of the architecture and decor of this town has a distinctly Swedish style. To the east along Interstate 70, the historic city of Abilene was formerly a trailhead for the Chisholm Trail and was the boyhood home of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. To the west is Lucas, the Grassroots Art Capital of Kansas. Northwest KansasKansas City, Kansas Westward along the Interstate, the city of Russell, traditionally the beginning of sparsely-populated northwest Kansas, is the home of former U.S. Senator Bob Dole and the boyhood home of U.S. Senator Arlen Specter. The city of Hays is home to Fort Hays State University and the Sternberg Museum of Natural History, and is the largest city in the northwest with a population of around 20,000. Two other landmarks are located in smaller towns in Ellis County: the "Cathedral of the Plains" is located east of Hays in Victoria, and the boyhood home of Walter Chrysler is west of Hays in Ellis. West of Hays, population drops dramatically, even in areas along I-70, and only two towns containing populations of more than 3,000: Colby and Goodland, which are located 35 milies apart along I-70. The city of Wichita, the largest in both area and population, has been mentioned in a handful of films and television programmes such as 90210, a CW teen drama from which a family emigrate to Bevery Hills (hence the title). Southwest Kansas Southwest Kansas, and Dodge City in particular, is famously known for the cattle drive days of the late 19th century. The city of Dodge was built along the old Santa Fe Trail route. The city of Liberal is located along the southern Santa Fe Trail route. The first wind farm in the state was built east of Montezuma. Garden City has the Lee Richardson Zoo. Education Education in Kansas is governed primarily by the Kansas State Board of Education (web). Twice the Board has approved changes in the state science curriculum standards that encouraged the teaching of intelligent design. Both times, the standards were reversed after changes in the composition of the board in the next election. Sports Professional ClubSportLeagueKansas City WizardsSoccerMajor League SoccerKansas City T-BonesBaseballNorthern LeagueWichita WingnutsBaseballAmerican Association of Independent Professional BaseballTopeka RoadrunnersIce hockeyNorth American Hockey LeagueWichita ThunderIce hockeyCentral Hockey LeagueKansas KoyotesIndoor Football American Professional Football League Wichita WildIndoor FootballIndoor Football League Even though the Wizards are the only major professional sports league team within Kansas, many Kansans also support the sports teams of Kansas City, Missouri, including the Kansas City Royals (MLB), the Kansas City Chiefs (NFL) and the Kansas City Brigade (AFL). The Chiefs and the Royals play at the Truman Sports Complex, located about from the Kansas-Missouri state line. The Kansas City Brigade play in the newly opened Sprint Center. (The Wizards were based in Missouri at the time of their founding, and may move back across the state line into a new stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, in 2010.) Persons in western Kansas may sometimes support the major league teams in Denver. Many people who live close to the Oklahoma state line support the Dallas Cowboys. All Chiefs games are televised throughout Kansas by television stations in Topeka and Wichita, and Broncos and Cowboys games which do not conflict with Chiefs telecasts are also broadcast across the state. Two major auto racing facilities are located in Kansas. The Kansas Speedway located in Kansas City hosts races of the NASCAR, IRL, and ARCA circuits. Also, the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) holds drag racing events at Heartland Park Topeka. College While there are no franchises of the four major professional sports within the state, many Kansans are fans of the state's major college sports teams, especially the Wildcats of Kansas State University, known as "KSU" or "K-State" by many and the Jayhawks of the University of Kansas, commonly referred to as "KU." Wichita State University, which also fields teams (called the Shockers) in Division I of the NCAA, is best known for its baseball program, winning the College World Series in 1989. Both KU and K-State have tradition-rich programs in men's college basketball. The Jayhawks are a perennial national power, ranking third in all-time victories among NCAA programs, behind Kentucky and North Carolina. In April 2008, the Jayhawks won their fifth national crown (third NCAA tournament title). K-State also had a long stretch of success on the hardwood, lasting from the 1940s to the 1980s. Kansas State returned to the NCAA tournament in 2008 for the first time in 12 years. KU is tied for 4th all-time with 13 Final Four appearances, while K-State is tied for 17th with 4 appearances in the Final Four. Wichita State has made 1 Final Four appearance. However, success on the football field has been infrequent for either team. When the two teams met in 1987, KU's record was 1-7 and K-State's was 0-8. Fittingly, the Governor's Cup that year, dubbed the "Toilet Bowl" by the media, ended in a 17-17 tie when the Jayhawks blocked a last-second K-State field goal attempt. There have been recent breakthroughs for both schools. KU won the Orange Bowl for the first time in three tries in January 2008, capping a 12-1 season, the best in school history. K-State was historically one of the worst college football programs in the country, until Bill Snyder arrived to coach the Wildcats in 1989. He turned K-State into a national force for most of the 1990s and early 2000s, until he retired after the 2005 season. Bill Snyder will return to the sideline for the 2009 season. The team won the Fiesta Bowl in 1997 and took the Big 12 Conference championship in 2003. Notable success has also been achieved by the state's smaller schools in football. Pittsburg State University, a NCAA Division II participant, has claimed three national titles in football, two in the NAIA and most recently the 1991 NCAA Division II national title. Pittsburg State became the winningest NCAA Division II football program in 1995. PSU passed Hillsdale College at the top of the all-time victories list in the 1995 season on its march to the national runner-up finish. The Gorillas, in 96 seasons of intercollegiate competition, have accumulated 579 victories – posting a 579-301-48 overall mark. Washburn University, in Topeka, won the NAIA Men's Basketball Championship in 1987. The Fort Hays State University men won the 1996 NCAA Division II title with a 34-0 record, and the Washburn women won the 2005 NCAA Division II crown. St. Benedict's College (now Benedictine College), in Atchison, won the 1954 and 1967 Men's NAIA Basketball Championships. In 1992-93, KU became the second college program to participate in a football bowl game, the NCAA men's basketball tournament, and the College World Series in the same academic year. And in the 2007-08 academic year, KU's football and basketball programs set an NCAA Division I record for most combined victories with 49 total victories (12 in football and 37 in basketball). Notable residents Amelia Earhart (aviation pioneer), Carrie Nation (temperance activist), former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, former Vice President Charles Curtis, and former presidential candidates Bob Dole and Alf Landon called Kansas their home. NASA astronauts Ronald Evans, Joe Engle, and Steve Hawley also lived in Kansas. Kansas was home to industrial and intellectual pioneers Walter Chrysler of automotive fame, Clyde Cessna and Lloyd Stearman (aviation pioneers), Jack Kilby (microchip inventor, The Nobel Prize Winner in Physics 2000), George Washington Carver (educator and scientist), Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. (The Nobel Prize Winner in Physiology or Medicine 1971), and Vernon L. Smith (The Nobel Prize Winner in Economics 2002). Also from Kansas are General Richard Myers (Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2001-05) and Robert Gates (United States Secretary of Defense December 2006 - Present). In addition, Kansas is the home of "Top Cop" Vern Miller who raided an Amtrak train on July 20, 1972 and confiscated all the liquor on board. He charged Amtrak with selling liquor-by-the-drink, illegal in Kansas at that time and the case was eventually declared al certiore, validating both the lower court's conviction and the flamboyant Miller's stance that "If you don't like a law, get it changed...don't break it." -- Wichita Eagle July 20, 1972 Kansas was also home to Danny Carey (musician), Del Close (comdedian/actor), Inger Stevens (actress),Vivian Vance (actress), Samuel Ramey (opera singer), Louise Brooks (actress), Annette Bening (actress), Bill Kurtis (Journalist), Jack Cafferty (Journalist), John Brown (abolitionist), Langston Hughes (poet), Gordon Parks (photographer, movie director, musician, author), Fatty Arbuckle (actor), William Inge (writer), Dennis Hopper (actor), Kelli McCarty (actress and Miss USA 91), Buster Keaton (actor), Coleman Hawkins (Jazz musician), Martina McBride (Country Singer), Joe Walsh (Musician), Chely Wright (Country Musician), Melissa Etheridge (musician), Kirstie Alley (actress), Paul Rudd (actor), Sarah Lancaster (actress), Charlie Parker (Jazz musician), Mike Jerrick (network journalist), Steve Doocy (network journalist, author), Campbell Brown (network journalist), Jeff Probst (Survivor host), Melissa McDermott (Journalist), Phil McGraw (psychologist), and William Allen White (editor). And members of the progressive rock band Kansas: Dave Hope (bass), Phil Ehart (drums, percussion), and Kerry Livgren (guitars, keyboards, synthesizers) formed the group named Kansas in 1970 in their hometown of Topeka, along with vocalist Lynn Meredith from Manhattan, Kansas. Famous athletes from Kansas include Clint Bowyer, Braden Looper, Johnny Damon, Kyle Farnsworth, Wes Santee, Joe Carter, Wilt Chamberlain, George Brett, Barry Sanders, Gale Sayers, Darren Sproles, John H. Outland, Steve Fritz, Billy Mills, Jim Ryun, Walter Johnson, Jackie Stiles, Scott Fulhage, Caroline Bruce, John Riggins, Maurice Greene, Kendra Wecker, and Lynette Woodard. Kansas was also home to coaches James Naismith, Larry Brown, Phog Allen, Dean Smith, Adolph Rupp, Ralph Miller, Gene Keady, Lon Kruger, John Calipari, Roy Williams, Glen Mason, Tex Winter, Dana Altman, Mark Turgeon, Bill Self, Bill Snyder, and Eddie Sutton. Famous fictional residents include Marshal Matt Dillon from the TV show Gunsmoke, Mary Ann Summers of Gilligan's Island, Dennis Mitchell (Dennis the Menace), Dean and Sam Winchester from the TV show Supernatural, Clark Kent/Superman, Liz Sherman, Lt. Col. Cameron Mitchell of Stargate SG-1, Walter and India Bridge from Mr. and Mrs. Bridge, Jonas Nightengale from Leap of Faith, Bailey from The Suite Life on Deck, Sonny from Sonny With a Chance and Dorothy Gale from The Wizard of Oz. Landmarks Konza Prairie, in the Flint Hills Front Street and Boot HIll Museum are located in Dodge City. Santa Fe trail ruts can still be seen 9 miles west of Dodge City. The John Brown museum is located in Osawatomie. The boyhood home of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Eisenhower Library, and his grave are located in Abilene. The home of nationally known newspaperman William Allen White is located in Emporia, KS Abilene is the ending point of the Chisholm Trail where the cattle driven from Texas were loaded onto rail cars. The house of Carrie Nation, now a museum, is located in Medicine Lodge. Constitution Hall in Lecompton is the location where the Kansas Territorial Government convened and drafted a pro-slavery constitution. Historic Lecompton - Constitution Hall State Historic Site. Retrieved on 13 April 2007. The Wizard of Oz Museum in Wamego features Dorothy's House, a re-creation of the farm house featured in the film The Wizard of Oz. The Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, located in Hutchinson, is affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution. The museum features the largest collection of artifacts from the Russian Space Program outside of Moscow. It is also home to Apollo 13, an SR-71 Blackbird, Liberty 7, and many space artifacts. The award-winning Kansas Museum of History Kansas Historical Society is the state museum, and is located in the capital city of Topeka. The world's largest ball of twine (disputed), created August 15, 1953, in Cawker City. The Big Well, billed as the World's Largest Hand-Dug Well, is located in Greensburg, Kansas. Keeper of the Plains Joyland Amusement Park (Wichita) The Hot and Cold Water Towers of Pratt, Kansas References External links State of Kansas Kansas Travel and Tourism Division Kansas State Historical Society Kansas State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Kansas state agencies USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Kansas Persian Community in Kansas Kansas Department of Transportation maps Cutler's History of Kansas Kansas Maps from the Perry-Castañeda Library map collection at the University of Texas Index of Kansas-related articles | Kansas |@lemmatized state:156 kansa:170 midwestern:2 http:3 www:4 census:5 gov:2 geo:1 pdf:1 central:10 region:7 united:12 america:7 area:21 often:4 refer:3 american:17 heartland:2 breadbasket:1 enormous:1 wheat:4 grow:9 agribusiness:1 name:6 river:18 flow:3 turn:3 tribe:2 inhabit:2 john:10 koontz:1 p:3 c:9 natively:1 kką:1 ze:1 say:2 mean:1 people:15 wind:4 south:15 although:4 probably:1 term:8 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2,818 | Francis_Ford_Coppola | Francis Ford Coppola (born April 7, 1939) is an American film director, producer and screenwriter. Away from showbusiness, Coppola is also a vintner, magazine publisher and hotelier. He is a graduate of Hofstra University where he studied theatre. He earned an M.F.A. in film directing from the UCLA Film School. He is most renowned for directing the Godfather films, The Conversation, and the Vietnam War epic Apocalypse Now. Life Childhood Coppola was born in Detroit, Michigan, to a family of Italian ancestry (his grandparents were immigrants from Bernalda, Basilicata). ISBN 0-306-80598-7 He received his middle name in honor of Henry Ford and because he was born at the Henry Ford Hospital. ; can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18pZjqLaMMA Coppola is son of Italia (née Pennino) and arranger/composer Carmine Coppola, who, at the time, was the first flautist for the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. He was the second of three children (his sister is actress Talia Shire). Two years later, Carmine became the first flautist for the NBC Symphony Orchestra and the family moved to New York City, finding a home in Woodside, Queens, where Francis spent the remainder of his childhood. Coppola had poliomyelitis, or polio, as a boy, leaving him bedridden for large periods of his childhood, and allowing him to indulge his imagination with homemade puppet theater productions. Using his father's 8mm movie camera, he began making movies when he was 10. He studied theatre at Hofstra University and graduated from the University in 1960, prior to earning a Master of Fine Arts degree in film direction from UCLA Film School. There, he made numerous short films. While in UCLA's Film Department, Francis met Jim Morrison, whose music was used later in Apocalypse Now. Family Coppola has often worked with family members on his films. He cast his two sons in The Godfather as extras during the street fight scene and Don Corleone's funeral; his daughter, Sofia Coppola, appeared in all installments of the series (the first two movies with uncredited roles). His sister, Talia Shire, played Connie Corleone in all three Godfather films. His father Carmine, a composer and professional musician, co-wrote much of the music in The Godfather, The Godfather Part II, and Apocalypse Now. His nephew, Nicolas Cage, starred in Coppola's film Peggy Sue Got Married and was featured in Rumble Fish and The Cotton Club. His eldest son, Gian-Carlo Coppola, was in the early stages of a film production career when he was killed on May 26, 1986 in a speedboat accident. Coppola's surviving son, Roman Coppola, is a filmmaker and music video director whose filmography includes the feature film CQ and music videos for The Strokes, as well as co-writing the Wes Anderson film The Darjeeling Limited. Coppola's daughter, Sofia Coppola, is an Academy Award-winning writer and nominated director. Her films include the critically acclaimed films The Virgin Suicides and Lost in Translation. In 2004, she became the first American woman to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director, for Lost in Translation. Other famous members of Coppola's family include his nephews Nicholas Cage, Jason Schwartzman and Robert Schwartzman. Jason Schwartzman has starred in several films, such as Rushmore and Slackers. He also co-wrote (along with director Wes Anderson and cousin Roman Coppola) and starred in the 2007 film The Darjeeling Limited. His brother, Robert Schwartzman, is the lead singer in the band Rooney and has made small appearances in several films, including his cousin's The Virgin Suicides. Coppola, with his family, expanded his business ventures to include winemaking in California's Napa Valley at the Rubicon Estate Winery in Rutherford, California. He produced his first batch in 1977 with the help of his father, wife and children stomping the grapes barefoot. Every year the family has a harvest party to continue the tradition. His company, Francis Ford Coppola Presents, owns a winery in Geyserville, Sonoma County, California. The company also produces a line of pastas and pasta sauces, and it owns several cafes and resorts. Recent Coppola owns the Turtle Inn in Placencia, Belize. For 14 years he co-owned the Rubicon restaurant in San Francisco along with Robin Williams and Robert De Niro, the restaurant closed in August 2008. Coppola serves as "Honorary Consul H. E. Ambassador Francis Ford Coppola." for the Central American nation of Belize in San Francisco, California. In November 2005, Coppola took part as a special guest at the 46th International Thessaloniki Film Festival in Greece. Coppola is currently living in the San Francisco Bay Area. He also spends considerable time in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he is establishing a subsidiary of his production company. In San Francisco, Coppola owns a restaurant named Cafe Zoetrope, located in the Sentinel Building. It serves traditional Italian cuisine and wine from his personal vineyard and bottling company. Over the years, Francis Coppola has given political contributions to several candidates of the Democratic Party, including Mike Thompson, Nancy Pelosi for the U.S. House of Representatives and Barbara Boxer and Alan Cranston for the U.S. Senate. Francis Ford Coppola. Newsmeat. Career 1960s In the early 1960s, Coppola started his professional career making low-budget films with Roger Corman and writing screenplays. His first notable motion picture was made for Corman, the low-budget Dementia 13. After graduating to mainstream motion pictures with You're a Big Boy Now, Coppola was offered the reins of the movie version of the Broadway musical Finian's Rainbow, starring Petula Clark, in her first American film, and veteran Fred Astaire. Producer Jack Warner was nonplussed by Coppola's shaggy-haired, bearded, "hippie" appearance and generally left him to his own devices. He took his cast to the Napa Valley for much of the outdoor shooting, but these scenes were in sharp contrast to those obviously filmed on a Hollywood soundstage, resulting in a disjointed look to the film. Dealing with outdated material at a time when the popularity of film musicals was already on the downslide, Coppola's end result was only semi-successful, but his work with Clark no doubt contributed to her Golden Globe Best Actress nomination. During this period, Coppola lived for a time with his wife and growing family in Mandeville Canyon in Brentwood, California, according to author Peter Biskind in Easy Riders, Raging Bulls (Touchstone Books, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1998). Early 1970s In 1971, Coppola won an Academy Award for his screenplay for Patton. However, his name as a filmmaker was made as the co-writer and director of The Godfather (1972), The Conversation (1974), and The Godfather Part II (1974). In between directing the Godfather films, Coppola wrote the screenplay for the critically and commercially unsuccessful 1974 adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby, which was directed by Jack Clayton and starred Robert Redford and Mia Farrow. While at Warner Brothers Coppola hired George Lucas as his assistant and eventually produced Lucas' breakthrough film, American Graffiti, which was released in 1973. Also during this period, Coppola invested in San Francisco's City Magazine, hired an all-new staff, including mob daughter and writer Susan Berman, and named himself publisher. Although critically acclaimed, the magazine was short lived. The magazine floundered until 1976 when Coppola published its last issue. The Godfather and The Godfather Part II In 1972, The Godfather was released to critical acclaim and huge commercial success. Directed by Coppola (the first choice for director was Sergio Leone), and adapted by Coppola and Mario Puzo from Puzo's bestselling novel, The Godfather follows the story of the Corleone crime family under Don Vito Corleone during the 1940s and 50s. The film won three Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor for Marlon Brando. Coppola himself was awarded Best Adapted Screenplay, along with Mario Puzo, and was nominated for Best Director. In 1974, the highly anticipated sequel The Godfather Part II was released. Again directed and co-written by Coppola, the second film follows the story of the Corleones under Don Michael Corleone in the late 1950s, intercut with sequences depicting Vito as a young man in the early twentieth century (played by Robert De Niro) and his subsequent rise to power. The sequel was as commercially successful as the first film and received much critical praise. It became the first sequel to win the Academy Award for Best Picture; it also earned Coppola Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay while winning three other awards and earning five other nominations. THX 1138 and American Graffiti In the early 1970s Coppola also helped launch the career of George Lucas by producing his first two films, THX 1138 and American Graffiti. The latter film became a huge success at the box office and met to strong reviews, even earning Coppola a Best Picture nomination. Lucas would later go off to create the extremely successful Star Wars and Indiana Jones series. Coppola would later reunite with George Lucas in 1986 to direct the Michael Jackson film for Disney theme parks, Captain Eo, which at the time was the most expensive film per minute ever made. The Conversation In between The Godfather and The Godfather Part II, Coppola directed The Conversation, the story of a paranoid wiretapping and surveillance expert (played by Gene Hackman) who finds himself caught up in a possible murder plot. The Conversation was released to theaters in 1974 and was also nominated for Best Picture, competing against The Godfather Part II; Coppola became one of the few directors to have two films competing for the Best Picture Oscar since the annual number of nominees was reduced to five in 1945. This had previously been accomplished seven times, by six different directors, between 1937 and 1943, when the Academy announced ten nominees yearly. Coppola's feat would later be matched by Herbert Ross in 1978, with The Goodbye Girl and The Turning Point, and Steven Soderbergh in 2001, with Erin Brockovich and Traffic. While The Godfather Part II won the Oscar, The Conversation won the 1974 Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Apocalypse Now Following the success of The Godfather, The Conversation and The Godfather Part II, Coppola began filming Apocalypse Now, an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness set in Cambodia during the Vietnam War (Coppola himself briefly appears as a TV news director). Before production of the film began, Coppola went to his mentor Roger Corman for advice about shooting in the Philippines, since Corman had filmed several pictures there. It was said that all the advice Corman offered Coppola was "Don't go." The production of the film was plagued by numerous problems, including typhoons, nervous breakdowns, the firing of Harvey Keitel, Martin Sheen's heart attack, extras from the Philippine military leaving in the middle of scenes to go fight rebels, and an unprepared Marlon Brando with a bloated appearance (which Coppola attempted to hide by shooting him in the shadows). It was delayed so often it was nicknamed Apocalypse When?. The film was equally lauded and hated by critics when it finally appeared in 1979, and the cost of production nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio American Zoetrope. The film was selected at the 1979 Cannes Film Festival and won the Palme d'Or, along with The Tin Drum, directed by Volker Schlöndorff. Apocalypse Nows reputation has grown in time and Apocalypse Now is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the New Hollywood era. Roger Ebert considers it to be the finest film on the Vietnam war and included it on his list for the 2002 Sight and Sound poll for the greatest movie of all time. The 1991 documentary film Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse, directed by Eleanor Coppola (Francis's wife), Fax Bahr, and George Hickenlooper, chronicles the difficulties the crew went through making Apocalypse Now, and features behind-the-scenes footage filmed by Eleanor. After filming Apocalypse Now, Coppola famously stated: "We were in the jungle, there were too many of us, we had access to too much money, too much equipment, and little by little, we went insane." In 2001, Coppola re-released Apocalypse Now as Apocalypse Now Redux, restoring several sequences lost from the original 1979 cut of the film, thereby expanding its length to 200 minutes. The UK's 2008 Top Gear special episode, portraying the presenters' epic journey across Vietnam, prepended "Francis Ford" before each name in the rolling credits as a tribute to Coppola's work on this film. 1980s Napoléon restoration and One from the Heart Despite the setbacks during the making of Apocalypse Now, Coppola kept up with film projects, presenting in 1981 a restoration by the British film historian Kevin Brownlow of the celebrated 1927 Abel Gance film Napoléon that was released in the United States by American Zoetrope. Coppola's father scored a soundtrack for this cut of the film. However, more of the film has since been found and incorporated by Brownlow, and Carmine Coppola's soundtrack is written to match the film at a different frame speed from that at which Gance shot it. Coppola's insistence on his father's score (others do exist), and his claim to have worldwide rights on showings of the film (he purchased some rights from Claude Lelouch who in turn had purchased them from a penniless Gance), mean that this film is not presently screened, and its fullest form is unavailable on DVD. Coppola returned to directing with the experimental musical One from the Heart (1982). The film was a financial failure. Hammett Hammett is a 1982 homage to noir films and pulp fiction directed by Wim Wenders and completed by Francis Ford Coppola. The film is a fictionalized story about writer Dashiell Hammett, based on the novel of the same name by Joe Gores. German director Wenders was hired by Coppola to direct this film, which was to be his American debut feature. But by the time the final version was released in 1982, only 30 percent of Wenders' footage remained, and the rest had been completely reshot by Coppola. Wenders made a short film called Reverse Angle documenting his disputes with Coppola surrounding the making of Hammett. The Outsiders In 1982, he directed The Outsiders, a film adaptation of the novel of the same name by S. E. Hinton. Coppola credited his inspiration for making the film to a suggestion from middle school students who had read the novel. The Outsiders is notable for being the breakout film for a number of young actors who would go on to become major stars. These included major roles for Matt Dillon, Ralph Macchio, and C. Thomas Howell. Others rising stars in the cast include Patrick Swayze, Rob Lowe, Emilio Estevez, Diane Lane, and Tom Cruise. Matt Dillon and several others also starred in Coppola's related film, Rumble Fish, which was also based on a S.E. Hinton novel and filmed at the same time as The Outsiders on-location in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Carmine Coppola wrote and edited the musical score, including the title song "Stay Gold", which was based upon a famous Robert Frost poem and performed for the movie by Stevie Wonder. The Cotton Club In 1984 Coppola directed The Cotton Club. The film was produced by Robert Evans. It was a box-office failure, with a budget of $45 million and a gross revenue of only $25 million. Despite performing poorly at the box office, the film was nominated for several awards, including Golden Globes for Best Director and Best Picture (Drama) and the Oscar for best Film Editing. Gardens of Stone and Tucker: The Man and His Dream In 1987 Coppola reteamed with James Caan for Gardens of Stone but the film was overshadowed by the tragic death of Coppola's eldest son Gian-Carlo Coppola during the films production. Also in 1987 he directed an episode of Rip Van Winkle. He followed this with Tucker: The Man and His Dream, a biopic based on the life of Preston Tucker and his attempt to produce and market the Tucker '48. Coppola had originally conceived the project as a musical with Marlon Brando in the lead role as his next project after the release of The Godfather Part II. Now, with Jeff Bridges in the role of Preston Tucker, the film received positive reviews, earning three nominations at the 62nd Academy Awards. New York Stories In 1989 Coppola teamed up with fellow Oscar-winning directors Martin Scorsese and Woody Allen for an anthology film called New York Stories. Coppola directed the Life without Zoe segment starring his sister Talia Shire, and also co-wrote the film with his daughter Sofia Coppola. Life Without Zoe was mostly panned by critics and was generally considered the segment that brought the film's overall quality down. 1990s The Godfather Part III In 1990, he released the third and final chapter of The Godfather series with The Godfather Part III. Coppola successfully managed to get Al Pacino, Diane Keaton, and Talia Shire to return to the franchise, but Robert Duvall refused to reprise his role as Tom Hagen over salary disagreements. While not as critically acclaimed as the first two films, it was still a box office success. Some reviewers criticized the casting of Coppola's daughter Sofia, who stepped into a role abandoned by Winona Ryder just as filming began. Despite this, The Godfather Part III went off to gather 7 Academy Award nominations, including Best Director and Best Picture for Coppola himself. The film failed to win any of these awards, the only film in the trilogy to do so. Dracula, Frankenstein and recent films In 1992, Coppola released Bram Stoker's Dracula, an adaptation of Stoker's novel which tried to follow Stoker's novel more closely than previous film adaptations, although its closeness to the book is often debated. Coppola cast Gary Oldman in the films title role, along with Winona Ryder and Anthony Hopkins. The movie's box office success enabled Coppola to keep his vineyard. The film won Academy Awards for Costume Design, Makeup, and Sound Editing. Two years later Coppola produced, but did not direct an adaptation of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, which featured Kenneth Branagh (who also directed the film) in the title role and Robert De Niro as the monster. Coppola would only make two more films in the 1990s: Jack, starring Robin Williams in 1996, and The Rainmaker, an ensemble courtroom drama in 1997. His next project would not be for another 10 years. Youth Without Youth was released on December 14, 2007. It was made for about $19 million, and was given a limited release. As a result, Coppola announced his plans to produce his own films in order to avoid the marketing input that goes into most films (making them appeal to too-wide an audience). He is currently directing Tetro in Buenos Aires. Meanwhile, for years, he has tried to make a movie called Megalopolis, a film about an architect in a futuristic New York who tries to create utopia through architecture. Zoetrope All Story In 1997, Coppola founded Zoetrope All-Story, a flashy literary magazine that publishes short stories. The magazine has published fiction by T.C. Boyle and Amy Bloom and essays by David Mamet, Steven Spielberg, and Salman Rushdie. Coppola serves as founding editor and publisher of All-Story. Filmography Director Year Film Academy Award Nominations Academy Award Wins 1963 Dementia 13 1966 You're a Big Boy Now 1 1968 Finian's Rainbow 2 1969 The Rain People 1972 The Godfather 10 3 1974 The Conversation 3 The Godfather Part II 11 6 1979 Apocalypse Now 8 2 1982 One from the Heart 1 Hammett (uncredited) 1983 The Outsiders Rumble Fish 1984 The Cotton Club 2 1986 Captain EO Peggy Sue Got Married 3 1987 Gardens of Stone 1988 Tucker: The Man and His Dream 3 1989 New York Stories 1990 The Godfather Part III 7 1992 Bram Stoker's Dracula 4 3 1996 Jack 1997 The Rainmaker 2000 Supernova (uncredited), with Walter Hill and Jack Sholder 2007 Youth Without Youth 2009 Tetro Writer Year Film 1963 Dementia 13 1966 This Property Is Condemned Is Paris Burning? You're a Big Boy Now 1969 The Rain People 1970 Patton 1972 The Godfather 1974 The Great Gatsby The Conversation The Godfather Part II 1979 Apocalypse Now 1982 One from the Heart 1983 Rumble Fish 1984 The Cotton Club 1986 Captain EO 1989 New York Stories 1990 The Godfather Part III 1997 The Rainmaker 2007 Youth Without Youth 2009 Tetro TBA Mirror TBA Megalopolis TBA DescentEditor''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year !! Film |- | 1995 || The Fantasticks (uncredited) |- | 2000 || Supernova (uncredited) |- See also List of directors List of wine personalities Coppola family tree American Zoetrope References Further reading Jeffrey Chown. Hollywood Auteur: Francis Coppola''. New York: Praeger Publishers, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1988. ISBN 0-275-92910-8. External links 2007 Francis Ford Coppola Video Interview with InterviewingHollywood.com Bibliography at the University of California Berkeley Library Francis Ford Coppola Presents Perfecting the Rubicon: An interview with Francis Ford Coppola |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Hollywood Foreign Press |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Cannes Film Festival |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Cannes Film Festival |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | British Academy Film Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Hollywood Foreign Press |- | Francis_Ford_Coppola |@lemmatized francis:14 ford:11 coppola:93 bear:3 april:1 american:11 film:95 director:18 producer:2 screenwriter:1 away:1 showbusiness:1 also:14 vintner:1 magazine:6 publisher:4 hotelier:1 graduate:3 hofstra:2 university:4 study:2 theatre:2 earn:6 f:2 directing:1 ucla:3 school:3 renowned:1 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2,819 | Astrobiology | Nucleic acids may not be the only biomolecules in the Universe capable of coding for life. Astrobiology (other terms have been exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy) is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry, life on Mars and other bodies in our Solar System, laboratory and field research into the origins and early evolution of life on Earth, and studies of the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space. Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be quite different from the Earth's. iTWire - Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How? However, astrobiology concerns itself with an interpretation of existing scientific data; given more detailed and reliable data from other parts of the Universe, the roots of astrobiology itself —biology, physics, chemistry— may have their theoretical bases challenged. Much speculation is entertained in the field to give context, and astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. Overview It is not known whether life elsewhere in the Universe would utilize cell structures like those found on Earth. (Chloroplasts within plant cells shown here.) The Martian meteorite ALH84001 shows microscopic formations that may have been created by life. The etymology of astrobiology comes from Greek , astron, "constellation, star"; , bios, "life"; and , -logia, study. Although astrobiology is an emerging field and still a developing subject, the question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry. David Grinspoon, a planetary scientist, calls astrobiology a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown, in known scientific theory. Elusive Earths | SpaceRef - Your Space Reference Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study. NASA funded its first astrobiology project in 1959 and established an astrobiology program in 1960. The Living Universe: NASA and the Development of Astrobiology, by Steven J. Dick and James E. Strick, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 2004 NASA’s Viking missions to Mars, launched in 1976, included three biology experiments designed to look for possible signs of life. In 1971, NASA funded the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) to survey the sky to detect the existence of transmissions from a civilization on a distant planet. In the 21st century, astrobiology is a focus of a growing number of NASA and European Space Agency Solar System exploration missions. The first European workshop on astrobiology took place in May 2001 in Italy, and the outcome was the Aurora programme. Science | 1 June 2001 | Vol. 292 | no. 5522 pp. 1626 - 1627 | ESA Embraces Astrobiology | DOI: 10.1126/science.292.5522.1626 Currently, NASA hosts the NASA Astrobiology Institute and a growing number of universities in the United States (e.g., University of Arizona, Penn State University, and University of Washington), Britain (e.g., The University of Glamorgan CASE Undergraduate Degrees ), Canada, and Ireland now offer graduate degree programs in astrobiology. A particular focus of current astrobiology research is the search for life on Mars due to its proximity to Earth and geological history. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that Mars has previously had a considerable amount of water on its surface, water being considered to be an essential precursor to the development of carbon-based life. NOVA | Mars | Life's Little Essential | PBS Missions specifically designed to search for life include the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes, both directed to Mars. The Viking results were inconclusive, and Beagle 2 failed to transmit from the surface and is assumed to have crashed. A future mission with a strong astrobiology role would have been the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, designed to study the frozen moons of Jupiter—some of which may have liquid water—had it not been cancelled. Recently, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and to research the history of water there. In 2011, NASA plans to launch the Mars Science Laboratory rover which will continue the search for past or present life on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments. Methodology Narrowing the task When looking for life on other planets, some simplifying assumptions are useful to reduce the size of the task of astrobiologist. One is to assume that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth. While it is possible that non-carbon-based life exists, carbon is well known for the unusually wide variety of molecules that can be formed around it. This planetary habitability chart shows where life might exist on extrasolar planets based on our own Solar System and life on Earth. The presence of liquid water is a useful assumption, as it is a common molecule and provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules that could eventually lead to the emergence of life. Some researchers posit environments of ammonia, or more likely water-ammonia mixtures. These environments are considered suitable for carbon or noncarbon-based life, while opening more temperature ranges (and thus worlds) for life. A third assumption is to focus on sun-like stars. This comes from the idea of planetary habitability. Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life would not likely have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally "locked" to the star. Without a thick atmosphere, one side of the planet would be perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen. In 2005, the question was brought back to the attention of the scientific community, as the long lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow some biology on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant, as red dwarfs are extremely common. (See Habitability of red dwarf systems). It is estimated that 10% of the stars in our galaxy are sun-like; There are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of our Sun. These stars would be useful primary targets for interstellar listening. Since Earth is the only planet known to harbor life, there is no evident way to know if any of the simplifying assumptions are correct. Elements of astrobiology Astronomy Artist's impression of the extrasolar planet OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb orbiting its star 20,000 light-years from Earth; this planet was discovered with gravitational microlensing. The NASA Kepler mission, successfully launched in March 2009, searches for extrasolar planets Most astronomy-related astrobiological research falls into the category of extrasolar planet (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth, then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-like exoplanets are under development, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs. Additionally, NASA has launched the Kepler mission in March 2009, and the French Space Agency has launched the COROT space mission in 2006. There are also several less ambitious ground-based efforts underway. (See exoplanet). The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets, but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface; given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory, is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life. The photometry temporal variability of extrasolar planets may also provide clues to their surface and atmospheric properties. An estimate for the number of planets with intelligent extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the Drake equation, essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise: : where, N = The number of communicative civilizations, R* = The rate of formation of suitable stars (stars such as our Sun), fp = The fraction of those stars with planets. (Current evidence indicates that planetary systems may be common for stars like the Sun), ne = The number of Earth-like worlds per planetary system, fl = The fraction of those Earth-like planets where life actually develops, fi = The fraction of life sites where intelligence develops, fc = The fraction of communicative planets (those on which electromagnetic communications technology develops), L = The "lifetime" of communicating civilizations. However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable error limits any time soon. The first term, Number of Stars, is generally constrained within a few orders of magnitude. The second and third terms, Stars with Planets and Planets with Habitable Conditions, are being evaluated for the sun's neighborhood. Another associated topic is the Fermi paradox, which suggests that if intelligent life is common in the Universe, then there should be obvious signs of it. This is the purpose of projects like SETI, which tries to detect signs of radio transmissions from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations. Another active research area in astrobiology is Planetary system formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of our Solar System (for example, the presence of Jupiter as a protective shield ) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on our planet. No firm conclusions have been reached so far. Biology Hydrothermal vents are able to support extremophile bacteria on Earth and may also support life in other parts of the cosmos. Extremophiles (organisms able to survive in extreme environments) are a core research element for astrobiologists. Such organisms include biota able to survive kilometers below the ocean's surface near hydrothermal vents and microbes that thrive in highly acidic environments. Characterization of these organisms—their environments and their evolutionary pathways—is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the Universe. Recently, a number of astrobiologists have teamed up with marine biologists and geologists to search for extremophiles and other organisms living around hydrothermal vents on the floors of Earth's oceans. Scientists hope to use their findings to help them create hypotheses on whether life could potentially exist on certain moons in our own solar system, such as Europa. The origin of life, distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. Oparin and Haldane postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic precursors and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common to all forms of life we see today. The study of this process, known as prebiotic chemistry, has made some progress, but it is still unclear whether or not life could have formed in such a manner on Earth. The alternative theory of panspermia is that the first elements of life may have formed on another planet with even more favorable conditions (or even in interstellar space, asteroids, etc.) and then have been carried over to Earth by a variety of means. See Origin of life. Astrogeology Astrogeology is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. The information gathered by this discipline allows the measure of a planet's or a natural satellite's potential to develop and sustain life, or planetary habitability. An additional discipline of astrogeology is geochemistry, which involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets, chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition of rocks and soils, the cycles of matter and energy and their interaction with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere of the planet. Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry. The fossil record provides the oldest known evidence for life on Earth. By examining this evidence, paleontologists are able to understand better the types of organisms that arose on the early Earth. Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars. Life in the Solar System Europa, due to the ocean that exists under its icy surface, might host some form of microbial life. The three most likely candidates for life in the solar system (besides Earth) are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon Europa, and Saturn's moon Titan. This speculation is primarily based on the fact that (in the cases of Mars and Europa) the planetary bodies may have liquid water, a molecule essential for life as we know it, for its use as a solvent in cells. Water on Mars is found in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on Mars suggest that liquid water may exist, at least transiently, on the planet's surface, and possibly in subsurface environments such as hydrothermal springs as well. At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline. As for Europa, liquid water likely exists beneath the moon's icy outer crust. This water may be warmed to a liquid state by volcanic vents on the ocean floor (an especially intriguing theory considering the various types of extremophiles that live near Earth's volcanic vents), but the primary source of heat is probably tidal heating. Another planetary body that could potentially sustain extraterrestrial life is Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Titan has been described as having conditions similar to those of early Earth. On Titan, scientists have discovered the first liquid lakes outside of Earth, but they seem to be composed of ethane and/or methane, not water. After Cassini data was studied, it was reported on March 2008 that the oceans in Titan may be composed of liquid water and ammonia. Additionally, Saturn's moon Enceladus may have an ocean below its icy surface. Criticisms The systematic search for possible life outside of Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor. NASA Astrobiology Institute The University of Glamorgan, UK, started just such a degree in 2006, and the American government funds the NASA Astrobiology Institute. However, characterization of non-Earth life is unsettled; hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary widely, but at the present, the development of theories to inform and support the exploratory search for life may be considered astrobiology's most concrete practical application. Biologist Jack Cohen and mathematician Ian Stewart, amongst others, consider xenobiology separate from astrobiology. Cohen and Stewart stipulate that astrobiology is the search for Earth-like life outside of our solar system and say that xenobiologists are concerned with the possibilities open to us once we consider that life need not be carbon-based or oxygen-breathing, so long as it has the defining characteristics of life. (See carbon chauvinism). As with all space exploration, there is the classic argument that there is still a lot more scientists have to learn about Earth. Critics of astrobiology may prefer that public funding remain dedicated towards searching for unknown species in our own terrestrial biosphere. They feel that Earth is the most plausible and practical region to search for and study life. Research outcomes Asteroid(s) may have transported life to Earth. As of 2008, no proof of extraterrestrial life has been identified. Examination of the ALH84001 meteorite, which was recovered in Antarctica in 1984 and believed to have originated from Mars, is thought by some scientists to house microfossils of extraterrestrial origin; this interpretation is controversial. McKay, David S., et al. (1996) "Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001". Science, Vol. 273. no. 5277, pp. 924 - 930. URL accessed March 18, 2006. Methane In 2004, the spectral signature of methane was detected in the Martian atmosphere by both Earth-based telescopes as well as by the Mars Express probe. Because of solar radiation and cosmic radiation, methane is predicted to disappear from the Martian atmosphere within several years, so the gas must be actively replenished in order to maintain the present concentration. Planetary Fourier Spectrometer website (ESA, Mars Express) The Mars Science Laboratory rover will perform precision measurements of oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in the atmosphere of Mars in order to distinguish between a geochemical and a biological origin. Planetary systems It is possible that some planets, like the gas giant Jupiter in our solar system, may have moons with solid surfaces or liquid oceans that are more hospitable. Most of the planets so far discovered outside our solar system, are hot gas giants thought to be inhospitable to life, so it is not yet known whether our solar system, with a warm, rocky, metal-rich inner planet such as Earth, is of an aberrant composition. Improved detection methods and increased observing time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours. For example, NASA's Kepler Mission seeks to discover Earth-sized planets around other stars by measuring minute changes in the star's light curve as the planet passes between the star and the spacecraft. Progress in infrared astronomy and submillimeter astronomy has revealed the constituents of other star systems. Infrared searches have detected belts of dust and asteroids around distant stars, underpinning the formation of planets. Planetary habitability Efforts to answer questions such as the abundance of potentially habitable planets in habitable zones and chemical precursors, have had much success. Numerous extrasolar planets have been detected using the wobble method and transit method, showing that planets around other stars are more numerous than previously postulated. The first Earth-like extrasolar planet to be discovered within its star's habitable zone is Gliese 581 c, which was found using radial velocity. Research into the environmental limits of life and the workings of extreme ecosystems is also ongoing, enabling researchers to predict what planetary environments might be most likely to harbor life. Missions such as the Phoenix lander, Mars Science Laboratory, ExoMars to Mars, the Cassini probe to Saturn's moon Titan, and the "Ice Clipper" mission to Jupiter's moon Europa, hope to further explore the possibilities of life on other planets in our solar system. Rare Earth Hypothesis This hypothesis states that based on astrobiological findings, multi-cellular life forms found on earth may actually be more of a rarity than scientists initially assumed. It provides a possible answer to the Fermi paradox which suggests,"If extraterrestrial aliens are common, why aren't they obvious?" It is apparently in opposition to the principle of mediocrity, assumed by famed astronomers Frank Drake, Carl Sagan, and others. The Principle of Mediocrity suggests that life on Earth is not exceptional, but rather that life is more than likely to be found on innumerable other worlds. The Anthropic Principle states that fundamental laws of the universe work specifically in a way that life would be possible. The Anthropic Principle supports the Rare Earth Hypothesis by arguing the overall elements that are needed to support life on earth are so fine-tuned that it is nigh impossible for another just like it to exist by random chance (note that these terms are used by scientists in a different way from the vernacular conception of them). However, Stephen Jay Gould compared the claim that the universe is fine-tuned for the benefit of our kind of life to saying that sausages were made long and narrow so that they could fit into modern hot dog buns, or saying that ships had been invented to house barnacles. References Peter and Ward, 2000, Webb, Stephen 2002, answersingenesis.org See also Astrosciences Hypothetical types of biochemistry Aurelia and Blue Moon Colonization of the Moon Extraterrestrial life Extremophile Fermi paradox Gravitational biology Life on Mars Publications in astrobiology NASA Astrobiology Institute Origin of life Panspermia Planetary habitability Planetary Science Purple Earth Hypothesis SETI Shadow biosphere Terraforming Xenolinguistics Publications The International Journal of Astrobiology, published by Cambridge University Press, is the forum for practitioners in this interdisciplinary field. Astrobiology, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that explores the origins of life, evolution, distribution, and destiny in the universe. External links Astrobiology Instant Expert on New Scientist Australian Centre for Astrobiology The Astrobiology Web Astrobiology Magazine NASA Astrobiology Institute European Astrobiology Network Association (EANA) Possible Connections Between Interstellar Chemistry and the Origin of Life on the Earth Scientists Find Clues That Life Began in Deep Space - NASA Astrobiology Institute Stars and Habitable Planets NASA-Macquarie University Pilbara Education Project Conditions for Life Everywhere Snaiad, a world-building project with creatures designed with evolutionary biology in mind. 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2,820 | Neoteny | Toy dogs often display an extreme level of neoteny, resembling not just infant, but fetal wolves. Neoteny (), also called juvenilization, is the retention, by adults in a species, of traits previously seen only in juveniles (a kind of pedomorphosis), and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. In neoteny, the physiological (or somatic) development of an animal or organism is slowed or delayed (alternatively, seen as a dilation of biological time). Ultimately this process results in the retention, in the adults of a species, of juvenile physical characteristics well into maturity. The English word neoteny is borrowed from the German Neotenie, the latter constructed from the Greek νέος (young) and τείνειν (tend to). The standard adjectival form is "neotenous", although "neotenic" is often used. In invertebrate biology, neoteny is most easily identified when sexually mature, completely viable juveniles or larvae are found. Specific individual traits that differ in descendant organisms, when compared to ancestors, are sometimes called neotenies; humans, for example, appear to have several neotenies in comparison to chimpanzees. In evolution Neoteny plays a role in evolution, as a means by which, over generations, a species can undergo a significant physical change. In such cases, a species’ neotenous form becomes its “normal” mature form, no longer dependent upon environmental triggers to inhibit maturity. The mechanism for this could be a mutation in or interactions between genes involved in maturation, changing their function to impede this process. Neoteny is not the only contributing factor affecting maturation in species that may have undergone neotenous changes over the course of their evolution, and its actual involvement in the following examples is not well understood: flightless birds—physical proportions resemble those of the chicks of flighted birds; humans—with traits such as sparse body hair and enlarged heads reminiscent of baby primates. Lactose tolerance in adults is a form of neoteny now considered normal in certain populations that traditionally consume cow's milk while most other humans are lactose intolerant as adults. It corresponds to a mutation that permits the digestion of lactose beyond the lactation period. pets, such as dogs—which share many physical features with the immature wolf (these same traits were found during the development of the tame silver fox). Such puppy-like traits may have made early dogs seem "cute" and less threatening than wolves, leading to both natural and artificial selection of such dogs. In humans Neoteny in humans can be seen in different aspects. It can be compared with other great ape species, between the sexes and between individuals. Some examples include: the flatness of the human face compared to other primates late arrival of the teeth Compared to other species The idea that adult humans exhibit certain neotenous (juvenile) features, not evinced in the great apes, is about a century old. Louis Bolk made a long list of such traits, Bolk, L. 1926. Der Problem der Menschwerdung. Fischer, Jena. and Stephen Jay Gould published a short-list in Ontogeny and Phylogeny. short-list of 25 characters reprinted in Gould, Stephen Jay 1977. Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard. p357 "Man, in his bodily development, is a primate foetus that has become sexually mature" (Bolk). The human capacity for long continued learning may be construed as a juvenile trait greatly extended. However, there are, of course, significant differences between juvenile chimpanzees and adult humans, most obviously in human abstract rational thought and language and, less obviously, in the human female sexual cycle. Young J.Z. 1957; 2nd ed 1975. The life of mammals. Oxford. Therefore, neoteny is just one aspect of the story of human evolution. Another theory suggests that humans' neotenous characteristics were an evolutionary strategy that enabled Cro-Magnons (Homo sapiens) to gain predominance over H. neanderthalensis (and possibly H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis) by appealing to these species' nurturing instincts through paedomorphic cuteness to avoid territorial aggression. Noted anthropologist Björn Kurtén explores this concept in his paleofictional Dance of the Tiger (1980). Between sexes While neoteny is not necessarily a physical state experienced by humans, paedomorphic characteristics in women are widely acknowledged as desirable by men. For instance, vellus hair is a juvenile characteristic. However, while men develop longer, coarser, thicker, and darker terminal hair through sexual differentiation, women do not, leaving their vellus hair visible. Desmond Morris discusses the importance of neoteny in human biology in The Naked Ape and The Human Zoo. Between individuals Paedomorphic variations exist not only between the sexes, but also between ethnic groups and even between individuals. Bruce Charlton suggests that there may be such a thing as "psychological neoteny", with cultural causes: "In a psychological sense, some contemporary individuals never actually become adults." See Charlton BG, The rise of the boy-genius: psychological neoteny, science and modern life. Medical Hypotheses. 2006; 67: 679–81. The article is also discussed by Matthew Hutson in The Peter Pan-demic, Psychology Today magazine, November/December 2006, and by Clay Risen in Psychological Neoteny, The New York Times Magazine, December 10, 2006. Delayed maturity might be a consequence of later parenthood, itself caused by more prolonged formal education. Charlton BG, Psychological neoteny and higher education: Associations with delayed parenthood Medical Hypotheses. 2007; 69: 237–40. Similarly, Juliet Schor suggests in Born to Buy that people raised in a modern consumer culture never attain an adult level of self-sufficiency. These "infantilized adults" remain dependent on mass-produced products in the same way that a child is dependent upon parents. In other animals One example of a neotenic trait in vertebrates is the salamander species axolotl, which usually remains fully aquatic as it matures. Other salamanders, such as the widespread tiger salamander of North America, may retain the external gills usually only present in immature individuals, as adults in some populations in marginal habitats. The amphibian Rough-skinned Newt exhibits neoteny in numerous populations, with noted preference in certain geographic areas; moreover, the phenomenon of gill retention in this newt manifests gradations of neoteny in some populations, such that partial gill retention is seen in some individuals. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Rough-skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa), Globaltwitcher, ed. N. Stromberg Progenesis Neoteny and progenesis are both mechanisms that result in paedomorphosis. Neoteny delays physiological, but not sexual, maturity. Comparatively, progenesis speeds up sexual, but not physiological, maturity. Progenetic organisms achieve sexual maturity in their juvenile state. This is most commonly found among certain amphibians and insects. See also Baby face Cuteness Heterochrony Paedogenesis Pedomorphosis References External links DannyReviews.com—Ontogeny and Phylogeny, Stephen Jay Gould (book review), Danny Yee (October 16, 1992) DavidBrin.com—“Neoteny and Two-Way Sexual Selection in Human Evolution: A Paleo-Anthropological Speculation on the Origins of Secondary-Sexual Traits, Male Nurturing and the Child as a Sexual Image,” David Brin, PhD Neoteny.org—“Neoteny: The multidisciplinary implications of heterochronic theory” NIH.gov—“Ontogenetic study of the skull in modern humans and the common chimpanzees: neotenic hypothesis reconsidered with a tridimensional Procrustes analysis,” X. Penin, C. Berge, M. Baylac, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol 118, no 1, p 50-62 (May, 2002) NHM.org—“Neoteny/Juvenilization: Some dogs look and act forever young,” Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Trut, Lyudmila N. (1999). "Early Canid Domestication: The Farm-Fox Experiment" American Scientist. 87(2), 160-169. 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2,821 | Demographics_of_Hungary | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Hungary, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Historical Cumans During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 200,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe of pagan Kipchaks who had opposed them, west of the Carpathian Mountains. There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection. Mongol Invasions: Battle of Liegnitz, HistoryNet In the Kingdom of Hungary, Cumans created two regions named Cumania (Kunság in Hungarian): Greater Cumania (Nagykunság) and Little Cumania (Kiskunság), both located the Great Hungarian Plain. Here, the Cumans maintained their autonomy, language and some ethnic customs well into the modern era. The Iranian Jassic people probably came to the Kingdom of Hungary together with the Cumans in the 13th century after they were defeated by the Mongols. Béla IV, king of Hungary granted them asylum and they became a privileged community with the right of self-government. During the centuries they were fully assimilated to the Hungarian population, their language disappeared, but they preserved their Jassic identity and their regional autonomy until 1876. Over a dozen settlements in Central Hungary (eg. Jászberény, Jászárokszállás, Jászfényszaru) still bear their name. National and historical symbols of Hungary 900-1910 TimePopulationPercentage rate of HungariansNotesc. 900 AD450,000–700,000 55-71% These numbers are disputed. Those who support that the Hungarians were semi-nomadic peoples, believe their number was between 100,000-500,000. Others, who believe that they were nomadic, suggest a considerably lower value, as low as 25,000. Also note that before the conquest, Byzantine sources mention Hungarians were able to send off 20,000 soldiers . This, of course, does not include women, children, convalescents, and elderlies. Thus, with an estimation of that 20,000 is one fifth of the total population, one may get a number of 100,000 Magyars for the year AD 800. After the coquest of the territory (896), and the formation of the Principality of Hungary, according to certain sources, 55-71% Magyars lived in the territory. According to other sources (such as Lazar Stipić, Istina o Mađarima, Novi Sad - Serbia, 2004), the number of Magyars in the area was negligible compared with the number of Slavs until the 13th century. Anyhow, the latter theory does not give an accurate answer on the question how Magyars were not assimilated by Slavs. Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the Royal Geographical Society. Carthographia, Budapest, Hungary, 2005. ISBN 963-352-002-9CM According to various sources between 25,000 'Milan Tutorov: Banatska Rapsodija, istorika Zrenjanina i Banata. Novi Sad, 2001. and 500,000 Hungarian people settled in the Pannonian plain and Transylvania, inhabited by about 200,000 Slavs. Country Studies, Hungary 12222,000,00070-80% Hungary. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 11, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary The time of the Golden Bull.12421,200,000 ?After the Mongol-Tatar's invasion.13702,500,00060-70% At the time of the Angevin kings.14904,000,00080% Before the Ottoman conquest (3.2 million Magyars)16993,300,00050-55% At the time of Treaty of Karlowitz. (less than 2 million Magyars)17113,000,000 53%At the end of Kuruc War. (1.6 million Magyars)17908,000,00037.7%182811,495,53640-45%184612,033,39940-45%188013,749,60346%190016,838,25551.4%191018,264,53354.5%5% Jews (most of them counted as Hungarians) Note: The data refer to the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, not of present-day Hungary. 1920 – today Nationality192019301941 The 1941 data refer to the Greater Hungary of the Miklós Horthy era: the Vienna Awards granted several territories to Hungary, all of which had been part of the Kingdom of Hungary until 1920. 1949196019701980Hungarians7 155 973 89.6 %8 000 335 92.1 %11 881 455 80.9 %9 076 041 98.6 %9 786 038 98.2 %10 166 237 98.5 %10 638 974 99.3 %Germans550 062 6.9 %477 153 5.5, %533 045 3.6 %22 455 0.2 %50 765 0.5 %35 594 0.4 %11 310 0.1 %Slovaks141 877 1.8 %104 786 1.2 %175 550 1.2 %25 988 0.3 %30 630 0.3 %21 176 0.2 %9 101 0.1 %Romanians23 695 0.3 %16 221 0.2 %1 051 026 7.2 %14 713 0.2 %15 787 0.2 %12 624 0.1 %8 874 0.1 %Ruthenians - -547 770 3.7 % - - - -Croats58 931 0.7 %47 337 0.5 %12 346 0.1 %20 423 0.2 %33 014 0.3 %17 609 0.2 %13 895 0.1 %Serbs17 132 0.2 %7 031 0.1 %213 585 1.5 %5 158 0.1 %4 583 0.1 %12 235 0.1 %2 805 0.0%Slovenes6 087 0.1 %5 464 0.1 %94 000 0.1 %4 473 0.1 % -4 205 0.0 %1 731 0.0 %Roma6 989 0.1 %7 841 0.1 %76 209 0.5 %21 387 0.2 %25 633 0.3 %34 957 0.3 %6 404 0.1 %Others26 123 0.3 %18 946 0.2 %29 210 0.2 %14 161 0.1 %14 534 0.1 %17 462 0.2 %16 369 0.2 %Jewish Except in the year 1941, Jewish people were not recognized as a minority, but only as a religion – assuredly, many Jews considered themselves as belonging to one of the recognized minorities. - -139 041 0.9 % - - - -Total7 986 8758 685 10914 679 5739 204 7999 961 04410 322 09910 709 463 Fertility (1900-2008) Population change of Hungary (1910-2009, with comments) Year Total Fertility Rate 1900-1901 5.28 1910-1911 4.67 1920-1921 3.84 1930-1931 2.84 1940-1941 2.48 1948-1949 2.56 1950-1955 2.73 1955-1960 2.21 1960-1965 1.82 1965-1970 1.98 Year Total Fertility Rate 1970-1975 2.09 1974-1977 2.28 1975-1980 2.12 1980-1985 1.81 1985-1990 1.82 1990-1995 1.73 1995-2000 1.38 2000 1.33 2004 1.28 2008 1.34 Present Census 2001 recognised along with Hungarians 16 ethnic groups. Ethnic structure according to 2001 census: (based on self-determination) Hungarians: 9,627,057 or 94.40% Roma: 205,720 or 2.02% Germans: 120,344 or 1.18% Slovaks: 39,266 or 0.38% Croats: 25,730 or 0.25% Romanians: 8,482 or 0.1% Ukrainians: 7,393 or 0.07% Serbs: 7,350 or 0.07% Greeks: 6,619 or 0.06% Poles: 5,144 or 0.05% Russians: 5,144 or 0.05% Slovenes: 4,832 or 0.04% Chinese: 2,915 or 0.03% Arabs: 2,367 or 0.02% Bulgarians: 2,316 or 0.02% Rusyns: 2,079 or 0.02% Armenians: 1,165 or 0.01% Africans: 321 or 0.00% Turks: unknown, but formed a small community. According to census data, the largest religion in Hungary is Catholicism (54.5% - Roman Catholicism 51.9%; Greek Catholicism 2.6% ). There is a significant Calvinist minority (16% of the population) and smaller Lutheran (3%), and Jewish (0.1%) minorities. However, these census figures are representative of religious affiliation rather than practice; fewer than 12% of Hungarians attend religious services at least once a week and fewer than 50% at least once a year, while 30% of Hungarians do not believe in God. For historical reasons, significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, notably in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Slovakia, Romania (in Transylvania), and Serbia (in Vojvodina). Austria (in Burgenland), Croatia, and Slovenia (Prekmurje) are also host to a number of ethnic Magyars. The Roma minority Population pyramid of Budapest (99.2% non-Romany inhabitants), see: Demographics of Budapest Population pyramid of Alsószentmárton (100% Romany inhabitants) Hungarians in subregions The real number of Roma in Hungary is a disputed question. In the 2001 census only 205,720 people (2%) called themselves Roma, but experts and Roma organisations estimate that there are between 450,000 and 1,000,000 Roma living in Hungary http://www.demos.hu/Audit Hungary acknowledges the need for progress regarding its population of 500,000 to 1 million Roma, or Gypsies <ref>[http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=2870 Hungary would put the number of Roma in the country at 800,000-1,000,000, or up to 10% of the total population of Hungary. European Rights Roma Center]</ref> The New York City Times: Roma make up an estimated 8 to 10 percent of Hungary’s population The christian science monitor: "[...] the Roma, who account for between 8 and 10 percent of Hungary's 10 million people." . During World War II, 50,000 Roma were killed in Hungary. Since then, the size of the Roma population has increased rapidly. Today every fifth or sixth newborn child belongs to the Roma minority "Ma minden ötödik-hatodik születendő gyermek cigány." . Based on current demographic trends, a 2006 estimate by Central European Management Intelligence claims that the proportion of the roma population will double by 2050. "A CEMI kalkulációja szerint a romák száma a mai 700 ezerről 2050-re 1,2 millióra nőhet. Ezen idő alatt a nem roma népesség száma 9,5 millióról 7,6 millióra csökken. Így a romák mai mintegy 7 százalékos aránya megduplázódhat és elérheti a 14-15 százalékot." There are problems related to the Roma minority in Hungary, and the very subject is a heated and disputed topic. Objective problems: Education/bad chances for work: slightly more than 80% of Roma children complete primary education, but only one third continue studies into the intermediate (secondary) level. This is far lower than the more than 90% proportion of children of non-Roma families who continue studies at an intermediate level. Less than 1% of Roma hold higher educational certificates. "Az érettségit megszerzők aránya azonban 0,5%-ról csupán 1,5%-ra nőtt, felsőfokú végzettséget pedig elenyésző számban szereztek.", "A felsőoktatásban tanulók aránya az 1993-as kutatás adatai szerint mindössze 0,22 ezrelék." Poverty: most of the Roma people live in significantly worse conditions than others. Index - Romák a szegénység csapdájában Bad health conditions: life expectancy is about 10 years less compared to non-Romas Lack of debate regarding the subject: academic researchers and members of the mainstream press disregard any critics and study the subject in the canonical viewpoint. Critics don't have the funds necessary to perform alternative studies. Please note that this list below consists disputed issues. Natural repugnance: there are differences is the social behavior of the host nation and the Roma people leading to a disinclination towards each other. This is slowly decaying on the Hungarian side (36-38% 'Az 1993-1995 közötti három évet jellemző 40-42 százalékos szintről a 2001-2003 közötti három éves időszakban 36-38 százalékra csökkent azok aránya, kik magikra nézve igaznak tartották azt a kijelentést, hogy "idegenkedem a cigányoktól"' (sic). ); as of 2007, there is no research made regarding the Roma side. Integration problems on the host side: there's a significant prejudice towards Roma people in Hungary affecting the motivation for integration. Exact numbers are unknown as the research material available mixes prejudice with "post-judice". Integration problems on the Roma side: some Roma people have apparent trouble adjusting to the European standards of social behavior regarding loud-mouthing, littering and being non-violent, law-abiding and working citizens. As of 2007, there is no research available on this issue. Problems with motivation for work: as of 2007, what can be earned with work can be obtained having many children Minimal monthly wage: 65,500 HUF ("2007.01.01-jétől 65.500,-Ft"), monthly family allowance for a family of 5: 74,500 HUF ("3 és több gyermekes család 14.900/hó/gyermek"). , which does not move Roma people towards work as they usually have more children anyway. Crime: "gipsy crime" ("cigánybűnözés" in Hungarian) is a phenomenon well disputed and often misunderstood. Although originally it refers to some crimes (eg. stealing of items made of copper, lynch, some robbery types, scuffle between families) often committed by Roma offenders, critics say it stigmatizes all Roma people. As a result (as of 2007), Hungarian authorities don't collect any data that could be used to study the issue, therefore no research is available regarding this topic. It's believed that there is a pattern in the crimes committed by Roma criminals and that the ratio of Roma inmates are much higher compared to non-Romas, a phenomenon common in other countries too , (Finnish only) . School segregation: likely due to repugnance, non-Roma people tend to choose schools with less problematic Roma children. It's also believed that there were cases where healthy Roma children were assigned to classes for pupils with learning disabilities (although this might have been a financial issue). CIA World Factbook demographic statistics 94.4% of the country's inhabitants are Hungarians. The graph shows the share of specific national and ethnic minorities of Hungary in the remainder 5.6% The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 10,198,315 (2001) Age structure:0-14 years:17% (male 878,661; female 834,607)15-64 years:68% (male 3,407,368; female 3,535,818)65 years and over:15% (male 548,672; female 933,718) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: -0.25% (2006 est.) Population decline is abating. Some interesting figures in 2000: population growth rate was -0.33%; there were 9.62 births/1,000 population (death rate: 13.34 deaths/1000 population); fertility rate - 1.25 children born/woman. Life expectancy increased by approximately 1.3 years under the same time. Birth rate: 9.90 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 13.11 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: 0.83 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio:at birth:1.05 male(s)/femaleunder 15 years:1.05 male(s)/female15-64 years:0.96 male(s)/female65 years and over:0.59 male(s)/femaletotal population:0.91 male(s)/female (2001) Infant mortality rate: 9.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth:total population:72.66 yearsmale:68.45 yearsfemale:77.14 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.32 children born/woman (2005 est.) Ethnic groups: Hungarian 94.4%, Roma 2.02%, German 1.18%, Slovak 0.38%, Croats 0.25%, Romanian 0.14%, Ukrainian 0.07%, Serbs 0.07%, Greeks 0.07%, Poles 0.05%, Slovenes 0.05%. Religion: According to census data, the largest religion in Hungary is Catholicism (54.5% - Roman Catholicism 51.9%; Greek Catholicism 2.6% ). There is a significant Calvinist minority (16% of the population) and smaller Lutheran (3%), and Jewish (0.1%) minorities. However, these census figures are representative of religious affiliation rather than practice; fewer than 12% of Hungarians attend religious services at least once a week and fewer than 50% at least once a year, while 30% of Hungarians do not believe in God. Literacy:definition:age 15 and over can read and writetotal population:99.4%male:99.5%female:99.3% (2003 est.)See also :'' Hungary Notes | Demographics_of_Hungary |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:28 hungary:32 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:3 level:3 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:5 affiliation:3 aspect:1 historical:4 cumans:6 russian:2 campaign:1 mongol:4 drive:1 nomadic:3 tribe:1 pagan:1 kipchaks:1 oppose:1 west:1 carpathian:1 mountain:1 appeal:1 king:3 béla:2 iv:2 protection:1 invasion:2 battle:1 liegnitz:1 historynet:1 kingdom:4 create:1 two:1 region:1 name:2 cumania:3 kunság:1 hungarian:19 great:3 nagykunság:1 little:1 kiskunság:1 locate:1 plain:2 maintain:1 autonomy:2 language:2 ethnic:6 custom:1 well:2 modern:1 era:2 iranian:1 jassic:2 people:13 probably:1 come:1 together:1 century:3 defeat:1 grant:2 asylum:1 become:1 privilege:1 community:2 right:2 self:2 government:1 fully:1 assimilate:2 disappear:1 preserve:1 identity:1 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2,822 | Beast_of_Bodmin | The Beast of Bodmin, like The Beast of Exmoor, is a phantom wild cat which is purported to range in Cornwall in the United Kingdom. Bodmin Moor became a centre of these sightings with occasional reports of mutilated slain livestock: the alleged panther-like cats of the same region came to be popularly known as the Beast of Bodmin Moor. In general, scientists reject such claims because of the improbably large numbers necessary to maintain a breeding population Bigfoot hunting and because climate and food supply issues would make such purported creatures' survival in reported habitats unlikely Sjögren, Bengt, Berömda vidunder, Settern, 1980, ISBN 91-7586-023-6 . Investigation A long held hypothesis suggested the possibility that alien big cats at large in the United Kingdom could have been imported as part of private collections or zoos, later escaped or set free. An escaped big cat could not be reported to the authorities due to the illegality of owning and importing the animals. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food decided to conduct an official investigation in 1995. The study's findings decided there was "no verifiable evidence" of exotic felines loose in Britain, and that the mauled farm animals could have been attacked by common indigenous species. The report stated that "the investigation could not prove that a 'big cat' is not present." However the police have released classified pictures of large cats shot by farmers. Skull Less than a week after the government report, a boy was walking by the River Fowey when he discovered a large cat skull. Measuring about four inches wide and seven inches long (10 × 18 cm), the skull was minus its lower jaw but possessed two sharp, prominent canines that suggested that it might have been a leopard. The story hit the national press at about the same time of the official denial of alien big cat evidence on Bodmin Moor. The skull was sent to the Natural History Museum in London for verification. They determined that it was a genuine skull from a young male leopard, but also found that the cat had not died in Britain and that the skull had been imported as part of a leopard-skin rug. The back of the skull was cleanly cut off in a way that is commonly used to mount the head on a rug. There was an egg case inside the skull that had been laid by a tropical cockroach that could not possibly be found in Britain. There were also cut marks on the skull indicating the flesh had been scraped off with a knife, and the skull had begun to decompose only after a recent submersion in water. The Beast of Bodmin Moor, Natural History Museum, London. See also British Big Cats Cryptozoology Beast of Exmoor References External links Cryptozoology and the Beast of Bodmin Moor Photographic evidence of possible big cat in Gloucestershire | Beast_of_Bodmin |@lemmatized beast:6 bodmin:6 like:2 exmoor:2 phantom:1 wild:1 cat:11 purport:2 range:1 cornwall:1 united:2 kingdom:2 moor:5 become:1 centre:1 sighting:1 occasional:1 report:4 mutilate:1 slain:1 livestock:1 allege:1 panther:1 region:1 come:1 popularly:1 know:1 general:1 scientist:1 reject:1 claim:1 improbably:1 large:4 number:1 necessary:1 maintain:1 breeding:1 population:1 bigfoot:1 hunting:1 climate:1 food:2 supply:1 issue:1 would:1 make:1 creature:1 survival:1 reported:1 habitat:1 unlikely:1 sjögren:1 bengt:1 berömda:1 vidunder:1 settern:1 isbn:1 investigation:3 long:2 held:1 hypothesis:1 suggest:2 possibility:1 alien:2 big:6 could:5 import:3 part:2 private:1 collection:1 zoo:1 later:1 escape:1 set:1 free:1 escaped:1 authority:1 due:1 illegality:1 animal:2 ministry:1 agriculture:1 fishery:1 decide:2 conduct:1 official:2 study:1 finding:1 verifiable:1 evidence:3 exotic:1 feline:1 loose:1 britain:3 mauled:1 farm:1 attack:1 common:1 indigenous:1 specie:1 state:1 prove:1 present:1 however:1 police:1 release:1 classified:1 picture:1 shoot:1 farmer:1 skull:10 less:1 week:1 government:1 boy:1 walk:1 river:1 fowey:1 discover:1 measure:1 four:1 inch:2 wide:1 seven:1 cm:1 minus:1 low:1 jaw:1 possess:1 two:1 sharp:1 prominent:1 canine:1 might:1 leopard:3 story:1 hit:1 national:1 press:1 time:1 denial:1 send:1 natural:2 history:2 museum:2 london:2 verification:1 determine:1 genuine:1 young:1 male:1 also:3 find:2 die:1 skin:1 rug:2 back:1 cleanly:1 cut:2 way:1 commonly:1 use:1 mount:1 head:1 egg:1 case:1 inside:1 lay:1 tropical:1 cockroach:1 possibly:1 mark:1 indicate:1 flesh:1 scrap:1 knife:1 begin:1 decompose:1 recent:1 submersion:1 water:1 see:1 british:1 cryptozoology:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 possible:1 gloucestershire:1 |@bigram beast_bodmin:4 bodmin_moor:5 agriculture_fishery:1 external_link:1 |
2,823 | Connection_(dance) | Connection is essential to all partner dancing and is the primary means to communicate synchronized dance movement between the lead and follow. It is especially important in Argentine Tango, Lindy Hop, Balboa, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, Salsa, Contra dance, Modern Jive and other styles of partner dance. Other forms of communication, such as visual cues or spoken cues, are often considered to spoil the dance, unless used in specific circumstances, e.g., practicing figures, or figures which are purposely danced without physical connection. Connection can be used to transmit power and energy as well as information and signals - some dance forms (and some dancers) are at one extreme of pure power, and others will be at the other extreme of pure signaling, but most are probably a mixture of both. Following and leading in a partner dance is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the frame that allows the leader to transmit body movement to the follower, and for the follower to suggest ideas to the leader. A frame is a stable structural combination of both bodies maintained through the dancers' arms and/or legs. Connection occurs in both open and closed dance positions (also called "open frame" and "closed frame"). In closed position with body contact, connection is achieved by maintaining the frame. The follower moves to match the leader, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position. In an open position or a closed position without body contact, the hands and arms alone provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral. During tension or leverage connection, the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force. The arms do not originate this force alone: they are often assisted by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum. During compression connection, the dancers are pushing towards each other. In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the weight of the follower's hands in the leader's. In swing dances, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time. In other dances, such as Latin, tension and compression may be used as indications of upcoming movement. However, in both styles, tension and compression do not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move prior to actual movement by the lead. Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands. In some styles of Lindy Hop, the tension may become quite high without initiating movement. The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader's hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body. Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the corresponding move of the body. Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct. Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns. Instead of just tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles. Movement originates in the body's core. A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection. Different forms of dance and different movements within each dance may call for differences in the connection. In some dances the separation distance between the partners remains pretty constant. In others eg Modern Jive moving closer together and further apart are fundamental to the dance, requiring flexion and extension of the arms, alternating compression and tension. The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner. Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners. See also Frame Dance move Lead and follow Musicality | Connection_(dance) |@lemmatized connection:15 essential:1 partner:7 dance:18 primary:1 mean:1 communicate:1 synchronized:1 movement:9 lead:5 follow:3 especially:1 important:1 argentine:1 tango:1 lindy:2 hop:2 balboa:1 east:1 coast:2 swing:3 west:1 salsa:1 contra:1 modern:2 jive:2 style:3 form:4 communication:2 visual:1 cue:2 speak:1 often:2 consider:1 spoil:1 unless:1 use:3 specific:1 circumstance:1 e:1 g:1 practicing:1 figure:2 purposely:1 without:4 physical:2 transmit:2 power:2 energy:1 well:2 information:1 signal:2 dancer:6 one:2 extreme:2 pure:2 others:2 signaling:1 probably:1 mixture:1 following:1 accomplish:1 maintain:6 call:3 frame:7 allow:1 leader:6 body:10 follower:5 suggest:1 idea:1 stable:1 structural:1 combination:1 arm:6 leg:1 occur:1 open:4 close:2 position:6 also:2 closed:2 contact:2 achieve:3 move:10 match:2 pressure:2 two:2 hand:6 alone:2 provide:1 may:5 three:1 tension:9 compression:6 neutral:2 leverage:1 pull:1 away:1 equal:1 opposite:1 force:3 originate:3 assist:1 trunk:1 musculature:1 weight:2 momentum:1 push:1 towards:1 impart:1 significant:1 period:1 time:1 latin:1 indication:1 upcoming:1 however:1 immediate:1 must:2 careful:1 prior:1 actual:1 become:1 quite:1 high:1 initiate:2 general:1 rule:1 back:1 forth:1 leave:1 right:1 entire:1 accordingly:1 connected:1 immediately:1 transform:1 corresponding:1 tense:2 muscle:2 lock:1 effect:1 neither:1 comfortable:1 correct:1 eliminate:2 subtler:1 free:1 require:2 many:1 turn:1 instead:1 engage:1 shoulder:1 upper:1 torso:1 core:1 different:3 within:1 difference:1 separation:1 distance:1 remain:1 pretty:1 constant:1 eg:1 closer:1 together:1 apart:1 fundamental:1 flexion:1 extension:1 alternate:1 feel:1 every:2 good:1 social:1 adapt:1 convention:1 response:1 see:1 musicality:1 |@bigram argentine_tango:1 lindy_hop:2 contra_dance:1 |
2,824 | Geography_of_Colombia | +Geography of ColombiaSan Andres y Providencia)]]Relief map of Colombia. (San Andres Archipielago not shown)Area'Total1,141,748 km² 440,839 sq miLand1,058,700 km²Water470,131 km² 181,519 sq miLatitude4°0' NLongitude72°0'WBordersVenezuela2,850 kmBrazil1,653 kmPeru2,696 km 12,380 milesEcuador 590 kmPanama 225 kmMaritime claimsContinental shelf200-m depth or to the depth of exploitationEconomic zone200 nautical miles (370 km)Territorial sea12 nautical miles (22 km) The geography of Colombia is characterized by containing five main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains) shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is one of only two South American countries which border both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Colombia is located in the northwestern region of South America bordering to the east with Venezuela and Brazil; to the south with Ecuador and Peru; to the North with the Atlantic Ocean, through the Caribbean Sea; and to the west with Panama and the Pacific Ocean. UNAL: History of the Colombian current territory UNAL Accessed 23 August 2007. Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru. DANE: 2005 Census of Colombia - total area dane.gov.co Accessed 23 August 2007. Despite its large territory, Colombia's population is not evenly distributed with most Colombians living in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as the northern coastline, most living in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are mostly sparsely inhabited tropical rainforest and inland tropical plains containing small farming communities and indigenous tribes. Natural regions Colombia usually classifies its geography into five regions. Despite this The World Factbook makes no difference between Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). The World Factbook considers most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains. The chief wester mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 13,000 ft (4,000 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 17,000 ft (5,000 m). The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area. This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Andean Region Páramo of Rabanal, Boyacá. Glaciers in Colombia. Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 18,700 ft (5,700 m), and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands. The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core. The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 9,840 ft (3,000 m) above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 4,985 ft (1,520 m) above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical. The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 124 mi (200 km) of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands. The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes that is 500 mi (800 km) long. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 10,825 ft (3,300 m). The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 17,602 ft (5,365 m) above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast. Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River. This 1,600-kilometer-long river rises near a point some 180 kilometers north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 kilometers from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters. In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters, three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters above sea level. To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia. Caribbean region Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest standing mountain by the sea. The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters and slopes generally too steep for cultivation. The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches. The city of Cartagena is mostly a touristic city with some basic industry, such as Santa marta, but the latter is a smaller-scale city by comparison. barranquilla is located some 25 miles away from the caribbean sea coastline but it's a more advanced and developed city with a much more complex industrial capacity, widely renowed for its talent and efficiency in all forms of metalworks, construction and the development of sciences and engineerings, being that its inhabitants have the highest cultural level of the region and the city is famous for its technical and scientifical achievements being the starting point and focus of the region and the country's development as the first city in the country with the use of phones, public lighting, air mail, planes and industrial works as well as cultural events and such. The Caribbean region merges into and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17% of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s. The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua. However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid drug trade or foreign invasion and the islands are home to 2 important bases for defense and custom controls, formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance as the local universities often research in the area of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, inmunology and Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, implant development or prosthetics and inmunology and these facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories. The Insular Region is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia which comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Insular region subregions include other group of islands; Archipiélago de San Bernardo (in the Morrosquillo Gulf, Caribbean). Islas del Rosario.(Caribbean) Isla Fuerte.(Caribbean) Isla Barú.(Caribbean) Isla Tortuguilla.(Caribbean) Isla Tierra Bomba. (Caribbean) On an special note, although the border between the Caribbean region and the Andes region has some presence of guerrilla left-wing exremist groups and some paramilitary right-wing groups, their presence is marginal in that area and even more minoritary in the rest of the Caribbean region, as opposed to the heavy presence and social infiltration they have in the inner side of the country where they are infiltrated in most levels of society and economic sectors or establishments and institutions while the government fights heavily to purge such insurgent infiltrates out of such cities. Arguably, it's the "peace zone" of the country for its low criminality, the low-level violence of its crimes and the absence of major organized crimes, gangs and the sort which make the regions afe for tourism from international visitors and this is due to the native people's desdain for the use of violence, brutality and for violent crime or aggression, in spite of being the region where the best and fiercest fighters in Boxing and other fighting and contact sports, martial arts and wrestling, and also where most of the male inhabitants and natives know one of such styles and follows it regularly on the news and sports broadcasts and shows. Pacific region The western third of the country is the most geographically complex. Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered. In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland, which has been proposed as a possible alternate to the Panama Canal as a human-made route between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity sharing a bit with Venezuela which splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border. In the 1980s, only 3% of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest. The Atrato Swamp—in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama—is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile environment. Orinoquía Region The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers, or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2% of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced. The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an out lier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes. Amazon Region Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigational. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flow into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south. Climate Flooding in Colombia, April 2004 The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15°C, and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1°C. More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5°C at night to 17°C during the day. Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters to about 3,500 meters constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado). About 86% of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24°C and 38°C, and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation. Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 760 centimeters annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with 13,299 mm (523.9 inches). Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation. National Climatic Data Center. August 9, 2005. Last accessed January 18, 2007. In eastern Colombia, it decreases from 635 centimeters in portions of the Andean piedmont to 254 centimeters eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October. The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters) and Cali (1,030 meters) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19°C and 24°C, depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons. The Atrato River. The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10°C and 19°C, and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone. Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of thirty-five centimeters recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts. Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined "ethnocultural" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Colombia's proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about 3.5°F (2°C) for every 1,000-foot (300-meter) increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (75 cm) per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in (500 cm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes. Colombia rocks. Flora and Fauna Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below 3,300 ft (1,000 m), is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 3,300 to 6,600 ft (1,000 to 2,000 m), is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from 6,600 to 10,500 ft (2,000 to 3,200 m). In the "zona forestada" (forested zone), which is located between 10,500 and 12,800 ft (3,200 and 3,900 m), many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 12,800 to 15,100 ft (3,900 to 4,600 m). Above 15,100 ft (4,600 m), where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of permanent snow and ice. Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. Relief Shaded relief map of Colombia The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Range, Centre Range and West Range) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name. The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called "Los Llanos" is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía. At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west. Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chieftly at the north (Chocó). The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the María Mountains and the San Lucas Range. In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Darién and the Baudó Ranges. In the eastern Region, there is the Macarena Range and there are formations belonging to the Guyanas Shield. The capital of Colombia is Bogota. The government is a republic. Protected Areas National Natural Parks of Colombia Natural Resources The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored. Colombia has one of the largest coal open mine pits in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula. It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains. Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum and uranium extraction. Encyclopedia Encarta: Natural Resources of Colombia Encyclopedia Encarta Accessed 24 August 2007. Environmental issues Land use map of Colombia, 1970 Economic activity map of Colombia, 1970 The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas. Extreme Points Highest points Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the 4,700-meter elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s. Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades. USGS: Glaciers of Colombia USGS Accessed 23 August 2007. Facts Land boundaries: total: 6,004 km Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km) Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower Land use: arable land: 2.42% permanent crops: 1.67% other: 95.91% (2001) Irrigated land: 8,500 km² (1998 est.) Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea Hydrology Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively. Caribbean DrainPacifice DrainOrinoco BasinAmazon BasinRivers confined to ColombiaAtrato Cauca Magdalena Nechí SinúBaudó Patía San JuanGuaviare Inírida Meta VichadaApaporis CaguánRivers originated in ColombiaCatatumboAraucaCaquetá Guainía Putumayo River Vaupés Lakes The mouth of the Magdalena River and the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta. Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta La Cocha Lagoon Lake Tota See also Environmental issues in Colombia References Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390. Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568. 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2,825 | Geography_of_the_Czech_Republic | The Czech landscape is quite varied. Bohemia to the west consists of a basin, drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and Vltava rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the Sudetes with its part Krkonoše, where one also finds the highest point in the country, the Sněžka at 1,602 metres (5,256 ft). Moravia, the eastern part, is also quite hilly and is drained predominantly by the Morava river, but also contains the source of the Oder (Czech: Odra) river. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea. The Czech Republic also possesses Moldauhafen, a 30,000m2 enclave in the middle of Hamburg docks which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships; this territory reverts to Germany in 2018. Location: Central Europe, southeast of Germany Map of the Czech Republic Satellite image of the Czech Republic Geographic coordinates: Map references: Europe Area: total: 78 866 km² land: 77 276 km² water: 1 590 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than South Carolina; slightly larger than Scotland Land boundaries: total: 1 881 km border countries: Austria 362 km, Germany 646 km, Poland 658 km, Slovakia 215 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Climate: temperate; hot summers; cold, cloudy, white winters Terrain: Bohemia in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; Moravia in the east consists of very hilly country Elevation extremes: lowest point: Elbe River 115 m highest point: Sněžka 1602 m Natural resources: hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite, timber, uranium Land use: arable land: 41% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 11% forests and woodland: 34% other: 12% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 240 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: flooding Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulfur 85, Air Pollution-Sulfur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol Geography - note: landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the Danube in central Europe See also : Czech Republic | Geography_of_the_Czech_Republic |@lemmatized czech:8 landscape:1 quite:2 varied:1 bohemia:2 west:2 consist:2 basin:1 drain:2 elbe:2 labe:1 vltava:1 river:5 surround:2 mostly:1 low:3 mountain:2 sudetes:1 part:2 krkonoše:1 one:1 also:5 find:1 high:2 point:3 country:4 sněžka:2 metre:1 ft:1 moravia:2 eastern:1 hilly:2 predominantly:1 morava:1 contain:1 source:1 oder:1 odra:1 water:2 landlocked:5 republic:5 flow:1 three:1 different:1 sea:5 north:2 baltic:1 black:1 possess:1 moldauhafen:1 enclave:1 middle:1 hamburg:1 dock:1 award:1 czechoslovakia:1 article:1 treaty:2 versailles:1 allow:1 place:1 good:1 transport:1 could:1 transfer:1 seagoing:1 ship:2 territory:1 revert:1 germany:3 location:1 central:2 europe:4 southeast:1 map:2 satellite:1 image:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:2 total:2 land:6 comparative:1 slightly:2 small:1 south:1 carolina:1 large:1 scotland:1 boundary:1 km:6 border:1 austria:1 poland:1 slovakia:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 none:1 climate:3 temperate:1 hot:1 summer:1 cold:1 cloudy:1 white:1 winter:1 terrain:1 roll:1 plain:2 hill:1 plateau:1 east:1 consists:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 natural:2 resource:1 hard:1 coal:2 soft:1 kaolin:1 clay:1 graphite:1 timber:1 uranium:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 flooding:1 environment:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 air:6 pollution:7 nitrogen:1 oxide:1 sulfur:2 volatile:1 organic:2 compound:1 antarctic:2 biodiversity:1 change:2 kyoto:1 protocol:2 endanger:1 specie:1 environmental:2 modification:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratify:1 persistent:1 pollutant:1 geography:1 note:1 strategically:1 locate:1 astride:1 old:1 significant:1 route:1 moravian:1 gate:1 traditional:1 military:1 corridor:1 european:1 danube:1 see:1 |@bigram metre_ft:1 czech_republic:5 baltic_sea:1 treaty_versailles:1 seagoing_ship:1 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 landlocked_maritime:1 none_landlocked:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 nitrogen_oxide:1 pollution_volatile:1 volatile_organic:1 organic_compound:1 biodiversity_climate:1 kyoto_protocol:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 pollution_persistent:1 persistent_organic:1 organic_pollutant:1 |
2,826 | Diplomatic_immunity | Diplomatic immunity is a form of legal immunity and a policy held between governments, which ensures that diplomats are given safe passage and are considered not susceptible to lawsuit or prosecution under the host country's laws (although they can be expelled). It was agreed as international law in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961), though the concept and custom have a much longer history. Many principles of diplomatic immunity are now considered to be customary law. Diplomatic immunity as an institution developed to allow for the maintenance of government relations, including during periods of difficulties and even . When receiving diplomats—formally, representatives of the sovereign (head of state)—the receiving head of state grants certain privileges and immunities to ensure that they may effectively carry out their duties, on the understanding that these will be provided on a reciprocal basis. Originally, these privileges and immunities were granted on a bilateral, ad hoc basis, which led to misunderstandings and conflict, pressure on weaker states, and an inability for other states to judge which party was at fault. Various international agreements known as the Vienna Conventions codified the rules and agreements, providing standards and privileges to all states. It is possible for the official's home country to waive immunity; this tends to only happen when the individual has committed a serious crime, unconnected with their diplomatic role (as opposed to, say, allegations of spying), or has witnessed such a crime. Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the individual. Many countries refuse to waive immunity as a matter of course; individuals have no authority to waive their own immunity (except perhaps in cases of defection). History Ancient times During the evolution of the international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides. In such cases, the servants of the "criminal" sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated. In other circumstances, harbingers of inconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war. Herodotus records that when heralds of the Persian king Darius the Great demanded "earth and water" (i.e., symbols of submission) of various Greek cities, the Athenians threw them into a pit and the Spartans threw them down a well (suggesting they would find both earth and water at the bottom) (Hdt. 7.133). A Roman envoy was urinated on as he was leaving the city of Tarentum. The oath of the envoy: "This stain will be washed away with blood!" was fulfilled during the Second Punic War. The arrest and ill-treatment of the envoy of Raja Raja Chola by the Chera King led to the Kandalur War. Pope Gelasius I was the first ever recorded pope to historically enjoy diplomatic immunity, as it is noted in his letter Duo sunt to emperor Anastasius. Duo sunt In Islamic tradition, a messenger should not be harmed, even if coming from an arch-enemy and bearing a highly provocative or offensive message. A hadith attributes this sunnah to the time when Musaylimah sent to the Prophet Muhammad messengers who proclaimed Musaylimah be a Prophet of Allah and the co-equal of Prophet Muhammad himself. The Prophet told them, "I swear by Allah that were it not that messengers are not killed, I would cut off your heads", (అబూదావూద్ :1185). As diplomats by definition enter the country under safe-conduct, violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honour, although there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well-known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often take terrifying vengeance against any state that violated these rights. In 1538, King Francis I of France threatened Edmund Bonner—Henry VIII's Ambassador to the French court and later Bishop—with a hundred strokes of the halberd as punishment for Bonner's "insolent behaviour". Though in the event the punishment was not actually inflicted, the incident clearly indicates that European monarchs at the time did not consider foreign ambassadors to be immune from punishment. The beginnings of modern immunity The British Parliament first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors in 1709, after Count Andrey Matveyev, a Russian resident in London, had been subjected by British bailiffs to verbal and physical abuse. Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy. In the seventeenth century European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats. These were still confined to Western Europe, and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility. Thus an emissary to the Ottoman Empire could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between their state and the empire. The French Revolution also disrupted this system as the revolutionary state and Napoleon imprisoned a number of diplomats accused of working against France. More recently, the Iran hostage crisis is universally considered a violation of diplomatic immunity (although the hostage takers did not officially represent the state, host countries have an obligation to protect diplomatic property and personnel). On the other hand, in the Second World War, diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies evacuated through neutral countries. For the upper class of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand. The first "embassies" were not permanent establishments, but actual visits by high-ranking representatives of the sovereign (often their close relatives), or even the sovereign in person. As various permanent representations evolved, usually on a treaty basis between two powers, these also were frequently staffed by relatives of the sovereign or high-ranking nobles. Warfare was not between individuals but between their sovereigns, and the officers and officials of European governments and armies often changed employers. Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, along with fraternization between officers of enemy armies during them. When prisoners, the officers usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war. Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms. Even during French revolutionary wars, British scientists visited the French Academy. In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws. After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs. In the nineteenth century the Congress of Vienna system reasserted the rights of diplomats, and they have been largely respected since then as the European model has spread throughout the world. Currently, diplomatic immunity, as well as diplomatic relations as a whole, are governed internationally by Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which has been ratified by almost every country in the world. In modern times, diplomatic immunity continues to provide a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel from any animosity that might arise between nations. As one article put it: "So why do we agree to a system in which we're dependent on a foreign country's whim before we can prosecute a criminal inside our own borders? The practical answer is: because we depend on other countries to honor our own diplomats' immunity just as scrupulously as we honor theirs." Abuse The Vienna Convention is explicit that "without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State." Nevertheless, in some occasions, diplomatic immunity leads to some unfortunate results; protected diplomats have violated laws (including those which would be violations at home as well) of the host country and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (persona non grata). Diplomatic agents are not, however, exempt from the jurisdiction of their home state, and hence prosecution may be undertaken by the sending state; for minor violations of the law, the sending state may impose administrative procedures specific to the foreign service or diplomatic mission. Violation of the law by diplomats has included espionage, smuggling, child custody law violations, and even murder: in London in 1984, policewoman Yvonne Fletcher was killed on the street by a person shooting from inside the Libyan embassy. The incident caused a breakdown in diplomatic relations until Libya admitted "general responsibility" in 1999. Espionage Minor espionages, or gathering information of host countries are conducted in every embassy. A typical position for an intelligence officer is as second press attaché, visa attaché or other position with no clear responsibilities. In the United States, it is a policy of the Foreign Service not to confirm or deny the existence of intelligence personnel in U.S. embassies. Car crime A particular problem is the immunity of diplomatic vehicles to ordinary traffic regulations such as prohibitions on double parking. Occasionally, such problems may take a most serious turn, when disregard for traffic rules leads to bodily harm or death. Injury and death The deputy ambassador of the Republic of Georgia to the United States, Gueorgui Makharadze, caused an accident in January 1997 that injured four people and killed a sixteen-year-old girl. He was found to have a blood-alcohol level of 0.15, but was released from custody because he was a diplomat. The U.S. government asked the Georgian government to waive his immunity, which they did and Makharadze was tried and convicted of manslaughter by the U.S. and sentenced to seven to twenty-one years in prison. An American Marine serving his embassy in Bucharest, Romania collided with a taxi and killed the popular Romanian musician Teo Peter on December 3, 2004. Christopher Van Goethem, allegedly drunk, did not obey a traffic signal to stop, which resulted in the collision of his Ford Expedition with the taxi the rock star was travelling in. Van Goethem's blood alcohol content was estimated at 0.09 from a breathalyser test, but he refused to give a blood sample for further testing and left for Germany before charges could be filed in Romania. The Romanian government requested the American government lift his immunity, which it has refused to do. In a court-martial, he was acquitted of manslaughter and adultery but was convicted of obstruction of justice and making false statements. USEU : Article A Russian diplomat accredited to Ottawa, Canada drove his car into two pedestrians on a quiet residential street in January 2001, killing one and seriously injuring the other. Andrei Knyazev had previously been stopped by Ottawa police on two separate occasions on suspicion of impaired driving. The Canadian government requested that Russia waive the diplomat's immunity, although this request was refused. Knyazev was subsequently prosecuted in Russia for involuntary manslaughter, and sentenced to four years in prison. His appeal of the sentence was denied and he served time in a penal colony. An American diplomat stationed in Vladivostok, Russia was involved in a car accident on October 27, 1998, that left a young man, Alexander Kashin, crippled. Consul General Douglas Kent was not prosecuted in a U.S. court. Under the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963, diplomatic immunity does not apply to civil actions relating to vehicular accidents. However, on 10 August 2006, a U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that since he was using his own vehicle for consular purposes, Kent may not be sued civilly. United Nations parking violations In New York City, the home of the United Nations Headquarters (and hence thousands of diplomats), protests against parking violations by diplomatic vehicles have a certain quixotic quality. Nonetheless, the City regularly protests to the Department of State about non-payment of parking tickets due to diplomatic status. Diplomatic missions have their own regulations, but many require their staff to pay any fines due for parking violations. A 2006 study by two economists found that there was a significant correlation between home-country corruption (as measured by Transparency International) and unpaid parking fines; nonetheless, approximately 30 countries (or 20%) had fewer than one unpaid fine per diplomat over a five year period, and 20 had none at all. Six countries had in excess of 100 violations per diplomat. Other car crime In France, between November 2003 and 2004, there were 2,590 cases of diplomatic cars caught speeding by automatic radars. Financial abuse Bad debts Historically the problem of large debts run up by diplomats has also caused many problems. Some financial institutions will not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of ensuring the money is repaid. Employer abuse Diplomatic immunity from local employment and labor law when employing staff from the host country has precipitated abuse. When the employer is a diplomat, the employees are in a legal limbo where the laws of neither the host country nor the diplomat's country are enforceable. There is an inherent conflict of interest, as the diplomat is the chief representative of his country and its laws, and is not forced to obey local law, so that an abusive diplomat employer can act with virtual impunity. Diplomats have ignored local laws concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours, vacation and holidays. The worst abusers have imprisoned the employees in their homes, deprived them of their earned wages, passports and from communication and access to the outside world, abused them physically and emotionally, deprived them of food, and invaded their privacy. ACLU: Abused Domestic Workers of Diplomats Seek Justice From International Commission American Civil Liberties Union : ACLU Charges Kuwait Government and Diplomats With Abusing Domestic Workers In the case of corrupt countries and abusive diplomats, it has been virtually impossible to enforce payment of wages, or any standards whatsoever. Theft On April 24, 2008, Mexican press attaché Rafael Quintero Curiel was taped stealing Blackberry PDA units from a White House press meeting room in New Orleans, LA. Curiel made it all the way to the airport before members of the United States Secret Service caught up with him. After denying any wrong doing, he was shown the DVD of the surveillance video. Curiel claimed the incident was accidental, stated his diplomatic immunity, and left the country. FOXNews.com - Mexican Embassy: Official Fired After Getting Caught With White House BlackBerries - Politics | Republican Party | Democratic Party | Political Spectrum Smuggling Diplomats are exempt from import duty and tariffs for items for their personal use. In some countries, this has led to charges that diplomatic agents are profiting personally from resale of "tax free" goods. The receiving state may choose to impose restrictions on what may reasonably constitute personal use (for example, only a certain quantity of cigarettes per day). When enacted, such restrictions are generally quite generous (so as to avoid tit-for-tat responses). Tax avoidance or evasion Diplomats are not necessarily exempt from paying government-imposed fees when they are "charges levied for specific services rendered." In certain cases, such as London's congestion charge (a daily charge on all cars entering central London), the nature of the fee may lead to disputes, but there is an obligation for the receiving state not to "discriminate as between states"; in other words, any such fees should be payable by all accredited diplomats equally. This may allow the diplomatic corps to negotiate as a group with the authorities of the receiving country. In January 2006, it was reported that the United States owed several million pounds in unpaid congestion charge fees . It was also reported that diplomatic immunity had been used to avoid paying millions of pounds in traffic fines, as well as dodging around £1 million in local rates, although some embassies have agreed to settle their bills. In fiction and reality In fiction, diplomatic immunity is sometimes portrayed negatively with criminals with diplomatic papers brazenly committing the most violent crimes and arrogantly waving their immunity about when the heroes try to stop them. An example of this can be seen in the movie Lethal Weapon II; noteworthy is that the official in the film headed a consulate, and would not have benefited from diplomatic immunity, but the more limited consular immunity. In Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex a hacker is unable to escape Section 9 (a very well trained section of the police force) and resorts to telling them that he is the son of a Canadian ambassador. In fact, Section 9 was well aware of this fact, and thus delayed action until Canada had agreed to allow him to be brought to justice. In reality, most diplomats are representatives of nations with a tradition of professional civil service, and are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and they suffer strict internal consequences (disciplinary action) if they flout local laws. In many nations a professional diplomat's career may be compromised if he or she (or even members of his or her family) disobeys the local authorities or causes serious embarrassment, and such cases are, at any rate, a violation of the spirit of the Vienna Conventions. The issue of parking tickets (see above) in New York was brought up in fourth season of the fictional TV drama The West Wing in the episode "Arctic Radar". President Josiah Bartlet shouts down the phone, at whom he believes to be the UN Secretary General, advising there are big signs telling diplomats that they cannot park and that they should be towed to Queens, before hanging up. It transpires however that he was most likely talking to a secretary. Exceptions to the Vienna Convention Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. Most important are the reservation by most Arab nations concerning the immunity of diplomatic bags and non-recognition of Israel. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. Finlex Database on Finnish treaty relations: SopS 3/1970. Includes the list of reservations to the Vienna conventions in English. It is important to note that the Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as the World Bank and many others) has a relatively standardized form of limited immunities for staff traveling on U.N. laissez-passers; diplomatic immunity is often granted to the highest-ranking officials of these agencies. Consular officials (that do not have concurrent diplomatic accreditation) formally have a more limited form of immunity, generally limited to their official duties. Diplomatic technical and administrative staff also have more limited immunity under the Vienna Convention; for this reason, some countries may accredit technical and administrative staff as attachés. Other categories of government officials that may travel frequently to other countries may not have diplomatic passports or diplomatic immunity, such as members of the military, high-ranking government officials, ministers, and others. Many countries provide non-diplomatic official passports to such personnel, and there may be different classes of such travel documents such as official passports, service passports, and others. De facto recognition of some form of immunity may be conveyed by states accepting officials traveling on such documents, or there may exist bilateral agreements to govern such cases (as in, for example, the case of military personnel conducting or observing exercises on the territory of the receiving country). Formally, diplomatic immunity may be limited to officials accredited to a host country, or traveling to or from their host country. In practice, many countries may effectively recognize diplomatic immunity for those traveling on diplomatic passports, with admittance to the country constituting acceptance of the diplomatic status. Diplomatic immunity in the United States The following chart outlines the immunities afforded to foreign diplomatic personnel residing in the United States. In general, these rules follow the Vienna Convention and generally apply in other countries as well. Category May be arrested or detained Residence may be entered subject to ordinary procedures May be issued traffic ticket May be subpoenaed as witness May be prosecuted Official family member Diplomatic Diplomatic agent No Reasonable constraints, however, may be applied in emergency circumstances involving self-defense, public safety, or the prevention of serious criminal acts. No Yes No No Same as sponsor Member of administrative and technical staff No No Yes No No Same as sponsor Service staff Yes This table presents general rules. Particularly in the cases indicated, the employees of certain foreign countries may enjoy higher levels of privileges and immunities on the basis of special bilateral agreements. Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes No Consular Career Consular Officers Yes, if for a felony and pursuant to a warrant. Yes Note that consular residences are sometimes located within the official consular premises. In such cases, only the official office space is protected from police entry. Yes No, for official acts. Testimony may not be compelled in any case. No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes A small number of senior officers are entitled to be treated identically to "diplomatic agents". NoHonorary consular officers Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes NoConsular employees Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes No International organization Diplomatic-level staff of missions to international organizations No No Yes No No Same as sponsor International Organization Staff Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes No Support staff of missions to international organizations Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts. 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2,827 | Donald_A._Wollheim | Donald Allen Wollheim (October 1, 1914 – November 2, 1990) was a science fiction writer, editor, publisher and fan. As an author, he published under his own name as well as under pseudonyms, including David Grinnell. A founding member of the Futurians, he was one of the leading influences on the development of science fiction and science fiction fandom in the 20th century United States. Wollheim as fan The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction calls Donald Wollheim, "one of the first and most vociferous sf fans." He published numerous fanzines and co-edited the early Fanciful Tales of Space and Time. His importance to early fandom is chronicled in The Immortal Storm by Sam Moskowitz and in The Futurians by Damon Knight. Wollheim organized the first science fiction convention. A group from New York met with a group from Philadelphia on October 22, 1936 in Philadelphia. The modern Philcon convention claims descent from this event. Out of this meeting, plans were formed for regional and national meetings, including the first Worldcon. LOCUS, December 1990 - Donald A. Wollheim: Obituaries and Appreciations pp = 68-70 Wollheim was also a member of the New York Science Fiction League, one of the clubs established by Hugo Gernsback to promote science fiction. (When payment was not forthcoming for the first story he sold to Gernsback, Wollheim got together with several other authors and successfully sued. He was expelled from the Science Fiction League as "a disruptive influence " but was later reinstated.) In 1937, Wollheim founded the Fantasy Amateur Press Association. The first mailing was distributed in July of that year and included this statement from Wollheim: "There are many fans desiring to put out a voice who dare not, for fear of being obliged to keep it up, and for the worry and time taken by subscriptions and advertising. It is for them and for the fan who admits it is his hobby and not his business that we formed the FAPA." In 1938, with several friends, he formed The Futurians -- arguably the most well known of the sci-fi clubs. At one time or another, the membership included Isaac Asimov, Frederik Pohl, Cyril Kornbluth, James Blish, Judith Merril, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Richard Wilson, Damon Knight, Virginia Kidd, and Larry T. Shaw. In 1943, Wollheim married fellow Futurian Elsie Balter (1910-1996). It proved to be a lasting marriage and a publishing partnership. After 1940, The Futurians became less fan-oriented and more professional. Its conferences and workshops focused on writing, editing, and publishing, with many of its members interested in all three. Wollheim as author Cover art for paperback edition of The Secret of Saturn's Rings (1966). Wollheim's first story, "The Man from Ariel," was published in the January 1934 issue of Wonder Stories when he was nineteen. He wasn't paid for the story, and he learned that other authors hadn't been paid either and said so in the Bulletin of the Terrestrial Fantascience Guild. Gernsback eventually settled with Wollheim and the other authors out of court for $75, but when Wollheim submitted another story to Gernsback under the pseudonym "Millard Verne Gordon," he was again not paid. His stories began to be published regularly by the 1940s while, at the same time, he was well on his way to an important career as an editor. In the 1950s and 60s he wrote chiefly novels -- pseudonymous sf for grownups and children's sf under his own name. Notable and popular were the eight "Mike Mars" books for children, which explored different facets of the NASA space program. Also well received were the "Secret" books for young readers: The Secret of Saturn's Rings (1954), Secret of the Martian Moons (1955), and The Secret of the Ninth Planet (1959). As Martin Pearson he published the "Ajax Calkins" series, which became the basis for his novel Destiny's Orbit (1962). A sequel, Destination: Saturn was published in 1967 in collaboration with Lin Carter. One of his most important books, however, was nonfiction; The Universe Makers (1971) is a discussion of themes and philosophy in science fiction. One of Wollheim's short stories, "Mimic," was made into the feature film of the same name, released in 1997. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0938586/ "In true editorial fashion, he was honest about the quality of his own writing," says his daughter, Betsy Wollheim. "He felt it was fair to middling at best. He always knew that his great talent was as an editor." Personal Interview with Elizabeth Wollheim/27 April 2009/ Wollheim as editor and publisher According to Robert Silverberg, Donald Wollheim was "one of the most significant figures in 20th century American science fiction publishing." He goes on: "A plausible case could be made that he was the most significant figure -- responsible in large measure for the development of the science fiction paperback, the science fiction anthology, and the whole post-Tolkien boom in fantasy fiction." Wollheim edited the first science fiction anthology to be mass-market published, The Pocket Book of Science Fiction (1943). It was also the first book containing the words "science fiction" in the title. It included work by Heinlein, Sturgeon, T.S. Stribling, Stephen Vincent Benet, Ambrose Bierce, and H.G. Wells. Shortly before World War II, he edited two of the earliest periodicals devoted entirely to science fiction, Stirring Science Stories and Cosmic Stories. The New York Times | November 3, 1990 | Section 1 | p 18 In 1945 he edited the first hardcover anthology from a major publisher and the first sf omnibus, The Viking Portable Novels of Science. He also edited the first anthology of original sf, The Girl With the Hungry Eyes (1947). Between 1947 and 1951 he was the editor at the pioneering paperback publisher Avon Books, where he made available highly affordable editions of the works of A. Merritt, H.P. Lovecraft, and C.S. Lewis' Silent Planet space trilogy, bringing these previously little known authors a wide readership. In 1952, he left Avon to work for A. A. Wyn at the Ace Magazine Company and spearhead a new paperback book list, Ace Books. In 1953 he introduced science fiction to the Ace lineup, and for 20 years as editor-in-chief was responsible for their multi-genre list and, most important to him, their renowned sf list. Wollheim invented the Ace Doubles series which consisted of pairs of books, usually by different authors, bound back-to-back with two "front" covers. Because these paired books had to fit a fixed total page length, one or both were usually abridged to fit, and Wollheim often made other editorial alterations — as witness the differences between Poul Anderson's Ace novel War of the Wing-Men and its definitive revised edition, The Man Who Counts. Among the authors who made their paperback debuts in Ace doubles were Philip K. Dick, Samuel R. Delany, Leigh Brackett, Ursula K. Le Guin, Harlan Ellison, and John Brunner. William S. Burroughs' first book, Junkie (novel), was published as an Ace double. Wollheim also developed, or helped develop, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Robert Silverberg, Avram Davidson, Fritz Leiber, Andre Norton, Thomas Burnett Swann, Jack Vance, and Roger Zelazny, among others. While at Ace, along with co-editor Terry Carr, he began an annual anthology series, The World's Best Science Fiction, the first collection of what he and his fellow editor considered to be the best of the prior year's short stories, whether from magazine, hardcover, paperback collections, or other anthologies. In the early 60s, Ace reintroduced Edgar Rice Burroughs' work, which had long been out of print, and in 1965, Ace bought the paperback rights to Dune. (Herbert's title worried Wollheim, who feared it would be mistaken for a western.) Eventually, Ace introduced single paperback books and became one of the preeminent genre publishers. Ace and Ballantine dominated sf in the 60s and built the genre by publishing original material instead of merely reprints. There was a time when no paperback publisher would publish fantasy. It was believed that there was no public for fantasy and that it wouldn't sell. Then Wollheim changed everything when he brought out an unauthorized paperback edition of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings in three volumes — the first mass-market paperback edition of Tolkien's epic. In a 2006 interview, Elizabeth Wollheim, his daughter, theorizes, clarifies, and remembers:He called Professor Tolkien in 1964 and asked if he could publish Lord of the Rings as Ace paperbacks. Tolkien said he would never allow Lord of the Rings, his great work, to appear in 'so degenerate a form’ as the paperback book. Don was one of the fathers of the entire paperback industry. He'd spearheaded the Ace line, he was the originating editor-in-chief of the Avon paperback list in 1945, and I think he was hurt and took it personally. He did a little research and discovered a loophole in the copyright. Houghton Mifflin, Tolkien’s American hardcover publisher, had neglected to protect the work in the United States. So, incensed by Tolkien’s response, he realized that he could legally publish the trilogy and did. This brash act (which ultimately benefited his primary competitors as well as Tolkien) was really the Big Bang that founded the modern fantasy field, and only someone like my father could have done that. He did pay Tolkien, and he was responsible for making not only Tolkien but Ballantine Books extremely wealthy. And if he hadn’t done it, who knows when — or if — those books would have been published in paperback. LOCUS, June 2006 - Betsy Wollheim Interview Tolkien had authorized a paperback edition of The Hobbit in 1961, though that edition was never made available outside the U.K. Eventually, he supported paperback editions of The Lord of the Rings and several of his other texts, but it is difficult to say whether he was persuaded to do so by the manifest economic wisdom evident in sales of the Ace editions. In any case, Ace was forced to cease publishing the unauthorized edition and to pay Tolkien for their sales following a grass-roots campaign by Tolkien's U.S. fans. In 1993, a court found that the copyright loophole suggested by Ace Books was incorrect and their paperback edition was found to have been a violation of copyright under U.S. law. Eisen, Durwood & Co. v. Christopher R. Tolkien et al., 794 F. Supp. 85, 23 U.S.P.Q.2d 1150 (S.D.N.Y. 1992), affirmed without opinion, 990 F.2d 623 (2nd Cir. 1993) In the LOCUS obituary for Donald Wollheim, however, yet more detail emerges. Houghton-Mifflin had imported sheets instead of printing their own edition, but they didn't want to sell paperback rights. Ace printed the first paperback edition and caused such a furor that Tolkien rewrote the books enough to get a new copyright, then sold them to Ballantine. The rest is history. Although Ace and Wollheim have become the villains in the Tolkien publishing gospel, it's probable that the whole Tolkien boom would not have happened if Ace hadn't published them. In 1971, Wollheim left Ace. Frederik Pohl describes the circumstances: Unfortunately, when Wyn died [in 1968] the company was sold to a consortium headed by a bank. . . . Few of them had any publishing experience before they found themselves running Ace. It showed. Before long, bills weren't being paid, authors' advances and royalties were delayed, budgets were cut back, and most of Donald's time was spent trying to soothe authors and agents who were indignant, and had every right to be, at the way they were treated. Upon leaving Ace, he founded DAW Books named for his initials. DAW can claim to be the first mass market specialist science fiction and fantasy fiction publishing house. DAW issued its first four titles in April of 1972. Most of the writers he'd developed at Ace went with him to DAW: Marion Zimmer Bradley, Andre Norton, Philip K. Dick, John Brunner, A. Bertram Chandler, Kenneth Bulmer, Gordon R. Dickson, A.E. van Vogt, and Jack Vance. In later years, when his distributor, New American Library, threatened to withhold Thomas Burnett Swann's Biblical fantasy How Are the Mighty Fallen (1974) because of its homosexual content, Wollheim fought vigorously against their decision. They relented. His new discoveries included C.J. Cherryh, Tanith Lee, Jennifer Roberson, Michael Shea, Ian Wallace, Tad Williams, and C.S. Friedman. He was also able to give a number of British writers -- Michael Moorcock, E.C. Tubb, Brian Stableford, Barrington Bayley, Michael Coney -- a new American audience. He published translations of international sf as well as anthologies of translated stories, Best From the Rest of the World. With the help of Arthur W. Saha, Wollheim also edited and published the popular "Annual World's Best Science Fiction" anthology from 1971 until his death in 1990. Marion Zimmer Bradley refers to him as "a second father," Frederik Pohl calls him "a founder," and Robert Silverberg says he was "seriously underrated" and "one of the great shapers of science-fiction publishing in the United States." Whatever he was, Donald A. Wollheim certainly had a meaningful and lasting impact not only on science fiction and fantasy publishing but also on the publishing world in general -- and in one of the great periods of modern American letters. Selected bibliography Anthology series World's Best Science Fiction, 1965-1971 (with Terry Carr) The Annual World's Best SF, 1972-1990 (1972-1976 with Arthur Saha) Novels Across Time (as David Grinnell) Destination: Saturn (as David Grinnell) Destiny's Orbit (as David Grinnell) The Edge of Time (as David Grinnell) The Martian Missile (as David Grinnell) Secret of the Martian Moons (Winston Science Fiction series) Mike Mars and the Mystery Satellite Mike Mars in Orbit" Mike Mars Around the Moon Mike Mars, Astronaut Mike Mars at Cape Canaveral (vt "Mike Mars at Cape Kennedy") Mike Mars Flies the Dyna-Soar Mike Mars Flies the X-15 Mike Mars, South Pole Spaceman One Against the Moon The Secret of The Martian Moons (Winston Science Fiction series) The Secret of The Ninth Planet (Winston Science Fiction series) The Secret of Saturn's Rings (Winston Science Fiction series) To Venus! To Venus! (as David Grinnell) See also Winston Science Fiction References External links DAW Books Donald A. Wollheim on H. 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2,828 | Canadian_Unitarian_Council | The Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) is the national body for Unitarian Universalists in Canada. The CUC is a member of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists. Principles and Sources "The Principles and Sources of Our Religious Faith" from the Canadian Unitarian Council Principles and Sources Principles We, the member congregations of the Canadian Unitarian Council, covenant to affirm and promote: the inherent worth and dignity of every person; justice, equity, and compassion in human relations; acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations; a free and responsible search for truth and meaning; the right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large; the goal of world community with peace, liberty, and justice for all; respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part. Sources The living tradition which we share draws from many sources: direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life; words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love; wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life; Jewish and Christian teachings which call us to respond to God's love by loving our neighbours as ourselves; Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit; spiritual teachings of Earth-centred traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature. Grateful for the religious pluralism which enriches and ennobles our faith, we are inspired to deepen our understanding and expand our vision. As free congregations we enter into this covenant, promising to one another our mutual trust and support. (Reproduced here with permission) The current Principles and Sources are based on the UUA's Principles and Purposes. The CUC has created a task force to consider revising them. Organization A map of all 4 CUC regions. The CUC is divided into four regions: "BC" (British Columbia), "Western" (Alberta to Thunder Bay), "Central" (between Thunder Bay and Kingston), and "Eastern" (Kingston, Ottawa and everything east of that). Regions of the CUC However, for Young Religious Unitarian Universalists (YRUU) programming in Canada, the "Central" and "Eastern" regions are combined to form a youth region known as "QuOM (Quebec, Ontario and the Maritimes), giving the youth only three regions for their activities. Regions and Congregations Member congregations are served by volunteer Service Consultants, Congregational Networkers, and a series of other committees. There are two directors of regional services, one for the Western two regions, and one for the Eastern two regions. The Director of Lifespan Learning oversees development of religious education programming. Founding This section quoted from THE CUC: FROM COLONY TO NATION 1961-2002 by Rev. Dr. Charles W. Eddis: The formation of the CUC was a long-held dream. Proposals to form a Canadian organization were made by G.C. Holland, minister of the Ottawa church, in 1898, Samuel A. Eliot, President of the American Unitarian Association in 1908, Charles Huntingdon Pennoyer, minister of the Halifax Universalist Church in 1909, and Horace Westwood, a Unitarian minister in Winnipeg in 1913. In 1946 The Commission on the Work of the Churches of the British Unitarians recommended that “the Assembly should interest itself in the formation of a Canadian Unitarian Association which many Unitarians there believe to be necessary.” The first native seeds were planted with the publication of The Canadian Unitarian in Ottawa from 1940 to 1946, a small newsletter distributed with the newsletters of Canadian churches. After the Second World War, the growth of the Unitarians in Canada began to show the strength which would make some Canadian organization feasible, if not imperative. Unitarians, most notably Toronto ministers, generated considerable media attention from the centre of Canada’s English language media. The Unitarian Service Committee of Canada, founded in 1945, was receiving considerable attention both in city newspapers and on television, so much so that the word “Unitarian” became a household world, though its meaning was not that widely known. In 1946 there were six Icelandic Unitarian churches with 272 members, and five English-speaking churches with 1,049 members. The Universalists had five churches with 459 members. In 1961 there were three Universalist churches with 68 members, and three Icelandic and eleven English-speaking Unitarian churches with 3,476 members, and in addition 22 Unitarian fellowships with 773 members. The Universalists almost disappeared in Canada, outside of a small rural church in southwest Ontario, and were probably saved in the other two surviving locations by influx of Canadian Unitarians. By contrast, Unitarian membership more than tripled in the same fifteen years. In 1953 there were six Unitarian ministers serving congregations in Canada. Ten years later there were five ministers in the Toronto area alone. In early April, 1961, a meeting with delegates from ten congregations was held in Montreal. The plan was approved 8 to 1, with the understanding that “The Council will function within the framework of the continental Unitarian Universalist Association.” (Reproduced with permission) Relationship to the Unitarian Universalist Association Up until July 2002, almost all member congregations of CUC were also members of the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA). In the past, most services to CUC member congregations were provided by the UUA. However, with an agreement in 2001 between the UUA and CUC, from July 2002 onwards most services have been provided by the CUC to its own member congregations. And it should be noted that the Canadian Unitarian Universalist youth of the day disapproved of this change in relationship. It is quite evident in the words of this statement, which was adopted by the attendees of the 2001 youth conference held at the Unitarian Church of Montreal. "We the youth of Canada are deeply concerned about the direction the CUC seems to be taking. As stewards of our faith, adults have a responsibility to take into consideration the concerns of youth. We are opposed to making this massive jump in our evolutionary progress." http://www.cuc.ca/canu/canu_july2001.pdf Debating the autonomy resolution — Youth are worried The UUA continues to provide services relating to ministerial settlement as well as a vary minimal amount of the youth (14-20) and young adult (18-35) programming and services. Unitarians and Universalists While the name of the organization is the Canadian Unitarian Council, the CUC includes congregations with Unitarian, Universalist, Unitarian Universalist and Universalist Unitarian in their names. Changing the name of the CUC has occasionally been debated, but there have been no successful motions. To recognize the diversity, the abbreviation is often written as U*U (and playfully read as "You star, you"). Unitarian*Universalist-You Star, You! Note, not all CUC members like this playful reading and so when these people write the abbreviation they leave out the star(*), just writing UU instead. http://cuc.ca/canu/canu_spring2004_final.pdf Letters to the Editor — NO ASTERISKS PLEASE Notes See also First Unitarian Congregation of Toronto Lotta Hitschmanova External links Official site Unitarian Service Committee of Canada From Colony to Nation | Canadian_Unitarian_Council |@lemmatized canadian:11 unitarian:35 council:6 cuc:18 national:1 body:1 universalists:6 canada:9 member:14 international:1 principle:6 source:6 religious:4 faith:3 congregation:13 covenant:2 affirm:2 promote:1 inherent:1 worth:1 dignity:1 every:1 person:1 justice:3 equity:1 compassion:2 human:1 relation:1 acceptance:1 one:4 another:2 encouragement:1 spiritual:3 growth:2 free:2 responsible:1 search:1 truth:1 meaning:2 right:1 conscience:1 use:1 democratic:1 process:1 within:2 society:1 large:1 goal:1 world:4 community:1 peace:1 liberty:1 respect:1 interdependent:1 web:1 existence:1 part:1 living:1 tradition:2 share:1 draw:1 many:2 direct:1 experience:1 transcend:1 mystery:1 wonder:1 culture:1 move:1 u:9 renewal:1 spirit:2 openness:1 force:2 create:2 uphold:1 life:3 word:3 deed:1 prophetic:1 woman:1 men:1 challenge:1 confront:1 power:2 structure:1 evil:1 transform:1 love:3 wisdom:1 religion:1 inspire:2 ethical:1 jewish:1 christian:1 teaching:3 call:1 respond:1 god:1 neighbour:1 humanist:1 counsel:1 heed:1 guidance:1 reason:1 result:1 science:1 warn:1 idolatry:1 mind:1 earth:1 centre:2 celebrate:1 sacred:1 circle:1 instruct:1 live:1 harmony:1 rhythm:1 nature:1 grateful:1 pluralism:1 enriches:1 ennoble:1 deepen:1 understanding:2 expand:1 vision:1 enter:1 promise:1 mutual:1 trust:1 support:1 reproduce:2 permission:2 current:1 base:1 uua:5 purpose:1 task:1 consider:1 revise:1 organization:4 map:1 region:9 divide:1 four:1 bc:1 british:2 columbia:1 western:2 alberta:1 thunder:2 bay:2 central:2 kingston:2 eastern:3 ottawa:3 everything:1 east:1 however:2 young:2 yruu:1 programming:3 combine:1 form:2 youth:8 know:2 quom:1 quebec:1 ontario:2 maritimes:1 give:1 three:3 activity:1 serve:2 volunteer:1 service:8 consultant:1 congregational:1 networkers:1 series:1 committee:3 two:4 director:2 regional:1 lifespan:1 learn:1 oversees:1 development:1 education:1 found:2 section:1 quote:1 colony:2 nation:2 rev:1 dr:1 charles:2 w:1 eddis:1 formation:2 long:1 hold:3 dream:1 proposal:1 make:3 g:1 c:1 holland:1 minister:6 church:11 samuel:1 eliot:1 president:1 american:1 association:5 huntingdon:1 pennoyer:1 halifax:1 universalist:10 horace:1 westwood:1 winnipeg:1 commission:1 work:1 recommend:1 assembly:1 interest:1 believe:1 necessary:1 first:2 native:1 seed:1 plant:1 publication:1 small:2 newsletter:2 distribute:1 second:1 war:1 begin:1 show:1 strength:1 would:1 feasible:1 imperative:1 notably:1 toronto:3 generate:1 considerable:2 medium:2 attention:2 english:3 language:1 receive:1 city:1 newspaper:1 television:1 much:1 become:1 household:1 though:1 widely:1 six:2 icelandic:2 five:3 speaking:2 eleven:1 addition:1 fellowship:1 almost:2 disappear:1 outside:1 rural:1 southwest:1 probably:1 save:1 survive:1 location:1 influx:1 contrast:1 membership:1 triple:1 fifteen:1 year:2 ten:2 later:1 area:1 alone:1 early:1 april:1 meeting:1 delegate:1 montreal:2 plan:1 approve:1 function:1 framework:1 continental:1 relationship:2 july:2 also:2 past:1 provide:3 agreement:1 onwards:1 note:3 day:1 disapprove:1 change:2 quite:1 evident:1 statement:1 adopt:1 attendee:1 conference:1 deeply:1 concern:2 direction:1 seem:1 take:2 steward:1 adult:2 responsibility:1 consideration:1 opposed:1 massive:1 jump:1 evolutionary:1 progress:1 http:2 www:1 ca:2 canu:2 pdf:2 debate:2 autonomy:1 resolution:1 worry:1 continue:1 relate:1 ministerial:1 settlement:1 well:1 vary:1 minimal:1 amount:1 name:3 include:1 occasionally:1 successful:1 motion:1 recognize:1 diversity:1 abbreviation:2 often:1 write:3 playfully:1 read:1 star:3 like:1 playful:1 reading:1 people:1 leave:1 uu:1 instead:1 letter:1 editor:1 asterisks:1 please:1 see:1 lotta:1 hitschmanova:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram unitarian_universalists:4 religious_pluralism:1 deepen_understanding:1 thunder_bay:2 quebec_ontario:1 samuel_eliot:1 unitarian_universalist:7 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
2,829 | Chicago_Bears | The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago, Illinois. They are members of the NFC North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The team is legally and corporately registered as Chicago Bears Football Club, Incorporated. The Bears have won nine Professional American Football league championships (eight NFL Championships and Super Bowl XX). The Bears have the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, with 26 members. The Bears have also recorded more regular season and overall victories than any other NFL franchise. The franchise recorded their 700th win on December 7, 2008. The club was founded in Decatur, Illinois, in 1919 Halas By Halas, by George Halas, Gwen Morgan & Arthur Veysey, McGraw Hill, 1979, p.53-54 , and moved to Chicago in 1921. Along with the Arizona Cardinals (also originally from Chicago), it is one of only two remaining extant franchises since the NFL's founding. The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago's North Side through the 1970 season. With the exception of the 2002 season, they have played their home games at Chicago's Soldier Field every year since 1971. The stadium is located next to Lake Michigan, and was recently remodeled in a modernization intended to update stadium amenities while preserving a historic Chicago structure. The team has a fierce, long-standing rivalry with the Green Bay Packers, whom they have played more than 170 times. The team headquarters, Halas Hall, is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest, Illinois. The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season. They hold their annual training camp from late July to mid-August on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais, Illinois. Franchise history 1920–1970 Originally named the Decatur Staleys, the club was established by the A. E. Staley Company of Decatur, Illinois in 1919 as a company team. This was the typical start for several early professional football franchises. The company hired George Halas and Edward "Dutch" Sternaman in 1920 to run the team, and turned over full control of the team to them in 1921. Information on Dutch Sternaman However, official team and league records cite Halas as the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL. The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where the club was renamed the Chicago Staleys. Under an agreement reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley, Halas purchased the rights to the club from Staley for US$ 100, whereupon they were renamed the Chicago Bears. The Bears dominated the league in the early years. Their rivalry with the Chicago Cardinals, the oldest in the NFL (and a crosstown rivalry from 1920 to 1959), was key in four out of the first six league titles. During the league's first six years, the Bears lost twice to the Canton Bulldogs (who took two league titles over that span), and split with their crosstown rival Cardinals (going 4–4–2 against each other over that span), but no other team in the league defeated the Bears more than a single time. During that span, the Bears posted 34 shutouts. The Bears' rivalry with the Green Bay Packers is one of the oldest, fiercest and most storied in American professional sports, dating back to 1921. In one infamous incident that year, Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent their signing a particular player, and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player. In 1922, Halas changed the team name from the Staleys to the Bears. The team moved into Wrigley Field, which was home to the Chicago Cubs baseball franchise. As with several early NFL franchises, the Bears derived their nickname from their city's baseball team (some directly, some indirectly - like the Bears, whose young are called "cubs"). Halas liked the bright orange-and-blue colors of his alma mater, the University of Illinois, and the Bears adopted those colors as their own, albeit in a darker shade of each (the blue is a Navy Blue, and the orange is Pantone 1665, similar to burnt orange). The franchise was an early success under Halas, capturing the NFL Championship in and remaining competitive throughout the decade. In 1924 the Bears claimed the Championship after defeating the Cleveland Bulldogs on December 7, even putting the title "World's Champions" on their 1924 team photo. But the NFL had ruled that games after November 30 did not count towards league standings, and the Bears had to settle for second place behind Cleveland. Their only losing season came in . During the 1920s the club was responsible for triggering the NFL's long-standing rule that a player could not be signed until his college's senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears' aggressive signing of famous University of Illinois player Red Grange within a day of his final game as a collegian. After the financial losses of the Championship season, Halas' partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization. Halas maintained full control of the Bears until his death in 1983. He also coached the team off-and-on for forty seasons, an NFL record. In the 1932 "Unofficial" NFL Championship, the Bears defeated the Portsmouth Spartans in the first indoor American football game at Chicago Stadium. The success of the playoff game led the NFL to institute a championship game. In the very first NFL Championship, the Bears played against the New York Giants, defeating them 23–21. The teams met again in the 1934 NFL Championship where the Giants, wearing sneakers See NFL Championship Game, 1934 for more information on how the Giants wore sneakers and defeated the Bears defeated the Bears 30–13 on a cold, icy day at the Polo Grounds. The 1946 NFL Championship team photoFrom 1940–1947, quarterback Sid Luckman led the Bears to victories in four out of the five NFL Championship Games in which they appeared. The team acquired the University of Chicago's discarded nickname "Monsters of the Midway" and their now-famous helmet "C", as well as a newly penned theme song that declared them "The Pride and Joy of Illinois". One famous victory during that period was their 73–0 victory over the favored Washington Redskins at Griffith Stadium in the 1940 NFL Championship Game; the score is still an NFL record for lopsided results. The secret behind the one-sided outcome was the introduction of a new offensive formation by Halas. The T-formation, as Halas named it, involved two running backs instead of the traditional one in the backfield. Luckman's success at the quarterback position for the Bears has not been matched, as he still holds club records for passing. After declining throughout the 1950s, the team rebounded in to capture their 8th NFL Championship, which would be their last until 1985. The late 1960s and early 1970s produced notable players like Dick Butkus, Gale Sayers, and Brian Piccolo the subject of the film Brian's Song , who died of Embryonal carcinoma in 1970. The American television network ABC aired a movie about Piccolo in 1971 entitled Brian's Song, starring James Caan and Billy Dee Williams in the roles of Piccolo and Sayers respectively; Jack Warden won an Emmy Award for his performance as Halas. The movie was later released for theater screenings after first being shown on television. Halas retired as coach in 1967 and spent the rest of his days in the front office. He became the only person to be involved with the NFL throughout the first 60 years of its existence. He was also a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame's first induction class in 1963. As the only living founder of the NFL at the February 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League, the owners honored Halas by electing him the first President of the National Football Conference, a position that he held until his death in 1983. In his honor, the NFL named the National Football Conference Championship trophy as the George Halas Memorial Trophy. 1970–2003 After the merger, the Bears finished the 1970 season with a last-place finish in the division, a repeat of their placing in the 1969 season. In 1975, the Bears drafted Walter Payton from Jackson State University with their first pick. He won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award in the 1977–78 season. Payton would go on to eclipse Jim Brown's NFL career rushing record in 1984 before retiring in 1987, and would hold the mark until , when Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys surpassed it. Payton's career and great personality would capture the hearts of Bear fans, who called him "Sweetness". He died from a rare liver cancer in 1999 at the age of 45. From 1977 through 1985 the club's official cheerleaders were the Honey Bears, who were hired by then-General Manager Jim Finks. They cheered at all Bears home games and performed at halftime. The idea of a cheerleading squad was thought up by Halas, who called them "dancing girls." and said that the Honey Bears would be around as long as he was alive. After his death in 1983, his heirs in the McCaskey family decided to end their relationship with the Honey Bears, declining to renew their contract following the Bears' championship season of . On November 1, 1983, a day after the death of George Halas, his oldest daughter, Virginia McCaskey, took over as the majority owner of the team. Her husband, Ed McCaskey, succeeded her father as the Chairman of the Board. Their son Michael became the third president in team history. Mrs. McCaskey holds the honorary title of "secretary of the board of directors", but the 82–year–old matriarch has been called the glue that holds the franchise together. Mrs. McCaskey's reign as the owner of the Bears was not planned, as her father originally earmarked her brother, George "Mugs" Halas, Jr. as the heir apparent to the franchise. However, he died of a massive heart attack in 1979. Her impact on the team is well-noted as her own family has dubbed her "The First Lady of Sports", and the Chicago Sun-Times has listed her as one of Chicago's most powerful women. Mike Ditka, a tight end for the Bears from 1961 to 1966, was hired to coach the team in 1982. In the 1985 season the fire in the Bears–Packers rivalry was relit when Ditka used 350–plus pound lineman "Refrigerator" Perry as a truly "wide" receiver in a touchdown play at Lambeau Field, flagrantly taunting the Packers. The Bears won their ninth NFL Championship, first since the AFL-NFL merger, in Super Bowl XX after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then-revolutionary 46 defense and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song "The Super Bowl Shuffle". The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the "unlucky 13th" game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the Miami Dolphins. At the time, much was made of the fact that the Dolphins were the only franchise in history to have had an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the Super Bowl, but lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC title game. "The Super Bowl Shuffle" was videotaped the day after that Monday night loss in Miami. After the 1985 Championship season, the Bears remained competitive throughout the 1980s but failed to return to the Super Bowl under Mike Ditka. Since the firing of Ditka at the end of the 1992 season, the Bears have made the playoffs five times under three different head coaches: Dave Wannstedt from 1993 through 1998, Dick Jauron from 1999 through 2003, and current head coach, Lovie Smith. Before the Bears hired Jauron in January 1999, Dave McGinnis (Arizona's defensive coordinator, and a former Bears assistant under Ditka and Wannstedt) backed out of taking the head coaching position. The Bears scheduled a press conference to announce the hiring before McGinnis agreed to contract terms. Soon after Jauron's hiring, Mrs. McCaskey fired her son Michael as president, replacing him with Ted Phillips and promoting Michael to chairman of the board. McCaskey's reign as president has been viewed as a "disaster". Phillips, the current Bears president, became the first man outside of the Halas-McCaskey family to run the team. 2004–present: Lovie Smith era Lovie Smith accomplished his first objective as the team's head coach by sweeping the Green Bay Packers during the 2005 season. Lovie Smith, hired on January 15, 2004, is the third and current (as of 2009) post-Ditka head coach. Joining the Bears as a rookie head coach, Smith brought the highly successful Tampa 2 defensive scheme with him to Chicago. Before his second season with the Bears, the team rehired their former offensive coordinator and then Illinois head coach Ron Turner to improve the Bears' struggling offense. In , the Bears won their division and reached the playoffs for the first time in four years. Their previous playoff berth was earned by winning the NFC Central in . The Bears improved upon their success the following season, by clinching their second consecutive NFC North title during week thirteen of the season, winning their first playoff game since 1995, and earning a trip to Super Bowl XLI. However, they fell short of the championship, losing 29–17 to the Indianapolis Colts. Following the 2006 season, the club decided to give Lovie Smith a contract extension through 2011, at roughly $5 million per year. This comes a season after being the lowest paid head coach in the National Football League. ESPN - Bears coach Smith, GM Angelo ink contract extensions - NFL On April 2, 2009, the Bears made one of the biggest trades in franchise history, acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler and a 5th round selection in the 2009 NFL Draft from the Denver Broncos in exchange for quarterback Kyle Orton, the Bears' 1st and 3rd round selections in the 2009 NFL Draft and the Bears' 1st round selection in the 2010 NFL Draft. The club has played in over a thousand games since becoming a charter member of the NFL in . Through the 2008 season, they lead the NFL in overall franchise wins with 702 and have an overall record of 702–515–42 (going 686–498–42 during the regular season and 16–17 in the playoffs). . On December 7, 2008 the Bears recorded franchise win number 700 in a win against the Jacksonville Jaguars. During the 2009 NFL draft, the bears selected Jarron Gilbert out of San Jose State. He was chosen 68th overall in the third round, but was Chicago's first pick of the 2009 draft due to the Jay Cutler trade. Ownership Virginia McCaskey, her children, and grandchildren control 80% of the team, and Mrs. McCaskey votes her children's stock as well as her own. Patrick Ryan, executive chairman of Aon Corp., and Aon director Andrew McKenna own 19.7% of the club. In a Crain's Chicago Business article, one businessman described his wishes for the team to maximize its potential. There have been rumors that the McCaskey family might split up over the team. In 2008, Forbes magazine reported that the Chicago Bears franchise is worth $1.1 billion, making it the ninth richest franchise in the NFL. Chicago is the National Football League's second largest market. The team has major sponsorship deals with Chase, Miller Brewing Company, Cadillac, United Airlines, Motorola, U.S. Cellular and Coca-Cola. The team was the first in the NFL to have a presenting sponsor, with the 2004 season advertised as "Bears Football presented by BankOne (now Chase)". Additionally, the Bears have an agreement with WFLD-TV (the FOX affiliate in Chicago) to broadcast pre-season football games. Team colors and mascots Logo One of the original logos (1962–1973)The club's first logo was introduced in the early 1950s as a black bear on top of a football. They kept this until 1962, when the Bears trademark 'C' logo was first introduced. The change in their logo from the black bear was due to the addition of logos on helmets, which pro football teams started adding in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Unlike some NFL franchises that have had many different looks over time, the Bears have kept the wishbone 'C' for over 40 years. In 1974, the team decided to keep the same white 'C' logo but to change the color of it from white to orange with a white trim. This is the current logo; however, the club has since introduced alternative logos, including a black bear inside of the orange wishbone 'C', introduced in 1995, and an orange bear head, introduced in 1999. Uniforms Chicago Bears uniform combinations In 1920 the team introduced uniforms containing brown and blue stripes. In the 1930s, the franchise's uniform underwent substantial alterations. By 1933 the Bears donned all-orange jerseys with navy numbers and matching black helmets. In 1936, they modified this design into "an early version of psychedelia" by adding three orange stripes to their helmets, changing the color of the jerseys from orange to white, complementing the new white jerseys with fourteen navy and orange alternating stripes on the sleeves, and introducing socks with a similar striped pattern extending from ankle to knee. Because of poor response from the fans and the media, this design lasted only one season. By 1949, the team was wearing the familiar navy blue shirts with white, rounded numbers. In 1956, the team added "TV numbers" to the sleeves. The Bears 'C' logo first appeared on the helmets in 1962. The logo changed from white to a white-bordered orange logo eleven years later, and has remained unchanged ever since. The Bears added the initials GSH to the left sleeve of their jerseys in 1984 in memory of George Halas. Chicago Bears uniform: 1962-1972 For decades, the team was known as the only NFL team to wear jersey numbers that were not the traditional block-style numbers. Although a handful of other NFL teams and the Houston Oilers during their early AFL days experimented with rounder jersey numbers, by the mid-1960s the Bears were the only team left to continue wearing rounded jersey numbers. Since the mid-1990s, however, several teams have shifted away from the block numbers in favor of numbers that match a specific team font (e.g. Denver Broncos, Baltimore Ravens, Philadelphia Eagles, etc...) or in the case of the Pittsburgh Steelers, match the jersey number font with the helmet numbers while otherwise leaving the jersey design alone. Other variations to the Bears uniforms over the years include the addition of navy blue pants as a part of the road kit in 1984. During the 1994 season, the Bears – with most of the other NFL franchises – introduced throwback uniforms to be worn in the honor of the NFL's 75th Anniversary. These uniforms with brown and blue stripes resemble the original Bears uniforms worn in the 1920s. On October 7, 2002 the Bears wore navy blue pants with their navy blue home jerseys for the first time, and lost at home to Green Bay before a national Monday Night Football audience. The Bears did not wear the all-blue combination again until the 2006 regular season finale against the Packers, also a loss, on December 31. On November 13, 2005 and October 29, 2006 (both times in games against the San Francisco 49ers), the Bears introduced an orange alternate home jersey. The orange swaps roles with the navy blue on this alternate jersey, as it becomes the dominant color while the navy complements. The orange jerseys were worn again on October 19, 2008 at home against the Minnesota Vikings in a 48-41 victory. Yahoo! Sports Bears hang on against Minnesota Chicago Bears Uniform History (1920–2005) The Bears previously wore orange jerseys as part of a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in 2004. Their uniforms, especially for their classic look, have been cited as one of the best in the league. Mascots Before the introduction of Staley Da Bear, the club had two unofficial mascots named "Rocky" and "Bearman". "Rocky" was a man who donned a "1" Bears jersey, carried a megaphone, and started chants all over Soldier Field during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. There is no known source of who "Rocky" was, except that he disappeared from Soldier Field in the early 1990s and presumably lived in Northwest Indiana. Don Wachter, also known as "Bearman", is a season ticket holder who decided in 1995 that he could also assist the team by cheerleading. The club allowed him to run across the field with a large Bears flag during player introductions and each team score. In 1996, he donned his "costume" of face paint, bear head and arms, and a number 46 jersey. "Bearman" was forced to stop wearing his costume with the introduction of Staley Da Bear in 2003; however, in 2005 Wachter was allowed in costume again. Stadium Soldier Field II Soldier Field, located on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, is the current home to the Bears. The Bears moved into Soldier Field in 1971 after outgrowing Wrigley Field, the team's home for 50 years, and Northwestern University's residential neighbors objected to their playing at Dyche Stadium, now called Ryan Field. After the AFL-NFL Merger, the newly merged league wanted their teams to play in stadiums that could hold at least 50,000 fans. Even with the portable bleachers that the team brought into Wrigley, the stadium could still only hold 46,000. Soldier Field's playing turf was changed from astroturf to natural grass in time for the start of the 1988 season. The stadium was the site of the infamous Fog Bowl playoff game between the Bears and Philadelphia Eagles. In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved. It was closed on Sunday, January 20, 2002, a day after the Bears lost in the playoffs. It reopened on September 27, 2003 after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium's history). Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as "New Soldier Field". During the season, the Bears played their home games at the University of Illinois' Memorial Stadium in Champaign, where they went 3-5. Many critics have negative views of the new stadium. They believe that its current structure has made it more of an eyesore than a landmark; some have dubbed it the "Mistake on the Lake". Soldier Field was stripped of its National Historic Landmark designation on February 17, 2006. In the 2005 season, the Bears won the NFC North Division and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, entitling them to play at least one home game in the postseason. The team hosted (and lost) their divisional round match on January 15, 2006 against the Carolina Panthers. This was the first playoff game at Soldier Field since the stadium reopened. The stadium's end zones and midfield were not painted until the 1982 season. The design sported on the field included the bolded word "Chicago" in both end zones. In 1983, the end zone design returned, with the addition of a large wishbone "C" Bears logo painted at midfield. These field markings remained unchanged until the 1996 season. In 1996 the midfield wishbone "C" was changed to a large blue Bears head, and the end zone design were painted with "Bears" in cursive. This new design remained until the 1999 season, at which point the artwork was returned to the classic "Chicago" and the "C". In the new Soldier Field, the artwork was tweaked to where one end zone had the word "Chicago" bolded and the other had "Bears". The Bears in popular culture While the Super Bowl XX Champion Bears were a fixture of mainstream American pop culture in the 1980s, the Bears made a prior mark with the 1971 American TV movie Brian's Song starring Billy Dee Williams as Gale Sayers and James Caan as Brian Piccolo. The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian's fatal illness. A 2001 remake of the movie for ABC starred Sean Maher as Piccolo and Mekhi Phifer as Sayers. The 1985 team is also remembered for recording the song "The Super Bowl Shuffle", which reached number forty-one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Grammy Award. The music video for the song depicts the team rapping that they are "not here to start no trouble" but instead "just here to do the Super Bowl Shuffle". The team took a risk by recording and releasing the song before the playoffs had even begun, but were able to avoid embarrassment by going on to win Super Bowl XX by a then-record margin of 46-10. That game was one of the most watched television events in history according to the Nielsen Ratings system; the game had a rating of 48.3, ranking it seventh in all-time television history. In addition to the "Super Bowl Shuffle" rap song, the Bears' success in the 1980s – and especially the personality of head coach Mike Ditka – inspired a recurring sketch on the American sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, called "Bill Swerski's Superfans". The sketch featured Cheers co-star George Wendt, a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk-show (similar in tone to WGN radio's "The Sportswriters"), with co-panelists Carl Wollarski (Robert Smigel), Pat Arnold (Mike Myers) and Todd O'Connor (Chris Farley). To hear them tell it, "Da Bears" and Coach Ditka could do no wrong. The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993. The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of Polish sausage, and often featured Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered (through self-administered CPR). The sketch also features the cast predicting unrealistic blowout victories for Bears games. A significantly overweight Farley died in 1997 from a drug overdose exacerbated by arteriosclerosis, and Da Super Fan sketch has not been brought back by SNL, with the exception of a single appearance by Horatio Sanz as a Super Fan for the Cubs on Weekend Update in 2003. Outside of SNL, George Wendt reprised his role of Swerski in the opening promo of Super Bowl XL on ABC. On TV shows based in Chicago such as Still Standing, According to Jim and The Bernie Mac Show, the main characters are all Bears fans, and have worn Bears' jerseys and t-shirts on some occasions. Some episodes even show them watching Bears games. Ditka's success and popularity in Chicago has led him to land analyst roles on various American football pregame shows. Ditka worked for both the NFL on NBC and CBS's The NFL Today, and he currently works on ESPN's Sunday NFL Countdown and provides Friday night analysis on the Bears on CBS 2 Chicago, the CBS Chicago affiliate, called "2 on Football" with CBS 2 Sports Director Mark Malone. He is also the color analyst for all local broadcasts of Bears preseason games. Ditka also co-starred himself alongside actor Will Ferrell in the 2005 comedy film Kicking & Screaming. Also, Ditka, Dick Butkus, Walter Payton, Jim McMahon, William "Refrigerator" Perry and Brian Urlacher are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials. Urlacher, whose jersey was among the league's best-selling in 2002, was featured on Nike commercials with Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick. Statistics and records Bill George and Doug Buffone hold the record for the most seasons in a Bears uniform with 14. George did it between the 1952 and 1965 seasons and Buffone during the 1966 through 1979 seasons. On the other hand, Steve McMichael holds the record for most consecutive games played by a Bear with 191; he accomplished the feat from 1981 to 1993. In second place is Payton, who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back, a position considered to be conducive to injury, only missing one game in a span of 13 seasons. Placekicker Kevin Butler holds the club record for scoring the most points in his ten-year Bear career. He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995. He is followed in distant second place by Payton, with 750 points. Payton holds the team record for career rushing yards with 16,726. That was an NFL record until Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys broke it in . Neal Anderson, who played from 1986 to 1993, is the closest to Payton's record with 6,166 yards. Mark Bortz holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances, with 13 between 1983 and 1994, and is followed by Kevin Butler, Dennis Gentry, Dan Hampton, Jay Hilgenberg, Steve McMichael, Ron Rivera, Mike Singletary, and Keith Van Horne, who have each played in 12 playoff games. The 1940 Chicago Bears team holds the record for the biggest margin of victory in an NFL game (playoff or regular season) with a 73–0 victory over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL Championship Game. The largest home victory for the Bears came in a 61–7 result against the Green Bay Packers in 1980. The largest defeat in club history was a 52–0 loss against the Baltimore Colts in 1964. The club recorded undefeated regular seasons in 1934 and 1942, but (unlike the 1972 Dolphins) did not win the championship game in either season. In 1934, the club completed a 13–0 record but were defeated by the New York Giants, and in 1942 the club completed an 11–0 record but were defeated by the Redskins. Had the Bears won either championship, the club would have completed a championship three-peat – a feat completed only by the Packers (twice), although no team has done it since the AFL-NFL merger. Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40 and for having the most career victories of 324. Halas' victories record stood until Don Shula surpassed Halas in . Ditka is the closest Bears coach to Halas, with 112 career victories. No other Bears coach has recorded over 100 victories with the team. During the 2006 season, return specialist Devin Hester set several kick return records. He had six touchdown returns, setting a record for most returns in a single season. Super Bowl.com, Hester is Chicago's not-so-secret weapon Retrieved on February 28, 2007 In 2007, he recorded another six touchdown season from returns. One of the most notable of these returns came on November 12, 2006, when he returned a missed field goal for a 108-yard touchdown. ESPN.com, Hester's record return pushes Bears past sleeping Giants Retrieved on March 11, 2007 The record tied teammate Nathan Vasher's previous record, which was set almost a year earlier. ESPN.com Page 2, The Damn! Moment of Week 10 Retrieved on March 11, 2007 Additionally, Hester set a Super Bowl record by becoming the first person to return an opening kick of a Super Bowl for a touchdown. Yahoo! Sports, Indianapolis 29, Chicago 17 Retrieved on February 5, 2007 Season-by-season results This is a partial list of the last four seasons completed or in progress by the Bears. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see Chicago Bears seasons. Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. Record as of December 30, 2007 Super Bowl Champions Conference ChampionsDivision ChampionsWild Card Berth SeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular seasonPost Season ResultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies2005 NFLNFCNorth1st1150Lost Divisional Playoffs (Panthers) (29-21) This was the first playoff game played at the newly renovated Soldier Field. Brian Urlacher (NFL DPOY)Lovie Smith (NFL COY)2006NFLNFCNorth1st1330Won Divisional Playoffs (Seahawks) (27-24 OT)Won Conference Championship (Saints) (39-14)Lost Super Bowl XLI (Colts) (29-17)20072007NFLNFCNorth4th7902008NFLNFCNorth2nd970 Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Bears have the most enshrined primary members with twenty-six, however the club also have had five Hall of Famers spend a minor portion of their career with the franchise. George Halas, Bronko Nagurski, and Red Grange were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963, while defensive end Dan Hampton, the most recent Bear inducted, was a part of the Class of 2002. Chicago Bears Hall of Famers (26/5)Primary Hall of Famers (26)No.PlayerPositionsNo.PlayerPositions 1 Paddy DriscollQB-S-K, Head Coach 42 Sid LuckmanQB-CB 3 Bronko NagurskiRB-OT-LB 50 Mike SingletaryLB 5 George McAfeeRB-S 51 Dick ButkusLB 7 George Halasfounder, owner Head Coach, TE-DE 56 Bill HewittTE-DE 11 Link LymanOT-DT 61 Bill GeorgeLB 13 George TraftonC-DT 66 Clyde (Bulldog) TurnerC-DT 13 Joe StydaharOT-DT 71 George ConnorOT-LB 16 Ed HealeyOT-DT 77 Harold (Red) GrangeRB-CB 16 George MussoC-DT 78 Stan JonesOT 16 George BlandaQB 81 Doug AtkinsDE 21 Danny FortmannOG-DT 89 Mike DitkaTE, Head Coach 34 Walter PaytonRB 99 Dan HamptonDE 40 Gale SayersRB-- Jim FinksGeneral ManagerHall of Famers with minor portion of career with Bears (5) N/A Guy ChamberlinTE-DE 1 Jimmy ConzelmanQB N/A Walt KieslingOL-DL 22 Bobby LayneQB 82 Alan PageOL-DL Retired numbers The Bears have retired thirteen uniform numbers, which is the most in the NFL, and ranks third behind the basketball Boston Celtics (21) and baseball New York Yankees (16) for the most in North American professional sports. Coaches of note Head coaches For a more in-depth look into the history of the head coaches of the Bears, see List of Chicago Bears head coaches ''As of December 30, 2007. Only regular season and postseason games are counted. NameFromToRecordTitles NFL Championships (1920–1969) and Super Bowl Championships (1970–present) collected during a coaching tenure WLTFritz Wasem 19191919Not Available No official records have been found for the 1919 season Red Brannon James Cook George Halas George Halas coached the Bears four different times, his overall record in those four stints come out to 324–151–31 January 1920December 19298431171Ralph Jones January 1930December 1932241071 George HalasDecember 1932November 1942882443Hunk Anderson Anderson and Johnsos were co-Head Coaches appointed by Halas went he left for the US Navy November 1942December 1945241221Luke JohnsosGeorge HalasJanuary 1946December 1955764321Paddy DriscollDecember 1955December 195714101George HalasDecember 1957May 27, 1968765361Jim DooleyMay 27, 1968December 29, 197120360Abe GibronJanuary 27, 1972December 17, 197411301Jack PardeeDecember 31, 1974January 19, 197820230Neill ArmstrongFebruary 16, 1978January 4, 198230350Mike DitkaJanuary 20, 1982January 19931126801Dave WannstedtJanuary 19, 1993December 28, 199841570Dick JauronJanuary 24, 1999December 29, 200335460Lovie SmithJanuary 15, 2004Present47370 Current staff Notes and references Sources External links Chicago Bears Official Club Homepage Chicago Bears at the National Football League Official Homepage Chicago Bears at the Chicago Sun-Times Online Website Chicago Bears at the Chicago Tribune Online Website Chicago Bears History at BearsHistory.com Chicago Bears Information at Sports E-Cyclopedia.com | Chicago_Bears |@lemmatized chicago:50 bear:134 professional:5 american:11 football:24 team:59 base:2 illinois:10 member:6 nfc:6 north:5 division:4 national:9 conference:6 league:18 nfl:57 legally:1 corporately:1 register:1 club:23 incorporate:1 win:17 nine:1 championship:26 eight:1 super:21 bowl:21 xx:4 enshrinees:1 pro:6 hall:8 fame:3 also:13 record:38 regular:7 season:60 overall:5 victory:13 franchise:21 december:6 found:1 decatur:3 halas:33 george:20 gwen:1 morgan:1 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2,830 | Binary_search_tree | A binary search tree of size 9 and depth 3, with root 8 and leaves 1, 4, 7 and 13 In computer science, a binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree data structure which has the following properties: Each node (item in the tree) has a distinct value. Both the left and right subtrees must also be binary search trees. The left subtree of a node contains only values less than the node's value. The right subtree of a node contains only values greater than the node's value. The major advantage of binary search trees over other data structures is that the related sorting algorithms and search algorithms such as in-order traversal can be very efficient. Binary search trees can choose to allow or disallow duplicate values, depending on the implementation. Binary search trees are a fundamental data structure used to construct more abstract data structures such as sets, multisets, and associative arrays. Operations Operations on a binary tree require comparisons between nodes. These comparisons are made with calls to a comparator, which is a subroutine that computes the total order (linear order) on any two values. This comparator can be explicitly or implicitly defined, depending on the language in which the BST is implemented. Searching Searching a binary tree for a specific value can be a recursive or iterative process. This explanation covers a recursive method. We begin by examining the root node. If the tree is null, the value we are searching for does not exist in the tree. Otherwise, if the value equals the root, the search is successful. If the value is less than the root, search the left subtree. Similarly, if it is greater than the root, search the right subtree. This process is repeated until the value is found or the indicated subtree is null. If the searched value is not found before a null subtree is reached, then the item must not be present in the tree. Here is the search algorithm in the Python programming language: def search_binary_tree(node, key): if node is None: return None # key not found if key < node.key: return search_binary_tree(node.left, key) elif key > node.key: return search_binary_tree(node.right, key) else: # key is equal to node key return node.value # found key This operation requires O(log n) time in the average case, but needs O(n) time in the worst-case, when the unbalanced tree resembles a linked list (degenerate tree). Insertion Insertion begins as a search would begin; if the root is not equal to the value, we search the left or right subtrees as before. Eventually, we will reach an external node and add the value as its right or left child, depending on the node's value. In other words, we examine the root and recursively insert the new node to the left subtree if the new value is less than the root, or the right subtree if the new value is greater than or equal to the root. Here's how a typical binary search tree insertion might be performed in C++: /* Inserts the node pointed to by "newNode" into the subtree rooted at "treeNode" */ void InsertNode(Node* &treeNode, Node *newNode) { if (treeNode == NULL) treeNode = newNode; else if (newNode->key < treeNode->key) InsertNode(treeNode->left, newNode); else InsertNode(treeNode->right, newNode); } The above "destructive" procedural variant modifies the tree in place. It uses only constant space, but the previous version of the tree is lost. Alternatively, as in the following Python example, we can reconstruct all ancestors of the inserted node; any reference to the original tree root remains valid, making the tree a persistent data structure: def binary_tree_insert(node, key, value): if node is None: return TreeNode(None, key, value, None) if key == node.key: return TreeNode(node.left, key, value, node.right) if key < node.key: return TreeNode(binary_tree_insert(node.left, key, value), node.key, node.value, node.right) else: return TreeNode(node.left, node.key, node.value, binary_tree_insert(node.right, key, value)) The part that is rebuilt uses Θ(log n) space in the average case and Ω(n) in the worst case (see big-O notation). In either version, this operation requires time proportional to the height of the tree in the worst case, which is O(log n) time in the average case over all trees, but Ω(n) time in the worst case. Another way to explain insertion is that in order to insert a new node in the tree, its value is first compared with the value of the root. If its value is less than the root's, it is then compared with the value of the root's left child. If its value is greater, it is compared with the root's right child. This process continues, until the new node is compared with a leaf node, and then it is added as this node's right or left child, depending on its value. There are other ways of inserting nodes into a binary tree, but this is the only way of inserting nodes at the leaves and at the same time preserving the BST structure. Deletion There are several cases to be considered: Deleting a leaf: Deleting a node with no children is easy, as we can simply remove it from the tree. Deleting a node with one child: Delete it and replace it with its child. Deleting a node with two children: Suppose the node to be deleted is called N. We replace the value of N with either its in-order successor (the left-most child of the right subtree) or the in-order predecessor (the right-most child of the left subtree). Deleting a node with two children from a binary search tree Once we find either the in-order successor or predecessor, swap it with N, and then delete it. Since both the successor and the predecessor must have fewer than two children, either one can be deleted using the previous two cases. A good implementation avoids consistently using one of these nodes, however, because this can unbalance the tree. Here is C sample code for a recursive version of deletion. struct Binary_Search_Tree *Bst_Delete(struct Binary_Search_Tree *node, int val) { struct Binary_Search_Tree *successor, *node_delete; if(node) { if(node->val > val) node->left = Bst_Delete(node->left, val); else if(node->val < val) node->right = Bst_Delete(node->right, val); else { if(node->left == NULL) { node_delete = node; node = node->right; free(node_delete); } else if(node->right == NULL) { node_delete = node; node = node->left; free(node_delete); } else /* use inorder_predecessor every alternate delete for better tree balancing */ { successor = inorder_successor_Bst(node->right); node->val = successor->val; node->right = Bst_Delete(node->right, successor->val); } } return node; } else { printf("\nNode to be deleted not found\n"); return NULL; } } Although this operation does not always traverse the tree down to a leaf, this is always a possibility; thus in the worst case it requires time proportional to the height of the tree. It does not require more even when the node has two children, since it still follows a single path and does not visit any node twice. Here is the code in Python: def findSuccessor(self): succ = None if self.rightChild: succ = self.rightChild.findMin() else: if self.parent.leftChild == self: succ = self.parent else: self.parent.rightChild = None succ = self.parent.findSuccessor() self.parent.rightChild = self return succ def findMin(self): n = self while n.leftChild: n = n.leftChild print 'found min, key = ', n.key return n def spliceOut(self): if (not self.leftChild and not self.rightChild): if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = None else: self.parent.rightChild = None elif (self.leftChild or self.rightChild): if self.leftChild: if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = self.leftChild else: self.parent.rightChild = self.leftChild else: if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = self.rightChild else: self.parent.rightChild = self.rightChild def binary_tree_delete(self, key): if self.key == key: if not (self.leftChild or self.rightChild): if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = None else: self.parent.rightChild = None elif (self.leftChild or self.rightChild) and (not (self.leftChild and self.rightChild)): if self.leftChild: if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = self.leftChild else: self.parent.rightChild = self.leftChild else: if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = self.rightChild else: self.parent.rightChild = self.rightchild else: succ = self.findSuccessor() succ.spliceOut() if self == self.parent.leftChild: self.parent.leftChild = succ else: self.parent.rightChild = succ succ.leftChild = self.leftChild succ.rightChild = self.rightChild else: if key < self.key: Traversal Once the binary search tree has been created, its elements can be retrieved in-order by recursively traversing the left subtree of the root node, accessing the node itself, then recursively traversing the right subtree of the node, continuing this pattern with each node in the tree as it's recursively accessed. The tree may also be traversed in pre-order or post-order traversals. def traverse_binary_tree(treenode): if treenode is None: return left, nodevalue, right = treenode traverse_binary_tree(left) visit(nodevalue) traverse_binary_tree(right) Traversal requires Ω(n) time, since it must visit every node. This algorithm is also O(n), and so it is asymptotically optimal. Sort A binary search tree can be used to implement a simple but efficient sorting algorithm. Similar to heapsort, we insert all the values we wish to sort into a new ordered data structure—in this case a binary search tree—and then traverse it in order, building our result: def build_binary_tree(values): tree = None for v in values: tree = binary_tree_insert(tree, v) return tree def traverse_binary_tree(treenode): if treenode is None: return [] else: left, value, right = treenode return (traverse_binary_tree(left), [value], traverse_binary_tree(right)) The worst-case time of build_binary_tree is —if you feed it a sorted list of values, it chains them into a linked list with no left subtrees. For example, build_binary_tree([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) yields the tree (None, 1, (None, 2, (None, 3, (None, 4, (None, 5, None))))). There are several schemes for overcoming this flaw with simple binary trees; the most common is the self-balancing binary search tree. If this same procedure is done using such a tree, the overall worst-case time is O(nlog n), which is asymptotically optimal for a comparison sort. In practice, the poor cache performance and added overhead in time and space for a tree-based sort (particularly for node allocation) make it inferior to other asymptotically optimal sorts such as heapsort for static list sorting. On the other hand, it is one of the most efficient methods of incremental sorting, adding items to a list over time while keeping the list sorted at all times... Example implementation in Python class Node: def __init__(self, lchild=None, rchild=None, value=-1, data=None): self.lchild = lchild self.rchild = rchild self.value = value self.data = data class Bst: """Implement Binary Search Tree.""" def __init__(self): self.l = [] # Nodes self.root = None def add(self, key, dt): """Add a node in tree.""" if self.root == None: self.root = Node(value=key, data=dt) self.l.append(self.root) return 0 else: self.p = self.root while True: if self.p.value > key: if self.p.lchild == None: self.p.lchild = Node(value=key, data=dt) return 0 # Success else: self.p = self.p.lchild elif self.p.value == key: return -1 # Value already in tree else: if self.p.rchild == None: self.p.rchild = Node(value=key, data=dt) return 0 # Success else: self.p = self.p.rchild return -2 # Should never happen def search(self, key): """Search Tree for a key and return data; if not found return None.""" self.p = self.root if self.p == None: return None while True: # print self.p.value, self.p.data if self.p.value > key: if self.p.lchild == None: return None # Not found else: self.p = self.p.lchild elif self.p.value == key: return self.p.data else: if self.p.rchild == None: return None # Not found else: self.p = self.p.rchild return None # Should never happen def deleteNode(self,key): """Delete node with value == key.""" if self.root.value == key: if self.root.lchild == None and self.root.rchild == None: #No Children self.root = None elif self.root.lchild != None and self.root.rchild == None: #Only a left child self.root = self.root.lchild elif self.root.lchild == None and self.root.rchild != None: #Only a right child self.root = self.root.rchild else: #it has both children #in-order predecessor self.p = self.root.lchild pParent = None while self.p.rchild != None: #find the right most child pParent = self.p self.p = self.p.rchild if pParent != None: #it's not the first node on the left pParent.rchild = self.p.lchild #Bottom of the tree is corrected self.p.rchild = self.root.rchild #Swap the nodes self.p.lchild = self.root.lchild #Swap the nodes self.root = self.p else: self.p.rchild = self.root.rchild self.root = self.p else: #it's not the root self.p = self.root parent = self.root isLeft = 1 Continue = 1 while Continue: if self.p.value > key: if self.p.lchild == None: return None # Not found else: parent = self.p isLeft = 1 self.p = self.p.lchild elif self.p.value == key: #i'm at the right node Continue = 0 else: if self.p.rchild == None: return None # Not found else: parent = self.p isLeft = 0 self.p = self.p.rchild self._erase(parent,self.p,isLeft) def _erase(self, parent, node, isLeft): if node.lchild == None and node.rchild == None: #node has no children if isLeft: parent.lchild = None else: parent.rchild = None elif node.lchild != None and node.rchild == None: #node has only left child if isLeft: parent.lchild = node.lchild else: parent.rchild = node.lchild elif node.lchild == None and node.rchild != None: #node has only right child if isLeft: parent.lchild = node.rchild else: parent.rchild = node.rchild else: #node has 2 children #in-order predecessor self.p = node.lchild pParent = node while self.p.rchild != None: #find the right most child pParent = self.p self.p = self.p.rchild pParent.rchild = self.p.lchild #Bottom of the tree is corrected self.p.rchild = node.rchild #Swap the nodes self.p.lchild = node.lchild #Swap the nodes if isLeft: #place the node at the correct place parent.lchild = self.p else: parent.rchild = self.p def sort(self): self.__traverse__(self.root, mode=1) def __traverse__(self, v, mode=0): """Traverse in: preorder = 0, inorder = 1, postorder = 2.""" if v == None: return if mode == 0: print (v.value, v.data) self.__traverse__(v.lchild) self.__traverse__(v.rchild) elif mode == 1: self.__traverse__(v.lchild, 1) print (v.value, v.data) self.__traverse__(v.rchild, 1) else: self.__traverse__(v.lchild, 2) self.__traverse__(v.rchild, 2) print (v.value, v.data) def main(): tree = Bst() tree.add(4, "test1") tree.add(10, "test2") tree.add(23, "test3") tree.add(1, "test4") tree.add(3, "test5") tree.add(2, "test6") tree.sort() print tree.search(3) print tree.deleteNode(10) print tree.deleteNode(23) print tree.deleteNode(4) print tree.search(3) tree.sort() if __name__ == "__main__": main() Types of binary search trees There are many types of binary search trees. AVL trees and red-black trees are both forms of self-balancing binary search trees. A splay tree is a binary search tree that automatically moves frequently accessed elements nearer to the root. In a treap ("tree heap"), each node also holds a priority and the parent node has higher priority than its children. Two other titles describing binary search trees are that of a complete and degenerate tree. A complete tree is a tree with n levels, where for each level d <= n - 1, the number of existing nodes at level d is equal to 2d. This means all possible nodes exist at these levels. An additional requirement for a complete binary tree is that for the nth level, while every node does not have to exist, the nodes that do exist must fill from left to right. A degenerate tree is a tree where for each parent node, there is only one associated child node. What this means is that in a performance measurement, the tree will essentially behave like a linked list data structure. Performance comparisons D. A. Heger (2004) presented a performance comparison of binary search trees. Treap was found to have the best average performance, while red-black tree was found to have the smallest amount of performance fluctuations. Optimal binary search trees If we don't plan on modifying a search tree, and we know exactly how often each item will be accessed, we can construct an optimal binary search tree, which is a search tree where the average cost of looking up an item (the expected search cost) is minimized. Assume that we know the elements and that for each element, we know the proportion of future lookups which will be looking for that element. We can then use a dynamic programming solution, detailed in section 15.5 of Introduction to Algorithms (Second Edition) by Thomas H. Cormen, to construct the tree with the least possible expected search cost. Even if we only have estimates of the search costs, such a system can considerably speed up lookups on average. For example, if you have a BST of English words used in a spell checker, you might balance the tree based on word frequency in text corpora, placing words like "the" near the root and words like "agerasia" near the leaves. Such a tree might be compared with Huffman trees, which similarly seek to place frequently-used items near the root in order to produce a dense information encoding; however, Huffman trees only store data elements in leaves and these elements need not be ordered. If we do not know the sequence in which the elements in the tree will be accessed in advance, we can use splay trees which are asymptotically as good as any static search tree we can construct for any particular sequence of lookup operations. Alphabetic trees are Huffman trees with the additional constraint on order, or, equivalently, search trees with the modification that all elements are stored in the leaves. Faster algorithms exist for optimal alphabetic binary trees (OABTs). Example: procedure Optimum Search Tree(f, f´, c) for j = 0 to n do c[j, j] = 0, F[j, j] = f´j for d = 1 to n do for i = 0 to (n − d) do j = i + d F[i, j] = F[i, j − 1] + f´ + f´j c[i, j] = MIN(i<k<=j){c[i, k − 1] + c[k, j]} + F[i, j] See also Binary search Binary tree Self-balancing binary search tree Randomized binary search tree B-tree Data structure Trie Ternary search tree Elastic binary tree Hash table Skip list References Further reading Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.2: Binary Tree Searching, pp.426–458. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Chapter 12: Binary search trees, pp.253–272. Section 15.5: Optimal binary search trees, pp.356–363. External links Full source code to an efficient implementation in C++ Implementation of Binary Search Trees in C Implementation of Binary Search Trees in Java Iterative Implementation of Binary Search Trees in C# An introduction to binary trees from Stanford Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures - Binary Search Tree Binary Search Tree Example in Python Java Model illustrating the behaviour of binary search trees(In JAVA Applet) Interactive Data Structure Visualizations - Binary Tree Traversals Literate implementations of binary search trees in various languages on LiteratePrograms BST Tree Applet by Kubo Kovac Well illustrated explanation of binary search tree. 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2,831 | Door | The front door of a house is often decorated to appear inviting. A door is a moveable barrier used to cover an opening. Doors are used widely and are found in walls or partitions of a building or space, furniture such as cupboards, cages, vehicles, and containers. A door can be opened to give access and closed more or less securely using a combination of latches and locks. (See article Door security). Doors are nearly universal in buildings of all kinds, allowing passage between the inside and outside, and between internal rooms. When open, they admit ventilation and light. The door is used to control the physical atmosphere within a space by enclosing it, excluding air drafts, so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled. Doors are significant in preventing the spread of fire. They act as a barrier to noise. (See article Door safety). They are also used to screen areas of a building for aesthetic purposes, keeping formal and utility areas separate. Doors also have an aesthetic role in creating an impression of what lies beyond. Doors are often symbolically endowed with ritual purposes, and the guarding or receiving of the keys to a door, or being granted access to a door can have special significance. See, for example the doorkeeping duties of the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. Similarly, doors and doorways frequently appear in metaphorical or allegorical situations, literature and the arts, often as a portent of change. Applications Architectural doors have numerous general and specialized uses. Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (rooms, closets, etc.) for privacy, convenience, security, and safety reasons. Doors are also used to secure passages into a building from the exterior for reasons of safety and climate control. Doors also are applied in more specialized cases: A trapdoor is a door that is oriented horizontally in a floor or ceiling, often accessed via a ladder. Blast-proof doors are constructed to allow access to a structure but also to provide protection from the force of explosions. A garden door is any door that opens to a garden or backyard. It is often used specifically for double French doors in place of a sliding glass door. In such a configuration, it has the advantage of a very large opening for moving large objects in and out. A pet door (also known as a doggy door or cat flap) is an opening in a door to allow pets to enter and exit without the main door being opened. It may be simply covered by a rubber flap or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through. Pet doors may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel. Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit. Pet doors may be electronic, only allowing pets with a special electronic tag to enter. Design and styles A decorated door from the Tibetan Namdroling monastery, southern India. Many kinds of doors have specific names, depending on their purpose. The most common variety of door consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway. Many variations on this basic design are possible, such as "double" doors that have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway. A Dutch door or stable door is divided in half horizontally. Traditionally the top half can be opened to allow a horse or other animal to be fed, while the bottom half remained closed to keep the animal inside. Saloon doors are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars. Saloon doors, also known as cafe doors, often use bidirectional hinges which close the door regardless of which direction it is opened by incorporating springs. Saloon doors that only extend from knee-level to chest-level are known as batwing doors. A blind door is a door with no visible trim or operable components. It is designed to blend with the adjacent wall in all finishes, and visually to be a part of the wall, a disguised door. A barn door is a door characteristic of a barn. They are often/always found on barns, and because of a barn's immense size (often) doors are subsequently big for utility. A French door, also called a French window, is a door that has multiple windows ("lights") set into it for the full length of the door. Traditional French doors are assembled from individual small pieces of glass and mullions. These doors are also known as true divided lite[sic] French doors. French doors made of double-pane glass (on exterior doors for insulation reasons) may have a decorative grille embedded between the panes, or may also be true divided lite French doors. The decorative grille may also be superimposed on top of single pane of glass in the door. A louvred door has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called slats or louvers) which permit open ventilation whilst preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for wardrobes and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form window shutters. A flush door is a completely smooth door, having plywood or MDF fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings. A moulded door has the same structure as that of flush door. The only difference is that the surface material is a moulded skin made of HDF / . It is commonly used as interior doors. A ledge and brace door is a door made from multiple vertical planks fixed together by two horizontal planks (the ledges) and kept square by a diagonal plank (the brace). A wicket door is a normal sized door built into a much larger one, such as the gate of a city or castle. A bifold door is a door unit that has several sections, folding in pairs. Wood is the most common material, and doors may also be metal or glass. Bifolds are most commonly made for closets, but may also be used as units between rooms. A sliding glass door, sometimes called an Arcadia door, is a door made of glass that slides open and sometimes has a screen. Australian doors are a pair of plywood swinging doors often found in Australian public houses. These doors are generally red or brown in color and bear a resemblance to the more formal doors found in other British Colonies' public houses. A false door is a wall decoration that looks like a door. In ancient Egyptian architecture, this was a common element in a tomb, the false door representing a gate to the afterlife. They can also be found in the funerary architecture of the desert tribes (e.g., Libyan Ghirza). Types of mechanism Hinged doors Most doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction but not in the other. The axis of rotation is usually vertical. In some cases, such as hinged garage doors often horizontal, above the door opening. Doors can be hinged so that the axis of rotation is not in the plane of the door to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This requires a mechanism so that the axis of rotation is on the side other than that in which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in trains, such as for the door to the toilet, which opens inward. A swing door' has special hinges that allow it to open either outwards or inwards, and is usually sprung to keep it closed. Sliding doors It is often useful to have doors which slide along tracks, often for space or aesthetic considerations. A bypass door is a door unit that has two or more sections. The doors can slide in either direction along one axis on parallel overhead tracks, sliding past each other. They are most commonly used in closets, in order to access one side of the closet at a time. The doors in a bypass unit will overlap slightly when viewed from the front, in order not to have a visible gap between them. Doors which slide between two wall panels are called pocket doors. Sliding glass doors are common in many houses, particularly as an entrance to the backyard. Such doors are also popular for use for the entrances to commercial structures. A tambour door is made of narrow horizontal slats and "rolls" up and down by sliding along vertical tracks and is typically found in entertainment centres and cabinets. Folding doors Folding doors have an even number of sections, generally 2 to 4, folding in pairs. The doors can open from either side for one pair, or fold off both sides for two pairs. Rotating doors A revolving door normally has four wings/leaves that hang on a center shaft and rotate one way about a vertical axis. The door may be motorized, or pushed manually using pushbars. People can walk out of and into the building at the same time. Between the point of access and the point of exit the user walks through an airlock. Revolving doors therefore create a good seal from the outside and help to reduce A/C and heating costs climate control from the building. This type of door is also often seen as a mark of prestige and glamour for a building and it not unusual for neighbouring buildings to install their own revolving doors when a rival building gets one. A butterfly door called because of its two "wings". It consists of a double-wide panel with its rotation axle in the centre, effectively creating two separate openings when the door is opened. Butterfly doors are made to rotate open in one direction (usually counterclockwise), and rotate closed in the opposite direction. The door is not equipped with handles, so it is a "push" door. This is for safety, because if it could open in both directions, someone approaching the door might be caught off-guard by someone else opening the other side, thus impacting the first person. Such doors are popular in public transit stations, as it has a large capacity, and when the door is opened, traffic passing in both directions keeps the door open. They are particularly popular in underground subway stations, because they are heavy, and when air currents are created by the movement of trains, the force will be applied to both wings of the door, thus equalizing the force on either side, keeping the door shut. A selfbolting door called because ot its special hinges that permit to panel leaf making a lateral movement at the place of the bolt so that door itself becomes a giant bolt for better security result.French Doors derived from an original French design called the casement door, can be created with two out-swinging or in-swinging door panels or two sliding panels or pocket doors. Others An up-and-over door is often used in garages. Instead of hinges it has a mechanism, often counterbalanced or sprung, that allows it to be lifted so that it rests horizontally above the opening. Also known as an overhead door. A roller shutter is one variant of this type.Automatic doors are powered open and closed either by power, spring, or both. There are several methods by which an automatic door is activated: A sensor detects traffic is approaching. Sensors for automatic doors are generally: A pressure sensor - e.g., a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it. An infrared curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door is triggered open. A motion sensor which uses low-power microwave radar for the same effect. A remote sensor (e.g. based on infrared or radio waves) can be triggered by a portable remote control, or is installed inside a vehicle. These are popular for garage doors. A switch is operated manually, perhaps after security checks. This can be a push button switch or a swipe card. The act of pushing or pulling the door triggers the open and close cycle. These are also known as power-assisted doors. In addition to activation sensors automatic doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infrared curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The purpose of the safety sensor is to prevent the door from colliding with an object in its path by stopping or slowing its motion.Inward opening doors are doors that can only be opened (or forced open) from outside a building. Such doors pose a substantial fire risk to occupants of occupied buildings when they are locked. As such doors can only be forced open from the outside, building occupants would be prevented from escaping. In commercial and retail situations manufacturers have included in the design a mechanism that allows an inward opening door to be pushed open outwards in the event of an emergency (which is often a regulatory requirement). This is known as a 'breakaway' feature. Pushing the door outward at its closed position, through a switch mechanism, disconnects power to the latch and allows the door to swing outward. Upon returning the door to the closed position, power is restored. The automatic doors were invented by a company called Grupsa System in Spain. Door construction and components Parts of a panel and or glazed door joint between midrail, lockrail and a gunstock stile A frame and filled door A hollow door with one face removed Panel doors Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built with frame and panel construction: Stiles - Vertical boards that run the full height of a door and compose its right and left edges. The hinges are mounted to the fixed side (known as the "hanging stile"), and the handle, lock, bolt, and/or latch are mounted on the swinging side (known as the "latch stile"). Rails - Horizontal boards at the top, bottom, and optionally in the middle of a door that join the two stiles and split the door into two or more rows of panels. The "top rail" and "bottom rail" are named for their positions. The bottom rail is also known as "kick rail". A middle rail at the height of the bolt is known as the "lock rail", other middle rails are commonly known as "cross rails". Mullions - Smaller optional vertical boards that run between two rails, and split the door into two or more columns of panels, the term is used sometimes for verticals in doors, but more often (UK and Australia) it refers to verticals in windows. Muntin - Optional vertical members that divide the door into smaller panels. Panels - Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails, and mullions. The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to keep the door rigid. Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs. Lights, (UK); Lites, (US) - Pieces of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the door a window. Plank and batten doors Plank and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats: Planks - Vertical boards that extend the full height of the door, and are placed side by side filling the door's width. Battens - Smaller slats that extend horizontally across the door which the planks are affixed to. The battens hold the planks together. Sometimes a long diagonal slat or two are also implemented to prevent the door from skewing. On some doors, especially antique ones, the battens are replaced with iron bars that are often built into the hinges as extensions of the door-side plates. Ledged and braced doors This type consists of vertical tongue and grooved boards held together with battens and diagonal braces. Frame and filled doors This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with Tongue and Grooved boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face. Flush doors Many modern doors, including most interior doors, are flush doors: Stiles and rails - As above, but usually smaller. They form the outside edges of the door. Core material: Material within the door used simply to fill space, provide rigidity and reduce druminess. Hollow-core - Often consists of a lattice or honeycomb made of corrugated cardboard, or thin wooden slats. Can also be built with staggered wooden blocks. Hollow-core flush doors are commonly used as interior doors. Lock block - A solid block of wood mounted within a hollow-core flush door near the bolt to provide a solid and stable location for mounting the door's hardware. Stave-core - Consists of wooden slats stacked upon one another in a manner similar to a plank & batten door (though the slats are usually thinner) or the wooden-block hollow-core (except that the space is entirely filled). Solid-core - Can consist of low-density particle board or foam used to completely fill the space within the door. Solid-core flush doors (especially foam-core ones) are commonly used as exterior doors because they provide more insulation and strength. Skin - The front and back faces of the door are then covered with wood veneer, thin plywood, sheet metal, fiberglass, or vinyl. The wooden materials are usually layered with the grain alternating direction between layers to prevent warping. Fiberglass and metal-faced doors are sometimes given a layer of cellulose so that they may be stained to look like real wood. Moulded doors Stiles and rails - As above, but usually smaller. They form the outside edges of the door. Core material: Material within the door used simply to fill space, provide rigidity and reduce druminess. Hollow-core - Often consists of a lattice or honeycomb made of corrugated cardboard, or thin wooden slats. Can also be built with staggered wooden blocks. Hollow-core flush doors are commonly used as interior doors. Lock block - A solid block of wood mounted within a hollow-core flush door near the bolt to provide a solid and stable location for mounting the door's hardware. Stave-core - Consists of wooden slats stacked upon one another in a manner similar to a plank & batten door (though the slats are usually thinner) or the wooden-block hollow-core (except that the space is entirely filled). Solid-core - Can consist of low-density particle board or foam used to completely fill the space within the door. Solid-core flush doors (especially foam-core ones) are commonly used as exterior doors because they provide more insulation and strength. Skin - The front and back faces of the door are covered with HDF / MDF skins. Swing direction Door swing directions diagram.Door swingsDoor swings, or handing, are always determined from the secure side of the door (ie. the side you use the key on, outside to inside, or public to private). Left hand hinge (LHH): If the hinges are on the left and the door opens in, it's a left hand door. You push the door with your left hand. Right hand hinge (RHH): If the hinges are on the right and the door opens in, it's a right hand door. You push the door with your right hand. Left hand reverse (LHR): Standing in the house, the hinges are on the right, knob of left, pushing the door to the outside (outswing) Right hand reverse (RHR): Standing in the house, the hinges are on the left, knob of right, pushing the door to the outside (outswing) Note: In Australia, this is different. The refrigerator rule applies (you can't stand in a fridge, the door always opens towards you) - If the hinges are on the left then its a left hand (or left hung) door. If the hinges are on the right then its a right hand (or right hung) door. See the Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909-1984 pg 6. Dimensions A standard US door size 36" x 80" (0.91 m x 2.03 m). A diagram illustrating the components of a panel door Doorway components When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical jambs on either side, a lintel or head jamb at the top, and perhaps a threshold at the bottom. When a door has more than one movable section, one of the sections may be called a leaf. See door furniture for a discussion of attachments to doors such as door handles and doorknobs. Lintel - A horizontal beam above a door that supports the wall above it. (Also known as a header) Jambs - The vertical posts that form the sides of a door frame, where the hinges are mounted, and with which the bolt interacts. Sill - A horizontal beam below the door that supports the frame Doorstop - a thin slat built inside the frame to prevent a door from swinging through when closed, which might break the hinges. Architrave - The decorative molding that outlines a door frame. (called an Archivolt if the door is arched). Called door casing or brickmold in North America. Related hardware See main article: Door furniture Door furniture or hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. This includes items such as hinges, handles, door stops, etc. History An old door (20th Century AD), Kashan, Iran The earliest records are those represented in the paintings of the Egyptian tombs, in which they are shown as single or double doors, each in a single piece of wood. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, there would be no fear of their warping, but in other countries it would be necessary to frame them, which according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails (see: Frame and panel): the spaces enclosed being filled with panels (tympana) let into grooves made in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were in timber, those made for King Solomon's temple being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors dwelt upon in Homer would appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides Olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. Stone door, Hampi, India All ancient doors were hung by pivots at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill, the latter being always in some hard stone such as basalt or granite. Those found at Nippur by Dr. Hilprecht, dating from 2000 B.C. were in dolerite. The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about wide and . high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, 10 in. high, covered with repouss decoration of figures, etc. The wood doors would seem to have been about 3 in. thick, but the hanging stile was over diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze have been found, which proves this to have been the universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the Hauran in Syria, where timber is scarce the doors were made in stone, and one measuring by is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, 9 to . high, being the entrance doors of the town. In Etruria many stone doors are referred to by Dennis. Roman folding doors at Pompeii (1st century AD). The ancient Greek and Roman doors were either single doors, double doors, sliding doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In Eumachia, is a painting of a door with three leaves. In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica. Heron of Alexandria created the earliest known automatic door in the 1st century AD during the era of Roman Egypt. Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. The first foot-sensor-activated automatic door was made in China during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618), who had one installed for his royal library. The first automatic gate operators were later created in 1206 by the Arabic inventor, Al-Jazari. Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 181, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292781490. The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns: those of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, of the 8th and 9th century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (9th century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice. Ornate door. Roman wall painting in the Villa Boscoreale, Italy (1st century AD). Of the 11th and 12th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant Andrea, Amalfi (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa (1111); Troia, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors, viz, with wrought-iron bands of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in execution, but examples are endless throughout France and England. Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence), which together with the door frames are all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most remarkable: the modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door (1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs, in which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures, these being probably the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks. An old door (20th Centuary AD), Isfahan, Iran The doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds; those which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched. In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503). In the lower panels there are figures . high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about . high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais Cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. The oldest door in England can be found in Westminster Abbey and dates from 1050. BBC NEWS | UK | Abbey oak door 'Britain's oldest' In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, round them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue ornament. See also Janus, Roman god of doors Access badge Access control Alarm Alarm management Bank vault Biometrics Burglar alarm Castle Cat flap Category: Car doors Category: Security companies Closed-circuit television Common Access Card Computer security Credential Door safety Door security Electronic lock Fortification ID Card IP video surveillance Keycards Locksmithing Lock picking Logical security Magnetic stripe card Optical turnstile Photo identification Physical Security Professional Prison Proximity card Razor wire Roller shutter Safe Safe-cracking Security Security engineering Security lighting Security policy Smart card Surveillance Swipe card Wiegand effect References External linksPatents''' US – Fire exit lock'' Historic Doors - Glossary | Door |@lemmatized front:4 door:299 house:6 often:24 decorate:2 appear:3 inviting:1 moveable:1 barrier:2 use:33 cover:6 opening:8 widely:1 find:12 wall:7 partition:1 building:13 space:13 furniture:4 cupboard:1 cage:1 vehicle:2 container:1 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2,832 | Literacy | World illiteracy halved between 1970 and 2005. The traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to use language to read, write, listen, and speak. NCTE.org In modern contexts, the word refers to reading and writing at a level adequate for communication, or at a level that lets one understand and communicate ideas in a literate society, so as to take part in that society. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has drafted the following definition: "'Literacy' is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society." UNESCO Education Sector, The Plurality of Literacy and its implications for Policies and Programs: Position Paper. Paris: United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2004, p. 13, citing a international expert meeting in June 2003 at UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246e.pdf In modern times, illiteracy is seen as a social problem to be solved through education. World literacy rates World literacy by country 80% of the world population was literate in 1998 by the United Nations definition - the ability to read and write a simple sentence in a language. Using a definition of: "age 15 and over can read and write", the U.S. CIA World Factbook estimated in 2007 that the overall world literacy rate was 82%. Literacy rates can vary widely from country to country or region to region. This often coincides with the region's wealth or urbanization, though many factors play a role, such as social customs which limit the education of females in some countries. Economics Many policy analysts consider literacy rates a crucial measure of a region's human capital. This claim is made on the grounds that literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people, generally have a higher socio-economic status and enjoy better health and employment prospects. Policy makers also argue that literacy increases job opportunities and access to higher education. In Kerala, India, for example, female and child mortality rates declined dramatically in the 1960s, when girls who were schooled according to the education reforms after 1948 began to raise families. Recent researchers argue, however, that such correlations may have more to do with the overall effects of schooling rather than literacy alone. Graff, 2003 In addition to the potential for literacy to increase wealth, wealth may promote literacy, through cultural norms and easier access to schools and tutoring services. Broader and complementary definitions Traditional definitions of literacy consider the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak." Moats, L.C. Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers, p. 3. Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000 Since the 1980s, some have argued that literacy is ideological, which means that literacy always exists in a context, in tandem with the values associated with that context. Street, B. (1984) Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.2. ISBN 9780521289610. Introduction: "... I shall pose an 'ideological' model of literacy." Prior work viewed literacy as existing autonomously. Chapter 1, The Autonomous Model I : Literacy and Rationality", Chapter 2, "The 'Autonomous' Model II Goody" in Street (1984) Goody, J. (1986). The logic of writing and the organization of society. New York: Cambridge University. Some have argued that the definition of literacy should be expanded. For example, in the United States, the National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association have added "visually representing" to the traditional list of competencies. Similarly, in Scotland, literacy has been defined as: "The ability to read and write and use numeracy, to handle information, to express ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, as family members, workers, citizens and lifelong learners." Curriculum Framework for Adult Literacy in Scotland (pdf) A basic literacy standard in many societies is the ability to read the newspaper. Increasingly, communication in commerce or society in general requires the ability to use computers and other digital technologies. Literacy in the Information Age: Final Report of the International Adult Literacy Survey, OECD 2000. PDF Since the 1990s, when the Internet came into wide use in the United States, some have asserted that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use tools such as web browsers, word processing programs, and text messages. Similar expanded skill sets have been called multimedia literacy, computer literacy, information literacy, and technacy.<ref>Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.</ref> "Arts literacy" programs exist in some places in the United States. Kennedy Center Partners in Education, Washington, D.C.; ABC school in South Carolina; A Plus schools in a half dozen states; Value Plus in Tennessee Janet C. Richards, Michael C. McKenna (2003). Integrating multiple literacies in K-8 classrooms: cases, commentaries, and practical applications . Other genres under study by academia include critical literacy, media literacy, ecological literacy and health literacy Zarcadoolas, C., Pleasant, A., & Greer, D. (2006). Advancing health literacy: A framework for understanding and action. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA. With the increasing emphasis on evidence-based decision making, and the use of statistical graphics and information, statistical literacy is becoming a very important aspect of literacy in general. The International Statistical Literacy Project is dedicated to the promotion of statistical literacy among all members of society. It is argued that literacy includes the cultural, political, and historical contexts of the community in which communication takes place. Knobel, M. (1999). Everyday literacies: Students, discourse, and social practice. New York: Lang; Gee, J. P. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideologies in Discourses. Philadelphia: Falmer. Taking account of the fact that a large part of the benefits of literacy obtain from having access to a literate person in the household, a recent literature in economics, starting with the work of Kaushik Basu and James Foster, distinguishes between a 'proximate illiterate' and an 'isolated illiterate'. The former refers to an illiterate person who lives in a household with other literates and the latter to an illiterate who lives in a household of all illiterates. What is of concern is that many people in poor nations are not just illiterates but isolated illiterates. History Although the history of literacy goes back several thousand years to the invention of writing, what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other times, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular. Even earlier, literacy was a trade secret of professional scribes, and many historic monarchies maintained cadres of this profession, sometimes—as was the case for Imperial Aramaic—even importing them from lands where a completely alien language was spoken and written. In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to read a particular passage from the Bible entitled a common law defendant to the so-called benefit of clergy, which entitled a person to be tried before an ecclesiastical court, where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence. This opened the door to lay, but nonetheless literate, defendants also claiming the benefit of clergy, and—because the Biblical passage used for the literacy test was inevitably Psalm 51—an illiterate person who had memorized the appropriate verse could also claim the benefit of clergy. By the mid-18th century, the ability to read and comprehend translated scripture led to Wales having one of the highest literacy rates. This was the result of a Griffith Jones's system of circulating schools, which aimed to enable everyone to read the Bible in Welsh. Similarly, at least half the population of 18th century New England was literate, perhaps as a consequence of the Puritan belief in the importance of Bible reading. By the time of the American Revolution, literacy in New England is suggested to have been around 90 percent. The ability to read did not necessarily imply the ability to write. The 1686 church law (kyrkolagen) of the Kingdom of Sweden (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, Finland, and Estonia) enforced literacy on the people and by the end of the 18th century, the ability to read was close to 100 percent. But as late as the 19th century, many Swedes, especially women, could not write. Although the present-day concepts of literacy have much to do with the 15th century invention of the movable type printing press, it was not until the industrial revolution of the mid-19th century that paper and books became financially affordable to all classes of industrialized society. Until then, only a small percentage of the population were literate as only wealthy individuals and institutions could afford the prohibitively expensive materials. As late as 1841, 33% of all Englishmen and 44% of Englishwomen signed marriage certificates with their mark as they were unable to write (government-financed public education became available in England in 1870). Even , the dearth of cheap paper and books is a barrier to universal literacy in some less-industrialized nations. From another perspective, the historian Harvey Graff has argued that the introduction of mass schooling was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. According to Graff, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. In his view, mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it. Literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power. Because literacy permits learning and communication that oral and sign language alone cannot, illiteracy has been enforced in some places as a way of preventing unrest or revolution. During the Civil War era in the United States, white citizens in many areas banned teaching slaves to read or write presumably understanding the power of literacy. In the years following the Civil War, the ability to read and write was used to determine whether one had the right to vote. This effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo. Between 1500 and 1800, the approaches to reading changed as well. Briggs and Burke (2002) give examples of five types of reading changes. Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp. 61-67 Critical reading The increasing number of texts available, due to the printing press, allowed readers to compare and contrast varying opinions and accounts. Reading was not always critical: there is evidence to suggest that books were at times revered and were taken as an absolute truth. Briggs and Burke (2002) p. 61. Dangerous reading Private reading was at times viewed dangerous. It was argued that reading acted as a tranquilliser and was especially dangerous when practised by subordinate groups such as ‘common people’ or women. At the conclusion of the sixteenth-century, and later on, unsupervised reading was considered subversive by secular and theocratic authorities. From the early sixteenth century onwards it was viewed as especially dangerous for women to read fiction. This notion originated from men who feared fiction for its potential to evoke dangerous emotions such as love. Briggs and Burke (2002) pp. 61-62 Creative reading Creative reading is spawned by the prospect that texts can and are read in ways divergent to the author’s intentions. In a sixteenth century heresy trial an Italian miller, Menocchio, was questioned as to what books he read. The Inquisition was less concerned with what Menocchio actually read, and more in his interpretations of reading. Briggs and Burke (2002) pp. 62-64. Extensive reading In the late eighteenth century a reading revolution of sorts was experienced. With a wide variety of sources available and an increasing literacy rate, books were consulted for information on specific topics. Consequently the practices of skimming, browsing and chapter hopping became prevalent. Briggs and Burke (2002) p. 64 Private reading Books changed in format to accommodate skimming and browsing. Books were broken down into chapters and further into paragraphs, with notes in the margins of the page to assist in the summarisation of sections of text. Features such as table of contents and indexes were also added to books to assist readers in locating specific information. Smaller books were introduced into the market that reflected the privatisation of reading. This shift in reading is directly associated with the rise of individualism; reflected in popular eighteenth century images of men and women reading alone, seemingly unaware of that around them. Briggs and Burke (2002) pp. 64-66 Attitudes toward literacy In South Asia, attitudes toward literacy vary by social sector. Many see literacy as associated with schooling and not with everyday life, and some see greater prestige in relying on memorized texts than on being able to read. However, these ideas are slowly on the decline as modern education diffuses into the region. Ferguson, Charles Albert and Huebner, Thom (1996) Sociolinguistic Perspectives: Papers on Language in Society, 1959-1994, Oxford University Press US, p. 87 According to UNICEF, there are over 100 million children out of school in India. Asia's street kids - a looming crisis, The Asian Pacific Post In much of Africa, literacy is associated with colonialism, whereas orality is associated with native traditions. Ferguson and Huebner, p. 69 Cross-cultural comparisons Catherine McBride-Chang researches cross-cultural studies in literacy and finds common themes worldwide. These include lower achievement levels for boys in early years of schooling in reading, and different incidence rates of diagnosed dyslexia across different cultures and languages. Teaching literacy Literacy comprises a number of subskills, including phonological awareness, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary. Mastering each of these subskills is necessary for students to become proficient readers. Many children experience difficulty when learning to read. Learning to read is difficult because reading requires the mastery of a code that maps human speech sounds to written symbols. Mastering this code is not a natural process, like the development of language, and therefore requires instruction. Reading can be very difficult if students do not get good instruction in this code. Readers of alphabetic languages must understand the alphabetic principle in order to master basic reading skills. A writing system is said to be alphabetic'' if it uses symbols to represent individual language sounds, though the degree of correspondence between letters and sounds varies across alphabetic languages. Syllabic writing systems (such as Japanese kana) use a symbol to represent a single syllable, and logographic writing systems (such as Chinese) use a symbol to represent a morpheme. Phonics is an instructional technique that teaches readers to attend to the letters or groups of letters that make up words. A common method of teaching phonics is synthetic phonics, in which a novice reader pronounces each individual sound and "blends" them to pronounce the whole word. Another method of instruction is embedded phonics instruction, used more often in whole language reading instruction, in which novice readers learn a little about the individual letters in words, especially the consonants and the "short vowels." Teachers provide this knowledge opportunistically, in the context of stories that feature many instances of a particular letter. Embedded instruction combines letter-sound knowledge with the use of meaningful context to read new and difficult words. Tompkins, G. 2006. Literacy for the 21st Century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. See also Numeracy Mediacy Political literacy Likbez Functional illiteracy United Nations Literacy Decade International Literacy Day References External links UNESCO Literacy Portal UNESCO Effective Literacy Practice Database The National Strategies for Primary Literacy The Digital Archive of Literacy Narratives | Literacy |@lemmatized world:6 illiteracy:4 halve:1 traditional:3 definition:8 literacy:78 consider:4 ability:16 use:16 language:12 read:32 write:18 listen:2 speak:3 ncte:1 org:2 modern:4 context:7 word:6 refer:1 level:3 adequate:1 communication:4 let:1 one:6 understand:5 communicate:2 idea:3 literate:9 society:9 take:4 part:3 united:8 nation:5 educational:2 scientific:2 cultural:6 organization:3 unesco:6 draft:1 following:1 identify:1 interpret:1 create:1 compute:1 print:2 material:2 associate:6 vary:3 involve:1 continuum:1 learn:5 enable:2 individual:5 achieve:1 goal:1 develop:1 knowledge:3 potential:3 participate:1 fully:1 wider:1 education:8 sector:2 plurality:1 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2,833 | Meher_Baba | Meher Baba (Devanāgarī: मेहेर बाबा ), (February 25, 1894 – January 31, 1969), born Merwan Sheriar Irani, was an Indian mystic and spiritual master who declared publicly in 1954 that he was the Avatar of the age. He led a normal childhood, showing no particular inclination toward spiritual matters, until the age of 19, when a brief contact with the Muslim holy woman Hazrat Babajan triggered a seven-year process of spiritual transformation. Hopkinson, Tom & Dorothy:"Much Silence", Meher Baba Foundation Australia, 1974, p.24 Purdom (1964) p. 20 Over the next months he contacted four additional spiritual figures whom, along with Babajan, he called "the five Perfect Masters." He spent seven years in spiritual training with one of them, Upasni Maharaj, before beginning his public work. Haynes (1989) pp.38-39 The name Meher Baba means "Compassionate Father" and was given to him by his first followers. Haynes (1989) p. 40 From July 10, 1925, to the end of his life, Meher Baba maintained silence, and communicated by means of an alphabet board or by unique hand gestures. With his mandali ('circle' of disciples), he spent long periods in seclusion, often fasting, but he would intersperse these periods with wide-ranging travels, public gatherings, and works of charity, including working with lepers, the poor, and the mentally ill. In 1931 he made the first of many visits to the West, gathering many followers. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 1405ff Throughout most of the 1940s he worked with an enigmatic type of people that he said were advanced souls and which he termed masts. Donkin (2001) Starting in 1949, along with selected mandali, he traveled incognito about India in what he called "The New Life." On February 10, 1954, Meher Baba declared that he was the Avatar (an incarnation of God). Kalchuri (1986) p. 4283 After suffering as a passenger in two automobile accidents, one in the United States in 1952 and one in India in 1956, his capacity to walk became seriously limited. In 1962 he invited his western followers to India for a mass darshan called The East-West Gathering. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5942ff Concerned by an increasing use of LSD and other psychedelic drugs, in 1966 Meher Baba addressed their use and discredited any alleged spiritual benefits. Kalchuri (1986) p. 6399ff Despite deteriorating health, he continued his "universal work," which included fasting, seclusion, and meditation, until he died on January 31, 1969. His samadhi (tomb-shrine) in Meherabad, India has become a place of international pilgrimage. Haynes (1989) p. 62 Early life Meher Baba at 16 years old in 1910 Meher Baba was an Irani In an Indian context, an Irani is a member of one of two groups of Zoroastrians of that subcontinent, the other being the Parsis. They are called "Iranis" by other Indians because they spoke an Iranian language. "Those who left Iran soon after the advent of Islam to escape persecution, reached the shores of Gujarat 1,373 years ago. Their descendants are the Parsis. While the Zoroastrians who migrated to India from Iran relatively recently — 19th century onwards — are called Irani Zoroastrians." (quote from Padmaja Shastri,TNN, What sets Zoroastrian Iranis apart, The Times of India, March 21, 2004, retrieved 11 July 2008). born in Pune, India to a Zoroastrian family. Sutcliffe (2002); p. 38. His given name was Merwan Sheriar Irani. He was the second son of Sheriar Mundegar Irani, a Persian Zoroastrian who had been a wandering Sufi dervish before settling in Pune, and Sheriar's young wife, Shireen. "I am called Meher Baba, but that is not my real name. I will tell you my family name but please don't disclose it as I travel under that name and I wish to remain incognito. I am a Persian, born in Poona on February 25, 1894. My father was a spiritually minded man and from boyhood until he was a grown man spent his life wandering in the jungle in search of spiritual experience. At the age of 35 he was told that he should resume a normal existence. This he did. He married and had six children. I am the second son. I was brought up as a Zoroastrian, the religion of my ancestors." http://www.avatarmeherbaba.org/erics/ceylon.html His schoolmates nicknamed him "Electricity". As a boy he formed The Cosmopolitan Club dedicated to remaining informed in world affairs and giving money to charity — money often raised by the boys betting at the horse races. Kalchuri (1986) p. 186-188 He had an excellent singing voice and was a multi-instrumentalist and poet. Fluent in several languages, he was especially fond of Hafez's Persian poetry, but also of Shakespeare and Shelley. Kalchuri (1986) p. 190-192 In his youth, he had no mystical inclinations or experiences, and was "[u]ntroubled as yet by a sense of his own destiny..." Hopkinson, Tom & Dorothy:Much Silence, Meher Baba Foundation Australia, 1974, p.24 He was more interested in sports, especially cricket, and was co-captain of his High School cricket team. Baba later explained that a veil is always placed on the Avatar until the time is right for him to begin his work. Haynes (1989) p. 36 At the age of 19, however, during his second year at Deccan College in Pune, he met a very old Muslim woman, a spiritual master named Hazrat Babajan, who kissed him on the forehead. The event affected him profoundly; he experienced visions and mystical feelings so powerful that he gave up his normal activities. Kalchuri (1986) p. 198-201 He began to beat his head against a stone to maintain, as he later put it, contact with the physical world. He also contacted other spiritual figures, who (along with Babajan) he later said were the five "Perfect Masters" of the age: Hazrat Tajuddin Baba of Nagpur, Narayan Maharaj of Kedgaon, Sai Baba of Shirdi, and Upasni Maharaj of Sakori. Kalchuri (1986) p. 944 Upasni helped him, he later said, to integrate his mystical experiences with normal consciousness, thus enabling him to function in the world without diminishing his experience of God-realization. Listen Humanity, ed. D. E. Stevens, 1982. pp. 247-250 In 1921, at the age of 27, after living for seven years with Upasni, Merwan started to attract a following of his own. His early followers gave him the name "Meher Baba," meaning Compassionate Father. Kalchuri (1986) p. 328-330ff In 1922, Meher Baba and his followers established "Manzil-e-Meem" (House of the Master) in Bombay. There Baba began his practice of demanding strict discipline and obedience from his disciples. Kalchuri (1986) p.380ff A year later, Baba and his mandali ("circle" of disciples) moved to an area a few miles outside Ahmednagar, which he called "Meherabad" (Meher flourishing). Kalchuri (1986) p. 501 This ashram would become the center for his work. In 1924, Meher Baba created a resident school at Meherabad, which he called the "Prem Ashram" (in several languages "prem" means "love"). The school was free and open to all castes and faiths. The school drew multi-denominational students from around India and Iran. Abdulla, Ramjoo: "Ramjoo's Diaries, 1922-1929: A Personal Account of Meher Baba's Early Work", Sufism Reoriented, 1979 Silence From 1925 until 1954 Meher Baba communicated by pointing to letters on an alphabet board. From July 10, 1925 until his death in 1969, Meher Baba was silent. He communicated first by using an alphabet board, and later by unique hand gestures which were interpreted and spoken out by one of his mandali, usually by his disciple Eruch Jessawala. Purdom (1964) p. 52 Meher Baba said that his silence was not undertaken as a spiritual exercise but solely in connection with his universal work. 1930s First contacts with the West In the 1930s, Meher Baba began a period of extensive world travel, with several trips to Europe and the United States. It was during this period that he established contact with his first close group of Western disciples. He traveled on a Persian passport, because he had given up writing as well as speaking, and would not sign the forms required by the British Government of India. Kalchuri (1986), 1249 On his first trip to England in 1931 he traveled on the Rajputana, the same ship that was carrying Mahatma Gandhi who was sailing to the second Round Table Conference in London. Meher Baba and Gandhi had three meetings onboard including one that lasted for three hours. Purdom (1964) p. 95. The British press emphasized these meetings See articles from the Daily Herald, April 4, 1932 (quoted in Kalchuri (1986), p.1573) and from Sunday Express (April 1932) quoted in Purdom (1964), p.99) but an aide to Gandhi said, "You may say emphatically that Gandhi never asked Meher Baba for help or for spiritual or other advice." Landau, Rom: "God Is My Adventure", Faber & Faber, London, 1936. p. 111. Meher Baba in 1925, the year he began his lifelong silence On the journey he was interviewed on behalf of the Associated Press, which quoted him describing his trip as a "new crusade . . . to break down all religious barriers and destroy America's materialism and amalgamate all creeds into a common element of love". Mills, James A. (AP), Indian Spiritual Leader to Tour the Nation, Jefferson City Post Tribune, March 25, 1932. p.5 His intention, according to the resulting article, was to convert thousands of Americans from sin. Describing Baba as "The Messiah," the article also claims he listed miracles he had performed, and said that a person who becomes one with the truth can accomplish anything, but that it is a weakness to perform miracles only to show spiritual power. However, another description of the interview states that when Baba was asked about the miracles attributed to him, he replied "The only miracle for the Perfect Man to perform is to make others perfect too. I want to make the Americans realize the infinite state which I myself enjoy." Kalchuri(1986), p.1541 Baba was invited to the "Meherashram" retreat in Harmon, New York by Malcolm and Jean Schloss. The Time article on the visit states that Schloss referred to him in uppercase as "He, Him, His, Himself" and that Baba was described by his followers variously as the "God Man", "Messiah" or "Perfect Master". On May 20, 1932 Baba arrived in New York and provided the press with a 1,000-word written statement, which was described by devotee Quentin Tod as his Message to America. In the statement Baba proclaimed himself "one with the infinite source of everything," and declared his intention to break his silence: "When I speak, my original message will be delivered to the world and it will have to be accepted". When asked about the Indo-British political situation, he had no comment, but his followers explained that he had told Gandhi to abandon politics. Indian Mystic in New York, Associated Press, May 20, 1932, The Lowell Sun Meher Baba at Paramount Film Studio, London, April 1932 In the West, Meher Baba met with a number of celebrities and artists, including Hollywood notables Gary Cooper, Charles Laughton, Tallulah Bankhead, Boris Karloff, Tom Mix, Maurice Chevalier, Ernst Lubitsch and others. Landau, Rom: "God Is My Adventure", Faber & Faber, London, 1936. p. 108 Available as a Google book On June 1, 1932 Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. held a reception for Baba at Pickfair where he delivered a message to Hollywood. Purdom (1964) p. 103-105 Kalchuri (1986) p. 1654 As a result, Meher Baba emerged as “one of the enthusiasms of the ‘30’s.” Ellwood 1973 p.281 In 1934, after announcing that he would break his self-imposed silence in the Hollywood Bowl, Baba suddenly changed his plans and boarded the Empress of Canada and sailed to Hong Kong without explanation. The Associated Press reported that "Baba had decided to postpone the word-fast breaking until next February because 'conditions are not yet ripe'." Associated Press, July 13, 1932 , as cited Kalchuri (1986), p.1670 He returned to England in 1936, Kalchuri (1986) pp. 2040ff but did not return to the United States again until the early 1950s. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 1661-1668 In the late 1930s, Meher Baba invited a group of western women to join him in India, where he arranged a series of trips throughout India that became known as the Blue Bus Tours. When they returned home, many newspapers treated their journey as an occasion for scandal. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 2338-2421 Time Magazine's 1936 review of God is my Adventure describes the US's fascination with the "long-haired, silky-mustached Parsee named Shri Sadgaru [sic] Meher Baba" four years earlier. Discourses During the course of early gatherings of his close circle and followers, Meher Baba gave discourses on various spiritual subjects. Between 1938 and 1943, at the request of Princess Norina Matchabelli, one of his earliest Western devotees, Meher Baba dictated a series of discourses on his alphabet board for her New York publication Meher Baba Journal. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 2337 These discourses, transcribed or worked up by close disciples from points given by Baba, address many aspects of the spiritual life, and provide practical and simple direction for the aspirant. During those years, at least one discourse appeared each month in the journal. Chakradhar Dharnidhar Deshmukh, a close disciple of Meher Baba, compiled and edited the discourses. Between 1939 and 1954 in India, a five-volume compilation titled Discourses of Meher Baba received several printings. In 1967 Meher Baba personally supervised the editing and publication of a new three-volume version of the Discourses, known as the sixth edition. 1967 Edition of Discourses online The widely available seventh edition of the Discourses first published in 1987 (after Baba's death), contains numerous editorial changes not specifically authorized by Meher Baba. Discourses, by Meher Baba, Sheriar Press, 1987 1940s Work with 'masts' In the 1930s and 1940s, Meher Baba did extensive work with a category of people he termed masts: persons "intoxicated with God." Donkin (2001) p. v ff According to Meher Baba these individuals are essentially disabled by their enchanting experience of the higher spiritual planes. Although outwardly masts may appear irrational or even insane, Meher Baba said that their spiritual status was actually quite elevated, and that by meeting with them, he helped them to move forward spiritually while enlisting their aid in his spiritual work. One of the best known of these masts, known as Mohammed Mast, lived at Meher Baba's encampment at Meherabad until his death in 2003. A Tribute to Mohammed Mast The New Life In 1949 Meher Baba began an enigmatic period which he called "The New Life". Following a series of questions on their readiness to obey even the most difficult of his requests, Meher Baba selected twenty companions to join him in a life of complete "hopelessness, helplessness and aimlessness". Kalchuri (1986) pp. 3481 He made provisions for those dependent on him, then he and his companions otherwise gave up all property and financial responsibilities. They then traveled about India incognito, without money, with no permanent lodging, begging for food, and carrying out Baba's instructions in accordance with a strict set of "conditions of the New Life". These included absolute acceptance of any circumstance, and consistent good cheer in the face of any difficulty. Companions who failed to comply were sent away. Purdom (1964) pp. 163-176 About the New Life Meher Baba wrote: This New Life is endless, and even after my physical death it will be kept alive by those who live the life of complete renunciation of falsehood, lies, hatred, anger, greed and lust; and who, to accomplish all this, do no lustful actions, do no harm to anyone, do no backbiting, do not seek material possessions or power, who accept no homage, neither covet honor nor shun disgrace, and fear no one and nothing; by those who rely wholly and solely on God, and who love God purely for the sake of loving; who believe in the lovers of God and in the reality of Manifestation, and yet do not expect any spiritual or material reward; who do not let go the hand of Truth, and who, without being upset by calamities, bravely and wholeheartedly face all hardships with one hundred percent cheerfulness, and give no importance to caste, creed and religious ceremonies. This New Life will live by itself eternally, even if there is no one to live it. Purdom (1964) p. 187 After a period of seclusion and fasting Meher Baba ended the New Life in February 1952, Purdom, (1964), p.194 and once again began a round of public appearances throughout India and the West. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 3762 1950s Meher Baba leaving a darshan program, February 26, 1954, riding on the roof of a car so that attendees can see. Kalchuri (1986) p.4328 Automobile accident in the U.S.A. In the 1950s Meher Baba established two centers outside of India: Meher Spiritual Center, in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and Avatar's Abode, near Brisbane, Australia. He inaugurated the Meher Spiritual Center in the United States in April, 1952. On May 24, 1952, en route from the Meher Spiritual Center to Meher Mount in Ojai, California, the car in which Meher Baba was a passenger was struck head-on near Prague, Oklahoma. He and his companions were thrown from the vehicle and suffered many injuries. Meher Baba's leg was severely broken and he had facial injuries. The injured were treated in Duke Hospital in Durham, North Carolina after which they returned to Myrtle Beach to recuperate. Kalchuri (1986) p.3834-3840 . Declaration of Avatarhood Meher Baba began dictating his major book about the purpose of creation, God Speaks, in Dehradun, August 1953. Kalchuri (1986) p. 4208 In it he explained the difference between the Avatar and the Sadgurus. Kalchuri (1986) p. 4789 In September 1953, at Dehradun, Meher Baba declared that he was "The Highest of the High." Meher Baba: "Highest of the High", Pamphlet, September 1954 On February 10, 1954 in Meherastana U.P., India, Meher Baba publicly and explicitly declared his Avatarhood for the first time, spelling out on his alphabet board "Avatar Meher Baba Ki Jai." In September of that year, Meher Baba gave a "men-only" sahavas at Meherabad which later became known as the "Three Incredible Weeks." Kalchuri (1986) p. 4451 During this time Baba issued a declaration, "Meher Baba's Call," wherein he affirmed his Avatarhood "irrespective of the doubts and convictions" of others. Meher Baba: "Meher Baba's Call", Pamphlet, September 12, 1954 At the end of this sahavas Meher Baba gave the completed manuscript of his book God Speaks to two attending American Sufis, Lud Dimpfl and Don E. Stevens, for editing and publication in America. Kalchuri (1986) p. 4551 The book was published by Dodd, Mead and Company the following year. On September 30, 1954 Meher Baba gave his "Final Declaration" message, in which he spelled out various enigmatic predictions. AMBT In October 1954, Meher Baba discarded his alphabet board and began using a unique set of hand gestures to communicate. Kalchuri (1986) p. 4457,4464 Automobile accident in India On December 2, 1956, outside Satara, India, the car in which Meher Baba was being driven went out of control and a second serious automobile accident occurred. Meher Baba suffered a fractured pelvis and other severe injuries. Dr. Nilu, a close mandali, was killed. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5130 This collision seriously incapacitated Meher Baba. Despite his physicians' predictions to the contrary, after great effort Baba managed to walk again, but from that point was in constant pain and was severely limited in his ability to move. In fact, during his trip to the West in 1958 he often needed to be carried from venue to venue. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5450 Baba indicated that his automobile accidents and the suffering that attended them were, like his silence, purposeful and brought about by his will. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5241 Final visits to the West In 1956, during his fifth visit to the US, Baba stayed at New York's Hotel Delmonico before traveling to the Meher Center at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. In July he traveled to Washington, D.C. and received friends and disciples at the home of Mrs. James Terry (Ivy) Duce Filis Fredrick, THE AWAKENER, Vol. XX, No. 2, pp. 38-39 wife of the vice-president of the Arabian American Oil Co. Man hasn't spoken in 31 years, Big Spring Daily Herald, June 30, 1957 Note: this article identifies the visit as Meher Baba's 10th US visit, and places the planned date as July 1957, not 1956 as generally accepted. He then travelled to Meher Mount at Ojai, California, before continuing on to Australia. His final visit to the US and Australia was made in 1958. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5457 1960s Seclusion and East-West Gathering Meher Baba returned to India and began more periods of fasting, meditation, and seclusion. Meher Baba said that although the work was draining and exhausting, it was done on behalf of the spiritual welfare of all humanity. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5596 Haynes (1989) p. 60 In 1962, Meher Baba gave one of his last public functions, a series of meetings he called The East-West Gathering. At these meetings, in which his western followers were invited to meet his Indian disciples, Baba gave darshan to many thousands of people, despite the physical strain this caused. Kalchuri (1986) p. 6000 Addressing the drug culture Meher Baba poster in scene from the 1970 film Woodstock. In the mid-1960s Meher Baba became concerned with the increasing drug culture in the West and began a correspondence with several Western academics including Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert in which he strongly discouraged the use of all hallucinogenic drugs for spiritual purposes. Kalchuri (1986) pp. 6412ff In 1966 Meher Baba's responses to questions on drugs were published in a pamphlet titled God in a Pill? Meher Baba stated that drug use was spiritually damaging and that if enlightenment were possible through drugs then "God is not worthy of being God." God in a Pill? Meher Baba on L.S.D. and The High Roads, Sufism Reoriented, Inc. 1966 Meher Baba instructed some of his young Western disciples to spread this message; in doing so, they increased awareness of Meher Baba's teachings among the young during this period. In an interview with Frederick Chapman, a Harvard graduate and Fulbright scholar who met Baba during a year of study in India, Baba stated that LSD is "harmful physically, mentally and spiritually", and warned that "the continued use of LSD leads to madness or death." Spiritual Leader Warning on LSDUPI, July 27, 1967 On this basis, an anti-drug campaign was initiated by Baba lovers in the USA, Europe and Australia. Although the campaign was largely unsuccessful, Bruce Hoffman, 'Something on an Inner Level,' Glow International Feb 1990, p.17 it created a wave of new followers, and some of Baba’s views found their way into academic debate on the merits and dangers of hallucinogens. Albert Moraczewski, 'Psychadelic Agents and Mysticism,' Psychosomantics Vol. 12:2 (1971), 95-96 Final seclusion and death From the East-West Gathering onward, Meher Baba's health steadily deteriorated. Despite the physical toll it took on his body, Meher Baba continued to undertake long periods in seclusion, fasting and meditating. Haynes (1989) p. 61 Meher Baba in 1968 In late July 1968, Meher Baba completed a particularly taxing period of seclusion and emerged saying that his work was "completed 100% to my satisfaction." Kalchuri (1986) p. 6641 By this point he was confined to a wheelchair. Within a few months his condition worsened and he was bed-ridden. His body was wracked by intense muscular spasms that had no clear origin. Despite the care of several doctors, the spasms grew progressively worse. Kalchuri (1986) p. 6713 On January 31, 1969, Meher Baba died, Kalchuri (1986) p. 6650-6714 conveying by his last gestures, "Do not forget that I am God." In time his devotees called this day Amartithi (deathless day). Meher Baba's body was laid out for public viewing at his samadhi (tomb-shrine) at Meherabad. Covered with roses, and cooled by ice, his body was kept available to the public for one week before its final burial. Kalchuri (1986) p. 6735 Before his passing, Meher Baba had made extensive preparations for a public darshan program to be held in Pune, India. His mandali decided to proceed with the arrangements despite the physical absence of the host. Several thousand attended this "Last Darshan," including many hundred people from the U.S.A., Europe, and Australia. Kalchuri (1986) p. 6739 James Ivory, The Talk of the Town, “Jai Baba!,” The New Yorker, June 21, 1969, p. 28 Teachings Metaphysics Source: Baba, Meher, Dodd Mead, God Speaks, The Theme of Creation and Its Purpose Baba (1955) Meher Baba's metaphysical views are most notably described in his books Discourses and God Speaks. His cosmology incorporates concepts and terms from Vedanta, Sufism, and Christianity. Purdom (1964) p. 418. Meher Baba upheld the concept of nonduality, the view that diverse creation, or duality, is an illusion and that the goal of life is conscious realization of the absolute Oneness of God inherent in all animate and inanimate beings and things. Meher Baba compares God's original state to an infinite, shoreless ocean which has only unconscious divinity — unaware of itself because there is nothing but itself. From this state, God had the "whim" to know Himself, Baba (1955), p. 182 and asked "Who am I?" Purdom (1964) p. 415. In response to this question, creation came into existence. In this analogy, what was previously a still, shoreless Ocean now stirred, Kalchuri (1982) pp.5ff forming innumerable "drops" of itself or souls. Evolution and Involution According to Baba, each soul pursues conscious divinity by evolving: that is, experiencing form in seven "kingdoms" — stone/metal, vegetable, worm, fish, bird, animal, and human. The soul gathers sanskaras (impressions) in each form; these impressions lead to further evolution expressed by taking new, more complex forms. With each new form, increasing consciousness is gained, until the soul experiences and discards forms from all the evolutionary kingdoms. The final form of the soul's evolution is the human form. Only in the human form can the soul experience its own divinity, by entering into involution, through which it gradually eliminates all impressions which cause the appearance of separateness from God. Reincarnation and God-realization Baba asserts that in the human form, the soul becomes subject to reincarnation, the "involuntary process of association and disassociation of consciousness". Purdom (1964) p. 421. The purpose of reincarnation is to provide the opportunity for liberation from illusion. The soul reincarnates innumerable times in all conditions of life encompassing the whole range of human experience (e.g. man/woman, rich/poor, powerful/weak, etc.). Purdom (1964) p. 422. Through the experience of opposites, sanskaras gradually grow fainter and scarcer. Baba (1955); p. 107. Meher Baba describes the process of God-realization this way: From out of the depth of unbroken Infinfity arose the Question, "Who am I?" And to that Question there is the answer, "I am God!" Perfect Masters and the Avatar Meher Baba says that at all times on Earth there are fifty-six incarnate God-realized souls, and that of these souls there are always five who constitute the five Perfect Masters of their era. Kalchuri (1986) p.944 When one of the five perfect masters dies, Baba says, another God-realized soul among the fifty-six immediately replaces him or her by taking up that office. Adriel, Jean. Avatar: The Life Story of the Perfect Master, Meher Baba (1947), p.49 , J. F. Rowny press The Avatar, according to Meher Baba, is a special Perfect Master, the first soul to achieve God-realization. This soul, the original Perfect Master, or the "Ancient One", never ceases to incarnate. Baba says that this particular soul personifies the state of God which in Hinduism is named Vishnu and in Sufism is named Parvardigar, i.e. the sustainer or preserver state of God. According to Meher Baba the Avatar appears on Earth every 700-1400 years, and is 'brought down' into human form by the five perfect masters of the time to aid in the process of moving creation in its never ending journey toward Godhood. Baba said that in other ages this role was fulfilled by Zoroaster, Rama, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, and lastly by Muhammad. Kalchuri (1986) p. 4216 Baba equates the concept of Avatar with terms from numerous diverse traditions, including Rasool, Messiah, Christ, Maitreya, Savior, Redeemer, etc. Meher Baba: "Discourses", Sufism Reoriented, 6th ed., 1967. Vol III, p. 18ff Meher Baba describes the Avatar as "a gauge against which man can measure what he is and what he may become. He trues the standard of human values by interpreting them in terms of divinely human life." Meher Baba: "Discourses", Sufism Reoriented, 6th ed., 1967. Vol III, p. 15 Most of Meher Baba's followers accept his claim of avatarhood New Religious Movements in the United States and Canada: A Critical Assessment and Annotated Bibliography. Contributors: Diane Choquette - compiler. Publisher: Greenwood Press. Place of Publication: Westport, CT. Publication Year: 1985. Page Number: 12. and he is said to be "revered by millions around the world as the Avatar of the age and a God realized being." Legacy 1966 Don't worry, be happy card Meher Baba's travels and teachings left a legacy of followers and devotees worldwide. Although he sometimes participated in large public gatherings, he discouraged his followers from proselytizing or evangelizing on his behalf. Rather he stated, "Let your life itself be my message of love and truth to others." Luck, Irwin: "The Silent Master Meher Baba", 1967.p. 17 There is no central organization surrounding Meher Baba and no coordinated interaction between groups or even any requirement to be part of groups. Accordingly there is no reliable method for counting his devotees. Indeed "the group is so small that it has escaped the notice of religious studies experts." Sufis plan new faith center in Walnut Creek, Contra Costa Times, July 4, 2008 There are no rites, rituals or duties required of his followers (who commonly call themselves "Baba lovers"). However, many devotees observe a few common practices on an informal basis. Cohen(1977) pp. 152-154 These include keeping pictures and other souvenirs; regular times of personal meditation and remembrance, and refraining from practices Baba disliked, especially the use of psychedelic drugs including marijuana. Eastern Mysticism and the Resocialization of Drug Users: The Meher Baba Cult, Thomas Robbins, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Autumn, 1969), pp. 308-317 Gatherings of Baba followers are highly informal and social in nature. Special effort will be made to gather together on Amartithi, the anniversary of Meher Baba's death, and on his birthday. Most Baba followers keep silent each July 10 (Silence Day), observing the request Meher Baba often made of his followers during his lifetime. Kalchuri (1986) p. 5476, 4933, 5609,6465,2294,3179,3864 etc. Three prayers written by Meher Baba, "O Parvardigar", the "Prayer of Repentance" and the "Beloved God Prayer", Kalchuri (1986) p. 4209, 5633 Purdom(1964) p. 238 are recited morning and evening at his samadhi in India, and are often recited at gatherings. At Meherabad, his followers maintain Meher Baba's practice of lighting a dhuni fire in a fire-ring on the 12th of each month. After dhuni prayers, participants throw sandalwood twigs dipped in ghee into the flame as physical representations of fears and desires they wish to relinquish. Although Meher Baba had initially begun gaining public attention in the West as early as 1932 as the result of contacts with some celebrities of the time (such as Charles Laughton, Tallulah Bankhead, Boris Karloff and others), and the rather disillusioned account of Paul Brunton (A Search in Secret India, 1934), he achieved additional attention over three decades later through the work of Pete Townshend of The Who. Rolling Stone, No. 71 (November 26, 1970) Parts of the rock-opera Tommy (May 1969) were inspired by Townshend's study of Meher Baba, to whom the album was dedicated. "Tommy", The Who, Gatefold cover acknowledgements, May 23, 1969 The Who's 1971 song Baba O'Riley was named in part after Meher Baba and on his first solo album, Who Came First, Townshend recorded the Jim Reeves song, "There's A Heartache Following Me", saying that it was Meher Baba's favorite song. In addition, Bobby McFerrin's 1988 Grammy Award winning song "Don't Worry, Be Happy" was inspired by a popular quote of Baba's seen in numerous Baba posters and inspiration cards. Bruce Fessier, USA Weekend Magazine, October 21-23, 1988 Notes References External links Website directory Directory of websites associated with Meher Baba Biography and teachings The Trust Online Library Books by and about Meher Baba available to download as PDF files Lord Meher Complete biography, searchable online Discourses by Meher Baba Searchable online Awakener Magazine Archive 67 issues of Awakener Magazine from 1953–1986. Searchable online Life Eternal Anthology of quotes by Meher Baba organized by subject matter Glossary of Meher Baba's terminology Meher Spiritual University Free Online Courses based on teachings of Meher Baba Media online MP3 files of Meher Baba's Disciples going back to 1969 Beyond Words Written message spoken by Charles Purdom God in Human Form, film | Meher_Baba |@lemmatized meher:120 baba:154 devanāgarī:1 म:1 ह:1 र:1 ब:2 february:7 january:3 bear:3 merwan:3 sheriar:5 irani:8 indian:6 mystic:2 spiritual:26 master:14 declare:5 publicly:2 avatar:13 age:8 lead:3 normal:4 childhood:1 show:2 particular:2 inclination:2 toward:2 matter:2 brief:1 contact:7 muslim:2 holy:1 woman:4 hazrat:3 babajan:4 trigger:1 seven:4 year:16 process:4 transformation:1 hopkinson:2 tom:3 dorothy:2 much:2 silence:10 foundation:2 australia:7 p:70 purdom:14 next:2 month:4 four:2 additional:2 figure:2 along:3 call:14 five:7 perfect:12 spend:3 training:1 one:19 upasni:4 maharaj:3 begin:13 public:9 work:16 haynes:6 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2,834 | Folk_dance | Morris dancing in the grounds of Wells Cathedral, Wells, England 'Folk dance is a term used to describe a large number of dances that tend to share some or all of the following attributes: They are dances performed at social functions by people with little or no professional training, often to traditional music or music based on traditional music. They are not designed for public performance or the stage, although traditional folkdances may be later arranged and set for stage performances. Their execution is dominated by an inherited tradition rather than by innovation (although like all folk traditions they do evolve) New dancers often learn informally by observing others and/or receiving help from others. More controversially, some people define folk dancing as dancing for which there is no governing body or dancing for which there are no competitive or professional performances. Terminology The term "folk dance" is sometimes applied to certain dances of historical importance in European culture and history; typically originated before 20th century. For other cultures the terms "ethnic dance" or "traditional dance" are sometimes used, although the latter terms may encompass ceremonial dances. There are a number of modern dances, such as hip hop dance, that evolve spontaneously, but the term "folk dance" is generally not applied to them, and the terms "street dance" or "vernacular dance" are used instead. The term "folk dance" is reserved for dances which are to a significant degree bound by tradition and originated in the times when the distinction existed between the dances of "common folk" and the dances of the "high society". A number of modern ballroom dances originated from folk ones. The terms "ethnic" and "traditional" are used when it is required to emphasize the cultural roots of the dance. In this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic ones. If some dances, such as polka, cross ethnic boundaries and even cross the boundary between "folk" and "ballroom dance", ethnic differences are often considerable enough to mention, e.g., Czech polka vs. German polka. Not all ethnic dances are folk dances; for example, ritual dances or dances of ritual origin are not considered to be folk dances. Ritual dances are usually called "Religious dances" because of their purpose. Types of folk dance A Ball de bastons stick dance from Catalonia. Types of folk dance include clogging, English country dance, international folk dance, Irish dance, Maypole dance, Morris dance, Nordic polska dance, Ball de bastons, square dance, and sword dance. Some choreographed dances such as contra dance, Israeli folk dance, Scottish country dance, and modern Western square dance, are called folk dances, though this is not true in the strictest sense. Country dance overlaps with contemporary folk dance and ballroom dance. Most country dances and ballroom dances originated from folk dances, with gradual refinement over the years. People familiar with folk dancing can often determine what country a dance is from even if they have not seen that particular dance before. Some countries' dances have features that are unique to that country, although neighboring countries sometimes have similar features. For example, the German and Austrian schuhplattling dance consists of slapping the body and shoes in a fixed pattern, a feature that few other countries' dances have. Folk dances sometimes evolved long before current political boundaries, so that certain dances are shared by several countries. For example, some Serbian, Bulgarian, and Croatian dances share the same or similar dances, and sometimes even use the same name and music for those dances. Although folk dancing was historically done by the common people of the local culture, international folk dance has received some popularity on college campuses and community centers within the United States and other countries. Mexican folkloric dance developed over five centuries from the pre-Columbian era, through the Spanish conquest, the French Intervention which included an Austrian influence, the Porfiriato, and the 1910 Revolution, to the modern era. The fusion of these influences with the indigenous culture created over 300 dance styles within the thirty-two Mexican states, to comprise a unique Mexican folk dance tradition. Mexican Folkloric Dance Company of Chicago See also Folklore People Community Belly dance. Austrian folk dance Baile Folklorico Boombal Bulgarian folk dancing China National Ethnic Song and Dance Contra dance Country and Western dance Palestinian dabkeh Dance basic topics, a list of general dance topics Igor Moiseyev Indian folk dances International folk dance Israeli folk dancing Italian folk dance Kolo List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances sorted by origin Morris dance Nordic polska dance Polish folk dances Scottish country dance Scottish highland dance Social Dance Square dancing Tinikling (Philippines) Ukrainian dance References External links Folk festivals around the world Additional folk dance information Folk Dance Association (US and Canada) International folk dance articles Largest collection of folk dance videos online on Dancilla | Folk_dance |@lemmatized morris:3 dance:93 ground:1 well:2 cathedral:1 england:1 folk:37 term:8 use:5 describe:1 large:2 number:3 tend:1 share:3 following:1 attribute:1 perform:1 social:2 function:1 people:5 little:1 professional:2 training:1 often:4 traditional:5 music:4 base:1 design:1 public:1 performance:3 stage:2 although:5 folkdances:1 may:2 later:1 arrange:1 set:1 execution:1 dominate:1 inherited:1 tradition:4 rather:1 innovation:1 like:1 evolve:3 new:1 dancer:1 learn:1 informally:1 observe:1 others:2 receive:2 help:1 controversially:1 define:1 dancing:5 govern:1 body:2 competitive:1 terminology:1 sometimes:5 apply:2 certain:2 historical:1 importance:1 european:1 culture:4 history:1 typically:1 originate:4 century:2 ethnic:8 latter:1 encompass:1 ceremonial:1 modern:4 hip:1 hop:1 spontaneously:1 generally:1 street:1 vernacular:1 instead:1 reserve:1 significant:1 degree:1 bound:1 time:1 distinction:1 exist:1 common:2 high:1 society:1 ballroom:4 one:2 require:1 emphasize:1 cultural:1 root:1 sense:2 nearly:1 polka:3 cross:2 boundary:3 even:3 difference:1 considerable:1 enough:1 mention:1 e:1 g:1 czech:1 v:1 german:2 example:3 ritual:3 origin:2 consider:1 usually:1 call:2 religious:1 purpose:1 type:2 ball:2 de:2 bastons:2 stick:1 catalonia:1 include:2 clog:1 english:1 country:13 international:4 irish:1 maypole:1 nordic:2 polska:2 square:3 sword:1 choreographed:1 contra:2 israeli:2 scottish:3 western:2 though:1 true:1 strict:1 overlap:1 contemporary:1 gradual:1 refinement:1 year:1 familiar:1 determine:1 see:2 particular:1 feature:3 unique:2 neighboring:1 similar:2 austrian:3 schuhplattling:1 consist:1 slap:1 shoe:1 fixed:1 pattern:1 long:1 current:1 political:1 several:1 serbian:1 bulgarian:2 croatian:1 name:1 historically:1 local:1 popularity:1 college:1 campus:1 community:2 center:1 within:2 united:1 state:2 mexican:4 folkloric:2 develop:1 five:1 pre:1 columbian:1 era:2 spanish:1 conquest:1 french:1 intervention:1 influence:2 porfiriato:1 revolution:1 fusion:1 indigenous:1 create:1 style:1 thirty:1 two:1 comprise:1 company:1 chicago:1 also:1 folklore:1 belly:1 baile:1 folklorico:1 boombal:1 china:1 national:1 song:1 palestinian:1 dabkeh:1 basic:1 topic:2 list:2 general:1 igor:1 moiseyev:1 indian:1 italian:1 kolo:1 regional:1 sort:1 polish:1 highland:1 tinikling:1 philippine:1 ukrainian:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 festival:1 around:1 world:1 additional:1 information:1 association:1 u:1 canada:1 article:1 collection:1 video:1 online:1 dancilla:1 |@bigram hip_hop:1 ballroom_dance:4 contra_dance:2 pre_columbian:1 scottish_highland:1 external_link:1 |
2,835 | Adelaide | Adelaide ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of South Australia, and is the fifth-largest city in Australia, with a population of more than 1.1 million. It is a coastal city situated on the eastern shores of Gulf St. Vincent, on the Adelaide Plains, north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, between the Gulf St. Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. It is roughly from the coast to the foothills but sprawls from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. Named in honour of Queen Adelaide who was born in Germany, the consort of King William IV, the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for the only freely-settled British province in Australia. Colonel William Light, one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the River Torrens in the area originally inhabited by Indigenous Australians of the Kaurna tribe. Light's design set out Adelaide in a grid layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by parkland. Early Adelaide was shaped by religious freedom and a commitment to political progressivism and civil liberties, which led to world-first reforms. As South Australia's seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of North Terrace, King William Street and in various districts of the metropolitan area. Today, Adelaide is noted for its many festivals and sporting events, its food, wine and culture, its long beachfronts, and its large defence and manufacturing sectors. It continues to rank highly as a livable city, being in the Top 10 in The Economist's World's Most Livable Cities index. The Economist's World's Most Livable Cities 2008, www.economist.com. Retrieved on 2 March 2009. History Prior to British settlement, the Adelaide area was inhabited by the Kaurna Aboriginal nation (pronounced "Garner" or "Gowna"). Acknowledged Kaurna country comprised the Adelaide Plains and surrounding regions - from Cape Jervis in the south, and to Port Wakefield in the north. Among their unique customs were burn-offs (controlled bushfires) in the Adelaide Hills which the early Europeans spotted before the Kaurna people were pushed out by settlement. By 1852, the total population (by census count) of the Kaurna was 650 in the Adelaide region and steadily decreasing. During the winter months, they moved into the Adelaide Hills for better shelter and firewood. Adelaide Council Naming Practices, courtesy Catholic University South Australian Place Names. courtesy Government of South Australia South Australia was officially settled as a new British province on 28 December 1836, near the The Old Gum Tree in what is now the suburb of Glenelg North. This day is now commemorated as Proclamation Day in South Australia. The site of the colony's capital city was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light, the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, through the design made by the architect George Strickland Kingston. Johnson and Langmead, The Adelaide city plan : fiction and fact, Wakefield Press, 1986 In 1823, Light had fondly written of the Sicilian city of Catania: "The two principal streets cross each other at right angles in the square in the direction of north and south and east and west. They are wide and spacious and about a mile long", and this became the basis for the plan of Adelaide. Light chose, not without opposition, a site on rising ground close to the River Torrens, which became the chief early water supply for the fledgling colony. "Light's Vision", as it has been termed, has meant that the initial design of Adelaide required little modification as the city grew and prospered. Usually in an older city it would be necessary to accommodate larger roads and add parks, whereas Adelaide had them from the start. Adelaide was established as the centre of a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon the ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement Wakefield cites Edward Curr , An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen’s Land, principally designed for the use of emigrants, George Cowie & Co., London, 1824; Henry Widdowson, Present State of Van Diemen’s Land; comprising an account of its agricultural capabilities, with observations on the present state of farming, &c. &c. pursued in that colony: and other important matters connected with Emigration, S. Robinson, W. Joy and J. Cross, London, and J. Birdsall, Northampton, 1829; and James Atkinson, An Account of the State of Agriculture & Grazing in New South Wales; Including Observations on the Soils and General Appearance of the Country, and some of its most useful natural productions; with an account of the Various Methods of Clearing and Improving Lands, Breeding and Grazing Live Stock, Erecting Buildings, the System of employing Convicts, and the expense of Labour generally; the Mode of Applying for Grants of Land; with Other Information Important to those who are about to emigrate to that Country: The result of several years’ residence iand practical experience in those matters in the Colony., J. Cross, London, 1826 while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress, and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals. Wakefield, Letter from Sydney, December 1829, pp 99-185, written from Newgate prison. Editor Robert Gouger. Wakefield's idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen. Wakefield wrote about this under a pseudonym, purporting to be an Australian settler. His subterfuge was so successful that he confused later writers including Karl Marx, who wrote 'It is the great merit of E.G. Wakefield to have discovered not anything new about the Colonies, but to have discovered in the Colonies the truth of as to the condition of capitalist production in the mother-country.' Das Kapital, Moscow, 1958, p 766" Funds raised from the sale of land would be used to bring out working class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land. Plan of a Company to be Established for the Purpose of Founding a Colony in Southern Australia, Purchasing Land Therein, and Preparing the Land so Purchased for the Reception of Immigrants, 1832; in WAKEFIELD, Edward Gibbon, PRICHARD, M. F., (ed.) The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Collins, London, 1968, p 290. As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not share the convict settlement history of other Australian cities like Sydney, Perth, Brisbane and Hobart. Adelaide's early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership. The first governor of South Australia, John Hindmarsh, clashed frequently with others, in particular with the Resident Commissioner, James Hurtle Fisher. The rural area surrounding Adelaide city was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from New South Wales and Tasmania. The wool industry served as an early basis for the South Australian economy. Light's survey was completed in this period, and land was promptly offered to sale to early colonists. Wheat farms ranged from Encounter Bay in the south to Clare in the north by 1860. Governor Gawler took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, Adelaide Gaol, police barracks, hospital, and customs house and a wharf at Port Adelaide. In addition, houses for public officials and missionaries, and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during Gawler's governorship. Adelaide had also become economically self-sufficient during this period, but at heavy cost: the colony was heavily in debt and relied on bail-outs from London to stay afloat. Gawler was recalled and replaced by Governor Grey in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact was negligible at this point: silver was discovered in Glen Osmond that year, agricultural industries were well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned. Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established with the Murray River being successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. South Australia became a self-governing colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament. Secret ballots were introduced, and a bicameral parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in the province. In 1860 the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the turbid River Torrens. In 1867 gas street lighting was implemented, the University of Adelaide was founded in 1874, the South Australian Art Gallery opened in 1881 and the Happy Valley Reservoir opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries at Broken Hill provided some relief. Only one year of deficit was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn. Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight in World War I. Adelaide enjoyed a post-war boom but, with the return of droughts, entered the depression of the 1930s, later returning to prosperity under strong government leadership. Secondary industries helped reduce the state's dependence on primary industries. The 1933 census recorded the state population at 580,949, less of an increase than other states due to the state's economic limitations. World War II brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the Playford Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location. 70,000 men and women enlisted and shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of Whyalla. The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries. International manufacturers like General Motors Holden and Chrysler When Chrysler stopped manufacturing in Adelaide, Mitsubishi Motors Australia Limited took over the Tonsley Park factory. After many years of mixed fortunes, Mitsubishi ceased manufacturing at Tonsley Park on 27 March 2008. made use of these factories around Adelaide, completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a twentieth-century city. A pipeline from Mannum brought River Murray water to Adelaide in 1954 and an airport opened at West Beach in 1955. An assisted migration scheme brought 215,000 immigrants of many nationalities, mainly European, to South Australia between 1947 and 1973. The Dunstan Governments of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide 'cultural revival' - establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts, building upon the biennial "Adelaide Festival of Arts" which commenced in 1960. Adelaide hosted the Formula 1 Australian Grand Prix between 1985 and 1996 on a street circuit in the city's east parklands, before losing it to Melbourne. The 1991 State Bank collapse plunged both Adelaide and South Australia into economic recession, and its effects lasted until 2004, when ratings agency Standard & Poor's reinstated South Australia's AAA credit rating. Recent years have seen the Clipsal 500 V8 Supercar race make use of sections of the former Formula One circuit. Geography Adelaide is located north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches from the coast to the foothills, and from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the Adelaide Metropolitan Region has a total land area of , and is at an average elevation of above sea level. Mount Lofty is located east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of . It is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of Burra. Much of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation - swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. However, much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as the Cleland Conservation Park and Belair National Park. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens and Onkaparinga catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply, with Mount Bold Reservoir and Happy Valley Reservoir together supplying around 50% of Adelaide's requirements. Urban layout Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first surveyor-general of South Australia, Colonel William Light. His plan, now known as Light's Vision, arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the inner City of Adelaide and a ring of parks known as the Adelaide Parklands surrounding it. Light's design was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first Governor, John Hindmarsh. Light persisted with his design against this initial opposition. The benefits of Light's design are numerous; Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily-navigable grid layout and a beautiful green ring around the city centre. There are two sets of 'ring roads' in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route borders the parklands and the outer route completely bypasses the inner city through (in clockwise order) Grand Junction Road, Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, Portrush Road, Cross Road and South Road. Adelaide's Inner and Outer Ring Routes, courtesy South Australian Department of Transport Urban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous satellite cities were built in the later half of the 20th century, notably Salisbury and Elizabeth on the city's northern fringes, which have now been enveloped by its urban sprawl. New developments in the Adelaide Hills region facilitated the construction of the South Eastern Freeway to cope with growth. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's South made the construction of the Southern Expressway a necessity. New roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth, however. The O-Bahn Busway is an example of a unique solution to Tea Tree Gully's transport woes in the 1980s. The development of the nearby suburb of Golden Grove in the late 1980s is possibly an example of well-thought-out urban planning. The newer urban areas as a whole, however, are not as integrated into the urban layout as much as older areas, and therefore place more stress on Adelaide's transportation system – although not on a level comparable with Melbourne or Sydney. In the 1960s a Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study Plan was proposed in order to cater for the future growth of the city. The plan involved the construction of freeways, expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premier Steele Hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The later government elected under Don Dunstan shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should the future need for freeways arise. Some parts of this land have been utilised for transport (eg the O-Bahn Busway) while other parts have been progressively subdivided for residential use. In 2008 the SA Government announced plans for a network of transport-oriented developments across the Adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a 10 hectare industrial site at Bowden for $52.5 million as the first of these developments. "Clipsal site at Bowden to become a green village", Ministerial Press Release, 24 October 2008, SA Govt, Retrieved 2008-11-20. "Government reveals Clipsal site purchase price", Ministerial Press Release, 15 November 2008, SA Govt, Retrieved 2008-11-20. Climate Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate, where most of the rain falls in the winter months. Of the Australian capital cities, Adelaide is the driest. Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. Frosts are rare, with the most notable occurrences having occurred in July 1908 and July 1982. There is usually no appreciable snowfall, except at Mount Lofty and some places in the Adelaide Hills. Governance The Adelaide metropolitan area is divided between eighteen local government areas, including, at its centre, the City of Adelaide, which administers the CBD, North Adelaide, and the surrounding Adelaide Parklands. It is the oldest municipal authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, James Hurtle Fisher, was elected. From 1919 onwards, the City has had a Lord Mayor, the current being Lord Mayor Michael Harbison. Adelaide, as the capital of South Australia, is the seat of the Government of South Australia. As Adelaide is South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide. In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide was created to facilitate the state government's collaboration with the Adelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide's image. The state parliament's Capital City Committee Capital City Committee is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth. Demography As of 2006 Census, Adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than 1,105,839, making it Australia's fifth largest city. In the 2002-2003 period the population grew by 0.6%, while the national average was 1.2%. Some 70.3% of the population of South Australia are residents of the Adelaide metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states. Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as Mawson Lakes and Golden Grove. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 341,227 houses, 54,826 semi-detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,327 flats, units or apartments. Persons of high-income are concentrated on the coastal suburbs (such as Brighton and Glenelg), eastern suburbs (such as Wattle Park, Kensington Gardens, St. Peters, Medindie and College Park) and inner south-eastern suburbs (such as Waterfall Gully and Unley). Almost a fifth (17.9%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census. Over half of the population identifies as Christian, with the largest denominations being Catholic (22.1%), Anglican (14.0%), Uniting Church (8.4%) and Eastern Orthodox (3.8%). Approximately 24% of the population expressed no religious affiliation, compared with the national average of 18.7%. The large number of churches in Adelaide has led the city to develop the nickname City of Churches http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/travel/23next.html?scp=5&sq=adelaide&st=cse . Overall, Adelaide is ageing more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. Just over a quarter (26.7%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55 years or older, in comparison to the national average of 24.3%. Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15 year olds), which composed 17.8% of the population, compared to the national average of 19.8%. Overseas-born Adelaideans composed 23.7% (262,367) of the total population. The north-western suburbs (such as Woodville and Athol Park) and suburbs close to the CBD have a higher ratio of overseas-born residents. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (7.3%), Italy (1.9%), Scotland (1.0%), Vietnam (0.9%), and Greece (0.9%). The most-spoken languages other than English were Italian (3.0%), Greek (2.2%), Vietnamese (1.2%), Mandarin (0.8%), and Cantonese (0.7%). Economy Adelaide's economy is primarily based around manufacturing, defence technology and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries. It has large manufacturing, defence and research zones. They contain car manufacturing plants for General Motors Holden, and plants that produce electronic systems that are sold worldwide for applications in medical, communications, defence, automotive, food and wine processing and industrial sectors. The revenue of Adelaide's electronics industry has grown at over 15% per year since 1990. The electronics industry in Adelaide employs over 13,000 people, which is more than the automotive industry. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia are made in Adelaide. South Australia Fact Sheet: Automotive, courtesy Business South Australia (.pdf) The global media conglomerate News Corporation was founded in and until 2004 incorporated in Adelaide and is still considered its 'spiritual' home by Rupert Murdoch. Australia's largest oil company, Santos (South Australia Northern Territory Oil Search), prominent South Australian brewery, Coopers, major national retailer Harris Scarfe and Australia's second largest listed investment company Argo Investments Limited call Adelaide their home. The collapse of the State Bank in 1992 resulted in large levels of state debt (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse had meant that successive governments had enacted lean budgets, cutting spending, which had been a setback to the further development of the city and state. The debt has recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating. South Australia's Credit Rating the Highest, courtesy Business South Australia The South Australian economy, very closely tied to Adelaide's, still enjoys a trade surplus and has higher per capita growth than Australia as a whole. South Australia's Economic Performance Update, courtesy Business South Australia (.pdf) Defence industry My Brother is in the Army...Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries, which contribute over AU$1 billion to South Australia's Gross State Product. 70% of Australian defence companies are located in Adelaide. The principal government military research institution, the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, and other defence technology organisations such as BAE Systems Australia and RLM, are located north of Salisbury and west of Elizabeth in an area now called "Edinburgh Parks", near RAAF Base Edinburgh. Others, such as Saab Systems, are located in or near Technology Park. The Australian Submarine Corporation, based in the industrial suburb of Osborne, was charged with constructing Australia's Collins class submarines Collins Class Submarines (SSG) (Royal Australian Navy) and more recently the AU$6 billion contract to construct the Royal Australian Navy's new air-warfare destroyers. South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice, courtesy Defence SA Employment statistics There are 466,829 employed people in Adelaide, with 62.3% full-time and 35.1% part-time. In recent years there has been a growing trend towards part-time (which includes casual) employment, increasing from only 11.6% of the workplace in 1991, to over a third today. 15% of workers are employed in manufacturing, 5% in construction, 15% in retail trade, 11% in business services, 7% in education and 12% in health and community services. The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over is $447 per week, compared with $466 nationally. The median family income is $1,137 per week, compared with $1,171 nationally. Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of Sydney and two-thirds that of Melbourne. The 3 month trend unemployment rate to March 2007 was 6.2%. Adelaide, courtesy Labour Market Information Portal The Northern suburbs' unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of Adelaide at 8.3%, while the East and South are lower than the Adelaide average at 4.9% and 5.0% respectively. SA Regional Labour Force Data, courtesy Australian Bureau of Statistics Labour Force Survey Education Education forms an increasingly important part of the city's economy, with the South Australian Government and educational institutions attempting to position Adelaide as "Australia's education hub" and marketing it as a "Learning City". The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 23,300, of which 2,380 are secondary school students. In addition to the city's existing institutions, foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses in order to increase its attractiveness as an education hub. The tertiary education system in Adelaide is extensive. There are several institutes of TAFE South Australia throughout the city which provide vocational education and training. Additionally, there are three public and two private universities, all ranked within the world's top 400 in the Times Higher Education magazine, (formerly The Times Higher Education Supplement). The University of Adelaide, with 20,478 students, is Australia's third-oldest and a member of the leading Group of Eight. It has five campuses throughout the state, including two in the city-centre, and also has a campus in Singapore. The University of South Australia, with 36,000 students, has two North Terrace campuses, three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses at Whyalla and Mt Gambier. Flinders University, with 16,237 students, is located in the southern suburb of Bedford Park, alongside the Flinders Medical Centre. Carnegie Mellon became the first foreign university to open in Australia when it established two postgraduate campuses in the city-centre in 2006: the Heinz College Australia in Victoria Square and the Entertainment Technology Centre in Light Square. Cranfield University followed suit in 2007 and established a postgraduate campus in Victoria Square alongside the Heinz College. Another leading institution, the University College London, will establish its first international campus alongside Carnegie Mellon and Cranfield University in 2009, with postgraduate courses commencing in 2010. The two hundred year-old Royal Institution of Great Britain is also establishing an Australian counterpart in Adelaide which will formally open in 2009. At the level of primary and secondary education, there are two systems of school education. There is a public system operated by the South Australian Government and a private system of independent and Catholic schools. All schools provide education under the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) or, to a lesser extent, the International Baccalaureate (IB), with Adelaide having the highest number of IB schools in Australia. One notable secondary school is St Peter's College, which has educated more Nobel laureates than any other school in Australia, and is tied for third internationally behind New York City's Bronx High School of Science and Stuyvesant High School. Culture While established as a British province, Adelaide attracted immigrants from many non-English speaking countries early-on, including German and other European non-conformists escaping religious persecution. The first German Lutherans arrived in 1838 bringing with them the vine cuttings that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of the Barossa Valley. After the Second World War, Italians, Greeks, Dutch, Poles and many other European nationalities came to make a new start. An influx of Asian immigrants following the Vietnam War, and more recently many African refugees, have added to Adelaide's multicultural mix. These new arrivals have blended with dominant Anglo-Saxon culture to form a rich and diverse cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture. Arts and entertainment Adelaide's arts scene flourished in the 1970s under the leadership of premier Don Dunstan, removing some of the more puritanical restrictions on cultural activities then prevalent around Australia. It was at this time that the renowned Adelaide Festival of Arts and Fringe Festival were established, and over time they have spawned sister events including the Adelaide Cabaret Festival, Adelaide Film Festival, Adelaide Festival of Ideas, Adelaide Writers' Week and WOMADelaide held predominately in the autumnal month of March. Other festivals include FEAST, one of Australia's four main queer culture celebrations; Tasting Australia, a biennual food and wine affair; and the Royal Adelaide Show, an annual agricultural and state fair. Reflecting the city's multiculturalism, there are many ethnic fairs including the German Schützenfest and Greek Glendi. Adelaide is also home to the Adelaide Christmas Pageant, the world's largest Christmas parade. As the state capital, Adelaide is also home to a great number of cultural institutions with many located along the boulevard of North Terrace. The Art Gallery of South Australia, with around 35,000 works, holds Australia's second largest state-based collection. Situated adjacent are the South Australian Museum and State Library of South Australia, while the Adelaide Botanic Garden, National Wine Centre and Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute are located nearby in the East End of the city. The Adelaide Festival Centre, on the banks of the Torrens, is the focal point for much of the cultural activity in the city and home to the State Theatre Company of South Australia, with other venues including the Adelaide Entertainment Centre and the city's many smaller theatres, pubs and cabaret bars. The music of Adelaide has produced various musical groups and individuals who have achieved both national and worldwide fame. This includes the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, the Adelaide Youth Orchestra, rock bands: The Angels, Cold Chisel, The Superjesus and Wolf & Cub, roots/blues group The Audreys, internationally acclaimed metal acts I Killed The Prom Queen and Double Dragon (band) and popular Australian hip-hop outfit Hilltop Hoods. Famous rocker Jimmy Barnes spent most of his youth in the northern suburb of Elizabeth. The first Australian Idol winner, Guy Sebastian, hails from North Eastern suburb of Golden Grove. American musician Ben Folds used to base himself in Adelaide when he was married to Australian Frally Hynes. In addition to its own WOMADelaide, Adelaide attracts several touring music festivals, including the Big Day Out and the St Jerome's Laneway Festival. Media Newspapers in Adelaide are dominated by News Corporation publications — Adelaide being the birthplace of News Corporation itself. The only South Australian daily newspaper is The Advertiser, published by News Corporation six days a week, while the Sunday paper is the Sunday Mail. There are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly, known collectively as the Messenger Newspapers, also published by a subsidiary of News Corporation. A recent addition to the print medium in the city is The Independent Weekly, providing one alternative view. Two national daily newspapers are circulated in the city: The Australian and its weekend publication, The Weekend Australian, also published by News Corporation; and The Australian Financial Review published by Fairfax. Interstate dailies, The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald, published by Fairfax, are also typically available. The Adelaide Review is a free paper published fortnightly, and other independent magazine-style papers are published, but are not as widely available. All of the five Australian national television networks broadcast both analogue PAL and high definition digital services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of Mount Lofty. The two government-funded stations are ABC TV and SBS TV. The Seven Network and Network Ten both own their Adelaide stations (SAS-7 and ADS-10 respectively). Adelaide's NWS-9 is affiliated with the Nine Network and was owned by Southern Cross Broadcasting until the sale to WIN Corporation in May 2007. Adelaide also has a community television station, C31 Adelaide. The Foxtel pay TV service is available as cable television in a few areas, and as satellite television to the entire metropolitan area. It is resold by a number of other brands, mostly telephone companies. There are twenty radio stations that serve the entire metropolitan area as well as four community stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area. Of the twenty full coverage stations there are six commercial stations, six community stations, six national stations and two narrowcast stations. Commercial stations include FIVEaa, Cruise 1323, Mix 102.3, SAFM, Nova 91.9, and Triple M. Sport The main sports played professionally in Adelaide are Australian rules football, Association football and cricket. Adelaide is the home of two Australian Football League teams: the Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide Power. A local Australian rules football league, the SANFL, is made up of nine teams from around Adelaide. Most large sporting events take place at either AAMI Stadium or the historic Adelaide Oval, home of the Southern Redbacks cricket team. Adelaide hosts an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of One Day International cricket matches. Memorial Drive Park, adjacent to the Adelaide Oval, hosts the Adelaide International, a major men's tennis tournament in the lead-up to the Australian Open. Adelaide's professional Association football team, Adelaide United, play in the A-League. Founded in 2003, their home ground is Hindmarsh Stadium, which has a capacity of 16,500 and is one of the few purpose-built soccer stadia in Australia. In 2008 the Cronulla Sharks, an Australian NRL franchise, and the South Australian Government announced a 3 year contract in which the Sharks will play a single home game each season at Hindmarsh Stadium. The first such fixture took place in Round 7 on 19 April 2009 against the North Queensland Cowboys, who defeated the Sharks 34-10. The Adelaide 36ers and the Adelaide Lightning play in national basketball competitions, with home games at the Distinctive Homes Dome. The Adelaide Thunderbirds play in the trans-Tasman netball competition, with home games at ETSA Park. Adelaide hosts the Tour Down Under bicycle race, the largest cycling event outside Europe and the only event with UCI ProTour status. The Australian Grand Prix for Formula 1 racing was hosted by Adelaide from 1985 to 1995 on a street circuit in the city's eastern parklands. The Grand Prix became a source of pride and losing the event to Melbourne in a surprise announcement left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful Clipsal 500 for V8 Supercar racing, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. The Classic Adelaide, a rally of classic sporting vehicles, is also held in the city and its surrounds. The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Infrastructure Health Adelaide's first hospital is the Royal Adelaide Hospital (RAH). Founded in 1840, it is one of the major hospitals in Adelaide and is a teaching hospital of the University of Adelaide. It has a capacity of 705 beds. Two other RAH campuses which specialise in specific patient services are located in the suburbs of Adelaide - the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre in Northfield, and the Glenside Campus Mental Health Service. Three other large hospitals in the Adelaide area are: the Women's and Children's Hospital (305 beds), which is located on King William Road in North Adelaide; the Queen Elizabeth Hospital (340 beds), located in Woodville and the Flinders Medical Centre (500 beds), which is located in Bedford Park. These hospitals are also associated with medical schools - the Women's and Children's and the Queen Elizabeth with the University of Adelaide and the Flinders Medical Centre with Flinders University. In June 2007 the State Government announced a series of overhauls to the health sector that would see a new hospital constructed on railyards at the west end of the city, to replace the Royal Adelaide Hospital located at the east end of the city. Should it go ahead, the new 800 bed hospital would cost AU$1.7bn and be named the "Marjorie Jackson-Nelson Hospital" after the former Governor of South Australia. However, in 2009, at the former governor's request, the state government chose to drop this name and instead transfer the Royal Adelaide Hospital name to the proposed facility. In addition, major upgrades would see the Flinders Medical Centre become the primary centre for health care for the southern suburbs, while upgrades for the Lyell McEwin Health Service in Elizabeth would see that become the centre for the northern suburbs. The trio of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, the Modbury Hospital and the Noarlunga Hospital would become specialist elective surgery centres. The Repatriation General Hospital would also expand its range of specialty areas beyond veterans' health to incorporate stroke, orthopaedic rehabilitation and aged care. 'News: New $1.7 billion hospital spearheads health reform' With the "Global Financial Crisis" of 2008, it remains to be seen if and how these initiatives will proceed. Transport Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east-west and north-south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan-wide public transport system, which is managed by and known as the Adelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the O-Bahn Busway, metropolitan railways, and the Adelaide-Glenelg Tram, which has also now been extended as a metropolitan tram through the city centre. Road transport in Adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Historically, Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, these roads are now often considered inadequate to cope with Adelaide's growing road traffic. (1.18MB PDF) Adelaide has one freeway and two expressways; the South Eastern Freeway, connecting the city with the Adelaide Hills and beyond to Murray Bridge, the Port River Expressway connecting Port Adelaide and Outer Harbor to interstate routes and the Southern Expressway, an interchangeable one-way road connecting the southern suburbs with the city proper. The Gawler Bypass skirting Gawler is another expressway style, high speed inter-urban corridor. A third expressway, the Northern Expressway (formerly the Sturt Highway extension), a northern suburbs bypass route—connecting the Gawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road—started construction in 2008. There are also plans for major upgrades to busy sections of South Road, including road widening and underpasses of Anzac Highway (under construction), Grange Road, Port Road and the Outer Harbour Railway Line, during the first stage.<ref>South Road Upgrade </ref> Adelaide International Airport, located in Adelaide's west, is Australia's newest and most advanced airport terminal and is designed to serve in excess of 6.3 million passengers annually. The new dual international/domestic terminal replaces the old and ageing terminals known locally as the 'tin sheds', and incorporates glass aerobridges and the ability to cater for the new Airbus A380. In March 2007, Adelaide Airport was rated the world's second best airport in the 5-15 million passengers category at the Airports Council International (ACI) 2006 awards in Dubai. The airport is designed to handle 27 aircraft simultaneously and is capable of processing 3,000 passengers per hour. Unusually for a major city, it is located only about seven kilometres (4.4 mi) from the CBD. Parafield Airport is Adelaide's second airport, mostly used for general aviation. It is located eighteen kilometres (11.2 mi) north of the CBD. Utilities Adelaide's energy requirements are met by a variety of companies who separately provide for the generation, transmission, distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity. Some of the major companies are: TRUenergy, which generates electricity; ElectraNet, which transmits electricity from the generators to the distribution network; ETSA Utilities (formerly a government-owned company which was privatised by the Olsen Government in the 1990s), which distributes electricity from transmission companies to end users; and AGL Energy, which retails gas and electricity. Substantial investment has been made in maintenance and reinforcement of the electricity supply network to provide continued reliability of supply. Adelaide derives most of its electricity from a gas-fired plant operated by AGL Energy at Torrens Island, with more coming from power stations at Port Augusta and Pelican Point, and from connections to the national grid. Gas is mainly supplied from the Moomba Gas Processing Plant in the Cooper Basin, and is piped to Adelaide and other areas within the state. A small part of supply also comes from wind turbines at Sellicks Hill, and a trial of more turbines on city buildings is underway. Adelaide's water supply is gained from its reservoirs: Mount Bold, Happy Valley, Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. The yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10% of the city's requirements in drought years and about 60% in average years. The remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from the River Murray. A sea water desalination plant capable of supplying half of Adelaide's water requirements (100GL per annum) is currently being planned, with construction expected to be completed by 2012. The provision of water services is by the government-owned SA Water. See also Adelaide city centre :Category:Adelaide :Category:Images of Adelaide :Category:Radio stations in Adelaide :Category:Television stations in Adelaide City of Adelaide List of Adelaide parks and gardens List of Adelaide railway stations List of Adelaide suburbs List of bus routes in Adelaide List of people from Adelaide List of sports clubs in Adelaide Music of Adelaide South Australian wine References Further reading Kathryn Gargett; Susan Marsden, Adelaide: A Brief History Adelaide: State History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with Adelaide City Council, 1996 ISBN 0-7308-0116-0 Derek Whitelock et al., Adelaide: a sense of difference'' Melbourne: Arcadia, 2000 ISBN 0-87560-657-1 External links City of Adelaide Adelaide City Council SA Central | Adelaide |@lemmatized adelaide:200 capital:10 populous:2 city:79 australian:46 state:31 south:67 australia:63 fifth:3 large:20 population:13 million:4 coastal:2 situate:2 eastern:9 shore:1 gulf:3 st:7 vincent:3 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2,836 | Cornwall_Wildlife_Trust | Five Acres Nature Reserve The Cornwall Wildlife Trust is a charitable organisation founded in 1962 that is concerned solely with Cornwall, United Kingdom. It deals with the conservation and preservation of Cornwall's wildlife and habitats managing over 50 nature reserves covering approximately 4300 acres (17 km²), amongst them Looe Island. Cornwall Wildlife Trust is part of The Wildlife Trusts partnership of 47 wildlife trusts in the United Kingdom. It works in conjunction with the Isles of Scilly Wildlife Trust, and jointly produces a thrice yearly magazine called Wild Cornwall & Wild Scilly The direction and work that the Trust currently does is guided by the Cornwall Biodiversity action plan. Living Seas and Living Landscapes are two such projects. The Trust runs ERCCIS (Environmental Records Centre for Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly), a county wide database of sightings of animals and plants. It also gives planning advice (CEC - Cornwall Environmental Consultants) to land developers. The Trust is based at Allet near Truro in Cornwall. The headquarters and offices are adjacent to the Trust's Five Acres nature reserve. This reserve includes two ponds, as well as mixed broadleaved woodland. List of reserves 1. Armstrong Wood 2. Baker's Pit 3. Beales Meadows 4. Bissoe Valley 5. Bosvenning Common 6. Cabilla and Redrice Woods 7. Caer Brân 8. Carn Moor 9. Chûn Downs 10. Churchtown Farm, near Saltash 11. Chyverton 12. Devichoys Wood, near Penryn 13. Downhill Meadow 14. Fal-Ruan Estuary 15. Five Acres, at the Cornwall Wildlife Trust Headquarters, Allet, near Truro 16. Fox Corner, south of Truro 17. Greena Moor 18. Halbullock Moor, south of Truro 19. Hawkes Wood 20. Helman Tor, near Lostwithiel 21. Kemyel Crease 22. Kennall Vale, at Ponsanooth, between Falmouth & Redruth 23. Lanvean Bottoms 24. Loggan's Moor, near Hayle 25. Loveny/Colliford Reservoir 26. Lower Lewdon 27. Luckett/Greenscombe Wood 28. Maer Lake 29. Nansmellyn Marsh 30. North Predannack Downs 31. Park Hoskyn - The Hayman Reserve 32. Pendarves Wood, near Camborne 33. Penlee Battery, near Kingsand 34. Phillips's Point 35. Priddacombe Downs 36. Prideaux Wood 37. Quoit Heathland 38. Redlake Cottage Meadows 39. Ropehaven Cliffs 40. Rosenannon Downs 41. St Erth Pits, at St. Erth 42. St George’s Island (or Looe Island), near Looe 43. Swanvale, Falmouth 44. Sylvia's Meadow, near Callington 45. Tamar Estuary, near Saltash 46. Tincombe, near Saltash 47. Trebarwith, near Bude 48. Tregonetha Downs, near Goss Moor 49. Tresayes, near Roche 50. Tywardreath Marsh, near Par 51. Upton Meadow, near Bude 52. Upton Towans, near St. Ives 53. Ventongimps Moor, near Zelah, Cornwall 54. Marsland Valley, North of Bude 55. Windmill Farm, on The Lizard External links Cornwall Wildlife Trust HQ One of the ponds at Five Acres | Cornwall_Wildlife_Trust |@lemmatized five:4 acre:5 nature:3 reserve:6 cornwall:12 wildlife:8 trust:11 charitable:1 organisation:1 found:1 concern:1 solely:1 united:2 kingdom:2 deal:1 conservation:1 preservation:1 habitat:1 manage:1 cover:1 approximately:1 amongst:1 looe:3 island:3 part:1 partnership:1 work:2 conjunction:1 isle:2 scilly:3 jointly:1 produce:1 thrice:1 yearly:1 magazine:1 call:1 wild:2 direction:1 currently:1 guide:1 biodiversity:1 action:1 plan:2 live:1 sea:1 living:1 landscape:1 two:2 project:1 run:1 erccis:1 environmental:2 record:1 centre:1 county:1 wide:1 database:1 sighting:1 animal:1 plant:1 also:1 give:1 advice:1 cec:1 consultant:1 land:1 developer:1 base:1 allet:2 near:19 truro:4 headquarters:2 office:1 adjacent:1 include:1 pond:2 well:1 mixed:1 broadleaved:1 woodland:1 list:1 armstrong:1 wood:7 baker:1 pit:2 beales:1 meadows:2 bissoe:1 valley:2 bosvenning:1 common:1 cabilla:1 redrice:1 caer:1 brân:1 carn:1 moor:6 chûn:1 churchtown:1 farm:2 saltash:3 chyverton:1 devichoys:1 penryn:1 downhill:1 meadow:3 fal:1 ruan:1 estuary:2 fox:1 corner:1 south:2 greena:1 halbullock:1 hawkes:1 helman:1 tor:1 lostwithiel:1 kemyel:1 crease:1 kennall:1 vale:1 ponsanooth:1 falmouth:2 redruth:1 lanvean:1 bottom:1 loggan:1 hayle:1 loveny:1 colliford:1 reservoir:1 low:1 lewdon:1 luckett:1 greenscombe:1 maer:1 lake:1 nansmellyn:1 marsh:2 north:2 predannack:1 park:1 hoskyn:1 hayman:1 pendarves:1 camborne:1 penlee:1 battery:1 kingsand:1 phillips:1 point:1 priddacombe:1 prideaux:1 quoit:1 heathland:1 redlake:1 cottage:1 ropehaven:1 cliff:1 rosenannon:1 st:4 erth:2 george:1 swanvale:1 sylvia:1 callington:1 tamar:1 tincombe:1 trebarwith:1 bude:3 tregonetha:1 go:1 tresayes:1 roche:1 tywardreath:1 par:1 upton:2 towans:1 ives:1 ventongimps:1 zelah:1 marsland:1 windmill:1 lizard:1 external:1 link:1 hq:1 one:1 |@bigram looe_island:2 isle_scilly:2 st_ives:1 external_link:1 |
2,837 | Eris_(mythology) | Eris (Greek Ἔρις, "Strife") is the Greek goddess of strife, her name being translated into Latin as Discordia. Her Greek opposite is Harmonia, whose Latin counterpart is Concordia. Homer equated her with the war-goddess Enyo. Eris, the solar system's largest known dwarf planet, is named after the goddess. Characteristics in Greek mythology In Hesiod's Works and Days 11–24, two different goddesses named Eris "Strife" are distinguished: So, after all, there was not one kind of Strife alone, but all over the earth there are two. As for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature. For one fosters evil war and battle, being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men pay harsh Strife her honour due. But the other is the elder daughter of dark Night (Nyx), and the son of Cronus who sits above and dwells in the aether, set her in the roots of the earth: and she is far kinder to men. She stirs up even the shiftless to toil; for a man grows eager to work when he considers his neighbour, a rich man who hastens to plough and plant and put his house in good order; and neighbour vies with his neighbour as he hurries after wealth. This Strife is wholesome for men. And potter is angry with potter, and craftsman with craftsman, and beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel. In Hesiod's Theogony (226–232) Strife the daughter of Night is less kindly spoken of as she brings forth other personifications as her children: But abhorred Eris ('Strife') bare painful Ponos ('Toil/Labor'), Lethe ('Forgetfulness') and Limos ('Famine') and tearful Algea (Pains/Sorrows), Hysminai ('Fightings/Combats') also, Makhai ('Battles'), Phonoi ('Murders/Slaughterings'), Androctasiai ('Manslaughters'), Neikea ('Quarrels'), Pseudea ('Lies/Falsehoods'), Amphillogiai ('Disputes'), Dysnomia ('Lawlessness') and Ate ('Ruin/Folly'), all of one nature, and Horkos ('Oath') who most troubles men upon earth when anyone wilfully swears a false oath. The other Strife is presumably she who appears in Homer's Iliad Book IV; equated with Enyo as sister of Ares and so presumably daughter of Zeus and Hera: Strife whose wrath is relentless, she is the sister and companion of murderous Ares, she who is only a little thing at the first, but thereafter grows until she strides on the earth with her head striking heaven. She then hurled down bitterness equally between both sides as she walked through the onslaught making men's pain heavier. She also has a son whom she named Strife. Zeus sends her to rouse the Achaeans in Book 11 of the same work. The most famous tale of Eris recounts her initiating the Trojan War. The goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite had been invited along with the rest of Olympus to the forced wedding of Peleus and Thetis, who would become the parents of Achilles, but Eris had been snubbed because of her troublemaking inclinations. She therefore (in a fragment from the Kypria as part of a plan hatched by Zeus and Themis) tossed into the party the Apple of Discord, a golden apple inscribed Kallisti – "For the most beautiful one", or "To the Fairest One" – provoking the goddesses to begin quarreling about the appropriate recipient. The hapless Paris, Prince of Troy, was appointed to select the most beautiful by Zeus. Each of the three goddesses immediately attempted to bribe Paris to choose her. Hera offered political power; Athena promised skill in battle; and Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world: Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta. While Greek culture placed a greater emphasis on prowess and power, Paris chose to award the apple to Aphrodite, thereby dooming his city, which was destroyed in the war that ensued. In Nonnus' Dionysiaca, 2.356, when Typhon prepares to battle with Zeus: Eris ('Strife') was Typhon's escort in the melée, Nike ('Victory') led Zeus to battle. Another story of Eris includes Hera, and the love of Polytekhnos and Aedon. They claimed to love each other more than Hera and Zeus were in love. This angered Hera, so she sent Eris to rack discord upon them. Polytekhnos was finishing off a chariot board, and Aedon a web she had been weaving. Eris said to them, "Whosoever finishes thine task last shall have to present the other with a female servant!" Aedon won. But Polytekhnos was not happy by his defeat, so he came to Khelidon, Aedon's sister, and raped her. He then disguised her as a slave, presenting her to Aedon. When Aedon discovered this was indeed her sister, she chopped up Polytekhnos' son and fed him to him. The gods were not pleased, so they turned them all into birds. Cultural influences Discordianism Eris has been adopted as the matron deity of the modern Discordian religion, which was begun in the late 1950s by Gregory Hill and Kerry Wendell Thornley under the pen names of "Malaclypse the Younger" and "Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst". The Discordian version of Eris is considerably lighter in comparison to the rather malevolent Graeco-Roman original. A quote from the Principia Discordia, the first holy book of Discordianism, attempts to clear this up: One day Mal-2 consulted his Pineal Gland and asked Eris if She really created all of those terrible things. She told him that She had always liked the Old Greeks, but that they cannot be trusted with historic matters. "They were," She added, "victims of indigestion, you know." The Principia Discordia The story of Eris being snubbed and indirectly starting the Trojan War is recorded in the Principia, and is referred to as the Original Snub. The Principia Discordia states that her parents may be as described in Greek legend, or that she may be the daughter of Void. She is the Goddess of Disorder and Being, whereas her sister Aneris (called the equivalent of Harmonia by the Mythics of Harmonia) is the goddess of Order and Non-Being. Their brother is Spirituality. Principia Discordia - Page 57 The concept of Eris as developed by the Principia Discordia is used and expanded upon in the science fiction work The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (in which characters from Principia Discordia appear). In this work, Eris is a major character in the book, taking the form of virtually every other female character who appears before her true nature is revealed in the final volume. "Robert Anton Wilson: Searching For Cosmic Intelligence" by Jeffrey Elliot Interview discussing novel (URL accessed 21 February 2006) Sleeping Beauty The classic fairy tale Sleeping Beauty is partly inspired by Eris's role in the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Like Eris, a malevolent fairy curses a princess after failing to be invited to the princess' christening. Eris in popular culture Eris appears on the Cartoon Network show The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy as a rival of Mandy, Grim, and Billy, voiced by Rachael MacFarlane. In the episode "Complete and Utter Chaos", she causes chaos to grip Grim, Billy, and Mandy by giving them "The Golden Apple of Chaos and Discord", a more elaborate title for the mythological Apple of Discord. She is drawn to resemble pop star Madonna. See Eris (Billy and Mandy) for more information about the TV version. Eris appears as the main antagonist in the film Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas. Eris appears as the main antagonist in the first Saint Seiya movie. Eris appears in Class of the Titans episode "Applet of Discord" where she uses a magic ringtone to cause chaos. Eris also appears in Wonder Woman as one of her major antagonists during George Pérez's tenure on the title. She clashed with Wonder Woman on several occasions until she was killed by the Son of Vulcan during the "War of The Gods". She resurfaced years later as part of a plot engineered by her brothers, Phobos and Deimos, to merge Gotham City with the Areopagus, Ares's throne capital. In the video game Discworld Noir, based on the Discworld novels of Terry Pratchett, Eris is parodied as Errata, goddess of misunderstandings, and is claimed to be responsible for the "Tsortean War". Discordia is the name that Stephen King uses in his Dark Tower series for the surroundings of the Crimson King's castle, as a place of desolation, despair and plague, death and deep horrors. The Greek Goddess Eris features heavily in the anthology Liber Malorum - Children Of The Apple , woven and edited by Sean Scullion. In this work, Eris features primarily as a goddess of chaos and synchronicity and an alternate version of her mythology is presented in one of the short stories within. In this story, the Apple of Discord was to be presented as a genuine wedding present to Thetis, and Eris is abdicated from any wrong-doing. In this retelling of the Erisian myth, it's the greed and vanity of the other goddesses that caused the squabble rather than it coming from Eris' intentions. Discord is portrayed by Meighan Desmond in the series 4 episode, "Takes One to Know One" of Xena: Warrior Princess. In the season 5 episode "Motherhood", she is beheaded by Xena, after Xena is given the power to murder Gods. Eris is a clothing and footwear brand in Grand Theft Auto III and related games. The company responsible for the brand is depicted as having questionable work ethics (child labor being a prominent source of controversy). Eris is mentioned in the A Skylit Drive song "Eris and Dysnomia" on the album Wires...and the Concept of Breathing. The Apple of Discord (turned into the mango of discord) is referred to in Rick Riordan's book The Demigod Files. References See also Aneris Discordian Works 136199 Eris (the dwarf planet) External links Goddess Eris at Theoi.com, ancient texts and art Hesiod’s Works And Days Hesiod’s Theogony Homer’s Iiliad Principia Discordia be-x-old:Эрыс (міталёгія) | Eris_(mythology) |@lemmatized eris:35 greek:8 ἔρις:1 strife:12 goddess:14 name:6 translate:1 latin:2 discordia:9 opposite:1 harmonia:3 whose:2 counterpart:1 concordia:1 homer:3 equate:2 war:7 enyo:2 solar:1 system:1 large:1 know:3 dwarf:2 planet:2 characteristic:1 mythology:2 hesiod:4 work:9 day:3 two:2 different:2 distinguish:1 one:11 kind:2 alone:1 earth:4 man:4 would:2 praise:1 come:3 understand:1 blameworthy:1 wholly:1 nature:3 foster:1 evil:1 battle:5 cruel:1 love:4 perforce:1 deathless:1 god:4 men:5 pay:1 harsh:1 honour:1 due:1 elder:1 daughter:4 dark:2 night:2 nyx:1 son:4 cronus:1 sit:1 dwells:1 aether:1 set:1 root:1 far:1 stir:1 even:1 shiftless:1 toil:2 grow:1 eager:1 consider:1 neighbour:3 rich:1 hasten:1 plough:1 plant:1 put:1 house:1 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2,838 | Kuwaiti_oil_fires | USAF aircraft fly over burning Kuwaiti oil wells Aerial view of oil wells on fire The Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition military forces (see Gulf War). The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for months, causing widespread pollution. The byproducts of the petroleum burn caused pollution to the soil and air, and the oil fires have been linked in the popular imagination with what was later called Gulf War Syndrome. Whether this syndrome has been caused by the oil fires, by chemical attack, or other causes has not been determined, and the longterm environmental effects of the fires have yet to be fully understood. During Operation Desert Storm, Dr. S. Fred Singer debated Carl Sagan on the impact of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program Nightline. Sagan said we know from the nuclear winter investigation that the smoke would loft into the upper atmosphere and that he believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the Year Without a Summer, in massive agricultural failures, in very serious human suffering and, in some cases, starvation. He predicted the same for south Asia, and perhaps for a significant fraction of the northern hemisphere as well as a result. Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited. In retrospect, we now know that smoke from the Kuwait Oil Fires dominated the weather pattern throughout the Persian Gulf and surrounding region during 1991, and that lower atmospheric wind blew the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities like Dhahran, Riyadh and Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled skies and carbon fallout. The companies responsible for extinguishing the fires are Red Adair Company (now sold off to Global Industries of Louisiana), Boots and Coots (now Boots and Coots/IWC), Wild Well Control, Safety Boss, Cudd Well/Pressure Control, Neal Adams Firefighters, and Kuwait Wild Well Killers. All the wells were eventually fully extinguished and brought back under control. Motives By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to almost , which coincided with a sharp drop in the price of oil. By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq, Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main motivations in invading Kuwait was to punish the ruling al-Sabah family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction, as well as his reasoning behind the destruction of said wells. Environmental impact An oilfield on fire A 2008 picture of the mummified remains of a bird, encrusted within the top hard layer of a dry oil lake in the Kuwaiti desert. Nearly 700 oil wells were set ablaze by the retreating Iraqi army and the fires were not fully extinguished until November 6 1991, eight months after the end of the war. The fires consumed an estimated six million barrels of oil daily. Their immediate consequence was a dramatic decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis. The sabotage of the oil wells also impacted the desert environment, which has a limited natural cleansing ability. Unignited oil from the wells formed about 300 oil lakes that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth. The mixture of desert sand with the unignited oil and soot formed layers of "tarcrete" which covered nearly five percent of the country. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0321kuwaitfire.html Cleaning efforts led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Arab Oil Co., who have tested a number of technologies including the use of petroleum-degrading bacteria, produced significant results. In fact, vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the oil lakes began recovering by 1995, but the dry climate has also partially solidified some of the lakes. Over time the oil has continued to sink into the sand, with as yet unknown consequences for Kuwait's precious groundwater resources. Popular culture The fires were the subject of a 1992 IMAX documentary film, Fires of Kuwait, which was nominated for an Academy Award. The film includes footage of the Hungarian team using their jet turbine extinguisher. The Kuwaiti oil fires are also featured in Werner Herzog's 1992 film Lessons of Darkness. The oil fires and black rain were also featured in the 2005 film Jarhead, as well as the video game Eternal Darkness. There was also a flyover of the oil fires in the movie Baraka. The Discovery Channel filmed a documentary series about "The Inventors" which interviewed Branko Babic about his Displacement Tube and Counter Pressure Plugs, patent applied for inventions designed to contain the burning oil wells. See also Environmental issues with war References External links Fighting the Oil Well Fires | Kuwaiti_oil_fires |@lemmatized usaf:1 aircraft:1 fly:1 burn:4 kuwaiti:7 oil:24 well:16 aerial:1 view:1 fire:21 result:4 scorched:1 earth:2 policy:2 iraqi:3 military:3 force:2 retreat:2 kuwait:10 conquer:1 country:2 drive:1 coalition:1 see:2 gulf:3 war:4 resulting:1 control:4 danger:1 send:1 firefighting:1 crew:2 land:1 mine:1 place:1 area:3 around:3 cleaning:1 necessary:1 could:1 put:1 somewhere:1 lose:1 day:3 eventually:2 privately:1 contract:1 extinguish:4 total:1 cost:1 u:1 billion:1 time:2 however:1 month:2 cause:5 widespread:1 pollution:2 byproduct:1 petroleum:3 soil:1 air:2 link:2 popular:2 imagination:1 later:1 call:1 syndrome:2 whether:1 chemical:1 attack:1 determine:1 longterm:1 environmental:3 effect:2 yet:2 fully:3 understood:1 operation:1 desert:4 storm:1 dr:1 fred:1 singer:2 debate:1 carl:1 sagan:2 impact:3 abc:1 news:2 program:1 nightline:1 say:3 know:3 nuclear:1 winter:1 investigation:1 smoke:6 would:4 loft:1 upper:1 atmosphere:1 believe:1 net:1 similar:1 explosion:1 indonesian:1 volcano:1 tambora:1 year:2 without:1 summer:2 massive:1 agricultural:1 failure:1 serious:2 human:1 suffering:1 case:1 starvation:1 predict:1 south:1 asia:1 perhaps:1 significant:2 fraction:1 northern:1 hemisphere:1 hand:1 calculation:1 show:1 go:1 altitude:1 rain:2 three:1 five:2 thus:1 lifetime:1 limit:1 retrospect:1 dominate:1 weather:1 pattern:1 throughout:1 persian:1 surround:1 region:1 low:1 atmospheric:1 wind:1 blow:1 along:1 eastern:1 half:1 arabian:1 peninsula:1 city:1 like:1 dhahran:1 riyadh:1 bahrain:1 experienced:1 fill:1 sky:1 carbon:1 fallout:1 company:2 responsible:1 red:1 adair:1 sell:1 global:1 industry:1 louisiana:1 boot:2 coot:2 iwc:1 wild:2 safety:1 bos:1 cudd:1 pressure:2 neal:1 adam:1 firefighter:1 killer:1 bring:1 back:1 motif:1 eve:1 invasion:1 set:2 production:1 quota:1 almost:1 coincide:1 sharp:1 drop:1 price:1 overproduction:2 become:1 point:1 contention:1 iraq:1 analyst:1 speculate:1 one:1 saddam:1 hussein:1 main:1 motivation:1 invade:1 punish:1 ruling:1 al:1 sabah:1 family:1 stop:1 reason:1 behind:1 destruction:1 oilfield:1 picture:1 mummified:1 remains:1 bird:1 encrust:1 within:1 top:1 hard:1 layer:2 dry:2 lake:4 nearly:2 ablaze:1 army:1 november:1 eight:1 end:1 consume:1 estimate:1 six:1 million:2 barrel:1 daily:1 immediate:1 consequence:2 dramatic:1 decrease:1 quality:1 respiratory:1 problem:1 many:1 sabotage:1 also:6 environment:1 limited:1 natural:1 cleanse:1 ability:1 unignited:2 form:2 contaminate:1 ton:1 sand:3 mixture:1 soot:1 tarcrete:1 cover:1 percent:1 http:1 www:1 nasa:1 gov:1 center:1 goddard:1 topstory:1 html:1 clean:1 effort:1 lead:1 institute:1 scientific:1 research:1 arab:1 co:1 test:1 number:1 technology:1 include:2 use:2 degrading:1 bacteria:1 produce:1 fact:1 vegetation:1 contaminated:1 adjoin:1 begin:1 recover:1 climate:1 partially:1 solidify:1 continue:1 sink:1 unknown:1 precious:1 groundwater:1 resource:1 culture:1 subject:1 imax:1 documentary:2 film:5 nominate:1 academy:1 award:1 footage:1 hungarian:1 team:1 jet:1 turbine:1 extinguisher:1 feature:2 werner:1 herzog:1 lesson:1 darkness:2 black:1 jarhead:1 video:1 game:1 eternal:1 flyover:1 movie:1 baraka:1 discovery:1 channel:1 series:1 inventor:1 interview:1 branko:1 babic:1 displacement:1 tube:1 counter:1 plug:1 patent:1 apply:1 invention:1 design:1 contain:1 burning:1 issue:1 reference:1 external:1 fight:1 |@bigram scorched_earth:1 carl_sagan:1 northern_hemisphere:1 persian_gulf:1 arabian_peninsula:1 saddam_hussein:1 http_www:1 nasa_gov:1 werner_herzog:1 external_link:1 |
2,839 | Euthanasia | Euthanasia (from the Greek ευθανασία meaning "well death": ευ-, eu- (well or good) + θάνατος, thanatos (death)) refers to the practice of ending a life in a painless manner. Many different forms of euthanasia can be distinguished, including animal euthanasia and human euthanasia, and within the latter, voluntary and involuntary euthanasia. Voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide have been the focus of great controversy in recent years. As of 2009, some forms of euthanasia are legal in Belgium, Euthanasia and the law Luxembourg, Luxembourg says 'yes' to euthanasia The Netherlands, Switzerland, Thailand, พระราชบัญญัติสุขภาพแห่งชาติ พ.ศ. 2550. (2550, 19 มีนาคม). ราชกิจจานุเบกษา, (เล่ม 124, ตอนที่ 16 ก). and the U.S. states of Oregon Oregon’s Death with Dignity law and Euthanasia in the Netherlands: Factual Disputes and Washington. See Washington Initiative 1000, which passed on 4 November 2008. Classification of euthanasia Euthanasia by consent Euthanasia may be conducted with consent (voluntary euthanasia) or without consent (involuntary euthanasia). Involuntary euthanasia is conducted where an individual makes a decision for another person incapable of doing so. The decision can be made based on what the incapacitated individual would have wanted, or it could be made on substituted judgment of what the decision maker would want were he or she in the incapacitated person's place, or finally, the decision could be made by assessing objectively whether euthanasia is the most beneficial course of treatment. In any case, euthanasia by proxy consent is highly controversial, especially because multiple proxies may claim the authority to decide for the patient and may or may not have explicit consent from the patient to make that decision. Euthanasia by means Euthanasia may be conducted passively, non-actively, and actively. Passive euthanasia entails the withholding of common treatments (such as antibiotics, chemotherapy in cancer, or surgery) or the distribution of a medication (such as morphine) to relieve pain, knowing that it may also result in death (principle of double effect). Passive euthanasia is the most accepted form, and it is a common practice in most hospitals. Non-active euthanasia entails the withdrawing of life support and is more controversial. Active euthanasia entails the use of lethal substances or forces to kill and is the most controversial means. An individual may use a euthanasia machine to perform euthanasia on himself / herself. Assisted suicide Assisted suicide is a form of euthanasia where the patient actively takes the last step in their death. The term "assisted suicide" is contrasted with "active euthanasia" when the difference between providing the means and actively administering lethal medicine is considered important http://www.springerlink.com/content/n0a66j00l1mnnlju/ Assisted suicide bordering on active euthanasia, International Journal of Legal Medicine, Volume 117, Number 2 / April, 2003 . For example, Swiss law on assisted suicide allows assisted suicide, while all forms of active euthanasia (like lethal injection) remain prohibited. Some jurisdictions declare that a person dying as a result of physician assisted suicide does not commit suicide. This ensures that terminally ill people choosing assisted suicide options do not have reduced insurance claims compared to people dying in "natural" way. For example, the Oregon Death with Dignity Act defines that "... participation under the Act is not suicide, so should not affect insurance benefits by that definition." Other terminology A coup de grâce is a "death blow" given to end the misery of a dying enemy or friend, or that precipitates the final destruction of an entity such as a ship or business. Voluntary refusal of food and fluids (VRFF) or Patient Refusal of Nutrition and Hydration (PRNH) is bordering on euthanasia. Some authors classify it as a form of passive euthanasia, http://www.amsa.org/dd/prnh.cfm Patient Refusal of Nutrition and Hydration: Walking the Ever-Finer Line while others treat it separately because it is treated differently from legal point of view and often perceived as a more ethical option Harvath TA. Voluntary refusal of food and fluids: attitudes of Oregon hospice nurses and social workers. Int J Palliat Nurs. 2004 May;10(5):236-41 . VRFF is sometimes suggested as a legal alternative to euthanasia in jurisdictions disallowing euthanasia. Animal euthanasia is to kill an animal without pain or distress." "Glossary." CCAC Programs. 2005. Canadian Council on Animal Care. 13 July 2007 (http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/ETCC/GlossaryEng.htm). Techniques to accomplish this include cervical dislocation (breaking the spine) and exsanguination (fatal blood loss). History The term euthanasia comes from the Greek words "eu"-meaning good and "thanatos"-meaning death, which combined means “well-death” or "dying well". Hippocrates mentions euthanasia in the Hippocratic Oath, which was written between 400 and 300 B.C. The original Oath states: “To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug nor give advice which may cause his death.” History of Euthanasia Despite this, the ancient Greeks and Romans generally did not believe that life needed to be preserved at any cost and were, in consequence, tolerant of suicide in cases where no relief could be offered to the dying or, in the case of the Stoics and Epicureans, where a person no longer cared for his life. See Senicide English Common Law from the 1300s until the middle of the last century made suicide a criminal act in England and Wales. Assisting others to kill themselves remains illegal in that jurisdiction. However, in the 1500s, Thomas More, in describing a utopian community, envisaged such a community as one that would facilitate the death of those whose lives had become burdensome as a result of "torturing and lingering pain". See Humphry and Wickett (1986:8-10) on More, Montaigne, Donne, and Bacon. Modern history Since the 19th Century, euthanasia has sparked intermittent debates and activism in North America and Europe. According to medical historian Ezekiel Emanuel, it was the availability of anesthesia that ushered in the modern era of euthanasia. In 1828, the first known anti-euthanasia law in the United States was passed in the state of New York, with many other localities and states following suit over a period of several years. History of Euthanasia (PowerPoint presentation), Euthanasia.com. "The earliest American statute explicitly to outlaw assisting suicide was enacted in New York in 1828, Act of December 10, 1828, ch. 20, §4, 1828 N. Y. Laws 19 (codified at 2 N. Y. Rev. Stat. pt. 4, ch. 1, tit. 2, art. 1, §7, p. 661 (1829)), and many of the new States and Territories followed New York's example. Marzen 73-74." Retrieved June 16, 2007. After the Civil War, voluntary euthanasia was promoted by advocates, including some doctors. Humphry and Wickett 1986:11-12, Emanuel 2004. Support peaked around the turn of the century in the US and then grew again in the 1930s. In an article in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Brown University historian Jacob M. Appel documented extensive political debate over legislation to legalize physician-assisted suicide in both Iowa and Ohio in 1906. Appel, Jacob M. "A Duty to Kill? A Duty to Die." Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 78.3 (October 2004): 610-634. Appel indicates social activist Anna S. Hall was the driving force behind this movement. Leading public figures, including Clarence Darrow and Jack London, advocated for the legalization of euthanasia. Euthanasia societies were formed in England in 1935 and in the USA in 1938 to promote euthanasia. Although euthanasia legislation did not pass in the USA or England, in 1937, doctor-assisted euthanasia was declared legal in Switzerland as long as the doctor ending the life had nothing to gain. During this same era, US courts tackled cases involving critically ill people who requested physician assistance in dying as well as “mercy killings”, such as by parents of their severely disabled children. Nazi Germany Prior to and during World War II, Nazi Germany conducted a euphemistically named "euthanasia program", code-named Action T4. This program was based on eugenics and grounded in the view that the state is responsible for providing racial hygiene. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 447 (cited by Peter Padfield, Himmler, Macmillan 1990, 260). Kershaw, II, 252 Basic Books 1986, 46 Even though this program was referred to as an "euthanasia program", the Nazi German use of the term euthanasia differs from the common current view and use of the term. Basic Books 1986, 46 <ref>{{cite web | first = Stuart D | last = Stein | title = "Life Unworthy of Life" and other Medical Killing Programmes | url = http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/mord.htm}}</ref> Post-War history In the Western sphere, judges were often lenient in mercy-killing cases despite continuing religious opposition. Humphrey and Wickett, ch.4. See also Kamisar. During the post-war period, prominent proponents of euthanasia included Glanville Williams (The Sanctity of Life and the Criminal Law) and clergyman Joseph Fletcher ("Morals and medicine"). By the 1960s, advocacy for a right-to-die approach to voluntary euthanasia increased. Australia In 1995, the world's first euthanasia legislation, the Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995, was passed in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australia passes first euthanasia law Four patients died under the Act, using a euthanasia device designed by Dr Philip Nitschke. The legislation was overturned in 1997 by Australia’s Federal Parliament in 1997. In response to the overturning of the Act, Dr Nitschke founded EXIT International. Europe In 1957 in Britain, Judge Devlin ruled in the trial of Dr John Bodkin Adams that causing death through the administration of lethal drugs to a patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, is not considered murder even if death is a potential or even likely outcome. Margaret Otlowski, Voluntary Euthanasia and the Common Law, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 175-177 In 1993, the Netherlands decriminalized doctor-assisted suicide, and in 2002, restrictions were loosened. During that year, physician-assisted suicide was approved in Belgium. Belgium's at the time most famous author Hugo Claus, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, was among those that asked for euthanasia. He died in March 2008, assisted by an Antwerp doctor. United States A key turning point in the debate over voluntary euthanasia (and physician assisted dying), at least in the United States, was the public furor over the case of Karen Ann Quinlan. The Quinlan case paved the way for legal protection of voluntary passive euthanasia. For the UK see the Bland case. In 1977, California legalized living wills and other states soon followed suit. In 1980 the Hemlock Society USA was founded in Santa Monica by Derek Humphry. It was the first group in America to provide information to the terminally ill in case they wanted a hastened death. Hemlock also campaigned and partially financed drives to reform the law. In 2003 Hemlock was merged with End of Life Choices, which changed its name to Compassion and Choices. In 1990, Dr. Jack Kevorkian, a Michigan physician, became infamous for encouraging and assisting people in committing suicide which resulted in a Michigan law against the practice in 1992. Kevorkian was tried and convicted in 1999 for a murder displayed on television. Also in 1990, the Supreme Court approved the use of non-aggressive euthanasia. Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health In 1994, Oregon voters approved the Death with Dignity Act, permitting doctors to assist terminal patients with six months or less to live to end their lives. The U.S. Supreme Court allowed such laws in 1997. The Bush administration failed in its attempt to use drug law to stop Oregon in 2001, in the case Gonzales v. Oregon. In 1999, non-aggressive euthanasia was permitted in Texas. Most recently, amid U.S. government roadblocks and controversy in the Terri Schiavo case, where a Floridian who was in a vegetative state since 1990, had her feeding tube removed in 2005. Her husband had won the right to take her off life support, which he claimed she would want but was difficult to confirm as she had no living will and the rest of her family claimed otherwise. euthanasia. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07 In November 2008, Washington Initiative 1000 made Washington the second U.S. state to legalize physician-assisted suicide. China While active euthanasia remains illegal in China, it is gaining increasing acceptance among doctors and the general populace. In Hong Kong, support for euthanasia among the general public is higher among those who put less importance on religious belief, those who are non-Christian, those who have higher family incomes, those who have more experience in taking care of terminally ill family members, and those who are older. Arguments for and against voluntary euthanasia Since World War II, the debate over euthanasia in Western countries has centered on voluntary euthanasia (VE) within regulated health care systems. In some cases, judicial decisions, legislation, and regulations have made VE an explicit option for patients and their guardians. See Government policies below for specific examples Proponents and critics of such VE policies offer the following reasons for and against official voluntary euthanasia policies: Reasons given for voluntary euthanasia Choice: Proponents of VE emphasize that choice is a fundamental principle for liberal democracies and free market systems. Quality of Life: The pain and suffering a person feels during a disease, even with pain relievers, can be incomprehensible to a person who has not gone through it. Even without considering the physical pain, it is often difficult for patients to overcome the emotional pain of losing their independence. Economic costs and human resources: Today in many countries there is a shortage of hospital space. The energy of doctors and hospital beds could be used for people whose lives could be saved instead of continuing the life of those who want to die which increases the general quality of care and shortens hospital waiting lists. It is a burden to keep people alive past the point they can contribute to society, especially if the resources used could be spent on a curable ailment. See also Utilitarianism Reasons given against voluntary euthanasia Professional role: Critics argue that voluntary euthanasia could unduly compromise the professional roles of health care employees, especially doctors. They point out that European physicians of previous centuries traditionally swore some variation of the Hippocratic Oath, which in its ancient form excluded euthanasia: "To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug nor give advice which may cause his death.." However, since the 1970s, this oath has largely fallen out of use. Moral/Theological: Some people, incluidng many Christians, consider euthanasia of some or all types to be morally unacceptable. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/euthanasia-voluntary/ An overview of voluntary euthanasia This view usually treats euthanasia to be a type of murder and voluntary euthanasia as a type of suicide, the morality of which is the subject of active debate. Necessity: If there is some reason to believe the cause of a patient's illness or suffering is or will soon be curable, the correct action is sometimes considered to attempt to bring about a cure or engage in palliative care. Feasibility of implementation: Euthanasia can only be considered "voluntary" if a patient is mentally competent to make the decision, i.e., has a rational understanding of options and consequences. Competence can be difficult to determine or even define. Consent under pressure: Given the economic grounds for voluntary euthanasia (VE), critics of VE are concerned that patients may experience psychological pressure to consent to voluntary euthanasia rather than be a financial burden on their families. "Terminally ill patients often fear being a burden to others and may feel they ought to request euthanasia to relieve their relatives from distress." letter to the editor of the Financial Times by Dr David Jeffrey, published 11 January 2003. Even where health costs are mostly covered by public money, as in various European countries, VE critics are concerned that hospital personnel would have an economic incentive to advise or pressure people toward euthanasia consent. "If euthanasia became socially acceptable, the sick would no longer be able to trust either doctors or their relatives: many of those earnestly counselling a painless, 'dignified' death would be doing so mainly on financial grounds. Euthanasia would become a euphemism for assisted murder." FT WEEKEND - THE FRONT LINE: Don't take liberties with the right to die by Michael Prowse, Financial Times, 4th January 2003 Euthanasia and the Law During the 20th Century, efforts to change government policies on euthanasia have met limited success in Western countries. Country policies are described here in alphabetical order, followed by the exceptional case of The Netherlands. Euthanasia policies have also been developed by a variety of NGOs, most notably medical associations and advocacy organizations. Euthanasia and religion Buddhism There are many different views among Buddhists on the issue of euthanasia. Here are a few: In Theravada Buddhism a lay person daily recites the simple formula: "I undertake the precept to abstain from destroying living beings." This is the first of the Five Precepts. It has various interpretations. For Buddhist monastics (bhikkhu) however the rules are more explicitly spelled out. For example, in the monastic code (Patimokkha), it states: "Should any bhikkhu intentionally deprive a human being of life, or search for an assassin for him, or praise the advantages of death, or incite him to die (thus): 'My good man, what use is this wretched, miserable life to you? Death would be better for you than life,' or with such an idea in mind, such a purpose in mind, should in various ways praise the advantages of death or incite him to die, he also is defeated and no longer in communion." Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1994). Buddhist Monastic Code I: Chapter 4, Parajika. Retrieved 2007-11-11 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc1/ch04.html. In other words, such a monk or nun would be expelled irrevocably from the Buddhist monastic community (sangha). There are only four offenses (parajika) that could lead to such an expulsion for a monk; eight such offenses for a nun (bhikkhuni). The other three parajika for monks are: engaging in a sexual act; stealing; and, falsely claiming to have achieved advanced spiritual states (such as jhanic absorptions or nibbana) (Thanissaro 1994). The prohibition against assisting another in their death includes circumstances when a monastic is caring for the terminally ill and extends to a prohibition against a monastic's purposively hastening another's death through word, action or treatment. American Buddhist monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu wrote: Thus, from the Buddha's perspective, encouraging a sick person to relax her grip on life or to give up the will to live would not count as an act of compassion. Instead of trying to ease the patient's transition to death, the Buddha focused on easing his or her insight into suffering and its end. Thanissaro Bhikkhu “Educating Compassion” Article link at Access to Insight The Dalai Lama was cited by the Agence-France Presse in a 18 September 1996 article entitled "Dalai Lama Backs Euthanasia in Exceptional Circumstances" regarding his position on legal euthanasia: Asked his view on euthanasia, the Dalai Lama said Buddhists believed every life was precious and none more so than human life, adding: 'I think it's better to avoid it.' 'But at the same time I think with abortion, (which) Buddhism considers an act of killing ... the Buddhist way is to judge the right and wrong or the pros and cons.' He cited the case of a person in a coma with no possibility of recovery or a woman whose pregnancy threatened her life or that of the child or both where the harm caused by not taking action might be greater. "These are, I think from the Buddhist viewpoint, exceptional cases," he said. "So it's best to be judged on a case by case basis." Christianity Catholicism Catholic teaching condemns euthanasia as a "crime against life". SACRED CONGREGATION FOR THE DOCTRINE OF THE FAITH: DECLARATION ON EUTHANASIA quoting GAUDIUM ET SPES The teaching of the Catholic Church on euthanasia rests on several core principles of Catholic ethics, including the sanctity of human life, the dignity of the human person, concomitant human rights, due proportionality in casuistic remedies, the unavoidability of death, and the importance of charity. The Church's official position is the 1980 Declaration on Euthanasia issued by the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In Catholic medical ethics official pronouncements strongly oppose active euthanasia, whether voluntary or not "...no one is permitted to ask for this act of killing, either for himself or herself or for another person entrusted to his or her care, nor can he or she consent to it, either explicitly or implicitly. nor can any authority legitimately recommend or permit such an action." , while allowing dying to proceed without medical interventions that would be considered "extraordinary" or "disproportionate." The Declaration on Euthanasia states that: "When inevitable death is imminent... it is permitted in conscience to take the decision to refuse forms of treatment that would only secure a precarious and burdensome prolongation of life, so long as the normal care due to a sick person in similar cases is not interrupted."The Declaration concludes that doctors, beyond providing medical skill, must above all provide patients "with the comfort of boundless kindness and heartfelt charity". Although the Declaration allows people to decline heroic medical treatment when death is imminently inevitable, it unequivocably prohibits the hastening of death and restates Vatican II's condemnation of "crimes against life 'such as any type of murder, genocide, abortion, euthanasia, or willful suicide'". So due to its principle of double effect, Roman Catholic moral theology does leave room for shortening life with pain-killers and what could be characterized as passive euthanasia. Papal statements 1956-1957 and Gerald Kelly Protestantism Protestant denominations vary widely on their approach to euthanasia and physician assisted death. Since the 1970s, Evangelical churches have worked with Roman Catholics on a sanctity of life approach, though the Evangelicals may be adopting a more exceptionless opposition. While liberal Protestant denominations have largely eschewed euthanasia, many individual advocates (e.g., Joseph Fletcher) and euthanasia society activists have been Protestant clergy and laity. As physician assisted dying has obtained greater legal support, some liberal Protestant denominations have offered religious arguments and support for limited forms of euthanasia. People such as Lutherans are taught euthanasia is wrong and that it is God who has the right over life and death. Hinduism There are two Hindu points of view on euthanasia. By helping to end a painful life a person is performing a good deed and so fulfilling their moral obligations. On the other hand, by helping to end a life, even one filled with suffering, a person is disturbing the timing of the cycle of death and rebirth. This is a bad thing to do, and those involved in the euthanasia will take on the remaining karma of the patient. However, the same argument suggests that keeping a person artificially alive on a life-support machines would also be a bad thing to do. Islam Islam categorically forbids all forms of suicide and any action that may help another to kill themselves. It is forbidden for a Muslim to plan, or come to know through self-will, the time of his own death in advance . The precedent for this comes from the Islamic prophet Muhammad having refused to bless the body of a person who had committed suicide. If an individual is suffering from a terminal illness, it is permissible for the individual to refuse medication and/or resuscitation. Other examples include individuals suffering from kidney failure who refuse dialysis treatments and cancer patients who refuse chemotherapy. Jainism Mavavira Varadhmana explicitly allows a sharavak (follower of Jainism) full consent to put an end to his or her life if the sharavak feels that such a stage is near that moksha can be achieved this way. Liberation from the cycles of lives being the primary objective in the religion. Judaism Like the trend among Protestants, Jewish medical ethics have become divided, partly on denominational lines, over euthanasia and end of life treatment since the 1970s. Generally, Jewish thinkers oppose voluntary euthanasia, often vigorously, E.g., J. David Bleich, Eliezer Waldenberg though there is some backing for voluntary passive euthanasia in limited circumstances. E.g., see writings of Daniel Sinclair, Moshe Tendler, Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, Moshe Feinstein. Likewise, within the Conservative Judaism movement, there has been increasing support for passive euthanasia (PAD) See Elliot Dorff and, for earlier speculation, Byron Sherwin. In Reform Judaism responsa, the preponderance of anti-euthanasia sentiment has shifted in recent years to increasing support for certain passive euthanasia (PAD) options. The Samurai tradition The samurai ritual of seppuku is analogous to euthanasia, in that an assistant would behead the suicide after the suicide had fatally stabbed themselves in order to bring death swiftly and reduce the time the suicide was in pain. It was thus a form of voluntary euthanasia, or mercy killing. In line with Buddhist thinking, the seppuku ritual laid great emphasis on the suicide having a peaceful mind during the action. Shinto In Japan, where the dominant religion is Shinto, 69% of the religious organisations agree with the act of voluntary passive euthanasia. The corresponding figure was 75% when the family asked for it. In Shinto, the prolongation of life using artificial means is a disgraceful act against life. Views on active euthanasia are mixed, with 25% Shinto and Buddhist organisations in Japan supporting voluntary active euthanasia. Euthanasia protocol A euthanasia device invented by Dr Philip Nitschke that facilitated euthanasia through heavy doses of drugs. The laptop screen led the user through a series of steps and questions to ensure he or she was fully prepared. The machine in a museum. Euthanasia can be accomplished either through an oral, intravenous, or intramuscular administration of drugs, or by oxygen deprivation (anoxia), as in some euthanasia machines. In individuals who are incapable of swallowing lethal doses of medication, an intravenous route is preferred. The following is a Dutch protocol for parenteral (intravenous) administration to obtain euthanasia: Intravenous administration is the most reliable and rapid way to accomplish euthanasia. A coma is first induced by intravenous administration of 20 mg/kg sodium thiopental (Nesdonal) in a small volume (10 ml physiological saline). Then a triple intravenous dose of a non-depolarizing neuromuscular muscle relaxant is given, such as 20 mg pancuronium bromide (Pavulon) or 20 mg vecuronium bromide (Norcuron). The muscle relaxant should preferably be given intravenously, in order to ensure optimal availability. Only for pancuronium bromide (Pavulon) are there substantial indications that the agent may also be given intramuscularly in a dosage of 40 mg. With regards to nonvoluntary euthanasia, the cases where the person could consent but was not asked are often viewed differently from those where the person could not consent. Some people raise issues regarding stereotypes of disability that can lead to non-disabled or less disabled people overestimating the person's suffering, or assuming it to be unchangeable when it could be changed. For example, many disability rights advocates responded to Tracy Latimer's murder by pointing out that her parents had refused a hip surgery that could have greatly reduced or eliminated the physical pain Tracy experienced. Also, they point out that a severely disabled person need not be in emotional pain at their situation, and claim that the emotional pain, if present, is due to societal prejudice rather than the disability, analogous to a person of a particular ethnicity wanting to die because they have internalized negative stereotypes about their ethnic background. Another example of this is Keith McCormick, a New Zealander Paralympian who was "mercy-killed" by his caregiver, and Matthew Sutton. With regards to voluntary euthanasia, many people argue that 'equal access' should apply to access to suicide as well, so therefore disabled people who cannot kill themselves should have access to voluntary euthanasia. Euthanasia in the arts Apart from The Old Law, a 17th century tragicomedy written by Thomas Middleton, William Rowley, and Philip Massinger, one of the early books to deal with euthanasia in a fictional context is Anthony Trollope's 1882 dystopian novel, The Fixed Period. Ricarda Huch's novel The Deruga Case (1917) is about a physician who is acquitted after performing euthanasia on his dying ex-wife. The films Children of Men and Soylent Green, as well as the book The Giver, depict instances of government-sponsored euthanasia in order to strengthen their dystopian themes. The protagonist of Johnny Got His Gun is a brutally mutilated war veteran whose request for euthanasia furthers the work's anti-war message. The recent films Mar Adentro and Million Dollar Baby argue more directly in favor of euthanasia by illustrating the suffering of their protagonists. These films have provoked debate and controversy in their home countries of Spain and the United States respectively. Thrash metal band Megadeth's 1994 album Youthanasia'' (the title is a pun on euthanasia) implies that society is euthanizing its youth. See also Action T4 - Nazi Germany's program to kill disabled people, euphemistically called "euthanasia" Arthur Koestler, author, vice-president of EXIT (now the Voluntary Euthanasia Society). Bertrand Dawson, 1st Viscount Dawson of Penn - physician to George V, to whom he gave a lethal injection. Chantal Sébire George Exoo Derek Humphry - President of the World Federation of Right to Die Societies. Diane Pretty Dignitas (euthanasia group in Switzerland) Dr. Death (book by Jonathon Kellerman) Euthanasia machine, a DIY option for individuals Euthanasia: Opposing Viewpoints (2000), listing key sources in an anthology Final Exit (book) Futile medical care International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide Jack Kevorkian John Bodkin Adams, Eastbourne, England doctor, tried for murder in 1957 but claimed euthanasia. Acquitted. Kaishakunin - Assists in the Japanese ritual seppuku (suicide) Karen Ann Quinlan and Terri Schiavo case - Cases of persistent vegetative state Killick Millard - Founder of the Voluntary Euthanasia Legalisation Society in Great Britain Peter Singer - bioethicist, utilitarian Philip Nitschke Principle of double effect Senicide Terminal sedation Terry Wallis Voluntary Active Euthanasia References Bibliography Neutral Battin, Margaret P., Rhodes, Rosamond, and Silvers, Anita, eds. Physician assisted suicide: expanding the debate. NY: Routledge, 1998. Emanuel, Ezekiel J. 2004. "The history of euthanasia debates in the United States and Britain" in Death and dying: a reader, edited by T. A. Shannon. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Kopelman, Loretta M., deVille, Kenneth A., eds. Physician-assisted suicide: What are the issues? Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. (E.g., Engelhardt on secular bioethics) Magnusson, Roger S. “The sanctity of life and the right to die: social and jurisprudential aspects of the euthanasia debate in Australia and the United States” in Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal (6:1), January 1997. Palmer, “Dr. Adams’ Trial for Murder” in The Criminal Law Review. (Reporting on R. v. Adams with Devlin J. at 375f.) 365-377, 1957. Paterson, Craig, "A History of Ideas Concerning Suicide, Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia" (2005). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1029229 PCSEPMBBR, United States. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1983. Deciding to forego life-sustaining treatment: a report on the ethical, medical, and legal issues in treatment decisions. Washington, DC: President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research: For sale by the Supt. of Docs. U.S. G.P.O. Robertson, John. 1977. Involuntary euthanasia of defective newborns: a legal analysis. In Death, dying, and euthanasia, edited by D. J. Horan and D. Mall. Washington: University Publications of America. Original edition, Stanford Law Review 27 (1975) 213-269. Stone, T. Howard, and Winslade, William J. “Physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia in the United States” in Journal of Legal Medicine (16:481-507), December 1995. Viewpoints Appel, Jacob. 2007. A Suicide Right for the Mentally Ill? A Swiss Case Opens a New Debate. Hastings Center Report, Vol. 37, No. 3. Dworkin, R. M. Life's Dominion: An Argument About Abortion, Euthanasia, and Individual Freedom. New York: Knopf, 1993. Fletcher, Joseph F. 1954. Morals and medicine; the moral problems of: the patient's right to know the truth, contraception, artificial insemination, sterilization, euthanasia. Princeton, N.J.K.: Princeton University Press. Kamisar, Yale. 1977. Some non-religious views against proposed 'mercy-killing' legislation. In Death, dying, and euthanasia, edited by D. J. Horan and D. Mall. Washington: University Publications of America. Original edition, Minnesota Law Review 42:6 (May 1958). Kelly, Gerald. “The duty of using artificial means of preserving life” in Theological Studies (11:203-220), 1950. Panicola, Michael. 2004. Catholic teaching on prolonging life: setting the record straight. In Death and dying: a reader, edited by T. A. Shannon. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Paterson, Craig. Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia: An Natural Law Ethics Approach. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate, 2008. Rachels, James. The End of Life: Euthanasia and Morality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Sacred congregation for the doctrine of the faith. 1980. The declaration on euthanasia. Vatican City: The Vatican. Tassano, Fabian. The Power of Life or Death: Medical Coercion and the Euthanasia Debate. Foreword by Thomas Szasz, MD. London: Duckworth, 1995. Oxford: Oxford Forum, 1999. Notes External links Religion and Ethics - Euthanasia - many views of euthanasia, for, against, and religious, from the BBC Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry be-x-old:Эўтаназія | Euthanasia |@lemmatized euthanasia:161 greek:3 ευθανασία:1 meaning:2 well:8 death:38 ευ:1 eu:2 good:5 θάνατος:1 thanatos:2 refers:1 practice:3 end:11 life:44 painless:2 manner:1 many:11 different:2 form:12 distinguish:1 include:8 animal:4 human:7 within:3 latter:1 voluntary:33 involuntary:4 physician:16 assist:30 suicide:37 focus:2 great:5 controversy:3 recent:3 year:4 legal:11 belgium:3 law:20 luxembourg:2 say:3 yes:1 netherlands:4 switzerland:3 thailand:1 พระราชบ:1 ญญ:1 ต:1 ส:1 ขภาพแห:1 งชาต:1 พ:1 ศ:1 ม:2 นาคม:1 ราชก:1 จจาน:1 เบกษา:1 เล:1 ตอนท:1 ก:1 u:7 state:21 oregon:7 dignity:4 factual:1 dispute:1 washington:7 see:10 initiative:2 pass:5 november:2 classification:1 consent:12 may:16 conduct:4 without:4 individual:10 make:9 decision:9 another:6 person:21 incapable:2 base:2 incapacitated:2 would:15 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2,840 | Ancient_Egyptian_religion | Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Egypt over more than 3,000 years, from the predynastic period until the adoption of Christianity in the early centuries AD. Initially these beliefs centered on the worship of multiple deities who represented various forces of nature, thought patterns and power, expressed by the means of complex and varied archetypes. By the time of the 18th dynasty they began to be viewed as aspects of a single deity who existed apart from nature, similar to trinitarian concepts also found in Christianity: the belief that one god can exist in more than one person. These deities were worshipped with offerings and prayers, in local and household shrines as well as in formal temples managed by priests. Different gods were prominent at different periods of Egyptian history, and the myths associated with them changed over time, so Egypt never had a coherent hierarchy of deities or a unified mythology. However, the religion contained many overarching beliefs. Among these were the divinity of the pharaoh, which helped to politically unify the country, and complex beliefs about an afterlife, which gave rise to the Egyptians' elaborate burial customs. Theology Though the terms monotheism, polytheism and henotheism are commonly encountered in descriptions of the Ancient Egyptian religion they are constructs of the Judeo-Christian tradition that manifest a mindset that differs significantly from that of ancient man. These terms, along with pejorative epithets such as heathens, pagans and idolaters, reflect a rationalization of history that may seem natural to the modern mindset but was not characteristic of ancient cultures. With revealed religions a period of ignorance is ended by the direct intervention of God whereas in the ancient world there never was a time when the Supernatural was separated from humanity. "Aspects of Monotheism:How God Is One -- Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution, October 19, 1996, The Monotheism of Akhenaten, Donald B. Redford, Biblical Archaeology Society, 1996, ISBN 1880317192 Polytheism The gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus, from a tomb painting. The Egyptians saw the actions of the gods behind all the elements and forces of nature. However, they did not believe that the gods merely controlled these phenomena, but that each element of nature was a divine force in itself. The forces deified in this way included animals, as with Sekhmet, who represented the ferocity of lions, and inanimate elements, such as Shu, the deification of air. The gods could also represent more abstract things, as Horus represented the power of kingship. Allen, pp. 43–44. The Egyptians thus believed in a multitude of gods, which were involved in every aspect of nature and human society. Allen, p. 44. Egyptian myths about the gods were intended to explain the origins and behavior of these phenomena, and the hymns, prayers and offerings given to the gods were efforts to placate them and turn them to human advantage. Allen, pp. 43–44. This polytheistic system was very complex, as some deities were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and some had multiple mythological roles. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 30, 32. The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be "hidden" and "mysterious". Instead, these depictions gave recognizable forms to the abstract deities by using symbolic imagery to indicate each god's role in nature. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 29. Allen, pp. 43-44 Thus, for example, the funerary god Anubis was portrayed as a jackal, a creature whose scavenging habits threatened the preservation of the body, in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection. His black skin was symbolic of the color of mummified flesh and the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 187-189. However, religious iconography was not fixed, and many of the gods could be depicted in more than one form. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 28. Many gods were associated with particular localities within Egypt where their cults were most important. However, these associations changed over time, and they did not necessarily mean that the god associated with a place had originated there. For instance, the god Monthu was the original patron of the city of Thebes. Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced in that role by Amun, who had originated elsewhere. The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 31, 92. In addition to the major gods, there were also other, less-powerful supernatural beings. These included a profusion of minor gods, which are sometimes referred to as "demons". They tended to be less universal than the major gods, and were often defined by specific behaviors or tied to particular locations, but the difference between them and the greater gods was mostly one of degree rather than type. Some of them were localized guardian deities, while others were servants of greater gods who performed specific actions on demand. Most of them were inhabitants of the Duat, the Egyptian underworld, although many others were present in the world of the living. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 81. The spirits of deceased humans were distinct from the gods, but were believed to exist on the same plane with them, Allen, p. 31. and could affect the world of the living in similar ways. Fleming and Lothian, p. 108. However, deceased pharaohs were believed to be fully divine, Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 60. and occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 113. Atenism There was a period in the 14th century BC when the pharaoh Akhenaten promoted the worship of the sun-disk Aten over the other deities. Eventually he prohibited the worship of the other gods, converting the official religion of Egypt into true monotheism. Fleming and Lothian, pp. 43–44. However, Akhenaten's changes contrasted with the syncretic tradition of earlier Egyptian belief, and this exclusivity alienated ordinary Egyptians. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 38–39 Thus, under Akhenaten's successors Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and many of his creations were profaned, his new religious beliefs abolished and his major capital of el-Amarna abandoned. Fleming and Lothian, p. 44. Other important concepts Cosmology In Egyptian belief, the universe was governed by the force of ma'at. This Egyptian word encompasses several concepts in English, including "truth," "justice," and "order." It referred to the fixed, eternal order of the universe, both in nature and in human society. This was the most fundamental of all natural forces, believed to have existed from the creation of the universe, which ensured the continued existence of the world. Among humans, ma'at meant that all people and all classes of society lived in harmony. Any disruption of ma'at was inherently harmful, so all people were expected to behave in accordance with it. Allen, pp. 115-117. In nature, ma'at meant that all the forces of nature existed in balance. It encompassed the cyclical patterns of time, including the cycles of day and night and of the seasons, and of human generations. Allen, pp. 115-117. These cycles—each new day, new year, and the coronation of each new pharaoh—were regarded as renewals of the original creation of the universe. Allen, p. 104. Ma'at also encompassed the structure of the world, which kept each element in its place. Allen, pp. 115-117. The Egyptians had a specific vision of this structure. In this view, the world was surrounded by infinite expanse of water from which it had originally arisen. This water was personified as the god Nun. The earth was envisioned as a flat plate of land, represented by the god Geb. Above him arched the body of the sky goddess Nut, who represented the surface of the primordial water. Shu, the air, stood between Geb and Nut and separated them. Beneath Geb lay another space equivalent to the living world: the Duat, or underworld. The sky beneath the Duat was formed by the feminine counterpart of Nu, Naunet. During the day, the sun god Ra traveled over the earth, across the surface of Nut, and at night he traveled over the Duat, across the surface of Naunet. Allen, Middle Egyptian, p. 21. Divine pharaoh Colossal statue of the pharaoh Ramses II Egyptians viewed kingship itself as a force of nature. Allen, pp. 31, 44. Thus, even though the Egyptians recognized that the pharaoh was human and subject to human frailties, they simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was incarnate in him. He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt's people and the gods. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 56. He was key to upholding Ma'at in society, by defending the country from enemies, appointing fair officials, settling disputes between his people, managing the food supply, and appeasing the gods with temples and offerings. Allen, p. 117. For this reason, temple reliefs often depict the pharaoh presenting an emblem of Ma'at to the gods, representing his maintenance of the divine order. Such was his importance that the Egyptian word for "king" referred only to the pharaoh; any foreign ruler, no matter how powerful, was simply called "great chief". Fleming and Lothian, p. 75. The king was also associated with several specific deities. While alive, a pharaoh was logically identified with Horus, the god of kingship. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 201. Due to analogy between the sun, the dominant force in nature, and the king, the dominant force in human society, the pharaoh was also associated with Ra and regarded as his son. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 207-208. Allen, p. 44. Once Amun had been syncretized with Ra, Amun was also identified with the king Allen, p. 183. and seen as his father. Fleming and Lothian, p. 77. Due to their relationships with the gods with whom he was associated, the goddesses Isis (the mother of Horus), Mut (the wife of Amun), and Hathor (the wife of Horus) were all regarded as the mother of the pharaoh. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 141, 147, 153. Upon his death, the king became fully deified. In this state, he was directly identified with Ra, and was also associated with Osiris, god of death and rebirth and the mythological father of Horus. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 60–63. Many mortuary temples were dedicated to the worship of deceased pharaohs as gods. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 7. Writings In Egypt there was no single religious scripture. However, there were many religious texts for various purposes. These include devotional writings, funerary texts, Allen, p. 315. and texts relating various myths. Mythology A stele depicting two triads of gods The Egyptians had a great number of separate myths, found in various places and often existing in different versions. Some mythological information is found in temples; however, temples were meant to celebrate the eternal power and benevolence of the gods, and the turbulent events often found in myths conflicted with this purpose. In addition, Egyptians believed that to write or depict negative mythological events, especially in a medium as permanent as stone, risked giving power to the forces of chaos. Thus, temples contain surprisingly few myths. Mythological information can be found on devotional statues and stelae offered to the gods by individuals, and much more is found in funerary texts. Even so, complete mythical narratives can only be found in Greek and Roman sources. Fleming and Lothian, p. 23. Among the most important Egyptian myths were the creation myths. While there were several different creation myths, they all shared common elements: an infinite, lifeless ocean which preceded the creation, and a pyramidal mound of land which was the first thing to emerge from this ocean. Fleming and Lothian, p. 24. However, the creation accounts differ in focusing on different gods. One creation myth describes the Ogdoad, the group of eight gods who embodied the primeval waters, and how their meeting resulted in the creation and emergence of the mound. Fleming and Lothian, Way to Eternity, p. 27. Another myth relates the actions of Atum, who was said to be the first god to appear on the mound, in creating the Ennead, nine gods representing the natural forces of the world. A third myth says that the god Ptah, who was associated with the mound, created the world simply by envisioning and naming all things in it, while a fourth claims that the mysterious god Amun was the hidden power that caused all the other creator gods to form. Fleming and Lothian, Way to Eternity, pp. 24–25, 28–29. To some degree these myths represent competing theologies, but they can also be seen as representing different aspects of the process of creation. Allen, p. 126. Another story central to Egyptian belief was the myth of Osiris and Isis. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 118–119. It tells of the fertility god Osiris, who had inherited his rule over the world from his ancestor Ra. Osiris was murdered and dismembered by his jealous brother Set, a god often associated with chaos. Fleming and Lothian, pp. 76, 78. Osiris' sister and wife Isis then reassembled Osiris' body and resurrected him so that he could conceive an heir to take back the throne from Set. Fleming and Lothian, pp. 76–77. Osiris then entered the underworld and became the ruler of the dead, while Isis eventually gave birth to his son Horus. Once grown, Horus fought and defeated Set to become king himself. Set's association with chaos, and the identification of Osiris and Horus as the rightful rulers, provided a rationale for pharaonic succession and portrayed the pharaohs as the upholders of order. Fleming and Lothian, pp. 77–84. At the same time, Osiris' death and rebirth were related to the Egyptian agricultural cycle, in which crops grew in the wake of the Nile inundation, Fleming and Lothian, p. 108. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 118. and provided a template for the resurrection of human souls after death. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 119. The sun god Ra was essential to life on earth, and was thus among the most important gods. In myth, the movement of the sun across the sky was explained as Ra traveling in a barque, and the setting of the sun was regarded as Ra's entry into the underworld, through which he journeyed during the night. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 205–206. While in the underworld, Ra met with Osiris, who again acted as a god of resurrection, so that his life was renewed. He also fought each night with Apep, a serpentine god representing chaos. The defeat of Apep and the meeting with Osiris insured the rising of the sun the next morning, an event that represented rebirth and the victory of order over chaos. Fleming and Lothian, pp. 33, 38–39. Devotional Writings Like many cultures, the Egyptians prayed to their gods for help, although there are few written prayers that predate the Nineteenth Dynasty. There are also many formal hymns praising particular deities or the pharaoh. These poems consist of short lines organized into couplets or triplets, and were probably recited, or possibly even sung, during religious ceremonies. They often included mention of many different aspects of the deity whom they addressed, and expounded on his or her nature and mythological function. Thus, they are important sources of information on Egyptian theology. Allen, pp. 341–342. Funerary Texts Section of the Book of the Dead depicting the Weighing of the Heart. Among the most significant and extensively preserved Egyptian writings are funerary texts designed to insure that deceased souls reached a pleasant afterlife. The earliest of these are the Pyramid Texts, the oldest religious writings in the world. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 7. They consisted of almost a thousand spells, or "utterances," which were inscribed on the walls of royal pyramids during the Old Kingdom. During the First Intermediate Period, a new body of funerary spells, which included material from the Pyramid Texts, began appearing in coffins and on tomb walls. This collection of writings is known as the Coffin Texts, and was not reserved for royalty, but also appeared in the tombs of nonroyal officials. The Coffin Texts in turn were major sources for a number of New Kingdom writings, including the Book of the Dead Allen, Middle Egyptian, pp. 315–316. , which were copied on papyrus and sold to ordinary citizens, to be placed in their tombs. On the Banks of the Nile, p. 148. The Coffin Texts were also the first texts to include detailed descriptions of the Egyptian underworld and instructions on how to overcome its hazards. Allen, p. 316. The writings on this subject seem to have developed from earlier "Underworld Books" kept in temple libraries. Pinch, p. 22. In the New Kingdom several separate texts of this type developed, including the Book of Gates, the Book of Caverns and the Amduat, which were reserved for royal tombs. Allen, p. 316. Pinch, p. 22. Religious practices First pylon and colonnade of the Temple of Isis at Philae. Temples Temples existed from the earliest periods of Egyptian history, and at the height of the civilization were present in almost every town. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 16-17. These included both mortuary temples to serve the spirits of deceased pharaohs and temples dedicated to patron gods. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 6-7. However, not all gods had temples dedicated to them, as there were many cosmic deities that did not receive widespread worship, and many household gods who were the focus of popular veneration rather than temple worship. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 82. Although worship of the gods took place in temples, this was not their primary function. Temples served as symbolic models of the cosmos and as "houses" for the gods, in which the physical images which served as their intermediaries were cared for and provided with offerings. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, pp. 42, 44. This service was believed to be necessary to sustain the gods, so that they could in turn maintain the universe itself. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 43. Thus, temples were central to Egyptian society, Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 8. and vast resources were devoted to their upkeep. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 8–9, 50. Pharaohs often added to them as part of their obligation to honor the gods, so that many temples grew to be huge Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 50. – the Temple of Karnak, for instance, is the largest religious structure in the world. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 6. In the New Kingdom, a basic temple layout emerged, which had evolved from common elements in Old and Middle Kingdom temples. With variations, this plan was used for most of the temples built from then on, and most of those that survive today adhere to it. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 20–25. In this standard plan, the temple was aligned along a central axis, which was oriented according to some significant location, such as a geographical feature, a preexisting building, or an astronomical point. Most commonly, temples were built along the Nile with an axis running east-west, although as the axis was usually aligned at 90 degrees from the flow of the river, local variations in the Nile's course meant that the orientation did not always conform to true directions. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 36–37. The major entrance to such temples was usually the nearby landing quay on the Nile, from which a processional way ran through the walls of the temple enclosure. In keeping with the view of the temple as a model of the universe, these walls were not built in straight lines, but in an undulating, wavelike shape that evoked the waters of chaos that surrounded the world in Egyptian belief. Beyond the entrance to the enclosure, there were usually one or more pylon gateways, followed by a courtyard enclosed by a colonnade. This courtyard was likely where commoners delivered offerings and met with the priests. Further in was the covered hypostyle hall, whose columns represented the vegetation of the marshes that were held to have sprung up around the primeval mound, as well as the mythological columns that were believed to hold up the sky. The temple axis led through the hall to the sanctuary, which was surrounded by subsidiary rooms related to the daily business of temple ritual. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 54–68. The entire journey from the temple entrance to the sanctuary was seen as a journey from the human world to the divine realm; thus, the sanctuary was the most sacred part of the temple, and contained a shrine with the image of the temple's god. Allen, Middle Egyptian, p. 55. Many of them also contained a mound of earth that symbolized the mythical primeval hill. Allen, Middle Egyptian, p. 127. Access to the sanctuary was usually restricted to the pharaoh and the highest-ranking priests. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 70. Ritual offerings were typically performed in the morning and evening, either by the pharaoh or, more commonly, the priest acting as his surrogate. In them, the god's statue was washed, anointed, and elaborately dressed, before food offerings were placed before it or in an offering hall outside the sanctuary. Afterward, when the god had consumed the spiritual essence of the offerings, the items themselves were taken to be distributed among the priests. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 86–88. Dersin, p. 68. In addition to these daily offerings, there were other rituals performed at certain times of year for particular festivals, and infrequent rituals performed under special circumstances. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, p. 43. Temple complexes also included many subsidiary buildings. Among these was the "House of Life," where the temple's sacred writings and mundane records were kept, and which also served as a center of learning on a multitude of subjects. Many temples probably included sanatoria where sick people came to seek healing by the gods. Larger temples also included kitchens and workshops to produce food and goods for offering to the gods or for the practical needs of the temple, along with storage buildings to keep these industries supplied. Outside the temple proper, there were also large farm lands, quarries, and mines that were owned by the temple and used to support its miniature economy. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 74–75. Priests The pharaoh was Egypt's intermediary with the gods, so in theory, all priests merely acted on his behalf. Fleming and Lothian, p. 77. In fact, during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, there was no separate class of priests; instead, many government officials served in this capacity for several months out of the year before returning to their secular duties. Only in the New Kingdom did professional priesthood become widespread, although most lower-ranking priests were still part-time. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 90-91. However, as the wealth of the temples grew, the influence of the priesthoods increased, until it rivaled that of the pharaoh. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 9, 25. In the political fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period, the high priests of Amun even became the effective rulers of Upper Egypt. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 26. Priests were usually male. During the Old Kingdom, many women from wealthy families held important priestly roles, mainly in temples to female deities. However, during the Middle Kingdom women became less prominent in public life, and afterward most of the women involved in temple activities seem to have been in less-important roles, such as singer or musician in religious ceremonies. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 93–94. Priests were divided into several different classes. One of the most important divisions was between the "god's servants," who were permitted in the temple sanctuary, and the "purifiers," who were not. Purifiers' duties often entailed non-ritual tasks, and government officials often nominally held this role. There were also several specialized roles in the priesthood, such as that of the lector priest, who recited the formulas to which rituals were performed. At the top of the hierarchy in each temple was the high priest, or "first servant of the god." High priests were often appointed by the pharaoh, although the office was frequently passed from father to son and tended to become hereditary. All priests were paid with allotments of land out of the temple's possessions, and with portions of the daily food offerings. There were also many more people in the employ of each temple, sometimes numbering in the thousands. They included farmers and artisans to supply the temple's needs, and musicians and chanters who assisted in temple rituals. All were paid with portions of the temple's income. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, pp. 91–92. While actively serving the temple, priests adhered to strict standards of ritual purity. They were required to shave their heads and bodies, wash several times a day, and wear only clean linen clothing. In the service of some specific gods, there were also particular behaviors, such as eating certain foods, from which priests had to refrain. They were not required to be celibate, but sexual intercourse rendered them unclean until they underwent further purification. Wilkinson, Complete Temples, p. 90. Magic Sometimes rituals designed to induce sorcery or witchcraft were performed. This was called heka, and was overseen by a god that was also called "Heka". Death, Burial and the Afterlife Egyptian funerary figures. Egypt had a highly developed view of the afterlife with elaborate rituals for preparing the body and soul for an eternal life after death. Beliefs about the soul and afterlife focused heavily on preservation of the body. The Egyptians believed the ka aspect of the soul needed to be reunited with the ba, to support the akh, the part of each being which ascends to the heavens to take its place among the stars. Henri A. Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods, University of Chicago Press 1978, p.64 This meant that embalming and mummification were practised, in order to preserve the individual's identity in the afterlife. The goddess Ma'at, showing her feather in her headdress Bodies of the dead were coated inside and out with resin to preserve them, then wrapped with linen bandages, embedded with religious amulets and talismans. In the case of royalty, the mummy was usually placed inside a series of nested coffins, the outermost of which was a stone sarcophagus. The intestines, lungs, liver, and stomach were preserved separately and stored in canopic jars protected by the four sons of Horus. Arthur C. Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies, Cambridge University Press 2003, p. 258f The heart was left in place because it was thought to be the home of the soul. The standard length of the mummification process was seventy days. Herodotus, Euterpe, 2.86 Embalmment was reserved for a selected few in the Old Kingdom, but it became available to wider sections of society in later periods. Animals were also mummified, sometimes thought to have been pets of Egyptian families, but more frequently or more likely, they were the representations of deities. The ibis, crocodile, cat, Nile perch, falcon, and baboon can be found in perfect mummified forms. During the Ptolemaic Period, animals were especially bred for the purpose. After a person dies their soul is led into a hall of judgment in Duat by Anubis (god of mummification) and the deceased's heart, which was the record of the morality of the owner, is weighed against a single feather representing Ma'at (the concept of truth and order). If the outcome is favorable, the deceased is taken to Osiris, god of the afterlife, in Aaru, but the demon Ammit (Eater of Hearts) part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus destroys those hearts whom the verdict is against, leaving the owner to remain in Duat. A heart that weighed less than the feather was considered a pure heart, not weighed down by the guilt or sins of one's actions in life, resulting in a favorable verdict; a heart heavy with guilt and sin from one's life weighed more than the feather, and so the heart would be eaten by Ammit. An individual without a heart in the afterlife in essence, did not exist as Egyptians believed the heart to be the center of reason and emotion as opposed to the brain which was removed and discarded during mummification. Many times a person would be buried with a "surrogate" heart to replace their own for the weighing of the heart ceremony. History Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom period is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty, from 2686 BC to 2134 BCE. It was the beginning of the highest level of cultural development achieved by the ancient Egyptians, whose cultural roots extend six thousand years earlier, into prehistory. Old Kingdom deities: the Ennead of Heliopolis, whose chief god was Atum, later Atum-Ra Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World, p. 417 the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, John Gwyn Griffiths, The Origins of Osiris and His Cult, Brill 1980, p. 194ff. where the chief god was Thoth the Khnum-Satis-Anuket triad of Elephantine, whose chief god was Khnum the Amun-Mut-Chons triad of Thebes, whose chief god was Amun Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press 1973, p. 649 the Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem triad of Memphis, unusual in that the gods were unconnected before the triad was formalized, where the chief god was Ptah The Pyramid Texts (roughly 25th to 23nd century BC) contain spells, or "utterances" primarily concerned with protecting the pharaoh's remains, reanimating his body after death, and helping him ascend to the heavens. As such, they qualify as the oldest known religious texts worldwide, slightly predating the Sumerian hyms of Enheduanna. The "Coffin Texts" are funerary spells related to the Pyramid texts dating to the First Intermediate Period. Middle Kingdom The cult of Amun grew during the Middle Kingdom. Senusret III (1878 BC – 1839 BC) built a fine religious temple at Abydos; while it is now destroyed, surviving reliefs show the high quality of the decorations. He was deified at the end of the Middle Kingdom and worshipped by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom. New Kingdom By the New Kingdom, the Ogdoad and the Ennead were merged into a single syncretized cosmology. In the Ennead, Osiris is the husband of Isis, and sibling of Seth, all of whom are the great-grandchildren of the creator god Atum, and Horus is not present within the system. In the Ogdoad, Osiris is not present within the system, and Horus is son of Atum, the creator god. When the Ennead and Ogdoad merged, Ra and Amun were identified as one, becoming Amun-Ra, and Horus was initially considered the fifth sibling of Osiris, Isis, Nephthys and Set. However, Horus' mother, Hathor, gradually became identified as a form of Isis, leading Horus to be Isis' son, and therefore the son of Osiris. Amarna Period Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family praying to Aten A short interval of monotheism (Atenism) occurred under the reign of Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) (1350s to 1330s BC), focused on the Egyptian sun deity Aten. The Aten is typically shown as a sun disk with rays coming out of all sides. Akhenaten built a new capital at Amarna with temples for the Aten. This was a symbolic act as Akhenaten wanted a place of worship for the Aten that was not tainted by the visage of other deities. The religious change survived only until the death of Akhenaten, and the old religion was quickly restored during the reign of Tutankhamun, however an effort was made to erase Akhenaten's name from history for his heretical actions. Late period After the fall of the Amarna dynasty, the New Kingdom pantheon survived as the dominant religion, until the Achaemenid conquests. The Egyptian Book of the Dead was standardized (the "Saite Recension") during this time. Herodotus presents us a bleak portrait of Cambyses' rule, describing the king as mad, ungodly, and cruel. Herodotus may have drawn on an indigenous tradition that reflected the Egyptians' resentment, especially of the clergy, of Cambyses' decree known from a Demotic text on the back of papyrus no. 215 in the Bibliotheàque Nationale, Paris curtailing royal grants made to Egyptian temples under Amasis. In order to regain the support of the powerful priestly class, Darius I (522–486 BC) revoked Cambyses' decree. Shortly before 486 BC, a revolt broke out in Egypt, subdued by Xerxes I only in 484 BC. The province was subjected to harsh punishment for the revolt, and especially its satrap Achaemenes administered the country without regard for the opinion of his subjects. Decline When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, he went on pilgrimage to the oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun-Re. Peters, F.E. "The Harvest of Hellenism" p. 42 Egyptian religion continued to thrive during the Ptolemaic period; some cults were syncretized with Greek mystery traditions, exerting influence on Hellenistic magic. Under Roman rule (from 30 BCE), the situation remained largely unchanged. The Romans like the Ptolemies respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs, although the imperial cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor was gradually introduced. Egyptian religion entered a period of decline following the Egyptians' adoption of Christianity in the first centuries of the common era. Remnants of native traditions lingered in traditionalist pockets such as temple hierarchies, free from persecution but gradually ousted by Early Christianity. The last vestiges of Egyptian religious traditions may have persisted into the 5th century, as reflected in the Hieroglyphica. Revival With the neopagan emergence in the 20th century, a form of reconstructed ancient Egyptian religion called Kemetism was formed. See also Egyptian soul Sun mythology List of Egyptian mythology topics (which also lists the particular deities). Numbers in Egyptian mythology Kemetism Religions of the Ancient Near East Prehistoric religion References Further reading Schulz, R. and M. Seidel, "Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs". Könemann, Cologne 1998. ISBN 3-89508-913-3 Budge, E. A. Wallis, "Egyptian Religion: Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life (Library of the Mystic Arts)". Citadel Press. August 1, 1991. ISBN 0-8065-1229-6 Clarysse, Willy; Schoors, Antoon; Willems, Harco; Quaegebeur, Jan, "Egyptian Religion: The Last Thousand Years : Studies Dedicated to the Memory of Jan Quaegebeur", Peeters Publishers, 1998. ISBN 9042906693 Harris, Geraldine, John Sibbick, and David O'Connor, "Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology". Bedrick, 1992. ISBN 0-87226-907-8 Hart, George, "Egyptian Myths (Legendary Past Series)". University of Texas Press (1st edition), 1997. ISBN 0-292-72076-9 Osman, Ahmed, Moses and Akhenaten. The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus, (December 2002, Inner Traditions International, Limited) ISBN 1-59143-004-6 Bilolo, Mubabinge, Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques d'Héliopolis et d'Hermopolis. Essai de thématisation et de systématisation, (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2), Kinshasa-Munich 1987; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004. Bilolo, Mubabinge, "Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques de l’Égypte Antique. Problématique, prémisses herméneutiques et problèmes majeurs, (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 1)", Kinshasa-Munich 1986; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003. Bilolo, Mubabinge, "Métaphysique Pharaonique IIIème millénaire av. J.-C. (Academy of African Thought & C.A. Diop-Center for Egyptological Studies-INADEP, Sect. I, vol. 4)", Kinshasa-Munich 1995 ; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003. Bilolo, Mubabinge, "Le Créateur et la Création dans la pensée memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand Hymne Théologique d'Echnaton, (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2)", Kinshasa-Munich 1988; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004. Pinch, Geraldine, "Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of ancient Egypt". Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517024-5 External links Ancient Egyptian Gods - Aldokkan Hare, J.B., "ancient Egypt". (sacred-texts.com) "Ancient Egyptian architecture: temples". University College London. 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2,841 | Mordor | In J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional universe of Middle-earth, Mordor (from Sindarin Black Land and Quenya Land of Shadow) is the dwelling place of Sauron, in the southeast of Middle-earth to the East of Anduin, the great river. Orodruin, the sole mountain in Mordor, was the destination of the Fellowship of the Ring (and later Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee) in the quest to destroy the One Ring. Mordor was unique because of the three enormous mountain ridges surrounding it, from the North, from the West and from the South. The mountains both protected the land from an unexpected invasion by any of the people living in those directions and kept those living in Mordor from escaping. Tolkien is reported to have identified Mordor with the volcano of Stromboli off Sicily. Referred to at tolkienguide.com and by another publication of the Niekas editor. Geography On three sides, its walls were mountain ranges, arranged in a rough rectangle: Ered Lithui, translated as 'Ash Mountains' in the north, Ephel Dúath, translated as 'Fence of Shadow' in the west, and an unnamed (or possibly still-called Ephel Dúath) range in the south. In the northwest corner of Mordor, the deep valley of Udûn formed the castle's gate and guard house. That was the only entrance for large armies, and that is where Sauron built the Black Gate of Mordor, and later where Gondor built the Towers of the Teeth. Behind the Black Gate, these towers watched over Mordor during the time of peace between the Last Alliance and Sauron's return. In front of the Morannon lay the Dagorlad or the Battle Plain. Within this mountainous castle, Sauron's main fortress Barad-dûr formed its tower, at the foothills of Ered Lithui. To southwest of Barad-dûr lay the arid plateau of Gorgoroth, forming the castle's keep, and Mount Doom its forge. To the east lay the plain of Lithlad. Mount Doom and Sauron's tower of Barad-dûr in Mordor, as depicted in the Peter Jackson film. Jackson's literal interpretation of the Eye of Sauron as Sauron's physical form is not found in Tolkien's text. The close proximity of Mount Doom and Barad-dûr is also non-canonical. A narrow pass led through Ephel Dúath and the fortress of Minas Morgul (earlier Minas Ithil) was guarding that; an even more difficult pass was guarded by the giant spider Shelob in her lair of Torech Ungol and the fortress of Cirith Ungol. Another known fortress was Durthang in the northern Ephel Dúath. The southern part of Mordor, Núrn, was slightly more fertile, and moist enough to carry the inland sea of Núrnen. Núrn was made somewhat fertile because the ash blown from Mount Doom left its soil nutrient rich, thus allowing dry-land farming. Unfortunately, the inland sea of Núrn was salty, not freshwater. Farming in this region supported the armies of Sauron. To the west of Mordor was the narrow land of Ithilien with the city of Osgiliath and the great river Anduin, to the northeast Rhûn, and to the southeast, Khand. To the northwest lay the Dead Marshes. In the chapters in The Lord of the Rings describing Frodo and Sam's journey in Mordor, the valleys in an area called the Morgai, on the land's "outer marges [...] under the westward mountains", are described as a "dying land [but] not yet dead". The vegetation clinging to life in this area of Mordor included "low scrubby trees", "coarse grey grass-tussocks", "withered mosses", "great writhing, tangled brambles", and thickets of briars. This vegetation grew near water trickling down from higher up the valleys. Sam and Frodo sheltered under a curtain of these brambles, which had long stabbing thorns and hooked barbs. The briars also had thorns, and when Sam and Frodo fall into some briars, Sam says that the thorns feel "a foot long". The fauna described in this area included maggots, midges and flies marked with "a red eye-shaped blotch". Formation Mordor was a relic of the devastating works of Morgoth, apparently formed by massive volcanic eruptions. It was given the name Mordor already before Sauron settled there, because of its volcano and its eruptions. However, only Shelob had settled there before Sauron did. History Early history Sauron settled in Mordor 1,000 years after the end of the First Age, and it remained the pivot of his evil contemplations for the whole of the Second and Third Ages of Middle-earth. In the north-western corner of this land stood Mount Doom or Orodruin, where Sauron had forged the One Ring. Near Orodruin stood Sauron's stronghold Barad-dûr. After this time, Sauron was known as the Dark Lord of Mordor. For 2500 years, Sauron ruled Mordor uninterrupted. Having wrought the Ring, it was from there that he launched the attack upon the Elves of Eregion. He was repelled by the Men of Númenor. Almost a thousand years later he fought the Númenóreans again; this time, he was captured by the Númenóreans and brought to their island kingdom, eventually causing its destruction (see Akallabêth). Immediately after Númenor's destruction, Sauron returned to Mordor as a spirit (the last of his living being having been bound to the One Ring) and resumed his rule. The Last Alliance and Third Age Sauron's rule was interrupted yet again when his efforts to overthrow the surviving Men of Númenor and the Elves failed, and they formed a Last Alliance of Elves and Men whose army advanced on Sauron's land. A great battle took place on the Dagorlad in which Sauron's forces were destroyed and the Black Gate was stormed. The Barad-dûr was then besieged by the Alliance's forces. After seven years of siege, Sauron broke out and was defeated in a final battle on the slopes of Orodruin. After his defeat the Barad-dûr was levelled and great fortresses were built at the entrances to Mordor to prevent Sauron's return. For over a thousand years, Mordor was guarded by Gondor and remained desolate, although the watch was lessened somewhat during the reigns of some of the Kings. Casualties from the Great Plague, during the reign of King Telemnar, were so high that the fortifications guarding Mordor were abandoned as the troops were called back to Gondor's cities. As the guard slackened, Mordor began to fill with evil things again. The Ringwraiths took advantage of Gondor's defeat in TA 1856 to reenter Mordor and the final fortresses held by Gondor were abandoned and fell into ruin sometime after TA 1944. In 2002 Minas Ithil was conquered by the Nine Ringwraiths; and the fortifications that were supposed to defend Gondor from the menace inside Mordor were turned into a means of shielding Mordor. By the time Sauron returned into Mordor after his false defeat in Dol Guldur (in the events that took place at the time of Bilbo Baggins's quest), Mordor was protected too well to be captured by any military might that was available in Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age. In the north of Mordor during the War of the Ring were the great garrisons and forges of war, while surrounding the bitter inland Sea of Núrnen to the south lay the vast fields tended for the provision of the armies by hordes of slaves brought in from lands to the east and south. War of the Ring During the War of the Ring, Sauron gathered all his forces to Mordor. After the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, a Host of the West went to the Black Gate. Sauron sent his army to destroy the Men of Gondor and Rohan, but then Frodo Baggins destroyed the One Ring and Mordor fell. The Dark Tower, the Black Gate and the Towers of the Teeth were destroyed. Mount Doom exploded, clearing the sky over Mordor. Both Sauron and his Ringwraiths were apparently destroyed. After the ultimate defeat of Sauron, Mordor became mostly empty again as the Orcs inside it fled or were killed. Crippled by thousands of years of abuse and neglect, but capable of sustaining life, the land of Núrn was given to Sauron's freed slaves. Gorgoroth remained desolate in the early part of the Fourth Age. Naming Mordor actually has two meanings: "Black Land" in Sindarin, and "Land of Shadow" in Quenya. The root mor ("dark", "black") also appears in Moria, which means "Black Pit". Dor ("land") also appears in Gondor ("stone-land"), Eriador, and Doriath ("fenced land"). The Quenya word for Shadow is "mordo". A proposed etymology out of the context of Middle-earth is Old English morðor, which means "mortal sin" or "murder". (The latter meaning is descended from the former.) It is not uncommon for names in Tolkien's fiction to have relevant meanings in several languages, both languages invented by Tolkien, and actual historical languages. Tolkien was a professor of Anglo-Saxon, so his word roots tend to be Anglo-Saxon/Nordic/Germanic. Mordor is also a name cited in some Nordic mythologies referring to a land where its citizens practice evil without knowing it, imposed on themselves by the society long created for that purpose. This quite fits with Tolkien's Mordor. In The Atlas of Middle-earth, Karen Wynn Fonstad assumed that the lands of Mordor, Khand, and Rhûn lay where the inland Sea of Helcar had been, and that the Sea of Rhûn and Sea of Núrnen were its remnants. The atlas was however published before The Peoples of Middle-earth, where it turned out that the Sea of Rhûn and Mordor existed already in the First Age. Mordor in Popular Culture "The Mordor National Anthem" is an instrumental by Tupper Saussy and The Neon Philharmonic, appearing on the group's eponymous second album. It is the name of a computer game: Mordor: The Depths of Dejenol. It is the name of a series of MUDs, originally inspired by Scepter of Goth. Mentioned in Ramble On by Led Zeppelin Norwegian black metal band Gorgoroth takes its name from the arid plateau near Mt. Doom. "Mordor" is the title of a song of Running Wild of their album of 1985 "Branded and Exiled" A popular meme on the internet involves variations of Boromir's statement, "One does not simply walk into Mordor." These include "One does not simply ROCK into Mordor", "One does not simply walk into Walmart", and "One does not simply Walken to Mordor." and, from The Lord of the Rings Online forums "One does not simply walk into Mordor... One waits for the update" Used as a scenario board in the Lord of the Rings (board game) created by Reiner Knizia. The home stadium of Rangers FC is often referred to as Mordor, or Castle Greyskull or The Reichstag Trivia The name Mordor is translated as 魔多 (mo duo) in the Chinese versions of the novels and films. The name translates aptly as "[a place where] demons are many". Notes References paperback: ISBN 0-618-64015-0 | Mordor |@lemmatized j:1 r:2 tolkien:7 fictional:1 universe:1 middle:7 earth:7 mordor:48 sindarin:2 black:10 land:18 quenya:3 shadow:4 dwell:1 place:4 sauron:27 southeast:2 east:3 anduin:2 great:7 river:2 orodruin:4 sole:1 mountain:5 destination:1 fellowship:1 ring:12 later:3 frodo:5 baggins:3 sam:5 gamgee:1 quest:2 destroy:6 one:10 unique:1 three:2 enormous:1 ridge:1 surround:2 north:4 west:4 south:4 protect:2 unexpected:1 invasion:1 people:2 live:2 direction:1 keep:2 escape:1 report:1 identify:1 volcano:2 stromboli:1 sicily:1 refer:3 tolkienguide:1 com:1 another:2 publication:1 niekas:1 editor:1 geography:1 side:1 wall:1 range:2 arrange:1 rough:1 rectangle:1 ered:2 lithui:2 translate:4 ash:2 ephel:4 dúath:4 fence:2 unnamed:1 possibly:1 still:1 call:3 northwest:2 corner:2 deep:1 valley:3 udûn:1 form:6 castle:4 gate:6 guard:6 house:1 entrance:2 large:1 army:5 build:3 gondor:8 tower:6 teeth:2 behind:1 watch:2 time:5 peace:1 last:4 alliance:4 return:4 front:1 morannon:1 lay:6 dagorlad:2 battle:4 plain:2 within:1 mountainous:1 main:1 fortress:6 barad:7 dûr:7 foothill:1 southwest:1 arid:2 plateau:2 gorgoroth:3 mount:6 doom:7 forge:3 lithlad:1 depict:1 peter:1 jackson:2 film:2 literal:1 interpretation:1 eye:2 physical:1 find:1 text:1 close:1 proximity:1 also:5 non:1 canonical:1 narrow:2 pas:2 lead:1 mina:3 morgul:1 earlier:1 ithil:2 even:1 difficult:1 giant:1 spider:1 shelob:2 lair:1 torech:1 ungol:2 cirith:1 known:1 durthang:1 northern:1 southern:1 part:2 núrn:4 slightly:1 fertile:2 moist:1 enough:1 carry:1 inland:4 sea:7 núrnen:3 make:1 somewhat:2 blown:1 leave:1 soil:1 nutrient:1 rich:1 thus:1 allow:1 dry:1 farming:1 unfortunately:1 salty:1 freshwater:1 farm:1 region:1 support:1 ithilien:1 city:2 osgiliath:1 northeast:1 rhûn:4 khand:2 dead:2 marsh:1 chapter:1 lord:4 describe:3 journey:1 area:3 morgai:1 outer:1 marge:1 westward:1 mountains:1 die:1 yet:2 vegetation:2 clinging:1 life:2 include:3 low:1 scrubby:1 tree:1 coarse:1 grey:1 grass:1 tussock:1 wither:1 moss:1 writhing:1 tangle:1 bramble:2 thicket:1 briar:3 grow:1 near:3 water:1 trickle:1 high:2 shelter:1 curtain:1 long:3 stabbing:1 thorn:3 hook:1 barb:1 fall:1 say:1 feel:1 foot:1 fauna:1 maggot:1 midge:1 fly:1 mark:1 red:1 shaped:1 blotch:1 formation:1 relic:1 devastate:1 work:2 morgoth:1 apparently:2 massive:1 volcanic:1 eruption:2 give:2 name:9 already:2 settle:3 however:2 history:2 early:2 year:6 end:2 first:2 age:6 remain:3 pivot:1 evil:3 contemplation:1 whole:1 second:2 third:3 western:1 stand:2 stronghold:1 know:2 dark:3 rule:3 uninterrupted:1 launch:1 attack:1 upon:1 elf:3 eregion:1 repel:1 men:4 númenor:3 almost:1 thousand:3 fight:1 númenóreans:2 capture:2 bring:2 island:1 kingdom:1 eventually:1 cause:1 destruction:2 see:1 akallabêth:1 immediately:1 spirit:1 living:1 bind:1 resume:1 interrupt:1 effort:1 overthrow:1 survive:1 fail:1 whose:1 advance:1 take:4 force:3 storm:1 besiege:1 seven:1 siege:1 break:1 defeat:5 final:2 slope:1 level:1 prevent:1 desolate:2 although:1 lessen:1 reign:2 king:2 casualty:1 plague:1 telemnar:1 fortification:2 abandon:2 troop:1 back:1 slacken:1 begin:1 fill:1 thing:1 ringwraiths:3 advantage:1 ta:2 reenter:1 hold:1 fell:2 ruin:1 sometime:1 conquer:1 nine:1 suppose:1 defend:1 menace:1 inside:2 turn:2 mean:3 shield:1 false:1 dol:1 guldur:1 event:1 bilbo:1 well:1 military:1 might:1 available:1 war:4 garrison:1 bitter:1 vast:1 field:2 tend:2 provision:1 horde:1 slave:2 gather:1 pelennor:1 host:1 go:1 send:1 rohan:1 explode:1 clear:1 sky:1 ultimate:1 become:1 mostly:1 empty:1 orcs:1 flee:1 kill:1 cripple:1 abuse:1 neglect:1 capable:1 sustain:1 freed:1 fourth:1 actually:1 two:1 meaning:3 root:2 mor:1 appear:3 moria:1 pit:1 dor:1 stone:1 eriador:1 doriath:1 word:2 mordo:1 propose:1 etymology:1 context:1 old:1 english:1 morðor:1 mortal:1 sin:1 murder:1 latter:1 descend:1 former:1 uncommon:1 fiction:1 relevant:1 several:1 language:3 invent:1 actual:1 historical:1 professor:1 anglo:2 saxon:2 nordic:2 germanic:1 cite:1 mythology:1 citizen:1 practice:1 without:1 impose:1 society:1 create:2 purpose:1 quite:1 fit:1 atlas:2 karen:1 wynn:1 fonstad:1 assume:1 helcar:1 remnant:1 publish:1 exist:1 popular:2 culture:1 national:1 anthem:1 instrumental:1 tupper:1 saussy:1 neon:1 philharmonic:1 group:1 eponymous:1 album:2 computer:1 game:2 depth:1 dejenol:1 series:1 mud:1 originally:1 inspire:1 scepter:1 goth:1 mention:1 ramble:1 led:1 zeppelin:1 norwegian:1 metal:1 band:1 mt:1 title:1 song:1 run:1 wild:1 brand:1 exile:1 meme:1 internet:1 involve:1 variation:1 boromir:1 statement:1 simply:5 walk:3 rock:1 walmart:1 walken:1 online:1 forum:1 wait:1 update:1 use:1 scenario:1 board:2 reiner:1 knizia:1 home:1 stadium:1 ranger:1 fc:1 often:1 greyskull:1 reichstag:1 trivia:1 魔多:1 mo:1 duo:1 chinese:1 version:1 novel:1 aptly:1 demon:1 many:1 note:1 reference:1 paperback:1 isbn:1 |@bigram arid_plateau:2 volcanic_eruption:1 freed_slave:1 mortal_sin:1 anglo_saxon:2 led_zeppelin:1 |
2,842 | British_Airways | British Airways plc () is the national flag carrier of the United Kingdom. The airline, headquartered in Waterside, Harmondsworth, London Borough of Hillingdon, "Contact Information." British Airways. Retrieved on 18 May 2009. is the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on fleet size, international flights and international destinations. Its main hubs are London Heathrow and London Gatwick. The British Airways Group was formed on 1 September 1974 through nationalisation by the (then) Labour Government. BA was formed from two large London-based airlines BOAC and BEA and two much smaller regional airlines Cambrian Airways Cardiff and Northeast Airlines Newcastle. All four companies were dissolved on 31 March 1974 to form British Airways (BA). The company was privatised in February 1987. It expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1988 and some of the routes of Gatwick-based carrier Dan-Air in 1992. The formation of Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic in 1984 began a tense relationship with BA which ended in "one of the most bitter and protracted libel actions in aviation history" in 1993 in which BA apologised "unreservedly" for a "dirty tricks" campaign against Virgin and paid damages and legal costs. For a number of years the airline had a large Boeing fleet, but in November 1998 it placed its first direct order for Airbus aircraft. The company's next major order was the start of its replacement of its long haul fleet, ordering Airbus A380s and Boeing 787s in 2007. The centrepiece of the airline's long haul fleet is the Boeing 747-400; the airline is the largest operator of this type in the world. British Airways has discontinued all direct overseas and internal flights from UK airports other than from Heathrow and Gatwick. BA's UK passengers originating at non-London airports must now connect via London or use other airlines with direct services. British Airways is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. Until 2008 British Airways was the largest airline of the United Kingdom, measured by passenger numbers. In 2008 the airline carried 35.7 million passengers. Rival United Kingdom carrier EasyJet carried 44.5 million passengers in the same year, taking the title from British Airways. History Imperial Airways Handley Page H.P.42. Hanno On 31 March 1924, Britain's four pioneer airlines that had started up in the immediate post war period—Instone Air Line, Handley Page Transport, Daimler Airways and British Marine Air Navigation Co Ltd—merged to form Imperial Airways Limited, which developed its Empire routes to Africa, India and later to Australia. Meanwhile a number of smaller UK air transport companies had begun operating, and some of these merged in 1935 to form the original privately owned British Airways Ltd. Following a government review, Imperial Airways and British Airways were nationalised in 1939 to form the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). BOAC D.H. Comet 1 at Heathrow in 1953 BOAC Boeing 707 at Heathrow in 1960. Post-war, BOAC continued to operate long-haul services, other than routes to South America - these were flown by British South American Airways, which was merged back into BOAC in 1949. Continental European and domestic flights were flown by a new nationalised airline, British European Airways Corporation (BEA), which compulsorily took over the scheduled services of existing UK independent airlines. On 2 May 1952 BOAC became the world's first airline to operate jet airliners. The inaugural flight with the de Havilland Comet was from London via Rome and other stops to Johannesburg, halving the previous flight time. The birth of the mass package holiday business meant change for the airline industry. BEA met the challenge by establishing BEA Airtours in 1970. In 1972 the BOAC and BEA managements were combined under the newly formed British Airways Board, with the physical operations of the separate airlines coming together as British Airways on 1 April 1974, under the guidance of David Nicolson as Chairman of the board. British Airways, simultaneously with Air France, inaugurated the world's first supersonic passenger service with Concorde in January 1976. In 1975 British Airways was headquartered in the Victoria Terminal in London. Its international division was headquartered at the Speedbird House by Heathrow Airport, while its European division was headquartered at Bealine House, Ruislip, Middlesex. The regional division was headquartered in Ruford House, Hounslow. World Airline Directory. Flight International. March 20, 1975. "477. Privatisation Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed Chairman in 1981 with the mission of preparing the airline for privatisation. King hired Colin Marshall as CEO in 1983. King was credited with transforming the loss-making giant into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world, boldly claiming to be "The World's Favourite Airline", while many other large airlines struggled. The airline's fleet and route map were overhauled in the early years of King's tenure, with brand and advertising experts being recruited to change the airline's image. Over 23,000 jobs were shed in the early 1980s, though King managed the considerable trick of boosting staff morale and modernising operations at the same time. Offering generous inducements for staff to leave led to record losses of £545 million, to the cost of taxpayers but to the benefit of the future privatised company. British Airways Hawker Siddeley Trident in 1974-1984 livery with enlarged "British" titles. The flag carrier was privatised and floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987 by the Conservative government, the initial share offering being 11 times oversubscribed. In April 1988 British Airways effected the controversial takeover of Britain's "second" airline British Caledonian, but kept the Caledonian name alive for a token period by rebranding its charter subsidiary British Airtours as Caledonian Airways. In 1992 it absorbed some of the routes of Gatwick-based carrier Dan-Air. "Dirty tricks" Soon after BA's privatisation, Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic, which began with one route and one Boeing 747 in 1984, was beginning to emerge as a competitor on some of BA's most lucrative routes. Following Virgin's highly publicised mercy mission to Iraq to fly home hostages of Saddam Hussein in 1991, King is reported to have told Marshall and his PA Director David Burnside to "do something about Branson". This began the campaign of "dirty tricks" that ended in Branson suing King and British Airways for libel in 1992. King countersued Branson and the case went to trial in 1993. British Airways, faced with likely defeat, settled the case, giving £500,000 to Branson and a further £110,000 to his airline; further, BA was to pay the legal fees of up to £3 million. Branson divided his compensation among his staff, the so-called "BA bonus." Changes and subsidiaries Deutsche BA 737 at Berlin in 2002. During the 1990s BA became the world's most profitable airline under the slogan "The World's Favourite Airline". In 1992 BA bought the small German domestic airline Delta Air Transport and renamed it Deutsche BA. By the time it was sold in June 2003, DBA was operating 16 Boeing 737s and had 800 staff. Harrison, Michael. BA pays £49m to offload loss making Deutsche BA." The Independent. Tuesday 3 June 2003. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. In 1993 British Airways began planning for its current corporate headquarters at Harmondsworth Moor. "Community - Biodiversity at Harmondsworth Moor." British Airways. Retrieved on 18 May 2009. Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by former deputy Colin Marshall, who initially combined the roles of CEO and Chairman. Bob Ayling, who later took on the role of CEO, was appointed Managing Director by Marshall. Lord King was appointed President, a role created specifically for him and which he retained until his death in July 2005. Staff. "Lord King of Wartnaby: Obituary." The Times. 12 July 2005. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. In 1995 BA formed British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in the Republic of China, to operate between London and Taipei. Owing to political sensitivities, British Asia Airways had not only a different name but also a different livery, the Union Jack tailfin being replaced by the Chinese characters 英亞. Photo Bob Ayling era British Airways Boeing 777 in 1984-1997 Landor livery. British Airways Boeing 747 pushed back at the Bangkok Suvarnabhumi. In 1996 British Airways, with its newly appointed Chief Executive Bob Ayling, entered a period of turbulence. Increased competition, high oil prices and a strong pound hurt profits. BA management and trade unions clashed and the disruption cost the company hundreds of millions of pounds. In 1997 Ayling dropped BA's traditional Union Flag tailfin livery in favour of world design tailfins, in an effort to change its image from a strictly British and aloof carrier to a more cosmopolitan airline. The move was not a success and Ayling slowed the process, eventually declaring the fleet would sport a dual livery; half a Union Flag design, half the world design tailfins. Ayling pursued antitrust immunity with American Airlines, but this was unsuccessful due to the conditions placed on the deal by regulatory authorities, the most painful of which would have been the sacrifice of landing slots at Heathrow. "Docket OST-97-2058." United States Department of Justice. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. Positive news during Ayling's leadership included cost savings of £750m and the establishment of the successful, but highly subsidised, Go in 1998. Go was a low-cost carrier intended to compete in the rapidly emerging "no-frills" segment. After four years of successful operations, the airline was sold off to venture capitalists 3i and later merged with EasyJet. Ayling also sought a reduction of capacity, cancelling Boeing 747-400 orders in favour of the Boeing 777 and rationalising BA's short-haul fleet with an order for the Airbus A320 family. Rod Eddington era In 1999 British Airways reported a 50 percent slump in profits, its worst since privatisation. In March 2000 Bob Ayling was removed from his position. British Airways announced Rod Eddington as his successor in May. Eddington set about cutting the workforce further, dramatically so after the slump caused by the 11 September attacks in 2001. On 8 September 2004 British Airways announced that it was to sell its 18.5 percent stake in Qantas, but would continue the alliance (such as sharing revenue), particularly on the Kangaroo Routes. "British Airways to sell its Qantas stake." Airline Industry Information. 8 September 2004. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. The £425 million raised was used to reduce the airline's debt. Marshall, who had been appointed a life peer in 1998, retired as Chairman in July 2004 and was replaced by Martin Broughton, former Chairman of British American Tobacco. On 8 March 2005, Broughton announced that former Aer Lingus CEO Willie Walsh would take over from Rod Eddington upon his retirement in September 2005. Willie Walsh era British Airways operations at London Heathrow Airport. In September 2005 new CEO Willie Walsh, former Aer Lingus boss, announced dramatic changes to the management of British Airways, with the aim of saving £300 million by 2008, the cost of the move to Heathrow's Terminal 5. He has presided over the disposal of BA Connect to Flybe, "Flights hit by BA sale to Flybe." BBC. Monday 5 March 2007. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. stating "Despite the best efforts of the entire team at BA Connect, we do not see any prospect of profitability in its current form." BA has retained a 15% stake in Flybe following the sale. In August 2006, the German subsidiary Deutsche BA was sold to Air Berlin. Since 2004, BA has strongly marketed the full-service nature of its remaining domestic flights (now just to Heathrow and Gatwick) by the use of principal airports, and provision of complimentary food and drink. This is in response to the low cost operators' aggressive pricing, even though its main full-service UK rival bmi has now abandoned some "frills" on its domestic network. Walsh on the other hand pledged to retain the full-service model on its much reduced UK network, seeing it as a means of distinguishing BA from the competition and believing that customers will be willing to pay extra for added levels of service. The airline won the Skytrax Airline of the Year award in 2006 for the first time. British Airways wins Skytrax Airline of the Year World Airline Awards It also won OAG Airline of the Year 2007, Best Airline Based in Western Europe 2007, Best Transatlantic Airline 2007, and Best Europe - Asia/Australia Airline 2007 in the Airline of the Year Awards run by UK-based Official Airline Guide. OAG Worldwide :: British Airways Takes Top Honors at the 25th Anniversary OAG Airline of the Year Awards However the Airport Transport Users Council rate BA as the worst European carrier for baggage handling. Also the Association of European Airlines reports that BA is the worst airline for lost and delayed baggage, losing over twice as many bags as the average. It is also the worst airline for punctuality of short/medium haul flight departures and arrivals and ranked 17th out of 21 airlines for long haul delays. Many of BA's problems stem from being based at London Heathrow airport which has become crowded and subject to delays. In 2007 Heathrow was voted the world's least favourite alongside Chicago O'Hare in a TripAdvisor survey. Price-fixing On 1 August 2007, British Airways was fined £121.5 million for price-fixing. The fine was imposed by the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) after BA admitted to the price-fixing of fuel surcharges on long haul flights. The allegation first came to light in 2006 when Virgin Atlantic reported the events to the authorities after it found staff members from BA and Virgin Atlantic were colluding. Virgin Atlantic have since been granted immunity by both the OFT and the United States Department of Justice who have been investigating the allegations. The US DOJ later announced that it would fine British Airways $300 million (£148 million) for price fixing. The allegations led to the resignation of commercial director Martin George and communications chief Iain Burns. BA officials resign amid fuel probe Although BA said fuel surcharges were "a legitimate way of recovering costs", in May 2007 it put aside £350 million for legal fees and fines. Terminal 5 British Airways' new home at Heathrow Terminal 5. Heathrow Terminal 5 was built exclusively for the use of British Airways at a cost of £4.3 billion and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008. It opened to passengers on 27 March 2008, but a number of serious problems immediately arose. Staff were unable to find the car parks and there were not enough spaces available leading to confusion and delays getting to work. Long queues formed for staff security checks and the belts carrying the bags became clogged as they were not being unloaded quickly enough. The baggage handling system also malfunctioned due to technical problems. At one stage, BA were forced to stop checking bags in as large queues formed at the fast bag drop and seven flights departed with no baggage loaded. Millward, David. "Terminal 5: one in five flights cancelled." The Telegraph. 29 March 2008. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. In the first five days, a backlog of 28,000 bags built up and over 300 flights were cancelled. BA initially handed out leaflets to passengers of delayed or cancelled flights offering up to £100 compensation to cover the cost of a hotel room for two passengers. This was criticised by the UK's Consumer Watchdog for the Aviation Industry, the Air Transport Users Council, as being a clear breach of Regulation 261/2004 and BA were forced to accept claims for "reasonable costs". Rayner, Gordon. "BA faces fines of £5,000 per customer over Terminal 5 chaos." The Telegraph. 30 March 2008. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. Willie Walsh commented that it "was not our finest hour" and "the buck stops with me". Two directors left the company on 15 April 2008 as a direct result of the poor transition into BA's new terminal. Despite the announcement of record profits, Willie Walsh declined his annual bonus over the T5 fiasco. Staff. "Willie Walsh foregoes Terminal 5 bonus." The Telegraph. 27 December 2008. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. Despite the initial problems with the new terminal, by October 2008 operations ran smoothly and punctuality improved. Further long-haul services were transferred to Terminal 5 on 5 June 2008, 17 September 2008, and 22 October 2008, with only Bangkok, Singapore and Sydney services left operating from T4. "BA completes move of services to Terminal 5." Opodo. 24 October 2008. Retrieved on 25 May 2009. Recent developments In January 2008 BA unveiled its new subsidiary OpenSkies which takes advantage of the liberalisation of transatlantic traffic rights, and flies non-stop between major European cities and the United States. BA brands new airline "Open Skies" Operations between Paris and New York began with a single Boeing 757 in June 2008. On 2 July 2008 British Airways announced that it had agreed to buy French airline L'Avion for £54 million. The deal will result in the full integration of L'Avion with OpenSkies by early 2009. On 30 July 2008, British Airways and Iberia Airlines announced a merger plan that would result in the two airlines joining forces in an all-stock transaction. The two airlines would retain their separate brands similar to KLM and Air France in their merger agreement. Later, in the beginning of August, American Airlines was also added to this agreement. Though the deal did not have AA being merged into the BA and Iberia entity, it allows the two carriers to fix fares, routes and schedules together. In addition to the existing talks for a merger with Iberia and for anti-trust immunity with Iberia and American Airlines, it was announced on 2 December 2008 that British Airways has entered into talks about a possible merger with Qantas. If British Airways, Iberia and Qantas were to combine as one company it would create the largest airline in the world. However, on 18 December 2008, the talks with Qantas ended over issues of ownership in the aftermath of a merger. Financial performance + British Airways Financial Performance Year Ended Passengers Flown BA Shares British Airways shareholder 'Reports & Accounts' Archive Turnover (£m) Profit/Loss Before Tax (£m) Net Profit/Loss (£m) Basic EPS (p) 31 March 2009 33,117,000 8,992 (401) (358) (32.6) 31 March 2008 33,161,000 8,753 883 696 59.0 31 March 2007 33,068,000 8,492 611 438 25.5 31 March 2006 (Restated)* 32,432,000 8,213 616 464 40.4 31 March 2006 35,634,000 8,515 620 467 40.4 31 March 2005 35,717,000 7,772 513 392 35.2 31 March 2004 36,103,000 7,560 230 130 12.1 31 March 2003 38,019,000 7,688 135 72 6.7 31 March 2002 40,004,000 8,340 (200) (142) (13.2) 31 March 2001 36,221,000 9,278 150 114 10.5 31 March 2000 36,346,000 8,940 5 (21) (2.0) 31 March 1999 37,090,000 8,915 225 206 19.5 31 March 1998 34,377,000 8,642 580 460 44.7 31 March 1997 33,440,000 8,359 640 553 55.7 31 March 1996 32,272,000 7,760 585 473 49.4 * Restated for the disposal of the regional business of BA Connect. Destinations British Airways flies to 7 domestic destinations and 143 international destinations in 69 countries (including British overseas territories) across all 6 major continents. + Route ChangesOriginDestinationStart DateEnd DateNotesLondon City New York-JFKSeptember 2009Pending delivery of new Airbus A318 aircraft with an all-Club World configuration.Via Shannon Airport on the westbound leg to clear US Immigration and refuel.London HeathrowLas Vegas25 October 2009To be operated by Boeing 777-200ER equipment.London GatwickMontego Bay25 October 2009To be operated by Boeing 777-200ER equipment.London GatwickPunta Cana25 October 2009To be operated by Boeing 777-200ER equipment.London GatwickMalé http://bapress.custhelp.com/cgi-bin/bapress.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_sid=1hqaO*yj&p_faqid=7644 25 October 2009To be operated by Boeing 777-200ER equipment.London GatwickSharm el-Sheikh25 October 2009To be operated by Boeing 777-200ER equipment.London GatwickNew York JFK25 October 2009 Fleet Airbus A319-100 Airbus A320-200 Airbus A321-200 Boeing 737-500 Boeing 747-400 Boeing 757-200 Boeing 767-300 Boeing 777-200 Concorde G-BOAB in storage at London Heathrow Airport following the end of all Concorde flying. This aircraft flew for 22296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and its final flight in 2000. With the exception of the Boeing 707 and Boeing 747 from BOAC, the airline as formed in 1972-4 inherited a mainly UK built fleet of aircraft. The airline introduced the Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 into the fleet in the 1980s, followed by the Boeing 747-400, Boeing 767 and Boeing 777 in the nineties. However, with the exception of 29 of its 777 fleet, it has often equipped its Boeing aircraft with British-made Rolls-Royce engines (examples include the Trent 800 on its Boeing 777s, the RB211-524 on its 747-400s and 767s and also RB211-535s on its 757-200s). This goes back to the 1960s when the company ordered Boeing 707s—a condition was placed on the company that it used Rolls-Royce power for the new jets. BA inherited BOAC's Boeing airline code (36). Boeing aircraft built for British Airways have the suffix 36, for example 737-236, 747-436, 777-236. CAA Aircraft Register (Boeing aircraft registered to British Airways Although it had a large Boeing fleet it has always operated other aircraft. British built aircraft were transferred from BEA (e.g. Trident) and BOAC (e.g. VC10), and in the 1980s the airline bought the Lockheed L-1011. It has also acquired through the buyout of British Caledonian Airways in the 1980s the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Airbus A320. In the late 1990s British Airways placed its own first direct Airbus order, for over 100 A320/A319s to replace its own aging fleet of Boeing 737s. In September 2007 BA placed its first order for longhaul Airbus jets, 12 Airbus A380s with 7 options. BA breaks Boeing loyalty with Airbus order BA was one of only two operators of the supersonic Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic airliner, (the other being the state-owned Air France) with a daily service between Heathrow and New York JFK (although the original service was from London to Bahrain). Initially, Concorde was a financial burden, placed on the national carrier by the government, and attracted criticism from the press as a white elephant. However Lord King recognised the charismatic importance of Concorde to British Airways. BA used Concorde to win business customers, guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with the airline - a key factor in winning business from transatlantic competitors. With the Paris Crash in 2000, the September 11 attacks and escalating maintenance costs, the future of Concorde was limited despite the expensive modifications after the crash. It was announced (on 10 April 2003) that, after 24 October 2003, they would cease scheduled services with Concorde, due to depressed passenger numbers. The last day of its Saturday-only London Heathrow to Barbados Concorde flight was on 30 August 2003. The airline still owns 8 Concordes which are on long term loan to museums in the UK, U.S. and Barbados. The British Airways fleet includes the following aircraft as of 23 December 2008: Aircraft fleet + British Airways Fleet<font color=white>Aircraft<font color=white>In Service<font color=white>Orders<font color=white>Options<font color=white>Passengers (First/Club World/World Traveller Plus/World Traveller)<font color=white>Routes<font color=white>NotesAirbus A318-10002 British Airways buys two Airbus A318s for London City Airport services 0All Unique Business class32 (0/32/0/0)LCY to New York-JFK Entry into Service: September 2009 when route beginsAirbus A319-10033016Any A320 FamilyDomestic 1 Class132 (0/0/0/132)Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 126 (0/0/12/114) Maximum Club Europe Cabin 114 (0/0/36/78)LHR and LGW to Europe and UKBA has options for 16 A320 family aircraftExpected to be exercised Winter 09/10 to replace 737-400'sAirbus A320-20036100Domestic 1 Class211 Series155 (0/0/0/155) 232 Series156Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 150 (0/0/12/138)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 130 (0/0/52/78)LHR to Europe and UK BA operates 5 A320-211 seriesAirbus A321-2001100Domestic 1 Class188 (0/0/0/188)Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 184 (0/0/12/172)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 153 (0/0/67/86)LHR to Europe and UK Airbus A380-8000127LHR Longhaul ServicesEntry into service:2012Boeing 737-300100Domestic 1 Class126 (0/0/0/126)Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 120 (0/0/12/108)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 110 (0/0/32/78)LGW to Europe and UKTo be returned to lessor in late 2009Boeing 737-4001900Domestic 1 Class147 (0/0/0/147)Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 142 (0/0/10/132)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 117 (0/0/50/67)LGW to Europe and UKExit from service 2015-2016Boeing 737-500200Domestic 1 Class110 (0/0/0/110)Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin 106 (0/0/12/94)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 88 (0/0/44/44)LGW to Europe and UK To be returned to lessor in late 2009Boeing 747-4005500291 (14/70/30/177) 299 (14/70/30/185) 337 (14/52/36/235) LHR to Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, North America and South AmericaLargest operator in the world of the Boeing 747-400 Two aircraft in storage at Cardiff as well as 8 more to be stored for the winter due to the economic turndown.Boeing 757-2001000Domestic 1 Class186 (0/0/0/186) Shorthaul 2 ClassMinimum Club Europe Cabin179 (0/0/14/165)Maximum Club Europe Cabin 158 (0/0/56/102)Aircraft operate from LHR T3 to: Barcelona, Helsinki, Lisbon, Madrid, Malaga and Vienna.To Leave fleet 2009-2011To be replaced by Airbus A320 Family. 8 Boeing 757-200s to be stored during the winter due to the economic turndown.Boeing 767-300ER2100Longhaul 3 Class189 (0/24/24/141)Domestic 1 Class 252 (0/0/0/252) Shorthaul 2 Class Minimum Club Europe Cabin 249 (0/0/18/231)Maximum Club Europe Cabin228 (0/0/134/94)LHR to Africa, Caribbean, Europe, Middle East and North AmericaBoeing 777-200300229 (17/48/24/127)LHR to Middle East, Delhi, New York City, Chicago and AbujaBoeing 777-200ER4034Standard 4 Class 226 (14/48/40/124) Long Range 4 Class 220 (13/48/32/127) LHR 3 Class 272 (0/36/24/212) LGW 3 Class 280 (0/40/24/216) Reconfigured 3 Class 275 (0/48/24/203)LGW and LHR to Africa, Asia, Australasia,Caribbean, Middle East, North America, and South AmericaLaunch Customer. All 3 class aircraft to be reconfigured into new 3 class configuration with Stretch CW seats. <small>24 aircraft are GE90-94B powered,16 aircraft are RR Trent 895 powered.<small>Boeing 777-300ER064Entry into service: 2010 4 Aircraft to be leased through GECAS Boeing 787-80816Proposed Longhaul 3 Class183 (0/42/51/90)LHR Longhaul Services(destinations yet to be announced)Entry into service: 2012Boeing 787-901616LHR Longhaul Services(destinations yet to be announced)Entry into service: 2014Total2315763 Details of the fleet of British Airways subsidiaries BA CityFlyer and OpenSkies can be found in the related articles. Details of the fleets of British Airways' franchises which use the British Airways name and logo can be found on articles: Sun Air and Comair. In February 2009, the average age of British Airways fleet was 11.4 years. British Airways Average Fleet Age British Airways offers either three or four classes of service on their long haul international routes serviced by B747, B767 and B777 aircraft. 'World Traveller' (Economy Class), 'World Traveller Plus' (Premium Economy) and 'Club World' (Business Class) always feature. All Boeing 747 aircraft and most Boeing 777 aircraft are fitted with First (First Class). Aircraft operated The airline has operated the following aircraft (with in-service date): 1974 - BAC One-Eleven 500 1974 - Boeing 707-420 1974 - Boeing 747-100 1974 - Hawker Siddeley Trident 1974 - Lockheed Tristar 1 1974 - Vickers VC10 1974 - Vickers Super VC10 1974 - Vickers Vanguard 1974 - Vickers Viscount 1975 - Hawker Siddeley HS 748 1976 - Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde 1977 - Boeing 747-200 1980 - Boeing 737-200 1980 - Lockheed Tristar 500 1983 - Boeing 757-200 1988 - McDonnell Douglas DC-10 1988 - Airbus A320-100 1989 - Boeing 747-400 1990 - Boeing 767-300 1991 - Boeing 737-400 1997 - Boeing 777-200 1999 - Airbus A319 2000 - Boeing 737-500 2001 - Boeing 737-300 2002 - Airbus A320-200 2004 - Airbus A321 Future British Airways has 32 outstanding options with Airbus, which may be taken as any member of the A320 family. Secured delivery positions on 10 Boeing 777 aircraft are held. BA Interim Financial Results 2006 Q3 On 18 May 2007, BA announced that it has placed a firm order with Airbus for eight new A320 aircraft. The new aircraft are due for delivery from 2008. They will be delivered to LHR displacing A319s to LGW which in turn will replace elderly Boeing 737-300/500, the leases on which expire at this time. On 27 March 2007, British Airways placed a firm order for four 777-200ER aircraft with an option for four more, with the order totalling more than US$800 million at list price. The company has stated that these are for fleet expansion. BA's first batch of 777 were fitted with General Electric GE90 engines, but BA switched to Rolls-Royce Trent 800s for the most recent 16 aircraft. This has been continued with the most recent 4 orders as Trent 800 engines were selected as the engine choice. On 27 September 2007, BA announced their biggest order since 1998 by ordering 36 new long haul aircraft. The company ordered 12 A380s with options on a further 7, and 24 Boeing 787s with options on a further 18. Rolls-Royce Trent engines were selected for both orders with Trent 900s powering the A380s and Trent 1000s powering the 787s. The new aircraft will be delivered between 2010 and 2014. The Boeing 787s will replace 14 of British Airways' Boeing 767 fleet and the Airbus A380s will replace 20 of BA's oldest Boeing 747-400s and will most likely be used to increase capacity on routes to Bangkok, Cape Town, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Singapore, and Sydney from London Heathrow. On 1 February 2008 it was announced that BA had ordered two Airbus A318s to operate a premium service out of London City Airport to New York. The service, which will see the A318s fitted out with 32 lie flat beds in an all business class cabin, is expected to start in 2009. The A318 is the largest aircraft able to operate out of London City Airport. On 4 February 2008 the engine selection was announced as the CFM International - CFM56. Most of BA's fleet of A320 family aircraft are powered by International Aero Engines V2500, however these engines are not available to power the A318. It was subsequently announced that, because of runway length limitations at LCY, this route will include a westbound fuel stop. On 1 August 2008 BA announced orders for six Boeing 777-300ERs and options for four more as an interim measure to cover for delays over the deliveries of their 787-8/9s. On 12 January 2009 chief Executive Willie Walsh stated that BA's purchase of six 777-300ERs did not indicate that they had ruled out purchasing the A350 for their fleet renewal program and "that the airline expects to reach a decision towards the end of the year." BA's 777-300ER acquisition does not rule out A350: Walsh Marketing The musical theme predominantly used on British Airways advertising is "Flower Duet" by Léo Delibes. This, and the slogan "The World's Favourite Airline" were introduced in 1989 with the launch of the iconic "Face" advertisement. The slogan was dropped in 2001, after having been overtaken by Lufthansa in terms of passenger numbers. However, "Flower Duet" is still used by the airline, and has been through several different arrangements since 1989. The most recent was introduced in 2007, along with the current advertising slogan, "Upgrade to British Airways". The advertising agency used for many years by BA was Saatchi & Saatchi, who created many of the most famous advertisements for the airline. It created the "Face" commercial for the airline; its success was imitated by Silverjet in 2007, who created a similar advert. Prior to "The World's Favourite Airline", advertising slogans included: "The World's Best Airline". "We'll Take More Care Of You". "Fly the Flag". Internet: the value of the British Airways Brand was pushed in 2002 as that the company was able to buy its acronym, and its IATA Airline code the letters "BA" as their internet domain ba.com. The domain was previously owned by Bell Atlantic The History of the Ba.com Domain . Only 4 Airlines (AA, BA, RJ, XL) and few companies own a two letter domain name. Important Companies that own a Two Letter Domain As of June 2007, BA's advertising agency is Bartle Bogle Hegarty. British Airways is the official airline of the Wimbledon Championship tennis tournament. Agency.com British Airways Reminds Visitors to Leave Air Horn, Chili Dog At Home During Wimbledon British Airways is the official airline and tier 1 partner of the 2012 Summer Olympics. Tail fins British Airways Boeing 767, featuring "Delftblue Daybreak" tailfin art.The Blue Peter special-paint British Airways Boeing 757-200 Since its formation in 1974, though to a limited extent until all aircraft were repainted, British Airways aeroplanes carried a Union Flag scheme painted on their tail fins. The original predominantly red tail scheme was changed with the launch of a new livery designed by the New York design agency, Landor Associates. The new tail was predominantly dark blue and carried the British Airways Coat of Arms. On 10 June 1997 they began to be repainted (and the planes re-named) with abstract world images, Delftware or Chinese calligraphy for example, relating to countries they fly to. This caused problems with air traffic control: previously controllers had been able to tell pilots to follow a BA plane, but because they were each painted in different colours they were harder to identify. On 6 June 1999, BA chief executive Bob Ayling announced that all BA planes would be repainted with the Union Flag, based on a design first used on Concorde. Cabins United KingdomUK Domestic seat pitch is 31" on all aircraft and the seats are in a one-class configuration. Food on these services depends on the destination and time of day. On all UK Domestic services, a breakfast meal is served before 10am and after 10am there is a drinks service, with a light snack from Heathrow and Gatwick. The exception is for Scottish flights to and from Heathrow in the evening, where a meal size salad is served.Business UK has exactly the same service (same cabin) as UK Domestic, with a fully flexible ticket and lounge access. EuropeEuro Traveller seat pitch is 31", except on Boeing 757 aircraft where it is 32" and Airbus A321 aircraft where it is 30". Food on board depends on the destination "band" (e.g. Band 1 to Paris, Band 3 to Rome, Band 4 to Athens). In-flight entertainment is offered on Band 4 flights on aircraft with suitable equipment.Club Europe is the business class product of British Airways, offered on all shorthaul routes. Passengers have access to business lounges at most airports and are also served a full English breakfast in the mornings or 'extended breakfast' on later flights (ham, salami etc) and afternoon tea later in the day. Seat pitch is 31", but on a Boeing 757 it is 36-37". Club Europe has a 2+2 configuration. International Club World seat. World Traveller cabin.First is the long haul first class product on British Airways and is offered only on BA's Boeing 747s, Boeing 777s aircraft. There are 14 private "demi-cabins" with 6' 6" beds, in-seat power for laptops, personal phones, and entertainment facilities. Meals are available on demand. BA offers dedicated check-in facilities at some airports. At airports without dedicated First check-in, passengers use Club World check-in. BA have announced that a long-awaited upgrade to the First cabin will be installed in September2009, with a minor refresh taking place immediately , which has also seen the introduction of a private concierge service provided by Quintessentially, the last major cabin update back in 1996. Club World is the longhaul business class product of British Airways. Passengers have access to business lounges at most airports. On 13 November 2006, British Airways launched a new Club World service (termed Next Generation New Club World), offering larger seats and a service revamp. The Club World service offers a 20" wide, 6' long fully flat bed (6' 6" long in Next Generation New Club World cabins when in Z-bed position, which is not fully flat, the flat bed is still 6'), with 24 seats on the 767-200ER (New Club World), either 40 or 48 seats on the 777-200 (New Club World), and, since 2007, either 52 or 70 seats on the 747-400 (Next Generation New Club World).World Traveller and World Traveller Plus are the two main economy classes offered internationally on British Airways. World Traveller is standard economy and offers a 31" seat pitch. World Traveller Plus is premium economy and, in comparison to World Traveller, offers a better (38") seat pitch, fewer seats abreast, and in-seat laptop power. Special cabin configuration In 2001, British Airways became the first carrier to introduce a ten abreast economy class configuration on the Boeing 777, an aircraft which had been designed for nine abreast seating. This utilised specially built narrow seats, and narrow aisles, and was applied to 3 GE-engined 777-236ERs (G-VIIO / MSN 29320, G-VIIP / MSN 29321 and G-VIIR / MSN 29322) used predominantly on Caribbean routes, but sometimes flown to and from Florida. Since BA piloted this development, the configuration has been emulated by Emirates Airline, KLM and China Southern Airlines. British Airways have removed this unpopular configuration, returning to nine abreast seating. Lounges British Airways operate several different types of lounge for passengers travelling in the premium cabins and passengers with status. The JFK T7 Concorde Room will be refurbished to the same standard as the LHR T5A Concorde Room. First lounges are being replaced by Galleries First lounges. Terraces and Executive Club lounges are being replaced by Galleries Club lounges, together with the BWI Chesapeake Club Lounge. The Gate 1 Lounge at LHR T4 will be closed when the three remaining BA longhaul services move to LHR T3 in 2009. At the same time, a new Galleries First lounge will open in LHR T3 to complement the existing Galleries Club lounge. Lounge Access (Class) Access (Status) Replaced By Location Concorde Room (CCR) F Premier, CCR Cardholder LHR T5A, JFK T7 Galleries First F Premier, Gold UK, North America First Lounge F Premier, Gold Galleries First UK, North America Galleries Club F CW CE Premier, Gold, Silver Network-Wide Terraces Lounge F CW CE Premier, Gold, Silver Galleries Club Network-Wide Executive Club Lounge F CW CE Premier, Gold, Silver Galleries Club Network-Wide British Airways Gate 1 Lounge F CW Premier, Gold, Silver Closing 2009 LHR T4 British Airways Chesapeake Club Lounge F CW Premier, Gold, Silver Galleries Club BWI Concourse E Galleries Arrivals F CW Premier, Gold (longhaul only) LHR T5A At airports in which BA does not operate a departure lounge, a third party departure lounge is usually provided for premium/status passengers. London Heathrow Lounges Terminal Lounge Notes Terminal 3 Galleries First Galleries Club Galleries First Opening 2009 Terminal 4 British Airways Gate 1 Lounge Closing 2009 Terminal 5A Concorde Room (Galleries Lounge South) Galleries First (Galleries Lounge South) Galleries Club (Galleries Lounge South) Galleries Club (Galleries Lounge North) Galleries Arrivals Terminal 5B Galleries Club Operations British Airways holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, and is permitted to carry passengers, cargo and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats. Description of UK Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence BA is based at London Heathrow Airport in London, England. It also has a presence at Gatwick and previously had a significant hub at Manchester Airport, but this was eliminated in 2007 after the sale of BA Connect, in common with operations from other UK airports, which are now served only as spokes from the London hubs. BA has succeeded in dominating Heathrow to the point that the airport is commonly referred to as Fortress Heathrow within both the airline and its competitors. As an incumbent airline, BA had grandfather rights to around 38% of takeoff and landing slots at Heathrow, many of which are used for the lucrative trans-Atlantic market. Some competitors, such as Virgin Atlantic and bmi, assert that this stifles competition and some political think-tanks recommend an auction of slots. In recent years British Airways has been buying slots from other airlines including United Airlines, bmi, Brussels Airlines, GB Airways and Swiss International Air Lines, and now owns about 40% of slots at Heathrow. Although British Airways has been described as the 'National Carrier of the United Kingdom', BA aircraft photos site it does not have a presence in Wales and services to all airports 'north of Watford Gap' were severely truncated in March 2007. BA currently has no flights without a London airport as their origin or destination. However, this policy is now being successfully countered by foreign carriers, such as Emirates, who operate long-haul flights from several UK provincial airports to Dubai, Abu Dhabi and onwards from those hubs to Asia and Australasia. BA CityFlyer is a subsidiary with Avro RJ aircraft based in Edinburgh, but operating mainly from London City Airport. BA CityFlyer operates around 250 flights per week at London City Airport. On 27 March 2008, BA moved roughly 50% of its Heathrow operation to the new Terminal 5. A large majority of the moves happened during the night on 26 March, when one of the runways at Heathrow was closed. All BA flights will operate out of T5 by early 2009, except services to Barcelona, Helsinki, Lisbon, Madrid, Bangkok, Singapore and Sydney, which will operate out of T3 because the long-haul flights are code-shares and the European flights are operated by Boeing 757 aircraft which can not be used in Terminal 5 due to the fact that they need manual luggage loading in the hold. Due to demand, BA announced that it will operate services up to nine times daily from terminal 5 to Nice instead of from the originally planned terminal 3. This means they will not be operated by Boeing 757 aircraft, as they can only operate from terminal 3. Codeshare agreements Other than codesharing with oneworld alliance members, British Airways also codeshare with: Aer Lingus for connecting flights from London Heathrow to Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Shannon and from London Gatwick to Dublin Air China Brussels Airlines on flights between London Gatwick and London Heathrow to Brussels Caribbean Airlines on flights from London Gatwick to Bridgetown Barbados, Port of Spain and Saint Lucia Flybe Loganair for connecting flights through Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow Subsidiaries and franchisees Subsidiaries BA CityFlyer OpenSkies British Airways is the full owner of Airways Aero Associations Limited, which operates the British Airways flying club and runs its own aerodrome under the British Airways brand at Wycombe Air Park, High Wycombe. With the creation of Open Skies between Europe and the United States in March 2008, British Airways has a new subsidiary airline called OpenSkies (previously codenamed "Project Lauren"). The airline started operations in June 2008, and now flies from Paris and Amsterdam, to New York, JFK Airport. The former BEA Helicopters was renamed British Airways Helicopters in 1974 and operated passenger and offshore oil support services until it was sold in 1986. Franchisees Comair, South Africa, franchisee since 1996. Sun Air, Denmark, franchisee since 1 August 1996. Shareholdings BA owns a 13.5% stake in Spanish airline Iberia. It raised its stake in Iberia from 9% to 10% by purchasing American Airlines' remaining shares. It increased it further in March 2008. This 13.5% stake gives British Airways the right to appoint two board members. Iberia investors seek bigger merger stake It obtained a 15% stake in Flybe when it sold its regional UK operation BA Connect to FlyBe in March 2007. It owns a 10% stake in Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd. as part of the InterCapital and Regional Rail alliance that also includes SNCF, NMBS/SNCB and National Express Group. Eurostar (UK) is the UK arm of Eurostar, the cross-Channel rail operator. Ownership & Structure On 30 July 2008, British Airways and Iberia announced a merger plan that would result in the two airlines joining forces in an all-stock transaction. The two airlines would retain their separate brands similar to KLM and Air France in their merger agreement. Cargo BA is, through its subsidiary British Airways World Cargo, the world's twelfth-largest cargo airline based on total freight tonne-kilometers flown. BA World Cargo has global reach through the British Airways scheduled network. In addition to the main fleet, BA World Cargo wet lease three Boeing 747-400F dedicated freighter aircraft from Global Supply Systems on a multi-year basis, as well as utilising space on dedicated freighters operated by other carriers on European services. Dedicated freighter services allow the airline to serve airports not connected to the scheduled network, such as London Stansted, Glasgow Prestwick, Frankfurt-Hahn, Vitoria and Seoul. British Airways opened its £250m World Cargo centre, Ascentis, at Heathrow in 1999. As an advanced automated freight handling centre, it can handle unusual and premium cargo, and fresh produce, of which it handles over 80,000 tons per year. BA World Cargo also handles freight at London's Gatwick and Stansted airports, and, through its partner British Airways Regional Cargo, at all of the main regional airports throughout the UK. On 3 July 2007 BA World Cargo announced it would launch new services to Jinnah International Airport, Karachi and Allama Iqbal International Airport, Lahore in Pakistan using Boeing 727s via Bahrain. New freighter routings from Pakistan launched, 3 July 2007 Loyalty programmes British Airways Executive Club logo Executive Club The Executive Club is British Airways' main frequent flyer programme. It is part of the network of frequent flyer programmes in the Oneworld alliance. The Executive Club has three tiers of membership: Blue, Silver, Gold. The benefits of the Silver and Gold cards include access to airport lounges and dedicated reservation lines. Unlike most airlines' frequent flyer programmes, the Executive Club keeps separate account of the redeemable BA Miles and the loyalty Tier Points'''. Flying in higher Classes of Service, i.e. Premium Economy, Business or First, will earn both BA Miles and Tier Points, whereas Tier Points can only be earned for "Eligible Flights". A Full Fare Economy (Y/B/H) fare or any premium cabin fare will be considered as eligible flight. Discounted economy fares will only earn 25% BA Miles and no tier points. Membership of the Executive Club will be extended annually upon attaining the relevant number of Tier Points. For instance, to maintain the Silver Executive Club will require 4 Premium Economy Returns between the UK and the US Eastern Seaboard. The number of tier points required for Silver and Gold card membership varies substantially from country leading to some passengers changing their address to a European country in order to qualify for membership with fewer tier points. Redeemable miles expire after 36 months of inactivity. Premier BA operates an invitation-only Premier programme which gives more benefits than the Executive Club Gold Card scheme. It is given only by the BA board and has 1,200 members. __1.php International Herald Tribune Incidents and accidents In November 1974, British Airways Flight 870 from Dubai to Heathrow, operated by a Vickers VC10, was hijacked in Dubai, landing at Tripoli for refuelling before flying on to Tunis. One hostage was murdered before the hijackers eventually surrendered after 84 hours. Captain Jim Futcher was awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal, the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators Founders Medal, the British Air Line Pilots Association Gold Medal and a Certificate of Commendation from British Airways for his actions during the hijacking, having returned to the aircraft to fly it knowing the hijackers were on board. On 10 September 1976, a Trident 3B on British Airways Flight 476, flying from London Heathrow to Istanbul collided in mid-air with an Inex Adria DC9-32 near Zagreb, Croatia, resulting in the 1976 Zagreb mid-air collision. All 54 passengers and 9 crew members on the BA aircraft died. On 24 June 1982, Flight 9, a Boeing 747-200, G-BDXH, City of Edinburgh flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of Mount Galunggung, causing extensive damage to the aircraft, including the failure of all four engines. The aircraft managed to glide out of the dust cloud and restart all four of its engines, although one later had to be shut down again. The aircraft made an emergency landing at Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport just outside Jakarta. No-one was injured. On 10 June 1990, Flight 5390, a BAC One-Eleven flight between Birmingham and Málaga, suffered a windscreen blowout due to the fitting of incorrect bolts the previous day. The Captain suffered major injuries after being partially sucked out of the aircraft, however the co-pilot landed the plane safely at Southampton Airport. On 2 August 1990, Flight 149 landed at Kuwait International Airport four hours after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, leading to the capture of the passengers and crew, and the destruction of the aircraft. On 11 December 2000, British Airways Flight 2069 from London Gatwick Airport to Nairobi experienced a hijack attempt whilst flying over Sudan. A Kenyan student with a mental illness burst into the cockpit of the Boeing 747. As three crew fought to restrain the man, the auto-pilot became disengaged and the jet dropped with 398 passengers on board. However, with the help of a couple of passengers, the pilots recovered the aircraft, successfully restrained the Kenyan with handcuffs and the plane landed safely. On 5 August 2003, a British Airways Boeing 737 had problems with one of its wings on the approach to Jersey Airport. The plane landed safely. This plane had 81 people on board and none of them were injured or killed. Emergency at Jersey airport BBC News, 5 August 2003 On 19 February 2005, the No. 2 engine of a Boeing 747-400 G-BNLG'' surged and suffered internal damage just after take off from Los Angeles on a flight to London Heathrow with 16 crew and 351 passengers on board. The crew shut the engine down and continued the climb and continued the flight, in line with BA's standard operating procedures for 4 engined aircraft. Because it was unable to attain normal cruising speeds and altitudes, the aircraft diverted to Manchester Airport, England. The United States Federal Aviation Administration had been critical of the Captain's decision Flight International, July 2005 and accused BA of operating the aircraft in an non airworthy condition. In June 2006 the UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch recommended that the UK and US authorities review the policy on flight continuation and give clear guidance. This has not happened but the FAA have accepted the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority’s determination that the aircraft was airworthy. Flight International, 23–29 January 2007 On 17 January 2008, British Airways Flight 38, a Boeing 777-200ER flying from Beijing to London, crash-landed approximately short of London Heathrow Airport's runway 27L, and slid onto the runway's threshold. This resulted in damage to the landing gear, the wing roots, and the engines, resulting in the first hull loss of a Boeing 777. There were 136 passengers and 16 crew on board. 1 serious and 12 minor injuries were sustained. The initial report from the Air Accidents Investigation Branch stated that the engines repeatedly failed to respond to commands for more thrust from both the autothrottle system and from manual intervention, beginning when the aircraft was at an altitude of and from touchdown. An adequate fuel quantity was on board the aircraft and the autothrottle and engine control commands were performing as expected prior to, and after, the reduction in thrust. In September 2008, it was revealed that ice in the fuel might have caused the crash. Icy fuel lines blamed for Heathrow crash In early 2009, Boeing sent an update to aircraft operators, identifying the problem as specific to the Rolls-Royce engine oil-fuel flow heat exchangers. . Controversies In March 2001, it was revealed that British Airways has a policy of not seating adult male passengers next to children who are sitting by themselves, even if a child's parents are elsewhere on the plane. This led to accusations of sex discrimination. In October 2006, in the British Airways cross controversy, there was a dispute over the right of a Christian check-in worker to wear a visible symbol of faith. The employee lost an employment tribunal in January 2008. Court rules BA may prohibit crosses but not other religious symbols British Airways was announced by the Association of European Airlines as having lost the most luggage in 2006 and 2007 compared to other major European airlines. For every 1000 passengers carried, it lost 23 bags, 46% more than the average. BBC NEWS | Business |BA tops lost luggage league table References External links Official website Routemap British Airways Archive and Museum Collection British Airways Flight Training | British_Airways |@lemmatized british:124 airway:120 plc:1 national:4 flag:7 carrier:15 united:14 kingdom:7 airline:94 headquarter:5 waterside:1 harmondsworth:3 london:45 borough:1 hillingdon:1 contact:1 information:2 retrieve:11 may:17 large:13 base:12 fleet:26 size:2 international:17 flight:47 destination:9 main:6 hub:4 heathrow:35 gatwick:12 group:2 form:12 september:13 nationalisation:1 labour:1 government:4 ba:106 two:17 boac:11 bea:7 much:2 small:5 regional:7 cambrian:1 cardiff:2 northeast:1 newcastle:1 four:10 company:15 dissolve:1 march:33 privatise:3 february:6 expand:1 acquisition:2 caledonian:5 route:17 dan:2 air:27 formation:2 richard:2 branson:7 virgin:8 atlantic:8 begin:9 tense:1 relationship:1 end:6 one:16 bitter:1 protracted:1 libel:2 action:2 aviation:6 history:3 apologise:1 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2,843 | Finite-state_machine | Fig.1 Example of a Finite State Machine A finite state machine (FSM) or finite state automaton (plural: automata) or simply a state machine, is a model of behavior composed of a finite number of states, transitions between those states, and actions. A finite state machine is an abstract model of a machine with a primitive internal memory. Concepts and vocabulary A current state is determined by past states of the system. As such, it can be said to record information about the past, i.e., it reflects the input changes from the system start to the present moment. A transition indicates a state change and is described by a condition that would need to be fulfilled to enable the transition. An action is a description of an activity that is to be performed at a given moment. There are several action types: Entry action which is performed when entering the state Exit action which is performed when exiting the state Input action which is performed depending on present state and input conditions Transition action which is performed when performing a certain transition An FSM can be represented using a state diagram (or state transition diagram) as in figure 1 above. Besides this, several state transition table types are used. The most common representation is shown below: the combination of current state (B) and condition (Y) shows the next state (C). The complete actions information can be added only using footnotes. An FSM definition including the full actions information is possible using state tables (see also VFSM). + State transition table Current State → Condition ↓ State A State B State C Condition X … … … Condition Y … State C … Condition Z … … … In addition to their use in modeling reactive systems presented here, finite state automata are significant in many different areas, including electrical engineering, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, biology, mathematics, and logic. A complete survey of their applications is outside the scope of this article. Finite state machines are a class of automata studied in automata theory and the theory of computation. In computer science, finite state machines are widely used in modeling of application behavior, design of hardware digital systems, software engineering, compilers, network protocols, and the study of computation and languages. Classification There are two different groups: Acceptors/Recognizers and Transducers. Acceptors and recognizers Fig. 2 Acceptor FSM: parsing the word "nice" Acceptors and recognizers (also sequence detectors) produce a binary output, saying either yes or no to answer whether the input is accepted by the machine or not. All states of the FSM are said to be either accepting or not accepting. At the time when all input is processed, if the current state is an accepting state, the input is accepted; otherwise it is rejected. As a rule the input are symbols (characters); actions are not used. The example in figure 2 shows a finite state machine which accepts the word "nice". In this FSM the only accepting state is number 7. The machine can also be described as defining a language, which would contain every word accepted by the machine but none of the rejected ones; we say then that the language is accepted by the machine. By definition, the languages accepted by FSMs are the regular languages - that is, a language is regular if there is some FSM that accepts it. Start state The start state is usually shown drawn with an arrow "pointing at it from nowhere" (Sipser (2006) p.34). Accept state Fig. 3: A finite state machine that determines if a binary number has an odd or even number of 0s. An accept state (sometimes referred to as an accepting state) is a state at which the machine has successfully performed its procedure. It is usually represented by a double circle. An example of an accepting state appears on the right in this diagram of a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) which determines if the binary input contains an even number of 0s. S1 (which is also the start state) indicates the state at which an even number of 0s has been input and is therefore defined as an accepting state. This machine will give a correct end state if the binary number contains an even number of zeros including a string with no zeros. Examples of strings accepted by this DFA are epsilon (the empty string), 1, 11, 11..., 00, 010, 1010, 10110 and so on. Transducers Transducers generate output based on a given input and/or a state using actions. They are used for control applications and in the field of computational linguistics. Here two types are distinguished: Moore machine The FSM uses only entry actions, i.e., output depends only on the state. The advantage of the Moore model is a simplification of the behaviour. Consider an elevator door. The state machine recognizes two commands: "command_open" and "command_close" which trigger state changes. The entry action (E:) in state "Opening" starts a motor opening the door, the entry action in state "Closing" starts a motor in the other direction closing the door. States "Opened" and "Closed" don't perform any actions. They signal to the outside world (e.g., to other state machines) the situation: "door is open" or "door is closed". Fig. 4 Transducer FSM: Mealy model example Mealy machine The FSM uses only input actions, i.e., output depends on input and state. The use of a Mealy FSM leads often to a reduction of the number of states. The example in figure 4 shows a Mealy FSM implementing the same behaviour as in the Moore example (the behaviour depends on the implemented FSM execution model and will work, e.g., for virtual FSM but not for event driven FSM). There are two input actions (I:): "start motor to close the door if command_close arrives" and "start motor in the other direction to open the door if command_open arrives". The "opening" and "closing" intermediate states are not shown. In practice mixed models are often used. More details about the differences and usage of Moore and Mealy models, including an executable example, can be found in the external technical note "Moore or Mealy model?" A further distinction is between deterministic (DFA) and non-deterministic (NDFA, GNFA) automata. In deterministic automata, for each state there is exactly one transition for each possible input. In non-deterministic automata, there can be none, one, or more than one transition from a given state for a given possible input. This distinction is relevant in practice, but not in theory, as there exists an algorithm which can transform any NDFA into an equivalent DFA, although this transformation typically significantly increases the complexity of the automaton. The FSM with only one state is called a combinatorial FSM and uses only input actions. This concept is useful in cases where a number of FSM are required to work together, and where it is convenient to consider a purely combinatorial part as a form of FSM to suit the design tools. FSM logic Fig. 5 FSM Logic (Mealy) The next state and output of an FSM is a function of the input and of the current state. The FSM logic is shown in Figure 5. Mathematical model In accordance to the general classification, the following formal definitions are found: A deterministic finite state machine or acceptor deterministic finite state machine is a quintuple , where: is the input alphabet (a finite, non-empty set of symbols). is a finite, non-empty set of states. is an initial state, an element of . is the state-transition function: . In a Nondeterministic finite state machine, , returns a set of states. is the set of final states, a (possibly empty) subset of . For both deterministic and non-deterministic FSMs, it is conventional to allow to be a partial function, i.e. does not have to be defined for every combination of and . If an FSM is in a state , the next symbol is and is not defined, then can announce an error (i.e. reject the input). A finite state transducer is a sextuple , where: is the input alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols). is the output alphabet (a finite, non-empty set of symbols). is a finite, non-empty set of states. is the initial state, an element of . In a Nondeterministic finite state machine, is a set of initial states. is the state-transition function: . is the output function. If the output function is a function of a state and input alphabet () that definition corresponds to the Mealy model, and can be modelled as a Mealy machine. If the output function depends only on a state () that definition corresponds to the Moore model, and can be modelled as a Moore machine. A finite-state machine with no output function at all is known as a semiautomaton or transition system. Optimization Optimizing a FSM means finding the machine with the minimum number of states that performs the same function. The fastest known algorithm doing this is the Hopcroft minimization algorithm. Hopcroft, John E (1971). An n log n algorithm for minimizing states in a finite automaton Almeida, Marco; Moreira, Nelma; Reis, Rogerio (2007). On the performance of automata minimization algorithms. Other techniques include using an Implication table, or the Moore reduction procedure. Additionally, acyclic FSAs can be optimized using a simple bottom up algorithm. Implementation Hardware applications Fig. 6 The circuit diagram for a 4-bit TTL counter, a type of state machine In a digital circuit, an FSM may be built using a programmable logic device, a programmable logic controller, logic gates and flip flops or relays. More specifically, a hardware implementation requires a register to store state variables, a block of combinational logic which determines the state transition, and a second block of combinational logic that determines the output of an FSM. One of the classic hardware implementations is the Richards controller. Software applications The following concepts are commonly used to build software applications with finite state machines: Event driven FSM Virtual FSM (VFSM) Automata-based programming See also Abstract state machine Decision tables Extended finite state machine Finite state machine with datapath Petri net Pushdown automaton Quantum finite automata Sequential logic Statechart Transition system Turing machine Hidden Markov model Artificial Intelligence Control System SCXML Further reading General Wagner, F., "Modeling Software with Finite State Machines: A Practical Approach", Auerbach Publications, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-8086-3. Samek, M., Practical Statecharts in C/C++, CMP Books, 2002, ISBN 1-57820-110-1. Samek, M., Practical UML Statecharts in C/C++, 2nd Edition, Newnes, 2008, ISBN 0-75068-706-1. Gardner, T., Advanced State Management, 2007 (video at 360Flex 2008) Cassandras, C., Lafortune, S., "Introduction to Discrete Event Systems". Kluwer, 1999, ISBN 0-7923-8609-4. Timothy Kam, Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Functional Optimization. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9842-4 Tiziano Villa, Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Logic Optimization. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9892-0 Carroll, J., Long, D. , Theory of Finite Automata with an Introduction to Formal Languages. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1989. Kohavi, Z., Switching and Finite Automata Theory. McGraw-Hill, 1978. Gill, A., Introduction to the Theory of Finite-state Machines. McGraw-Hill, 1962. Ginsburg, S., An Introduction to Mathematical Machine Theory. Addison-Wesley, 1962. Finite state machines (automata theory) in theoretical computer science Extensive, wide-ranging book meant for specialists, written for both theoretical computer scientists as well as electrical engineers. With detailed explanations of state minimization techniques, FSMs, Turing machines, Markov processes, and undecidability. Excellent treatment of Markov processes. Excellent. Has been in print in various editions and reprints since 1974 (1974, 1980, 1989, 1999). Approaches Church-Turing thesis from three angles: levels of finite automata as acceptors of formal languages, primitive and partial recursive theory, and power of bare-bones programming languages to implement algorithms, all in one slim volume. A difficult book centered around the issues of machine-interpretation of "languages", NP-Completeness, etc. Distinctly different and less intimidating than the first edition. Minsky spends pages 11-20 defining what a “state” is in context of FSMs. His state diagram convention is unconventional. Excellent, i.e., relatively readable, sometimes funny. Abstract algebra is at the core of the book, rendering it advanced and less accessible than other texts. cf Finite state machines (finite automata) in chapter 29. Abstract state machines in theoretical computer science Yuri Gurevich (2000), Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms, ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, vl. 1, no. 1 (July 2000), pages 77-111. http://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/141.pdf Machine learning using finite-state algorithms A broad brush but quite thorough and sometimes difficult, meant for computer scientists and engineers. Chapter 13 Reinforcement Learning deals with robot-learning involving state-machine-like algorithms. Hardware engineering: state minimization and synthesis of sequential circuits Extensive, wide-ranging book meant for specialists, written for both theoretical computer scientists as well as electrical engineers. With detailed explanations of state minimization techniques, FSMs, Turing machines, Markov processes, and undecidability. Excellent treatment of Markov processes. Meant for electrical engineers. More focused, less demanding than his earlier book. His treatment of computers is out-dated. Interesting take on definition of ‘algorithm’. Meant for hardware electrical engineers. With detailed explanations of state minimization techniques and synthesis techniques for design of combinatory logic circuits. Meant for hardware electrical engineers. Excellent explanations of state minimization techniques and synthesis techniques for design of combinatory and sequential logic circuits. Finite Markov chain processes "We may think of a Markov chain as a process that moves successively through a set of states s1, s2, ..., sr. ... if it is in state si it moves on to the next stop to state sj with probability pij. These probabilities can be exhibited in the form of a transition matrix" (Kemeny (1959), p. 384) Finite Markov-chain processes are also known as subshifts of finite type. Extensive, wide-ranging book meant for specialists, written for both theoretical computer scientists as well as electrical engineers. With detailed explanations of state minimization techniques, FSMs, Turing machines, Markov processes, and undecidability. Excellent treatment of Markov processes. Classical text . cf Chapter 6 ‘’Finite Markov Chains”. External links Description from the Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Hierarchical State Machines Intelliwizard - UML StateWizard - A ClassWizard-like round-trip UML dynamic modeling/development framework and tool running in popular IDEs under open-source license. COGs - Cogs is a open source, small FSM and HSM ( hierarchical state machine) library for use with Flash / Flex Actionscript 3.0 projects. An introductory talk here FSM Generator - FSMGenerator is a turn-key solution for FSM (Finite State Machine) automatic generation and integration within user's software FSMCreator - An easy to use Java-Application for creating nice looking FSMs FSM Designer - An open-source tool for the graphical development of FSMs and automatic Verilog code generation Using state machines in practical applications sinelaboreRT - generates human readable c-code from state-charts especially targeting embedded real-time systems libfa - An open-source C library for automata computations The State Machine Compiler - A tool to model and compile statemachines for a number of languages; java, C# etc. As well as display them as graphically. Quantum Leaps - Provider of open source, state machine-based frameworks. Includes several examples and C/C++ code. gFSM - An open source implementation of FSM (Finite State Machine) programming framework in C. Vaucanson - An open source C++ finite state machine manipulation platform, consisting of a library and tools implemented on top of it. UniMod - An open source plugin for Eclipse for automata-based programming. PureMVC StateMachine Utility - A simple but effective FSM implementation integrated seamlessly into the PureMVC Framework. state_machine - An open-source Ruby library for state machines FSMLanguage - A Domain-Specific Language for describing FSMs for FPGAs FSMGen - An open source tool for generating C++ FSM by XML description. | Finite-state_machine |@lemmatized fig:6 example:9 finite:45 state:120 machine:57 fsm:36 automaton:17 plural:1 simply:1 model:18 behavior:2 compose:1 number:12 transition:16 action:18 abstract:5 primitive:2 internal:1 memory:1 concept:3 vocabulary:1 current:5 determine:5 past:2 system:9 say:4 record:1 information:3 e:10 reflect:1 input:21 change:3 start:8 present:3 moment:2 indicate:2 describe:3 condition:7 would:2 need:1 fulfil:1 enable:1 description:3 activity:1 perform:9 give:5 several:3 type:5 entry:4 enter:1 exit:2 depend:5 certain:1 represent:2 use:22 diagram:5 figure:4 besides:1 table:5 common:1 representation:1 show:7 combination:2 b:2 next:4 c:16 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2,844 | Might_and_Magic | Cover of Book I Might and Magic (MM) is a series of computer role-playing games from New World Computing, which in 1996 became a subsidiary of The 3DO Company. The producer of the series was Jon Van Caneghem. Might and Magic is considered one of the defining examples of early computer role-playing games, along with the Bard's Tale, Ultima and Wizardry series. Matt Barton, "The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part 2: The Golden Age (1985-1993)", Gamasutra, 2007 The original Might and Magic series officially ended with the closure of the 3DO Company. The rights to the Might and Magic name were purchased for USD 1.3 million by Ubisoft, Namco, Ubisoft and MS carve up 3DO assets who "rebooted" the franchise with a new series with no apparent connection to the previous continuity, starting with the games Heroes of Might and Magic V and Dark Messiah of Might and Magic. History There are nine games in the series, consisting of: Might and Magic: The Secret of the Inner Sanctum (1986; Apple II, Mac, DOS, Commodore 64, NES, MSX,PC-Engine CD-ROM) Might and Magic II: Gates to Another World (1988; Apple II, Amiga, DOS, Commodore 64, Mac, Sega Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Europe only), SNES (Japan-only, different from the European version), MSX, PC-Engine CD) Might and Magic III: Isles of Terra (1991; DOS, Mac, Amiga, SNES, Sega Genesis, PC-Engine CD-ROM) Might and Magic IV: Clouds of Xeen (1992; DOS, Mac) Might and Magic V: Darkside of Xeen (1993; DOS, Mac) Might and Magic: World of Xeen (1995; DOS) Might and Magic VI: The Mandate of Heaven (1998; Windows) Might and Magic VII: For Blood and Honor (1999; Windows) Might and Magic VIII: Day of the Destroyer (2000; Windows) Might and Magic IX (2002; Windows; known as: Writ of Fate) Anthologies Might and Magic Trilogy (1993), includes Might and Magic games III, IV, V, and the fanmade Swords of Xeen. Might and Magic I, II, III, IV, V: Collection Classique (1998), contains the games I-V Ultimate Might and Magic Archives (1998), includes the first five Might and Magic games, World of Xeen and the fanmade Swords of Xeen. Might and Magic VI: The Mandate of Heaven - Limited Edition (1998), a collector's edition of Might and Magic VI that included the first five games on CD-ROM as well. Might and Magic Sixpack (1998), includes the first six Might and Magic games. Might and Magic Millennium Edition (1999), includes the Might and Magic games IV, V, VI and VII. Might and Magic (Platinum Edition) (2002), includes the Might and Magic games VI, VII, VIII and IX. There were several spin-offs from the main series, including Heroes of Might and Magic, Crusaders of Might and Magic, Warriors of Might and Magic, Legends of Might and Magic, and the fanmade Swords of Xeen. In August of 2003, Ubisoft acquired the rights to the Might and Magic franchise for USD$1.3 million after 3DO filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Ubisoft has since released two new projects using the Might and Magic brand — a fifth installment of the Heroes series, developed by Nival Interactive, and an action-style game called Dark Messiah of Might and Magic, developed by Arkane Studios. Gameplay The majority of the gameplay takes place in a medieval fantasy setting. The player controls a party of player characters, which can consist of members of various character classes. The game world is presented to the player in first person perspective. In the earlier games the interface is very similar to that of Bard's Tale, but from Might and Magic VI: The Mandate of Heaven onward, the interface features a scrolling three-dimensional environment similar to that of Doom. Combat is turn-based, though the later games allowed the player to choose to conduct combat in real time. The game worlds in all of the Might and Magic games are quite large, and a player can expect each game to provide several dozen hours of gameplay. It is usually quite combat-intensive and often involves large groups of enemy creatures. Monsters and situations encountered throughout the series tend to be well-known fantasy staples such as giant rats, werewolf curses, dragon flights and zombie hordes, rather than original creations. Isles of Terra and the Xeen games featured a more distinct environment, blending fantasy and science fiction elements in a unique way. Plot Although most of the gameplay reflects a distinctly fantasy genre, the overarching plot of the series has something of a science fiction background. The series is set in a fictional galaxy as part of an alternate universe, where planets are overseen by a powerful race of space-travelers known as Ancients. In each of the games, a party of characters fights monsters and completes quests on one of these planets, until they eventually become involved in the affairs of the Ancients. References to Star Trek - some quite overt - could indicate that the "Ancients" may in fact be humanity in the far future. The first five games in the series concern the renegade guardian of the planet Terra, named Sheltem, who becomes irrevocably corrupted, developing a penchant for throwing planets into their suns. Sheltem establishes himself on a series of flat worlds known as nacelles (which are implied to be giant spaceships) and Corak, a second guardian and creation of the Ancients, with the assistance of the player characters, pursues him across the Void. Eventually both Corak and Sheltem are destroyed in a climactic battle on the nacelle of Xeen. The sixth, seventh and eighth games take place on Enroth, a single planet partially ruled by the Ironfist dynasty, and chronicle the events and aftermath of an invasion by the Kreegan, the demonlike arch-enemies of the Ancients. It is also revealed that the destruction wrought by the Ancients' wars with the Kreegan is the reason why the worlds of Might & Magic exist as medieval fantasy settings despite once being seeded with futuristic technology - the worlds have been 'cut off' from the Ancients and descended into barbarism. The Heroes of Might and Magic series traces the fortunes of the Ironfists in more detail, though none of the sci-fi elements appear in the Heroes series. See also Heroes of Might and Magic List of Might and Magic titles References External links The plot and history of the Might and Magic series on Celestial Heavens Might and Magic Tribute List of Might and Magic releases including games, books and other collectibles The Erathian Liberation Party (TELP) Comprehensive collector's guide for all games in the Might and Magic universe | Might_and_Magic |@lemmatized cover:1 book:2 might:46 magic:46 mm:1 series:16 computer:3 role:3 play:2 game:25 new:3 world:9 computing:1 become:3 subsidiary:1 company:2 producer:1 jon:1 van:1 caneghem:1 consider:1 one:2 define:1 example:1 early:2 playing:1 along:1 bard:2 tale:2 ultima:1 wizardry:1 matt:1 barton:1 history:3 part:2 golden:1 age:1 gamasutra:1 original:2 officially:1 end:1 closure:1 right:2 name:2 purchase:1 usd:2 million:2 ubisoft:4 namco:1 carve:1 asset:1 reboot:1 franchise:2 apparent:1 connection:1 previous:1 continuity:1 start:1 hero:6 v:6 dark:2 messiah:2 nine:1 consist:2 secret:1 inner:1 sanctum:1 apple:2 ii:4 mac:5 commodore:2 ne:1 msx:2 pc:3 engine:3 cd:4 rom:3 gate:1 another:1 amiga:2 sega:2 genesis:2 super:1 nintendo:1 entertainment:1 system:1 europe:1 snes:2 japan:1 different:1 european:1 version:1 iii:3 isle:2 terra:3 iv:4 cloud:1 xeen:9 darkside:1 vi:6 mandate:3 heaven:4 window:4 vii:3 blood:1 honor:1 viii:2 day:1 destroyer:1 ix:2 know:4 writ:1 fate:1 anthology:1 trilogy:1 include:8 fanmade:3 sword:3 collection:1 classique:1 contain:1 ultimate:1 archive:1 first:5 five:3 limited:1 edition:4 collector:2 well:2 sixpack:1 six:1 millennium:1 platinum:1 several:2 spin:1 offs:1 main:1 crusader:1 warrior:1 legend:1 august:1 acquire:1 file:1 chapter:1 bankruptcy:1 since:1 release:2 two:1 project:1 use:1 brand:1 fifth:1 installment:1 develop:3 nival:1 interactive:1 action:1 style:1 call:1 arkane:1 studio:1 gameplay:4 majority:1 take:2 place:2 medieval:2 fantasy:5 setting:2 player:6 control:1 party:3 character:4 member:1 various:1 class:1 present:1 person:1 perspective:1 interface:2 similar:2 onward:1 feature:2 scrolling:1 three:1 dimensional:1 environment:2 doom:1 combat:3 turn:1 base:1 though:2 late:1 allow:1 choose:1 conduct:1 real:1 time:1 quite:3 large:2 expect:1 provide:1 dozen:1 hour:1 usually:1 intensive:1 often:1 involve:2 group:1 enemy:2 creature:1 monster:2 situation:1 encounter:1 throughout:1 tend:1 staple:1 giant:2 rat:1 werewolf:1 curse:1 dragon:1 flight:1 zombie:1 horde:1 rather:1 creation:2 distinct:1 blend:1 science:2 fiction:2 element:2 unique:1 way:1 plot:3 although:1 reflect:1 distinctly:1 genre:1 overarch:1 something:1 background:1 set:1 fictional:1 galaxy:1 alternate:1 universe:2 planet:5 overseen:1 powerful:1 race:1 space:1 traveler:1 ancient:7 fight:1 complete:1 quest:1 eventually:2 affair:1 reference:2 star:1 trek:1 overt:1 could:1 indicate:1 may:1 fact:1 humanity:1 far:1 future:1 concern:1 renegade:1 guardian:2 sheltem:3 irrevocably:1 corrupt:1 penchant:1 throw:1 sun:1 establish:1 flat:1 nacelle:2 imply:1 spaceship:1 corak:2 second:1 assistance:1 pursue:1 across:1 void:1 destroy:1 climactic:1 battle:1 sixth:1 seventh:1 eighth:1 enroth:1 single:1 partially:1 rule:1 ironfist:1 dynasty:1 chronicle:1 event:1 aftermath:1 invasion:1 kreegan:2 demonlike:1 arch:1 also:2 reveal:1 destruction:1 wrought:1 war:1 reason:1 exist:1 despite:1 seed:1 futuristic:1 technology:1 cut:1 descend:1 barbarism:1 trace:1 fortune:1 ironfists:1 detail:1 none:1 sci:1 fi:1 appear:1 see:1 list:2 title:1 external:1 link:1 celestial:1 tribute:1 collectible:1 erathian:1 liberation:1 telp:1 comprehensive:1 guide:1 |@bigram cd_rom:3 sega_genesis:2 nintendo_entertainment:1 viii_ix:1 spin_offs:1 science_fiction:2 star_trek:1 sci_fi:1 external_link:1 |
2,845 | Bassoon | The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that typically plays music written in the bass and tenor registers, and occasionally higher. Appearing in its modern form in the 1800s, the bassoon figures prominently in orchestral, concert band, and chamber music literature. The bassoon is a non-transposing instrument known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, variety of character, and agility. Listeners often compare its warm, dark, reedy timbre to that of a male baritone voice. Construction Development Early history Dulcians and racketts, from the Syntagma musicum by Michael Praetorius. Music historians generally consider the dulcian to be the forerunner of the modern bassoon, . "Its direct ancestor is the dulcian, a hairpin-shaped instrument with a long, folded bore and a single key; developed in the first half of the 16th ceentury, it remained in use until the 17th." as the two instruments share many characteristics: a double reed fitted to a metal crook, obliquely drilled tone holes, and a conical bore that doubles back on itself. The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the mid 16th century it was available in as many as eight different sizes, from soprano to great bass. A full consort of dulcians was a rarity; its primary function seems to have been to provide the bass in the typical wind band of the time, either loud (shawms) or soft (recorders), indicating a remarkable ability to vary dynamics to suit the need. Otherwise, dulcian technique was rather primitive, with eight finger holes and generally one key, indicating that it could play in only a limited number of key signatures. The dulcian came to be known as fagotto in Italy. However, the usual etymology that equates fagotto with "bundle of sticks" is somewhat misleading, as the latter term did not come into general use until later. Some think it may resemble the Roman Facis, a standard of bound sticks with an ax Facis Image Jansen, 1978 A further discrepancy lies in the fact that the dulcian was carved out of a single block of wood--in other words, a single "stick" and not a bundle. Circumstantial evidence indicates that the baroque bassoon was a newly-invented instrument, rather than a simple modification of the old dulcian. The dulcian was not immediately supplanted, but continued to be used well into the 18th century by Bach and others. The man most likely responsible for developing the true bassoon was Martin Hotteterre (d.1712), who may also have invented the three-piece flûte traversière and the hautbois. Some historians believe that sometime in the 1650s, Hotteterre conceived the bassoon in four sections (bell, bass joint, boot and wing joint), an arrangement that allowed greater accuracy in machining the bore compared to the one-piece dulcian. He also extended the compass down to B by adding two keys Lange and Thomson, 1979 An alternate view maintains Hotteterre was one of several craftsmen responsible for the development of the early bassoon. These may have included additional members of the Hotteterre family, as well as other French makers active around the same time. Kopp, 1999 No original French bassoon from this period survives, but if it did, it would most likely resemble the earliest extant bassoons of Johann Christoph Denner and Richard Haka from the 1680s. Sometime around 1700, a fourth key (G♯) was added, and it was for this type of instrument that composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, Bach, and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote their demanding music. A fifth key, for the low E, was added during the first half of the 18th century. Notable makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include J.H. Eichentopf (c.1678-1769), J. Poerschmann (1680-1757), Thomas Stanesby, Jr. (1668-1734), G.H. Scherer (1703-1778), and Prudent Thieriot (1732-1786). Modern history Increasing demands on capabilities of instruments and players in the 1800s—particularly larger concert halls requiring greater volume and the rise of virtuoso composer-performers—spurred further refinement. Increased sophistication, both in manufacturing techniques and acoustical knowledge, made possible great improvements in the instrument's playability. The modern bassoon exists in two distinct primary forms, the Buffet system and the Heckel system. Most of the world plays the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is primarily played in France, Belgium, and parts of Latin America. Heckel (German) system Heckel system bassoon from 1870 The design of the modern bassoon owes a great deal to the performer, teacher, and composer Carl Almenräder. Assisted by the German acoustic researcher Gottfried Weber, he developed the 17-key bassoon with a range spanning four octaves. Almenräder's improvements to the bassoon began with an 1823 treatise describing ways of improving intonation, response, and technical ease of playing by augmenting and rearranging the keywork. Subsequent articles further developed his ideas. Working at the Schott factory gave him the means to construct and test instruments according to these new designs, and he published the results in Caecilia, Schott's house journal. Almenräder continued publishing and building instruments until his death in 1846, and Ludwig van Beethoven himself requested one of the newly-made instruments after hearing of the papers. In 1831, Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory with a partner, Johann Adam Heckel. Heckel and two generations of descendants continued to refine the bassoon, and their instruments became the standard other makers followed. Because of their superior singing tone quality (an improvement upon one of the main drawbacks of the Almenräder instruments), the Heckel instruments competed for prominence with the reformed Wiener system, a Boehm-style bassoon, and a completely-keyed instrument devised by Charles-Joseph Sax, father of Adolphe Sax. F.W. Kruspe implemented a latecomer attempt in 1893 to reform the fingering system, but it failed to catch on. Other attempts to improve the instrument included a 24-keyed model and a single-reed mouthpiece, but both these had adverse effects on tone and were abandoned. Coming into the 20th century, the Heckel-style German model of bassoon dominated the field. Heckel himself had made over 1,100 instruments by the turn of the century (serial numbers begin at 3,000), and the British makers' instruments were no longer desirable for the changing pitch requirements of the symphony orchestra, remaining primarily in military band use. Except for a brief 1940s wartime conversion to ball bearing manufacture, the Heckel concern has produced instruments continuously to the present day. Heckel bassoons are considered by many the best, although a range of Heckel-style instruments is available from several other manufacturers, all with slightly different playing characteristics. Companies that manufacture Heckel-system bassoons include: Wilhelm Heckel, Yamaha, Fox Products, Fox Products W. Schreiber & Söhne, Püchner, Püchner The Selmer Company, Linton, Linton Moosmann Moosmann Kohlert, Moennig/Adler, Moennig/Adler B.H. Bell B.H. Bell and Guntram Wolf. In addition, several factories in the People's Republic of China are producing inexpensive instruments under such labels as Laval, Haydn, and Lark, and these have been available in the West for some time now. However, they are generally of marginal quality and are usually avoided by serious players. Because its mechanism is primitive compared to most modern woodwinds, makers have occasionally attempted to "reinvent" the bassoon. In the 1960s, Giles Brindley began to develop what he called the "logical bassoon", which aimed to improve intonation and evenness of tone through use of an electrically activated mechanism, making possible key combinations too complex for the human hand to manage. Brindley's logical bassoon was never marketed. Buffet (French) system The Buffet system bassoon achieved its basic acoustical properties somewhat earlier than the Heckel. Thereafter it continued to develop in a more conservative manner. While the early history of the Heckel bassoon included a complete overhaul of the instrument in both acoustics and keywork, the development of the Buffet system consisted primarily of incremental improvements to the keywork. This minimalist approach deprived the Buffet of the improved consistency, ease of operation, and increased power found in the Heckel bassoons, but the Buffet is considered by some to have a more vocal and expressive quality. The conductor John Foulds lamented in 1934 the dominance of the Heckel-style bassoon, considering them too homogeneous in sound with the horn. Compared to the Heckel bassoon, Buffet system bassoons have a narrower bore and simpler mechanism, requiring different fingerings for many notes. Switching between Heckel and Buffet requires extensive retraining. Buffet instruments are known for a reedier sound and greater facility in the upper registers, reaching e''' and f''' with far greater ease and less air pressure. French woodwind tone in general exhibits a certain amount of "edge", with more of a vocal quality than is usual elsewhere, and the Buffet bassoon is no exception. This type of sound can be beneficial in music by French composers, but has drawn criticism for being too intrusive. As with all bassoons, the tone varies considerably, depending on individual instrument and performer. In the hands of a lesser player, the Heckel bassoon can sound flat and woody, but good players succeed in producing a vibrant, singing tone. Conversely, a poorly played Buffet can sound buzzy and nasal, but good players succeed in producing a warm, expressive sound, different from—but not inferior to—the Heckel. Though the United Kingdom once favored the French system Langwill, 1965 , Buffet-system instruments are no longer made there and the last prominent British player of the French system retired in the 1980s. However, with continued use in some regions and its distinctive tone, the Buffet continues to have a place in modern bassoon playing, particularly in France. Buffet-model bassoons are currently made in Paris by Buffet Crampon and The Selmer Company. Some players, for example Gerald Corey in Canada, have learned to play both types and will alternate between them depending on the repertoire. Use in ensembles Earlier ensembles Orchestras first used the bassoon to reinforce the bass line, and as the bass of the double reed choir (oboes and taille). Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and his Les Petits Violons included oboes and bassoons along with the strings in the 16-piece (later 21-piece) ensemble, as one of the first orchestras to include the newly-invented double reeds. Antonio Cesti included a bassoon in his 1668 opera Il Pomo d'oro (The Golden Apple). However, use of bassoons in concert orchestras was sporadic until the late 17th century when double reeds began to make their way into standard instrumentation. This was largely due to the spread of the hautbois to countries outside of France. Increasing use of the bassoon as a basso continuo instrument meant that it began to be included in opera orchestras, first in France and later in Italy, Germany and England. Meanwhile, composers such as Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, Michel Corrette, Johann Ernst Galliard, Jan Dismas Zelenka, Johann Friedrich Fasch and Telemann wrote demanding solo and ensemble music for the instrument. Antonio Vivaldi brought the bassoon to prominence by featuring it in 37 concerti for the instrument. By the mid 18th century, the bassoon's function in the orchestra was still mostly limited to that of a continuo instrument--since scores often made no specific mention of the bassoon, its use was implied, particularly if there were parts for oboes or other winds. Beginning in the early Rococo era, composers such as Joseph Haydn, Michael Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Giovanni Battista Sammartini and Johann Stamitz included parts that exploited the bassoon for its unique color, rather than for its perfunctory ability to double the bass line. Orchestral works with fully-independent parts for the bassoon would not become commonplace until the Classical era. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's "Jupiter" symphony is a prime example, with its famous bassoon solos in the first movement. The bassoons were generally paired, as in current practice, though the famed Mannheim orchestra boasted four. Another important use of the bassoon during the Classical era was in the Harmonie, a chamber ensemble consisting of pairs of oboes, horns and bassoons; later, two clarinets would be added to form an octet. The Harmonie was an ensemble maintained by German and Austrian noblemen for private music-making, and was a cost-effective alternative to a full orchestra. Haydn, Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Krommer all wrote considerable amounts of music for the Harmonie. Modern ensembles The modern symphony orchestra typically calls for two bassoons, often with a third playing the contrabassoon. Some works call for four or more players. The first player is frequently called upon to perform solo passages. The bassoon's distinctive tone suits it for both plaintive, lyrical solos such as Maurice Ravel's Boléro and more comical ones, such as the grandfather's theme in Peter and the Wolf. Its agility suits it for passages such as the famous running line (doubled in the violas and cellos) in the overture to The Marriage of Figaro. In addition to its solo role, the bassoon is an effective bass to a woodwind choir, a bass line along with the cellos and double basses, and harmonic support along with the French horns. A wind ensemble will usually also include two bassoons and sometimes contra, each with independent parts; other types of concert wind ensembles will often have larger sections, with many players on each of first or second parts; in simpler arrangements there will be only one bassoon part and no contra. The bassoon's role in the wind band is similar to its role in the orchestra, though when scoring is thick it often cannot be heard above the brass instruments also in its range. La Fiesta Mexicana, by H. Owen Reed, features the instrument prominently, as does the transcription of Malcolm Arnold's Four Scottish Dances which has become a staple of the concert band repertoire. The bassoon is also part of the standard wind quintet instrumentation, along with the flute, oboe, clarinet, and horn; it is also frequently combined in various ways with other woodwinds. Richard Strauss's "Duet-Concertino" pairs it with the clarinet as concertante instruments, with string orchestra in support. The bassoon quartet has also gained favor in recent times. The bassoon's wide range and variety of tone colors make it ideally suited to grouping in like-instrument ensembles. Peter Schickele's "Last Tango in Bayreuth" (after themes from Tristan und Isolde) is a popular work; Schickele's fictional alter ego P. D. Q. Bach exploits the more humorous aspects with his quartet "Lip My Reeds", which at one point calls for players to perform on the reed alone. It also calls for a low A at the very end of the prelude section in the fourth bassoon part. It is written so that the first bassoon does not play; instead, his or her role is to place an extension in the bell of the fourth bassoon so that the note can be played. Jazz The bassoon is infrequently used as a jazz instrument and rarely seen in a jazz ensemble. It first began appearing in the 1920s, including specific calls for its use in Paul Whiteman's group and a few other session appearances. The next few decades saw the instrument used only sporadically, as symphonic jazz fell out of favor, but the 1960s saw artists such as Yusef Lateef and Chick Corea incorporate bassoon into their recordings; Lateef's diverse and eclectic instrumentation saw the bassoon as a natural addition, while Corea employed the bassoon in combination with flautist Hubert Laws. More recently, Illinois Jacquet, Ray Pizzi, Frank Tiberi, and Marshall Allen have both doubled on bassoon in addition to their saxophone performances. Bassoonist Karen Borca, a performer of free jazz, is one of the few jazz musicians to play only bassoon; Michael Rabinowitz, the Spanish bassoonist Javier Abad, and James Lassen, an American resident in Bergen, Norway, are others. Lindsay Cooper, Paul Hanson, the Brazilian bassoonist Alexandre Silverio, and Daniel Smith are also currently using the bassoon in jazz. French bassoonists Jean-Jacques Decreux Review of the CD "FAAA". International Double Reed Society and Alexandre Ouzounoff Review of the LP "Palisander's Night". International Double Reed Society. The Double Reed, Vol. 12, No. 2 Fall 1989. have both recorded jazz, exploiting the flexibility of the Buffet system instrument to good effect. Popular music The bassoon is even rarer as a regular member of rock bands. However, several 1960s pop music hits feature the bassoon, including "The Tears of a Clown" by Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, "Jennifer Juniper" by Donovan, "59th Street Bridge Song" by Harpers Bizarre, and the oompah bassoon underlying The New Vaudeville Band's "Winchester Cathedral". From 1968 to 1978, the bassoon was played by Lindsay Cooper in the British avant-garde band Henry Cow, and in the 1970s it was used by the British band Gryphon (played by Brian Gulland). In the 1990s, Madonna Wayne Gacy provided bassoon for the alternative metal band Marilyn Manson as did Aimee DeFoe, in what is self-described as "grouchily lilting garage bassoon", in the indie-rock band Blogurt from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Blogurt, official website The rock band Better Than Ezra took their name from a passage in Ernest Hemingway's A Moveable Feast in which the author comments that listening to an annoyingly talkative person is still “better than Ezra learning how to play the bassoon,” referring to Ezra Pound. Technique The bassoon is held diagonally in front of the player, but unlike the flute, oboe and clarinet, it cannot be supported by the player's hands alone. Some means of additional support is required; the most common ones used are 1) a neck strap or shoulder harness attached to the top of the boot joint, or 2) a seat strap attached to the base of the boot joint which is laid across the chair seat prior to sitting down. Occasionally a spike similar to those used for the cello or the bass clarinet is attached to the bottom of the boot joint and rests on the floor. It is possible to play while standing up if the player uses a neck strap or similar harness, or if the seat strap is tied to the belt. Sometimes a device called a balance hanger is used when playing in a standing position. This is installed between the instrument and the neck strap, and shifts the point of support closer to the center of gravity. The Heckel-system bassoon is played with both hands in a stationary position, the left above the right, with five main finger holes on the front of the instrument (nearest the audience) plus a sixth] that is activated by an open-standing key. Five additional keys on the front are controlled by the little fingers of each hand. The back of the instrument (nearest the player) has twelve or more keys to be controlled by the thumbs, the exact number varying depending on model. To stabilize the right hand, many bassoonists use an adjustable comma-shaped apparatus called a "crutch" which mounts to the boot joint; players use a thumb screw to secure the crutch and vary the distance that it protrudes from the bassoon. Players rest the curve of the right hand where the thumb joins the palm against the crutch. The crutch also keeps the right hand from tiring and enables the player to keep put the finger pads flat on the finger holes and keys. An aspect of bassoon technique not found on any other woodwind is called flicking. It involves the momentary pressing, or 'flicking', of the high A, C and D keys by the left hand thumb at the beginning of certain notes in the middle octave in order to eliminate the cracking, or brief microphonic that happens without the use of the key. Flicking is not universal amongst bassoonists; some American players, principally on the East Coast, use it sparingly, if at all. The rest use it virtually 100% of the time--it has become in essence part of the fingering. European players in general are 'flickers'. Some hold down the appropriate key for the duration of the note, rather than just at the beginning; this is sometimes referred to as 'venting'. A 'no-flick' octave key system is available as an add-on, invented by Arthur Weisberg. Only a few years old, it has yet to be offered as standard equipment by any of the major bassoon manufacturers. While bassoons are usually critically tuned at the factory, the player nonetheless has a great degree of flexibility of pitch control through the use of breath support and embouchure. Players can also use alternate fingerings to adjust the pitch of many notes. Extended techniques Many extended techniques can be performed on the bassoon, such as multiphonics, fluttertonguing, circular breathing, double tonguing, humming and playing simultaneously, and harmonics. In the case of the bassoon, fluttertonguing may be accomplished by "gargling" in the back of the throat as well as the conventional method of rolling Rs. Also, using certain fingerings, notes may be produced on the instrument that sound lower pitches than the actual range of the instrument. These "impossible notes" tend to sound very gravelly and out of tune, but technically sound below the low B. Alternatively, lower notes can be produced by inserting a small paper or rubber tube into the end of the bell, which converts the lower B into a lower note such as an A natural; this lowers the pitch of the instrument, but has the positive effect of bringing the lowest register (which is typically quite sharp) into tune. A notable piece that requires the use of a low A bell is Carl Nielsen's Wind Quintet, op. 43. Nielsen requires the low A for the final cadence of the third movement. Frequently, multi-woodwind players are known to use the end bell segment of an English horn or clarinet instead of a specially made extension. This often yields unsatisfactory results, though, as the resultant A is quite sharp. The idea of using low A was begun by Richard Wagner, who wanted to extend the range of the bassoon. Many passages in his later operas require the low A as well as the B flat above. (This is impossible on a normal bassoon using an A extension as the fingering for the B flat yields the low A.) These passages are typically realized on the contrabassoon, as recommended by the composer. Some bassoons have been made to allow bassoonists to realize similar passages. These bassoons are made with a "Wagner bell", which is an extended bell with a key for both the low A and the low B flat. Bassoons with Wagner bells suffer similar intonational deficiencies as a bassoon with an A extension. Another composer who has required the bassoon to be chromatic down to low A is Gustav Mahler. Learning the bassoon Due to the complicated fingering system and the problem of reeds, the bassoon is more difficult to learn than some of the other woodwind instruments http://www.idrs.org/Publications/DR/DR4.2/few.html - Paragraph 7 . In North America, schoolchildren typically take up bassoon only after starting on another reed instrument, such as clarinet or saxophone. Elsa Z. Powell (1950) This is an Orchestra Houghton Mifflin, page 70 Reeds and reed construction Modern reeds Bassoon reeds are usually around in length and wrapped in thread. Bassoon reeds, made of Arundo donax cane, are often made by the players themselves, although beginner bassoonists tend to buy their reeds from professional reed makers or use reeds made by their teachers. Reeds begin with a length of tube cane that is split into three or four pieces. The cane is then trimmed and gouged to the desired thickness, leaving the bark attached. After soaking, the gouged cane is cut to the proper shape and milled to the desired thickness, or profile, by removing material from the bark side. This can be done by hand with a file; more frequently it is done with a machine or tool designed for the purpose. After the profiled cane has soaked once again it is folded over in the middle. Prior to soaking, the reed maker will have lightly scored the bark with parallel lines with a knife; this ensures that the cane will assume a cylindrical shape during the forming stage. On the bark portion, the reed maker binds on three coils or loops of brass wire to aid in the final forming process. The exact placement of these loops can vary somewhat depending on the reed maker. The bound reed blank is then wrapped with thick cotton or linen thread to protect it, and a conical steel mandrel (which sometimes has been heated in a flame) is quickly inserted in between the blades. Using a special pair of pliers, the reed maker presses down the cane, making it conform to the shape of the mandrel. (The steam generated by the heated mandrel causes the cane to permanently assume the shape of the mandrel.) The upper portion of the cavity thus created is called the "throat", and its shape has an influence on the final playing characteristics of the reed. The lower, mostly cylindrical portion will be reamed out with a special tool, allowing the reed to fit on the bocal. After the reed has dried, the wires are tightened around the reed, which has shrunk after drying. The lower part is sealed (a nitrocellulose-based cement such as Duco may be used) and then wrapped with thread to ensure both that no air leaks out through the bottom of the reed and that the reed maintains its shape. The wrapping itself is often sealed with Duco or clear nail varnish (polish). The bulge in the wrapping is sometimes referred to as the "Turk's head"--it serves as a convenient handle when inserting the reed on the bocal. A spectrogram of the bassoon's B in four octaves. To finish the reed, the end of the reed blank, originally at the center of the unfolded piece of cane, is cut off, creating an opening. The blades above the first wire are now roughly long. In order for the reed to play, a slight bevel must be created at the tip with a knife, although there is also a machine that can perform this function. Other adjustments with the knife may be necessary, depending on the hardness and profile of the cane and the requirements of the player. The reed opening may also need to be adjusted by squeezing either the first or second wire with the pliers. Additional material may be removed from the sides (the "channels") or tip to balance the reed. Additionally, if the "e" in the staff is sagging in pitch, it may be necessary to "clip" the reed by removing from its length. Popkin and Glickman, 2007 McKay, 2001 Playing styles of individual bassoonists vary greatly; because of this, most advanced players will make their own reeds, in the process customizing them to their individual playing requirements. Many companies and individuals do offer reeds for sale, but even with store-bought reeds, the player must know how to make adjustments to suit his particular playing style. Early reeds Little is known about the early construction of the bassoon reed, as few examples survive, and much of what is known is only what can be gathered from artistic representations. The earliest known written instructions date from the middle of the 17th century, describing the reed as being held together by wire or resined thread; the earliest actual reeds that survive are more than a century younger, a collection of 21 reeds from the late 18th century Spanish bajon. Bassoon repertoire Baroque A collection of historical bassoons, from early baroque to modern, including a classical contrabassoon. Johann Friedrich Fasch, several bassoon concerti; the best known is in C major Christoph Graupner, four bassoon concerti Johann Wilhelm Hertel, Bassoon Concerto in a minor Georg Philipp Telemann, Sonata in F minor Antonio Vivaldi, wrote 39 concerti for bassoon, 37 of which exist in their entirety today Jan Dismas Zelenka, six trio sonatas for two oboes, bassoon and basso continuo Classical Johann Christian Bach, Bassoon Concerto in B, Bassoon Concerto in E major Franz Danzi, Bassoon Concertos (in G minor, in C, two in F major) François Devienne, Twelve Sonatas (six with opus numbers), three Quartets, one Concerto, six Duos Concertants Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Grand Concerto for Bassoon (in F) Leopold Kozeluch, Bassoon Concertos in B major (P V:B1) and C major (P V:C1) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Bassoon Concerto in B, K. 191, the only surviving of an original three bassoon concertos by Mozart Antonio Rosetti, Bassoon Concertos in F major (Murray C75), in B major (Murray C69, C73, C74), in E major (Murray C68) The E concerto is mentioned in the notes to the recording, see the link on the left. Carl Stamitz, Bassoon Concerto in F major Johann Baptist Vanhal, Bassoon Concerto in C major, and Concerto in F major for two bassoons and orchestra Romantic Franz Berwald, Konzertstueck Ferdinand David, Concertino for bassoon and orchestra, op. 12 Edward Elgar, Romance for bassoon and orchestra, op. 62 Robert Fuchs Bassoon Concerto in B major Julius Fučík, Der alte Brummbär ("The Grouchy Old Bear") for bassoon and orchestra, op. 210 Reinhold Glière, Humoresque and Impromptu for Bassoon and Piano, op. 35, nos. 8 and 9 Camille Saint-Saëns, Sonata for bassoon and piano in G major, op. 168 Carl Maria von Weber, Andante e rondo ungarese in C minor, op. 35; Bassoon Concerto in F, op. 75 Twentieth century Sergei Prokofiev, Humoristic Scherzo for four bassoons, op. 12b (1915) Luciano Berio, Sequenza XII for bassoon (1995) Henri Dutilleux, Sarabande et Cortège for bassoon and piano (1942) Alvin Etler, Sonata for bassoon and piano Glenn Gould, Sonata for Bassoon and Piano (1950) Sofia Gubaidulina, Concerto for Bassoon and low strings (1975) Paul Hindemith, Sonata for bassoon and piano (1938), Concerto for trumpet, bassoon and orchestra, Concerto for flute, oboe, clarinette, bassoon, harp and orchestra Gordon Jacob, Concerto for bassoon, strings and percussion, Four Sketches for bassoon, Partita for bassoon André Jolivet, Concerto for bassoon, strings, harp and piano Mary Jane Leach, Feu de Joie for solo bassoon and six taped bassoons (1992) Anne LeBaron, After a Dammit to Hell for bassoon solo (1982) Peter Maxwell Davies, Strathclyde Concerto no.8 for bassoon and orchestra Francisco Mignone, Double Bassoon Sonata, 16 valses for Bassoon Willson Osborne, Rhapsody for bassoon Andrzej Panufnik, Concerto for bassoon and small orchestra (1985) Richard Strauss, Duet Concertino for clarinet and bassoon with strings and harp (1948) Stjepan Šulek, Concerto for bassoon and orchestra Alexandre Tansman, Sonatine for bassoon and piano, Suite for bassoon and piano John Williams, The Five Sacred Trees: Concerto for bassoon and orchestra (1997) Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Suite-concertino for bassoon and chamber orchestra (1933) Pierre Angot, Sonate Amèricaine for bassoon and piano Pieces featuring famous bassoon passages Béla Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra; the second movement features woodwind instruments in pairs, beginning with the bassoons, and the recapitulation of their duet adds a third instrument playing a staccato counter-melody. Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 4 in B major, Symphony 9 in D minor, last movement Hector Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (In the fourth movement, there are several solo and tutti bassoon-featuring passages. This piece calls for four bassoons.) Georges Bizet: Carmen, Entr'acte to Act II Paul Dukas: L'apprenti sorcier (The Sorcerer's Apprentice), widely recognized as used in the movie Fantasia; the main melody is first heard in a famous bassoon soli passage. Edvard Grieg: In the Hall of the Mountain King Carl Orff: Carmina Burana (12th movement [Olim Lacus Colueram] opens with a high bassoon solo; nicknamed "The Swan") Sergei Prokofiev: Peter and the Wolf (possibly the most-recognized bassoon theme, the part of the grandfather) Maurice Ravel: Rapsodie Espagnole (features a fast, lengthy dual cadenza at the end of the first movement), Boléro (the bassoon has a high descending solo passage near the beginning), Piano Concerto in G Major, Piano Concerto in D Major (for the left hand) prominent use of contrabassoon in the opening, Ma Mère l'Oie a contrabassoon solo in the fourth part Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, second movement Dmitri Shostakovich: several symphonies including #1, 4, 5, 7 (Leningrad) (first movement), 8, & 9, Jean Sibelius: Symphony 5 in E major Igor Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (opens with a famously unorthodox bassoon solo), lullaby from The Firebird Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Symphony 4 in F minor, Symphony 5 in E minor, Symphony 6 in B minor Modest Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition orchestrated by Maurice Ravel Notable bassoonists Maurice Allard (1923–2005) Archie Camden (1888–1979) Bernard Garfield (1928–), Philadelphia Orchestra 1957–2000 Simon Kovar (1890–1970) Ludwig Milde (1849–1913) Etienne Ozi (1754–1813) Victor Guillermo Ramos Rangel (1911–1986) Sol Schoenbach (1915–1999) Leonard Sharrow (1915–2004), Chicago Symphony Orchestra 1951-1964 Klaus Thunemann (1937- ) Klaus Thunemann Instituto Internacional de Música de Cámara de Madrid Sherman Walt (1923-1989), Boston Symphony Orchestra 1953–1989 William Waterhouse (1931–2007), Royal Northern College of Music; London Symphony; BBC Symphony Arthur Weisberg (1931-2009) Julius Weissenborn (1837-1888) Currently active Roger Birnstingl Karen Borca Lindsay Cooper Bill Douglas Marvin P. Feinsmith Per Hannevold Paul Hanson Judith LeClair Doug Ostgard Helen Peller Michael Rabinowitz Asger Svendsen Kim Walker Robert S. Williams Milan Turkovic See also Contraforte Howarth of London Tenoroon Tromboon References Sources "The Double Reed" (published quarterly), I.D.R.S. Publications (see www.idrs.org) "Journal of the International Double Reed Society" (1972-1999, in 2000 merged with The Double Reed), I.D.R.S. Publications Baines, Anthony (ed.), Musical Instruments Through the Ages, Penguin Books, 1961 Jansen, Will, The Bassoon: Its History, Construction, Makers, Players, and Music, Uitgeverij F. Knuf, 1978. 5 Volumes Kopp, James B., "The Emergence of the Late Baroque Bassoon", in The Double Reed, Vol. 22 No. 4 (1999). Lange, H.J. and Thomson, J.M., "The Baroque Bassoon", Early Music, July 1979. Langwill, Lyndesay G., The Bassoon and Contrabassoon, W. W. Norton & Co., 1965 McKay, James R. et al. (ed.), The Bassoon Reed Manual: Lou Skinner's Techniques, Indiana University Press, 2001. Popkin, Mark and Glickman, Loren, Bassoon Reed Making, Charles Double Reed Co. Publication, 3rd ed., 2007 Sadie, Stanley (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, s.v. "Bassoon", 2001 Spencer, William (rev. Mueller, Frederick), The Art of Bassoon Playing, Summy-Birchard Inc., 1958 Stauffer, George B. (1986). "The Modern Orchestra: A Creation of the Late Eighteenth Century". In Joan Peyser (Ed.) The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations pp. 41–72. Charles Scribner's Sons. Weaver, Robert L. (1986). "The Consolidation of the Main Elements of the Orchestra: 1470-1768". In Joan Peyser (Ed.) The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations pp. 7–40. Charles Scribner's Sons. External links Resources and Information for Bassoonists International Double Reed Society British Double Reed Society Bassoon Fingering Charts The Bubonic Bassoon Quartet, 1962 - 1982: A Retrospective on the Occasion of the Twentieth Anniversary of its Founding by John Miller The Art of the Bassoon Wisconsin Public Radio's "University of the Air" hosts an hour long program on the bassoon (RealAudio format). Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón - A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon Maggie Kilbey's comprehensive book Marvin Feinsmith's Hands on Bassoon A Few Easy Multiphonics For Bassoon The Glickman-Popkin Bassoon Camp Department of Musical Instruments at the Metropolitan Museum of Art home to thousands of historic musical instrument including early bassoons and related instruments | Bassoon |@lemmatized bassoon:176 woodwind:9 instrument:51 double:22 reed:58 family:2 typically:5 play:21 music:13 write:7 bass:11 tenor:1 register:3 occasionally:3 high:4 appear:2 modern:12 form:3 figure:1 prominently:2 orchestral:2 concert:5 band:12 chamber:3 literature:1 non:1 transpose:1 know:8 distinctive:3 tone:11 color:3 wide:2 range:7 variety:2 character:1 agility:2 listener:1 often:8 compare:4 warm:2 dark:1 reedy:2 timbre:1 male:1 baritone:1 voice:1 construction:4 development:3 early:13 history:5 dulcians:2 racketts:1 syntagma:1 musicum:1 michael:4 praetorius:1 historians:1 generally:4 consider:4 dulcian:10 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2,846 | Duopoly | A true duopoly is a specific type of oligopoly where only two producers exist in one market. In reality, this definition is generally used where only two firms have dominant control over a market. In the field of industrial organization, it is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity. Duopoly models in economics There are two principal duopoly models, Cournot duopoly and Bertrand duopoly: The Cournot model, which shows that two firms assume each others output and treat this as a fixed amount, and produce in their own firm according to this. The Bertrand model, in which, in a game of two firms, each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash Equilibrium. Politics Modern American politics has been described as a duopoly since the Republican and Democratic parties have dominated and framed policy debate as well as the public discourse on matters of national concern for about a century and a half. Third Parties have encountered various blocks in getting onto ballots at different levels of government as well as other electoral obstacles, more so in recent decades. See List of political parties in the United States for a more comprehensive look at the politics of the Two-party system, Duverger's law. Examples in business The most commonly cited duopoly is that between Visa and Mastercard, who between them control a large proportion of the electronic payment processing market. In 2000 they were the defendants in a US Department of Justice antitrust lawsuit. http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f1900/1973.htm http://mit.edu/thistle/www/v12/2/credit.html An appeal was upheld in 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4014599.stm Examples where two companies control a large proportion of a market are: Moody's vs S&P in Ratings market Pepsi vs Coca-Cola in soft drink market Gillette vs Wilkinson Sword/Schick in razor blade market Airbus vs Boeing in commercial large jet aircraft market Marvel Comics vs DC Comics in comic books Intel vs AMD in the Microprocessor market The local cable company vs the local telephone company in residential broadband Internet access Analogue mobile phone service (1983-2008) assigned bandwidth for just two carriers (A/B); in much of North America these effectively were "Alternate" and "Bell" (or the incumbent regional telephone landline monopoly in the area). Windsor-Detroit was very adversely affected by this spectrum allocation limitation. The Home Depot vs Lowes in the American retail home improvement market. Kodak vs Fujifilm in motion picture film stock market K-Kauppa vs S-Group in the Finnish supermarket market (jointly they control 75% of supermarket market) Foodstuffs vs Progressive Enterprises in the New Zealand supermarket market (jointly they control 90% of supermarket market) Nvidia vs the ATI subsidiary of Advanced Micro Devices in the mainstream Graphics card market. LexisNexis vs Westlaw in legal research; the two companies together have been jokingly referred to as Wexis PetroChina vs Sinopec in Chinese oil production. Rai vs Mediaset in the Italian television market. Telstra vs Optus in the Australian Telecoms market. Dish Network vs DirecTV in the U.S. satellite provider market. Televisa vs TV Azteca in the Mexican Multimedia market. (jointly they control 95% of the multimedia market) Handango vs Motricity in mobile content retailing market. Migros vs Coop in Swiss retail food market. FedEx vs UPS in the express small package delivery industry. MillerCoors vs. Anheuser-Busch in the United States Domestic beer market. Baskin Robbins vs. Cold Stone Creamery in the U.S. ice cream retail market. Canon vs Nikon in high end imaging optics, film and digital cameras(especially in DSLRs) Kleenex and Puffs in facial tissues. Media In Finland, the state-owned broadcasting company Yleisradio and the private broadcaster Mainos-TV had a legal duopoly (in the economists' sense of the word) from the 1950s to 1993. No other broadcasters were allowed. Mainos-TV operated by leasing air time from Yleisradio, broadcasting in reserved blocks between Yleisradio's own programming on its two channels. This was a unique phenomenon in the world. Between 1986 and 1992 there was an independent third channel but it was jointly owned by Yle and MTV; only in 1993 did MTV get its own channel. Broadcasting Duopoly is also used in the United States broadcast television and radio industry to refer to a single company owning two outlets in the same city. This usage is technically incompatible with the normal definition of the word and leads to confusion, inasmuch as there are generally more than two owners of broadcast television stations in markets with broadcast duopolies. In Canada, this definition is therefore more commonly called a "twinstick". See Duopoly (broadcasting). See also Monopoly Oligopoly References | Duopoly |@lemmatized true:1 duopoly:10 specific:1 type:1 oligopoly:3 two:12 producer:1 exist:1 one:2 market:26 reality:1 definition:3 generally:2 use:3 firm:5 dominant:1 control:6 field:1 industrial:1 organization:1 commonly:3 studied:1 form:1 due:1 simplicity:1 model:4 economics:1 principal:1 cournot:2 bertrand:2 show:1 assume:2 others:1 output:1 treat:1 fixed:1 amount:1 produce:1 accord:1 game:1 change:1 price:2 response:1 cut:1 logic:1 reach:1 nash:1 equilibrium:1 politics:3 modern:1 american:2 describe:1 since:1 republican:1 democratic:1 party:4 dominate:1 frame:1 policy:1 debate:1 well:2 public:1 discourse:1 matter:1 national:1 concern:1 century:1 half:1 third:2 encounter:1 various:1 block:2 get:2 onto:1 ballot:1 different:1 level:1 government:1 electoral:1 obstacle:1 recent:1 decade:1 see:3 list:1 political:1 united:3 state:4 comprehensive:1 look:1 system:1 duverger:1 law:1 example:1 business:2 cite:1 visa:1 mastercard:1 large:3 proportion:2 electronic:1 payment:1 process:1 defendant:1 u:3 department:1 justice:1 antitrust:1 lawsuit:1 http:3 www:2 usdoj:1 gov:1 atr:1 case:1 htm:1 mit:1 edu:1 thistle:1 credit:1 html:1 appeal:1 uphold:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 stm:1 examples:1 company:6 moody:1 v:11 p:1 rating:1 pepsi:1 coca:1 cola:1 soft:1 drink:1 gillette:1 wilkinson:1 sword:1 schick:1 razor:1 blade:1 airbus:1 boeing:1 commercial:1 jet:1 aircraft:1 marvel:1 comic:3 vs:13 dc:1 book:1 intel:1 amd:1 microprocessor:1 local:2 cable:1 telephone:2 residential:1 broadband:1 internet:1 access:1 analogue:1 mobile:2 phone:1 service:1 assign:1 bandwidth:1 carrier:1 b:1 much:1 north:1 america:1 effectively:1 alternate:1 bell:1 incumbent:1 regional:1 landline:1 monopoly:2 area:1 windsor:1 detroit:1 adversely:1 affect:1 spectrum:1 allocation:1 limitation:1 home:2 depot:1 lowes:1 retail:4 improvement:1 kodak:1 fujifilm:1 motion:1 picture:1 film:2 stock:1 k:1 kauppa:1 group:1 finnish:1 supermarket:4 jointly:4 foodstuff:1 progressive:1 enterprise:1 new:1 zealand:1 nvidia:1 ati:1 subsidiary:1 advanced:1 micro:1 device:1 mainstream:1 graphic:1 card:1 lexisnexis:1 westlaw:1 legal:2 research:1 together:1 jokingly:1 refer:2 wexis:1 petrochina:1 sinopec:1 chinese:1 oil:1 production:1 rai:1 mediaset:1 italian:1 television:3 telstra:1 optus:1 australian:1 telecom:1 dish:1 network:1 directv:1 satellite:1 provider:1 televisa:1 tv:3 azteca:1 mexican:1 multimedia:2 handango:1 motricity:1 content:1 migros:1 coop:1 swiss:1 food:1 fedex:1 ups:1 express:1 small:1 package:1 delivery:1 industry:2 millercoors:1 anheuser:1 busch:1 domestic:1 beer:1 baskin:1 robbins:1 cold:1 stone:1 creamery:1 ice:1 cream:1 canon:1 nikon:1 high:1 end:1 image:1 optic:1 digital:1 camera:1 especially:1 dslrs:1 kleenex:1 puff:1 facial:1 tissue:1 medium:1 finland:1 broadcast:7 yleisradio:3 private:1 broadcaster:2 mainos:2 economist:1 sense:1 word:2 allow:1 operate:1 lease:1 air:1 time:1 reserve:1 programming:1 channel:3 unique:1 phenomenon:1 world:1 independent:1 yle:1 mtv:2 also:2 radio:1 single:1 outlet:1 city:1 usage:1 technically:1 incompatible:1 normal:1 lead:1 confusion:1 inasmuch:1 owner:1 station:1 duopolies:1 canada:1 therefore:1 call:1 twinstick:1 reference:1 |@bigram nash_equilibrium:1 visa_mastercard:1 antitrust_lawsuit:1 http_www:1 uk_hi:1 coca_cola:1 soft_drink:1 razor_blade:1 marvel_comic:1 dc_comic:1 broadband_internet:1 mobile_phone:1 adversely_affect:1 motion_picture:1 anheuser_busch:1 ice_cream:1 |
2,847 | George_Peppard | George Peppard, Jr. (October 1, 1928 – May 8, 1994) was an American film and television actor. He secured a major role early in his career when he starred alongside Audrey Hepburn in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), and he played the title role of the millionaire sleuth Thomas Banacek in the early-1970s television series Banacek, but he is probably best known to younger audiences for his role as Col. John "Hannibal" Smith, the cigar-chomping leader of a renegade commando squad, in the 1980s television show The A-Team. Biography Early life George Peppard, Jr. was born in Detroit, Michigan, the son of building contractor George Peppard, Sr. and opera singer Vernelle Rohrer. He graduated from Dearborn High School in Dearborn, Michigan. Peppard enlisted in the United States Marine Corps at 17 and rose to rank of acting Gunnery Sergeant in the artillery, leaving the Marines at the end of his first tour. From 1948 to 1949, he studied Civil Engineering at Purdue University where he was a member of the Purdue Playmakers theatre troupe and Beta Theta Pi. He then transferred to Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1955. Acting career Peppard made his stage debut in 1949 at the Pittsburgh Playhouse. After moving to New York, Peppard enrolled in The Actors Studio, where he studied the Method with Lee Strasberg. His first work on Broadway led to his first television appearance, with a young Paul Newman, in The United States Steel Hour (1956). Peppard’s Broadway appearance in The Pleasure of His Company (1958) led to an MGM contract. Prior to a strong film debut in The Strange One (1957), he was discovered playing the illegitimate son of Robert Mitchum's character in the popular melodrama Home from the Hill (1960). His good looks, elegant manner and superior acting skills landed Peppard his most famous film role as Paul Varjak in Breakfast at Tiffany's with Audrey Hepburn. This role boosted him briefly to a major film star. His leading roles in that film's wake included How the West Was Won in 1962, The Carpetbaggers in 1964 and The Blue Max in 1966. Peppard developed a tendency to choose tough guy roles in big, ambitious pictures where he was somewhat overshadowed by ensemble casts; for example, his role as German pilot Bruno Stachel, an obsessively competitive officer from humble beginnings who challenges the Prussian aristocracy during World War I in The Blue Max (1966). For this role, Peppard learned to fly, earned a private pilot's license and did much of his own stunt flying, although stunt pilot Derek Pigott was at the controls for the famous under-the-bridge scene. Due to Peppard's tendencies toward alcohol, his career devolved into a string of B films, except for a brief moment of notable success with the highly successful TV series Banacek (1972-74), (part of the NBC Mystery Movie series), and one of his most critically acclaimed, though rarely seen, performances in the TV movie Guilty or Innocent: The Sam Sheppard Murder Case (1975). Among the disappointing films was the 1970 Western, Cannon for Cordoba, in which Peppard played the steely Captain Rod Douglas, who has been put in charge of gathering a group of soldiers on a dangerous mission into Mexico, and 1967's Rough Night in Jericho in which he co-starred with Dean Martin. Peppard appeared in the short-lived (half a season) Doctors' Hospital (1975) and several other television films. He was in the science fiction film Damnation Alley in 1977. With fewer interesting film roles coming his way, he acted in, directed and produced the drama Five Days from Home in 1979. In a rare game show appearance, Peppard did a week of shows on Password Plus in 1979. Out of five shows, one was never broadcast on NBC (but aired much later on GSN) due to a rant where he expressed dissatisfaction with NBC executives watching "as if you're some sort of crook." Peppard was never asked to return to the show again. Dynasty In 1981, Peppard was offered, and accepted, the role of Blake Carrington in the TV series Dynasty. During the filming of the pilot episode, which also featured Linda Evans and Bo Hopkins, Peppard repeatedly clashed with the show's producers, Richard and Esther Shapiro; among other things, he felt that his role was too similar to that of J.R. Ewing in the series Dallas. Three weeks later, before filming was to begin on additional episodes, Peppard was fired and the part was offered to John Forsythe; the scenes with Peppard were reshot. Bo Hopkins Remembers Dynasty!, Mike Pingel, hollywoodfyi.com The A-Team In the early 1980s, George Peppard re-emerged as a television star for his role as Colonel John "Hannibal" Smith in the action adventure series The A-Team, acting alongside Mr. T, Dirk Benedict and Dwight Schultz. In the series, the A-Team was a crack squad of renegade commandos on the run from the military for a crime they did not commit while serving in the Vietnam war. The A-Team made a living as soldiers of fortune, albeit only helping people with a just grievance. "Hannibal" Smith was the leader of the A-Team, distinguished by his cigar-smoking, black leather gloves, disguises and catch phrase, "I love it when a plan comes together." The show ran five seasons on NBC from 1983–1987. It made Peppard known to a younger generation and is arguably his most well-known role. The role was reportedly written with James Coburn in mind, but went to Peppard when Coburn had to pull out. Personal life Peppard married five times, and was the father of three children: Helen Davies (1954–1964): two children, Bradford and Julie Elizabeth Ashley (1966–1972), his co-star in The Carpetbaggers: one son, Christian Sherry Boucher-Lytle (1975–1979) Alexis Adams (1984–1986) Laura Taylor (1992–1994) Peppard gave up drinking in 1978 and spent his later years trying to assist other alcoholics with recovering. A life-long smoker, Peppard was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1992 and subsequently quit. His fifth wife, Laura Taylor, met and married him shortly after he was diagnosed with terminal cancer, and nursed him through his last 18 months. Cancer never forced his retirement from acting, and Peppard completed a pilot for a new series in 1994 (a Matlock spin-off) shortly before his passing. Peppard died on May 8, 1994, in Los Angeles, California. Although he was being treated for lung cancer, his actual cause of death was a complication arising from the treatment he was getting - chemotherapy-induced leukemia. He is buried in Northview Cemetery in Dearborn, Michigan. Awards 1960 NBR Award (National Board of Review of Motion Pictures) for Home from the Hill as Best Supporting Actor 1961 BAFTA Award Nomination (British Academy Award) for Home From The Hill 1961 „Promising newcomer to leading film roles“ Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (Category Motion Pictures, 6675 Hollywood Blvd., Los Angeles) Filmography The Tigress (1992) Ultra Warrior (1990) Night of the Fox (1990) The A-Team (1983–1987) Hit Man (1982) Race for the Yankee Zephyr (1981) Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid (1981) Battle Beyond the Stars (1980) From Hell to Victory (1979) Five Days from Home (1979) Damnation Alley (1977) Doctors' Hospital (1975-76) Mid-Air Crash (TV) (1975) Newman's Law (1974) Banacek (1972-1974) TV series The Groundstar Conspiracy (1972)One More Train to Rob (1971)Cannon for Cordoba (1970) The Executioner (1970)Pendulum (1969)House of Cards (1968)What's So Bad About Feeling Good? (1968)P.J. (1968)Rough Night in Jericho (1967)Tobruk (1967) The Blue Max (1966) The Third Day (1965) Operation Crossbow (1965) The Carpetbaggers (1964) The Victors (1963) How the West Was Won (1962)Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961)The Subterraneans (1960) Home from the Hill (1960)Pork Chop Hill (1959)The Strange One'' (1957) References External links Retrieved on 2008-04-01 | George_Peppard |@lemmatized george:4 peppard:27 jr:2 october:1 may:2 american:1 film:11 television:6 actor:3 secure:1 major:2 role:16 early:4 career:3 star:7 alongside:2 audrey:2 hepburn:2 breakfast:3 tiffany:3 play:3 title:1 millionaire:1 sleuth:1 thomas:1 banacek:4 series:9 probably:1 best:2 know:3 young:3 audience:1 col:1 john:3 hannibal:3 smith:3 cigar:2 chomp:1 leader:2 renegade:2 commando:2 squad:2 show:7 team:7 biography:1 life:3 bear:1 detroit:1 michigan:3 son:3 building:1 contractor:1 sr:1 opera:1 singer:1 vernelle:1 rohrer:1 graduate:1 dearborn:3 high:1 school:1 enlist:1 united:2 state:2 marine:2 corp:1 rise:1 rank:1 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2,848 | John_Dowland | John Dowland While orthographic evidence from Dowland's time strongly suggests a pronunciation of for the last name, there is no consensus on the correct pronunciation. See the talk page for discussion of this issue. (1563 – buried 20 February 1626) was an English composer, singer, and lutenist. He is best known today for his melancholy songs such as "Come, heavy sleep" (the basis for Benjamin Britten's Nocturnal), "Come again", "Flow my tears", "I saw my Lady weepe" and "In darkness let me dwell", but his instrumental music has undergone a major revival, and has been a source of repertoire for classical guitarists during the twentieth century. Early career Very little is known of Dowland's early life, but it is generally thought he was born in London. Irish historian W. H. Grattan Flood claimed that he was born in Dublin, but no corroborating evidence has ever been found. Holmon/O'Dette, Grove online In 1580 Dowland went to Paris, where he was in service to Sir Henry Cobham, the ambassador to the French court, and his successor, Sir Edward Stafford. He became a Roman Catholic at this time. In 1594 a vacancy for a lutenist came up at the English court, but Dowland's application was unsuccessful - he claimed his religion led to his not being offered a post at Elizabeth I's Protestant court. However, his conversion was not publicized, and being Catholic did not prevent some other important musicians (such as William Byrd) from having a court career in England. Career as composer In 1597 Dowland published his "First Booke of Songes" in London. This collection of lute-songs was set out in a way that allows performance by a soloist with lute accompaniment or various combinations of singers and instrumentalists. From 1598 Dowland worked at the court of Christian IV of Denmark, but he continued to publish in London. He returned to England in 1606 and in early 1612 secured a post as one of James I's lutenists. There are no compositions dating from the moment of his royal appointment until his death in London in 1626. While the date of his burial is recorded, the exact date of his death is not known. Holman/O'Dette, Grove online Most of Dowland's music is for his own instrument, the lute. It includes several books of solo lute works, lute songs (for one voice and lute), part-songs with lute accompaniment, and several pieces for viol consort with lute. The poet Richard Barnfield wrote that Dowland's "heavenly touch upon the lute doth ravish human sense." One of his better known works is the lute song "Flow my tears", the first verse of which runs: {{Cquote|Flow, my tears, fall from your springs, Exiled for ever, let me mourn Where night's black bird her sad infamy sings, There let me live forlorn.}} He later wrote what is probably his best known instrumental work, Lachrimae, or Seaven Teares, Figured in Seaven Passionate Pavans, a set of seven pavanes for five viols and lute, each based on the theme derived from the lute song "Flow my tears". It became one of the best known collections of consort music in his time. His pavane, "Lachrymae antiquae", was also popular in the seventeenth century, and was arranged and used as a theme for variations by many composers. Dowland's music often displays the melancholia that was so fashionable in music at that time. He wrote a consort piece with the punning title "Semper Dowland, semper dolens" (always Dowland, always doleful), which may be said to sum up much of his work. Dowland's song, "Come Heavy Sleepe, the Image of True Death", was the inspiration for Benjamin Britten's "Nocturnal after John Dowland for guitar", written in 1964 for the guitarist Julian Bream. This work consists of eight variations, all based on musical themes drawn from the song or its lute accompaniment, finally resolving into a guitar setting of the song itself. Richard Barnfield, Dowland's contemporary, refers to the lutenist in poem VIII of The Passionate Pilgrim (1598): Modern interpretations In 1935, Australian-born composer Percy Grainger, who had a deep interest in music made before Bach, arranged Dowland’s Now, O now I needs must part for piano. Some years later, in 1953, Grainger wrote a work titled Bell Piece (Ramble on John Dowland’s ‘Now, O now I needs must part’), which was a version scored for voice and wind band, based in his previously mentioned transcription. Dowland's music became part of the repertoire of the early music revival with lutenist Julian Bream and tenor Peter Pears, and later with Christopher Hogwood and David Munrow and the Early Music Consort in the late 1960s and later with the Academy of Ancient Music from the early 1970s. The 1999 ECM New Series recording In Darkness Let Me Dwell features new interpretations of Dowland songs performed by tenor John Potter (musician), lutenist Stephen Stubbs, and baroque violinist Maya Homburger in collaboration with English jazz musicians John Surman and Barry Guy. Elvis Costello included a recording (with Fretwork and the Composers Ensemble) of Dowland's "Can she excuse my wrongs" as a bonus track on the 2006 re-release of his The Juliet Letters. In October 2006, Sting, who has been described as a fan of Dowland's music Gift of a lute makes Sting party like it's 1599, June 6, 2006, The Guardian , released an album featuring Dowland's songs titled Songs from the Labyrinth, on Deutsche Grammophon, in collaboration with Edin Karamazov on lute and archlute. They described their treatment of Dowland's work in a Great Performances appearance. To give some idea of the tone and intrigues of life in late Elizabethan England, Sting also recites throughout the album portions of a 1593 letter written by Dowland to Sir Robert Cecil. The letter documents Dowland's travels to various points of Western Europe, then breaks into an abrupt denial of charges of treason whispered against Dowland by unknown persons. He most likely was suspected of this for traveling to the courts of various Catholic monarchs and accepting payment from them greater than what a musician of the time would normally have received for performing. Other interpretations of Dowland's songs have been recorded by Windham Hill artist, Lisa Lynne, (for her CD, Maiden's Prayer) and Lise Winne (for her Wing'd With Hopes, New Interpretations of Renaissance Songs CD). Several bands, such as Die Verbannten Kinder Evas, Aesma Daeva and Qntal, have recorded albums featuring lyrics by John Dowland. The countertenor Andreas Scholl sings in Crystal Tears English consort songs with Concerto Viole of Basel (http://www.andreasschollsociety.org/discography.htm) In popular culture The science fiction author Philip K. Dick was a fan of Dowland's and his lute music is a recurring theme in Dick's novels. Dick sometimes assumed the pen-name Jack Dowland. Dick also based the title of the novel Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said on one of Dowland's best-known compositions. In his novel The Divine Invasion, the character Linda Fox (a thinly disguised proxy for Linda Ronstadt) is a popular singer whose repertoire consists of remakes of John Dowland compositions. In the 1995 movie Sense and Sensibility, Marianne sings "Weep you no more sad fountains" when Colonel Brandon first sees her. Rose Tremain's 1999 novel Music and Silence is set at the court of Christian IV of Denmark some years after Dowland's departure and contains several references to the composer's music and temperament: in the opening chapter, Christian remarks that "the man was all ambition and hatred, yet his ayres were as delicate as rain". References Peter Holman/Paul O'Dette: "John Dowland", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed July 10, 2007), (subscription access) Notes Bibliography John Dowland by Diana Poulton, published by Faber & Faber (2nd edition, 1982). ISBN 0-520-04687-0. A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance by Douglas Alton Smith, published by the Lute Society of America (2002). ISBN 0-9714071-0-X The Lute in Britain: A History of the Instrument and its Music by Matthew Spring, published by Oxford University Press (2001). The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland'' edited by Diana Poulton, published by Faber Music (2nd edition, 1978). ISBN 0-571-10024-4. Recordings External links johndowland.co.uk - site containing videos, essays, and scores Some video performances of John Dowland's songs by Valeria Mignaco, soprano & Alfonso Marin, lute Some video performances of John Dowland's songs by Valeria Mignaco, soprano & Alfonso Marin, lute John Dowland's Come Again sung by male alto Russell Oberlin Four Pieces by John Dowland performed by lutist Brian Wright | John_Dowland |@lemmatized john:14 dowland:40 orthographic:1 evidence:2 time:5 strongly:1 suggest:1 pronunciation:2 last:1 name:2 consensus:1 correct:1 see:2 talk:1 page:1 discussion:1 issue:1 bury:1 february:1 english:4 composer:6 singer:3 lutenist:6 best:4 know:6 today:1 melancholy:1 song:17 come:5 heavy:2 sleep:1 basis:1 benjamin:2 britten:2 nocturnal:2 flow:5 tear:6 saw:1 lady:1 weepe:1 darkness:2 let:4 dwell:2 instrumental:2 music:18 undergone:1 major:1 revival:2 source:1 repertoire:3 classical:1 guitarist:2 twentieth:1 century:2 early:6 career:3 little:1 life:2 generally:1 think:1 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run:1 cquote:1 fall:1 spring:2 exile:1 mourn:1 night:1 black:1 bird:1 sad:2 infamy:1 sings:3 live:1 forlorn:1 later:4 probably:1 lachrimae:1 seaven:2 teares:1 figure:1 passionate:2 pavan:1 seven:1 pavane:2 five:1 base:4 theme:4 derive:1 known:1 lachrymae:1 antiquae:1 also:3 popular:3 seventeenth:1 arrange:2 use:1 variation:2 many:1 often:1 display:1 melancholia:1 fashionable:1 pun:1 title:4 semper:2 dolens:1 always:2 doleful:1 may:1 say:2 sum:1 much:1 sleepe:1 image:1 true:1 inspiration:1 guitar:2 julian:2 bream:2 consist:2 eight:1 musical:1 draw:1 finally:1 resolve:1 setting:1 contemporary:1 refers:1 poem:1 viii:1 pilgrim:1 modern:1 interpretation:4 australian:1 percy:1 grainger:2 deep:1 interest:1 make:2 bach:1 need:2 must:2 piano:1 year:2 bell:1 ramble:1 version:1 score:2 wind:1 band:2 previously:1 mention:1 transcription:1 tenor:2 peter:2 pear:1 christopher:1 hogwood:1 david:1 munrow:1 late:2 academy:1 ancient:1 ecm:1 new:3 series:1 recording:3 feature:3 perform:3 potter:1 stephen:1 stubbs:1 baroque:1 violinist:1 maya:1 homburger:1 collaboration:2 jazz:1 surman:1 barry:1 guy:1 elvis:1 costello:1 fretwork:1 ensemble:1 excuse:1 wrong:1 bonus:1 track:1 release:2 juliet:1 letter:3 october:1 sting:3 describe:2 fan:2 gift:1 party:1 like:1 june:1 guardian:1 album:3 labyrinth:1 deutsche:1 grammophon:1 edin:1 karamazov:1 archlute:1 treatment:1 great:2 appearance:1 give:1 idea:1 tone:1 intrigue:1 elizabethan:1 recite:1 throughout:1 portion:1 robert:1 cecil:1 document:1 travel:2 point:1 western:1 europe:1 break:1 abrupt:1 denial:1 charge:1 treason:1 whisper:1 unknown:1 person:1 likely:1 suspect:1 monarch:1 accept:1 payment:1 would:1 normally:1 receive:1 windham:1 hill:1 artist:1 lisa:1 lynne:1 cd:2 maiden:1 prayer:1 lise:1 winne:1 wing:1 hope:1 renaissance:2 die:1 verbannten:1 kind:1 evas:1 aesma:1 daeva:1 qntal:1 lyric:1 countertenor:1 andreas:1 scholl:1 crystal:1 concerto:1 viole:1 basel:1 http:1 www:1 andreasschollsociety:1 org:1 discography:1 htm:1 culture:1 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2,849 | Apple_II_series | The 1977 Apple II, shown here with twin floppy disk drives and a monitor. The Apple II featured an integrated keyboard, sound, a plastic case, and eight internal expansion slots. The Apple II (often rendered or written as Apple ][ or Apple //) was one of the first highly successful mass produced microcomputer products http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/4 , manufactured by Apple Computer (now Apple Inc.) and introduced in 1977. It was among the first home computers on the market, and became one of the most recognizable and successful. In terms of ease of use, features and expandability the Apple II was a major technological advancement over its predecessor, the Apple I, a limited production bare circuit board computer for electronics hobbyists which pioneered many features that made the Apple II a commercial success. Introduced at the West Coast Computer Faire in 1977, the Apple II was among the first successful personal computers and responsible for launching the Apple company into a successful business (and for allowing several related companies to start at all). Throughout the years, a number of different models were introduced and sold, with the most popular model manufactured having relatively minor changes even into the 1990s. By the end of its production in 1993, somewhere between five and six million Apple II series computers (including approximately 1.25 million Apple IIGS models) had been produced. Throughout the late 1980s and much of the 1990s the Apple II was the standard computer in American education. It was popular with business users, families, and schools, particularly after the 1979 release of the popular VisiCalc spreadsheet for Apple II. The original Apple II operating system was only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM; most commercial Apple II software on disk, e.g. educational games and productivity programs, booted directly on the hardware and either had no operating system or incorporated one of its own (which was usually invisible to the user.) The Apple DOS Disk Operating System was added to support the diskette drive; the last version was "Apple DOS 3.3". Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80 based expansion card the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run Wordstar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. At the height of its evolution, towards the late 1980s, the platform had the graphical look of a hybrid of the Apple II and Macintosh with the introduction of the Apple IIGS. By 1992 the platform had 16-bit processing capabilities, a mouse-driven Graphical User Interface, and graphic and sound capabilities far beyond the original. The expensive GUI-based Apple Lisa was introduced in 1983, but was not successful commercially. The Macintosh was introduced in 1984, and finally eclipsed the Apple II series in 1993. Even after the introduction of the Macintosh, the Apple II series was Apple's primary revenue source for years: with its associated community of third-party developers and retailers it was once a billion-dollar-a-year industry. The Apple IIGS was sold until the end of 1992; the last II-series Apple in production, the IIe, was discontinued on October 15, 1993. Design The Apple II was designed to look more like a home appliance than a piece of electronic equipment. The lid popped off the beige plastic case without the use of tools, allowing access to the computer's internals, including the motherboard with eight expansion slots, and an array of random access memory (RAM) sockets which could hold up to 48 kilobytes worth of memory chips. The Apple II had color and high-resolution graphics modes, sound capabilities and one of two built-in BASIC programming languages (initially Integer BASIC, later Applesoft BASIC). Compared with earlier microcomputers, these features were well-documented and easy to learn. The Apple II arguably sparked the personal computer revolution, as it was targeted for the masses rather than just hobbyists and engineers; its introduction and subsequent popularity also greatly influenced most of the microcomputers that followed it. In this context, one of the main meanings of "not just for hobbyists and engineers" is that, unlike preceding home microcomputers, it was sold as a finished consumer appliance rather than as a kit (unassembled or preassembled). VanLOVEs Apple Handbook and The Apple Educators Guide by Gerald VanDiver and Rolland Love reviewed more than 1,500 software programs that the Apple II series could use. The Apple dealer network used this book to emphasize the growing software developer base in education and personal use. Models See also the Timeline of computing article. Early II-series models were usually designated "Apple ]["; later models "Apple //", plus a letter suffix. Apple II The first Apple II computers went on sale on June 6, 1977 with a MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1 MHz, 4 kB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into the ROMs. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of monochrome, upper-case-only text on the screen, with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a TV monitor, or on a regular TV set by way of a separate RF modulator. The original retail price of the computer was US$1298 (with 4 kB of RAM) and US$2638 (with the maximum 48 kB of RAM). To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing was represented using rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. The earliest Apple II's were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore. An external 5¼-inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II, attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), was used for data storage and retrieval to replace cassettes. The Disk II interface, created by Steve Wozniak, was regarded as an engineering masterpiece at the time for its economy of electronic components. Freiberger, Paul, and Michael Swaine. "Fire In The Valley, Part Two (Book Excerpt)", A+ Magazine, January 1985: 45. While other controllers had dozens of chips for synchronizing data I/O with disk rotation, seeking the head to the appropriate track, and encoding the data into magnetic pulses, Wozniak's controller card had few chips; instead, the Apple DOS used software to perform these functions. The Group Code Recording used by the controller was simpler and easier to implement in software than the more common MFM. In the end, the low chip count of the controller contributed to making Apple's Disk II the first affordable floppy drive system for personal computers. As a side effect, Wozniak's scheme made it easy for proprietary software developers to copy-protect the media on which their software shipped by changing the low-level sector format or stepping the drive's head between the tracks; inevitably, other companies eventually sold software to foil this protection. Another Wozniak optimization allowed him to omit Shugart's Track-0 sensor. When the Operating System wants to go to track 0, the controller simply moves forty times toward the next-lower-numbered track, relying on the mechanical stop to prevent it going any further down than track 0. This process, called "recalibration", made a loud buzzing (rapid mechanical chattering) sound that often frightened Apple novices. The approach taken in the Disk II controller was typical of Wozniak's design sensibility. The Apple II was full of clever engineering tricks to save hardware and reduce costs. For example, taking advantage of the way that 6502 instructions only access memory every other clock cycle, the video generation circuitry's memory access on the otherwise unused cycles avoided memory contention issues and also eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for the DRAM chips. Rather than using a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Wozniak used a simple timer circuit whose period was proportional to the resistance of the game controller, and used a software loop to measure the timer. The text and graphics screens had a somewhat outdated arrangement (the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory) which was reputedly due to Wozniak's realization that doing it that way would save a chip; it was less expensive to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline than to include the extra hardware. Similarly, in the high-resolution graphics mode, color was determined by pixel position and could thus be implemented in software, saving Wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors. This also allowed for sub-pixel font rendering since orange and blue pixels appeared half a pixel-width further to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels. Color on the Apple II series took advantage of a quirk of the NTSC television signal standard, which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement. The original NTSC television signal specification was black-and-white. Color was tacked on later by adding a 3.58 MHz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by B&W TV sets. Color is encoded based on the phase of this signal in relation to a reference color burst signal. The result is that the position, size, and intensity of a series of pulses define color information. These pulses can translate into pixels on the computer screen. The Apple II display provided two pixels per subcarrier cycle. When the color burst reference signal was turned on and the computer attached to a color display, it could display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels, magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels, and white by placing two pixels next to each other. Later, blue and orange became available by tweaking the offset of the pixels by half a pixel-width in relation to the colorburst signal. The high-resolution enhanced display offered more colors simply by compressing more, narrower pixels into each subcarrier cycle. The coarse, low-resolution graphics display mode worked differently, as it could output a short burst of high-frequency signal per pixel to offer more color options. The epitome of the Apple II design philosophy was the Apple II sound circuitry. Rather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line out jack; all other sounds (including two, three and, eventually, four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by clever software that clicked the speaker at just the right times. Not for nearly a decade would an Apple II be released with a dedicated sound chip. Similar techniques were used for cassette storage: the cassette output worked the same as the speaker, and the input was a simple zero-crossing detector that served as a relatively crude (1-bit) audio digitizer. Routines in the ROM were used to encode and decode data in frequency shift keying for the cassette. Wozniak's open design and the Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices to expand the capabilities of the machine. Apple II peripheral cards such as Serial controllers, improved display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, and networking components were available for this system in its day. There were plug-in expansion cards, such as the Z80-card, that permitted the Apple to use the Z80 processor and run a multitude of programs developed under the CP/M operating system, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. (At one point in the mid-1980s, more than half the machines running CP/M were Apple II's with Z80 cards.) There was also a third-party 6809 card that would allow OS-9 Level One to be run. The Mockingboard sound card greatly improved the audio capabilities of the Apple, with simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Eventually, Apple II accelerator cards were created to double or quadruple the computer's speed. Apple II Plus The Apple II Plus, introduced in June 1979, Apple II History Chap 6 Macintosh Prehistory: The Apple I and Apple II Era Apple Products EDTechTimeline included the Applesoft BASIC programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, which was previously available as an upgrade, supported floating-point arithmetic, and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple II series (though it ran at a noticeably slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC). The Apple II Plus was otherwise identical to the original Apple II. The smaller memory sizes were no longer available, so the II Plus always had a total of 48 kB of RAM, expandable to 64 kB by means of the "language card", a 16 kB RAM expansion card that could be installed in the computer's slot 0. The Apple's 6502 microprocessor could support a maximum of 64 kB of memory, and a machine with 48 kB RAM reached this limit because of the additional 12 kB of read-only memory and 4 kB of I/O addresses. For this reason, the extra RAM in the language card was bank-switched over the machine's built-in ROM, allowing code loaded into the additional memory to be used as if it actually were ROM. Users could thus load Integer BASIC into the language card from disk and switch between the Integer and Applesoft dialects of BASIC with DOS 3.3's INT and FP commands just as if they had the BASIC ROM expansion card. The language card was also required to use the UCSD Pascal and FORTRAN 77 compilers, which were released by Apple at about the same time. These ran under a non-DOS operating system called the UCSD P-System, which had its own disk format and included a "virtual machine" that allowed it to run on many different types of hardware. The UCSD P-system had a curious approach to memory management, which became even more curious on the Apple III. Apple II Europlus and J-Plus After the success of the first Apple II in the United States, Apple expanded its market to include Europe, Australia and the Far East in 1978, with the Apple II Europlus (Europe, Australia) and the Apple II J-Plus (Japan). In these models, Apple made the necessary hardware, software and firmware changes in order to comply to standards outside of the U.S. The power supply was modified to accept the local voltage, and in the European and Australian model the video output signal was changed from color NTSC to monochrome PAL — an extra video card was needed for color PAL graphics, since the simple tricks Wozniak had used to generate a pseudo-NTSC signal with minimal hardware didn't carry over to the more complex PAL system. In the Japanese version of the international Apple, the keyboard layout was changed to allow for Katakana writing (full Kanji support was clearly beyond the capabilities of the machine), but in most other countries the international Apple was sold with an unmodified American keyboard; thus the German model still lacked the umlauts, for example. For the most part, the Apple II Europlus and J-Plus were identical to the Apple II Plus. Production of the Europlus ended in 1983. Apple IIe An Apple IIe with DuoDisk and Monitor //. The Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the Apple IIe, a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine that used newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 kB of RAM. The IIe RAM was configured as if it were a 48 kB Apple II Plus with a language card; the machine had no slot 0, but instead had an auxiliary slot that for most practical purposes took the place of slot 3, the most commonly used slot for 80-column cards in the II Plus. The auxiliary slot could accept a 1 kB memory card to enable the 80-column display. This card contained only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display was built into the Apple IIe, remaining fairly compatible with the older Videx-style cards, even though the low-level details were very different. An "extended 80-column card" with more memory expanded the machine's RAM to 128 kB. As with the language card, the memory in the 80-column card was bank-switched over the machine's main RAM; this made the memory better suited to data storage than to running software, and in fact the ProDOS operating system, which was introduced with the Apple IIe, would automatically configure this memory as a RAM disk upon booting. Third-party aux-slot memory cards later allowed expansion up to 1 MB. The 80-column card also enabled one new graphics mode, Double Lo-Res (80×48 pixels). The extended 80-column card enabled two, Double Lo-Res and Double Hi-Res (560×192 pixels). Both modes doubled the horizontal resolution in comparison to the standard Lo-Res (40×48) and Hi-Res (280×192) Modes; in the case of Double Hi-Res, the number of available colors was increased as well, from 6 to 15. Apple IIe's from the very first production run cannot use Double Hi-Res. Neither of these modes was directly supported by the built-in BASIC, however, so the user had to resort to the use of lots of POKE and CALL commands in BASIC, or assembly language programming, or one of a number of software Toolkits to exploit these modes. While it was possible for software to switch out the 80-column firmware, making the firmware of a card in slot 3 available with a card in the auxiliary slot, it was not a common thing to do. However, even with the 80-column firmware enabled, slot 3's I/O memory range was still usable, giving it approximately the capability of slot 0 on a II or II plus. This meant that it actually was possible to use slot 3 for things, such as coprocessor cards and language cards, that did not use slot firmware space. Introduced with the IIe was the DuoDisk, essentially two Disk II 5¼-inch drives in a single enclosure designed to stack between the computer and the monitor, and a new controller card to run it. This controller was (by design) functionally identical to the original Disk II controller but used a different connector, allowing a single cable to control both drives in the DuoDisk. The DuoDisk was plagued by reliability problems, however, and did not catch on as well as the Apple IIe itself. The Apple IIe was the most popular Apple II ever built and was widely considered the "workhorse" of the line. It also has the distinction of being the longest-lived Apple computer of all time — it was manufactured and sold with only minor changes for nearly eleven years. In that time, following the original, two important variations came to pass known as the Enhanced IIe (four new replacement chips to give it some of the features of the later model Apple IIc, including an upgraded processor called the 65C02) and the Platinum IIe (a modernized new look for the case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a built-in numeric keypad). An Enhanced IIe with 128 kB of RAM can be considered the minimum requirement for running most Apple II software released after about 1988. Two and a half years before the Apple IIe, Apple had produced and marketed a computer called the Apple III for business users. This product was not a success, and Steve Wozniak has been quoted as saying that the Apple III had a 100% failure rate — every single machine manufactured had some kind of fault (a famous Apple technical bulletin recommended dropping the machine vertically onto a table to re-seat the DIP chips in their loose sockets). Still, many of its features were carried over in the design of the Apple IIe, without the manufacturing flaws that led to failures in the Apple III. Among them was the ProDOS operating system, which was based on Apple III's Sophisticated Operating System (SOS). Apple IIc The Apple IIc was Apple's first compact and portable computer. Apple released the Apple IIc in April 1984, billing it as a portable Apple II, because it could be easily carried; however, it lacked battery power and a built-in display, so while it was portable, it was not mobile in the common modern sense. The IIc even sported a carrying handle that folded down to prop the machine up into a typing position. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the Snow White design language, and the only one that used its unique creamy off-white color. "Kunkel, Paul, AppleDesign: The work of the Apple Industrial Design Group, with photographs by Rick English, New York: Graphis, 1997, p.30 (The other Snow White computers from the Apple II series, the IIGS and the IIc Plus, were light gray, called "Platinum" by Apple.) The Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the updated 65C02 processor, and featured a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive and 128 kB RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a port usable by either a joystick or mouse. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all, this being the means by which its compact size was attained. Third parties did eventually figure out how to wedge up to 1 MB of additional memory and a real-time clock into the machine, and a later revision of the motherboard provided an expansion slot that could accept an Apple memory card bearing up to 1 MB of RAM. The disk port, originally intended for a second 5¼-inch floppy drive, eventually was able to interface to 3½-inch disk drives and (via third parties) even hard disks. To play up the portability, two different monochrome LCD displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. (An Apple IIc with the smaller of these displays appeared briefly in the film 2010.) The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter. The Apple IIc (in its American version) was the first microcomputer to include support for the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, which was activated using a switch above the keyboard. This feature was also later found in late-model American Apple IIe computers (though the switch was inside the computer) and in the Apple IIGS (accessible via the built-in control panel). The international models used the same mechanism to switch between the localized and the American keyboard layouts, but did not offer Dvorak. Apple IIGS 150|The Apple IIGS, the most powerful Apple II, featuring a true 16-bit CPU, 4096 colors, Ensoniq synthesizer, a Mac-like GUI and a mouse. 150|The Apple IIGS setup, with keyboard and mouse shown. The next member of the line was the Apple IIGS computer, released in September 15, 1986. A radical departure from the existing Apple II line, the IIGS featured a true 16-bit microprocessor, the 65C816, operating at with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM without the bank-switching hassles of the earlier machines (RAM cards with more than 4 MB were never directly supported by Apple Regan, Joe. A2Pro Roundtable, October 1991, Category 16, Topic 2. ). It introduced two completely new graphic modes sporting higher resolutions and a palette of 4,096 colors; however, only 4 (at 640×200 resolution) or 16 (at 320×200 resolution) colors could be used on a single line at a time, although a technique known as dithering was often employed in software to increase the number of perceived colors. Duprau, Jeanne, and Tyson, Molly. "The Making of the Apple IIGS", A+ Magazine, November 1986: 57-74. In a departure from earlier Apple II graphics modes, the new modes laid out the scanlines sequentially in memory. However, programmers in search of a graphics challenge could always turn to 3200-color mode, which involved precisely swapping in a different 16-color palette for each of the screen's 200 scanlines as the monitor's electron beam traced the screen line by line. This exotic technique did not leave many CPU cycles available for other processing, so this "mode" was best suited to displaying static images. The Apple IIGS stood out from any previous (or future) Apple II models, evolving and advancing the platform into the next generation of computing while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. The secret of the Apple IIGS's compatibility was a single chip called the Mega II, which contained the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor). This, combined with the flawless 65C02 emulation mode of the 65C816 processor, provided full support for legacy software. The computer also included a 32-voice Ensoniq 5503, 'wavetable' sample-based music synthesizer chip with 64 kB dedicated RAM, 256 kB of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices), built-in AppleTalk networking, and a ROM toolbox that supported a graphical user interface derived from the Macintosh toolbox. The computer could run existing 8-bit Apple II software (including software written for the very first Apple II in Integer BASIC), but also supported 16-bit software running under a new OS first called ProDOS 16 and later called GS/OS. The new OS eventually included a Finder that could be used for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with desk accessories — just like the Macintosh. The 16-bit operating system would automatically switch to the text display and downshift to 8-bit mode to run legacy software, while offering a consistent, Macintosh-like graphical interface for native 16-bit applications. Eventually the IIGS gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, even multitasking (both cooperative and preemptive, the latter in the form of a Unix-type shell), outline TrueType font support, and in one case, even real-time 3D gaming using texture mapping. The first 50,000 Apple IIGS computers came with Steve Wozniak's "Woz" signature silkscreened on the front and were referred to as the "Woz Limited Edition". These machines are not functionally different from machines from the same time period without the signature. Apple IIc Plus The Apple IIc Plus, an 8-bit revision of the original portable but with faster CPU, 3½-inch floppy and built-in power supply. It was the last of the Apple II line. The final Apple II model was the Apple IIc Plus introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5¼-inch floppy drive had been replaced with a 3½-inch drive, the power supply was moved inside (gone was the IIc's "brick on a leash" power supply), and the processor was a fast 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the IIGS. (Third-party accelerators for other models could, however, go as fast as , and IIGS accelerators would eventually reach .) The IIc Plus's accelerator was derived from a design licensed from Zip Technologies, a third-party maker of accelerators for the Apple II, though Apple used separate chips instead of combining the processor, cache, and supporting logic on a multi-chip module as did Zip. Like later models of the original Apple IIc, the IIc Plus included a memory expansion slot that would accept a daughter-card carrying up to a megabyte of RAM. The IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and IIGS. Unlike the IIe, IIc and IIGS, the IIc Plus came only in one version (American) and was not officially sold anywhere outside the USA. Many perceived the IIc Plus as Apple's attempt to compete with the Laser 128EX/2, a popular third party Apple-compatible machine that also had an accelerated processor and a built-in 3½-inch drive. There were few other rational explanations for Apple expending resources on the continued development of a new 8-bit Apple II model rather than furthering the 16-bit Apple IIGS. However, with its 3½-inch drive and speedy processor, it was an excellent, compact machine for running the AppleWorks integrated productivity package, especially with the 1 MB memory upgrade. Apple IIe Card Although not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the Apple IIe Card, an expansion card for the LC line of Macintosh computers, was released. Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (using the Mega II chip from the Apple IIGS), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation (although video was emulated in software and was slower at times than a IIe). Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could be "borrowed" by the card when in Apple II mode (i.e. extra RAM, 3½-inch floppy, AppleTalk networking, hard disk). The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple IIGS. The Macintosh LC with IIe Card was intended to replace the Apple IIGS in schools and homes and was presumably the reason a new model Apple IIGS that was confirmed by insiders to be in development at one point was cancelled and never released. Other peripheral cards There were many companies during the 1980s that provided the Apple II line of computers with peripheral cards that added functionality thanks to Steve Wozniak's slot design. One such company was Applied Engineering. Two of the most popular and successful cards were the RamWorks (and its successors, the RamWorks II and RamWorks III) and the TransWarp cards. The RamWorks III card replaced the Apple IIe's auxiliary-slot memory card and with the appropriate daughter board could hold 3 MB of RAM. The TransWarp card was an Accelerator Card that could speed up the Apple II from its native processor to for the TransWarp and for the TransWarp II. The Transwarp card had the advantage of using Slot 3, which was directly tied to the AUX slot and normally unusable if an 80-column card or other such card was populating the AUX slot. Applied Engineering also developed and sold a 1.44 MB 3½-inch disk drive, an improvement over Apple's own 800 kB UniDisk 3½ (for the Apple IIe and IIc) and Apple 3½ Drive (for the Apple IIGS), though Apple did eventually release its own 1.44 MB drive (dubbed the SuperDrive) on the Apple IIe and IIGS. The SuperDrive was one of the last Apple II products released by Apple, and was canceled after a short time, together with the whole Apple II line. The Applied Engineering or AE drive came with its own controller card. Another card available from Apple was the Apple II ProFile card. This card attached to the Apple ProFile Hard Disk that was initially designed for the Apple III computer. The ProFile was available first in a 5 MB configuration and later in a 10 MB one. Final years Apple's Macintosh product line finally eclipsed the Apple II in the early 1990s. Even after the Macintosh's introduction, the Apple II had remained the company's primary revenue source for years. The computer was the first to attract a loyal user community and many outspoken Apple II fans were bitter that the company had invested its Apple II profits into the Macintosh rather than using them to further the Apple II series. Despite withholding advertising and little corporate support, Apple continued to sell the IIGS throughout 1992. Apple brought an era to a close when the IIe was removed from the product line on October 15, 1993. Advertising, marketing, and packaging Mike Markkula, a retired Intel salesman who provided early critical funding for Apple Computer, was keen on marketing. From 1977 until 1981 Apple used the Regis McKenna agency for its advertisements and marketing. In 1981, Chiat-Day acquired Regis McKenna's advertising operations and Apple used Chiat-Day. At Regis McKenna Advertising, the team assigned to launch the Apple II consisted of Rob Janoff, art director, Chip Schafer, copywriter and Bill Kelley, account executive. Janoff came up with the Apple logo with a bite out of it. The design was originally an olive green with matching company logotype all in lower case. Steve Jobs insisted on promoting the color capability of the Apple II by putting rainbow stripes on the Apple logo. In its letterhead and business card implementation, the rounded "a" of the logotype echoed the "bite" in the logo. This logo was developed simultaneously with an advertisement and a brochure; the latter being produced for distribution initially at the first West Coast Computer Faire. Ever since the original Apple II, Apple has paid high attention to its quality of packaging, partly because of Steve Jobs' personal preferences and opinions on packaging and final product appearance. Moritz, Michael. The Little Kingdom. New York, William Morrow and Company, Inc, 1984: pg. 186. All of Apple's packaging for the Apple II series looked similar, featuring lots of clean white space and showing the Apple rainbow logo prominently. A gallery of Apple IIGS packaging from DigiBarn For several years up until the 1980s, Apple used the Motter Tekkura font for packaging, until changing to the Apple Garamond font. Apple ran the first advertisement for the Apple II in the July 1977 edition of Byte — a two page spread ad titled "Introducing the Apple II" and followed by a third page that was an order form. The first brochure, was entitled "Simplicity" and the copy in both the ad and brochure pioneered "demystifying" language intended to make the new idea of a home computer more "personal." The Apple II introduction ad was later run in the September 1977 issue of Scientific American. http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.pyproject=Macintosh&story=1984.txt&topic=Marketing&sortOrder=Sort%20by%20Date For the Apple IIc, Apple wanted an advertisement to demonstrate the power of the machine despite its small size; they ran a memorable television commercial featuring a high-rise office building in which they claimed with words and images that the IIc had all the power necessary to run a large building, suggesting that it had more than enough power for the home user. (This ad, along with the 1984 Macintosh ad, was featured in a Marketing telecourse run on PBS.) Apple later aired eight television commercials for the Apple IIGS, emphasizing on its benefits to education and students, along with some print ads. Apple //gs Commercials Quicktime Movies @ The Apple Collection Towards the end of 1982, art director Brent Thomas and Steve Hayden came up with the idea of doing an ad campaign based on the timely tagline "Why 1984 won't be like 1984". Chiat-Day shopped it around to a number of clients, including Apple, where it was proposed to be used for a print ad in the Wall Street Journal promoting the Apple II. However, Apple did not go for it, and the idea was filed away until the spring of 1983, when they met with the Macintosh marketing team to start working on the launch, which was scheduled for January 1984. The idea eventually became the famous 1984 commercial which aired during the third quarter at Super Bowl XVIII. Folklore.org: Macintosh Stories: 1984 Clones The Jiama (嘉馬) SPS-109, a Taiwanese clone of the Apple II, looks almost identical to the Apple II and II+, including an identical case, color and keyboard layout. The only noticeable physical difference is the label above the keyboard. The Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the United States and abroad - similar cloning of the IBM PC later occurred. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Many of these had "fruit" names (e.g. "Pineapple") to indicate to the initiated that they were Apple II clones. Well-known in the Soviet Bloc were the Agat, an oversized Russian Apple II clone with a Cyrillic character set, and Bulgarian Pravetz series 8, a close Apple II replica with Cyrillic support. Basis, a German company, created the Basis 108 http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=92 , a clone for the Apple II that included both a 6502 processor and the Zilog Z80, allowing it to run the CP/M operating system as well as most Apple II software. This machine was unusual in that it was housed in a heavy cast-iron chassis. The Basis 108 was equipped with built-in Centronics (parallel) and RS232c (serial) ports, as well as the standard six Apple II compatible slots. Unlike the Apple II it came with a detached full-stroke keyboard (AZERTY/QWERTY) of 100 keys plus 15 functions keys and separate numeric and editing keypads. A Bosnian (at the time part of communist Yugoslavia) company named IRIS Computers (sub company of biggest electric company in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia ENERGOINVEST) has produced Apple II clones since the early 1980s. Their official brand name was IRIS 8. They were very expensive and hard to obtain and were produced primarily for usage in early computerized digital telephone systems and for education. Their usage in offices of the state companies, R&D labs and in the Yugoslav army was also reported. IRIS 8 had looks of early IBM PCs — separate central unit with cooling system and two 5¼-inch disks, monitor and keyboard. Compatibility with original Apple II was complete. Elite high schools in Yugoslavia and especially Bosnia and Herzegovina were equipped with clusters of 8, 16 or 32 IRIS 8 computers connected in local network administrated by IRIS 16 PC clone. The number of IRIS 8's produced could be as many as a couple of tens of thousands. An Australian-produced clone of the Apple II was the Medfly, named after the Mediterranean fruit fly that attacks apples. The Medfly computer featured a faster processor, more memory, detached keyboard, lower and upper case characters and a built-in disk controller. Unitron, a Brazilian company, produced another clone, named ApII. Unitron used a copy of the Apple's ROM translated to Portuguese. The operating system was Apple's DOS 3.3 translated to Portuguese. During this period, it was illegal to import microcomputers in Brazil, and buying those (illegal) clones was the only way to have a microcomputer. Unitron stopped manufacturing the ApII a few years after the introduction of IBM PC clones in Brazil. The Ace clones from Franklin Computer Corporation are the best known and had the most lasting impact, as Franklin copied Apple's ROMs and software and freely admitted to doing so. Franklin's argument: a computer's ROM was simply a pattern of switches locked into a fixed position, and one cannot copyright a pattern of switches. Apple fought Franklin in court for about five years to get its clones off the market, and was ultimately successful when a court ruled that software stored in ROM was in fact copyrightable in United States. (See Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.) Franklin later released non-infringing but less-compatible clones; these could run ProDOS and AppleWorks and had an Applesoft-like BASIC, but compatibility with other software was hit-or-miss. Apple also challenged VTech's Laser 128, an enhanced clone of the Apple IIc first released in 1984, in court. This suit proved less fruitful for Apple, because VTech had reverse-engineered the Monitor ROM rather than copying it and had licensed Applesoft BASIC from its creator, Microsoft. Apple had neglected to obtain exclusive rights to the Applesoft dialect of BASIC from Microsoft; VTech was the first cloner to license it. The Laser 128 proved popular and remained on the market for many years, both in its original form and in accelerated versions that ran faster than . Although it wasn't 100% compatible with the Apple II, it was close, and its popularity ensured that most major developers tested their software on a Laser as well on as genuine Apple machines. Because it was frequently sold via mail order and mass-market retailers such as Sears, the Laser 128 may have cut into the sales of low-cost competitors such as Commodore Business Machines as much as it did Apple's. While the first Apple II clones were generally exact copies of their Apple counterparts that competed mainly on price, many clones had extra capabilities too. A Franklin model, the Ace 1000, sported a numeric keypad and lower-case long before these features were added to the Apple II line. The Laser 128 series is sometimes credited with spurring Apple to release the Apple IIc Plus; the built-in 3½-inch drive and accelerated processor were features Laser had pioneered. The Laser 128 also had a IIe-style expansion slot on the side that could be used to add peripheral cards. Bell & Howell, an audiovisual equipment manufacturer whose products (particularly film projectors) were ubiquitous in American schools, offered what appeared at first glance to be an Apple II Plus clone in a distinctive black plastic case. However, these were in fact real Apple II Plus units manufactured by Apple for B&H for a brief period of time. Many schools had a few of these Black "Darth Vader" Apples in their labs. ITT created an Apple ][-compatible for the European market called the ITT 2020 (Europlus). This machine was built under license from Apple. It has the same shape as the Apple II but a different color (matte silver), and is not an exact copy functionally. An unknown company produced a clone called the RX-8800. One new feature it had was a numeric keypad. General Data storage Originally the Apple II used audio cassette tapes for program and data storage. A dedicated tape recorder along the lines of the Commodore Datassette was never produced; Apple recommended using the Panasonic RQ309 in some of its early printed documentation. Apple and many third-party developers made software available on tape at first, but after the Disk II became available, tape-based Apple II software essentially disappeared from the market. The Disk II floppy drive used 5¼-inch floppy disks. The first disk operating systems for the Apple II were DOS 3.1 and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 kB on each disk, organized into thirty-five tracks of thirteen 256-byte sectors each. After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 kB thanks to a minor firmware change on the disk controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of DOS 3.2 except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare; however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track, a program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks. On a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. (It was possible, with a special utility, to reclaim most of this space for data if a disk did not need to be bootable.) A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero — which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic "chattering" sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail — and read and execute code from sector 0. The code contained in there would then pull in the rest of the operating system. DOS stored the disk's directory on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average seek time to the frequently-used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported. Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage "crackers" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk wasn't in files that could be accessed easily. Some third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5¼-inch disks, yielding 160 kB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; simple modifications to DOS for formatting the extra track were common. Incidentally, although the Apple Disk II stored 140 kB on single-sided, "single-density" floppy disks, it was very common for Apple II users to extend the capacity of a floppy disk to 280 kB — by cutting out a second write-protect notch on the side of the disk using a "disk notcher" (although a simple hole puncher would do) and inserting the disk flipped over. Early on, diskette manufacturers routinely warned that this technique would damage the read/write head of the drives or wear out the disk faster, and these warnings were frequently repeated in magazines of the day. In practice, however, this method was a quite reliable way to store twice as much data for the same amount of money, and was widely used for commercially released floppies as well. Later, Apple IIs were able to use 3½-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 kB and hard disks. DOS 3.3 did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 kB had to be split up into multiple "virtual disk volumes." ProDOS, a 1983 descendent of the Apple ///'s SOS, became the Apple II operating system of choice for users with these larger disks thanks to its native support of volumes up to 32 MB in size and the fact that AppleWorks required it. Renditions of the "II" name The "II" portion of the Apple II name was rendered in a variety of creative ways using stylized characters which resembled punctuation symbols on the front lids of the computers, and most printed material followed this lead. The II and II+ were labeled ][and ][+. The IIGS and IIc Plus were rendered in small caps. The Apple ///, IIc, and IIe models used slashes: ///, //c and //e. There have been some errors in the Apple II's name due to the numerous variations and forms on the "II". Legacy Today, emulators for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, homebrew enabled Nintendo DS and other operating systems. Numerous disk images of Apple II software are available free over the Internet for use with these emulators. AppleWin and MESS are among the best emulators compatible with most Apple II images. The MESS emulator supports recording and playing back of Apple II emulation sessions. The Home Action Replay Page (aka HARP) allows Apple II users to archive their favorite play sessions of the Apple II system and its games. However, many emulators cannot run software on copy-protected media, or can run only software employing fairly simple protection schemes, unless it is "cracked" (copy restrictions removed). Cracked software was widely pirated in the Apple II's heyday (with commercial cracking software such as the popular Copy II+ program being sold in stores with the purpose of "creating legitimate back-ups" of protected software), and some of it is still available, although use of such software is of questionable legality (see DMCA). For those who prefer to obtain their old software legally, the Lost Classics Project has the goal of convincing copyright holders of classic Apple II software to officially allow unrestricted free distribution of their software and has "freed" a number of programs. In addition, an active retrocomputing community of vintage Apple II collectors and users, continue to restore, maintain and develop hardware and software for daily use of these original computers. Numerous websites and support groups exist for these enthusiasts who engage in the trade and purchase for their collections, increasingly rare parts and systems. Hardly a dead platform, the Apple II has a worldwide network of kindred spirits actively engaged in preserving this otherwise outdated technology and indeed regularly attracts, new younger members who continue to keep the platform alive long after it was discontinued by Apple. Industry impact The Apple II series of computers had an enormous impact on the technology industry and on everyday life. The Apple II was the first computer many people ever saw, and its price was within the reach of many middle-class families. Its popularity bootstrapped the entire computer game and educational software markets and began the boom in the word processor and computer printer markets. The first microcomputer "killer app" for business was VisiCalc, the earliest spreadsheet, and it ran first on the Apple II; many businesses bought Apple II's just to run VisiCalc, because it was the only spreadsheet available at the time. Apple's success in the home market inspired competitive home computers such as the VIC-20 (1980) and Commodore 64 (1982, with estimated sales between 17 and 25 million units). Through their significantly lower price point, these models introduced the computer to several tens of millions more home users, acquiring most of Apple's market share in the process. The success of the Apple II in business spurred IBM to create the IBM PC, which was then purchased by middle managers in all lines of business to run spreadsheet and word processing software, at first ported from Apple II versions; later, whole new application software dynasties would be founded on the PC. The popularity of these PCs and their clones then transformed business again with LAN applications such as e-mail and later Internet applications such as Usenet and the WWW. One valuable lesson from the Apple II was the importance of an open architecture to the success of a computer platform. The first Apple II's shipped with an Apple II Reference Manual containing a complete schematic of the entire computer's circuitry and a complete source listing of the "Monitor" ROM firmware that served as the machine's BIOS (later this guide had to be purchased separately, and in the case of the Apple IIGS, the full technical documentation ran to several volumes). The Apple II's slots, allowing any peripheral card to take control of the bus and directly access memory, enabled an independent industry of card manufacturers who together created a flood of hardware products that let users build systems that were far more powerful and useful (at a lower cost) than any competing system, most of which were not nearly as expandable and were universally proprietary. Even the game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output; one hacker (Don Lancaster) used it to drive a LaserWriter printer. Apple decided not to create an open architecture with the initial Macintosh models, and this is widely seen as having hobbled its success; however, the IBM PC provides an object lesson that success for the platform does not necessarily equate to success for the company that invented it. In the end, the IBM PC's off-the-shelf, open architecture allowed clones to be manufactured by startup competitors such as Compaq, Dell and Gateway, leading to a Pyrrhic victory for IBM. In December 2004, IBM confirmed it had sold its personal computer division including all computer models and technology to Lenovo in the People's Republic of China for US$1.75 billion. IBM sells PC business to China's Lenovo - Gadgets - MSNBC.com IBM Sells PC Business to Lenovo Timeline of Apple II Family models See also List of Apple II application software List of Apple II games List of Apple II emulators List of Apple IIGS games Apple II peripheral cards Apple II graphics Steve Wozniak Jerry Manock Apple Industrial Design Group Juiced.GS – The last remaining Apple II publication ReactiveMicro.com – The last remaining Apple II hardware production company (cloned items) Publications/Periodicals devoted to the Apple II Hayes Microcomputer Products List of BBS software – For the Apple II and other machines References External links Steven Weyhrich's Apple II History Apple II Timeline Genealogy table from Steven Weyhrich's Apple II History The Apple II Documentation Project Documentation on the Apple II line and its peripherals A2Central.com – Apple II news and downloads Old computer museum - Apple II+ Apple2.org – The Apple II in Pictures and the Marinetti Open Source Project (TCP/IP Stack) ReactiveMicro.com - The last remaining Apple II hardware production company (cloned items) 16Sector.com Apple II hardware production - FocusDrive and SiriusRAM GS. GSoft BASIC GSoft BASIC is Applesoft BASIC replacement for Apple IIGS computer Software written by Apple-II pioneer, Bob Bishop – (Including the very first four Hi-Res graphics games ever written for the Apple) Gamasutra on the Apple II A History of Gaming Platforms: The Apple II by Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton PCB pictures of the Apple II Apple II clones Information on Apple2clones Virtual GS Apple IIGS programming site, for PC and Mac users running Apple IIGS emulation WEB page of an Apple IIe user Some cards detailed and programs to download. 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2,850 | Mississippi_River | The Mississippi River United States Geological Survey Hydrological Unit Code: 08-09-01-00- Lower Mississippi-New Orleans Watershed is the second-longest river in the United States, with a length of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers navigation charts. 2300 miles from Lake Itasca to Head of Passes -- Southwest Pass is 20 miles. from its source in Lake Itasca in Minnesota to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi River is part of the Missouri-Mississippi river system, which is the largest river system in North America and among the largest in the world: by length (), it is the fourth longest, and by its average discharge of 572,000 cu ft/s (16,200 m³/s), it is the tenth largest. The name Mississippi is derived from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi ("Great River") or gichi-ziibi ("Big River"). Geography Confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers at Cairo, IL (2006) The Missouri River flows from the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin and is the longest river in the United States. Taken together, the Jefferson, the Missouri, and the Mississippi form the longest river system in North America. If measured from the source of the Jefferson at Brower's Spring, to the Gulf of Mexico, the length of the Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson combination is approximately , making the combination the 4th longest river in the world. The uppermost of this combined river are called the Jefferson, the lowest are part of the Mississippi, and the intervening are called the Missouri. The Arkansas River is the second longest tributary of the Mississippi River. Measured by water volume, the largest of all Mississippi tributaries is the Ohio River. The widest point of the Mississippi River is Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota at over across. Also of note is Lake Onalaska, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, where the river is over wide (created by Lock and Dam No. 7) and Lake Pepin at more than wide. Mississippi River Facts However, the first two areas are lakes or reservoirs rather than free flowing water. In other areas where the Mississippi is a flowing river (other than Lake Pepin), it exceeds in width in several places in its lower course. Beginning with its source at Lake Itasca to Saint Louis Missouri, the Mississippi's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis Minnesota in the Headwaters region and serve multiple purposes including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams beginning in downtown Minneapolis all contain locks and were constructed to permit commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul Minnesota and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks. The Mississippi River runs through 10 states and was used to define portions of these states' borders. The middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was the line to define the borders between states. http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2546 encyclopediaofarkansas.net http://www.yale.edu "Treaty of Friendship, Limits, and Navigation" , Avalon project at the Yale Law School The river has since shifted, but the state borders of Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Mississippi have not changed; they still follow the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment. The river is divided into the upper Mississippi, from its source south to the Ohio River, and the lower Mississippi, from the Ohio to its mouth near New Orleans, Louisiana. Upper Mississippi River The source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itasca (2004) The upper Mississippi River is divided into three sections: the headwaters, ; from the source to Saint Anthony Falls; a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, ; and the middle Mississippi, , a relatively free-flowing river downstream of the confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis. Source The source of the Mississippi River is Lake Itasca, above sea level in Itasca State Park located in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca" is a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). The uppermost lock and dam on the Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Above the dam, the river's elevation is . Below the dam, the river's elevation is . This drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. St. Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall. By the time the river reaches St. Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam #1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis Missouri the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams. 2001 US Army Corps of Engineers Upper Mississippi River Navigation Chart From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence the Mississippi free falls a total of over a distance of for an average rate of . At the Ohio River confluence the Mississippi is above sea level. Tributaries The Mississippi is joined by the Minnesota River south of the Twin Cities, the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin, the Wisconsin River in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Rock River in the Quad Cities, the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa, the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa, the Des Moines River in Keokuk, Iowa, the Illinois River and the Missouri River near St. Louis, and by the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. Lower Mississippi River Major sub-tributaries include the Tennessee River (a tributary of the Ohio River) and the Platte River (a tributary of the Missouri River). The Arkansas River joins the Mississippi in southeastern Arkansas. The Yazoo River meets the Mississippi at Vicksburg. The Atchafalaya River in Louisiana is a major distributary of the Mississippi. Communities along the river Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below. They have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are ordered from the beginning of the river to its end. Community of boathouses on the Mississippi River in Winona, MN (2006) In Minnesota, the Mississippi River runs through the Twin Cities (2007) The Mississippi River just north of St. Louis (2005) Bemidji, Minnesota Grand Rapids, Minnesota Jacobson, Minnesota Palisade, Minnesota Hassman, Minnesota Aitkin, Minnesota Riverton, Minnesota Brainerd, Minnesota Fort Ripley, Minnesota Little Falls, Minnesota Sartell, Minnesota Saint Cloud, Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota St. Paul, Minnesota Nininger, Minnesota Hastings, Minnesota Prescott, Wisconsin Prairie Island, Minnesota Diamond Bluff, Wisconsin Red Wing, Minnesota Hager City, Wisconsin Maiden Rock, Wisconsin Stockholm, Wisconsin Lake City, Minnesota Maple Springs, Minnesota Camp Lacupolis, Minnesota Pepin, Wisconsin Reads Landing, Minnesota Wabasha, Minnesota Nelson, Wisconsin Alma, Wisconsin Buffalo City, Wisconsin Weaver, Minnesota Minneiska, Minnesota Fountain City, Wisconsin Winona, Minnesota Homer, Minnesota Trempealeau, Wisconsin Dakota, Minnesota Dresbach, Minnesota La Crescent, Minnesota La Crosse, Wisconsin Brownsville, Minnesota Stoddard, Wisconsin Genoa, Wisconsin Victory, Wisconsin Potosi, Wisconsin De Soto, Wisconsin Lansing, Iowa Ferryville, Wisconsin Lynxville, Wisconsin Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin Marquette, Iowa McGregor, Iowa Wyalusing, Wisconsin Guttenberg, Iowa Cassville, Wisconsin Dubuque, Iowa Galena, Illinois Bellevue, Iowa Savanna, Illinois Sabula, Iowa Clinton, Iowa Le Claire, Iowa Bettendorf, Iowa Moline, Illinois Davenport, Iowa Rock Island, Illinois Buffalo, Iowa Muscatine, Iowa New Boston, Illinois Keithsburg, Illinois Oquawka, Illinois Burlington, Iowa Dallas City, Illinois Fort Madison, Iowa Nauvoo, Illinois Keokuk, Iowa Warsaw, Illinois Quincy, Illinois Hannibal, Missouri Louisiana, Missouri Clarksville, Missouri Portage des Sioux, Missouri Alton, Illinois St. Louis, Missouri Ste. Genevieve, Missouri Kaskaskia, Illinois Chester, Illinois Grand Tower, Illinois Cape Girardeau, Missouri Thebes, Illinois Commerce, Missouri Cairo, Illinois Wickliffe, Kentucky Columbus, Kentucky Hickman, Kentucky New Madrid, Missouri Tiptonville, Tennessee Caruthersville, Missouri Barfield, Arkansas Tomato, Arkansas Osceola, Arkansas Reverie, Tennessee Memphis, Tennessee West Memphis, Arkansas Tunica, Mississippi Helena-West Helena, Arkansas Greenville, Mississippi Vicksburg, Mississippi Waterproof, Louisiana Natchez, Mississippi Morganza, Louisiana Baton Rouge, Louisiana Donaldsonville, Louisiana Lutcher, Louisiana New Orleans, Louisiana New Roads, Louisiana Pilottown, Louisiana St. Francisville, Louisiana La Balize, Louisiana (historical) Bridge crossings The first bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between Arsenal Island at Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge "a hazard to navigation". Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge and started it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States and was eventually ruled in favor of the railroad. Below is a general overview of bridges over the Mississippi which have notable engineering or landmark significance with its city. They are ordered from the source to the mouth. The Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge connecting Dubuque, IA and Grant County, WI (2004) Stone Arch Bridge - a former Great Northern Railroad (now pedestrian) bridge in Minneapolis. Interstate 35W Mississippi River Bridge - This bridge collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100. It was replaced by the St. Anthony Bridge, which opened in September 2008, ahead of schedule and on budget. I-90 Mississippi River Bridge, connecting La Crosse, Wisconsin to Winona County, Minnesota located just south of Lock and Dam No. 7. Black Hawk Bridge, connecting Lansing, Allamakee County, Iowa to rural Crawford County, Wisconsin, locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the Historic American Engineering Record. Julien Dubuque Bridge - A bridge connecting Dubuque, Iowa and East Dubuque, Illinois, that is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Savanna-Sabula Bridge, a truss bridge and causeway crossing the Mississippi River and connecting the city of Savanna, Illinois with the island city of Sabula, Iowa. The bridge carries U.S. Highway 52 over the river. It is also the terminus of both Iowa Highway 64 and Illinois Route 64. Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999 as structure #99001033. Interstate 80 Bridge/Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge, a 4 lane bridge connecting Le Claire, Iowa and Rapids City, Illinois. Completed in 1966. Interstate 74 Bridge connecting Moline, Illinois, to Bettendorf, Iowa, is a twin suspension bridge, also known historically as the Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge. Rock Island Government Bridge connecting Rock Island, Illinois, to Davenport, Iowa. Located just southwest of the site of the first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River, it is one of only two bridges in the world with two sets of railroad tracks above the auto lanes. It is co-located with Lock and Dam #15, the largest roller dam in the world. Rock Island Centennial Bridge connecting Rock Island, Illinois, to Davenport, Iowa. Norbert F. Beckey Bridge connecting Muscatine, Iowa, to Rock Island County, Illinois, became the country's first bridge to be illuminated with light-emitting diode lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge. Great River Bridge - cable-stayed bridge, connecting Burlington, Iowa, to Gulf Port, Illinois. Santa Fe Bridge - in Fort Madison, Iowa, the largest double-deck swing-span bridge in the world. It is the last operating swing bridge over the Mississippi River for automobile traffic and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Quincy Bayview Bridge - cable-stayed bridge connecting Quincy, Illinois, and West Quincy, Missouri, via westbound US Highway 24. Eastbound traffic into Quincy is served by the older Quincy Memorial Bridge. The Stone Arch Bridge, the Third Avenue Bridge, and the Hennepin Avenue Bridge, in Minneapolis, MN (2004) Clark Bridge also known as the Super Bridge as the result of an appearance on PBS program Nova. This cable-stay bridge constructed in 1994 connects Alton, Illinois, to Black Jack, Missouri. It is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area and is named after explorer William Clark. Chain of Rocks Bridge - A bridge on the northern edge of St. Louis; notable for a 22-degree bend halfway across and the most famous alignment of Historic U.S. Route 66 across the Mississippi. Eads Bridge - A bridge connecting St. Louis and East St. Louis, Illinois; the first major steel bridge in the world, and also a National Historic Landmark. This bridge now carries the St. Louis MetroLink light rail system. Chester Bridge - The bridge that connects Chester, Illinois, to Missouri and eventually Perryville, Missouri. The bridge has been struck at least twice by tornadoes. Hernando de Soto Bridge - carries Interstate 40 to connect Memphis, Tennessee and West Memphis, Arkansas; listed in Guinness Book of World Records for its unique structural "letter" shape. Hernando de Soto Bridge Frisco Bridge - was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest cantilever truss steel railroad bridge in North America when it opened on May 12, 1892. It connects Memphis and West Memphis and is listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Memphis & Arkansas Bridge - the longest Warren truss- style bridge in the United States which carries Interstate 55 to connect Memphis and West Memphis; also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Huey P. Long Bridge - Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, the first Mississippi River span built in Louisiana. Crescent City Connection - connects the east and west banks of New Orleans, Louisiana; the 5th-longest cantilever bridge in the world. Watershed The Mississippi River has the third largest drainage basin (or catchment) in the world, exceeded in size only by the watersheds of the Amazon River and Congo River. It drains 41% of the 48 Continental United States. The basin covers more than 1,245,000 sq mi (3,225,000 km²), including all or parts of 31 states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Mississippi Watershed (2005) Major tributaries of the Mississippi: Big Black River in Mississippi Yazoo River in Mississippi Red River in Louisiana White River in Arkansas Arkansas River in Arkansas Ohio River in Kentucky Big Muddy River in Illinois Kaskaskia River in Illinois Missouri River in Missouri Illinois River in Illinois Des Moines River in Iowa Skunk River in Iowa Iowa River in Iowa Rock River in Illinois Maquoketa River in Iowa Wapsipinicon River in Iowa Wisconsin River in Wisconsin Chippewa River in Wisconsin St. Croix River (Wisconsin-Minnesota) in Minnesota And Wisconsin Minnesota River in Minnesota Crow River in Minnesota Drainage area The Mississippi River drains a majority of the area between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains, except for the areas drained to the Hudson Bay via the Red River of the North, by the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, the Rio Grande (and numerous other rivers in Texas), the Alabama River-Tombigbee River, and the Chattahoochee River-Appalachicola River. The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico (and pollutes it with the waste from the north) about downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey's number is . The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is about 90 days. Outflow Sequence of NASA MODIS images showing the outflow of fresh water from the Mississippi (arrows) into the Gulf of Mexico (2004) Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA's MODIS to the right show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. The images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS. Discharge The Mississippi river discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000–20,000 m3/s). Americas Wetland: Resource Center Although it is the 5th largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a mere fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m3/s) during wet seasons. On average the Mississippi has only 9% the flow of the Amazon River but is nearly twice that of the Columbia River and almost 6 times the volume of the Colorado River. History Course changes View along the former riverbed at the TN/AR state line near Reverie, TN (2007) The Illinoian Glacier, about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin. South of Hennepin, Illinois, the current Illinois River is actually following the ancient channel of the Mississippi River to Alton, Illinois, before the Illinoian glaciation. Other changes in the course of the river have occurred because of earthquakes along the New Madrid Fault Zone, which lies between Memphis and St. Louis. Three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter Scale, were said to have temporarily reversed the course of the Mississippi. The settlement of Reverie, Tennessee was cut off from Tipton County, Tennessee, during the 1811 and 1812 earthquakes and placed on the western side of the Mississippi River, the Arkansas side. These earthquakes also created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river. The faulting is related to an aulacogen (geologic term for a failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. Through a natural process known as delta switching the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (25–80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi. Native Americans Ojibwe Wigwam in northeast Minnesota (1857) The area of the Mississippi valley was first settled by Native American tribes such as the the Cheyenne and the Sioux, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Ho-chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw, the Mississippian Culture and the Chickasaw. The Cheyennes, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máˀxe-éˀometaaˀe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. However, the word Mississippi comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwa called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo-ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag-ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoozhish-ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi-ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi-ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. Gilfillan, Joseph A. "Minnesota Geographical Names Derived from the Chippewa Language" in The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota: The Fifteenth Annual Report for the Year 1886 (St. Paul: Pioneer Press Company, 1887) After the expeditions by Giacomo Costantino Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi-ziibi was named "Mississippi River." The Mississippi Chippewa, known as the Gichi-ziibiwininiwag are named after the strech of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi-ziibi. European exploration Discovery of the Mississippi, DeSoto seeing the Mississippi River for the first time (1849) On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish the river is called Río Mississippi. http://www.cec.org/naatlas/NA-Watersheds.gif Cec.org French explorers Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux named Ne Tongo ("Big river" in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonty claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. "Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville" (bio), webpage from The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VII, 1910, New York: CathEn-07614b. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage. In 1718, about upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time. 18th century The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave the Kingdom of Great Britain rights to all land in the valley east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East Florida and West Florida. Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States." With this treaty, which ended the American Revolution, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Spain then had control over the river south of 32°30' north latitude and, in what is known as the Spanish Conspiracy, hoped to gain greater control of Louisiana and all of the west. These hopes ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795. 19th century France reacquired 'Louisiana' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States bought the territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1815, the US defeated Britain at the Battle of New Orleans, part of the War of 1812, securing American control of the river. So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years. The Navigator (1801 guide book) Steamboat commerce Shifting sand bars made early navigation difficult. Mark Twain's book Life on the Mississippi covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the unfinished Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885. The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12. Steamboat transport remained a viable industry (both in terms of passengers and freight) until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which from 1859 to 1898 operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans. Civil War Battle of Vicksburg (ca. 1888) The river played a decisive role in the American Civil War. The Union's Vicksburg Campaign called for Union control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg in Warren County, Mississippi in 1863 was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War. 20th century In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km²) to a depth of up to 30 ft (10 m). On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry MV George Prince was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died, only eighteen survived the accident. In 1988, record low water levels provided an opportunity and obligation to examine the climax of the wooden-hulled age. The Mississippi fell to below zero on the Memphis gauge. Four and a half acres of water craft remains were exposed on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought. The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. 21st century Campsite at the river in Arkansas In 2002, Slovenian long-distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition (http://sourcetosea.net) paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign. On August 1, 2007, the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis collapsed during the evening rush hour. In 2007, it was expected that more than 150 pleasure boats would travel down the river from Grafton to Cairo while participating in the Great Loop, which is the circumnavigation of Eastern North America by water. Recreation Water skiing Great River Road in Wisconsin near Lake Pepin (2005) The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 miles per hour (128 km/h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year. National parks There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south): Effigy Mounds National Monument, Jefferson National Expansion Memorial (AKA The Arch), Vicksburg National Military Park, Natchez National Historical Park, New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park, and Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve. Navigation history A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the mainstem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/brief.html Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars. Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period of the 1830-1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachia coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans-shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio river; down the Missouri and Tennessee. To the main channel of the Mississippi. Only the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons--the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance. A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a deep channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams. Barges on the Mississippi River near Ste. Geneviève, Missouri. 19th century Obstacles - Des Moines, Iowa/Illinois |The Lock & Dam at Dubuque, IA (2004) In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 mi (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable. In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The canal allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan. The canal also provided a shipping route between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi. The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 ft (1.5 m) deep channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a deep channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907. Canal - St. Paul, Minnesota To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth. In 1907, Congress authorized a deep channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the deep channel project. 20th century |Tug Holly J near Ste. Geneviève, Missouri. Dam - Keokuk, Iowa In 1913, construction was complete on a dam at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company to generate electricity, the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 & 2 Lock and Dam No. 2, Hastings, MN (2006) Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2 at Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930. 1927 flood Prior to the 1927 flood, the Corps' primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river. Rivers and Harbors Act - 1930 The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 ft (2.7 m) deep and 400 ft (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence. Two new locks were built north of Lock and Dam No. 1 at Saint Anthony Falls in the 1960s, extending the head of navigation for commercial traffic by several miles, but few barges go past the metropolis of Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Minnesota today. Late 20th century Dam No. 27 is a low water rock dam creating a pool near St. Louis, MO (2006) Soldiers of the Missouri Army National Guard sandbag the River in Clarksville, Missouri, June 2008, following flooding. Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Lock and Dam 27, which consists of a low-water dam and an 8.4 mi (13.5 km) long canal, was added in 1953 just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water. U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans. Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This US$ 300 million project was completed in 1986 by the U.S. Army Corps Of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrology transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished. 21st century Main floodways The Corps now actively creates floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes. The main floodways are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway, the Morganza Floodway, which directs floodwaters down the Atchafalaya River and the Bonnet Carré Spillway which directs water to Lake Pontchartrain. The Old River Control Structure also serve as a major floodgates that can be opened to prevent flooding. Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, the Corps actively cuts the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights. Arts and culture Literature On The Mississippi, music sheet cover for a 1912 song William Faulkner uses the Mississippi River and Delta as the setting for many hunts throughout his novels. It has been proposed that in Faulkner's famous story, The Bear, young Ike first begins his transformation into a man, thus relinquishing his birthright to land in Yoknapatawpha County through his realizations found within the woods surrounding the Mississippi River. Many of the works of Mark Twain deal with or take place near the Mississippi River. One of his first major works, Life on the Mississippi, is in part a history of the river, in part a memoir of Twain's experiences on the river, and a collection of tales that either take place on or are associated with the river. The Mississippi River was noted for the number of bandits which called its islands and shores home, including John Murrell who was a well-known murderer, horse stealer and slave "re-trader". His notoriety was such that author Twain devoted an entire chapter to him in Life on the Mississippi, and Murrell was rumored to have an island headquarters on the river at Island 37. Twain's most famous work, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, is largely a journey down the river. The novel works as an episodic meditation on American culture with the river having multiple different meanings including independence, escape, freedom, and adventure. Herman Melville's novel The Confidence-Man portrayed a Canterbury Tales-style group of steamboat passengers whose interlocking stories are told as they travel down the Mississippi River. The novel is written both as cultural satire and a metaphysical treatise. Like Huckleberry Finn, it uses the Mississippi River as a metaphor for the larger aspects of American and human identity that unify the otherwise disparate characters. The river's fluidity is reflected by the often shifting personalities and identities of Melville's "confidence man". The second chapter of Don Rosa's famous comic book The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck is named "The Master of the Mississippi", it is set on the Mississippi River. Scrooge works here for his Uncle Angus "Pothole" McDuck on a wheel steamer and has his first encounter with The Beagle Boys. In Langston Hughes' poem, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" the Mississippi River is mentioned. Music The stage and movie musical Show Boat'''s central musical piece is the spiritual-influenced ballad "Ol' Man River". Ferde Grofe composed a set of movements for symphony orchestra based on the lands the river travels through in his "Mississippi Suite". The Johnny Cash song "Big River" is about the Mississippi River, and about drifting the length of the river to pursue a relationship that fails. "Mississippi Queen" by Mountain makes reference to the river. The song "When the Levee Breaks", made famous in the version performed by Led Zeppelin on the album Led Zeppelin IV, was composed by Memphis Minnie McCoy in 1929 after the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. Another song about the flood was "Louisiana 1927" by Randy Newman for the album Good Old Boys."Moon River" from the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany's'' refers to the Mississippi River. The Mississippi River has a certain historical tie to the music genre Jazz. Author DuBose Heyward states in one of his books that the music genre Jazz has taken its name from a black itinerant musician called Jazbo Brown. Around the turn of the 19th century the semi-legendary Jazbo Brown is said to have played on boats (as suggested in "Jazzbo Brown from Memphis Town", performed by Bessie Smith) and along the Mississippi River. The Hold Steady frequently make references to the river in their songs. The band Something Corporate mention the river "on her knees" in their song "I Woke Up in A Car". See also Atchafalaya Basin Mississippi embayment Mississippi River Delta Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge Mississippi National River and Recreation Area List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River List of crossings of the Lower Mississippi River List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River Steamboats of the Mississippi River Chemetco Notes References External links Mississippi River, project of the American Land Conservancy Mud Island (Memphis) River Park National Mississippi River Museum & Aquarium Mississippi National River and Recreation Area General Information about the Mississippi River Mark Twain's Mississippi, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries 1911 Britannica article be-x-old:Місысыпі (рака) | Mississippi_River |@lemmatized mississippi:158 river:251 united:10 state:20 geological:3 survey:5 hydrological:1 unit:1 code:1 low:16 new:24 orleans:14 watershed:5 second:5 long:14 length:7 u:10 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2,851 | Greek_language | Greek (, or , ) is an Indo-European language native to the southern Balkan peninsula, the language of the Greeks. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European. It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical Ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of the Christian Bible. In its modern form, it is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, and spoken by approximately 20 million people (first language for ca. 15 million), including minority and emigrant communities in numerous parts of the world. It is written in the Greek alphabet. History Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since around the late 3rd millennium BC. The earliest written evidence is found in the Linear B clay tablets in the "Room of the Chariot Tablets", an LMIII A-context (c. 1400 BC) region of Knossos, in Crete, making Greek one of the world's oldest recorded living languages. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest attestation is matched only by Vedic Sanskrit and the extinct Anatolian languages. The later Greek alphabet (unrelated to Linear B) is derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: Proto-Greek: the assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek which is not recorded. Proto-Greek speakers possibly entered the Greek peninsula in the early 2nd millennium BC. Since then, Greek has been spoken uninterruptedly in Greece. Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilization. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th or 14th century BC onwards. Ancient Greek: in its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilization. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to the areas of Italy. Koine Greek: The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic, the dialect of Athens, resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonization of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek, as it was the original language the New Testament was written in. Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of Koine Greek during Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek is a cover term for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek: Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as 11th century. It is the language used by modern Greeks and apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. The tradition of diglossia, the simultaneous existence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of Greek, was renewed in the modern era in the form of a polarization between two competing varieties: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', an imitation of classical Greek, which was developed in the early 19th century and used for literary, juridic, administrative and scientific purposes in the newly formed modern Greek state. The diglossia problem was brought to an end in 1976 (Law 306/1976), when Dimotikí was declared the official language of Greece and is still in use for all official purposes and in education, having incorporated features of Katharevousa and giving birth to Standard Greek. Historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, there has been no time in its history since classical antiquity where its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition was interrupted to such an extent that one can easily speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language. Browning, Robert. Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0521299780 It is also often estimated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than twelfth-century Middle English is to modern spoken English." Margaret Alexiou (1982): Diglossia in Greece. In: William Haas (1982): Standard Languages: Spoken and Written. Manchester University Press ND. ISBN 0389202916, 9780389202912 Ancient Greek texts, especially from Biblical Koine onwards, are thus relatively easy to understand for educated modern speakers. The perception of historical unity is also strengthened by the fact that Greek has not split up into a group of separate national daughter languages, as happened with Latin. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages, including English: mathematics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, athletics, theater, rhetoric etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics, cinema, physics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary, e.g. all words ending with "-logy" ("discourse"). An estimated 12% of the English vocabulary has Greek origin, while numerous Greek words have English derivatives. Geographic distribution Greek is spoken by about 14 million people, mainly in Greece and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the members of the Greek diaspora. There are traditional Greek-speaking settlements in the neighbouring countries Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Turkey, as well as in several countries in the Black Sea area such as Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, and around the Mediterranean Sea, Southern Italy, Israel, Egypt and ancient coastal towns along the Levant. The language is also spoken by Greek emigrant communities in many countries in Western Europe, especially the United Kingdom and Germany, in Canada and the United States, Australia, as well as in Argentina, Brazil and others. Official status Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also (nominally alongside Turkish), the official language of Cyprus. The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3 states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish. . However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a a means of maintaining diglossia in Cyprus, San Diego Linguistics Papers 2: 25-38. Page 27. Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the 23 official languages of the European Union. Greek is officially recognized as a minority language in parts of Turkey, Italy and Albania,as well as in Armenia and Ukraine. Characteristics of the language across its history The phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodisations, relatively arbitrary, especially since at all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets, but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels, and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details), and included: replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs (loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongization of most diphthongs, and some significant steps of iotacism) development of the voiceless aspirated stop consonants and to the voiceless fricatives and , respectively; the similar development of to may have taken place later (these phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography: both the earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ) possibly development of the voiced stop consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ to their voiced fricative counterparts (later /v/), , // In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding Angeliki Ralli, Μορφολογία [Morphology], Ekdoseis Pataki: Athens, 2001, pp. 164-203 , as well a rich inflectional system. While its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in nominal morphology was the loss of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive); in the verb, the major change was the loss of the infinitive, with a concomitant rise in new periphrastic forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative, and vocative. The dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean Greek disappeared in the Archaic period. Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all these distinctions but person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history, though with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: mood — Ancient Greek: indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and optative; Modern Greek: indicative and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions) number — singular, plural (archaic Greek also had a dual) voice — Ancient Greek: active, middle, and passive; Modern Greek: active and medio-passive tense — Ancient Greek: present, past, future; Modern Greek: past and non-past (future is expressed by a periphrastic construction) person — first, second, third, second person formal form aspect — Ancient Greek: imperfective, perfective (traditionally called aorist), perfect (sometimes also called perfective, see note about terminology); Modern Greek: perfective and imperfective Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify, relative pronouns are clause-initial. But the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, while the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (instead having a raft of new periphrastic constructions) and uses participles more restrictedly. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, while neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Greek is a language distinguished by an extensive vocabulary. The majority of the vocabulary of ancient Greek vocabulary was inherited, but it does include a number of borrowings from the idioms of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks. Words of non-Indo-European origin can be traced into Greek from as early as Mycenaean times; they include a large number of Greek toponyms. The vast majority of Modern Greek vocabulary is directly inherited from ancient Greek, although in certain cases words have changed meanings. Words of foreign origin have entered the language mainly from Latin, Italian and Ottoman Turkish. During older periods of the Greek language, loan words into Greek acquired Greek inflections, leaving thus only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected. Classification Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, ancient Macedonian (which many linguistic scholars suggest is a dialect of Greek itself) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages Greek seems to be most closely related to Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan). Writing system Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. The modern Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with a capital (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in final position. Majuscule formΑΒΓΔΕΖΗΘΙΚΛΜΝΞΟΠΡΣΤΥΦΧΨΩ Minuscule formαβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρστυφχψω In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs: three different accent marks (acute, grave and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (spiritus asper and spiritus lenis), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting had seen a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it had only been retained in typography. In the writing reform of 1982, the use of most of them was abolished from official use in Greece. Since then, Modern Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek. See also Ancient Greek Ancient Greek dialects Center for the Greek language English pronunciation of Greek letters Greek language question Greek substrate language Greeklish Hellenic Foundation for Culture List of Greek words with English derivatives That's Greek to me (expression) Varieties of Modern Greek References Sources W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca - a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek. Cambridge University Press, 1968-74. ISBN 0-521-20626-X Robert Browning, Medieval and Modern Greek, Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 1983, ISBN 0-521-29978-0. An excellent and concise historical account of the development of modern Greek from the ancient language. Crosby and Schaeffer, An Introduction to Greek, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1928. A school grammar of ancient Greek Dionysius of Thrace, "Art of Grammar", "", c.100 BC David Holton, Peter Mackridge, and Irene Philippaki-Warburton, Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0-415-10002-X. A reference grammar of modern Greek. Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0-582-30709-0. From Mycenean to modern. Brian Newton, The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology, Cambridge University Press, 1972, ISBN 0-521-08497-0. Andrew Sihler, "A New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin", Oxford University Press, 1996. An historical grammar of ancient Greek from its Indo-European origins. Some eccentricities and no bibliography but a useful handbook to the earliest stages of Greek's development. Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar, Harvard University Press, 1956 (revised edition), ISBN 0-674-36250-0. The standard grammar of classical Greek. Focuses primarily on the Attic dialect, with comparatively weak treatment of the other dialects and the Homeric . External links General background Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek. The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education. The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries. Language learning Greek dictionary, tutorial and hangman program with texteditor, this shareware program is aimed at learning New Testament Greek. Greek spell checker komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language. New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament Dictionaries Greek-English/English-Greek dictionary, Translatum - The Greek translation Vortal (Dictionaries and terminology forum) Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexica (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexica in Print. Online Greek-English and English-Greek dictionary (Modern Greek) Online Greek <-> English Dictionary with gender and type of words The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern). Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary, scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary. English to Greek Dictionary, English to Greek Dictionary. Literature Books in Greek, an extended list of searchable bibliographic information. Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization set in order to promote Modern Greek Literature and Culture. Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books. 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2,852 | Armour | A suit of Gothic plate armour. Armour or armor is protective covering used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat. Armour has been used to protect soldiers, war animals such as war horses (the application for the latter called barding), and war machines such as warships and armoured fighting vehicles. Armour has been used throughout recorded history, and manufactured from a variety of materials; starting with rudimentary leather protection, personal armour evolved to mail and full plated suit of armour. For much of military history the manufacture of metal armour in Europe has dominated the technology and employment of armour. Armour production was a cause of the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture (chariot), leather processing, and later decorative metal working. Its production has been influential in the evolving industrial revolution, and influenced commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. Armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms that revolutionised warfare. First modern production technology for armour plating was used by the navies in construction of the Ironclad warships, and reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. It was the naval engineers that also constructed the first World War I "tanks" giving rise to armoured fighting vehicles protected by vehicle armour. Air forces also sometimes employ armour. Aerial armour has been used, notably, in protecting the pilots during the Second World War, and in designing heavily armoured aircraft that would be expected to suffer more than usual damage from ground fire. In modern ground forces' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, heavily armoured military forces are organised using armoured infantry, mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replacing light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of both the battle cavalry, light cavalry and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch in a national army's organization (sometimes, the armoured corps). Etymology Armour came into use with the age of the knights, hence "shining armour" of the Romanticism, the word making appearance in English as a borrowing from the French in the Middle Ages dated from 1297, as a "mail, defensive covering worn in combat" from Old French armeure, itself derived from the Latin armatura "arms and/or equipment" with the root arma "arms or gear". The word was reintroduced into the English language with the introduction of the iron-clad warship in the mid 19th century. Materials Over the centuries a wide variety of materials have been used to manufacture personal and vehicle protection, including: hides, leather, bone, linen, laminated wood, bronze, iron plate, rolled steel, and composite materials such as Kevlar, Dyneema and ceramics. The resistance to penetration of armour is related to the thickness of the steel—2 mm armour requires about three times as much energy to defeat as 1 mm armour. Use of armour Armour had been used by all combat and many support Arms of Service, including: infantry, cavalry, artillery, warships, armoured trains, aircraft, combat engineers, military medicine troops, and on occasion improvised use by logistics troops. Characteristics of armour Since the 15th century, most parts of the human body have been fitted with specialized steel pieces, typically worn over linen or woollen underclothes and attached to the body via leather straps and buckles and points. Mail protected those areas that could not be fitted with plate; for example, the back of the knee. Well-known constituent parts of plate armour include the helm, gauntlets, gorget or 'neckguard', breastplate, and greaves worn on the lower legs. For the elite, full-body plate armour was custom-made for the individual. Most armour was bought off the shelf and some was modified to fit the wearer. The cost of armour varied considerably with time and place as well as the type of armour, coverage it provided and the cost of decoration. In the 8th century a suit of Frankish mail had cost 12 oxen; by 1600 a horseman's armour cost 2 oxen Williams, p.43 . A typical suit of full plate harness cost around 1 pound sterling in 14th century England Fight-Book Clues to Quality and Build of Knightly Weaponry and a man-at-arms in the same period made 1 shilling per day and so his armour cost about 20 days pay. Reid, p.30 Plate armour was limited to those who could afford it: the nobility, landed classes and mercenary professional soldiers, who did most of the fighting in the Medieval period. Soldiers of lower standing generally wore less armour. Full plate armour made the wearer virtually impervious to sword blows as well as providing significant protection against arrows, bludgeons and even early firearms. Sword edges could not penetrate even relatively thin plate (as little as 1 mm). Also, although arrows shot from bows, crossbows and early firearms could occasionally pierce plate especially at close range, later improvements in the steel forging techniques and armour design made even this line of attack increasingly difficult. By its apex, hardened steel plate was almost impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were instead increasingly felled by polearms such as the halberd and blunt weapons such as maces or war hammers that could send concussive force through the plate armour resulting in injuries such as broken bones, organ haemorrhage and/or head trauma. Another tactic was to attempt to strike through the gaps between the armour pieces, using daggers, spears and spear points to attack the man-at-arms' eyes or joints. Contrary to common misconceptions, a well-made suit of medieval 'battle' armour (as opposed to the primarily ceremonial 'parade' and 'tournament' armour popular with kings and nobility of later years) hindered its wearer no more than the equipment carried by soldiers today. It should be remembered that an armoured knight would be trained to wear armour from his teens, and would likely develop the technique and endurance needed to comfortably run, crawl, climb ladders, as well as mount and dismount his horse without recourse to a crane (a myth probably originating from an English music hall comedy of the 1830s, and popularised in Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court). A full suit of medieval plate is thought to have weighed little more than 60 lb (27 kg) on average lighter than the equipment often carried by today's armies which averages at around 90 pounds. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/call/call_01-15_ch11.htm History Greek Mycenaean 1400 BC armour. Many factors have affected the development of armour throughout human history. Significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of armour production. For instance plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. Also modern militaries usually do not provide the best armour to their forces since doing so would be prohibitively costly. At times the development of armour has run parallel to the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility. Ancient historical use of armour In European history, well-known armour types include the lorica hamata and the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later Medieval and Renaissance knights, and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I. (1914–15). In November 2006 it was announced in Greece that the oldest surviving armour in Greece was restored and will be put on display soon (see picture). The armour dates from the Mycenaean Era around 1400 BC and is referred to as the Dendra panoply. In East Asian history laminated armour such as lamellar, and styles similar to the coat of plates, and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their samurai armour being a result of this influence. Middle Ages armour Gothic Armoury (1890s) Japanese Samurai armour, Tosei Gusoku, of the Hatisuka Clan Mail Mail, sometimes called by the neologism "chainmail", is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by the Celtic people in Eastern Europe about 500 BC. When these Celts moved West they took mail with them. Most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word Byrnne or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. The Roman Army used mail for almost all of its history. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD the infrastructure to make plate was largely lost in Europe, as a result mail was the best available armour during the ensuing Early Medieval period. Transition to plate Turkish plated mail Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the late 1200s, the knees were capped, and two circular discs, called besagews were fitted to protect the underarms. A variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armourers seemingly experimented. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat. Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel Williams, pp.740–1. . Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate. Williams, p.55 The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 1300s to replace the great helm, such as the sallet and barbute and later the armet and close helm. Probably the most recognised style of armour in the World became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries. 16th century plate armour for men and horses (Metropolitan Museum) By about 1400 the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy Williams, p.53 Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour. In the early 15th century, small "hand cannon" first began to be used, in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. At the same time crossbows were made more powerful to pierce armour. Rather than dooming the use of body armour, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armour. There was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armour was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armour were "threat and remedy" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century Italian armour plates were almost always made of steel Williams, p.66 . In Southern Germany armourers began to harden their steel armour only in the late 15th century. They would continue to harden their steel for the next century because they quenched and tempered their product which allowed for the fire-gilding to be combined with tempering Williams, p.331 . King Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–1598) in a luxurious half-armour The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15kgs, than by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg Williams, p.916 . The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance. In the early years of pistol and arquebuses, firearms were relatively low in velocity. The full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would often be encircled with engraving to point it out. This was called the "proof". Armour often also bore an insignia of the maker, especially if it was of good quality. Crossbow bolts, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebuseers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire. The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour. Early modern period armour World War I German Stahlhelm and prototype anti-shrapnel armour. Gradually starting in the mid 16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers. Back and breast plates continued to be used throughout the entire period of the 18th century and through Napoleonic times, in many European (heavy) cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. Modern period armour Though the age of the knight was over armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely- some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops. Stewart, pp.74-5 At the start of World War I, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armour. By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets. Their armour was meant to protect only against sabres and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns like the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary shells. The first ironclad battleship, La Gloire, was launched by the French Navy in 1859; Sondhaus, pp.73–4 she prompted the British Royal Navy to start building ironclads. After the first clashes of ironclads took place during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmoured line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat. Sondhaus, p. 86 Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible. The rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armoured cruisers. Austro-Hungarian armoured train from 1915 Armoured trains saw use during the 19th century in the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880-81 and 1899–1902), the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918–1920). Video clip of World War I tanks helping the Allies with an advance in Langres, France(1918) During the Second Boer War on 15 November 1899, Winston Churchill, then a war-correspondent, was travelling onboard an armoured train when it was ambushed by Boer commandos. Churchill and many of the train's garrison were captured, though many others escaped, including wounded placed on the train's engine. Armoured train at Bloemfontein, South Africa, circa 1914. It was worked by the South African Engineer Corps, and used against rebels during World War I. Towards the end of World War I, armies on both sides were experimenting with plate armour as protection against shrapnel and ricocheting projectiles. The first proposal for a tank was by the Austrian Oberleutenant Günther Burstyn who, in 1911, proposed a design for "motor artillery" (Motorengeschütz) with a turret, but his design never progressed beyond a German patent in 1912. DiNardo (1986), The First Modern Tank: Gunther Burstyn and His Motorgeschutz British World War I Mark IV tank with experimental "Tadpole Tail" Tank or "landship" development, originally conducted by the British Navy under the auspices of the Landships Committee was sponsored by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill and proceeded through a number of prototypes culminating in the Mark I tank prototype, named Mother. Willmott (2003), First World War The first tank to engage in battle was designated D1, a British Mark I, during the Battle of Flers-Courcellette on 15 September 1916. Regan (1993), The Guinness Book of More Military Blunders, p.12 In contrast to World War II, Germany fielded very few tanks during WWI, with only 15 of the A7V type being produced in Germany during the war. Willmott (2003), First World War, p.222 The first tank versus tank action took place on 24 April 1918 at Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, when three British Mark IVs met an advance of three German A7Vs, supported by infantry. Tanks were knocked out on both sides, but the German attack failed and they retreated. Mechanical problems, poor mobility and piecemeal tactical deployment limited the military significance of the tank in World War I and the tank did not fulfil its promise of rendering trench warfare obsolete. Nonetheless, it was clear to military thinkers on both sides that tanks would play a significant role in future conflicts. The development of effective anti-aircraft artillery before the Second World War meant that the pilots, once the "knights of the air" during the First World War were left far more vulnerable to ground fire. This not only created the requirement for the introduction of the cockpit armour plating that eventually came to be known variously as the "bucket" or the "bathtub", but also the design of such aircraft as the Il-2 which also were heavily armoured to protect the fuel and engine, allowing much greater survivability during ground assaults. Current armour use A modern ballistic vest. Riot police with body protection against blows Today, ballistic vests, euphemistically known as a flak jacket, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police forces, security staff, corrections officers and some branches of the military. The US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (E-S.A.P.I) in the chest, sides and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of 10 m, though accounts in Iraq and Afghanistan tell of soldiers shot as many as seven times in the chest without penetration . Dragon Skin body armour is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing with mixed results. Despite advances in the protection offered by ballistic armour against projectiles, as the name implies, modern ballistic body armour is much less impervious to stabbing weapons unless they are augmented with anti-knife/anti-stab armour (usually a form of mail). Riot police are usually equipped with armour against blows. Tank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tanks (MBT) designed since the late Cold War era can survive multiple RPG strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the World's armed forces due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry. The armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a relatively recent development, stemming from trials and experiences during the Second World War. The APC allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an Infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an armoured personnel carrier and a light tank were combined in one vehicle. Naval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedos. Passive defence naval armour for use against shells and other projectile weapons has almost completely disappeared on modern warships. It has been replaced by systems designed to detect and evade, or in the case of the cruise missiles, to destroy threats, including extensive use of radar, sonar and electronic warfare. Although the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what was later to become the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft of the Cold War. See also Battledress Ballistic vest Hillbilly armour Powered exoskeleton Rolled homogeneous armour Vehicle armour Notes References Reid, Peter. Medieval Warfare. New York: Carrol & Graf Publishers, 2007. ISBN 0-7867-1859-5. Sondhaus, Lawrence. Naval Warfare 1815–1914. London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-21478-5. Williams, Alan. The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. History of Warfare, v. 12. Leiden: Brill, 2003. ISBN 9004124985. Stewart, Gail B. "The Civil War: Weapons of War". San Diego: Lucent Publishers, 2000. 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2,853 | FAQ | Frequently asked questions, or FAQs are listed questions and answers, all supposed to be frequently asked in some context, and pertaining to a particular topic. Since the acronym FAQ originated in textual media, its pronunciation varies; "fack," "fax," "facts," and "F.A.Q." are commonly heard. Depending on usage, the term may refer specifically to a single frequently asked question, or to an assembled list of many questions and their answers. Origins While the name may be recent, the FAQs format itself is quite old. For instance, Matthew Hopkins wrote The Discovery of Witches in 1647 in FAQ format. He introduces it as "Certaine Queries answered," ... Many old catechisms are in a question-and-answer (Q&A) format. The "FAQ" is an Internet textual tradition originating from a combination of mailing list-laziness plus speculation and a separate technical and political need within NASA in the early 1980s. The first FAQ developed over several pre-Web years starting from 1982 when storage was expensive. On the SPACE mailing list, the presumption was that new users would ftp archived past messages. In practice, this never happened. Instead, the dynamic on mailing lists was for users to speculate rather than use very basic original sources (contacting NASA which was not part of ARPA and had only one site on the ARPANET) to get simple answers. Repeating the "right" answers becomes tedious. A series of different measures from regularly posted messages to netlib-like query email daemons were set up by loosely affiliated groups of computer system administrators. The acronym FAQ was developed in 1983 by Eugene Miya of NASA for the SPACE mailing list. Hersch, Russ. FAQs about FAQs. 8 January 1998. (Miya notes that Mark Horton's "18 question" periodic post (PP) happened concurrent to the SPACE FAQ, although it was not labelled with the word FAQ.) The format was then picked up on other mailing lists. Posting frequency changed to monthly, and finally weekly and daily across a variety of mailing lists and newsgroups. The first person to post a weekly FAQ was Jef Poskanzer to the Usenet net.graphics/comp.graphics newsgroups. Eugene Miya experimented with the first daily FAQ. The first FAQ were initially attacked by some mailing list users for being repetitive. On Usenet, Mark Horton started a series of "Periodic Posts" (PP) which attempted to answer trivia terminology such as "What is 'foobar'?" with appropriate answer. Periodic summary messages posted to Usenet newsgroups attempted to reduce the continual reposting of the same basic questions and associated wrong answers. On Usenet, posting questions which are covered in a group's FAQ is often considered poor netiquette, as it shows that the poster has not done the expected background reading before asking others to provide answers. Some groups may have multiple FAQ on related topics, or even two or more competing FAQ explaining a topic from different points of view. Another factor on early ARPANET mailing lists was netiquette, wherein people asking questions typically "promised to 'summarize' received answers." Rarely were these summaries more than mere concatenations of received electronic replies with little to no quality checking. The initialism "FAQ" possibly started as a contrived three-letter abbreviation with an auditory similarity to the word "facts" (i.e., a statement "check the FAQs" echoes "check the facts".) Modern developments Originally the term FAQ referred to the Frequently Answered Question itself, and the compilation of questions and answers was known as a FAQ list or some similar expression. Today FAQ is more frequently used to refer to the list, and a text consisting of questions and their answers is often called an FAQ regardless of whether the questions are actually frequently asked (if asked at all). This is done to capitalize on the fact that the concept of a FAQ has become fairly familiar online – documents of this kind are sometimes called FAAQs (Frequently Asked and Anticipated Questions). In some cases informative documents not in the traditional FAQ style have also been called FAQ, videogame FAQ in particular. A number of online repositories of videogame FAQ have emerged in recent years (such as CheatCodes.com and GameFAQs), where most so-called FAQs have nothing in common with the meaning of the name, but are often instead rather detailed descriptions of gameplay, including tips, secrets, and beginning-to-end guidance. Rarely are videogame FAQ in a question-and-answer format, although they may contain a short section of questions and answers in this format. Over time, the accumulated FAQ across all USENET news groups sparked the creation of the "*.answers" moderated newsgroups such as comp.answers, misc.answers, sci.answers, etc. for crossposting and collecting FAQ across respective comp.*, misc.*, sci.* newsgroups. The term FAQ, and the idea behind it, has spread offline as well, even to areas not related to the Net at all. Even bottles of bicycle chain lubricant have been marketed with accompanying leaflets titled as a FAQ. There are thousands of FAQ available on many subjects. Several sites catalog them and provide search capabilities—for example, the Internet FAQ Consortium. In the World Wide Web, FAQ nowadays tend to be stored in content management systems (CMS), or in simple text files. Since 1998, a number of specialized software programs have emerged, mostly written in Perl or PHP. Some of them are integrated into more complex software applications; others, like phpMyFAQ, can be run either as a stand-alone FAQ or integrated into web applications. Recently, the term FAQQER has become more popular, but has two possible uses. The original definition was of someone who typically asked a lot of questions. The abbreviation has also been applied to users who have built up a level of knowledge to allow them to frequently answer questions. References http://www.livinginternet.com/i/it_faq_history.htm External links Original USENET examples FAQ definition from the Jargon files | FAQ |@lemmatized frequently:8 ask:9 question:18 faq:39 list:12 answer:21 suppose:1 context:1 pertain:1 particular:2 topic:3 since:2 acronym:2 originate:2 textual:2 medium:1 pronunciation:1 varies:1 fack:1 fax:1 facts:2 f:1 q:2 commonly:1 heard:1 depend:1 usage:1 term:4 may:4 refer:3 specifically:1 single:1 assembled:1 many:3 origin:1 name:2 recent:2 format:6 quite:1 old:2 instance:1 matthew:1 hopkins:1 write:2 discovery:1 witch:1 introduce:1 certaine:1 query:2 catechism:1 internet:2 tradition:1 combination:1 mail:5 laziness:1 plus:1 speculation:1 separate:1 technical:1 political:1 need:1 within:1 nasa:3 early:2 first:4 develop:2 several:2 pre:1 web:3 year:2 start:3 storage:1 expensive:1 space:3 presumption:1 new:1 user:4 would:1 ftp:1 archive:1 past:1 message:3 practice:1 never:1 happen:2 instead:2 dynamic:1 speculate:1 rather:2 use:2 basic:2 original:3 source:1 contact:1 part:1 arpa:1 one:1 site:2 arpanet:2 get:1 simple:2 repeat:1 right:1 becomes:1 tedious:1 series:2 different:2 measure:1 regularly:1 post:7 netlib:1 like:2 email:1 daemon:1 set:1 loosely:1 affiliated:1 group:4 computer:1 system:2 administrator:1 eugene:2 miya:3 hersch:1 rus:1 january:1 note:1 mark:2 horton:2 periodic:3 pp:2 concurrent:1 although:2 label:1 word:2 pick:1 mailing:3 frequency:1 change:1 monthly:1 finally:1 weekly:2 daily:2 across:3 variety:1 newsgroups:5 person:1 jef:1 poskanzer:1 usenet:6 net:2 graphic:2 comp:3 experiment:1 initially:1 attack:1 repetitive:1 attempt:2 trivia:1 terminology:1 foobar:1 appropriate:1 summary:2 reduce:1 continual:1 reposting:1 associate:1 wrong:1 cover:1 often:3 consider:1 poor:1 netiquette:2 show:1 poster:1 expect:1 background:1 read:1 others:2 provide:2 multiple:1 related:1 even:3 two:2 compete:1 explain:1 point:1 view:1 another:1 factor:1 wherein:1 people:1 typically:2 promise:1 summarize:1 receive:1 rarely:2 mere:1 concatenation:1 received:1 electronic:1 reply:1 little:1 quality:1 check:3 initialism:1 possibly:1 contrived:1 three:1 letter:1 abbreviation:2 auditory:1 similarity:1 e:1 statement:1 echo:1 fact:2 modern:1 development:1 originally:1 compilation:1 know:1 similar:1 expression:1 today:1 text:2 consisting:1 call:4 regardless:1 whether:1 actually:1 capitalize:1 concept:1 become:2 fairly:1 familiar:1 online:2 document:2 kind:1 sometimes:1 faaqs:1 anticipated:1 case:1 informative:1 traditional:1 style:1 also:2 videogame:3 number:2 repository:1 emerge:2 cheatcodes:1 com:2 gamefaqs:1 nothing:1 common:1 meaning:1 detailed:1 description:1 gameplay:1 include:1 tip:1 secret:1 begin:1 end:1 guidance:1 contain:1 short:1 section:1 time:1 accumulated:1 news:1 spark:1 creation:1 moderate:1 misc:2 sci:2 etc:1 crossposting:1 collect:1 respective:1 idea:1 behind:1 spread:1 offline:1 well:1 area:1 relate:1 bottle:1 bicycle:1 chain:1 lubricant:1 market:1 accompany:1 leaflet:1 title:1 thousand:1 available:1 subject:1 catalog:1 search:1 capability:1 example:2 consortium:1 world:1 wide:1 nowadays:1 tend:1 store:1 content:1 management:1 cms:1 file:2 specialized:1 software:2 program:1 mostly:1 perl:1 php:1 integrate:2 complex:1 application:2 phpmyfaq:1 run:1 either:1 stand:1 alone:1 recently:1 faqqer:1 popular:1 possible:1 us:1 definition:2 someone:1 lot:1 apply:1 build:1 level:1 knowledge:1 allow:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 livinginternet:1 htm:1 external:1 link:1 jargon:1 |@bigram ftp_archive:1 loosely_affiliated:1 mailing_list:3 usenet_newsgroups:1 perl_php:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
2,854 | Death | The symbolic face of death, detail from a painting by Philippe de Champaigne Death in war: a soldier's corpse sprawled out in Petersburg, Virginia, 1865, during the American Civil War Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. It refers to both a particular event and to the condition that results thereby. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical enquiry. Religions, almost without exception, maintain faith in either some kind of afterlife or reincarnation. The effect of physical death on any possible mind or soul remains an open question. Contemporary science regards organismic death as final by definition. Animals almost without exception (see hydra) die in due course from senescence. Intervening phenomena which commonly bring death earlier include malnutrition, predation, disease, accidents resulting in terminal physical injury, or, in extreme circumstances, grave ecosystem disruption. Intentional human activity causing death includes suicide, homicide, and . Roughly 150,000 people die each day across the globe. Death in the natural world can also occur as an indirect result of human activity: an increasing cause of species depletion in recent times has been destruction of ecological systems as a consequence of the widening spread of industrial technology. Human Activities Cause of Current Extinction Crisis, accessed 7 April 2009 The chief concern of medical science has been to postpone and avert death. Death in this context is now seen as less an event than a process: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible. Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Precise medical definition of death, in other words, becomes more problematic, paradoxically, as scientific knowledge and technology advance. Death remains a central mystery of life itself. The Hour of Our Death, Philippe Ariès, 1981 Death in biology Natural selection Put in simpler words, you are gone from life. Death is an important part of the process of natural selection. Organisms that are less adapted to their current environment than others are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, reducing their contribution to the gene pool of succeeding generations. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading to processes such as speciation and extinction. It should be noted however that reproduction plays an equally important role in determining survival. For example, an organism that dies young but leaves many offspring will have a much greater Darwinian fitness than a long-lived organism which leaves only one. Extinction Dead as a Dodo: the bird that became a byword in English for species extinction Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of speciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche — and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. Still part of life even after death: a decomposing mole has entered Earth's biogeochemical cycle After death the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle. Animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles. Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need be decomposed fully, however. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example. Evolution of aging Enquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (a notable exception being hydra, which may be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes. Defining death Problems of definition What is death? A flower, a skull and an hour-glass stand in for Life, Death and Time One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment at which life ends or the state that follows life. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic however because there is little consensus over how to define life. Some have suggested defining life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms which are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem with this approach is in defining consciousness, which remains a mystery to modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. This general problem of defining death applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine. Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers. Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death"; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference. The possession of brain activities, or ability to resume brain activity, is a necessary condition to legal personhood in the United States. "It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices." (Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983)) Many have challenged the idea that brain death is equivalent to the cessation of consciousness. Critics point out that much of human consciousness is embodied in numerous body parts and that the end of electrical impulses in the brain does not necessarily indicate that this embodied consciousness has also ceased. Given this possibility, brain death does not necessitate the end of consciousness, and thus brain dead people may still be alive. Furthermore, some have argued, even if brain death does mean the end of consciousness for a human being, the whole notion that cessation of consciousness indicates death is problematic. Critics note the existence of many single-celled organisms such as bacteria that we consider to be alive but which many doubt are conscious. If life does not require consciousness, defining death in terms of "brain death" is a dubious procedure, even if the brain is the seat of consciousness. Thus while legal concerns surrounding death force us to develop a working definition of death, it is not at all clear that the current American definition, according to brain death, coincides at all with a definition that can be reasonably endorsed. Those people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics. Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions. Misdiagnosed death There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then 'coming back to life', sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the Victorian era, some people in Britain became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead. As reflected from at least one article of literature by authors like Edgar Allan Poe, where subjects were buried alive. In cases of electric shock, CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). Prentice Hall. This "diving response", in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex. As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information theoretical death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death actually occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics. There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success. Blood Swapping Reanimates Dead Dogs In science fiction scenarios where such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death. Death and the law By law, a person is dead if a Statement of Death or Death Certificate is approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death, including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called personhood. Causes of death in humans Life gazes upon death: the body of Pope John Paul II lying in state in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, 2005 Death can be caused by disease, suffocation/asphyxiation or prolonged lack of oxygen to the brain, or physical trauma as a result of an accident ("unintentional circumstance"), homicide ("intentional act by someone else"), or suicide ("intentional act against one's self"). WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually The leading cause of death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes of death in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds — 100,000 per day — die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%. With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once normal, are now rare in the developed world. In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004. World Health Organization (WHO). Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 - Global and regional incidence. March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006. Malaria causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and approximately one to three million deaths annually. USAID’s Malaria Programs AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90-100 million by 2025. Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa, Washington Post According to Jean Ziegler, who was the United Nations Special reporter on the Right to Food from 2000 to March 2008; mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients." Jean Ziegler, L'Empire de la honte, Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p.130. Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, the WHO Report warned. Tobacco Could Kill One Billion By 2100, WHO Report Warns Tobacco could kill more than 1 billion this century: WHO Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death. Symptoms of death Signs of death, or strong indications that a person is no longer alive are: Pallor mortis, paleness which happens almost instantaneously (in the 15–120 minutes after the death) Algor mortis, the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature Rigor mortis, the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate Livor mortis, a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter Autopsy An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices. A necropsy is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. Life extension Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues. Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed, which given the rapidly advancing state of biogenetic and general medical technology, could conceivably occur within the lifetimes of people living today. Death in culture Death haunts even the beautiful: an early 20th century artist says, "All is Vanity" Death is the center of many traditions and organizations, and is a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice, however, as in Tibet for instance the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay. Such rituals are accompanied by grief and mourning in almost all cases, and this is not limited to human loss, but extends to the loss of an animal. Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation. Capital punishment is also a divisive aspect of death in culture. In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as punishment for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the supposed increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with irish suicide bombers and terrorism in Northern Ireland,kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts. Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in contrasting cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael and Father Time. See also Bardo Thodol (Tibetan Book of the Dead) Burial Black Death Cadaveric spasm Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture by Jonathan Dollimore -cide Death erection Death messengers Death (personification) Death rattle Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) Dying declaration Euphemisms for death Karōshi Last rites Leading preventable causes of death Legal death List of causes of death by rate List of natural disasters by death toll List of wars and disasters by death toll Mortician Near-death experience Post Mortem Interval Pseudocide Thanatology World War I casualties World War II casualties Zombie References Additional references Appel, JM. Defining Death: When Physicians and Families Differ. Journal of Medical Ethics Fall 2005. Child AM (1995) J Archaeolog Sci 22: 165-174it funny Piepenbrink H (1985) J Archaeolog Sci 13: 417-430 Piepenbrink H (1989) Applied Geochem 4: 273-280 Vass AA (2001) Microbiology Today 28: 190-192 at: External links Death (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Doctors Change the Way They Think About Death Odds of dying from various injuries or accidents Source: National Safety Council, United States, 2001 Causes of Death Causes of Death 1916 How the medical profession categorized causes of death a century ago. George Wald: The Origin of Death A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution. 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2,855 | Juan_Fernández_Islands | The town of San Juan Bautista in Cumberland Bay, Robinson Crusoe Island The Juan Fernández Islands is a sparsely inhabited island group reliant on tourism and fishing in the South Pacific Ocean, situated about 667 km off the coast of Chile, and is composed of several volcanic islands: Robinson Crusoe, () (also known as Isla Más a Tierra), located closest to the mainland of continental South America, and its surrounding islets: Juananga, (Islote Juananga) Santa Clara () (Isla Santa Clara), an islet located 1 km southwest of Robinson Crusoe Alejandro Selkirk Island () (also known as Isla Más Afuera), 181 km further west. The islands are mainly known for having been the home to the sailor Alexander Selkirk for four years, which may have inspired the novel Robinson Crusoe. The islands have an area of 181 km², of which 93 km² are taken up by Robinson Crusoe (together with Santa Clara), and 33 km² by Alexander Selkirk. The population is 633 (all on Robinson Crusoe); of those 598 reside in the capital, San Juan Bautista, on Cumberland Bay on the north coast of the island (2002 census). The archipelago administratively belongs to Chile's Region of Valparaíso (which also includes Easter Island), and more specifically forms one of the nine comunas (municipalities) of the province of Valparaíso, namely Juan Fernández. History The archipelago was discovered by chance on November 22 1574, by the Spanish sailor Juan Fernández, who was sailing between Peru and Valparaíso and deviated from his planned course. He called the islands Más Afuera, Más a Tierra, and Islote de Santa Clara. In the 17th and 18th century it was used as a hideout for pirates, and provided a location for a penal colony. In the 1740s, it was visited by Commodore Anson's flotilla during his ill-fated venture to the South Seas. The location of the archipelago was fixed by Alessandro Malaspina in 1790. Previous charts had differed on the location. ; online at Google Books In late 1914 the islands were the rendezvous for Admiral Maximilian von Spee's East Asiatic Squadron as he gathered his ships together prior to defeating the British under Admiral Christopher Cradock at the Battle of Coronel. Following the Royal Navy's revenge at the Battle of the Falkland Islands a month later, the only surviving German cruiser, SMS Dresden, was finally hunted down and cornered at Más a Tierra early in 1915, where she was scuttled after a brief battle with British cruisers. In 1966 the Chilean government renamed Isla Más Afuera to Alejandro Selkirk and Isla Más a Tierra to Robinson Crusoe, in order to promote tourism. Incidentally, Selkirk never set foot on Más Afuera, only on Más a Tierra. In July 30 2007, a constitutional reform gave the Juan Fernández Islands and Easter Island the status of special territories of Chile. Pending the enactment of a special charter, the archipelago will continue to be governed as a municipality of the Valparaíso Region. Chilean Law 20,193, National Congress of Chile Demography the population of the islands most is of European origin, mainly Spanish and other European nationalities. Geology The islands are volcanic in origin, and were created by the Juan Fernández hotspot that penetrates the earth's mantle breaking through the Nazca Plate to form the islands. The islands have then been carried eastward off the hot spot forming the Juan Fernández Ridge as the Nazca Plate subducts under the South American continent. Radiometric dating indicates that Santa Clara is the oldest of the islands, 5.8 million years old, followed by Robinson Crusoe, 3.8-4.2 million years old, and Alexander Selkirk, 1.0-2.4 million years old. Robinson Crusoe is the largest of the islands, at 93 km² and the highest peak, El Yunque, is 916 meters. Alexander Selkirk is 50 km²; its highest peak is Los Inocentes at 1319 meters. Santa Clara is 2.2 km², and reaches 350 meters. Climate Orthographic projection centred over Juan Fernandez The islands have a subtropical climate, influenced by the cold Humboldt Current which flows northward along the South American coast east of the islands, and the southeast trade winds. The temperature ranges from 3-34 °C, with an annual mean of 15.4 °C. Higher elevations are generally cooler, with occasional frosts on Robinson Crusoe. Rainfall is higher in the winter months, and varies with elevation and exposure; elevations above 500 meters experience almost daily rainfall, while the western, leeward side of Robinson Crusoe and Santa Clara are quite dry. Average annual rainfall is 1081 mm, varying from 318 to 1698 mm year to year. Much of the variability in rainfall depends on the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Ecology The Juan Fernández islands are home to a high percentage of rare and endemic plants and animals, and are recognized as a distinct ecoregion. The volcanic origin and remote location of the islands meant that the islands' flora and fauna had to reach the archipelago from far across the sea; as a result, the island has relatively few plants and very few animals. The closest relatives of the archipelago's plants and animals are found in the Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregions of southern South America, including the Valdivian temperate rain forests, Magellanic subpolar forests, and Desventuradas Islands. Flora Map of Isla Más a Tierra / Crusoe There are 209 native species of vascular plants in the Juan Fernandez Islands, approximately 150 of which are flowering plants, and 50 are ferns. 126 species, or 62%, are endemic, with 12 endemic genera and one endemic family, Lactoridaceae. Many plants are characteristic of the Antarctic flora, and are related to plants found in southern South America, New Zealand and Australia. Vegetation zones generally correspond to elevation, with grasslands and shrublands at lower elevations, tall and montane forests at middle elevations, and shrublands at the highest elevations. The two main islands have somewhat distinct plant communities. Alexander Selkirk is mostly covered with grassland from 0-400 meters, interspersed with wooded ravines (quebradas), home to dry forests of Myrceugenia and Fagara. From 400 to 600 meters are lower montane forests, with upper montane forest from 600 to 950 meters. The treeline is at approximately 950 meters, above which is alpine shrubland and grassland, dominated by temperate Magellanic vegetation such as Acaena, Dicksonia, Drimys, Empetrum, Gunnera, Myrteola, Pernettya, and Ugni. On Robinson Crusoe, grasslands predominate from 0-100 meters; introduced shrubs from 100-300 meters; tall forests from 300-500 meters; montane forests from 500-700 meters, with dense tree cover of Cuminia, Fagara, and Rhaphithamnus; tree fern forests from 700-750 meters, and brushwood forests above 750 meters. Santa Clara is covered with grassland. Three endemic species dominate the tall and lower montane forests of the archipelago, Drimys confertifolia on both main islands, Myrceugenia fernandeziana on Robinson Crusoe, and M. schulzei on Alexander Selkirk. Endemic tree fern species of southern hemisphere genus Dicksonia (D. berteriana on Robinson Crusoe and D. externa on Alexander Selkirk) and the endemic genus Thyrsopteris (T. elegans) are the predominant species in the tree-fern forests. An endemic species of sandalwood, Santalum fernandezianum, was overexploited for its fragrant wood, has not been seen since 1908, and is believed extinct. The Chonta Palm (Juania australis) is endangered. Fauna The Juan Fernández Islands have a very limited fauna, with no native land mammals, reptiles, or amphibians. Seventeen land and sea-bird species breed on the islands. The island has three endemic bird species, and two endemic subspecies. Robinson Crusoe Island is home to an endemic and endangered hummingbird, the Juan Fernández Firecrown (Sephanoides fernandensis). This large hummingbird, about 11 cm (5 in) long, is thought to number only about 500 individuals. The other endemic bird species are the Juan Fernández Tit-tyrant (Anairetes fernandezianus) of Robinson Crusoe Island, and the Masafuera Rayadito (Aphrastura masafuerae) of Alejandro Selkirk Island. Introduced fauna by humans include rats and goats, which castaway Alexander Selkirk survived on during his four year stay from 1705 to 1709; his travails provided the inspiration for Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe. The Magellanic Penguin breeds at Robinson Crusoe Island within this archepelago. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Magellanic Penguin, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg The endemic Juan-Fernandez spiny lobster (without claws) lives in the marine waters (Jasus frontalis). The Juan Fernandez Fur Seal (Arctocephalus philippii) lives on the islands. This species was nearly exterminated in the sixteenth to nineteenth century, but it was rediscovered in 1965. A census in 1970 indicated about 750 fur seals present in the Archipelago. Only two were sighted on the Desventuradas Islands. The actual population of the Desventuradas may be higher, because the species tends to hide in sea caves. There seems to be a yearly population increase of 16–17%. References External links Juan Fernández Islands Site by Juan Pablo Berlinger) Human impact on vegetation of the Juan Fernandez Islands, Chile Juan Fernandez Islands - images Map of Robinson Crusoe Island Juan Fernández Islands temperate forests (World Wildlife Fund) A digital field trip to Robinson Crusoe Island. be-x-old:Архіпэляг Хуана Фэрнандэса | Juan_Fernández_Islands |@lemmatized town:1 san:2 juan:21 bautista:2 cumberland:2 bay:2 robinson:20 crusoe:21 island:43 fernández:12 sparsely:1 inhabited:1 group:1 reliant:1 tourism:2 fishing:1 south:7 pacific:1 ocean:1 situate:1 km:3 coast:3 chile:5 compose:1 several:1 volcanic:3 also:3 know:3 isla:6 más:10 tierra:6 locate:2 close:2 mainland:1 continental:1 america:3 surround:1 islet:2 juananga:2 islote:2 santa:8 clara:8 southwest:1 alejandro:3 selkirk:12 afuera:4 far:2 west:1 mainly:2 home:4 sailor:2 alexander:8 four:2 year:7 may:2 inspire:1 novel:2 area:1 take:1 together:2 population:4 reside:1 capital:1 north:1 census:2 archipelago:8 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2,856 | Kit_Carson | Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American frontiersman. Carson left home at an early age and became a trapper. He gained notoriety for his role as John C. Fremont's guide in the American West. Carson also played a minor role in California during the 1846-48 Mexican-American War, and later became a rancher in New Mexico. During the American Civil War, he helped organize the New Mexico volunteer infantry, and fought against Navajo Indians, against his will, but by order of the U.S. Army. By 1864, about 8000 Navajo had surrendered to the U.S. Army, while another 8000 hid in the back country. Kit Carson finally went home to his family. After the Civil War, Carson moved to Colorado, where he died. http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/a_c/carson.htm Carter,Dunlay,Sides,Simmons,Sabin Early life Born in Madison County, Kentucky near the city of Richmond, Carson was raised in a rural area near Franklin, Missouri, where his family moved in 1811 when he was about one year old. “In the spring of 1811, Lindsey Carson, with his wife and nine children [moved by ox team and wagon] from Madison County, Kentucky, to the new Boone’s Lick District of the even newer American Territory of Louisiana... The Carsons and their company of other southerners settled in what is now Howard County, along the Missouri River about 170 miles west of St. Louis.. [In this frontier arose the stockades of Fort Hempstead, Fort Cooper, and Fort Kincaid. The name of Lindsey Carson appears upon the roll of old Fort Hempstead and the annals of old Fort Cooper].” Sabin, E., Kit Carson Days, p. 6. Carson's father, Lindsey Carson, was a farmer of Scots-Irish descent, who had fought in the Revolutionary War under General Wade Hampton. There were a total of 15 Carson children: five by Lindsey Carson's first wife, and ten by Kit's mother, Rebecca Robinson. Kit was the eleventh child in the family. There is controversy about how many children were in the Carson family, and what Kit’s birth order was: "In 1793 his first wife died, leaving him with 5 children and in 1796 he married Rebecca Robinson, who bore him ten more, including Christopher, the sixth". T. Dunlay Kit Carson and the Indians, p. 26-7. Compare that statement with the following: "The elder Carson had an enormous family-five children by his first wife and ten by Kit's mother, Rebecca Robinson. Of those fifteen children, Kit was the eleventh in line." H. Sides Blood and Thunder, p. 8. This article has used Hampton Sides version, as there is no decisive reasoning to resolve the conflict, and his was the original version used for this article. It is acknowledged that there still remains some controversy about which version is correct. The Carson family settled on a tract of land owned by the sons of Daniel Boone, who had purchased the land from the Spanish prior to the Louisiana Purchase. The Boone and Carson families became good friends, working, socializing, and intermarrying. Carson was eight years old when his father was killed by a falling tree while clearing land. Lindsey Carson's death reduced the Carson family to a desperate poverty, forcing young Kit to drop out of school to work on the family farm, as well as engage in hunting. At age 14, Kit was apprenticed to a saddlemaker (Workman's Saddleshop) in the settlement of Franklin, Missouri. Franklin was situated at the eastern end of the Santa Fe Trail, which had opened two years earlier. Many of the clientele at the saddleshop were trappers and traders, from whom Kit would hear their stirring tales of the Far West. Carson is reported to have found work in the saddle shop suffocating: he once stated "the business did not suit me, and I concluded to leave". His Master may have agreed with his leaving since he offered the odd amount of 1 cent for his return and waited a month to post the notice in the local newspaper. At sixteen, Carson secretly signed on with a large merchant caravan heading to Santa Fe; his job was to tend the horses, mules, and oxen. During the winter of 1826-1827 he stayed with Matthew Kinkead, a trapper and explorer, in Taos, New Mexico, then known as the capital of the fur trade in the Southwest. Kinkead had been a friend of Carson's father in Missouri, and he taught Carson the skills of a trapper. Carson also began learning the necessary languages and became fluent in Spanish, Navajo, Apache, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Paiute, Shoshone, and Ute. http://www.coloradohistory.org/kids/Kit%20Carson1.pdf The trapper years (1829-40) See Fur trade After gaining experience along the Santa Fe Trail and in Mexico, Carson signed on with a trapping party of forty men, led by Ewing Young in the Spring of 1829; this was Carson's first official expedition as a trapper. The journey took the band into unexplored Apache country along the Gila River. Ewing's group was approached and attacked by Apache Indians. It was during this encounter that Carson shot and killed one of the attacking Indians, the first time he killed a man. At the age of 25, in the summer of 1835, Carson attended an annual mountain man rendezvous, which was held along the Green River in southwestern Wyoming. He became interested in an Arapaho woman whose name, Waa-Nibe, is approximated in English as "Singing Grass" H. Sides, Blood and Thunder, p. 30. Her tribe was camped nearby the rendezvous. Singing Grass is said to have been popular at the rendezvous and also to have caught the attention of a French-Canadian trapper, Joseph Chouinard. When Singing Grass chose Carson over Chouinard, the rejected suitor became belligerent. Chouinard is reported to have disrupted the camp, so that Carson could no longer tolerate the situation. Words were exchanged, and Carson and Chouinard charged each other on horses, brandishing their weapons. Carson blew off the thumb of his opponent with his pistol, while Chouinard's rifle shot barely missed, grazing Carson below his left ear and scorching his eye and hair. Carson stated that had his opponent's horse not shied as he fired, Chouinard might have finished him off, as he was a splendid shot. Controversy regarding Chouinard's fate continues, with no certainty achieved. The duel with Chouinard is said to have made Carson famous among the mountain men but was also considered uncharacteristic of him. One version has it that Chouinard did survive; one that Carson killed him with a second shot; and a third that Chouinard may have died of an infection caused by his wounds. M. Simmons, P. 7-17; T. Dunlay 69-73; H. Sides, p. 29-31. Carson considered his years as a trapper to be "the happiest days of my life." Accompanied by Singing Grass, he worked with the Hudson's Bay Company, as well as the renowned frontiersman Jim Bridger, trapping beaver along the Yellowstone, Powder, and Big Horn Rivers, and was found throughout what is now Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Carson's first child, a daughter named Adeline, was born in 1837. Singing Grass gave birth to a second daughter and developed a fever shortly after the child's birth, and died sometime between 1838-40. A Carson family history website gives the year of the death of Singing Grass as 1838. H. Sides gives the year as 1839, and Dunlay gives the year as sometime between 1839-40, and possibly occurring at Bents Fort. At this time, the nation was undergoing a severe depression (see Panic of 1837). The fur industry was undermined by changing fashion styles: a new demand for silk hats replaced the demand for beaver fur. Also, the trapping industry had devastated the beaver population; this combination of facts ended the need for trappers. Carson stated, "Beaver was getting scarce, it became necessary to try our hand at something else." Sides, H. , Blood and Thunder, p. 33 He attended the last mountain man rendezvous, held in the summer of 1840 (again at Ft. Bridger near the Green River) and moved on to Bent's Fort, finding employment as a hunter. Carson married a Cheyenne woman, Making-Our-Road, After Carson, Making Our Road married three other times. Twice to Indians and the third to Charles Rath, with whom she had a daughter. Her daughter told interviewers that the name "Making Our Road" in Cheyenne meant "laying down the law", a phrase much in keeping with her stern personality. M. Simmons, Kit Carson and His Three Wives, p. 35-6 in 1841 but Making-Our-Road left him only a short time later to follow her tribe's migration. By 1842 he met and became engaged to the daughter of a prominent Taos family: Josefa Jaramillo. After receiving instruction from Padre Antonio José Martínez, he was baptized into the Catholic Church in 1842. When he was 34, he married 14-year-old Josefa, his third wife, on February 6, 1843. They raised eight children, the descendants of whom remain in the Arkansas Valley of Colorado. Guide with Frémont (1842-1846) Carson decided early in 1842 to return east to bring his daughter Adeline to live with relatives near Carson's former home of Franklin, for the purpose of providing her with an education. That summer he met John C. Frémont on a Missouri River steamboat in Missouri. Frémont was preparing to lead his first expedition and was looking for a guide to take him to South Pass. The two men made acquaintance, and Carson offered his services, as he had spent much time in the area. The five month journey, made with 25 men, was a success, and Fremont's report was published by Congress. His report "touched off a wave of wagon caravans filled with hopeful emigrants" heading West. Frémont's success in the first expedition lead to his second expedition, undertaken in the summer of 1843, which proposed to map and describe the second half of the Oregon Trail, from South Pass to the Columbia River. Due to his proven skill as a guide in the first expedition, Carson's services were again requested. This journey took them along the Great Salt Lake into Oregon, establishing all the land in the Great Basin to be land-locked, which contributed greatly to the understanding of North American geography at the time. Their trip brought them into sight of Mount Rainier, Mount Saint Helens, and Mount Hood. One purpose of this expedition had been to locate the Buenaventura, a major east-west river that was believed to connect the Great Lakes with the Pacific Ocean. Though its existence was accepted as scientific fact at the time, it was not to be found. Frémont's second expedition established that this mystical river was a fable. The second expedition became snowbound in the Sierra Nevadas that winter, and was in danger of mass starvation. Carson's wilderness expertise pulled them through, in spite of being half-starved. Food was scarce enough that their mules "ate one another's tails and the leather of the pack saddles." Kit Carson: Biography and Much More from Answers.com The expedition moved south into the Mojave Desert, enduring attacks by Natives, which killed one man. Also, when the expedition had crossed into California, they had officially invaded Mexico. The threat of military intervention by that country sent Fremont's expedition further southeast, into Nevada, at a watering hole known as Las Vegas. The party traveled on to Bent's Fort, and by August, 1844 returned to Washington, over a year after their departure. Another Congressional report on Fremont's expedition was published. By the time of the second report in 1845, Frémont and Carson were becoming nationally famous. Somewhere along this route, Frémont and party came across a Mexican man and a boy who were survivors of an ambush by a band of Natives, who had killed two men, staked two women to the ground and mutilated them, and stolen 30 horses. Carson and fellow mountain man Alex Godey took pity on the two survivors. They tracked the Native band for 2 days, and upon locating them, rushed into their encampment. They killed two Native Americans, scattered the rest, and returned with the horses. "More than any other single factor or incident, [the Mojave Desert incident] from Frémont's second expedition report is where the Kit Carson legend was born....." Sides, Blood and Thunder, pp. 61-4 On June 1, 1845 John Frémont and 55 men left St. Louis, with Carson as guide, on the third expedition. The stated goal was to "map the source of the Arkansas River", on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. But upon reaching the Arkansas, Frémont suddenly made a hasty trail straight to California, without explanation. Arriving in the Sacramento Valley in early winter 1846, he promptly sought to stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. He promised that if war with Mexico started, his military force would "be there to protect them." Frémont nearly provoked a battle with General José Castro near Monterey, which would have likely resulted in the annihilation of Frémont's group, due to the superior numbers of the Mexican troops. Frémont then fled Mexican-controlled California, and went north to Oregon, finding camp at Klamath Lake. On the night of May 9, 1846 Frémont received a courier, Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie, who brought him messages from President James Polk. Frémont stayed up late reviewing these messages and neglected to post a watchman for the camp, as was customary for security measures. The neglect of this action is said to have been troubling to Carson, yet he had "apprehended no danger". This account is described in Dunlay p. 115, and Sides p. 78. Later that night Carson was awakened by the sound of a thump. Jumping up, he saw his friend and fellow trapper Basil Lajeunesse sprawled in blood. He called an alarm and immediately everyone else came to: they were under attack by Native Americans estimated to be several dozen in number. By the time the assailants were beaten off, two other members of Frémonts group were dead. The one dead warrior was judged to be a Klamath Lake Native. Frémont's group fell into "an angry gloom." Carson was beside himself, and Frémont reports he smashed away at the dead warrior's face until it was pulp. Fremont, Memoirs, p. 492. To avenge the deaths of his expedition members, Frémont chose to attack a Klamath Tribe fishing village named Dokdokwas, at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake, which took place May 10, 1846. Accounts by scholars vary as to what happened but it is certain that the action completely destroyed the village. H. Sides reports the massacre included women and children. Dunlay reports that Carson said "I directed their houses to be set on fire" and "We gave them something to remember...the women and children we did not interfere with." (Dunlay, p.117) Carson was nearly killed by a Klamath warrior later that day: his gun misfired, and the warrior drew to shoot a poison arrow; but Frémont, seeing Carson's predicament, trampled the warrior with his horse. Carson stated he felt that he owed Frémont his life due to this incident. "The tragedy of Dokdokwas is deepened by the fact that most scholars now agree that Frémont and Carson, in their blind vindictiveness, probably chose the wrong tribe to lash out against: In all likelihood the band of Indians that had killed [Frémont's three men] were from the neighboring Modocs....The Klamaths were culturally related to the Modocs, but the two tribes were bitter enemies." Sides, Blood and Thunder, p. 87 Turning south from Klamath Lake, Frémont led his expedition back down the Sacramento Valley, and slyly promoted an insurrection of American settlers, which he then took charge of once circumstances had adequately developed, known as the Bear Flag Revolt. Events escalated when a group of Mexicans murdered two American rebels. Frémont then intercepted three Mexican men on June 28, 1846, crossing the San Francisco Bay, who landed near San Quentin. Frémont ordered Carson to execute these three men in revenge for the deaths of the two Americans. Two of the men, Ramon and Francisco de Haro, were sons of the mayor of Sonoma. They were traveling with their uncle, Jose de los Berreyesa. Carson at first asked Fremont if he should take the men prisoner. Frémont's plan was otherwise: "I have no use for prisoners, do your duty," was the response. When Carson hesitated Fremont yelled, "Mr. Carson, your duty," to which Carson then complied. (Hampton Sides. "Blood And Thunder." New York; Anchor Books. 2007.) Mexican American War service See: History of California to 1899 Frémont's California Battalion next moved south to the provincial capital of Monterey, California, and met Commodore Robert Stockton there in mid-July 1846. Stockton had sailed into harbor with two American warships and taken claim to Monterey for the United States. Learning that the war with Mexico was underway, Stockton made plans to capture Los Angeles and San Diego and proceed on to Mexico City. He joined forces with Frémont, and made Carson a lieutenant, thus initiating Carson's military career. Frémont's unit arrived in San Diego on one of Stockton's ships on July 29, 1846, and took over the town without resistance. Stockton, traveling on a separate warship, claimed Santa Barbara a few days later. (See Mission Santa Barbara and Presidio of Santa Barbara). Meeting up and joining forces in San Diego, they marched to Los Angeles and claimed this town without any challenge, and Stockton declared California to be United States territory on August 17, 1846. The following day, August 18, Stephen W. Kearny rode into Santa Fe, New Mexico with his Army of the West and declared the New Mexican territory conquered. Stockton and Frémont were eager to announce the conquest of California to President Polk, and wished for Carson to carry their correspondence overland to the President. Carson accepted the mission, and pledged to cross the continent within 60 days. He left Los Angeles with 15 men and 6 Delaware Indians on September 5. Service with Kearny Thirty one days later on October 6, Carson chanced to meet Kearny and his 300 dragoons at the deserted village of Valverde. Valverde had once been an important Spanish village, but was deserted by the Spaniards due to frequent Navajo and Apache raids. Located about south of Santa Fe, on the Rio Grande River, it was to be the later site of Carson's battle against the Confederate Texas forces in February, 1862. Kearny was under orders from the Polk Administration to subdue both New Mexico and California, and set up governments there. Learning that California was already conquered, he sent 200 of his men back to Santa Fe, and ordered Carson to guide him back to California so he could stabilize the situation there. Kearny sent the mail on to Washington by another courier. For the next six weeks, Lt. Carson guided Kearny and the 100 dragoons west along the Gila River over very rugged terrain, arriving at the Colorado River on November 25. On some parts of the trail mules died at a rate of almost 12 a day. By December 5, three months after leaving Los Angeles, Carson had brought Kearny's men to within of their destination, San Diego. A Mexican courier was captured en route to Sonora Mexico carrying letters to General Jose Castro that reported a Mexican revolt which had recaptured California from Commodore Stockton: all the coastal cities now were back under Mexican control, except for San Diego, where the Mexicans had Stockton pinned down and under siege. Kearny was himself in perilous danger, as his force was reduced both in numbers and in a state of physical exhaustion: they had to come out of the Gila River trail and confront the Mexican forces, or risk perishing in the desert. The Battle of San Pasqual While approaching San Diego, Kearny sent a rancher ahead to notify Commodore Stockton of his presence. The rancher, Edward Stokes, returned with 39 American troops and information that several hundred Mexican dragoons under Capt Andres Pico were camped at the Indian village of San Pasqual, lying on the route between him and Stockton. Kearny decided to raid Pico in order to capture fresh horses, and sent out a scouting party on the night of December 5-6. The scouting party encountered a barking dog in San Pasqual, and Captain Pico's troops were aroused from their sleep. Having been detected, Kearny decided to attack, and organized his troops to advance on San Pasqual. A complex battle evolved, where twenty-one Americans were killed and many more wounded: many from the long lances of the Mexican caballeros, who also displayed expert horsemanship. By the end of the second day, December 7, the Americans were nearly out of food and water, low on ammunition and weak from the journey along the Gila River. They faced starvation and possible annihilation by the Mexican troops who vastly outnumbered them, and Kearny ordered his men to dig in on top of a small hill. Kearny then sent Carson and two other men to slip through the siege and get reinforcements. Carson, Edward Beale, and an Indian left on the night of December 8 for San Diego which was away. Because their canteens made too much noise, they were left along the path. Because their boots also made too much noise, Carson and Beale removed these and tucked them under their belts. These they lost, and Carson and Beale traveled the distance to San Diego barefoot through desert, rock, and cactus. By December 10, Kearny had decided all hope was gone, and planned to attempt a breakout the next morning: but that night, 200 American troops on fresh horses arrived, the Mexican army dispersed with the new show of strength. Kearny was able to arrive in San Diego by December 12. This action contributed to the prompt reconquest of California by the American forces. Civil War and Indian Activity Following the recapture of Los Angeles in 1846, Frémont was appointed Governor of California by Commodore Stockton. Frémont sent Carson to carry messages back to Washington City. He stopped in St. Louis and met with Senator Thomas Benton, who was a prominent supporter of the settling of the West and a proponent of Manifest Destiny, and had been prominent in getting Frémont's expedition reports published by Congress. Once in Washington, Carson delivered his messages to Secretary of State James Buchanan, as well as had meetings with Secretary of War William Marcy and President James Polk. Having completed this mission, Carson received orders to do it all again: return to California with messages, receive further messages there, and bring those back yet again to Washington. By the end of the Frémont expeditions and these courier missions, Carson felt he wanted to settle down with Joséfa, and decided in 1849 to go into farming in Taos. Carson's public image as an action hero had been sealed by the Frémont expedition reports of 1845. In 1849, the first of many Carson action novels appeared. The first, written by Charles Averill, bore the name Kit Carson: The Prince of the Gold Hunters. This type of western pulp fiction was known as "blood and thunders." In Averill's novel, Carson finds a kidnapped girl and rescues her, after having vowed to her distraught parents in Boston that he would scour the American West until she was found. This book was among the possessions Carson and Major William Grier found when they recovered the body of Mrs. Ann White in November, 1849. Mrs. White and her daughter had been taken captive by Jicarilla Apaches several weeks earlier. She had been traveling with her husband James White, a trader, to Santa Fe, when a group of Indians approached them as they camped along the Santa Fe trail. Mr. White tried to disperse the Indians with his rifle, but they attacked, killing everyone except Mrs. White, her daughter, and a servant. Carson and Grier tracked the Indians for twelve days to their camp on the Canadian River. Carson wanted an immediate attack, while Grier wanted to parlay with the Jicarillas. The disagreement in tactics caused delay, which gave the Indians time to disperse from camp and escape. In the process, Mrs. White appears to have attempted to flee and was killed by an arrow through the heart. While picking through the belongings that the Jicarillas had left in their camp, one of Major Grier's soldiers came across a book that the White family had carried with them from Missouri: the paperback novel starring Kit Carson. This book must have been shown to him, for he was to comment on it later. This was the first time that the real Kit Carson came in contact with his own myth. The episode of the White massacre haunted Carson's memory for many years. He once stated, "I have often thought that, as Mrs. White read the book, she prayed for my appearance, knowing that I lived nearby." His fear was that the book had given her a false hope. He wrote later, "I have much regretted the failure to save the life of so esteemed a lady." He was troubled by the implications and false image that developed around his celebrity status. On the 22d January (1858), Kit Karson concluded a treaty of peace between the Muatche Utahs, the Arapahoes, and the Pueblos of Taos. They agree to take side with the United States in the event of any issue between them and the people of any Territory, and do what they can for the suppression of rebellion in Utah. Fears were entertained at one time that the Muatche Utahs were in alliance with the Mormons. -New York Tribune, March 23, 1858, p. 1, column 6. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, Kit Carson resigned his post as federal Indian agent for northern New Mexico and joined the New Mexico volunteer infantry which was being organized by Ceran St. Vrain. Although New Mexico Territory officially allowed slavery, geography and economics made the institution so impractical that there were only a handful of slaves within its boundaries. The territorial government and the leaders of opinion all threw their support to the Union. Overall command of Union forces in the Department of New Mexico fell to Colonel Edward R. S. Canby of the Regular Army's 19th Infantry, headquartered at Ft. Marcy in Santa Fe. Carson, with the rank of Colonel of Volunteers, commanded the third of five columns in Canby's force. Carson's command was divided into two battalions each made up of four companies of the First New Mexico Volunteers, in all some 500 men. Early in 1862, Confederate forces in Texas under General Henry Hopkins Sibley undertook an invasion of New Mexico Territory. The goal of this expedition was to conquer the rich Colorado gold fields and redirect this valuable resource from the North to the South. Advancing up the Rio Grande, Sibley's command clashed with Canby's Union force at Valverde on February 21, 1862. The day-long Battle of Valverde ended when the Confederates captured a Union battery of six guns and forced the rest of Canby's troops back across the river with losses of 68 killed and 160 wounded. Colonel Carson's column spent the morning on the west side of the river out of the action, but at 1 p.m., Canby ordered them to cross, and Carson's battalions fought until ordered to retreat. Carson lost one man killed and one wounded. Colonel Canby had little or no confidence in the hastily recruited, untrained New Mexico volunteers, "who would not obey orders or obeyed them too late to be of any service." In his battle report, however, he did commend Carson, among other volunteer officers, for his "zeal and energy." After the battle at Valverde, Colonel Canby and most of the regular troops were ordered to the eastern front, but Carson and his New Mexico Volunteers were fully occupied by "Indian troubles." Prelude to the Navajo campaign Contact between the Navajo and the U.S. Army was prompted by a Navajo raid on Socorro, New Mexico near the end of September, 1846. General Kearny, passing nearby on his way to California after his recent conquest of Santa Fe, learned of the raid and sent a note to Col. William Doniphan, his second in command in Santa Fe. He asked Doniphan to send a regiment of soldiers into Navajo country and secure a peace treaty with them. A detachment of 30 men made contact with the Navajo and spoke to the Navajo Chief Narbona in mid-October, about the same time that Carson met Gen. Kearny on the trail to California. A second meeting with Chief Narbona and Col. Doniphan occurred several weeks later. Doniphan informed the Navajo that all their land now belonged to the United States, and the Navajo and New Mexicans were now the "children of the United States." In spite of this, the Navajo signed a treaty, known as the Bear Spring treaty, on November 21, 1846. The treaty forbade the Navajo to raid or make war on the New Mexicans, but allowed the New Mexicans the privilege of making war on the Navajo if they saw fit. Locke, R., The Book of the Navajo, pp. 204-212 Blood and Thunder, pp. 152-54 Despite the treaty, raiding continued in New Mexico by the Navajo, as well as the Jicarilla Apache, Mescalero Apache, Ute, Comanche, and Kiowa. On August 16, 1849 the U.S. Army began an expedition into the heart of Navajo country on an organized reconnaissance for the purpose of impressing the Navajo with the might of the U.S. military, and to map the terrain for further operations and to plan forts. The expedition was led by Col. John Washington, the military governor of New Mexico at the time. The expedition included nearly a thousand infantry (U.S. and New Mexican volunteers), hundreds of horses and mules, a supply train, 55 Pueblo Indian scouts, and four artillery guns. On August 29-30, 1849, Washington's expedition was in need of water, and began pillaging Navajo cornfields. It became clear the Navajo intended to resist further pillaging, with mounted warriors darting back and forth around Washington's troops. It is further documented that Washington's reasoning was that the pillaging of Navajo crops was justified because the Navajo would have to reimburse the U.S. government for the cost of the expedition. In this setting, Washington was still able to communicate to the Navajo that in spite of the hostile situation, they and the whites could "still be friends if the Navajo came with their chiefs the next day and signed a treaty." This is in fact exactly what the Navajo did. The next day Chief Narbona came once again to "talk peace," along with several other headmen. An accord was reached on nearly every matter. When a New Mexican thought he saw his stolen horse and the Navajo protested its return, a scuffle broke out. (The Navajo position was that the horse had passed through several owners by this time, and now rightfully belonged to its Navajo owner). Col. Washington sided with the New Mexican. Since the Navajo owner now took his horse and fled the scene, Washington told the New Mexican to go pick out any Navajo horse he wanted. The rest of the Navajo present figured out what was happening, and turned and fled. At this, Col. Washington ordered his soldiers to fire. Seven Navajo were killed in the volleys; the rest ran and could not be caught. One of the dying was Chief Narbona, who was scalped as he lay dying by a New Mexican souvenir hunter. This massacre prompted the warlike Navajo leaders such as Manuelito to gain influence over those who were advocates of peace. Carson's Navajo campaign Raiding by Amerindians had been rather constant up through 1862, and New Mexicans were becoming more outspoken in their demand that something be done. Col. Canby devised a plan for the removal of the Navajo to a distant reservation and sent his plans to his superiors in Washington D.C. But that year, Canby was promoted to general and recalled back east for other duties. His replacement as commander of the Federal District of New Mexico was Brigadier General James H. Carleton. Carleton believed that the Navajo conflict was the reason for New Mexico's "depressing backwardness." He naturally turned to Kit Carson to help him fulfill his plans of upgrading New Mexico and his own career: Carson was nationally known and had helped boost the careers of a series of military commanders who had employed him. Carleton saw a way to harness the anxieties that had been stirred up [in New Mexico] by the Confederate invasion and the still-hovering fear that the Texans might return. If the territory was already on a war footing, the whole society alert and inflamed, then why not direct all this ramped up energy toward something useful? Carleton immediately declared a state of martial law, with curfews and mandatory passports for travel, and then brought all his newly streamlined authority to bear on cleaning up the Navajo mess. With a focus that bordered on obsession, he was determined finally to make good on Kearny's old promise that the United States would "correct all this." H. Sides, Blood and Thunder, p. 325-6. Furthermore, Carleton believed there was gold in the Navajo's country, and felt they should be driven out in order to allow the development of this possibility. H. Sides, p. 329-31. The immediate prelude to Carleton's Navajo campaign was to force the Mescalero Apache to Bosque Redondo. Carleton ordered Carson to kill all the men of that tribe, and say that he (Carson) had been sent to "punish them for their treachery and crimes." Carson was appalled by this brutal attitude and refused to obey it. He accepted the surrender of more than a hundred Mescalero warriors who sought refuge with him. Nonetheless, he completed his campaign in a month. When Carson learned that Carleton intended for him to pursue the Navajo he sent Carleton a letter of resignation dated February 3, 1863. Carleton refused to accept this and used the force of his personality to maintain Carson's cooperation. In language that was similar to his description of the Mescalero Apache, Carleton ordered Carson to lead an expedition against the Navajo, and to say to them, "You have deceived us too often, and robbed and murdered our people too long, to trust you again at large in your own country. This war shall be pursued against you if it takes years, now that we have begun, until you cease to exist or move. There can be no other talk on the subject." Under Carleton's direction, Carson instituted a scorched earth policy, burning Navajo fields, orchards and homes, and confiscating or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long-standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Utes. Carson was pleased with the work the Utes did for him, but they went home early in the campaign when told they could not confiscate Navajo booty. Carson also had difficulty with his New Mexico volunteers. Troopers deserted and officers resigned. Carson urged Carleton to accept two resignations he was forwarding, "as I do not wish to have any officer in my command who is not contented or willing to put up with as much inconvenience and privations for the success of the expedition as I undergo myself." There were no pitched battles and only a few skirmishes in the Navajo campaign. Carson rounded up and took prisoner every Navajo he could find. In January 1864, Carson sent a company into Canyon de Chelly to attack the last Navajo stronghold under the leadership of Manuelito. The Navajo were forced to surrender because of the destruction of their livestock and food supplies. In the spring of 1864, 8,000 Navajo men, women and children were forced to march or ride in wagons 300 miles (480 km) to Fort Sumner, New Mexico. Navajos call this "The Long Walk." Although Carson had ridden home before the march began, he was held responsible by the Navajo for breaking his word that those who surrendered would not be harmed. As many as 300 died along the way, Valkenburgh, p26 and many more during the next four years of imprisonment. In 1868, after signing a treaty with the U.S. government, remaining Navajos were allowed to return to a reduced area of their homeland, where the Navajo Reservation exists today. Thousands of other Navajo who had been living in the wilderness returned to the Navajo homeland centered around Canyon de Chelly. Southern Plains campaign In November 1864, Carson was sent by General Carleton to deal with the Natives in western Texas. Carson and his troopers met a combined force of Kiowa, Comanche, and Cheyenne numbering over 1,500 at the ruins of Adobe Walls. In what is known as the Battle of Adobe Walls, the Native force led by Dohäsan made several assaults on Carson's forces which were supported by two mountain howitzers. Carson inflicted heavy losses on the attacking warriors before burning the Indians' camp and lodges and returning to Fort Bascom. A few days later, Colonel John M. Chivington led U.S. troops in a massacre at Sand Creek. Chivington boasted that he had surpassed Carson and would soon be known as the great Indian killer. Carson was outraged at the massacre and openly denounced Chivington's actions. The Southern Plains campaign led the Comanches to sign the Little Rock Treaty of 1865. In October 1865, General Carleton recommended that Carson be awarded the brevet rank of brigadier-general, "for gallantry in the battle of Valverde, and for distinguished conduct and gallantry in the wars against the Mescalero Apaches and against the Navajo Indians of New Mexico." Colorado When the Civil War ended, and with the Indian campaigns successfully concluded, Carson left the army and took up ranching, finally settling in Boggsville, Colorado (near the current Las Animas on the Purgatory River). Carson died at age 58 from an abdominal aortic aneurysm in the surgeon's quarters in Fort Lyon, Colorado, located east of Las Animas. Abernathy CM Jr, Baumgartner R, Butler HG, Collins J, Dickinson TC, Hildebrand J, Yajko RD, Harken AH. (1986) The management of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms in rural Colorado. With a historical note on Kit Carson's death. JAMA. 256(5):597-600. He is buried in Taos, New Mexico, alongside his wife, Josefa ("Josephine"), who died a month earlier of complications following child birth. His headstone inscription reads: "Kit Carson / Died May 23, 1868 / Aged 59 Years." The gravestone reads "59 years"; this would seem to be an error, however. Carson's date of birth was December 24, 1809. Calculating forward from this will give his age as 58. His last words were: "Adios Compadres." Reputation Everyone who met Kit Carson while he was alive, and for 120 years after he died, and who wrote down their recollections of Kit Carson, described him as an outstanding honorable person. There are no “negative” descriptions until about 1988. Albert Richardson, who knew him personally in the 1850s, wrote that Kit Carson was "a gentleman by instinct, upright, pure, and simple-hearted, beloved alike by Indians, Mexicans, and Americans". Richardson, p. 261 Oscar Lipps also presented a positive image of Carson in 1909: "The name of Kit Carson is to this day held in reverence by all the old members of the Navajo tribe. They say he knew how to be just and considerate as well as how to fight the Indians". Lipps, p. 59 Carson's contributions to western history have been reexamined by historians, journalists and Native American activists since the 1960s. In 1968, Carson biographer Harvey L. Carter stated: In respect to his actual exploits and his actual character, however, Carson was not overrated. If history has to single out one person from among the Mountain Men to receive the admiration of later generations, Carson is the best choice. He had far more of the good qualities and fewer of the bad qualities than anyone else in that varied lot of individuals. Carter, p. 210 Some journalists and authors during the last 25 years preset false information about Kit Carson. For instance, Virginia Hopkins stated in 1988 that "Kit Carson was directly or indirectly responsible for the deaths of thousands of Indians". Hopkins, p. 40 She offers no historical information for that opinion. Her viewpoint is contested by Tom Dunlay, a professional historian, who wrote in 2000 that Carson was directly responsible for less than fifty Indian deaths and that, as Carson was not there at the time, Indian deaths on the Long Walk or at Ft. Sumner were the responsibility of the United States Army and General James Carleton. Dunlay, chapter 8 Ed Quillen, publisher of Colorado Central magazine and columnist for The Denver Post, wrote that "Carson...betrayed [the Navajo], starved them by destroying their farms and livestock in Canyon de Chelly and then brutally marched them to the Bosque Redondo concentration camp". Denver Post, April 27, 1993 In historical fact, not only was Kit Carson not involved 'the Long Walk', some of the Indians who made that journey were riding in wagons or riding behind U. S. Soldiers on horseback. Valkenberg, p. 26 In 1970, Lawrence Kelly noted that Carleton had warned 18 Navajo chiefs that all Navajo peoples "must come in and go to the Bosque Redondo where they would be fed and protected until the war was over. That unless they were willing to do this they would be considered hostile". Kelly, p. 20-21 Quillen's contention that Bosque Redondo was a concentration camp has been challenged. For instance, several men went off the reservation and stole 1,000 horses from the Comanche Indians to the east. The Navajo Treaty, p. 14. In addition, there was a hospital and a school, services not available at a 'concentration camp' in the modern sense of the word, particularly since World War II. On January 19, 2006, Marley Shebala, senior news reporter and photographer for Navajo Times, quoted the Fort Defiance Chapter of the Navajo Nation as saying, "Carson ordered his soldiers to shoot any Navajo, including women and children, on sight." This view of Carson's actions may be from General James Carleton’s orders to Carson on October 12, 1862, concerning the Mescalero Apaches: "All Indian men of that tribe are to be killed whenever and wherever you can find them: the women and children will not be harmed, but you will take them prisoners and feed them at Ft. Stanton until you receive other instructions". Kelly, p. 11 Carson refused to obey that order then, and again with the Navajo in 1863. Hampton Sides stated that Carson felt the Native Americans needed reservations as a way of physically separating and shielding them from white hostility and white culture. Carson believed most of the Indian troubles in the West were caused by "aggressions on the part of whites." He is said to have viewed the raids on white settlements as driven by desperation, "committed from absolute necessity when in a starving condition." Native American hunting grounds were disappearing as waves of white settlers filled the region. Blood and Thunder, p. 334 In 1868, at the urging of Washington and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Carson journeyed to Washington D.C. where he personally escorted several Ute Chiefs to meet with the President of the United States to plea for assistance to their tribe. Popular culture The legend of Kit Carson began before he died, and has continued to grow through the years through dime novels, poems, music, movies, television, and comic books. These fictional tales tend to portray Carson as a heroic figure slaughtering two bears and a dozen Indians before breakfast, and when mixed with a few real historic events, the result is that Kit Carson becomes larger than life. Novels There are at least 25 titles that have been recorded, from Kit Carson, Prince of the Gold Hunters (1849) through Kit Carson, King of Scouts (1923). There is also a children's novel, Adaline Falling Star (2000), by Mary Pope Osborne. It tells the story of Kit Carson and his times through the eyes of his daughter from his first marriage. Kit Carson is included in a number of 20th century novels and pulp magazine stories: Comanche Chaser by Dane Coolidge, On Sweet Water Trail by Sabra Conner, On to Oregon by H. W. Morrow, The Pioneers by C. R. Cooper, The Long Trail by J. Allan Dunn and Peltry by H. D. H. Smith. Kit Carson also appears in historical fiction novel Flashman and the Redskins by George MacDonald Fraser, where he helps guide Flashman and his party across the west to California. A character by the Name of Kit Carson also appears in the Time Scout novels by Robert Asprin. While not identical in origin or time period to the original, the character bears several similarities, most notably the scouting profession. There is a Welsh novel, I Ble Aeth Haul Y Bore by Eirug Wyn, which focuses on the Great Walk, and Kit Carson is one of the main characters. He first helps the Blue Coats to persuade the Navajos to move from De Chelley, but then he realizes his mistake and then helps them to overcome a particularly evil sergeant called Dicks. In Willa Cather's novel Death Comes for the Archbishop, Kit Carson's multifaceted legend is explored, first as compassionate friend to the Indians, later as "misguided" soldier. The character of Kit Carson also appears in William Soroyan's Pulitzer winning play "The Time of Your Life". Films There were four silent films made with Kit Carson as the "star" from 1903 to 1928. Hollywood produced 3 talking films: Fighting with Kit Carson, a serial (1933), revised as a single movie: The Return of Kit Carson (1947); Overland with Kit Carson (1939); and Kit Carson (1940), starring Jon Hall in the title role. Disney released Kit Carson and the Mountain Men in 1977, Dream West was a TV 1986 docudrama that includes Kit Carson and John C. Fremont as characters, and the History Channel produced "Carson and Cody, the Hunter Heroes" in 2003. Several other motion pictures include Kit Carson as a minor character. Television A fictional western television series, The Adventures of Kit Carson, starring Bill Williams and Don Diamond, ran in syndication from 1951-1955. A total of 103 half-hour episodes were filmed over 4 seasons. Some are available on DVD. In 2008 PBS/American Experience produced "Kit Carson", a film biography. Music The Canadian singer-songwriter, Bruce Cockburn, has a track entitled "Kit Carson" on his 1991 album "Nothing But a Burning Light", although its factual content is inaccurate. Cockburn In a 1990 radio interview, Mr. Cockburn stated, "When you actually look at what he did, he was a genocidal maniac..." Radio Interview, BBC Radio 1, 1990, Interviewer is Johnny Walker. Radio personality Kid Carson (real name is unknown) of CFBT-FM is partially named after Kit Carson. Comics In 1931 Kit Carson was the subject of J. Carrol Mansfield's daily comic strip High Lights of History and these strips were reprinted as a Big Little Book, Kit Carson(1933). Avon began a series of Kit Carson comic book that lasted 9 issues (1950-1955). Classics Illustrated No 112, titled The Adventures of Kit Carson (1953), is based on John C. Abbott's 1873 book, and Blazing the Trails West, another Classics Illustrated publication, includes a chapter on Kit Carson. Six Gun Heroes had two Kit Carson titles (1957 & 1958) and there was a Kit Carson No. 10 in 1963. Boy's Life includes a continuing strip story "Old Timer Tales of Kit Carson" from March 1951 to May, 1953. There was a 1970 Walt Disney Comics Digest that included Kit Carson, and Carson strips are in several issues of Frontier Fighters and Indian Fighter. In England and France, there was a Kit Carson comic that lasted at least 350 issues (1950s), and 7 Kit Carson Annuals (1954-1960) In the Italian comic Tex Willer, Kit Carson appears as Tex's sidekick. Museum and honors Carson's grave The Kit Carson House in Taos, New Mexico, is a U.S.-designated National Historic Landmark. It is operated as a museum. A partial list of places named after Carson: Carson City, the capital of Nevada Carson National Forest, in northern New Mexico Carson Pass in the Sierra Nevada Mountains Carson River, flowing from California to Nevada, ending in the Carson Sink Carson Trail, a branch of the California Trail Carson Valley, Nevada Kit Carson, Colorado (on US 287 about south and east of Denver) Kit Carson County, located in eastern Colorado Kit Carson Memorial State Park, Taos, New Mexico Kit Carson Park, Escondido, California Kit Carson Peak in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of southern Colorado Kit Carson Road, Monterey, California Kit Carson Way (Oregon Route 39) is a major expressway in Klamath Falls, Oregon Kit Carson Way, Vallejo, CA Fort Carson, an Army post in Colorado Springs, Colorado Mount Kit Carson, Spokane County, Washington Kit Carson Elementary School, Richmond, Kentucky Kit Carson Elementary School, Albuquerque, New Mexico Kit Carson Middle School, Sacramento, California Kit Carson Union School District, Hanford, California Kit Carson, California (on the east shore of Silver Lake) Kit Carson Parking Lot, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky Kit Carson Elementary School, Blount County, TN (no longer used) Lat 35d50'59.72"N, Long 83d59'7.30"W See also List of American Civil War generals Kit Carson Scouts Notes References Carter, Harvey L. Dear Old Kit, University of Oklahoma Press, 1968. Cockburn, Bruce Kit Carson song/poem on 1991 album. "(Carson) made the grade, he learned to trade in famine, pestilence and war" (3rd verse), and "Kit Carson was a hero to some with the poison at hhis place (4th verse) Dunlay, Tom, Kit Carson and the Indians, University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Gordon-McCutchan, R. C. (Editor) Kit Carson: Indian Fighter or Indian Killer?, University Press of Colorado, 1996. ISBN 0-87081-393-5. Hopkins, Virginia, Pioneers of the Old West, New York, NY: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-517-64930-6. Kelly, Lawrence, Navajo Roundup, Pruett Publications, 1970. Lipps, Oscar. A Little History of the Navajo, Cedar Rapids, Iowa: The Torch Press, 1909. Locke, Raymond, The Book of the Navajo, Mankind Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-87687-500-2. Richardson, Albert, Beyond the Mississippi, Hartford, Conn.; American Publishing Co., 1867. Roberts, David (2001), A newer world: Kit Carson, John C. Fremont and the claiming of the American west, New York: Touchstone ISBN 0-684-83482-0. Sabin, Edwin L, Kit Carson Days, vol. 1 & 2, University of Nebraska Press, 1995. Sides, Hampton, Blood and Thunder, Doubleday, 2006. ISBN 0-385-50777-1. Simmons, Marc, Kit Carson & His Three Wives, University of New Mexico Press, 2003. (anon., Introduction by Martin A. Link) The Navajo Treaty - 1868., KC Publications, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1968. Valkenburgh, Richard Van Long Walk by Very Slim Man, Desert Magazine, April, 1946 Further reading Story of the Wild West and Camp-Fire Chats by Buffalo Bill (Hon. W.F. Cody.) "A Full and Complete History of the Renowned Pioneer Quartette, Boone, Crockett, Carson and Buffalo Bill.", c1888 by HS Smith, published 1889 by Standard Publishing Co., Philadelphia, PA. External links American Southwest, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Carson Family Papers – Missouri History Museum Archives Kit Carson Home and Museum Official Website Find a Grave (burial site) Narrative of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains By John Charles Frémont. Published 1845. New York Times book review of Blood and Thunder The Daring Adventures of Kit Carson and Fremont, Among Buffaloes, Grizzlies. By John Charles Frémont. Published 1888. The First, and a Little-known, 1847 Biography of Kit Carson The Life and Adventures of Kit Carson, the Nestor of the Rocky Mountains, from Facts Narrated by Himself (1858) by De Witt C. 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2,857 | Cavity_magnetron | A cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates non-coherent microwaves. They are commonly found in microwave ovens, as well as various radar applications. Construction and operation A similar magnetron with a different section removed (magnet is not shown). Magnetron with section removed (magnet is not shown) All cavity magnetrons consist of a hot filament (cathode) kept at, or pulsed to, a high negative potential by a high-voltage, direct-current power supply. The cathode is built into the center of an evacuated, lobed, circular chamber. A magnetic field parallel to the filament is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this anode. Spaced around the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and connect the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings, they induce a resonant, high-frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high-gain antenna in the case of radar. A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the diagram. The sizes of the cavities determine the resonant frequency, and thereby the frequency of emitted microwaves. However, the frequency is not precisely controllable. This is not a problem in uses such as heating, or in some forms of radar where the receiver can be synchronized with an imprecise magnetron frequency. Where precise frequencies are needed, other devices such as the klystron are used. The magnetron is a fairly efficient device. In a microwave oven, for instance, an 1100 watt input will generally create about 700 watts of microwave energy, an efficiency of around 65%. (The high-voltage and the properties of the cathode determine the power of a magnetron.) Instead of a magnetron, transistors can be used to provide microwave power; transistors typically operate at around 25 to 30% efficiency. Transistors are used in roles which require a wide range and/or stable range of frequencies. Thus the magnetron, having a higher efficiency, remains in widespread use in roles which require high power, but where precise frequency control is unimportant. Applications Magnetron with magnet in its mounting box. The horizontal plates form a Heatsink, cooled by airflow from a fan Radar In radar devices the waveguide is connected to an antenna. The magnetron is operated with very short pulses of applied voltage, resulting in a short pulse of high power microwave energy being radiated. As in all radar systems, the radiation reflected off a target is analyzed to produce a radar map on a screen. Several characteristics of the magnetron's power output conspire to make radar use of the device somewhat problematic. The first of these factors is the magnetron's inherent instability in its transmitter frequency. This instability is noted not only as a frequency shift from one pulse to the next, but also a frequency shift within an individual transmitter pulse. The second factor is that the energy of the transmitted pulse is spread over a wide frequency spectrum, which makes necessary its receiver to have a corresponding wide selectivity. This wide selectivity permits ambient electrical noise to be accepted into the receiver, thus obscuring somewhat the received radar echos, thereby reducing overall radar performance. The third factor, depending on application, is the potential radiation hazard caused by the use of high power electromagnetic radiation. In some applications, for example a marine radar mounted on a recreational vessel, a radar with a magnetron output of 2 to 4 kilowatts is often found mounted very near an area occupied by crew or passengers. In practical use, these factors have been overcome, or merely accepted, and there are today thousands of magnetron aviation and marine radar units in service. Recent advances in aviation weather avoidance radar and in marine radar have successfully implemented solid-state transmitters that eliminate the magnetron entirely. Heating In microwave ovens the waveguide leads to a radio frequency-transparent port into the cooking chamber. It is important that there is food in the oven when it is operated so that these waves are absorbed, rather than reflecting into the waveguide where the intensity of standing waves can cause arcing. The arcing, if allowed to occur for long periods, will destroy the magnetron. If a very small object is being microwaved, it is recommended that a glass of water be added as an energy sink, although care must be taken not to "superheat" the water. Many modern microwave ovens feature a rotating center plate to help ensure that the target food is evenly heated, this plate is also typically slightly microwave absorbing and can prevent resonant reflections that cause arcing in a manner that also makes the previously mentioned glass of water unnecessary. Lighting In microwave-excited lighting systems, such as Sulphur Lamps, a magnetron provides the microwave field that is passed through a waveguide to the lighting cavity containing the light-emitting substance (e.g. sulfur, metal halides etc.) History The oscillation of magnetrons was first observed and noted by Augustin Žáček, A. Žáček, "Nová metoda k vytvorení netlumenych oscilací" ["New method of generating undamped oscillations"], Časopis pro pěstování matematiky a fysiky [Journal for the Cultivation of Mathematics and Physics], vol. 53, pages 378-380 (May 1924). See also: A. Žáček, "Über eine Methode zur Erzeugung von sehr kurzen elektromagnetischen Wellen" [On a method for generating very short electromagnetic waves], Zeitschrift für Hochfrequenztechnik [Journal for High Frequency Technology], vol. 32, pages 172-180 (1928). A. Žáček, "Spojení pro výrobu elektrických vln" ["Circuit for production of electrical waves"], Czechoslovak patent no. 20,293 (filed: 31 May 1924; issued: 15 February 1926). Available on-line (in Czech): http://spisy.upv.cz/Patents/FirstPages/FPPV0020/0020293.pdf . A number of other researchers also developed magnetrons during the 1920s:(1) German physicist: Erich Habann, "Eine neue Generatorröhre" [A new generator tube], Zeitschrift für Hochfrequenztechnik, vol. 24, pages 115-120 and 135-141 (1924).(2) Soviet physicists: (i) Abram A. Slutskin and Dmitry S. Shteinberg, ["Obtaining oscillations in cathode tubes with the aid of a magnetic field"], Zhurnal Russkogo Fiziko-Khimicheskogo Obshchestva [Journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society], vol. 58, no. 2, pages 395-407 (1926); (ii) Abram A. Slutskin and Dmitry S. Shteinberg, ["Electronic oscillations in two-electrode tubes"], Ukrainski Fizychni Zapysky [Ukrainian Journal of Physics], vol. 1, no. 2, pages 22-27 (1927); (iii) A. A. Slutzkin and D. S. Steinberg, "Die Erzeugung von kurzwelligen ungedämpften Schwingungen bei Anwendung des Magnetfeldes" ["The generation of undamped shortwave oscillations by application of a magnetic field"], Annalen der Physik, vol. 393, no. 5, pages 658-670 (May 1929).(3) Japanese engineers: Hidetsugu Yagi, "Beam transmission of ultra-short waves," Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 16, no. 6, pages 715-741 (1928). Magnetrons are discussed in Part II of this article. See also: (i) Kinjiro Okabe, ["Production of intense extra-short radio waves by a split-anode magnetron (Part 3)"], Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineering of Japan, pages 284ff (March 1928); (ii) Kinjiro Okabe, "On the short-wave limit of magnetron oscillations," Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 17, no. 4, pages 652-659 (1929); (iii) Kinjiro Okabe, "On the magnetron oscillation of new type," Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 18, no. 10, pages 1748-1749 (1930). professor at the Charles University, Prague in the Czech Republic, although the first simple, two-pole magnetrons were developed in the 1920s by Albert Hull Albert W. Hull, "The effect of a uniform magnetic field on the motion of electrons between coaxial cylinders," Physical Review, vol. 18, no. 1, pages 31-57 (1921). See also: Albert W. Hull, "The magnetron," Journal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 40, no. 9, pages 715-723 (September 1921). at General Electric's Research Laboratories (Schenectady, New York), as an outgrowth of his work on the magnetic control of vacuum tubes in an attempt to work around the patents held by Lee De Forest on electrostatic control. The two-pole magnetron, also known as a split-anode magnetron, had relatively low efficiency. The cavity version (properly referred to as a resonant-cavity magnetron) proved to be far more useful. There was an urgent need during radar development in World War II for a high-power microwave generator that worked in shorter wavelengths—around 10 cm (3 GHz) rather than 150 cm—(200 MHz) available from tube-based generators of the time. It was known that a multi-cavity resonant magnetron had been developed and patented in 1935 by Hans Hollmann in Berlin. However, the German military considered its frequency drift to be undesirable and based their radar systems on the klystron instead. It was primarily for this reason that German night fighter radars were not a match for their British counterparts. In 1940, at the University of Birmingham in the UK, John Randall and Harry Boot produced a working prototype similar to Hollman's cavity magnetron, but added liquid cooling and a stronger cavity. Randall and Boot soon managed to increase its power output 100 fold. Instead of giving up on the magnetron due to its frequency inaccuracy, they sampled the output signal and synchronized their receiver to whatever frequency was actually being generated. Because France had just fallen to the Nazis and Britain had no money to develop the magnetron on a massive scale, Churchill agreed that Sir Henry Tizard should offer the magnetron to the Americans in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the GEC Research Laboratories, Wembley, London, was given to the US government in September 1940. It was later described as "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores" James Phinney Baxter III (Official Historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development), Scientists Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1946), page 142. (see Tizard Mission). At the time the most powerful equivalent microwave producer available in the US (a klystron) had a power of only ten watts. The cavity magnetron was widely used during World War II in microwave radar equipment and is often credited with giving Allied radar a considerable performance advantage over German and Japanese radars, thus directly influencing the outcome of the war. By September 1940, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology had set up a secret laboratory to develop the cavity magnetron delivered to the Americans by the Tizard mission into a viable radar. Two months later, it was in mass production, and by early 1941, portable airborne radar were being installed into American and British planes. This was codenamed H2S, and was in part developed by Alan Blumlein. Short-wave, centimetric radar, which was made possible by the cavity magnetron, allowed for the detection of much smaller objects and the use of much smaller antennas. The combination of the small-cavity magnetron, small antennas, and high resolution allowed small, high quality radars to be installed in aircraft. They could be used by maritime patrol aircraft to detect objects as small as a submarine periscope, which allowed aircraft to attack and destroy submerged submarines which had previously been undetectable from the air. Centimetric contour mapping radars like H2S improved the accuracy of Allied bombers used in the strategic bombing campaign. Centimetric gun-laying radars were likewise far more accurate than the older technology. They made the big-gunned Allied battleships more deadly and, along with the newly developed proximity fuse, made anti-aircraft guns much more dangerous to attacking aircraft. The two coupled together and used by anti-aircraft batteries, placed along the flight path of German V-1 flying bombs on their way to London, are credited with destroying many of the flying bombs before they reached their target. Since then, many millions of cavity magnetrons have been manufactured; some for radar, but the vast majority for microwave ovens. The use in radar itself has dwindled to some extent, as more accurate signals have generally been needed and developers have moved to klystron and traveling-wave tube systems for these needs. Health hazards Caution: radiowaves hazard Among more speculative hazards, at least one in particular is well known and documented. As the lens of the eye has no cooling blood flow, it is particularly prone to overheating when exposed to microwave radiation. This heating can in turn lead to a higher incidence of cataracts in later life. A microwave oven with a warped door or poor microwave sealing can be hazardous. There is also a considerable electrical hazard around magnetrons, as they require a high voltage power supply. Operating a magnetron with the protective covers removed and interlocks bypassed should therefore be avoided. Some magnetrons have beryllium oxide (beryllia) ceramic insulators, which is dangerous if crushed and inhaled, or otherwise ingested. Single or chronic exposure can lead to berylliosis, an incurable lung condition. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be directly handled. See also Cyclotron – An atomic accelerator that also directs particles in a spiral with a transverse magnetic field. Klystron – A device for amplifying or generating microwaves with greater precision and control than is available from the magnetron. Traveling-wave tube – Another microwave amplifier device, capable of greater bandwidths than a klystron. Crossed-field amplifier – A device combining characteristics of magnetrons and TWTs, resulting in a high-powered, narrow-band amplifier. Backward wave oscillator - A wide-band tunable oscillator, M or O-type Free-electron laser – A device for amplifying or generating microwaves, infrared light, UV, and X-Rays. Maser – A device for generating microwaves that produces a very low noise and stable signal, a predecessor of the laser. Laser – A device for generating coherent light, an evolution of the maser. Sputter deposition – An important industrial application using the same principle of crossed electric and magnetic fields as cavity magnetrons. References Morgan, T.J. (1960). RADAR. London: F. Muller. Rowe, A.P. (1948). One Story of Radar. Cambridge University Press. Saward, Dudley (1984). Bernard Lovell: A Biography. London: Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-1745-6. Conant, Jennet (2002). Tuxedo Park: a Wall Street tycoon and the secret palace of science that changed the course of World War II . Waterville, Me. : Thorndike Press. ISBN 0-7862-4814-9. Buderi, Robert (1996). The Invention that Changed the World: How a Small Group of Radar Pioneers Won the Second World War and Launched a Technological Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-81021-2. External links Information Magnetrons Magnetron collection in the Virtual Valve Museum MicrowaveCam.com Videos of plasmoids created in a microwave oven TMD Magnetrons Information and PDF Data Sheets Patents | Cavity_magnetron |@lemmatized cavity:20 magnetron:50 high:17 power:13 vacuum:2 tube:9 generate:8 non:1 coherent:2 microwave:26 commonly:1 find:2 oven:7 well:2 various:1 radar:32 application:6 construction:1 operation:1 similar:2 different:1 section:3 remove:3 magnet:4 show:2 consist:1 hot:1 filament:2 cathode:4 keep:1 pulse:6 negative:1 potential:2 voltage:4 direct:3 current:1 supply:2 build:2 center:2 evacuate:1 lob:1 circular:2 chamber:5 magnetic:9 field:12 parallel:1 impose:1 permanent:1 cause:5 electron:5 attract:1 relatively:2 positive:1 part:4 spiral:2 outward:1 path:2 rather:3 move:2 directly:3 anode:3 space:2 around:6 rim:1 cylindrical:1 open:1 along:3 length:1 connect:3 common:1 sweep:1 past:1 opening:1 induce:1 resonant:6 frequency:17 radio:6 turn:2 bunch:1 group:2 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2,858 | A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum | This article is about the musical. The film article is A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (film) A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart. Inspired by the farces of the ancient Roman playwright Plautus (251–183 BC), specifically Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Mostellaria, it tells the bawdy story of a slave named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by helping his young master woo the girl next door. The plot displays many classic elements of farce, including puns, the slamming of doors, cases of mistaken identity (frequently involving characters disguising themselves as one another), and satirical comments on social class. The title derives from the line that vaudeville comedians often used to begin a story: "A funny thing happened on the way to the theater". The musical's original 1962 Broadway run won several Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Book. A Funny Thing has enjoyed several Broadway and West End revivals and was made into a successful film. It is a popular choice for school and community theatre. Productions Original Broadway production A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum opened on Broadway on May 8, 1962 at the Alvin Theatre. Directed by George Abbott and produced by Hal Prince, it ran for 964 performances. The show's creators originally wanted Phil Silvers in the lead role of Pseudolus, but he turned them down, allegedly because he would have to perform onstage without his glasses, and his vision was so poor that he feared tripping into the orchestra pit. So did Milton Berle. Eventually, Zero Mostel was cast. Out of town during pre-Broadway tryouts, the show was attracting little business and not playing well. Director and choreographer Jerome Robbins was called in by Abbott and Prince to give advice and make changes. The biggest change Robbins demanded was a new opening number to replace "Love Is in the Air" and introduce the show as a bawdy, wild comedy; Stephen Sondheim complied, creating the song "Comedy Tonight." From that point on, the show was a success. Along with Mostel, the musical featured a cast of seasoned performers, including Jack Gilford (Mostel's friend and fellow blacklist member), David Burns, John Carradine, Ruth Kobart and Raymond Walburn. The young lovers were played by Brian Davies and Preshy Marker. Karen Black, originally cast as the ingenue, was replaced out of town. The show won several Tony Awards: best musical, best actor, best supporting actor (Burns), best book, and best director. The score, Sondheim's first time on Broadway writing both words and music, was coolly received, however, not even garnering a nomination. Motion picture adaptation A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum was made into a musical film in 1966, directed by Richard Lester, with Zero Mostel and Jack Gilford re-creating their stage roles and Phil Silvers starred in an expanded role as Marcus Lycus. David Burns did not return for the film role of Senex. Broadway revivals In 1972 there was a critically well-received Broadway revival, directed by co-author Burt Shevelove and starring Phil Silvers as Pseudolus. Larry Blyden, who played Hysterium, the role created by Jack Gilford, also co-produced. Two songs were dropped from the show, and two new Sondheim songs were added. The new songs included in this production had been added during a 1971 Los Angeles production: "Echo Song" (sung by Hero and Philia), and "Farewell" (sung by Domina as she and Senex depart for the country). The production ran 156 performances, but had to close soon after Phil Silvers suffered a stroke. The show won Tonys for Silvers and Blyden. The musical was also revived with great success in 1996, starring Nathan Lane as Pseudolus; he was replaced later in the run by Whoopi Goldberg and also by David Alan Grier. The production, directed by Jerry Zaks, ran 715 performances. Lane won the Best Actor Tony for his work. Every actor who has opened in the role of Pseudolus on Broadway (Zero Mostel, Phil Silvers and Nathan Lane) won a Best Actor Tony for their performance. In addition, Jason Alexander, who performed as Pseudolus in one scene in Jerome Robbins' Broadway, also won a Tony for Best Actor in a Musical. Other productions The Stephen Sondheim Center for the Performing Arts produced a limited-run revival of the musical from January 11 to 27, 2008. The production was directed by Randal K. West, with Justin Hill as musical director and Adam Cates as choreographer. The cast featured Richard Kind as Pseudolus, Joel Blum as Senex, Stephen DeRosa as Marcus Lycus, Sean McCall as Hysterium, and Steve Wilson as Miles Gloriosus. It also featured Diana Upton-Hill, Ryan Gaffney, Stephen Crisp, Jack Kloppenborg and Margret Clair. gazettonline article, 1/14/08 theatermania.com article, 1/4/08 Gans, Andrew."Tragedy Tomorrow, Comedy Tonight: Forum Begins Run at Sondheim Center", playbill.com, January 11, 2008 The Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, Canada has announced a production for June 11 to November 1, 2009, with Des McAnuff directing and Wayne Cilento choreographer. Stratford Festival schedule The Chung Ying Theatre Company in Hong Kong has staged a Cantonese version of the musical at Kwai Tsing Theatre, to celebrate the company's 30th anniversary. It is directed by Chung King Fai and Ko Tin Lung and runs from 14th to 21st March 2009. West End productions The show was presented three times in London's West End. The 1963 production and its 1986 revival were staged at the Strand Theatre and the Piccadilly Theatre respectively, and featured Frankie Howerd starring as Pseudolus. In 2004 there was a limited-run revival at the Royal National Theatre starring Desmond Barrit as Pseudolus, Philip Quast as Miles Gloriosus, Hamish McColl as Hysterium and Isla Blair as Domina (who had previously played Philia in the 1963 production.) Plot Graphic from the original Broadway cast album In ancient Rome some neighbors live in three adjacent houses. In the center is the house of Senex, who lives there with wife Domina, son Hero and several slaves, including head slave Hysterium and the musical's main character Pseudolus, who wishes to buy, win, or steal his freedom. He is the slave of young Hero, son of Senex and Domina. One of the neighboring houses is owned by Marcus Lycus, who is a buyer and seller of beautiful women; the other belongs to the ancient Erronius, who is abroad searching for his long-lost children (stolen in infancy by pirates). One day, Senex and Domina go on a trip and leave Pseudolus in charge of Hero. Hero confides in Pseudolus that he is in love with the lovely Philia, one of the courtesans in the brothel next door. Pseudolus promises to help him win Philia's love in exchange for his freedom. Unfortunately (as the two find out when they pay a visit on Lycus), Philia has been promised to the renowned warrior Captain Miles Gloriosus, who is on his way to claim her. Pseudolus, an excellent liar, uses her cheery disposition to convince Lycus that she has picked up a plague from Crete, which causes its victims to smile endlessly in its terminal stages. By offering to isolate her in Senex's house, he is able to give Philia and Hero some time alone together, and the two fall in love. But Philia insists that, even though she is in love with Hero, she must honor her contract with the Captain, for "that is the way of a courtesan." Undeterred, Pseudolus comes up with a plan to slip Philia a sleeping potion that will render her unconscious. He will then tell Lycus that she has died of the Cretan plague, and will offer to remove the body. Hero will come along, and they will stow away on a ship headed for Greece. Satisfied with his plan, Pseudolus steals Hysterium's book of potions and has Hero read him the recipe for the sleeping potion; the only ingredient he lacks is "mare's sweat," and Pseudolus goes off in search of some. Unexpectedly, Senex returns home early from his trip, and knocks three times on his own door. This was the signal that Pseudolus had told Philia he'd use to indicate Miles Gloriosus arrival. She comes out of the house, and, thinking that Senex is the Captain, offers herself up to him. Surprised but game, Senex instructs Philia to wait in the house for him, and she does. Hysterium arrives to this confusion, and tells Senex that Philia is the new maid that he has hired. Pseudolus returns, having procured the necessary mare sweat; seeing that Senex has returned unexpectedly and grasping the need to keep him out of the way, Pseudolus discreetly sprinkles some of the horse-sweat onto him, then suggests that the road trip has left Senex in dire need of a bath. Taking the bait, Senex instructs Hysterium to draw him a bath in the long-abandoned house of Erronius. But while this is happening, Erroneous returns home, finally having given up the search for his long-lost children. Hysterium, desperate to keep him out of the house where his master is bathing, tells the old man that his house has become haunted -- a story seemingly confirmed by the sound of Senex singing in his bath. Erroneous immediately determines to have a soothsayer come and banish the spirit from his house, and Pseudolus obligingly poses as one, telling Erroneous that in order to banish the spirit, he must travel seven times around the seven hills of Rome (thus keeping the old man occupied and out of the way for quite awhile). When Miles Gloriosus arrives to claim his courtesan-bride, Pseudolus hides Philia on the roof of Senex's house; told that she has "escaped," Lycus is terrified to face the Captain's wrath. Pseudolus offers to impersonate Lycus and talk his way out of the mess but, his ingenuity flagging, he ends up merely telling the Captain that Philia has disappeared, and that he, "Lycus," will set out in search of her. Displeased and suspicious, Miles insists that his soldiers accompany Pseudolus, but the wily slave is able to "lose" them in Rome's winding streets. Complicating matters further, Domina returns from her trip early, suspicious that her husband Senex is "up to something low." She disguises herself in virginal white robes and a veil (much like Philia's) in order to try and catch Senex being unfaithful. Pseudolus convinces Hysterium to help him by dressing in drag and pretending to be Philia, "dead" from the plague. Unfortunately, it turns out that Miles Gloriosus has just returned from Crete, where there is of course no actual plague. With the ruse thus revealed, the main characters run for their lives, resulting in a madcap chase across the stage with both Miles and Senex pursuing all three "Philia"s (Domina, Hysterium, and the actual Philia -- all wearing identical white robes and veils). Meanwhile, the courtesans from the house of Marcus Lycus -- who had been recruited as mourners at "Philia"'s ersatz funeral -- have escaped, and Lycus sends his eunuchs out to bring them all back, adding to the general pandemonium. Finally, the Captain's troops are able to round everyone up. His plot thoroughly unraveled, Pseudolus appears to be in deep trouble -- but Erronius, midway through his fourth circuit of the Roman hills, shows up fortuitously to discover that Miles Gloriosus and Philia are wearing matching rings which mark them as his long-lost children. Her betrothal to the Captain obviously nullified by the unexpected revelation that he's actually her brother, Philia weds Hero; Pseudolus gets his freedom, Gloriosus receives twin courtesans to replace Philia, Erronius gets his children, and a general happy ending prevails. Characters Pseudolus: A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win his/her freedom by helping his/her young master win the heart of Philia. While originally written as a male role, it has been performed by female cast as well. Hero: Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia. Philia: (Filia, Latin for "daughter"; also, "Philia" is the Greek word for "love.") A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest. Senex: (Latin for "old man," or "senile") A Roman senator living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome. Marcus Lycus: A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex. (Name based on Lycus, the pimp in Plautus's Poenulus.) Domina: (Latin for "mistress") The wife of Senex. A manipulative, shrewish woman who is loathed by even her husband. Erronius: (Latin for "wrong") Senex's elderly neighbor who has spent the past twenty years searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates. Gymnasia: (Latin for "Nude", though could be a play on words for "Gymnasium") A courtesan from the house of Lycus with whom Pseudolus falls in love. Miles Gloriosus: (Latin for "boastful soldier," the archetype of the braggart soldier in Roman comedies) A captain in the Roman army to whom Marcus Lycus has promised Philia. Hysterium: (Latin for "Hysterical", or "Anxious", the suffix "-um" makes the name neuter, and the character's gender is often mistaken throughout the piece) The chief slave in the house of Senex. Tintinabula: (Latin for "Bell") A jingling, bell-wearing courtesan in the house of Lycus. Vibrata: (Latin for "Vibrant") A wild, vibrant courtesan in the house of Lycus. Geminae: (Latin for "Twins") Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus. Panacea: (Latin for "Cure All") A courtesan in the house of Lycus. Proteans: Choristers who play multiple roles (slaves, citizens, soldiers, and eunuchs). They accompany Pseudolus in "Comedy Tonight". On Broadway, three people played all of these roles Songs "Comedy Tonight" — Pseudolus and Company "Love, I Hear" — Hero "Free" — Pseudolus and Hero "The House of Marcus Lycus" — Lycus and Pseudolus "Lovely" — Philia and Hero "Pretty Little Picture" — Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia "Everybody Ought to Have a Maid" — Pseudolus, Senex, Lycus, and Hysterium "I'm Calm" — Hysterium "Impossible" — Senex and Hero "Bring Me My Bride" — Miles Gloriosus and Company "That Dirty Old Man" — Domina "That'll Show Him" — Philia "Lovely" (reprise) — Pseudolus and Hysterium "Funeral Sequence" — Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company "Finale" — Company Note: The song "Love Is in the Air" was originally intended as the opening number. The song was cut from the show and replaced with "Comedy Tonight". Cut songs at sondheim.com The song was later featured in the film The Birdcage (1996) and performed by Robin Williams and Christine Baranski. Cultural References In the second season of the AMC Series Mad Men, which takes place in 1962, several characters refer to the play. For example, Don Draper runs into his former mistress, Rachel Menken, at Sardi's. Rachel and her new husband are on their way to see the show on Broadway. Notes References A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum plot summary & character descriptions from StageAgent.com Information from the NODA site External links A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum at the Internet Broadway Database Forum on the Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide | A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum |@lemmatized article:4 musical:13 film:6 funny:8 thing:8 happen:8 way:13 forum:8 music:2 lyric:1 stephen:6 sondheim:8 book:4 burt:2 shevelove:2 larry:2 gelbart:1 inspire:1 farce:2 ancient:3 roman:6 playwright:1 plautus:2 bc:1 specifically:1 pseudolus:38 mile:13 gloriosus:12 mostellaria:1 tell:8 bawdy:2 story:3 slave:8 name:3 attempt:1 win:11 freedom:5 help:4 young:5 master:3 woo:1 girl:1 next:2 door:4 plot:4 display:1 many:1 classic:1 element:1 include:5 pun:1 slamming:1 case:1 mistaken:1 identity:1 frequently:1 involve:1 character:7 disguise:2 one:6 another:1 satirical:1 comment:1 social:1 class:1 title:1 derive:1 line:1 vaudeville:1 comedian:1 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2,859 | Marvel_Super_Heroes_(role-playing_game) | Marvel Superheroes (MSHRPG) aka "the FASERIP system" is a role playing game set in the Marvel Universe, first published by TSR under license from Marvel Comics in 1984. In 1986, TSR published an expanded edition, entitled the Marvel Superheroes Advanced Game. Both editions were written by Jeff Grubb, and both use essentially the same game system. The basic game was designed to let players assume the roles of superheroes from Marvel Comics, such as Spider-Man, Daredevil, the Hulk, Captain America, the Fantastic Four, the X-Men, and many others. The simplest version, found in the 16-page "Battle Book" of the Basic Set, contains a bare-bones combat system sufficient to resolve comic book style superheroic fights. System Attributes Almost all game mechanics are resolved by rolling percentile dice and comparing the results against a column of the colorful "Universal Results Table". The column used is determined by the attribute used; different tasks are resolved by reference to different attributes. All characters have seven basic attributes: Fighting, which determines hit probability and defense against hand-to-hand attacks. Agility, which determines hit probability, defense against ranged attacks, feats of agility vs. the environment, and similar acrobatics. Strength, which determines damage inflicted by hand-to-hand attacks as well as the success of tasks such as grappling or the lifting and breaking of heavy objects. Endurance, which determines resistance to physical damage (e.g., poison, disease, death) it also determined how long a character can fight and how fast a character could move at top speed by exerting themselves. Reason, which determines the success of tasks relating to knowledge, puzzle-solving, and advanced technology. Intuition, which determines the success of tasks relating to awareness, perception, and instinct. Psyche, which determines the success of tasks relating to willpower, psionics, and magic. Players sometimes refer to this set of attributes, or the game system as a whole, by the acronym "FASERIP". Attribute scores for the vast majority of characters range from 1 to 100, where normal human ability is 6, and peak (non-superheroic) human ability is 30. However, the designers minimize use of the numerical figures, instead preferring colorful adjectives in the Marvel Comics tradition, such as "Incredible" (scores from 36-45) and "Amazing" (46-62). A "Typical" (5-7) attribute has a 50% base chance for success at most tasks relating to that attribute. For example, a character with "Typical" fighting skill has a base 50% of connecting with a punch. As an attribute increases, the chance of success increases, roughly by 5% per 10 points. Thus a character with an "Amazing" (50) attribute has a 75% chance of success at tasks relating to that attribute. Superpowers Beyond the seven attributes, characters possessed superpowers, such as Spider-Man's wall crawling, or Mister Fantastic's elasticity. The powers function on a mostly ad hoc basis, and thus each character's description gives considerable space to a description of how his or her powers work in the game. Each character had an origin, which put ceilings on a character's abilities and superpowers. The origins included: Altered Humans (normal people who acquired powers, such as Spider-Man or the Fantastic Four), High-Tech Wonders (normal people whose powers come from devices, e.g., Iron Man), Mutants (persons born with superpowers, such as the X-Men), Robots (created beings such as the Vision and Ultron), and Aliens (a blanket term used to cover non-humans, including extra-dimensional beings such as Thor and Hercules). Talents The game also featured a simple skill system, referred to as Talents. Talents had to be learned and covered a wide range of knowledges from Archery to Zoology. A Talent raised a character's ability by one rank when attempting actions related to that Talent. For example, a character uses his Agility score when attempting ranged attacks. A character with an Agility of Excellent would normally roll on that column when attacking with a rifle. However, if he had the "Guns" Talent he would treat his Agility as the next higher power rank (Remarkable). The GM was free to determine if a character would be unable to attempt an action without the appropriate Talent (such as a character with no medical background attempting to make a pill that can cure a rare disease). Resources and Popularity Characters also had two variable attributes: Resources and Popularity. These attributes were described using the same terms as the character's seven attributes ("Poor," "Amazing," "Unearthly," etc.). But unlike the seven physical and mental attributes which changed very slowly, if at all, Resources and Popularity could change very quickly. The first of the variables, Resources, represented the character's wealth and ability to obtain goods or services. Rather than have the player keep track of how much money the character had in the bank or with him, the Advanced Game assumed the character had enough money coming in to cover his basic living expenses. The Resources ability was used when the character wished to purchase something out of the ordinary like a new car or house. For example, the referee might decide a character with Typical resources would probably be unable to purchase a brand new sports car, but with a Yellow Resources roll might be able to afford a used car in good condition. The game books note that a character's Resources score can change for a variety of reasons, such as winning the lottery or having a major business transaction go bad. The second variable, Popularity, reflected how much the character was liked (or disliked) in the Marvel Universe. Popularity could be used to influence non-player characters. A superhero with a high rating, like Captain America (whose popularity is Unearthly-the highest most characters can achieve), might be able to use his Popularity to gain entrance to a club because the general population of the Marvel Universe admires him. If he were to try the same thing as his secret identity Steve Rogers (whose Popularity is only Typical), he would probably be unable to do it. Villains also had a Popularity score, which was usually negative (a bouncer might let Doctor Doom or Magneto into the aforementioned club simply out of fear). There were several ways Popularity could change. For example, if Doctor Doom defeated Spider-Man in front of the general public, Spidey's Popularity would go down for a short time. But if everyone's favorite web-slinger managed to foil one of Doctor Doom's plans and the word got out, he would enjoy a temporary Popularity boost. Since mutants were generally feared and distrusted in the Marvel Universe, these characters start with a Popularity of 0 and have a hard time improving this attribute. Character creation The game was intended to be played using existing Marvel characters as the heroes. The Basic and Advanced Sets both contained fairly simple systems for creating original superheroes, based on random ability rolls (a la Dungeons & Dragons). Compared to point-buy systems in other superhero role-playing games (such as Champions), the random system in MSH made it difficult to create characters based on a player's desires (though guidelines for "character modeling" were included in the Advanced Set rules). Instead, a player is given a random set of powers and makes what he can of this character. The Ultimate Powers Book, by David Edward Martin, greatly expanded and organized the game's list of powers, making a fairly comprehensive survey of comic book-style super-powers. Players were given a wide variety of body types, secret origins, weaknesses, and powers. The UPB gave a much greater range to characters one could create, but also allowed for potentially play-disrupting imbalances in power between characters. Additionally, the book suffered from editing problems and omissions; several errata and partial revisions were released in the pages of TSR's publication Dragon Magazine. The expanded, corrected version of the book is available for free on the Web. Karma The game's equivalent of experience points was Karma, a pool of points initially determined as the sum of a character's three mental attributes (Reason, Intuition, and Psyche). The basic system allowed players to increase their chances of success at most tasks by spending points of Karma. For example, a player who wanted to make sure he would hit a villain in a critical situation could spend however many Karma points were necessary to raise the dice roll to the desired result. Additional Karma points were distributed by the referee at the end of game sessions, typically as rewards for accomplishing heroic goals, such as defeating villains, saving innocents, and foiling crimes. Conversely, Karma could be lost for unheroic actions such as fleeing from a villain, or failing to stop a crime: in fact, in a notable departure from many RPGs (but strongly in keeping with the genre), all Karma was lost if a hero killed someone or allowed someone to die. In the Advanced Game, Karma points could also be spent to permanently increase character attributes and powers (at a relatively moderate cost, ten times the attribute number raised, powers were steeper, at twenty times the number.). The Karma system thus united two RPG mechanics—"Action" or "Hero" points (which allow players to control random outcomes) and character advancement (e.g., "experience points")—in one system. Though this system could frustrate both referees and players (the former because a player willing and able to spend Karma could effectively overcome any challenge at least once; the latter because advancement was glacially slow compared with most other RPGs), it had the virtue of emulating two central features of super-hero comics, namely, that heroes almost always win, even in highly improbable circumstances, and that heroes' power levels remain mostly static. Furthermore, the system helped encourage players to keep their characters' behavior to the equivalent concept of their alignment by giving a strong incentive to behave heroically and morally correct. Game Mechanics Marvel Superheroes was driven by two primary game mechanics: column shifts and colored results. Both essentially influenced the difficulty of an action. A column shift is used when a character is attempting an exceptionally hard or easy action. A column shift to the left indicates a penalty, while a shift to the right indicates a bonus. For example, Reed Richards (Mr. Fantastic) has an Intuition of Excellent, making him significantly more perceptive than the average person whose Intuition is Typical (two ranks lower). The GM might determine that spotting a trap hidden beneath a few sticks and leaves will be fairly easy, and give the player running Mr. Fantastic a +1 column shift. His Intuition will be treated as Remarkable (the next column to the right). However, a trap buried underground might be considerably harder to spot, and the GM might give the player a -1 column shift penalty. In this case, Mr. Fantastic's Intuition will only be treated as Good (the column to the left). The column for each ability is divided into four colors: white, green, yellow, and red. A white result is always a failure or unfavorable outcome. In most cases, getting a green result was all that was needed to succeed at a particular action. Yellow and red results usually indicated more favorable results that could knock back, stun, or even kill an opponent. However, the GM could determine that succeeding at an exceptionally hard task might require a yellow or red result. Additional rules in the "Campaign Book" of the Basic Set, and the subsequent Advanced Set, used the same game mechanic to resolve non-violent tasks. For example, if a superhero needs to figure out how to operate a piece of alien technology, the hero would have to succeed at a Reason roll, where the chance of success is modified by the complexity of the device. Later Marvel RPGs Before losing the MSH license back to Marvel Comics, TSR published a quite different game using their SAGA System game engine, called the Marvel Super Heroes Adventure Game. This version, written by Mike Selinker, was published in the late 1990s as a card-based version of the Marvel role-playing game (though a method of converting characters from the prior format to the SAGA System was included in the core rules). Though critically praised in various reviews at the time, it never reached a very large market and has since faded into obscurity. In 2003, after the gaming license had reverted back to Marvel Comics, the Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game was published by Marvel Comics. This edition uses mechanics that are totally different from any previous versions, using a diceless game mechanic that incorporated a Karma-based resolution system of "stones" (or tokens) to represent character effort. Since its initial publication, a few additional supplements were published by Marvel Comics. However, Marvel stopped supporting the game a little over a year after its initial release, despite going through several printings of the core rulebook. Some fans continue to create material for it, however. Game Products The original Marvel Superheroes game received extensive support from TSR, covering a wide variety of Marvel Comics characters and settings, including a Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe patterned after Marvel's Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe. MSH even received its own column in the (at the time) TSR-published gaming magazine, Dragon, called "The Marvel-phile", which usually spotlighted a character or group of characters that hadn't yet appeared in a published game product. Marvel RPGs - Product Index Publisher System Marvel # TSR # ISBN Label Year Orig. PriceTSRMSH-5371ISBN 0-394-54020-4Unpainted Metal Miniatures Set # 11984$ 11.00TSRMSH-5372ISBN 0-394-55424-8Unpainted Metal Miniatures Set # 21984?TSRMSH-5375?Unpainted Metal Miniatures Set # 3??TSR<font color="silver">MSH<font color="silver">-<font color="silver">5376ISBN 0-88038-473-5<font color="silver">Unpainted Metal Miniatures Set # 4<font color="silver">1986<font color="silver">$ 12.00TSR<font color="silver">MSH<font color="silver">-<font color="silver">5377ISBN 5-551-65663-2<font color="silver">Unpainted Metal Miniatures Set # 5<font color="silver">1986<font color="silver">?TSRMSH-6890ISBN 0-88038-750-5Deluxe City Campaign Set (box)1989$ 18.00TSRMSH-6896ISBN 0-88038-888-9The Uncanny X-Men Campaign Set (box)1990$ 18.00TSRMSH-6900ISBN 1-56076-087-7Marvel Superheroes Basic Set (revised edition) (box)1991$ 20.00TSRMSHMA06871ISBN 0-88038-368-2Marvel Superheroes Advanced Set1986$ 15.00TSRMSHMA16872ISBN 0-88038-292-9Children of the Atom1986?TSRMSHMA26874ISBN 0-88038-293-7Avengers - Coast to Coast1986$ 12.00TSRMSHMA36876ISBN 0-88038-413-1The Ultimate Powers Book1987$ 12.00TSRMSHMA46889ISBN 0-88038-483-2Fantastic Four Compendium1987$ 8.95TSRMSHME16879ISBN 0-88038-547-2Cosmos Cubed1988$ 5.95TSRMSHME26880ISBN 0-88038-568-5Ragnarok & Roll1988$ 5.95TSRMSHME36882ISBN 0-88038-583-9The Left Hand of Eternity1988$ 7.95TSRMSHMH06850ISBN 0-88038-345-3Marvel Superheroes Basic Set (original edition) (box)1984$ 15.00TSRMSHMH16851ISBN 0-88038-125-6The Breeder Bombs (X-Men)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMH26853ISBN 0-88038-127-2Time Trap (Avengers)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMH36855ISBN 0-88038-129-9Murderworld! (Fantastic Four)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMH46859ISBN 0-88038-131-0Lone Wolves (Daredevil, Black Widow, Power Man [Cage], Iron Fist)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMH56857ISBN 0-88038-132-9Cat's Paw (Alpha Flight)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMH66862ISBN 0-88038-198-1Thunder over Jotunheim (Thor)1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMH76864ISBN 0-88038-225-2The Last Resort (West Coast Avengers)1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMH86866ISBN 0-88038-227-9Fault Line (Spider-Man & Avengers)1985$ 7.95TSRMSHMH96867ISBN 0-88038-228-7Gates of What If ? (Spider-Man, FF, Avengers)1985$ 7.95TSRMSHMHAC16852ISBN 0-88038-126-4Judge's Screen1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC26854ISBN 0-88038-128-0Avengers Assembled!1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC36856ISBN 0-88038-130-2Adventure Foldup Figures1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC46858ISBN 0-394-54576-1Pit of the Viper (incl. Adventure Foldup Figures)1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC56861ISBN 0-88038-193-0Project Wideawake1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC66863ISBN 0-88038-199-XNew York, New York1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC76865ISBN 0-88038-226-0Concrete Jungle: Official Character Roster1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC86868ISBN 0-88038-229-5Weapons Locker1985$ 6.00TSRMSHMHAC96870ISBN 0-88038-278-3Realms of Magic1986$ 12.00TSRMSHMHR16905ISBN 1-56076-403-1X-Forces Mutant Update (box)1992$ 15.00TSRMSHMHR26907ISBN 1-56076-405-8Webs: Spider-Man Dossier (box)1993$ 15.00TSRMSHMHR36908ISBN 1-56076-406-6Avengers Archive (box)1993?TSRMSHMHR46906ISBN 1-56076-404-XLands of Dr. Doom (box)1992$ 20.00TSRMSHMHSP16860ISBN 0-88038-184-1Secret Wars I1984$ 6.00TSRMSHMHSP26869ISBN 0-88038-268-6Secret Wars II1986$ 6.00TSRMSHMLA16892ISBN 0-88038-832-3After Midnight1990$ 8.95TSRMSHMLA26895ISBN 0-88038-874-9Night Moves1990$ 8.95TSRMSHMLA36897ISBN 0-88038-893-5Night Life1990$ 8.95TSRMSHMLBA16893ISBN 0-88038-841-2Mutating Mutants1990$ 5.95TSRMSHMSL16899ISBN 1-56076-066-4X-Terminate1991$ 6.95TSRMSHMSL26901ISBN 1-56076-100-8Warlord of Baluur1991$ 6.95TSRMSHMSL36902ISBN 1-56076-101-6Spore of Arthros1991$ 6.95TSRMSHMSL46904ISBN 1-56076-103-2Stygian Knight1991$ 6.95TSRMSHMT16885ISBN 0-88038-718-1All This and World War II1989$ 7.95TSRMSHMT26886ISBN 0-88038-741-6The Weird, Weird West1989$ 8.95TSRMSHMT36891ISBN 0-88038-777-7The Revenge of Kang1989$ 8.95TSRMSHMU16878ISBN 0-88038-540-5Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - Abomination through Dreadnought1988$ 13.95TSRMSHMU26881ISBN 0-88038-576-6Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - Eel through Mad Dog1988$ 13.95TSRMSHMU36883ISBN 0-88038-601-0Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - Mad Thinker through Sentry1988$ 13.95TSRMSHMU46884ISBN 0-88038-617-7Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - Serpent Sociaty through Zzzax1988$ 13.95TSRMSHMU56887ISBN 0-88038-766-1Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - 1989 Characters Update1989$ 15.95TSRMSHMU66894ISBN 0-88038-866-8Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - 1990 Characters Update1990$ 15.95TSRMSHMU76903ISBN 1-56076-102-4Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - 1991 Characters Update1991$ 15.95TSRMSHMU86909ISBN 1-56076-407-4Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - 1992 Characters Update1992$ 15.95TSR<font color="silver">MSH<font color="silver">MU9<font color="silver">?ISBN 1-56076-600-X<font color="silver">Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe - 1993 Characters Update<font color="silver">1993<font color="silver">?TSRMSHMX16873ISBN 0-88038-402-6Nightmares of Futures Past1986$ 8.00TSRMSHMX26875ISBN 0-88038-403-4The X-Potential1987?TSRMSHMX36877ISBN 0-88038-481-6Reap the Whirlwind1987$ 5.95TSRMSHMX46888ISBN 0-88038-482-4Flames of Doom1987$ 5.95TSRMSHAGB-8021ISBN 0-88038-299-6Adventure Gamebook #1 - Amazing Spider-Man - City in Darkness1986$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8022ISBN 0-88038-300-3Adventure Gamebook #2 - Captain America - Rocket's Red Glare1986$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8023ISBN 0-88038-301-1Adventure Gamebook #3 - The Wolverine - Night of the Wolverine1987$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8024ISBN 0-88038-435-2Adventure Gamebook #4 - Doctor Strange - Through Six Dimensions1987$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8025ISBN 0-88038-436-0 Adventure Gamebook #5 - The Thing - One Thing After Another1987$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8026ISBN 0-88038-437-9Adventure Gamebook #6 - The Uncanny X-Men - An X-cellent Death1987$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-8027ISBN 0-88038-438-7Adventure Gamebook #7 - Amazing Spider-Man - As the World Burns1988$ 2.95TSRMSHAGB-?ISBN 0-88038-533-2Adventure Gamebook #8 - Daredevil - Guilt by Association1988$ 2.95TSROOOAGB-8468ISBN 0-88038-305-4One-on-One Adventure Gamebook #8 - The Fantastic Four vs. Doctor Doom - The Doomsday Device1986?TSROOOAGB-?ISBN 0-88038-459-XOne-on-One Adventure Gamebook #9 - Daredevil vs. Kingpin - The King Takes a Dare1987?TSROOOAGB-?ISBN 0-88038-518-9One-on-One Adventure Gamebook #11 - Doctor Strange and the High Priest of Set - Prisoner of Pharaoh's Tomb1989?TSRMSHAG-6926ISBN 0-7869-1227-8Marvel Superheroes Adventure Game (box)1998$ 24.95TSRMSHAG-6927ISBN 0-7869-1228-6X-Men Roster Book1998$ 17.95TSRMSHAG-6928ISBN 0-7869-1229-4X-Men: Who Goes There?1998$ 8.95TSRMSHAG-6929ISBN 0-7869-1230-8A Guide to Marvel Earth1998$ 15.95TSRMSHAG-6930ISBN 0-7869-1231-6Avengers Roster Book1998$ 17.95TSRMSHAG-6931ISBN 0-7869-1232-4Avengers: Masters of Evil1998$ 8.95TSRMSHAG-11320ISBN 0786913207 Fantastic Four Roster Book1999$ 18.95TSRMSHAG-11330ISBN 0-7869-1330-4Fantastic Four: Fantastic Voyages1999$ 8.95TSRMSHAG-11340ISBN 0-7869-1340-1The Reed Richards Guide to Everything1999$ 16.95TSRMSHAG---Wolverine vs. the Brood Queen1999-TSRMSHAG-?-Adventurer's Guild - Series 3 - Throne of Huangdi1998-TSRMSHAG-?-Adventurer's Guild - Series 4 - Avengers: Live Kree or Die!1998-TSRMSHAG-?-Adventurer's Guild - Series 5 - Pages of Doom1999-TSRMSHAG-?-Adventurer's Guild - Series 7 - Smoke and Mirrors1999-TSRMSHAG-?ISBN 0-7869-1409-2Marvel Team-Up Roster Book??MarvelMUMVL11028-ISBN 0-7851-1028-3Marvel Universe RPG (hc)2003$ 24.99MarvelMUMVL11035-ISBN 0-7851-1035-6Guide to the X-Men2003$ 19.99MarvelMUMVL11158-ISBN 0-7851-1158-1Guide to the Hulk & the Avengers 2003$ 19.99MarvelMUMVL11305-ISBN 0-7851-1305-3Guide to Spider-Man's NYC2004$ 19.99MarvelMUMVL11353-ISBN 0-7851-1353-3Guide to Wolverine2004$ 19.99 References External links Marvel RPG.net The Marvel-Phile Marvel RPG Source DEA Headquarters | Marvel_Super_Heroes_(role-playing_game) |@lemmatized marvel:41 superheroes:10 mshrpg:1 aka:1 faserip:2 system:18 role:4 playing:3 game:31 set:18 universe:17 first:2 publish:7 tsr:8 license:3 comic:11 expanded:1 edition:5 entitle:1 advance:3 write:2 jeff:1 grubb:1 use:16 essentially:2 basic:9 design:1 let:2 player:15 assume:2 spider:10 man:12 daredevil:4 hulk:2 captain:3 america:3 fantastic:10 four:8 x:9 men:7 many:3 others:1 simple:3 version:5 find:1 page:3 battle:1 book:9 contain:2 bare:1 bone:1 combat:1 sufficient:1 resolve:4 style:2 superheroic:2 fight:3 attribute:20 almost:2 mechanic:7 roll:6 percentile:1 dice:2 compare:3 result:9 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2,860 | Transport_in_Cape_Verde | In Cape Verde, most of the transportation between islands is done by plane. There are regular flights to and from the major islands (Santiago, Sal and São Vicente), with less frequent flights to the other islands. Boat transportation is also available, though not widely used nor dependable. In the major cities, public bus transport runs periodically and taxis are common. In smaller towns, there are mostly hiaces and/or taxis.<ref name=pc>The Peace Corps Welcomes You to Cape Verde. Peace Corps (April 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Types of transport Railways: 0 km - There are no railways in Cape Verde, although there was a short overhead conveyor system for salt from the open salt lake on Sal to the port at Pedro de Lume and a short stretch of rail track to the pier at Santa Maria used for a similar purpose. Both are now disused. Highways:total:10,000 km including unpaved tracks accessible only to four wheel drive vehiclesasphalt:360 kmcobbled:5,000 km (2007 estimates) The majority of Cape Verdean roads are paved with cobblestones cut from local basalt. Recent international aid has allowed the asphalting of a few roads, such as part of the highway between Tarrafal and Praia on Santiago and the dual carriageway between Santa Maria and Espargos on Sal. A new ring road is under construction from Praia International Airport around the city of Praia. The primary method of intercity and inter-village transport for Cape Verdeans is by aluguer shared taxis, commonly called Iass. Few Cape Verdeans own cars, but ownership is rising rapidly with increasing prosperity, particularly on Santiago Island. Ports and harbors: Mindelo on São Vicente is the main port for cruise liners and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Antão. A marina for yachts is undergoing enlargement (2007). Praia on Santiago is a main hub for local ferry services to other islands. Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amílcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for the hotel construction taking place on the island. Porto Novo on Santo Antão is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol. There are smaller harbors, essentially single jetties at Tarrafal on São Nicolau, Sal Rei on Boa Vista, Vila do Maio (Porto Inglês) on Maio, São Filipe on Fogo and Furna on Brava. These act as terminals for the inter island ferry services which carry both freight and passengers. There are very small harbors, with protective breakwaters, essentially used by fishing boats at Tarrafal on Santiago, Pedra de Lume on Sal and Ponta do Sol on Santo Antão. Some offer suitable protection for small yachts on passage. The pier at Santa Maria on Sal used by both fishing and dive boats is under repair (2007). Merchant marine:total:10 ferries (with a volume of or over) each of about ships by type:ferries 10, chemical tanker 1, oil tanker 2, trawler/cargo ship 1(2007 est.) Airports 7 operational (2007) of which 3 international and 4 national. 2 inoperational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Antão, closed for safety reasons. Over 3,047 m: 2 plus 2 undergoing runway extension. 914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2007) Main International Airports: Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island Praia International Airport, Santiago Island Rabil Airport, Boa Vista Island In addition to the main international airports another is under conversion to accept long-haul aircraft at São Pedro on São Vicente. International passenger traffic is forecast to exceed 250.000 passengers for the year 2007. Annual growth, mostly of tourists from Europe is anticipated to continue at just under 20%. (Source ASA Cape Verde airport authority) Main Airlines serving the country: TACV Cabo Verde Airlines Cabo Verde Express Cape Verde Express TAP Portugal'' TACV flies daily international flights from Lisbon to Sal or Praia and once a week from Amsterdam, Munich, Paris, Las Palmas, Fortaleza and Boston to one or other of the international airports. It operates on a frequency varying from daily to thrice weekly on inter-island flights to each of the seven islands with operational airports and also to Dakar. It has a fleet of two Boeing 757s and three ATR42s, currently (2007) being replaced by ATR72s. It is currently (2007) undergoing privatization at the insistence of the World Bank. A new Canadian chief executive has been appointed to restructure the airline (2007) (Source: A Semana) Air Services TACV Cabo Verde Airlines, the national airline, flies once a week from Boston Logan International Airport to Praia International Airport at Praia Santiago island. Currently (2007) these flights are on Wednesdays, but schedules vary and are subject to frequent change. It also has flights four times weekly from Lisbon to Francisco Mendes the recently opened airport at Praia on Santiago island and four times weekly from Lisbon to Amílcar Cabral International Airport on Sal island. There is a flight on Mondays from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport to Sal and on Thursdays from Amsterdam Schiphol Airport via Munich-Riem Airport to Sal. Return flights are just after midnight on the same day. From Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, Spain there are night flights on Mondays and Thursdays, with departures just after midnight. Return flights are the previous day. There is a service from Praia to Fortaleza, Brazil on Mondays and Thursdays departing early evening and returning at night. All international flights are operated by Boeing 757 aircraft. Most international flights are subject to intermittent delay and sometimes cancellation. TAP Air Portugal the Portuguese national carrier operates a daily service from Lisbon to Sal with late evening departures returning after midnight and reaching Lisbon in the early morning. Most flights are delayed and onward connections from Lisbon can be missed as a result. TAP and other European carriers provide connections with most European capitals, enabling same day through flights. From the UK, direct routes by Astraeus from London Gatwick and Manchester Airport to Sal ceased in April 2008, their website has not been taking reservations since May 2008. TACV Cabo Verde Airlines opened a route from London Stansted in October 2008 though it was rumoured that flights were being cancelled due to minimum take up though with effect from May 2008, TACV now fly direct from London Gatwick every Thursday to Sal and Praia. Outbound times depart LGW 12.45pm and arrive SID 17.05pm with return flights to the UK departing SID 03.25am and arriving 11.25am LGW. Indicative prices are £688.40 per adult and £566.60 per child aged 11 and under inclusive of inflight meals and 20KG checked luggage. There is a Fly TACV website, though as June 2008 no bookings can be made. Reservations should be made via the UK TACV office on 0870 774 7338. ThomsonFly have opened additional routes from Manchester Airport and London Gatwick on Mondays and Fridays. Various options and bookings can be made via Thomsonfly to both Sal and Boa Vista. Hamburg International provides a charter service from Hamburg via Duesseldorf on Thursdays and Condor operatus from Frankfurt Rhein Main on Tuesdays returning on Wednesday. Neos operates charter flights from Milan Malpensa, Rome Fiumcino and Bologna on Wednesdays. Return fares from European airports are generally around £400 or €600. Fares from North American airports are generally close to $1000 but special offers are often available. TACV cabo Verde Airines, the national airline has been a monopoly carrier within the island archipelago (2007). It operates services from the main hub airports at Sal and Santiago to Boa Vista, Fogo, Maio, São Nicolau and São Vicente at frequencies ranging from thrice weekly to thrice daily. Air strips on the other islands of Brava and Santo Antão are closed (2007) and can only be reached by ferry services from other islands. TACV does not publish timetables, but flight times are listed on departure boards, when these are functioning. Tickets can be bought at the TACV shop at each airport by queuing and paying in cash (euros or escudos). Flights are often delayed and sometimes cancelled due to weather or operational conditions. Services are operated by ATR 42 turboprop aircraft, which are currently being replaced (2007) by the enlarged ATR 72 aircraft. Inter island tariffs vary depending on the distance but are generally around €180 return. Air passes are obtainable for multiple flights, when buying an international ticket on TACV. Halcyonair a private carrier with Portuguese and Cape Verdean shareholders is commenced operations on inter-island flights during 2007. It has obtained the necessary licensing from the Cape Verde Government. Travel within the islands There are regular bus services within the urban limits of the cities of Praia on Santiago Island and Mindelo on São Vicente island only. For other destinations the shared bus service known as aluguer is convenient. This operate with fares ranging from €1 to €4 depending on the distance and can be flagged down at the side of the road. They depart once enough passengers have been secured and have no timetable. Generally they operate between outlying villages and the main town on each island. There is usually a service into town in the early morning and a return service in the evening. Services are more frequent on popular routes such as Espargos-Santa Maria. Taxis are available on most islands and generally are available at airports and at ports to meet incoming ferry services. Fares are generally €4-5 according to distance travelled. A supplement applies after nightfall. Ferries Inter-island Cape Verde Several ferries operate between the islands with much lower fares than the airline. These are provided by various independent shipping companies and their condition and seaworthiness varies considerably. Many services depart from Praia at about midnight, arriving in outlying islands at breakfast time. Return trips often depart around mid-day. But service schedules are approximate only and delays or cancellations of service are common. Conditions can be very crowded without any space to sit on deck and it is advisable to pre-book a cabin for any but the shortest of trips. Some passages can be rough during the winter. Departure days vary according to the season and are frequently altered, Enquore at the shipping offices in Praia and other Cape Verdean ports. References Cape Verde Info UK 2007 External links Cape Verde Information Cape Verde Expatriate Residents Collaborative Pages Cape Verde Information UK Cape Verde Information - Cape Verde Transport Information Cape Verde Traval Information - Cape Verde Travel | Transport_in_Cape_Verde |@lemmatized cape:20 verde:20 transportation:2 island:31 plane:1 regular:2 flight:21 major:2 santiago:10 sal:17 são:9 vicente:5 less:1 frequent:3 boat:3 also:3 available:4 though:4 widely:1 use:4 dependable:1 city:3 public:2 bus:3 transport:4 run:1 periodically:1 taxi:4 common:2 small:4 town:3 mostly:2 hiaces:1 ref:2 name:1 pc:1 peace:2 corp:2 welcome:1 april:2 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:4 domain:1 type:2 railway:2 km:3 although:1 short:3 overhead:1 conveyor:1 system:1 salt:2 open:4 lake:1 port:5 pedro:2 de:3 lume:2 stretch:1 rail:1 track:2 pier:2 santa:4 maria:4 similar:1 purpose:1 disused:1 highway:2 total:2 include:1 unpaved:1 accessible:1 four:3 wheel:1 drive:1 vehiclesasphalt:1 kmcobbled:1 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2,861 | Demographics_of_Luxembourg | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Luxembourg, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The following is an overview of the demographics of Luxembourg. Demographic topics include basic statistics, most populous cites, and religious affiliation. The population of Luxembourg as of July 2007 was estimated at 480,222 by The World Factbook. The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers. Luxembourg Presidency - Being a Luxembourger Summary of vital statistics since 1900 Statistiques de Luxembourg Average population (x 1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000) 1900 234 7 037 5 109 1 928 30.1 21.9 8.2 1901 236 7 444 4 300 3 144 31.5 18.2 13.3 1902 238 7 416 4 460 2 956 31.1 18.7 12.4 1903 241 7 279 4 686 2 593 30.3 19.5 10.8 1904 243 7 535 4 952 2 583 31.0 20.4 10.6 1905 245 7 431 4 851 2 580 30.3 19.8 10.5 1906 248 7 516 4 844 2 672 30.3 19.6 10.8 1907 250 7 738 4 482 3 256 30.9 17.9 13.0 1908 253 7 639 4 933 2 706 30.2 19.5 10.7 1909 256 7 264 4 752 2 512 28.4 18.6 9.8 1910 258 7 065 4 321 2 744 27.4 16.7 10.6 1911 260 7 126 4 892 2 234 27.4 18.8 8.6 1912 262 7 051 4 556 2 495 26.9 17.4 9.5 1913 264 7 009 4 383 2 626 26.5 16.6 9.9 1914 266 6 781 4 446 2 335 25.5 16.7 8.8 1915 265 5 701 4 126 1 575 21.5 15.6 5.9 1916 264 4 958 4 246 712 18.8 16.1 2.7 1917 263 4 516 4 730 - 214 17.1 18.0 -0.8 1918 263 4 413 5 611 -1 198 16.8 21.4 -4.6 1919 262 4 638 4 627 11 17.7 17.7 0.0 1920 261 5 621 3 404 2 217 21.6 13.1 8.5 1921 261 5 494 3 444 2 050 21.1 13.2 7.9 1922 262 5 094 3 538 1 556 19.5 13.5 5.9 1923 263 5 468 3 581 1 887 20.8 13.6 7.2 1924 266 5 369 3 421 1 948 20.2 12.9 7.3 1925 268 5 619 3 791 1 828 21.0 14.1 6.8 1926 270 5 639 4 100 1 539 20.9 15.2 5.7 1927 278 5 864 3 909 1 955 21.1 14.1 7.0 1928 287 6 114 4 017 2 097 21.3 14.0 7.3 1929 292 6 210 4 553 1 657 21.3 15.6 5.7 1930 297 6 377 3 876 2 501 21.4 13.0 8.4 1931 300 5 988 3 971 2 017 20.0 13.3 6.7 1932 299 5 295 3 949 1 346 17.7 13.2 4.5 1933 298 4 895 3 725 1 170 16.4 12.5 3.9 1934 298 4 665 3 535 1 130 15.7 11.9 3.8 1935 297 4 523 3 740 783 15.2 12.6 2.6 1936 298 4 514 3 433 1 081 15.2 11.5 3.6 1937 299 4 514 3 555 959 15.1 11.9 3.2 1938 301 4 486 3 811 675 14.9 12.7 2.2 1939 300 4 511 3 804 707 15.0 12.7 2.4 1940 296 3 959 3 580 379 13.4 12.1 1.3 1941 292 4 029 4 065 - 36 13.8 13.9 -0.1 1942 290 4 506 4 220 286 15.6 14.6 1.0 1943 289 4 277 4 437 - 160 14.8 15.4 -0.6 1944 285 4 128 5 406 -1 278 14.5 18.9 -4.5 1945 284 3 775 4 585 - 810 13.3 16.2 -2.9 1946 286 4 263 3 525 738 14.9 12.3 2.6 1947 289 4 178 3 548 630 14.5 12.3 2.2 1948 292 4 162 3 400 762 14.3 11.6 2.6 1949 294 4 026 3 676 350 13.7 12.5 1.2 1950 296 4 116 3 401 715 13.9 11.5 2.4 1951 297 4 176 3 456 720 14.0 11.6 2.4 1952 299 4 535 3 557 978 15.2 11.9 3.3 1953 301 4 565 3 737 828 15.2 12.4 2.7 1954 303 4 713 3 421 1 292 15.6 11.3 4.3 1955 305 4 962 3 453 1 509 16.3 11.3 5.0 1956 307 4 833 3 878 955 15.8 12.6 3.1 1957 309 4 954 3 811 1 143 16.1 12.4 3.7 1958 310 4 959 3 512 1 447 16.0 11.3 4.7 1959 312 5 037 3 607 1 430 16.1 11.6 4.6 1960 314 5 019 3 716 1 303 16.0 11.8 4.1 1961 317 5 112 3 616 1 496 16.1 11.4 4.7 1962 321 5 137 4 037 1 100 16.0 12.6 3.4 1963 324 5 112 3 929 1 183 15.8 12.1 3.7 1964 328 5 229 3 857 1 372 16.0 11.8 4.2 1965 332 5 297 4 057 1 240 16.0 12.2 3.7 1966 334 5 194 4 133 1 061 15.6 12.4 3.2 1967 335 4 957 4 166 791 14.8 12.4 2.4 1968 336 4 780 4 138 642 14.2 12.3 1.9 1969 338 4 503 4 202 301 13.3 12.5 0.9 1970 339 4 476 4 168 308 13.2 12.3 0.9 1971 342 4 512 4 416 96 13.2 12.9 0.3 1972 347 4 138 4 120 18 11.9 11.9 0.1 1973 351 3 847 4 184 - 337 11.0 11.9 -1.0 1974 355 3 925 4 291 - 366 11.1 12.1 -1.0 1975 359 3 997 4 376 - 379 11.1 12.2 -1.1 1976 361 3 915 4 507 - 592 10.8 12.5 -1.6 1977 362 4 053 4 083 - 30 11.2 11.3 -0.1 1978 362 4 072 4 187 - 115 11.2 11.6 -0.3 1979 363 4 078 3 985 93 11.2 11.0 0.3 1980 364 4 169 4 113 56 11.4 11.3 0.2 1981 365 4 414 4 105 309 12.1 11.2 0.8 1982 366 4 300 4 133 167 11.8 11.3 0.5 1983 366 4 185 4 129 56 11.4 11.3 0.2 1984 366 4 192 4 072 120 11.5 11.1 0.3 1985 367 4 104 4 027 77 11.2 11.0 0.2 1986 368 4 309 3 970 339 11.7 10.8 0.9 1987 371 4 238 4 012 226 11.4 10.8 0.6 1988 374 4 603 3 840 763 12.3 10.3 2.0 1989 378 4 665 3 984 681 12.4 10.6 1.8 1990 382 4 936 3 773 1 163 12.9 9.9 3.0 1991 387 4 986 3 744 1 242 12.9 9.7 3.2 1992 392 5 149 4 022 1 127 13.1 10.3 2.9 1993 397 5 353 3 915 1 438 13.5 9.8 3.6 1994 403 5 451 3 800 1 651 13.5 9.4 4.1 1995 409 5 421 3 797 1 624 13.3 9.3 4.0 1996 414 5 689 3 895 1 794 13.7 9.4 4.3 1997 419 5 503 3 937 1 566 13.1 9.4 3.7 1998 425 5 386 3 901 1 485 12.7 9.2 3.5 1999 430 5 582 3 793 1 789 13.0 8.8 4.2 2000 436 5 723 3 754 1 969 13.1 8.6 4.5 2001 442 5 459 3 719 1 740 12.4 8.4 3.9 2002 446 5 345 3 744 1 601 12.0 8.4 3.6 2003 452 5 303 4 053 1 250 11.7 9.0 2.8 2004 458 5 452 3 578 1 874 11.9 7.8 4.1 2005 465 5 371 3 621 1 750 11.5 7.8 3.8 2006 473 5 514 3 766 1 748 11.7 8.0 3.7 2007 480 5 477 3 866 1 611 11.4 8.1 3.4 Ethnicity Celtic base (with French and German blend), Portuguese, Italian, Russians (from Russia and Ukraine), Serbs (from Montenegro and Serbia), Albanians (from Albania and Kosovo) and European (guest and worker residents). Religious affiliation The greatest preponderance of the population is Roman Catholic with very few Protestants, Jews, and Muslims Note: 1979 legislation forbids the collection of religious statistics. (Loi du 31 mars 1979 réglementant l´utilisation des données nominatives dans les traitements informatiques, Art. 15a ) CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Luxembourg, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure (2002 est.) 0-14 years: 18.9% (male 43,634; female 41,164) 15-64 years: 67% (male 151,364; female 149,156) 65 years and over: 14.1% (male 25,486; female 37,765) Population growth rate 1.207% (2007 est.) Birth rate 11.84 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 8.42 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Immigration|Net migration rate 8.64 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio (2002 est.) at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female Infant mortality rate 4.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) Life expectancy at birth (2007 est.) total population: 79.03 years male: 75.76 years female: 82.52 years Total fertility rate 1.7 children born/woman (2002 est.) HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 0.16% (1999 est.) HIV/AIDS deaths: fewer than 100 (1999 est.) Languages Luxembourgish (national and administrative language), German (administrative language), French (administrative language) Literacy (2000 est.) Definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 100% male: 100% female: 100% See also : Luxembourg Note | Demographics_of_Luxembourg |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:6 feature:1 population:13 luxembourg:8 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:4 affiliation:3 aspect:1 following:2 overview:1 topic:1 basic:1 statistic:5 populous:1 cite:1 july:1 estimate:1 world:3 factbook:3 people:1 call:1 luxembourger:2 presidency:1 summary:1 vital:1 since:1 statistiques:1 de:2 average:1 x:1 live:2 birthsdeathsnatural:1 changecrude:1 birth:6 rate:9 per:3 crude:1 death:5 natural:1 change:1 celtic:1 base:1 french:2 german:2 blend:1 portuguese:1 italian:1 russian:1 russia:1 ukraine:1 serb:1 montenegro:1 serbia:1 albanian:1 albania:1 kosovo:1 european:1 guest:1 worker:1 resident:1 great:1 preponderance:1 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 jew:1 muslim:1 note:2 legislation:1 forbid:1 collection:1 loi:1 du:1 mar:1 réglementant:1 l:1 utilisation:1 données:1 nominative:1 dans:1 les:1 traitements:1 informatiques:1 art:1 cia:2 data:1 fao:1 year:10 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 age:2 structure:1 est:12 male:10 female:10 growth:1 immigration:1 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:3 aid:3 adult:1 prevalence:1 language:4 luxembourgish:1 national:1 administrative:3 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:3 affiliation_aspect:1 montenegro_serbia:1 dans_les:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:3 adult_prevalence:1 |
2,862 | Benoit_Mandelbrot | Benoît B. Mandelbrot Benoît is read as "ben-wa" . The pronunciation of the name "Mandelbrot", which is a Yiddish and German word meaning "almond bread", is given variously in dictionaries. The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Longman Pronouncing Dictionary give (first syllable sounds like "man"; last syllable rhymes with "boat"); the Bollard Pronouncing Dictionary of Proper Names gives the quasi-French pronunciation (last syllable rhymes with "draw"); the American Heritage Dictionary gives (first syllable has the vowel sound of the 'a' in "father"; last syllable rhymes with "pot"). Mandelbrot himself, as most Frenchmen do, pronounces his name as (roughly maw-dell-brote) when speaking in French. (Source: recording of the September 11, 2006, ceremony at which Mandelbrot received the Officer of the Legion of honour insignia.) (born 20 November 1924) is a French mathematician, best known as the father of fractal geometry. He is Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences, Emeritus at Yale University; IBM Fellow Emeritus at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center; and Battelle Fellow at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. He was born in Poland. His family moved to France when he was a child, and he was educated in France. He is a dual French and American citizen. Mandelbrot now lives and works in the United States. Early years Mandelbrot was born in Warsaw in a Jewish family from Lithuania. Anticipating the threat posed by Nazi Germany, the family fled from Poland to France in 1936 when he was 11. He remained in France through the war to near the end of his college studies. He was born into a family with a strong academic tradition—his mother was a medical doctor and he was introduced to mathematics by two uncles. His uncle, Szolem Mandelbrojt, was a Parisian mathematician. His father, however, made his living trading clothing. Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rolin in Paris until the start of World War II, when his family moved to Tulle. He was helped by Rabbi David Feuerwerker, the Rabbi of Brive-la-Gaillarde, to continue his studies. In 1944 he returned to Paris. He studied at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon and in 1945-47 attended the École Polytechnique, where he studied under Gaston Julia and Paul Lévy. From 1947 to 1949 he studied at California Institute of Technology where he studied aeronautics. Back in France, he obtained a Ph.D. in Mathematical Sciences at the University of Paris in 1952. From 1949 to 1957 Mandelbrot was a staff member at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. During this time he spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey where he was sponsored by John von Neumann. In 1955 he married Aliette Kagan and moved to Geneva, Switzerland then Lille, France. In 1958 the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the research staff at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. He remained at IBM for thirty-two years, becoming an IBM Fellow, and later Fellow Emeritus. Later years Mandelbrot speaking at the École Polytechnique in 2006, during the ceremony when he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour. From 1951 onward, Mandelbrot worked on problems and published papers not only in mathematics but in applied fields such as information theory, economics, and fluid dynamics. He became convinced that two key themes, fat tails and self-similar structure, ran through a multitude of problems encountered in those fields. Mandelbrot found that price changes in financial markets did not follow a Gaussian distribution, but rather Lévy stable distributions having theoretically infinite variance. He found, for example, that cotton prices followed a Lévy stable distribution with parameter α equal to 1.7 rather than 2 as in a Gaussian distribution. "Stable" distributions have the property that the sum of many instances of a random variable follows the same distribution but with a larger scale parameter. New Scientist, 19 April 1997 Mandelbrot also put his ideas to work in cosmology. He offered in 1974 a new explanation of Olbers' Paradox (the "dark night sky" riddle), demonstrating the consequences of fractal theory as a sufficient, but not necessary, resolution of the paradox. He postulated that if the stars in the universe were fractally distributed (for example, like Cantor dust), it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain the paradox. His model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred. In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the term fractal to describe these structures, and published his ideas in Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension (1975; an English translation Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension was published in 1977). Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension, by Benoît Mandelbrot; W H Freeman and Co, 1977; ISBN 0716704730 Mandelbrot developed here ideas from the article Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique Jaromír Korčák (1938): Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique. Prague, Comité d’organisation, Bull. de l'Institute Int'l de Statistique, vol. 3, pp. 295–299. (1938; an English translation Two Basic Types of Statistical Distribution) of Czech geographer, demographer and statistician Jaromír Korčák. The Mandelbrot set and periodicities of orbits. While on secondment as Visiting Professor of Mathematics at Harvard University in 1979, Mandelbrot began to study fractals called Julia sets that were invariant under certain transformations of the complex plane. Building on previous work by Gaston Julia and Pierre Fatou, Mandelbrot used a computer to plot images of the Julia sets of the formula z² − μ. While investigating how the topology of these Julia sets depended on the complex parameter μ he studied the Mandelbrot set fractal that is now named after him. (Note that the Mandelbrot set is now usually defined in terms of the formula z² + c, so Mandelbrot's early plots in terms of the earlier parameter μ are left–right mirror images of more recent plots in terms of the parameter c.) In 1982, Mandelbrot expanded and updated his ideas in The Fractal Geometry of Nature. The Fractal Geometry of Nature, by Benoît Mandelbrot; W H Freeman & Co, 1982; ISBN 0716711869 This influential work brought fractals into the mainstream of professional and popular mathematics. Upon his retirement from IBM in 1987, Mandelbrot joined the Yale Department of Mathematics. At the time of his retirement in 2005, he was Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences. His awards include the Wolf Prize for Physics in 1993, the Lewis Fry Richardson Prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000, the Japan Prize in 2003, and the Einstein Lectureship of the American Mathematical Society in 2006. The small asteroid 27500 Mandelbrot was named in his honor. In November 1990, he was made a Knight in the French Legion of Honour. In December 2005, Mandelbrot was appointed to the position of Battelle Fellow at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. PNNL press release: Mandelbrot joins Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Mandelbrot was promoted to Officer of the French Legion of Honour in January 2006. Légion d'honneur announcement of promotion of Mandelbrot to officier Fractals and regular roughness Although Mandelbrot coined the term fractal, some of the mathematical objects he presented in The Fractal Geometry of Nature had been described by other mathematicians. Before Mandelbrot, they had been regarded as isolated curiosities with unnatural and non-intuitive properties. Mandelbrot brought these objects together for the first time and turned them into essential tools for the long-stalled effort to extend the scope of science to non-smooth objects in the real world. He highlighted their common properties, such as self-similarity (linear, non-linear, or statistical), scale invariance, and a (usually) non-integer Hausdorff dimension. He also emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models of many "rough" phenomena in the real world. Natural fractals include the shapes of mountains, coastlines and river basins; the structures of plants, blood vessels and lungs; the clustering of galaxies; and Brownian motion. Fractals are found in human pursuits, such as music, painting, architecture, and stock market prices. Mandelbrot believed that fractals, far from being unnatural, were in many ways more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional Euclidean geometry: Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line. —Mandelbrot, in his introduction to The Fractal Geometry of Nature Mandelbrot has been called a visionary. His informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made The Fractal Geometry of Nature accessible to non-specialists. The book sparked widespread popular interest in fractals and contributed to chaos theory and other fields of science and mathematics. Views of the Mandelbrot set. Honors and Awards A partial list of awards received by Mandelbrot: 2004 Best Business Book of the Year Award AMS Einstein Lectureship Barnard Medal Caltech Service Casimir Frank Natural Sciences Award Charles Proteus Steinmetz Medal Franklin Medal Harvey Prize Honda Prize Humboldt Preis IBM Fellowship Japan Prize John Scott Award Lewis Fry Richardson Medal Medaglia della Presidenza della Repubblica Italiana Médaille de Vermeil de la Ville de Paris Nevada Prize Science for Art Sven Berggren-Priset Władysław Orlicz Prize Wolf Foundation Prize for Physics See also " How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension", a 1967 paper by Mandelbrot Mandelbrot Competition skewness risk, kurtosis risk Notes and references Further reading The (Mis)Behavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin, and Reward, by Benoît Mandelbrot and Richard L. Hudson; Basic Books, 2004; ISBN 0-465-04355-0 A focus on the exceptions that prove the rule, by Benoît Mandelbrot and Nassim Taleb; Financial Times, 23 March 2006. Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe and Cornelia Zahlten: Fractals: An Animated Discussion (63 min video film, interviews with Benoît Mandelbrot and Edward Lorenz, computer animations), W.H. Freeman and Company, 1990. ISBN 0-716-72213-5 (re-published by Films for the Humanities & Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7365-0520-8) Article that appeared in the Scientific American regarding fractal geometric theory with regard to Wall Street. This article elicited great debate, since it was claimed Mandelbrot did not properly attribute many of the same fractal ideas to the Elliot wave theory. External links Mandelbrot's page at Yale Interview of the École Polytechnique site Biography of Mandelbrot Video stream of Mandelbrot lecturing at MIT Who Discovered the Mandelbrot Set? | Benoit_Mandelbrot |@lemmatized benoît:7 b:1 mandelbrot:48 read:2 ben:1 wa:1 pronunciation:2 name:5 yiddish:1 german:1 word:1 meaning:1 almond:1 bread:1 give:4 variously:1 dictionary:5 merriam:1 webster:1 collegiate:1 longman:1 pronounce:3 first:3 syllable:5 sound:2 like:2 man:1 last:3 rhyme:3 boat:1 bollard:1 proper:1 quasi:1 french:6 draw:1 american:4 heritage:1 vowel:1 father:3 pot:1 frenchman:1 roughly:1 maw:1 dell:1 brote:1 speak:2 source:1 recording:1 september:1 ceremony:2 receive:2 officer:3 legion:4 honour:4 insignia:1 born:1 november:2 mathematician:3 best:2 know:1 fractal:25 geometry:7 sterling:2 professor:3 mathematical:5 science:8 emeritus:3 yale:3 university:3 ibm:6 fellow:5 thomas:2 j:2 watson:2 research:3 center:2 battelle:2 pacific:3 northwest:3 national:4 laboratory:3 bear:3 poland:2 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2,863 | Transport_in_the_Falkland_Islands | There are three primary methods of transport available in the Falkland Islands. As well as two airports, there are a number of airstrips used extensively for domestic flights. There is also a growing road network, along with limited sea transport. Road There are of highway in the Falkland Islands, with a further earmarked for future completion. Falkland Islands Government There are two taxi services in Stanley, which can be used for travel within the town and the surrounding areas. Landrovers can be hired in Stanley, which are essential for travel along unpaved roads. A bus service ferries passengers between the main airport for international flights at Mount Pleasant and Stanley. Sea There are two seaports in the Falkland Islands: Stanley and Fox Bay, the latter of which is a customs entry point for West Falkland. The Falkland Islands do not possess a merchant marine. Since November 2008, a regular ferry service has linked the two main islands, carrying cars, passengers and cargo. The ferry, MV Concordia Bay, runs between Port Howard in West Falkland and New Haven in East Falkland. It also visits some of the smaller islands. Other boats may be chartered in advance. Cruise ships for tourists often visit many of the islands, making use of inflatable boats where adequate docking facilities are not available. Air There are a number of airports in the Falkland Islands which serve as a vital link for remote communities. Only two have paved runways; RAF Mount Pleasant and Stanley Airport. Air travel is used extensively for travel between islands, with many services offered by the Falkland Islands Government Air Service, largely using Britten Norman Islander aircraft. References | Transport_in_the_Falkland_Islands |@lemmatized three:1 primary:1 method:1 transport:2 available:2 falkland:10 islands:4 well:1 two:5 airport:4 number:2 airstrip:1 use:5 extensively:2 domestic:1 flight:2 also:2 grow:1 road:3 network:1 along:2 limited:1 sea:2 highway:1 island:7 earmarked:1 future:1 completion:1 government:2 taxi:1 service:5 stanley:5 travel:4 within:1 town:1 surround:1 area:1 landrover:1 hire:1 essential:1 unpaved:1 bus:1 ferry:3 passenger:2 main:2 international:1 mount:2 pleasant:2 seaport:1 fox:1 bay:2 latter:1 custom:1 entry:1 point:1 west:2 possess:1 merchant:1 marine:1 since:1 november:1 regular:1 link:2 carry:1 car:1 cargo:1 mv:1 concordia:1 run:1 port:1 howard:1 new:1 east:1 visit:2 small:1 boat:2 may:1 charter:1 advance:1 cruise:1 ship:1 tourist:1 often:1 many:2 make:1 inflatable:1 adequate:1 docking:1 facility:1 air:3 serve:1 vital:1 remote:1 community:1 pave:1 runway:1 raf:1 offer:1 largely:1 britten:1 norman:1 islander:1 aircraft:1 reference:1 |@bigram falkland_islands:4 mount_pleasant:2 merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 britten_norman:1 |
2,864 | David_Beatty,_1st_Earl_Beatty | Rear-Admiral David Beatty. Admiral of the Fleet David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty GCB, OM, GCVO, DSO (17 January 1871 – 11 March 1936), was an admiral in the Royal Navy. Early career Beatty was born at Howbeck Lodge in the parish of Stapeley, Cheshire, on 17 January 1871. He was the second son of four children born to David Longfield Beatty and Katherine (or Katrine) Edith Beatty, both from Ireland. Beatty's father had been an officer in the Fourth Hussars (and his two brothers would both later join the British Army), but early on young David developed an interest in ships and the sea and expressed a desire to join the Royal Navy. He was sent to a "crammer" at Gosport for a year to prepare for the entrance examination, and in January 1894 passed into the officers' training ship Britannia tenth out of ninety-nine candidates. During his two years at Britannia, moored at Dartmouth, Devon, he was given twenty-five times for "minor offences" and beaten three times for more serious infractions. He passed out of Britannia eighteenth out of the thirty-three remaining cadets at the end of 1885. Thanks to the influence of his mother, Beatty's first appointment was to HMS Alexandra, the Duke of Edinburgh's flagship in the Mediterranean Squadron. In 1889 Beatty left Alexandra and was appointed Sub-Lieutenant in the sailing corvette Ruby for seamanship training. He was transferred to HMS Cruiser. He was at the gunnery school, Excellent from 1890 until 1892 when he was promoted to lieutenant. He rejoined HMS Ruby, remaining in her until 1893, when he was transferred to the battleship Camperdown until 1895. Following Camperdown he was transferred to the battleship Trafalgar. In 1897, he was given his first command, the destroyer Ranger. Beatty gained recognition in the recapture of the Sudan (1897-1899), where he was selected as second in command of the river flotilla by Lord Kitchener for his Khartoum expedition. Beatty commanded the gunboat Fatah at the Battle of Omdurman. He was promoted to commander during the expedition, in 1898 at the early age of 27 over the heads of many senior officers. He gained further recognition as a member of the British naval brigade during the Boxer Rebellion (1900), which he joined from the battleship Barfleur on the China Station where he was second in command. During the capture of Tientsin in June, he was twice wounded in an arm, and rewarded for his bravery with a promotion. At the age of 29, Beatty became the youngest Captain in the Royal Navy. The average age for a newly promoted Captain at the time was 43. Advancement In 1900, he married a wealthy heiress, Ethel Field Tree, the divorced only daughter of department store founder Marshall Field, and this allowed him much independence that most other officers lacked. She is reputed to have commented after he was threatened with disciplinary action following the straining of his ship's engines "What? Court martial my David? I'll buy them a new ship". She had bought him a steam yacht, houses in London and in the Leicestershire hunting country, and a Scottish grouse moor. The couple circulated in high society, even occasionally dining with the King. However, there were disadvantages, as Beatty discovered after his marriage, for his wife was an unstable neurotic who caused him extreme mental tortures. Beatty was an intelligent and able leader, but all his social and sporting obligations, coupled with his high-strung temperament, prevented him from becoming a coldly calculating professional like Jellicoe – or his adversary, Hipper. Beatty’s flamboyant style included wearing a non-standard uniform, which had six buttons instead of the regulation eight on the jacket, and always wearing his cap at an angle. He was captain of HMS Duke of Wellington from 1900 to 1902, while still recovering from the injury to his arm. In August 1902 he was passed fit for sea duty and was appointed captain of the cruisers HMS Juno, HMS Arrogant in 1903-1904 and HMS Suffolk from 1904 until 1905. He then became the naval advisor to the Army Council in 1906. He was made captain of the battleship HMS Queen in 1908 and promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1910, becoming, just shy of 39, the youngest Admiral in the Royal Navy, except for Royal family members, since Horatio Nelson. He was offered the post of second-in-command of the Atlantic Fleet, but declined it and asked for one in the Home Fleet. As the Atlantic Fleet post was a major command, the Admiralty were very unimpressed and his attitude nearly ruined his career. Beatty, as a rapidly promoted war hero, with no financial worries and with a degree of support in Royal circles felt more confident than most naval officers to stand firm on requesting a posting nearer home. He was approaching the deadline of two years on half pay which would trigger automatic retirement from the navy, when on 8 January 1912 his career was saved by the new First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. Roskill p. 48-52 Churchill had met Beatty when Beatty was commander of a gunboat on the Nile supporting the army at the Battle of Omdurman, in which Churchill took part as a cavalry officer. A "probably apocryphal" story relates that as Beatty walked into Churchill's office at the Admiralty, Churchill looked him over and said, "You seem very young to be an Admiral." Unfazed, Beatty replied, "And you seem very young to be First Lord." Churchill - who was himself only thirty-eight years old in 1912 - took to him immediately and he was appointed Private Naval Secretary to the First Lord against the advice of First Sea Lord Sir Arthur Wilson. Gordon p. 381 On 1 March 1913 he received the appointment of Rear-Admiral Commanding the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. Beatty was late taking up his new post, choosing not to cut short a holiday in Monte Carlo. On his eventual arrival, he set about drafting standing orders regarding how the squadron was to operate. He noted, 'Captains...to be successful must possess, in a marked degree, initiative, resource, determination, and no fear of accepting responsibility', and particularly regarding wartime conditions'...as a rule instructions will be of a very general character so as to avoid interfering with the judgement and initiative of captains...The admiral will rely on captains to use all the information at their disposal to grasp the situation quickly and anticipate his wishes, using their own discretion as to how to act in unforeseen circumstances..' The approach outlined by Beatty contradicted the views of many within the navy, who felt that ships should always be closely controlled by their commanding admiral, and harked back to reforms attempted by Admiral George Tryon. It is argued that Tryon had attempted to introduce greater independence and initiative amongst his captains which he believed would be essential in the confusion of a real war situation, but had ironically been killed in an accident caused by captains rigorously obeying incorrect but precise orders issued by Tryon himself. Gordon p.381-382. For a rebuttal of Gordon's thesis on tactics in the late-nineteenth century Royal Navy see A commander has some discretion as to choice of officers to serve unde him. The new command came with a competent Flag Lieutenant, Charles Dix, but Beatty was not happy with him, and anyway the former commander of the squadron wanted his lieutenant to accompany him to his new command. Beatty chose Lieutenant Ralph Seymour as his successor, despite Seymour being unknown to him. Seymour had aristocratic connections, which may have appealed to Beatty since he sought connections in society, but it was also the case that Seymour's sister was a longstanding close friend of Churchill's wife. Appointments by influence were common in the navy at this time, but the significance of Beatty's choice lay in Seymour's relative inexperience as a signals officer, and difficulties which later arose in battle as a result. Gordon p.384-385 World War I During World War I, he took part in actions at Heligoland Bight (1914), Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916). He was an aggressive commander who expected his subordinates to always use their initiative without direct orders from himself. Jutland proved to be decisive in Beatty's career, despite the loss of two of his battlecruisers. Beatty is reported to have remarked (to his Flag Captain, Chatfield, later First Sea Lord in the early 1930s), "there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today," after two of them had exploded within half an hour during the battle. One theory is that this was caused by a design fault in the ammunition loading system to the main gun turrets, so that an enemy hit on the turret set off an explosion in the magazine, thus sinking the ship. Churchill's account of the First World War, The World Crisis, describes Beatty's next order as, "Steer two points nearer the enemy." His next order was to turn away by two points, and, in any case, a few minutes later he reversed his fleet's course to fulfill its anticipated role of leading the German forces towards the main British fleet. Admiral John Jellicoe, described by Churchill as the man who could "lose the war in an afternoon" by losing the strategic British superiority in dreadnought battleships, was not the dashing showman like David Beatty. When Jellicoe was promoted to First Sea Lord in 1916, Beatty succeeded him as commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet and received promotion to the rank of Admiral at the age of 45 on 27 November. Beatty received the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet in November 1918. On the night of 15 November, Rear-Admiral Hugo Meurer, the representative of Admiral Franz von Hipper, met Admiral Beatty aboard Beatty's flagship, HMS Queen Elizabeth. Beatty presented Meurer with the terms, which were expanded at a second meeting the following day. The U-boats were to surrender to Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt at Harwich, under the supervision of the Harwich Force, then the surface fleet was to sail to the Firth of Forth and surrender personally to Beatty. They would then be led to Scapa Flow and interned, pending the outcome of the peace negotiations. Meurer eventually signed the terms after midnight. Rather than show any sign of magnamimity to Meurer and his staff, he chose to overawe and humiliate them instead. Germany never forgot Beatty's treatment, and indeed, Germany chose to ignore the news of Beatty's death, contrasting highly with Germany rendering condolences and honors at the news of Jellicoe's passing. In 1919, he was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet, created 1st Earl Beatty, Viscount Borodale and Baron Beatty of the North Sea and Brooksby, and served a lengthy term as First Sea Lord until 1927. This was not a happy period for the Royal Navy. With the removal of the German High Seas Fleet in 1919, Britain had no naval enemies, and at the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 it was agreed that the USA, Britain and Japan should set their navies in a ratio of 5:5:3, with France and Italy maintaining smaller fleets. Britain was required to scrap most of her vast First World War fleet (only two new, oddly-shaped, battleships, HMS "Rodney" and "Nelson" were built at this time, known colloquially as the "Cherry Tree Class" as they had been "cut down by Washington"). Japan, which had been an ally of Britain since 1900, was angered that she had not been treated as an equal by the two major powers, and Anglo-Japanese relations soured thereafter. When the United States began to expand her navy in the 1930s, she would surpass Britain as the world's premier naval power. After 1924 Beatty, supported by the First Lord of the Admiralty Bridgeman, clashed with the new Chancellor of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, over the number of cruisers required by the Royal Navy. At this stage of his career Churchill was opposed to what he saw as excessive defence spending. This may seem in odd in light of his previous and subsequent reputation, but in the 1920s no major war seemed to be on the horizon, although Beatty correctly warned that Japan should be treated as an enemy going forward. The dispute dragged on until after Beatty's retirement, and a further naval disarmament treaty, (the London Treaty of 1930) would limit the numbers of cruisers. In 1927 Beatty, who had become the first chairman of the Chiefs of Staff, retired from active service. On the 24 July he was made a Freeman of Huddersfield. Controversy The battle of Jutland was the major naval engagement of WWI and marked a turning point in the naval war. Although it was numerically a German victory, with significantly higher losses in the British fleet, it was effectively a serious defeat for Germany. The British side could much more readily replace its losses with ships already under construction, while the engagement ended with the German fleet retreating as fast as possible from the British. Thereafter the Germans ceased any serious attempts to engage the British fleet and remained at home. British public perception of the engagement was initially as a serious defeat, at a time popular opinion expected great things from the Royal Navy. As admiral in command, Jellicoe received much of the blame for this 'defeat', despite the fact that most of the significant losses were amongst the independent battlecruiser squadron commanded by Beatty. A number of serious errors have been identified in Beatty's handling of this squadron. These included: Failing to engage the German battlecruiser squadron with all his ships, thus throwing away a two to one numerical superiority and instead fighting one to one. Beatty was given command of the 5th Battle squadron to replace a squadron of battlecruisers away for training. These were four of the most powerful ships in the navy, but he positioned them so far away from his six battlecruisers that they were unable to take part in most of the engagement with Admiral Hipper's squadron of five battlecruisers. Brooks p. 232-234 Failed to take advantage of the time available to him between sighting the enemy and the start of fighting, to position his battlecruisers to most effectively attack the enemy. At the point the German ships opened fire with accurately determined ranges for their guns, Beatty's ships were still maneuvering, some could not see the enemy because of their own smoke, and hardly any had the opportunity of a period of steady course as they approached to properly determine target range. As a result the German ships had a significant advantage in early hits, with obvious benefit. During this time he also lost the potential advantage of the larger guns on his ships, that they could commence firing at a longer range than the German ships. Brooks p.234-240 Failed to ensure that signals sent to his ships were handled properly and received by the intended ships. Lost signals added to the confusion and lost opportunities during the battle. This issue had already arisen in previous battles, where the same signals officer had been involved, but no changes had been made. Brooks p. 232-233, 237 The gunnery of his ships was generally poor compared to the rest of the fleet. This was partly a consequence of his ships being stationed at Rosyth, rather than Scapa Flow with the main fleet, since local facilities at Rosyth were limited, but this was a problem identified months before Jutland which Beatty had failed to correct. Brooks p.226-227 He preferred to trust to rapid close-range fire rather than deliberate ranging and operating at extreme range, a failing which had also been pointed out to him previously. His battlecruisers achieved few hits on the enemy, with most of the damage being inflicted by the battleships, when they eventually came close enough to take part. He failed in his role as fast armoured scout to report to Jellicoe the exact position of the German ships he encountered, or to keep touch with the German fleet while he retreated to the main British Grand Fleet. This information was important to Jellicoe to know how best to position the main fleet to make the most of its eventual engagement with the German High seas fleet. Despite this, Jellicoe succeeded in positioning his ships to good advantage, relying on other closer cruisers for final knowledge of the German's position, but necessitating last-minute decisions. Brooks After the war a report of the battle was prepared by the Admiralty under First Sea Lord Wemyss. Before the report was published, Beatty was himself appointed First Sea Lord, and immediately requested amendments to the report. When the authors refused to comply, he ordered it to be destroyed and instead had prepared an alternative report, which proved highly critical of Jellicoe. Considerable argument broke out as a result, with significant numbers of servicemen disputing the published version, including Admiral Bacon, who wrote his own book about the battle, criticising the version sponsored by Beatty and highly critical of Beatty's own part in the Battle. Many books and reviews were published as the debate continued over which version of events was correct. Beatty was critical of Jellicoe's cautious approach to the Grand Fleet, arguing this had thrown away the opportunity for a decisive numerical victory. Defenders of Jellicoe argued that he did no more than protect the body of his fleet, which outnumbered the German ships while steadily pressing the attack. The German strategy was one which relied upon chance to create opportunities for local victories, such as had happened against Beatty, whereas Jellicoe considered a careful approach always favoured the larger force. Ultimately it was not clear that Jellicoe made any mistakes in his management of the fleet, nor departed from procedures which had been agreed upon by all concerned in advance. Later life and legacy portrait of Beatty by William Orpen David Beatty spent much of his life (when not at sea) in Leicestershire, and lived at Brooksby Hall and Dingley Hall. During the First World War, he and his wife performed many services for the public of Leicestershire, including opening up their home first as a VAD Hospital under the 5th Northern General Hospital, and later as a hospital for Naval Personnel. In 1930 the Scottish artist Cowan Dobson painted a full-length portrait of Beatty in white-tie and tails. A (perhaps apocryphal) story is sometimes told of Beatty's retirement, that he canvassed in uniform in support of Conservative candidates in dockyard constituencies, presumably in the 1929 or 1931 General Elections. On knocking on one door the lady of the house, presuming him to be a sailor in search of "horizontal refreshment", directed him to the local brothel several doors down the road. Another version of the story is that he canvassed with Nancy, Lady Astor, MP for Plymouth Sutton, and received an embarrassingly friendly welcome at boarding houses who were used to renting rooms by the hour to sailors and their lady companions. Beatty died after catching a chill as pallbearer at the funeral of his old commander Admiral Jellicoe. He had been advised not to leave his bed, but he went anyway saying, "What will the Navy say if I fail to attend Jellicoe's funeral?" Beatty had requested in his will that he would like to be buried next to his wife Ethel at Dingley. Instead he was buried at St Paul's Cathedral. Thus the double grave at Dingley Church only has Beatty's wife buried there. In Germany, Beatty had ruined his reputation when he told the crews of his ships that were receiving the German High Seas Fleet for its internment at Scapa Flow, "Don't forget that the enemy is a despicable beast," and arranged the surrender of the German Fleet as a grand spectacle of humiliation. The German navy thus ignored Beatty's request that its Commander-in-Chief, Erich Raeder, attend his funeral – as Raeder had done at Jellicoe's funeral earlier. Raeder merely sent the German navy attache. Admiral Sir Dudley Pound commented: 'Who wants these sinkers-of-hospital-ships and machine-gunners-of-sailors-in-the-water at Admiral Beatty's funeral anyway?'. The Royal Navy named a King George V-class battleship after Beatty, but this ship was renamed HMS Howe before completion. A bust of Beatty rests on Trafalgar Square in London, alongside those of Jellicoe and Andrew Cunningham, Admiral of the Fleet in World War II. In Toronto, Canada at 55 Woodington Blvd. there is a school named Earl Beatty Junior and Senior Public School. The school belongs to the Toronto District School Board (commonly referred to as the TDSB). The school is an active member of the eastern Toronto community and celebrates his legacy. A street called Beattytown was built in Galway, Ireland in the 1920s by the Irish Soldiers' and Sailors' Land Trust and named after Admiral Beatty, following their policy of naming streets after notable commanders of the British Empire. 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2,865 | Mood_stabilizer | This article refers to the medication. For other uses, see stabilizer. A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, which is not the same as "feeling good one minute and then bad the next." Uses One use is in bipolar disorder, where mood stabilizers suppress swings between mania and depression. These drugs are also used in borderline personality disorder. Relationship to antidepressants Most mood stabilizers are purely antimanic agents, meaning that they are effective at treating mania and mood cycling and shifting, but are not effective at treating depression. The principal exceptions to that rule, because they treat both manic and depressive symptoms, are lamotrigine and lithium carbonate. While an antimanic agent such as valproic acid or carbamazepine cannot treat depression directly as the former two drugs can, it is widely thought to help ward off depression in bipolar patients by keeping them out of mania and thus preventing their moods from cycling. Nevertheless, an antidepressant is often prescribed in addition to the mood stabilizer during depressive phases. This brings some risks, however, as antidepressants can induce mania, psychosis, and other disturbing problems in bipolar patients -- particularly when taken alone, but sometimes even when used with a mood stabilizer. It should be noted that antidepressants' utility in treating depression-phase bipolar disorder is unclear. Examples The term "mood stabilizer" describes an effect, not a mechanism. More precise terminology is used to classify these agents. Drugs commonly classed as mood stabilizers include: Anticonvulsants Many agents described as "mood stabilizers" are also categorized as anticonvulsants. The term "anticonvulsant mood stabilizers" is sometimes used to describe these as a class. Although this group is also defined by effect rather than mechanism, there is at least a preliminary understanding of the mechanism of most of the anticonvulsants used in the treatment of mood disorders. Valproic acid (Depakene), divalproex sodium (Depakote), and sodium valproate (Depacon, Epilim) — Available in extended release form. Can be very irritating to the stomach, especially when taken as valproic acid. Liver function and CBC should be monitored. [Therapeutic drug monitoring is required.] Lamotrigine (Lamictal) — Particularly effective for bipolar depression. Monitor for signs and symptoms of Stevens-Johnson syndrome, very rare but can be fatal. Carbamazepine (Tegretol) — CBC should be monitored; can lower white blood cell count. Therapeutic drug monitoring is required. Only very recently (as of 2005) FDA-approved for bipolar disorder, but widely used for many years. Gabapentin (Neurontin) — Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder. Recent scientific studies suggest it is not an effective treatment, however many psychiatrists continue to use it. Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) — Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder. Topiramate (Topamax) — Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder. Other Lithium carbonate —- Lithium is the 'classic' mood stabilizer. The first mood stabilizer to be approved of the United States Food and Drug Administration, and still popular in treatment. Therapeutic drug monitoring required. Monitor blood lithium levels (therapeutic range: 0.6 or 0.8-1.2 mEq/L) and look for signs and symptoms of toxicity (such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, ataxia). See also lithium orotate, another lithium salt. Some atypical antipsychotics also have mood stabilizing effects and are thus commonly prescribed even when psychotic symptoms are absent. It is also conjectured that Omega-3 fatty acids may have a mood stabilizing effect. However, more research is needed to verify this (a multi-year study of this is now being carried out as of 2001). Sometimes mood stabilizers are used in combination, such as lithium with one of the anticonvulsants. Mechanism Most mood stabilizers are anticonvulsants, with the important exception of lithium, which is the oldest and best known mood stabilizing drug. One possible downstream target of several mood stabilizers such as lithium, valproate and carbamazepine is arachidonic acid cascade. 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2,866 | Emperor_Uda | was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 887 through 897. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 125-129; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 289-290; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 175-179. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Sadami-shinnō. Titsingh, p. 125, Brown, p. 289; Varley, 175. Emperor Uda was the third son of Emperor Kōkō. His mother was Empress Dowager Hanshi, a daughter of Prince Nakano (who was himself a son of Emperor Kammu). Varley, p. 175. Uda had five Imperial consorts and 20 Imperial children. Brown, p. 289. Prince Atsumi is one of Uda's sons. Kitagawa, Hiroshi et al. (1975). The Tale of the Heike, p. 503. Prince Atsuzane (897-966) is one of Uda's sons. Kitagawa, p. 601. In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the Gempeitōkitsu (源平藤橘). One of these clans, the Minamoto clan (源氏), is also known as Genji. Some of Uda's grandchildren were granted the surname Minamoto. Minamoto is the most used surname for ex-royal. In order to distinguish Uda's descendants from other Minamoto clan families (源氏) or Genji, they became known as the Uda Genji (宇多源氏). Some of the Uda Genji moved to Ōmi province and known as Sasaki clan (佐々木氏)or Ōmi Genji (近江源氏). Among the Uda Genji, Minamoto no Masanobu, a son of Prince Atsuzane succeeded in the court. Masanobu became sadaijin (Minister of the Left). One of Masanobu's daughters, Minamoto no Rinshi (源倫子) married Fujiwara no Michinaga and from this marriage three empresses dowagers and two regents (sesshō) were born. From Masanobu, several kuge families originated including the Niwata, Ayanokōji, Itsutsuji, Ōhara and Jikōji. From his forth son Sukeyosi, the Sasaki clan originated, and thus Kyōgoku clan originated. These descendants are known as Ōmi Genji today. From this line, Sasaki Takauji made a success at Muromachi shogunate and Amago clan originated from his brother. Events of Uda's life Uda's father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence. Then Sadami was given the clan name of Minamoto and named Minamoto no Sadami. Later, in 887, when Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of kampaku Fujiwara no Mototsune, since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune. After the death of his father in November of that year, Sadami-shinnō ascended to the throne. Ninna 3, on the 26th day of the 8th month (887): Emperor Kōkō died; and his third son received the succession (senso). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda formally acceded to the throne (sokui). Brown, p. 289; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Ninna 3, on the 17th day of the 11th month (887): Mototsune asks Uda for permission to retire from his duties; but the emperor is said to have responded, "My youth limits my ability to govern; and if you stop offering me your good counsel, I will be obliged to abdicate and to retire to a monastery." Therefore, Mototsune continued to serve as the new emperor's kampaku. Titsingh, p. 126. A garden at Ninnaji Ninna 4, in the 8th month (887): Construction of the newly created Buddhist temple of was completed; and a former disciple of Kōbō-daishi was installed as the new abbot. [see above] Kanpyō 1, in the 10th month (899): The former emperor Yōzei was newly attacked by the mental illness. Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness. He became increasingly furious. He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake. While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people. Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and red deer. Titsingh, p. 127. In the beginning of Uda's reign, Mototsune held the office of kampaku (or chancellor). After Mototsune's death, Fujiwara no Tokihira and Sugawara no Michizane were in Uda's favor. Emperor Uda stopped the practice of sending ambassadors to China ("ken-toh-shi" 遣唐使). The emperor's decision-making was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane. Kitagawa, H. (1975). The Tale of the Heike, p. 222. The Special Festival of the Kamo Shrine was first held during Uda's reign. Brown, p. 290. In 897 he abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Prince Atsuhito, who would later come to be known as Emperor Daigo. Three years later, he entered the Buddhist priesthood at age 34 in 900. Having founded the temple at Ninna-ji, Uda made it his new home after his abdication.Decorative emblems (kiri) of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryoan-ji. Uda is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War. His Buddhist name was Kongō Kaku. He was sometimes called "the Cloistered Emperor of Teiji(亭子の帝)," because that was the name of the Buddhist hall named Teijiin where he resided after becoming a priest. [see above] Uda died in Shōhei 1, on the 19th day of the 7th month 931 at the age of 65. Brown, p. 295; Varley, p. 179. . The former emperor is buried amongst the "Seven Imperial Tombs" at Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Uda is today named O-uchiyama. The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Uda died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji. Moscher, Gouverneur. (1978). Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide, pp. 277-278. Kugyō 'Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Uda-tennō (in French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Uda's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Kampaku, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経), 836-891. Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune. [see above] Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tōru (源融). Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo (藤原良世). Udaijin, Minamoto no Masaru (源多). Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo (藤原良世). Udaijin, Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有). Naidaijin (not appointed) Dainagon Eras of Uda's reign The years of Uda's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Titsingh, p. 125. Ninna (885-889) Kanpyō (889-898) Consorts and Children Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Inshi (藤原胤子) (?-896), daughter of Fujiwara no Takafuji Imperial Prince Atsuhito (敦仁親王) (885-930) (Emperor Daigo) Imperial Prince Atsuyoshi (敦慶親王) (887-930) Imperial Prince Atsukata (敦固親王) (?-927) Imperial Prince Atsumi (敦実親王) (893-967) Imperial Princess Jūshi (柔子内親王) (?-959), 25th Saiō in Ise Shrine (897-930) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Onshi (藤原温子) (872-907), daughter of Fujiwara no Mototsune Imperial Princess Kinshi (:ja:均子内親王) (890-910), married to Imperial Prince Atsuyoshi Nyōgo: Tachibana no Yoshiko/Gishi (橘義子), daughter of Tachibana no Hiromi Imperial Prince Tokinaka (斉中親王) (885-891) Imperial Prince Tokiyo (斉世親王) (886-927) Imperial Prince Tokikuni (斉邦親王) Imperial Princess Kunshi (:ja:君子内親王) (?-902), 10th Saiin in Kamo Shrine (893-902) Nyōgo: Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子) (?-893) Nyōgo: Sugawara no Hiroko/Enshi (菅原衍子), daughter of Sugawara no Michizane Koui: Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子), daughter of Minamoto no Noboru Imperial Princess Ishi (依子内親王) (895-936) Koui: Princess Norihime (徳姫女王), daughter of Prince Tōyo Imperial Princess Fushi (孚子内親王) (?-958) Koui: Fujiwara no Yasuko (藤原保子), daughter of Fujiwara no Arizane Imperial Princess Kaishi (誨子内親王) (ca.894-953), married to Imperial Prince Motoyoshi (son of Emperor Yōzei) Imperial Princess Kishi (季子内親王) (?-979) Koui: Minamoto no Hisako (源久子) Koui: Fujiwara no Shizuko (藤原静子) Court lady: A daughter of Fujiwara no Tsugukage, Ise (伊勢) (875/7-ca.939) prince (died young) Court lady: Fujiwara no Hōshi (藤原褒子), daughter of Fujiwara no Tokihira Imperial Prince Masaakira (雅明親王) (920-929) Imperial Prince Noriakira (載明親王) Imperial Prince Yukiakira (行明親王) (926-948) (from unknown women) Imperial Prince Yukinaka (行中親王) Imperial Princess Seishi (成子内親王) (?-978) Minamoto no Shinshi (源臣子) Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Emperor Go-Uda | Emperor_Uda |@lemmatized emperor:28 japan:7 accord:1 traditional:1 order:4 succession:2 reign:8 span:1 year:5 titsingh:6 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:5 brown:8 delmer:2 et:2 al:2 gukanshō:3 varley:7 h:4 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:3 personal:2 name:10 imina:2 time:2 jomei:2 long:1 people:2 generally:1 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 sadami:6 shinnō:2 p:15 uda:27 third:2 son:10 kōkō:4 mother:1 empress:1 dowager:2 hanshi:1 daughter:11 prince:21 nakano:1 kammu:1 five:1 imperial:29 consort:2 child:2 atsumi:2 one:5 kitagawa:3 hiroshi:1 tale:2 heike:2 atsuzane:2 ancient:1 four:2 noble:1 clan:10 gempeitōkitsu:1 源平藤橘:1 minamoto:15 源氏:2 also:2 know:5 genji:7 grandchild:1 grant:1 surname:2 used:1 ex:1 royal:2 distinguish:1 descendant:2 family:2 become:4 宇多源氏:1 move:1 ōmi:3 province:1 sasaki:3 佐々木氏:1 近江源氏:1 among:1 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cloistered:1 teiji:1 亭子の帝:1 hall:1 teijiin:1 reside:1 priest:1 shōhei:1 bury:1 seven:1 tomb:2 kyoto:3 mound:1 commemorate:1 uchiyama:1 burial:1 place:1 quite:1 humble:1 period:1 reach:1 present:1 result:1 century:1 restoration:1 sepulcher:1 meiji:2 moscher:1 gouverneur:1 contemplative:1 guide:1 kugyō:3 公卿:1 collective:1 term:1 powerful:1 men:2 attach:1 pre:1 eras:1 tennō:1 french:1 general:1 elite:1 group:1 hereditary:1 whose:1 experience:1 background:1 bring:1 pinnacle:1 career:1 apex:1 daijō:2 kan:1 藤原基経:1 daijin:1 tōru:1 源融:1 yoshiyo:2 藤原良世:2 udaijin:3 masaru:1 源多:1 yoshiari:1 源能有:1 naidaijin:1 dainagon:1 era:2 specifically:1 identify:1 nengō:1 nyōgo:5 inshi:1 藤原胤子:1 takafuji:1 敦仁親王:1 atsuyoshi:2 敦慶親王:1 atsukata:1 敦固親王:1 敦実親王:1 princess:9 jūshi:1 柔子内親王:1 saiō:1 ise:2 onshi:1 藤原温子:1 kinshi:1 ja:2 均子内親王:1 tachibana:3 yoshiko:1 gishi:1 橘義子:1 hiromi:1 tokinaka:1 斉中親王:1 tokiyo:1 斉世親王:1 tokikuni:1 斉邦親王:1 kunshi:1 君子内親王:1 saiin:1 fusako:1 橘房子:1 hiroko:1 enshi:1 菅原衍子:1 koui:5 sadako:1 源貞子:1 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2,867 | Astronaut | Astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside the United States Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984. An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. While generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists. Until 2003, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military, or by civilian space agencies. However, with the sub-orbital flight of the privately-funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut Definition |Countries whose citizens have flown in space. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of . FAI Sporting Code, Section 8, Paragraph 2.12.1 However, in the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/NewsReleases/2005/05-57.html are awarded astronaut wings. As of November 14, 2008, a total of 489 humans from 38 countries Counting Anousheh Ansari as a representative of Iran. have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 486 reached Low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon; three of the 24 did so twice (Lovell, Young and Cernan). Under the U. S. definition, 496 people qualify as having reached space (above altitude). Of eight X-15 pilots who reached or more in altitude, seven reached above but below 100 kilometers (about 62 miles). Space travelers have spent over 30,400 person-days (or a cumulative total of over 83 years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks. As of 2008, the man with the longest time in space is Sergei K. Krikalev, who has spent 803 days, 9 hours and 39 minutes, or 2.2 years, in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for most time in space by a woman, 377 days. Terminology In the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, and many other English-speaking nations, a professional space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron (ἄστρον), meaning "star", and nautes (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Death's Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier. For example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'Infini (1925) of J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied (in 1784) to balloonists. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps. With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. Russia Yuri Gagarin, first person in space (1961). By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its Soviet predecessor) is called a cosmonaut in English texts. The word is an anglicisation of the Russian word kosmonavt ( ), which in turn derives from the Greek words kosmos (κόσμος), meaning "universe", and nautes (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". For the most part, "cosmonaut" and "astronaut" are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons. On March 14, 1995, Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first "American cosmonaut" in the process. China Official English-language texts issued by the government of the People's Republic of China use astronaut while texts in Russian use космонавт (kosmonavt). In China, the terms "yǔhángyuán" (, "sailing personnel in universe") or "hángtiānyuán" (, "sailing personnel in sky") have long been used for astronauts. The phrase "tàikōng rén" (, "spaceman") is often used in Taiwan and Hong Kong. The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China. The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, the latter of which describes it as "a hybrid of the Chinese term taikong (space) and the Greek naut (traveller), or astronaut"; the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. This is the term used by Xinhua in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih () from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups, while Chen Lan (), almost simultaneously, announced it at his "Go Taikonauts!" GeoCities page. Other terms While no nation other than Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), the United States, and China has launched a manned spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut (French spelling: spationaute) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word spatium or "space", and the Malay term angkasawan was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program. Space travel milestones Neil Armstrong, first person to walk on the moon (1969). The first human in space was Russian Yuri Gagarin, who was launched into space on April 12, 1961 aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth. There are allegations that Gagarin ejected from landing module after re-entering the atmosphere and parachuted back, due to safety concerns about the craft's landing systems. BBC News | Gagarin | Back to Earth The first woman in space was Russian Valentina Tereshkova, launched in June 1963 aboard Vostok 6. Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on June 18, 1983. The first mission to orbit the moon was Apollo 8, which included William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions. An example is Vladimír Remek, a Czechoslovak, who became the first non-Soviet European in space in 1978 on a Russian Soyuz rocket. On July 23, 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and African descent to fly in space (the first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry, in 1985). In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station. With the larger number of seats available on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space. In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he tragically died during a landing accident. Age milestones The youngest person to fly in space is Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. (Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness). The oldest person who has flown in space is John Glenn, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. The longest stay in space was 438 days, by Russian Valeri Polyakov. As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km, during the Apollo 13 emergency. Civilian and non-government milestones The first civilian in space was Neil Armstrong, who had retired from the United States Navy before his first spaceflight on Gemini 8. The first person in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces was Harrison Schmitt, a geologist who first flew in space on Apollo 17. Both Armstrong and Schmitt were directly employed by NASA. The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler as a reporter for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama suffered severe space-sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity. The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito onboard the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001. Self-funded travelers The first person to fly on an entirely privately-funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a sub-orbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist. Six others have paid to fly into space: Dennis Tito (American): April 28 – May 6, 2001 Mark Shuttleworth (South African / British): April 25 – May 5, 2002 (ISS) Gregory Olsen (American): October 1 – October 11, 2005 (ISS) Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): September 18 – September 29, 2006 (ISS) Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): April 7 – April 21, 2007 (ISS), March 26 – April 8, 2009 (ISS) Richard Garriott (American): October 12- October 24, 2008 (ISS) Training The first NASA astronauts were selected in 1959. Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both America and Russia tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through 20 months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extra-vehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Astronauts-in-training may also experience short periods of weightlessness in aircraft called the "vomit comet", the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004 respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights. Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are done out of Edwards Air Force Base. NASA candidacy requirements Be citizens of the United States. Pass a strict physical examination, and have a near and distant visual acuity correctable to 20/20 (6/6). Blood pressure, while sitting, must be no greater than 140 over 90. Commander and Pilot A bachelor's degree in engineering, biological science, physical science or mathematics is required. At least 1,000 hours flying time as pilot-in-command in jet aircraft. Experience as a test pilot is desirable. Height must be 5 ft 4 in to 6 ft 4 in (1.63 to 1.93 m). Distant visual acuity must be correctable to 20/20 in each eye The refractive surgical procedures of the eye, PRK and LASIK, are now allowed, providing at least 1 year has passed since the date of the procedure with no permanent adverse after effects. For those applicants under final consideration, an operative report on the surgical procedure will be requested. Mission Specialist A bachelor's degree in engineering, biological science, physical science or mathematics, as well as at least three years of related professional experience. An advanced degree can substitute for part or all of the experience requirement (master's degree = 1 year, doctoral degree = 3 years) Applicant's height must be 5 ft 2 in to 6 ft 4 in (1.57 to 1.93 m). Mission Specialist Educator Mission Specialist Educators Lindenberger, Arnold, and Acaba during a parabolic flight. Bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through 12th grade level. Advanced degree not required, but is desired. Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger. Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist. The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s. Insignia At NASA, people who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude. Deaths Space Mirror Memorial As of 2008, eighteen astronauts have lost their lives during spaceflight, on four missions. They include thirteen Americans, three Russians, one Ukrainian, and one Israeli. The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the John F. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of a U.S. Air Force X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, a civilian spaceflight participant who died in the Challenger disaster, and an international astronaut who was killed in the Columbia disaster. See also Astronaut Hall of Fame Commercial Astronaut List of astronauts by name List of astronauts by selection Timeline of astronauts by nationality List of human spaceflights List of space travelers by name List of space travelers by nationality List of spacewalks and moonwalks List of married couples among space travelers North American X-15 program Spaceflight records Shirley Thomas, author of Men of Space series (1960-1968) Cosmonautics Day Yuri's Night Fallen Astronaut List of fictional astronauts Moon Landing Mercury 13, a group of 13 women who were tested, but never flew in space References External links NASA: How to become an astronaut 101 List of International partnership organizations Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar spacefacts Spacefacts.de Space and Astronautics News Manned astronautics: facts and figures Astronaut Candidate Brochure online China TV - CCTV | Astronaut |@lemmatized astronaut:54 bruce:1 mccandless:1 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mcauliffe:1 consider:1 successor:1 insignia:1 complete:1 candidate:2 receive:3 silver:1 lapel:1 pin:2 gold:1 active:1 duty:1 status:1 special:1 qualification:1 badge:3 participation:1 present:1 deaths:1 mirror:2 memorial:3 eighteen:1 lose:1 life:2 four:1 thirteen:1 ukrainian:1 stand:1 ground:1 f:1 kennedy:1 visitor:1 complex:1 commemorate:1 men:2 addition:1 twenty:1 career:1 name:3 officer:1 classify:1 disaster:2 kill:1 columbia:1 see:1 hall:1 fame:1 list:9 timeline:1 nationality:2 moonwalk:1 married:1 couple:1 among:1 north:1 shirley:1 thomas:1 author:1 series:1 cosmonautics:1 night:1 fall:1 fictional:1 group:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 partnership:1 encyclopedia:1 astronautica:1 phantom:1 collectspace:1 appearance:1 calendar:1 spacefacts:2 fact:1 figure:1 brochure:1 online:1 cctv:1 |@bigram space_shuttle:3 shuttle_challenger:2 astronaut_cosmonaut:1 fédération_aéronautique:1 aéronautique_internationale:1 http_www:1 nasa_gov:1 spaceflight_participant:3 yuri_gagarin:2 hong_kong:2 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2,868 | Kashubian_language | Kashubian or Cassubian (Kashubian: kaszëbsczi jãzëk, pòmòrsczi jãzëk, kaszëbskò-słowińskô mòwa; ) is one of the Lechitic languages, a subgroup of the Slavic languages. Kashubian is assumed to have evolved from the language spoken by some tribes of Pomeranians called Kashubians, in the region of Pomerania, on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea between the Vistula and Oder rivers. It is closely related to Slovincian, and both of them are dialects of Pomeranian. Until recently many linguists considered it a dialect of Polish. Similarly to Polish, Kashubian includes numerous loanwords from Low German, such as kùńszt (art), and some from German. Other sources of loanwords include the Baltic languages, Russian and Polish. The first printed documents in Kashubian date from the end of the 16th century. The modern orthography was first proposed in 1879. In the 2002 census, 53,000 people in Poland declared that they mainly use Kashubian at home. All Kashubian speakers are also fluent in Polish. A number of schools in Poland teach in Kashubian as a lecture language. It is used as an official alternative language for local administration purposes in Sierakowice, Pomeranian Voivodeship and in parts of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. Kashubian is also spoken by Kashubians living in Canada. Important for Kashubian literature was Xazeczka dlo Kaszebov by doctor Florian Ceynowa (1817-1881). Hieronim Derdowski (1852-1902) was another important author who wrote in Kashubian, as did doctor Aleksander Majkowski (1876-1938) from Kościerzyna. Jan Trepczyk was a poet of the language. Since 2005 Kashubian has enjoyed legal protection in Poland as an official regional language. It is the only tongue in Poland with this status. It was granted to it by the act of Polish Parliament from January 6, 2005. Gallery See also Pomeranian language Kashubian alphabet Kashubian-Pomeranian Association Pomerelia Gdańsk Pomerania Old Prussian language External links Cassubia Slavica Wejherowo Land Following the trail of manor houses and castles of the Northern Kashubian Region Northern Kashubia Heritage Kashubian resources; include phrasebooks | Kashubian_language |@lemmatized kashubian:16 cassubian:1 kaszëbsczi:1 jãzëk:2 pòmòrsczi:1 kaszëbskò:1 słowińskô:1 mòwa:1 one:1 lechitic:1 language:10 subgroup:1 slavic:1 assume:1 evolve:1 speak:2 tribe:1 pomeranian:6 call:1 kashubians:2 region:2 pomerania:2 southern:1 coast:1 baltic:2 sea:1 vistula:1 oder:1 river:1 closely:1 relate:1 slovincian:1 dialect:2 recently:1 many:1 linguist:1 consider:1 polish:5 similarly:1 include:3 numerous:1 loanword:2 low:1 german:2 kùńszt:1 art:1 source:1 russian:1 first:2 printed:1 document:1 date:1 end:1 century:1 modern:1 orthography:1 propose:1 census:1 people:1 poland:4 declare:1 mainly:1 use:2 home:1 speaker:1 also:3 fluent:1 number:1 school:1 teach:1 lecture:1 official:2 alternative:1 local:1 administration:1 purpose:1 sierakowice:1 voivodeship:2 part:1 live:1 canada:1 important:2 literature:1 xazeczka:1 dlo:1 kaszebov:1 doctor:2 florian:1 ceynowa:1 hieronim:1 derdowski:1 another:1 author:1 write:1 aleksander:1 majkowski:1 kościerzyna:1 jan:1 trepczyk:1 poet:1 since:1 enjoy:1 legal:1 protection:1 regional:1 tongue:1 status:1 grant:1 act:1 parliament:1 january:1 gallery:1 see:1 alphabet:1 association:1 pomerelia:1 gdańsk:1 old:1 prussian:1 external:1 link:1 cassubia:1 slavica:1 wejherowo:1 land:1 follow:1 trail:1 manor:1 house:1 castle:1 northern:2 kashubia:1 heritage:1 resource:1 phrasebooks:1 |@bigram baltic_sea:1 closely_relate:1 pomeranian_voivodeship:2 florian_ceynowa:1 gdańsk_pomerania:1 external_link:1 |
2,869 | Clark_Ashton_Smith | Clark Ashton Smith (13 January 1893 – 14 August 1961) was a poet, sculptor, painter and author of fantasy, horror and science fiction short stories. It is for these stories, and his literary friendship with H. P. Lovecraft from 1922 until Lovecraft's death in 1937, that he is mostly remembered today. With Lovecraft and Robert E. Howard, also a friend and correspondent, Smith remains one of the most famous contributors to the pulp magazine Weird Tales. Biography Early life and education Smith spent most of his life in the small town of Auburn, California, living in a small cabin with his parents, Fanny and Timeus Smith. His formal education was limited: he suffered from psychological disorders and for this reason attended only eight years of grammar school and never went to high school. However, he continued to teach himself after he left school, learning French and Spanish, and his near-photographic memory allowed him to retain prodigious amounts from his very wide reading, including several entire dictionaries and encyclopedias. Early writing and influences Smith began writing stories at the age of eleven and two of them, The Sword of Zagan and The Black Diamonds, have recently been published by Hippocampus Press. Both stories use a medieval, Arabian Nights-like setting, and the Arabian Nights, like the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and the works of Edgar Allan Poe, are known to have strongly influenced Smith's early writing. In his later youth, Smith became the protégé of the San Francisco poet George Sterling, who helped him to publish his first volume of poems, The Star-Treader and Other Poems, at the age of nineteen. The Star-Treader was received very favorably by American critics, one of whom named Smith "the Keats of the Pacific." Smith made the acquaintance of Sterling through a member of the local Auburn Monday Night Club, where he read several of his poems with considerable success. The publication of Ebony and Crystal in 1922 was followed by a fan letter from H. P. Lovecraft, which was the beginning of fifteen years of friendship and correspondence. Work and marriage Smith was poor for most of his life and was often forced to take menial jobs such as fruitpicking and woodcutting in order to support himself and his parents. Following the death of his parents, he married Carol Jones Dorman on 10 November 1954 and moved to Pacific Grove, California, where he set up a household with their children. Health and death Smith suffered from eye problems throughout his life. He died in his sleep on 14 August 1961. Artistic periods While Smith was always an artist who worked in several very different media, it is possible to identify three distinct periods in which one form of art had precedence over the others. Poetry: Until 1925 Smith published most of his volumes of poetry in this period, including the aforementioned The Star-Treader and Other Poems, as well as Odes and Sonnets (1918), Ebony and Crystal (1922) and Sandalwood (1925). His long poem The Hashish-Eater; Or, the Apocalypse of Evil was written in 1920. Weird Fiction: 1926–1935 Smith wrote most of his weird fiction and Cthulhu Mythos stories, partially inspired by H. P. Lovecraft. Creatures of his invention include Aforgomon, Rlim-Shaikorth, Mordiggian, Tsathoggua, the wizard Eibon, and various others. In an homage to his friend, Lovecraft referred in some of his stories to a great dark wizard, "Klarkash-Ton." Smith's stories form several cycles, called after the lands in which they are set: Averoigne, Hyperborea, Mars, Poseidonis, Xiccarph, Zothique. Stories set in Zothique belong to the Dying Earth subgenre. His short stories originally appeared in the magazines Weird Tales, Strange Tales, Astounding Stories, Stirring Science Stories and Wonder Stories. Clark Ashton Smith was the third member of the great triumvirate of Weird Tales, with Lovecraft and Robert E. Howard. However, he was severely affected by two tragedies occurring in a short period of time: Howard's death by suicide (1936) and Lovecraft's death from cancer (1937). As a result, he withdrew from the scene, marking the end of Weird Tales''' Golden Age. Many of Smith's stories were published in six hardcover volumes by August Derleth under his Arkham House imprint. Some of them were also collected as Lost Worlds Vols 1 and 2 (LW1 and LW2): "The Last Incantation" — Weird Tales, June 1930 LW2 "A Voyage to Sfanomoe" — Weird Tales, August 1931 LW2 "The Tale of Satampra Zeiros" — Weird Tales November 1931 LW2 "The Door to Saturn" — Strange Tales, January 1932 LW2 "The Planet of the Dead" — Weird Tales, March 1932 LW2 "The Gorgon" — Weird Tales, April 1932 LW2 "The Letter from Mohaun Los" (under the title of "Flight into Super-Time") — Wonder Stories, August 1932 LW1 "The Empire of the Necromancers" — Weird Tales, September 1932 LW1 "The Hunters from Beyond" — Strange Tales, October 1932 LW1 "The Isle of the Torturers" — Weird Tales, March 1933 LW1 "The Light from Beyond" — Wonder Stories, April 1933 LW1 "The Beast of Averoigne" — Weird Tales, May 1933 LW1 "The Holiness of Azedarac" — Weird Tales, November 1933 LW1 "The Demon of the Flower" — Astounding Stories, December 1933 LW2 "The Death of Malygris" — Weird Tales, April 1934 LW2 "The Plutonium Drug" — Amazing Stories, September 1934 LW2 "The Seven Geases" — Weird Tales, October 1934 LW2 "Xeethra" — Weird Tales, December 1934 LW1 "The Flower-Women" — Weird Tales, May 1935 LW2 "The Treader of the Dust" — Weird Tales, August 1935 LW1 "Necromancy in Naat" — Weird Tales, July 1936 LW1 "The Maze of Maal Dweb" — Weird Tales, October 1938 LW2 "The Coming of the White Worm" — Stirring Science Stories, April 1941 LW2 Sculpture: 1935–1961 By this time his interest in writing fiction began to lessen and he turned to creating sculptures from soft rock such as soapstone. Many examples are reproduced in Dennis Rickard's The Fantastic Art of Clark Ashton Smith (Baltimore, MD: The Mirage Press, 1973). Books Night Shade Books The Collected Fantasies of Clark Ashton Smith 5-volume work Tales of India and Irony (collection of non fantasy/science fiction/horror tales, available only to subscribers of above collection) Red World of Polaris (complete tales of Captain Volmar) Hippocampus Press The Complete Poetry and Translations of Clark Ashton Smith The Black Diamonds The Last Oblivion: Best Fantastic Poems of Clark Ashton Smith The Sword of Zagan and Other Writings The Shadow of the Unattained: Letters of George Sterling and Clark Ashton Smith The Freedom of Fantastic Things: Selected Criticism on Clark Ashton Smith Arkham House Out of Space and Time (out of print) Lost Worlds (o.o.p.) Genius Loci and Other Tales (o.o.p.) The Dark Chateau (o.o.p.) Spells and Philtres (o.o.p.) The Abominations of Yondo (o.o.p.) Tales of Science and Sorcery (o.o.p.) Poems in Prose (o.o.p.) Other Dimensions (o.o.p.) Selected Poems (o.o.p.) The Black Book of Clark Ashton Smith (o.o.p.) A Rendezvous in Averoigne Selected Letters of Clark Ashton Smith Ballantine Adult Fantasy series Zothique (o.o.p.) Hyperborea (o.o.p.) Xiccarph (o.o.p.) Poseidonis (o.o.p.) Averoigne (reportedly compiled by series editor Lin Carter, but never released) The Emperor of Dreams Wildside Press The Double Shadow The Maker of Gargoyles and Other Stories The White Sybil and Other Stories Spearman(reprinted from Arkham House) Lost Worlds hardcover 1971 ISBN 0-85435-111-6 Out of Space and Time 1971 ISBN 0-85435-101-9 Genius Loci hardcover 1971 ISBN 0-85435-381-X Abominations of Yondo 1972 ISBN 0-85435-371-2 Panther (reprinted from Arkham House) Lost Worlds (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.) Genius Loci (o.o.p.) The Abominations of Yondo (o.o.p.)Other Dimensions (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.)Out of Space and Time (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.)Tales of Science and Sorcery (o.o.p.) Timescape BooksThe City of the Singing Flame 1981 ISBN 0-671-83415-0 (o.o.p.)The Last Incantation 1982 ISBN 0-671-83543-2 (o.o.p.)The Monster of the Prophecy 1983 ISBN 0-671-83544-0 (o.o.p.) HIH Art StudiosShadows Seen and Unseen: Poetry from the Shadows 2007 Journals of Smith Studies Necronomicon PressThe Dark Eidolon: The Journal of Smith StudiesSeele Brennt PublicationsLost Worlds: The Journal of Clark Ashton Smith StudiesCryptic PublicationsKlarkash-Ton: The Journal of Smith Studies'' See also List of works by Clark Ashton Smith External links The Eldritch Dark — This website contains almost all of Clark Ashton Smith's written work, as well as a comprehensive selection of his art, biographies, a bibliography, a discussion board, readings, fiction tributes and more. Clark Ashton Smith: Poems — A collection of Clark Ashton Smith's early poetry. Klarkash-ton.org — French bibliography of Clark Ashton Smith. Gran Zothique Texts in Spanish Gwywyr — tribute texts and criticism LibraryThing author profile StarShipSofa audio podcast on life and works of Clark Ashton Smith | Clark_Ashton_Smith |@lemmatized clark:17 ashton:17 smith:35 january:2 august:6 poet:2 sculptor:1 painter:1 author:2 fantasy:4 horror:2 science:6 fiction:6 short:3 story:20 literary:1 friendship:2 h:3 p:26 lovecraft:8 death:6 mostly:1 remember:1 today:1 robert:2 e:2 howard:3 also:3 friend:2 correspondent:1 remain:1 one:3 famous:1 contributor:1 pulp:1 magazine:2 weird:22 tale:31 biography:2 early:4 life:5 education:2 spend:1 small:2 town:1 auburn:2 california:2 live:1 cabin:1 parent:3 fanny:1 timeus:1 formal:1 limit:1 suffer:2 psychological:1 disorder:1 reason:1 attend:1 eight:1 year:2 grammar:1 school:3 never:2 go:1 high:1 however:2 continue:1 teach:1 leave:1 learn:1 french:2 spanish:2 near:1 photographic:1 memory:1 allow:1 retain:1 prodigious:1 amount:1 wide:1 reading:2 include:3 several:4 entire:1 dictionary:1 encyclopedia:1 writing:3 influence:2 begin:2 write:5 age:3 eleven:1 two:2 sword:2 zagan:2 black:3 diamond:1 recently:1 publish:7 hippocampus:2 press:4 use:1 medieval:1 arabian:2 night:4 like:2 set:4 fairy:1 brother:1 grimm:1 work:7 edgar:1 allan:1 poe:1 know:1 strongly:1 late:1 youth:1 become:1 protégé:1 san:1 francisco:1 george:2 sterling:3 help:1 first:1 volume:7 poem:9 star:3 treader:4 nineteen:1 receive:1 favorably:1 american:1 critic:1 name:1 keats:1 pacific:2 make:1 acquaintance:1 member:2 local:1 monday:1 club:1 read:1 considerable:1 success:1 publication:1 ebony:2 crystal:2 follow:2 fan:1 letter:4 beginning:1 fifteen:1 correspondence:1 marriage:1 poor:1 often:1 force:1 take:1 menial:1 job:1 fruitpicking:1 woodcutting:1 order:1 support:1 marry:1 carol:1 jones:1 dorman:1 november:3 move:1 grove:1 household:1 child:1 health:1 eye:1 problem:1 throughout:1 die:2 sleep:1 artistic:1 period:4 always:1 artist:1 different:1 medium:1 possible:1 identify:1 three:1 distinct:1 form:2 art:4 precedence:1 others:2 poetry:5 aforementioned:1 well:2 ode:1 sonnet:1 sandalwood:1 long:1 hashish:1 eater:1 apocalypse:1 evil:1 cthulhu:1 mythos:1 partially:1 inspire:1 creature:1 invention:1 aforgomon:1 rlim:1 shaikorth:1 mordiggian:1 tsathoggua:1 wizard:2 eibon:1 various:1 homage:1 refer:1 great:2 dark:4 klarkash:2 ton:3 cycle:1 call:1 land:1 averoigne:4 hyperborea:2 mar:1 poseidonis:2 xiccarph:2 zothique:4 belong:1 earth:1 subgenre:1 originally:1 appear:1 strange:3 astound:2 stir:2 wonder:3 third:1 triumvirate:1 severely:1 affect:1 tragedy:1 occur:1 time:6 suicide:1 cancer:1 result:1 withdraw:1 scene:1 mark:1 end:1 golden:1 many:2 six:1 hardcover:3 derleth:1 arkham:4 house:4 imprint:1 collect:1 lose:4 world:6 vols:1 last:3 incantation:2 june:1 voyage:1 sfanomoe:1 satampra:1 zeiros:1 door:1 saturn:1 planet:1 dead:1 march:2 gorgon:1 april:4 mohaun:1 los:1 title:1 flight:1 super:1 empire:1 necromancer:1 september:2 hunter:1 beyond:2 october:3 isle:1 torturer:1 light:1 beast:1 may:2 holiness:1 azedarac:1 demon:1 flower:2 december:2 malygris:1 plutonium:1 drug:1 amaze:1 seven:1 geases:1 xeethra:1 woman:1 dust:1 necromancy:1 naat:1 july:1 maze:1 maal:1 dweb:1 come:1 white:2 worm:1 sculpture:2 interest:1 lessen:1 turn:1 create:1 soft:1 rock:1 soapstone:1 example:1 reproduce:1 dennis:1 rickard:1 fantastic:3 baltimore:1 md:1 mirage:1 book:3 shade:1 collected:1 india:1 irony:1 collection:3 non:1 available:1 subscriber:1 red:1 polaris:1 complete:2 captain:1 volmar:1 translation:1 diamonds:1 oblivion:1 best:1 shadow:3 unattained:1 freedom:1 thing:1 select:3 criticism:2 space:3 print:1 genius:3 locus:3 chateau:1 spell:1 philtre:1 abomination:3 yondo:3 sorcery:2 prose:1 dimension:2 rendezvous:1 ballantine:1 adult:1 series:2 reportedly:1 compile:1 editor:1 lin:1 carter:1 release:1 emperor:1 dream:1 wildside:1 double:1 maker:1 gargoyle:1 sybil:1 spearman:1 reprint:2 isbn:7 x:1 panther:1 timescape:1 booksthe:1 city:1 singing:1 flame:1 monster:1 prophecy:1 hih:1 studiosshadows:1 see:2 unseen:1 journal:4 study:2 necronomicon:1 pressthe:1 eidolon:1 studiesseele:1 brennt:1 publicationslost:1 studiescryptic:1 publicationsklarkash:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 eldritch:1 website:1 contain:1 almost:1 comprehensive:1 selection:1 bibliography:2 discussion:1 board:1 tribute:2 org:1 gran:1 text:2 gwywyr:1 librarything:1 profile:1 starshipsofa:1 audio:1 podcast:1 |@bigram clark_ashton:17 ashton_smith:17 sculptor_painter:1 science_fiction:2 pulp_magazine:1 weird_tale:20 fairy_tale:1 edgar_allan:1 allan_poe:1 san_francisco:1 menial_job:1 cthulhu_mythos:1 august_derleth:1 baltimore_md:1 lin_carter:1 wildside_press:1 external_link:1 |
2,870 | Telecommunications_in_Greenland | There is by law, only 1 (one) service provider for tele communications and Internet in Greenland. It is TELE Greenland http://www.tele.gl This is one example of monopoly that is common in Greenland. Telephones - main lines in use: 23,500 (2008) Telephones - mobile cellular: app. 50,000 (2008) Telephone system: There is adequate domestic and international service provided by cables and microwave radio relay; the system was totally digitalized in 1995. domestic: microwave radio relay international: 2 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998) Radios: 27,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 1 publicly owned station, some local low-power stations, and three American Forces Network (United States Air Force) stations (1997) Televisions: 22,000 (1997) The state broadcaster is Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa or KNR http://knr.gl , which provides one television and one radio service nationwide. Both broadcast in Greenlandic and Danish. There is also an umbrella organization in Greenland, known as the STTK, that operates local radio and TV stations throughout Greenland. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) Internet users: 9,071 (2002) Country code (Top-level domain): GL | Telecommunications_in_Greenland |@lemmatized law:1 one:4 service:4 provider:2 tele:3 communication:1 internet:3 greenland:5 http:2 www:1 gl:3 example:1 monopoly:1 common:1 telephone:3 main:1 line:1 use:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 app:1 system:2 adequate:1 domestic:2 international:2 provide:2 cable:2 microwave:2 radio:6 relay:2 totally:1 digitalize:1 coaxial:1 submarine:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:7 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 broadcast:3 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:3 publicly:1 local:2 low:1 power:1 three:1 american:1 force:2 network:1 united:1 state:2 air:1 broadcaster:1 kalaallit:1 nunaata:1 radioa:1 knr:2 nationwide:1 greenlandic:1 danish:1 also:1 umbrella:1 organization:1 know:1 sttk:1 operate:1 tv:1 throughout:1 isps:1 user:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 |@bigram http_www:1 mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 |
2,871 | Jacques_Lacan | Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ) (April 13, 1901 – September 9, 1981) was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who made prominent contributions to psychoanalysis, philosophy, and literary theory. He gave yearly seminars, in Paris, from 1953 to 1981, most influencing France's intellectuals in the 1960s and the 1970s, especially the post-structuralist philosophers. His interdisciplinary work is Freudian, featuring the unconscious, the castration complex, the ego; identification; and language as subjective perception, and thus he figures in critical theory, literary studies, twentieth-century French philosophy, and clinical psychoanalysis. Biography Early life Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Emilie and Alfred Lacan's three children. His father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic, the younger brother went to a monastery in 1929; Lacan attended the Jesuit Collège Stanislas. During the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and quarrelled with his family over it. Roudinesco, Elisabeth Jacques Lacan & Co.: a history of psychoanalysis in France, 1925-1985, 1990, Chicago University Press In 1920, on being rejected as too-thin for military service, he then directly entered medical school, and, in 1926, specialised in psychiatry at the Sainte-Anne Hospital in Paris. Academically, he was especially interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger; and attended the seminars about Hegel given by Alexandre Kojève. Sometime in that decade, and until 1938, Lacan sought psychoanalysis by Rudolph Loewenstein. 1930s In 1931, Lacan was a licensed forensic psychiatrist; in 1932 he was awarded the Doctorat d'état for the thesis: De la Psychose paranoiaque dans ses rapports avec la personnalité (On paranoiac psychosis in its relations to the (paranoiac) personality). Although it was acclaimed beyond psychoanalytic circles, especially by surrealist artists, psychoanalysts mostly ignored it. Despite that, in 1934 he was a candidate to the Société Psychoanalytique de Paris. In January of that year, he married Marie-Louise Blondin and they had their first child, daughter Caroline; their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939. In 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report, about the "Mirror Phase" at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association, in Marienbad. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, interrupted and ended Lacan's reporting, unwilling to extend his slated presentation time. Insulted, Dr Lacan left the congress, to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. Unfortunately, no copy of the original lecture remains. Roudinesco, Elisabeth. 'The mirror stage: an obliterated archive' The Cambridge Companion to Lacan. Ed. Jean-Michel Rabaté. Cambridge: CUP, 2003 Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period; he associated with André Breton and Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, Pablo Picasso, et al. He attended the mouvement Psyché founded by Maryse Choisy. He published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first, public reading of Ulysses. His interest in surrealism predated his interest in psychoanalysis. Perhaps Lacan never really abandoned his early surrealist sympathies, its neo-Romantic view of madness as ‘convulsive beauty’, its celebration of irrationality, and its hostility to the scientist who murders nature by dissecting it". Evans, Dylan "From Lacan to Darwin", in The Literary Animal; Evolution and the Nature of Narrative, eds. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005 1940s The Société Psychoanalytique de Paris (SPP) was disbanded due to Nazi Germany's occupation of France in 1940 and Lacan was subsequently called up to serve in the French army at the Val-de-Grâce military hospital in Paris, where he spent the duration of the war. His third child, Sibylle, was born in 1940. The following year, Lacan fathered a child, Judith (who kept the name Bataille) with Sylvia Bataille (née Maklès), estranged wife of his friend Georges. There are contradictory stories about his romantic life with Sylvia Bataille in southern France during World War II. The official record shows only that Marie-Louise requested divorce after Judith's birth, and Lacan married Sylvia in 1953. Following the war, the SPP recommenced their meetings, and Lacan visited England for a five-week study trip, meeting English analysts Wilfred Bion and John Rickman. He was influenced by Bion’s analytic work with groups and this contributed to his own later emphasis on study groups as a structure with which to advance theoretical work in psychoanalysis. In 1949, Lacan presented a new paper on the mirror stage to the sixteenth IPA congress in Zurich. 1950s In 1951 Lacan started to hold a private weekly seminar in Paris, urging what he described as "a return to Freud" concentrating upon the linguistic nature of psychological symptomatology. Becoming public in 1953, Lacan's twenty-seven year long seminar was very influential in Parisian cultural life as well as in psychoanalytic theory and clinical practice. In 1953, after a disagreement about analytic practice methods, Lacan and many of his colleagues left the Société Parisienne de Psychoanalyse to form a new group the Société Française de Psychanalyse (SFP). One of the consequences of this was to deprive the new group of membership within the International Psychoanalytical Association. Encouraged by the reception of "the return to Freud" and of his report - "The Function and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis" (Écrits) - Lacan again returned to Freud, re-reading the canon in relation to contemporary philosophy, linguistics, ethnology, biology and topology. From 1953 to 1964 at Sainte-Anne Hospital, he held his Seminars and presented case histories of patients. During this period he wrote the texts that are found in Écrits, a selection of which was first published in 1966. In his seventh Seminar of 1959-60, 'The Ethics of Psychoanalysis', Lacan defines his ethical foundations of psychoanalysis and constructs his "ethics for our time"; according to Freud, an ethics that would prove to be equal to the tragedy of modern man and to the "discontent of civilization". At the roots of the ethics is desire: analysis' only promise is austere, it is the entrance-into-the-I (in French a play of words between 'l'entrée en je' and 'l'entrée en jeu'). 'I must come to the place where the id was', where the analysand discovers, in its absolute nakedness, the truth of his desire. The end of psychoanalysis entails 'the purification of desire'. This text functioned throughout the years as the background of Lacan's work. He defends three assertions: that psychoanalysis must have a scientific status; that Freudian ideas have radically changed the concepts of subject, of knowledge, and of desire; that the analytic field is the only place from where it is possible to question the insufficiencies of science and philosophy. 1960s Starting in 1962 a complex negotiation took place to determine the status of the SFP within the IPA. Lacan’s practice—with his controversial indeterminate-length sessions in which he charged a full fee for truncated sessions, had his hair cut during sessions, Review of Bruce Fink's A Clinical Introduction to Lacanian Psychoanalysis: Theory and Technique and Lacan's critical stance towards psychoanalytic orthodoxy—led, in 1963, to a condition being set by the IPA that registration of the SFP was dependent upon removing Lacan from the list of SFP training analysts. Lacan left the SFP to form his own school which became known as the École Freudienne de Paris (EFP) With Lévi-Strauss and Althusser's support, he was appointed lecturer at the École Pratique des Hautes Etudes. He started with a seminar on The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis in January 1964 in the Dussane room at the École Normale Supérieure (in his first session he thanks the generosity of Fernand Braudel and Claude Lévi-Strauss). Lacan began to set forth his own teaching on psychoanalysis to an audience of colleagues who had joined him from the SFP. His lectures also attracted many of the École Normale’s students. He divided the École de la Cause freudienne into three sections: the section of pure psychoanalysis (training and elaboration of the theory, where members who have been analyzed but haven't become analysts can participate); the section for applied psychoanalysis (therapeutic and clinical, physicians who either have not started or have not yet completed analysis are welcome); the section for taking inventory of the Freudian field (it concerned the critique of psychoanalytic literature and the analysis of the theoretical relations with related or affiliated sciences (Proposition du 9 octobre 1967 sur le psychanalyste à l'Ecole). By the 1960s, Lacan was associated, at least in the public mind, with the far left in France. French Communist Party "official philosopher" Louis Althusser did much to advance this association in the 1960s. Zoltán Tar and Judith Marcus in Frankfurt school of sociology. ISBN 0878559639 (p.276) write, for example, Althusser's call to Marxists that the Lacanian enterprise might ... help further revolutionary ends, endorsed Lacan's work even further. In May 1968 Lacan voiced his sympathy for the student protests and as a corollary a Department of Psychology was set up by his followers at the University of Vincennes (Paris VIII). Echoing this sentiment, "Shortly after the tumultuous events of May 1968, Lacan was accused by the authorities of being a subversive, and directly influencing the events that transpired." Elizabeth A. Grosz, Jacques Lacan: A Feminist Introduction In 1969 Lacan moved his public seminars to the Faculté de Droit (Panthéon) where he continued to deliver his expositions of analytic theory and practice till the dissolution of his School in 1980. 1970s Throughout the final decade of his life, Lacan continued his widely followed seminars. During this period, he focuses on the development of his concepts of masculine and feminine jouissance, and puts special emphasis on his concept of "The Real" as a point of impossible contradiction in the "Symbolic Order". This late work had the greatest influence on feminist thought, as well as upon the informal movement that arose in the 1970s or 1980s called post-modernism. Major concepts The 'Return to Freud' Lacan's "return to Freud" emphasizes a renewed attention to the original texts of Freud and a radical critique of Ego psychology, Melanie Klein and Object relations theory. Lacan thought that Freud's ideas of "slips of the tongue", jokes, et cetera, all emphasized the agency of language in subjective constitution. In "The Instance of the Letter in the Unconscious, or Reason Since Freud" (Écrits, pp. 161 – 197)) he argued that "the unconscious is structured like a language"; it was not a primitive or archetypal part of the mind separate from the conscious, linguistic ego, but a formation as complex and structurally sophisticated as consciousness itself. If the unconscious is structured like a language, he claimed, then the self is denied any point of reference to which to be 'restored' following trauma or 'identity crisis'. The mirror stage (le stade du miroir) Lacan's first official contribution to psychoanalysis was the mirror stage which he described " as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience". By the early fifties, he no longer considers the mirror stage as only a moment in the life of the infant, but as the permanent structure of subjectivity. In the paradigm of The Imaginary order, the subject is permanently caught and captivated by his own image. Lacan writes, "[T]he mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value. In the first place, it has historical value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child. In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image". Lacan, J., Some reflections on the Ego in Écrits As he further develops the concept, the stress falls less on its historical value and ever more on its structural value. Dylan Evans, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychonalysis In his fourth Seminar, La relation d'objet, Lacan states that "the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the conflictual nature of the dual relationship". The mirror stage describes the formation of the Ego via the process of objectification, the Ego being the result of feeling dissension between one's perceived visual appearance and one's perceived emotional reality. This identification is what Lacan called alienation. At six months the baby still lacks coordination. However, he can recognize himself in the mirror before attaining control over his bodily movements. He sees his image as a whole, and the synthesis of this image produces a sense of contrast with the uncoordination of the body, which is perceived as a fragmented body. This contrast is first felt by the infant as a rivalry with his own image, because the wholeness of the image threatens him with fragmentation, and thus the mirror stage gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image. To resolve this aggressive tension, the subject identifies with the image: this primary identification with the counterpart is what forms the Ego. The moment of identification is to Lacan a moment of jubilation since it leads to an imaginary sense of mastery, yet the jubilation may also be accompanied by a depressive reaction, when the infant compares his own precarious sense of mastery with the omnipotence of the mother. Lacan, J., La relation d'objet in Écrits This identification also involves the ideal ego which functions as a promise of future wholeness sustaining the Ego in anticipation. In the Mirror stage a misunderstanding - "méconnaissance" - constitutes the Ego—the 'moi' becomes alienated from himself through the introduction of the Imaginary order subject. It must be said that the mirror stage has also a significant symbolic dimension. The Symbolic order is present in the figure of the adult who is carrying the infant: the moment after the subject has jubilantly assumed his image as his own, he turns his head towards this adult who represents the big Other, as if to call on him to ratify this image. Lacan, Tenth Seminar, L'angoisse, 1962-1963 Other/other While Freud uses the term "other", referring to der Andere (the other person) and "das Andere" (otherness), Lacan's use is more like Hegel's, through Alexandre Kojève. Lacan often used an algebraic symbology for his concepts: the big Other is designated A (for French Autre) and the little other is designated a (italicized French autre). He asserts that an awareness of this distinction is fundamental to analytic practice: 'the analyst must be imbued with the difference between A and a, Lacan, J., The Freudian Thing in Écrits so he can situate himself in the place of Other, and not the other'. Lacan, J., Psychoanalysis and its Teaching in Écrits The little other is the other who is not really other, but a reflection and projection of the Ego. He is both the counterpart or the other people in whom the subject perceives a visual likeness (semblable), and the specular image or the reflection of one's body in the mirror. In this way the little other is entirely inscribed in The Imaginary order. See Objet Petit a. The big Other designates a radical alterity, an otherness transcending the illusory otherness of the Imaginary because it cannot be assimilated through identification. Lacan equates this radical alterity with language and the law: the big Other is inscribed in The Symbolic order, being in fact the Symbolic insofar as it is particularized for each subject. The Other is then another subject and also the Symbolic order which mediates the relationship with that other subject. 'The Other must first of all be considered a locus, the locus in which speech is constituted'. Lacan, Seminar III: The Psychoses We can speak of the Other as a subject in a secondary sense, only when a subject may occupy this position and thereby embody the Other for another subject. Lacan, Seminar VIII: Le transfert When he argues that speech originates not in the Ego nor in the subject, but in the Other, Lacan stresses that speech and language are beyond one's conscious control; they come from another place, outside consciousness, and then 'the unconscious is the discourse of the Other'. Lacan, J., Seminar on "The Purloined Letter" in Écrits When conceiving the Other as a place, Lacan refers to Freud's concept of physical locality, in which the unconscious is described as "the other scene". "It is the mother who first occupies the position of the big Other for the child, it is she who receives the child's primitive cries and retroactively sanctions them as a particular message". The castration complex is formed when the child discovers that this Other is not complete, that there is a Lack (manque) in the Other. This means that there is always a signifier missing from the trove of signifiers constituted by the Other. Lacan illustrates this incomplete Other graphically by striking a bar through the symbol A; hence another name for the castrated, incomplete Other is the 'barred Other'. Lacan, J., The Agency of the Letter in the Unconscious in Écrits Lacan, Seminar V: Les formations de l'inconscient Feminists thinkers have both criticized and utilized Lacan's concepts of castration and the (Symbolic) Phallus. Many feminists believe that Lacan's phallocentric analysis provides a useful means of understanding gender biases and imposed roles. Some feminist critics, notably Luce Irigaray, Irigary, Luce, This Sex Which Is Not One 1977, (Eng. trans. 1985) accuse Lacan of maintaining the sexist tradition in psychoanalysis. For Irigaray, rather than the Phallus defining a single axis of gender by its presence/absence, gender has two positive poles. Like Irigaray, Jacques Derrida, in criticism of Lacan's concept of castration, discusses the phallus in a chiasmus with the hymen, as both one and other, as Derrida returns to Freud's case of the Wolf Man in The Dissemination. Derrida, Jacques. The Dissemination (1983) Others feminists, such as Judith Butler, Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (1993) Jane Gallop, Gallop, Jane, Reading Lacan. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. and Elizabeth Grosz, have each interpreted Lacan's work as opening up new possibilities for feminist theory. The Three Orders The Imaginary Lacan thought the relationship between the Ego and the reflected image means that the Ego and the Imaginary order itself are places of radical alienation: "alienation is constitutive of the Imaginary order". This relationship is also narcissistic. So the Imaginary is the field of images and imagination, and deception: the main illusions of this order are synthesis, autonomy, duality, similarity. The Imaginary is structured by the Symbolic order: in The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis Lacan argues how the visual field is structured by symbolic laws. Thus the Imaginary involves a linguistic dimension. If the signifier is the foundation of the Symbolic, the signified and signification are part of the Imaginary order. Language has Symbolic and Imaginary connotations; in its Imaginary aspect, language is the "wall of language" which inverts and distorts the discourse of the Other. On the other hand, the Imaginary is rooted in the subject's relationship with its own body (the image of the body). In Fetishism: the Symbolic, the Imaginary and the Real Lacan argues that in the sexual plane the Imaginary appears as sexual display and courtship love. Lacan accused major psychoanalytic schools of reducing the practice of psychoanalysis to the Imaginary order by making identification with the analyst the objective of analysis (see Écrits, "The Directions of the Treatment"). He proposes the use of the Symbolic as the way to dislodge the disabling fixations of the Imaginary: the analyst transforms the images into words. "The use of the Symbolic is the only way for the analytic process to cross the plane of identification." Lacan, J. Seminar XI: The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis The Symbolic In his Seminar IV "La relation d'objet" Lacan asserts that the concepts of Law and Structure are unthinkable without language: thus the Symbolic is a linguistic dimension. Yet, he does not simply equate this order with language since language involves the Imaginary and the Real as well. The dimension proper of language in the Symbolic is that of the signifier, that is a dimension in which elements have no positive existence but which are constituted by virtue of their mutual differences. The Symbolic is also the field of radical alterity, that is the Other: the unconscious is the discourse of this Other. Besides it is the realm of the Law which regulates desire in the Oedipus complex. We may add that the Symbolic is the domain of culture as opposed to the Imaginary order of nature. As important elements in the Symbolic, the concepts of death and lack (manque) connive to make of the pleasure principle the regulator of the distance from the Thing (das ding an sich) and the death drive which goes "beyond the pleasure principle by means of repetition"—"the death drive is only a mask of the Symbolic order." It is by working in the Symbolic order that the analyst can produce changes in the subjective position of the analysand; these changes will produce imaginary effects since the Imaginary is structured by the Symbolic. Thus, it is the Symbolic which is determinant of subjectivity, and the Imaginary, made of images and appearances, is the effect of the Symbolic. The Real Not only opposed to the Imaginary, the Real is also located outside the Symbolic. Unlike the latter which is constituted in terms of oppositions, i.e. presence/absence, "there is no absence in the Real." Whereas the Symbolic opposition presence/absence implies the possibility that something may be missing from the Symbolic, "the Real is always in its place." If the Symbolic is a set of differentiated elements, signifiers, the Real in itself is undifferentiated, it bears no fissure. The Symbolic introduces "a cut in the real", in the process of signification: "it is the world of words that creates the world of things - things originally confused in the "here and now" of the all in the process of coming into being. Lacan, J., The Function and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis in Écrits Thus the Real is that which is outside language, resisting symbolization absolutely. In Seminar XI Lacan defines the Real as "the impossible" because it is impossible to imagine and impossible to integrate into the Symbolic, being impossibly attainable. It is this resistance to symbolization that lends the Real its traumatic quality. In his Seminar "La relation d'objet", Lacan reads Freud's case on "Little Hans." He distinguishes two real elements which intrude and disrupt the child's imaginary pre-oedipical harmony: the real penis which is felt in infantile masturbation and the newly born sister. Finally, the Real is the object of anxiety in that it lacks any possible mediation, and is "the essential object which is not an object any longer, but this something faced with which all words cease and all categories fail, the object of anxiety par excellence." Desire Lacan's désir follows Freud's concept of Wunsch and it is central to Lacanian theories. For the aim of the talking cure - psychoanalysis - is precisely to lead the analysand to uncover the truth about their desire, but this is only possible if that desire is articulated, or spoken. Fink, Bruce, The Lacanian Subject: Between Language and Jouissance (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 9780691015897 Lacan said that "it is only once it is formulated, named in the presence of the other, that desire appears in the full sense of the term." Lacan, J., The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Book I: Freud's Papers on Technique 1953-1954 "...what is important is to teach the subject to name, to articulate, to bring desire into existence" (W. W. Norton & Company, 1991), ISBN 9780393306972 "That the subject should come to recognize and to name his/her desire, that is the efficacious action of analysis. But it is not a question of recognizing something which would be entirely given. In naming it, the subject creates, brings forth, a new presence in the world." Lacan, J., The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Book II: The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis 1954-1955 (W. W. Norton & Company, 1991), ISBN 9780393307092 "[W]hat is important is to teach the subject to name, to articulate, to bring desire into existence." Now, although the truth about desire is somehow present in discourse, discourse can never articulate the whole truth about desire: whenever discourse attempts to articulate desire, there is always a leftover, a surplus. In The Signification of the Phallus Lacan distinguishes desire from need and demand. Need is a biological instinct that is articulated in demand, yet demand has a double function, on one hand it articulates need and on the other acts as a demand for love. So, even after the need articulated in demand is satisfied, the demand for love remains unsatisfied and this leftover is desire. Lacan, J., 'The Signification of the Phallus' in Écrits For Lacan "desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second" (article cited). Desire then is the surplus produced by the articulation of need in demand (Dylan Evans). Lacan adds that "desire begins to take shape in the margin in which demand becomes separated from need" (article cited). Hence desire can never be satisfied, or as Slavoj Žižek puts it "desire's raison d'être is not to realize its goal, to find full satisfaction, but to reproduce itself as desire." It is also important to distinguish between desire and the drives. If they belong to the field of the Other (as opposed to love), desire is one, whereas the drives are many. The drives are the partial manifestations of a single force called desire (see "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis"). If one can surmise that objet petit a is the object of desire, it is not the object towards which desire tends, but the cause of desire. For desire is not a relation to an object but a relation to a lack (manque). Then desire appears as a social construct since it is always constituted in a dialectical relationship. Drives Lacan maintains Freud's distinction between Trieb (drive) and Instinkt (instinct) in that drives differ from biological needs because they can never be satisfied and do not aim at an object but rather circle perpetually round it, so the real source of jouissance is to repeat the movement of this closed circuit. In the same Seminar Lacan posits the drives as both cultural and symbolic (discourse) constructs, to him "the drive is not a given, something archaic, primordial". Yet he incorporates the four elements of the drives as defined by Freud (the pressure, the end, the object and the source) to his theory of the drive's circuit: the drive originates in the erogenous zone, circles round the object, and then returns to the erogenous zone. The circuit is structured by the three grammatical voices: the active voice (to see) the reflexive voice (to see oneself) the passive voice (to be seen) The active and reflexive voices are autoerotic, they lack a subject. It is only when the drive completes its circuit with the passive voice that a new subject appears. So although it is the "passive" voice, the drive is essentially active, "to make oneself be seen" instead of "to be seen." The circuit of the drive is the only way for the subject to transgress the pleasure principle. Lacan identifies four partial drives: the oral drive (the erogenous zones are the lips, the partial object the breast), the anal drive (the anus and the faeces), the scopic drive (the eyes and the gaze) and the invocatory drive (the ears and the voice). The first two relate to demand and the last two to desire. If the drives are closely related to desire, they are the partial aspects in which desire is realized: again, desire is one and undivided whereas the drives are partial manifestations of desire. Other concepts Name of the Father Oedipal drama and the Oedipal signification Objet Petit a The Seminars of Jacques Lacan Signifier/ Signified The Letter Foreclusion - Foreclosure Jouissance Lack (manque) The Phallus Das Ding The gaze The four discourses The graph of desire Sinthome Lacan's Topology Writings and seminars Jacques-Alain Miller is the sole editor of Lacan's seminar lectures, which contain the majority of his life's work. Although Lacan is a major figure in the history of psychoanalysis, some of these seminars still remain unpublished. Since 1984, Miller has been regularly conducting a series of lectures, "L'orientation lacanienne", within the structure of ParisVIII. Miller's teachings have been published in the US by the journal Lacanian Ink. Lacan claimed that his Écrits were not to be understood, but would produce a meaning effect in the reader similar to some mystical texts. Lacan's writing is notoriously difficult due to the repeated Hegelian/Kojèvean allusions, wide theoretical divergences from other psychoanalytic and philosophical thinking, as well as his obscure prose style. Criticism Some critics have dismissed Lacan and his work wholesale. François Roustang Roustang, François, The Lacanian Delusion called Lacan's output "extravagant" and an "incoherent system of pseudo-scientific gibberish." In Fashionable Nonsense, Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont accused Lacan of "superficial erudition" and of abusing scientific concepts he does not understand. Defenders of Lacanian thinking claim that these critics misunderstand, or often simply have not read, Lacan's admittedly difficult texts. Bruce Fink, Lacan to the Letter Arkady Plotnitsky, The Knowable and the Unknowable Lacan is known for his incorporation of mathematical terms in his works. For example, he uses elements from topology when he concludes: Sources Chronology of Jacques Lacan The Seminars of Jacques Lacan Jacques Lacan's Complete French Bibliography Jacques Lacan; Kant with Sade Of Structure as the Inmixing of an Otherness Prerequisite to Any Subject Whatever Johns Hopkins University - 1966 The Seminar on "The Purloined Letter" The Crime of the Papin Sisters References Bibliography Selected works published in English listed below. More complete listings can be found at Lacan Dot Com. The Language of the Self: The Function of Language in Psychoanalysis*, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968 Écrits: A Selection*, transl. by Alan Sheridan, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1977, and revised version, 2002, transl. by Bruce Fink Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English, transl. by Bruce Fink, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006 The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis The Seminar, Book I. Freud's Papers on Technique, 1953-1954,, edited by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by J. Forrester, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1988 The Seminar, Book II. The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis, 1954-1955, ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Sylvana Tomaselli, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1988. The Seminar, Book III. The Psychoses, edited by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Russell Grigg, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1993. The Seminar, Book VII. The Ethics of Psychoanalysis, 1959-1960, ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Dennis Porter, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1992. The Seminar XI, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Alan Sheridan, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1977. The Seminar XVII, The Other Side of Psychoanalysis, ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Russell Grigg, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 2007. The Seminar XX, Encore: On Feminine Sexuality, the Limits of Love and Knowledge, ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl. by Bruce Fink, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1998. Television: A Challenge to the Psychoanalytic Establishment, ed. Joan Copjec, trans. Jeffrey Mehlman, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1990. ====Works about Lacan's Work and Theory==== Badiou, Alain, "The Formulas of L'Etourdit" (New York: Lacanian Ink 27, 2006.) —————, "Lacan and the Pre-Socratics", Lacan Dot Com, 2006. Benvenuto, Bice; Kennedy, Roger, The Works of Jacques Lacan (London, 1986, Free Association Books.) Bowie, Malcolm, Lacan (London: Fontana, 1991). (An introduction.) Dor, Joel, The Clinical Lacan (New York: Other Press, 1999) —————, Introduction to the Reading of Lacan: The Unconscious Structured Like a Language (New York: Other Press, 2001) Elliott, Anthony and Stephen Frosh(eds.), Psychoanalysis in Contexts: Paths between Theory and Modern Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1995). (A recent overview.) —————, "Matrixial Gaze and Screen: Other than Phallic and Beyond the Late Lacan." In: Laura Doyle (ed.) Bodies of Resistance. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2001. —————, "Weaving Trans-Subjective Texture or The Matrixial Sinthome." In: Thurston, Luke (ed.), Re-inventing the Symptom: Essays on the final Lacan. NY: The Other Press, 2002. Evans, Dylan, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis, Routledge, 1996. Fink, Bruce, The Lacanian Subject: Between Language and Jouissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). —————, Lacan to the Letter: Reading Ecrits Closely, University of Minnesota, 2004. Forrester, John, Language and the Origins of Psychoanalysis (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1985). Fryer, David Ross, The Intervention of the Other: Ethical Subjectivity in Levinas and Lacan (New York: Other Press, 2004) Gallop, Jane, Reading Lacan. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. —————, The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982. Gherovici, Patricia, The Puerto Rican Syndrome (New York: Other Press, 2003) Glynos, Jason and Yannis Stravrakakis, ED, Lacan and Science. London:Karnac Books, May 2002. Harari, Roberto, Lacan's Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis: An Introduction (New York: Other Press, 2004) —————, Lacan's Seminar on "Anxiety": An Introduction (New York: Other Press, 2005) Homer, Sean, Jacques Lacan (London: Routledge, 2005) Johnston, Adrian, Time Driven: Metapsychology and the Splitting of the Drive (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005) Lander, Romulo, Subjective Experience and the Logic of the Other (New York: Other Press, 2006) Leupin, Alexandre, Lacan Today (New York: Other Press, 2004) Mathelin, Catherine, Lacanian Psychotherpay with Children: The Broken Piano (New York: Other Press, 1999) McGowan, Todd and Sheila Kunkle Eds., Lacan and Contemporary Film (New York: Other Press, 2004) Miller, Jacques-Alain, "Introduction to Reading Jacques Lacan's Seminar on Anxiety I " (New York: Lacanian Ink 26, 2005.) —————, "Introduction to Reading Jacques Lacan's Seminar on Anxiety II" (New York: Lacanian Ink 27, 2006.) —————, "Jacques Lacan's Later Teachings" (New York: Lacanian Ink 21, 2003.) —————, "The Paradigms of Jouissance" (New York, Lacanian Ink 17, 2000.) —————, "Suture: Elements of the Logic of the Signifier", Lacan Dot Com, 2006. Moustafa, Safouan, Four Lessons of Psychoanalysis (New York: Other Press, 2004) Nasio, Juan-David, Book of Love and Pain: The Thinking at the Limit with Freud and Lacan. Translated by David Pettigrew and Francois Raffoul (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003) —————, Five Lessons on the Psychoanalytic Theory of Jacques Lacan. Translated by David Pettigrew and Francois Raffoul (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998) —————, Hysteria: The Splendid Child of Psychoanalysis. Translated by Susan Fairfield (New York: Other Press, 1998) Nobus, Dany (ed.), Key Concepts of Lacanian Psychoanalysis. (New York: Other Press, 1999) Pettigrew, David and François Raffoul (eds.), Disseminating Lacan (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996) Rabaté, Jean-Michel (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Lacan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Rose, Jacqueline, Sexuality in the Field of Vision (London: Verso, 1986) Roudinesco, Élisabeth, "Jacques Lacan: His Life and Work". Translated by Bray B. New York, Columbia University Press, 1997 Turkle, Sherry, Psychoanalytic Politics: Jacques Lacan and Freud's French Revolution, 2nd edition, Guildford Press, New York, 1992 ————— and Wollheim, Richard, ‘Lacan: an exchange’, New York Review of Books, 26 (9), 1979, p. 44. Soler, Colette, What Lacan Said About Women Translated by John Holland (New York: Other Press, 2006) Thurston, Luke (ed.), "Re-inventing the Symptom", NY: Other Press, 2002. Van Haute, Philippe, Against Adaptation: Lacan's "Subversion" of the Subject (New York: Other Press, 2002) Van Haute, Philippe and Tomas Geyskens, Confusion of Tongues: The Primacy of Sexuality in Freud, Ferenczi, and Laplanche (New York: Other Press, 2004) Verhaeghe, Paul, On Being Normal and Other Disorders (New York: Other Press, 2004) Wilden, Anthony, ‘Jacques Lacan: A partial bibliography’, Yale French Studies, 36/37, 1966, pp. 263–268. Žižek, Slavoj, "Woman is One of the Names-of-the-Father, or how Not to misread Lacan´s formulas of sexuation", Lacan Dot Com, 2005. —————, ‘The object as a limit of discourse: approaches to the Lacanian real’, Prose Studies, 11 (3), 1988, pp. 94–120. —————, Interrogating the Real'', ed. Rex Butler and Scott Stephens (London and New York: Continuum, 2005). —————, "Jacques Lacan as Reader of Hegel" (New York: Lacanian Ink 27, 2006.) External links Introductions École de la Cause Freudienne Jacques Lacan in English Links of Jacques Lacan Jacques Lacan at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Ecole Lacanienne Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) Practice CFAR - The Centre for Freudian Analysis and Research. London-based Lacanian psychoanalytic training agency Homepage of the Lacanian School of Psychoanalysis and the San Francisco Society for Lacanian Studies The London Society of the New Lacanian School. Site includes online library of clinical & theoretical texts The Freudian School of Melbourne, School of Lacanian Psychoanalysis. Clinical and theoretical teaching and training of psychoanalysts. 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2,872 | Michael_Moore_(disambiguation) | Michael Moore is an American author, film director and political activist. Michael Moore may also refer to: In politics: Mike Moore, former Prime Minister of New Zealand and former Director-General of the World Trade Organization Michael Moore (UK politician), Liberal Democrat politician in the UK Mike Moore (US politician), former Mississippi attorney-general, known for his involvement with early tobacco litigation In science: Michael Moore (herbalist), author, founder of the SW School of Botanical Medicine and expert on medicinal plants of the Pacific West, Southwest and Mountain West In film and television: Michael D. Moore (1914-), Canadian-born American film actor and director Mike Moore, a fictional anchorman in the Australian comedy television series Frontline Michael S. Moore, American author of novels and comic books as well as a film director and producer Thomas Micheal Moore, birthname of actor Tom Berenger Michael J. Moore, sometimes credited as "Michael Moore," an assistant director in several Hollywood blockbusters In music: Michael Moore (saxophonist and clarinetist), American jazz artist Michael Moore (bassist), American jazz artist Michael A. Moore, Contemporary Christian musician In religion: Michael D. Moore (evangelist), pastor of the Faith Chapel Christian Center in Birmingham, Alabama In sports: Mike Moore (baseball), Major League Baseball player Michael Moore (footballer), Scottish football player Michael Moore (American football) (born 1976) Mikki Moore, NBA player for the Boston Celtics Mick Moore (born 1952), English footballer In the military: Michael Moore (Swedish officer), major-general in Swedish Air Force, and expert at Swedish Department of Defense | Michael_Moore_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized michael:15 moore:22 american:6 author:3 film:4 director:5 political:1 activist:1 may:1 also:1 refer:1 politics:1 mike:4 former:3 prime:1 minister:1 new:1 zealand:1 general:3 world:1 trade:1 organization:1 uk:2 politician:3 liberal:1 democrat:1 u:1 mississippi:1 attorney:1 know:1 involvement:1 early:1 tobacco:1 litigation:1 science:1 herbalist:1 founder:1 sw:1 school:1 botanical:1 medicine:1 expert:2 medicinal:1 plant:1 pacific:1 west:2 southwest:1 mountain:1 television:2 canadian:1 born:3 actor:2 fictional:1 anchorman:1 australian:1 comedy:1 series:1 frontline:1 novel:1 comic:1 book:1 well:1 producer:1 thomas:1 micheal:1 birthname:1 tom:1 berenger:1 j:1 sometimes:1 credit:1 assistant:1 several:1 hollywood:1 blockbuster:1 music:1 saxophonist:1 clarinetist:1 jazz:2 artist:2 bassist:1 contemporary:1 christian:2 musician:1 religion:1 evangelist:1 pastor:1 faith:1 chapel:1 center:1 birmingham:1 alabama:1 sport:1 baseball:2 major:2 league:1 player:3 footballer:2 scottish:1 football:2 mikki:1 nba:1 boston:1 celtic:1 mick:1 english:1 military:1 swedish:3 officer:1 air:1 force:1 department:1 defense:1 |@bigram prime_minister:1 liberal_democrat:1 birmingham_alabama:1 league_baseball:1 |
2,873 | Chrysler | Chrysler LLC is an American automobile manufacturer headquartered in the Detroit suburb of Auburn Hills, Michigan, first organized as Chrysler Corporation in 1925. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler and its subsidiaries were part of the German based DaimlerChrysler AG (now Daimler AG). Prior to 1998, Chrysler Corporation traded under the "C" symbol on the New York Stock Exchange. Under DaimlerChrysler, the company was named "DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC", with its U.S. operations generally referred to as the "Chrysler Group". On May 14, 2007, DaimlerChrysler announced the sale of 80.1% of Chrysler Group to American private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management, L.P., although Daimler continued to hold a 19.9% stake. This was when the company took on its current name. " The deal was finalized on August 3, 2007. On April 27, 2009, Daimler AG signed a binding agreement to give up its 19.9% remaining stake in Chrysler LLC to Cerberus Capital Management and pay as much as $600 million into the automaker's pension fund. On April 30, 2009, Chrysler filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and announced a partnership with Italian automaker Fiat. Chrysler bankruptcy plan is announced. www.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2009-04-30. On Friday May 29th, 2009; Market Watch (a member of Wall Street Journal) Reported that The United States Treasury formed NewCarCo Acquisition LLC, a Delaware Corporation which will be technically the new owner of Chrysler, once Chrysler emerges from bankruptcy http://www.marketwatch.com/story/treasury-sets-up-new-company-for-chrysler . History 1936 Chrysler Airflow Series C-9 Founding and early years The company was founded by Walter P. Chrysler on June 6, 1925, when the Maxwell Motor Company (est. 1904) was re-organized into the Chrysler Corporation. Walter Chrysler had originally arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s, having been hired to take over and overhaul the company's troubled operations (just after a similar rescue job at the Willys car company). In late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. Then in January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile. The Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. (Elements of this car are traceable back to a prototype which had been under development at Willys at the time that Walter Chrysler was there). The original 1924 Chrysler included a carburetor air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication, and an oil filter, at a time when most autos came without these features. Among the innovations in its early years would be the first practical mass-produced four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a system nearly completely engineered by Chrysler with patents assigned to Lockheed, and rubber engine mounts to reduce vibration. Chrysler also developed a road wheel with a ridged rim, designed to keep a deflated tire from flying off the wheel. This safety wheel was eventually adopted by the auto industry worldwide. Following the introduction of the Chrysler, the Maxwell was dropped after its 1925 model year run, although in truth the new line of lower-priced 4-cylinder Chryslers which were then introduced for the 1926 model year were basically Maxwells which had been re-engineered and rebranded. It was during this time period of the early 1920s that Walter Chrysler assumed the presidency of Maxwell, with the company then ultimately incorporated under the Chrysler name. The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, a position it would last hold in 1949. Early models Chrysler Touring Vehicle marques 1931 Plymouth In 1928, Chrysler Corporation began dividing their vehicle offerings by price class and function. The Plymouth brand was introduced at the low priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging Chrysler's 4-cylinder model). At the same time, the DeSoto marque was introduced in the medium-price field. Shortly thereafter, Chrysler bought the Dodge Brothers automobile and truck company and launched the Fargo range of trucks. By the late 1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy. This proliferation of marques under Chrysler's umbrella might have been inspired by the similar strategy employed successfully by General Motors. Beginning in 1955, Imperial, formerly the top model of the Chrysler brand, became a marque of its own, and in 1960, the Valiant was introduced likewise as a distinct marque. In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line and the DeSoto make was discontinued for 1961. With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial. After acquiring AMC in 1987, Chrysler fulfilled one of AMC's conditions of sale by creating the Eagle marque in 1988 to be sold at existing AMC-Jeep dealers. The Eagle brand lasted a decade, being discontinued in 1998, while Plymouth was ended three years later. By 2001 and as of 2009, the company has three marques worldwide: Dodge, Jeep, and Chrysler. Other marques MoPar, Chryco, AutoPar MoPar oil filter, 1956–1962 design In the 1930s, the company created a formal vehicle parts division under the MoPar brand (a portmanteau of Motor Parts), with the result that "Mopar" remains a colloquial term for vehicles produced by Chrysler Corporation. The MoPar (later Mopar) brand was not used in Canada, where parts were sold under the Chryco and AutoPar brands, until the Mopar brand was phased into the Canadian market beginning in the late 1970s. Canadian Chryco headlight bulb box from 1948; note circular DPCD logo Many Chrysler Corporation vehicle parts also bore variants of the DPCD monogram, for Dodge-Plymouth-Chrysler-DeSoto, well after the 1961 end of DeSoto production. Airtemp Chrysler's Airtemp marque for stationary and mobile air conditioning, refrigeration, and climate control was launched with the first installation in 1930's Chrysler Building, though the Airtemp Corporation would not be incorporated until 1934, when it used a former Maxwell factory. Airtemp logo on window of air conditioned Chrysler Corp. vehicle Airtemp invented capacity regulators, sealed radial compressors, and the self-contained air conditioning system, along with a superior high-speed radial compressor, and by 1941 had over 500 dealers selling its air conditioning and heating systems. The company supplied medical refrigeration units in World War II, and dominated the industry in the 1940s but slowly fell behind. By the 1970s Airtemp was losing money, and was sold to Fedders in 1976. Acustar In the 1980s, Chrysler formed a subsidiary business called Acustar to sell parts to other automakers as well as supplying parts for Chrysler-built vehicles, similar to General Motors' creation of Delphi Corporation and Ford's later creation of Visteon. Airflow In 1934 the company introduced the Airflow models, featuring an advanced streamlined body, among the first to be designed using aerodynamic principles. Chrysler created the industry's first wind tunnel to develop them. Buyers rejected its styling, and the more conventionally-designed Dodge and Plymouth cars pulled the firm through the Depression years. Plymouth was one of only a few marques that actually increased sales during the cash-strapped thirties. The unsuccessful Airflow had a chilling effect on Chrysler styling and marketing, which remained determinedly conservative through the 1940s and into the 1950s, with the single exception of the installation of hidden headlights on the very brief production run of 1942 DeSotos. Engineering advances continued, and in 1951 the firm introduced the first of a long and famous series of Hemi V8s. In 1955 things brightened with the introduction of Virgil Exner's successful Forward Look designs. With the inauguration of the second generation Forward Look cars for 1957, Torsion-Aire suspension was introduced. This was not air suspension, but an indirect-acting, torsion-spring front suspension system which drastically reduced unsprung weight and shifted the car's center of gravity downward and rearward. This resulted in both a smoother ride and significantly improved handling. A rush to production of the 1957 models led to quality control problems including poor body fit and finish, resulting in significant and early rusting. This, coupled with a national recession, found the company again in recovery mode. 1960s Starting in the 1960 model year, Chrysler built all their passenger cars with Unibody (unit-body or monocoque) construction, except the Imperials which retained body-on-frame construction until 1967. Chrysler thus became the only one of the Big Three American automakers (General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, and Chrysler) to offer unibody construction on the vast majority of their product lines. This construction technique, now the worldwide standard, offers advantages in vehicle rigidity, handling, and crash safety, while reducing squeak and rattle development as the vehicle ages. Chrysler's new compact line, the Valiant, opened strong and continued to gain market share for over a decade. Valiant was introduced as a marque of its own, but the Valiant line was placed under the Plymouth marque for US-market sales in 1961. The 1960 Valiant was the first production automobile with an alternator (generating alternating current, paired with diodes for rectification back to direct current) rather than a direct current electrical generator as standard equipment. It proved such an improvement that it was used in all Chrysler products in 1961. The DeSoto marque was withdrawn from the market after the introduction of the 1961 models due in part to the broad array of the Dodge lines and the general neglect of the division. The same affliction plagued Plymouth as it also suffered when Dodge crept into Plymouth's price range. This would eventually lead to the demise of Plymouth several decades later. An ill-advised downsizing of the full-size Dodge and Plymouth lines in 1962 hurt sales and profitability for several years. Plymouth Barracuda In April 1964, the Plymouth Barracuda, which was a Valiant sub-model, was introduced. The huge glass rear window and sloping roof were polarizing styling features. Barracuda was released almost two weeks before Ford's Mustang, and so the Barracuda was chronologically the first pony car. Unlike the Mustang, Barracuda didn't do as well in sales as other division's models. Even so the Mustang still outsold the Barracuda 10-to-1 between April 1964 and August 1965. Expansion into Europe In the 1960s Chrysler expanded into Europe, attaining a majority interest in the British Rootes Group in 1964, Simca of France and Barreiros of Spain, to form Chrysler Europe. For the Rootes Group one outcome of this take over was the launch of the Hillman Avenger in 1970 (briefly sold in the U.S. as the Plymouth Cricket), which sold in Britain alongside the rear-engined Imp and the Hunter. During the 1970s the former Rootes Group got into severe financial difficulties. The Simca and Barreiros divisions were more successful, but in the end the various problems were overwhelming and the firm gained little from these ventures. Chrysler sold these assets to PSA Peugeot Citroën in 1978, which in turn sold the British and Spanish truck production lines to Renault of France . More successfully, at this same time the company helped create the muscle car market in the U.S., first by producing a street version of its Hemi racing engine and then by introducing a legendary string of affordable but high-performance vehicles such as the Plymouth GTX, Plymouth Road Runner, and Dodge Charger. The racing success of several of these models on the NASCAR circuit burnished the company's engineering reputation. The 1970s The 1970s were tumultuous for Chrysler. Previously, American cars had been developed without much emphasis on fuel economy, safety, or emissions, but now all automobile manufacturers had to develop smaller, lighter engines that ran much cleaner and still produced enough power to move large automobiles. U.S. anti-trust laws were interpreted as prohibiting the formation of a Japanese- or European-style industry consortium for rapid and cost-effective development of solutions to the new car safety and antipollution regulations. No cost-sharing was possible; each company had to solve each problem on its own, and Chrysler's lower sales volumes meant these new development and implementation costs made up a larger proportion of a vehicle's cost compared to Ford and General Motors. To avoid pricing themselves out of the market, they had to retrofit and detune their existing engines to meet emission requirements, which resulted in poor fuel economy just when fuel prices were rising. There was a rush of sales for the compact Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant, but the 1973 oil crisis sharply reduced demand for the large, fuel-thirsty vehicles Americans had previously bought in large number and which made up the bulk of Chrysler's product line.The Japanese automakers' American market share sharply increased, since their smaller cars were generally much more fuel-efficient. Chrysler bought a 15% stake of Japan's Mitsubishi Motors in 1971 and began selling rebadged Mitsubishi models in the United States. At mid-decade, the company scored a conspicuous success with its first entry in the personal luxury car market, the Chrysler Cordoba. The hurried introduction of the Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volaré in 1976 brought enormous warranty costs to repair faulty design and shoddy construction, and destroyed the longstanding loyalty built up by the Dart and Valiant predecessors. Chrysler Europe essentially collapsed in 1977, and was offloaded to Peugeot the following year, soon after having helped design the new Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni. Shortly thereafter, Chrysler Australia, which was producing a local Valiant and selling rebadged Japanese Mitsubishi Galants, was sold to Mitsubishi Motors. The subcompact Horizon was reaching the US market as the second gas crisis struck, devastating sales of Chrysler's larger cars and trucks, and the company had no strong compact line to fall back on. Government loan guarantees A Dodge Aries. The "K-cars" are generally credited with saving Chrysler from bankruptcy. On September 7, 1979, The Chrysler Corporation petitioned the United States government for US$1.5 billion in loan guarantees to avoid bankruptcy. At the same time former Ford executive Lee Iacocca was brought in as CEO. He proved to be a capable public spokesman, appearing in advertisements to advise customers that "If you find a better car, buy it." He would also provide a rallying point for Japan-bashing and instilling pride in American products. His book Talking Straight was a response to Akio Morita's Made in Japan. The United States Congress reluctantly passed the "Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979" (Public Law 96-185) on December 20, 1979 (signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on January 7, 1980), prodded by Chrysler workers and dealers in every congressional district who feared the loss of their livelihoods. The military then bought thousands of Dodge pickup trucks which entered military service as the Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle M-880 Series. With such help and a few innovative cars (such as the K-car platform), especially the invention of the minivan concept, Chrysler avoided bankruptcy and slowly recovered. In February 1982 Chrysler announced the sale of Chrysler Defense, its profitable defense subsidiary to General Dynamics for US$348.5 million. The sale was completed in March 1982 for the revised figure of US$336.1 million. By 1983, the loans were fully repaid, "[Chrysler] could announce today that it will pay off the remaining $800 million by September." several years ahead of time, resulting in a profit of $350 million to the U.S. government. New models based on the K-car platform were selling well. A joint venture with Mitsubishi called Diamond Star Motors strengthened the company's hand in the small car market. Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1987, primarily for its Jeep brand, although the failing Eagle Premier would be the basis for the Chrysler LH platform sedans. This bolstered the firm, although Chrysler was still the weakest of the Big Three. 1998-2004 LH platform-based Dodge Intrepid In the early 1990s, Chrysler made its first steps back into Europe, setting up car production in Austria, and beginning right hand drive manufacture of certain Jeep models in a 1993 return to the UK market. The continuing popularity of Jeep, bold new models for the domestic market such as the Dodge Ram pickup, Dodge Viper (badged as "Chrysler Viper" in Europe) sports car, and Plymouth Prowler hot rod, and new "cab forward" front-wheel drive LH sedans put the company in a strong position as the decade waned. Acquisition by Daimler-Benz 2005-present Chrysler 300 In 1998 Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, forming DaimlerChrysler AG. Chrysler Corporation then was legally renamed DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC, while its total operations began doing business as Chrysler Group. This was initially declared to be a merger of equals, but it quickly became evident that Daimler-Benz was the dominant partner. Despite offering a range of attractive models, Chrysler went into another of its financial tailspins soon after the merger, greatly depressing the stock price of the merged firm and causing alarm at headquarters in Germany, which sent Dieter Zetsche, who would later become CEO, to take charge. The Plymouth brand was phased out in 2001, and plans for cost cutting by sharing of platforms and components began. The Mercedes-based Chrysler Crossfire was one of the first results of this program. A return to rear-wheel drive was announced, and in 2004 a new line of full size cars, spearheaded by the Chrysler 300 using some Mercedes-Benz technology and a new HEMI V8 engine appeared and was successful. Financial performance began to improve, with Chrysler providing a significant share of DaimlerChrysler profits due to restructuring efforts at the Mercedes Car Group. The partnership with Mitsubishi was dissolved as DaimlerChrysler divested its stake in the firm due to Mitsubishi's demand for more control in the management. Sale to Cerberus Second generation Chrysler Sebring sedan According to the April 2007 issue of Der Spiegel, CEO Dieter Zetsche expressed a desire to dismantle Chrysler and sell off the majority stake and at the same time keep Chrysler "dependent" upon Mercedes-Benz after the sale. On April 4, 2007, Zetsche said that the company was negotiating the sale of Chrysler, which was rumored for weeks before the announcement. The following day investor Kirk Kerkorian placed a 4.5 billion dollar bid for Chrysler. On April 12, Magna International of Canada announced it was searching for partners to place a bid for Chrysler. Magna's offer was later outbid. DaimlerChrysler AG announced on May 14, 2007 that it would sell 80.1% of its stake in the Chrysler Group to Cerberus Capital Management for US$ 7.4 billion. Chrysler Group (DaimlerChrysler Corporation) would officially become Chrysler Holding LLC (changed to Chrysler LLC upon completion of the sale), with two subsidiaries – Chrysler Motors LLC (new name of DaimlerChrysler Motors Company), which produces Chrysler/Dodge/Jeep vehicles, and Chrysler Financial Services LLC (new name of DaimlerChrysler Financial Services Americas LLC), which took over the operations of Chrysler Financial. DaimlerChrysler AG changed its name to Daimler AG. Chrysler LLC unveiled a new company logo, a variation of the previously used Pentastar logo, and launched its new website on August 6, 2007. Robert Nardelli became Chairman and CEO. The new company experienced its first labor dispute on October 10, 2007. A strike deadline of 11 a.m. had been set by the United Auto Workers (UAW) union leadership pending successful negotiation of a new contract patterned after the pact with GM. As the talks progressed past the deadline, most Chrysler unionized workers walked off their jobs. With media speculation about the impact of a long strike, an impromptu announcement after 5 p.m. the same day indicated that a tentative agreement had been reached, thus ending the walkout after just over six hours. Chrysler collaborates with Tata Motors Limited of India: Tata's all-electric Ace mini truck will be sold through Chrysler's Global Electric Motorcars division. Chrysler announced in February 2008 that it would be reducing its product line from 30 models to 15 models. Chrysler was reported in August 2008 to be in talks with Fiat. 2008 financial crisis In October 2008, Cerberus and General Motors discussed an exchange of GM's 49% stake in GMAC for Chrysler, potentially merging two of Detroit's "Big Three" automakers. Yahoo! News Chrysler, GM discuss merger, acquisition These talks did not come to fruition, and were discontinued the next month. GM, Cerberus end Chrysler tie-up talks On October 24, 2008, Chrysler announced a 25% cut (5,000 jobs) in its salaried and contract workforce in November 2008. Chrysler to Cut 25% of Salaried and Contract Jobs Michigan Gov. Jennifer Granholm announced that she, along with 5 other governors, sent a letter to Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson and Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke requesting emergency funding for the Detroit Big Three Automakers. On the same day, General Motors asked the Treasury Department of the United States for $10 billion to help restructure both their company and possible future sibling, Chrysler so that in turn, they can become one massive company. On October 23, 2008, Daimler announced that its stake in Chrysler had a book value of zero dollars after write offs and charges. On November 5, 2008 it was published that Chrysler sales in the US market have fallen 34.9 percent in only 12 months. A week later, Chrysler CEO Robert Nardelli said, in a speech at an Ernst & Young conference, that the company can only remain viable by forming an alliance with another automaker, domestic or global, as well as receiving government assistance in the form of an equity stake. Several days later, Chrysler together with Ford and General Motors, sought financial aid at a Congressional hearing in Washington D.C. in the face of worsening conditions caused by the automotive industry crisis. All three companies were unsuccessful and were invited to draft a new action plan for the sustainability of the industry. Detroit Chiefs Plead for Aid. New York Times on November 18, 2008.. Retrieved 21 November 2008. On November 25, 2008 The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety released their Top Safety Pick awards for the year. Seventy-two vehicles earned the Top Safety Pick award for 2009. This is more than double the number of 2008 recipients and more than 3 times the number of 2007 winners. However Chrysler LLC. is the only major automaker still lacking a single Top Safety Pick. At the beginning of December 2008, amid the 2008 automobile crisis, Chrysler announced that they were dangerously low on cash and may not survive past 2009. After the defeat of the auto bailout in the Senate, Chrysler stated that they would most likely file for bankruptcy and shut down all operations permanently. On December 17, 2008, Chrysler announced that it planned to halt production at all 30 of its manufacturing plants through January 19, 2009. In addition, Chrysler announced that it would charge fees on dealers holding inventories of new cars and trucks that are unsold after more than 360 days, and will require immediate payment of all remaining balances on inventories of used vehicles that remain unsold after six months. On December 19, President George W. Bush announced a $13.4 billion rescue loan for the American automakers, including Chrysler. Chrysler's 2008 performance was hard hit among the Big Three U.S. automakers, Krisher, Tom and Fowler, Bree. "U.S. auto sales stuck in reverse; Chrysler hit hard" The Seattle Times January 6, 2009, retrieved on January 22, 2009. with 398,119 automobiles and 1,055,003 trucks sold during the year. On March 7, 2009, Chrysler Vice-Chairman Jim Press stated that current sales volume is sufficient to keep the company going as sales should rise in the coming months. The Chrysler executive also noted the automaker’s February retail sales were better than Ford’s as Chrysler continued to curtail lower-margin fleet sales. He also said the volumes being forecast for 2009 are within the estimates Chrysler envisioned in preparing its viability plan for the federal government. On March 30, 2009, the White House announced it would provide an additional $6 billion in further support to Chrysler contingent on the company finalizing an alliance with Fiat before the end of April. Obama Takes The Wheel In Detroit. Forbes, March 30, 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2009. US Government backing of warranties On March 30, 2009 President Barack Obama issued a US Government guarantee of Chrysler's warranty liabilities, and publicly stated the U.S. Government will back the warranties on Chrysler vehicles if the company were to go out of business. Excerpts from President Barack Obama's remarks about the U.S. auto industry's restructuring effort, 30 March 2009 Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Protection and partnership with Fiat On January 20, 2009, the Italian Fiat S.p.A. and Chrysler LLC announced that they have a non-binding term sheet to form a global alliance. Under the terms of the potential agreement, Fiat could take a 35% stake in Chrysler and gain access to its North American dealer network in exchange for providing Chrysler with the platform to build smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles in the US and reciprocal access to Fiat's global distribution network. By mid-April, as talks intensified between the two automakers to reach an agreement by a government-imposed deadline of April 30, Fiat's initial stake was reported to be 20% with some influence on the structure of top management of the company. However, Fiat has warned that the merger would not take place if Chrysler fails to reach an agreement with the UAW and the Canadian Auto Workers' Union. On April 26, 2009, it appeared as if Chrysler had reached a deal with the unions which would meet federal requirements, though details were not made available. Chrysler said the union agreement “provides the framework needed to ensure manufacturing competitiveness and helps to meet the guidelines set forth by the U.S. Treasury Department.” Chrysler and Union Agree to Deal Before Federal Deadline. New York Times, April 26, 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2009. Chrysler filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection at the Federal Bankruptcy Court of the Southern District of New York, in Manhattan, on April 30, 2009, and announced an alliance with Fiat. The bankruptcy filing and related documents submitted by Chrysler to the United States Bankruptcy Court of the Southern District of New York, in Manhattan, New York City. Both the White House and Chrysler expressed hope for a "surgical" bankruptcy lasting 30 to 60 days, with the result of reducing the company's liabilities and post-bankruptcy emergence in stronger financial shape. The submitted court documents indicated that there would be a reorganization plan presented to the court in 120 days, on August 28, 2009. A White House official indicated that the government would provide debtor-in-possession financing for between $US 3 billion to $US 3.5 billion, and upon a completion of Chrysler bankruptcy restructuring and court proceedings, the company would be eligible to receive up to $US 4.5 billion in financing to resume operations, for total of $US 8 billion of government support. Prior to the bankruptcy filing, Chrysler had received $US 4.5 billion in financing from the U.S. government, under a George W. Bush administration plan, in December 2008, after Congress declined to approve legislation to provide federal loans. Chrysler announced on the day of the bankruptcy filing, that during the restructuring, it would cease most manufacturing operations on May 4, 2009, and resume production “when the transaction is completed, which is anticipated within 30 to 60 days.” Under the reorganization plan proposed by Chrysler, a new company referenced as "New CarCo Acquisition LLC" would be formed to acquire the assets of Chrysler. On May 14, 2009 Chrysler filed with the bankruptcy court to terminate the dealership agreements of 789, or about 25% of its dealerships. Logos Medallion logo With its inception in 1925, Chrysler's logo was a round medallion with a ribbon bearing the name CHRYSLER in uppercase block letters. Forward Look Virgil Exner's radical "Forward Look" redesign of Chrysler Corporation's vehicles for the 1955 model year was underscored by the company's adoption of a logo by the same name. The Forward Look logo consisted of two overlapped boomerang shapes, suggesting space age rocket-propelled motion. Pentastar Pentastar As the Forward Look styling cycle was ending, Chrysler President Lynn Townsend sought a new logo usable by all of Chrysler's worldwide divisions and subsidiaries, automotive and non-automotive, on packaging, stationery, signage and advertising. He wanted something that would be immediately identifiable as Chrysler's mark to anyone who saw it, in any culture. In September 1962, the company adopted a logo named Pentastar, made of five triangles arranged so their bases formed the sides of a pentagon. The Pentastar was simple and easily recognizable, even on revolving signs, and was not tied to any particular automotive styling feature as had been the previous Forward Look logo. Because the symbol contained no text, it facilitated Chrysler's expansion in international markets. The Pentastar was extensively used on dealer signage, advertisements, and promotional brochures, as well as on Chrysler products themselves. Pentastar on body cladding of 1993-98 Jeep Grand Cherokee Chrysler-Plymouth literature, advertisements, and dealership signage used a blue Pentastar or a white one on a blue background, while Dodge used a red Pentastar or a white one on a red background. Divisional logos such as Dodge's Fratzog were gradually phased out until, by 1981, all Chrysler divisions used only the Pentastar. All vehicle brands and all the other Chrysler divisions and services — air conditioning systems, heating, industrial engines, marine engines, outboard motors, boats, transmissions, four-wheel drive systems, powdered metal products, adhesives, chemical products, plastics, electronics, tanks, missiles, leasing, finance and auto parts — were identified by the Pentastar. Chrysler Headquarters at Auburn Hills The Pentastar was placed as a maker's mark on the lower passenger-side fender of all Chrysler products, including non-US brands, from 1963 into the 1972 model year. It was placed on the passenger-side fender so it could be viewed by passers-by, a subtle method of getting the symbol ingrained in the public's mind: a nameplate has to be read, but a symbol is quickly recognizable without reading. Thus left-hand drive cars had the Pentastar on the right fender, while right-hand drive cars had it on the left. Starting in the 1980s, hood ornaments on Chrysler-brand vehicles used a gem-like version of the pentastar to signify the brand's upscale status. The Pentastar's final badging appearance was on special editions of the 1996-2000 Plymouth Voyager. It was also applied to the steering wheel, keys, and fenders of the Voyager and the other Chrysler NS minivans. The Pentastar continued to represent Chrysler until the merge with Daimler in 1998, when it was retired. Among the few remaining traces of this motif was a large, star-shaped window at DaimlerChrysler's American headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan, and Pentastar Aviation, a former DaimlerChrysler subsidiary which reverted to its original name after being purchased by a member of the Ford family. Many dealerships still have signage and other traces still visually apparent to the Pentastar, where a five-Pentastar logo remains in use as the logo of the "Five Star Dealer" service rank. FiveStar.com - Dealership ranking system Despite having been officially retired under Daimler, the Pentastar continued to be used as the identifying trademark or Maker's mark on Chrysler Group parts, as seen on window glass, on individual components, molded plastic assemblies, and larger parts such as (reportedly) engine blocks. Return of divisional logos Divisional logos began to supplant the companywide Pentastar application in the early 1990s. The Dodge division phased in a ram's-head logo beginning with the 1993 Intrepid and Spirit. The Chrysler brand began using a medallion based on its original logo starting with the 1995 Cirrus and Sebring, and this logo was applied to all Chryslers by 1996. That same year, Plymouth adopted a new sailboat logo, which was a simplified version of the brand's pre-Pentastar Mayflower ship logo. Winged logo Chrysler "winged" logo, used on Chrysler division cars 1998–current The design shown here is an adaptation of the original medallion logo which Chrysler used on its cars at its inception in 1925. The logo was revived for the Chrysler division in 1996, and was surrounded by a pair of silver wings after the Daimler-Benz merger in 1998. When sold to Cerberus, Chrysler readopted the Pentastar (see above) as their corporate logo, although the winged logo is still used on the cars themselves. Revival of Pentastar On May 17, 2007, an internal email stated that Chrysler was going to revive the Pentastar logo, in updated form, after their split from Daimler. Motor Authority » Chrysler’s old logo making a comeback The new three-dimensional Pentastar was formally introduced when Chrysler LLC began doing business as a private company in August 2007. Alternative propulsion and small cars Chrysler has a long history of alternative-fuel vehicle development. With a sharp consumer slowdown in the U.S., Chrysler was exploring the possibility of foreign partnerships as it lacks resources to convert its production to smaller, more fuel-efficient cars given the soaring oil prices in 2008. Turbine For many years, Chrysler developed gas turbine engines, which are capable of operating on a wide array of combustible fuels, for automotive use. Turbines were common in military vehicles, and Chrysler built many prototypes for passenger cars. In the 1960s, mass production seemed almost ready. Fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars, specialty designed Ghia-bodied coupes were built in 1962 and placed in the hands of consumers for final testing. After further development and testing to make emissions conform to 1970s-enacted EPA standards, the engines were planned as an option for the 1977 model LeBaron. However, Chrysler was forced to abandon the turbine engine as a precondition of U.S. government loan guarantees when the company experienced financial difficulties in the late 1970s. Electric vehicles Chrysler intends to pursue new drive concepts through ENVI, an in-house organization formed to focus on electric-drive vehicles and related technologies. Established in September, 2007, Chrysler's ENVI division led by Lou Rhodes specifically deals with new all-electric and hybrid vehicles not based on existing models. Chrysler LLC brought a wide range of green vehicles to the Detroit Auto Show, including three concept vehicles that incorporate electric drive technologies: The Dodge ZEO concept—short for "Zero Emissions Operation"—is an all-electric sport wagon combining a 64-kilowatt-hour lithium-ion battery pack with a 200-kilowatt (268 horsepower) electric motor. The rear-wheel-drive vehicle accelerates to 60 miles per hour (mph) in less than six seconds and has a range of at least . There is also a plug-in hybrid electric version. The Chrysler ecoVoyager concept combines a similar battery pack and motor with a small hydrogen fuel cell to achieve a range. The vehicle can travel about on battery power alone and can accelerate to in less than eight seconds. The Jeep Renegade concept, a plug-in hybrid, combines a lithium-ion battery pack with dual 200-kilowatt electric motors on each axle. The Jeep can travel on battery power alone and can travel with the help of its 1.5-liter, 3-cylinder clean diesel engine. The vehicle features a lightweight aluminum architecture. Chrysler is also currently planning at least three hybrid vehicles, the Chrysler Aspen hybrid, Dodge Durango hybrid, and the Dodge Ram hybrid including HEMI engines. Chrysler plans to use hybrid technology developed jointly with General Motors and BMW AG in vehicles beyond the two hybrid SUVs it had already announced to introduce in 2008. Planet Ark : Chrysler Commits to New Hybrids, Better Mileage An all-new Dodge Ram 1500 pickup will be available as a hybrid in 2010. The Dodge Ram HEMI Hybrid will combine a two-mode hybrid system with a 5.7-liter HEMI V-8 engine. For the 2009 Dodge Ram, Chrysler is launching an improved version of its HEMI V-8 engine featuring variable valve timing and a four-cylinder mode with an expanded operating range. The result is more power and torque, along with a 4% increase in fuel economy. Chrysler has also been experimenting with a Hybrid Diesel truck for military applications. Chrysler has debuted: the Dodge EV, an all electric sports car based on the Lotus Europa, with plans for a 120 mph top speed and a range of 150 to 200 miles. plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), jolting the PHEV mass-production race: the Chrysler EV, a series plug-in hybrid with all-electric range, based on Chrysler Town & Country. and the Jeep EV, based on a Jeep Wrangler. Chrysler is exploring in-wheel electric motors for this vehicle. At the 2009 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Chrysler unveiled the 200C EV Concept, a sports sedan with an all-electric range of 40 miles and an extended range of about . It also added the Jeep Patriot EV, another range-extended electric vehicle. If Chrysler does release an all-electric sports car in 2010, it will be in direct competition with two North American startup companies: Tesla Motors and Fisker Automotive. Chrysler's ENVI division, which is dedicated to creating production electric drive vehicles, announced in September 2008 that Chrysler LLC will have electric vehicles in showrooms by 2010. They showed three "production intent" vehicles and stated that these are going to be the first of a broad portfolio of electric vehicles. Chrysler Chief Executive Bob Nardelli said government loans would help speed the electric technology to market. But if they aren't approved, Chrysler will have to spend limited resources on developing new technology and would have to make cuts elsewhere, possibly in employment and development of conventional products. "Unfortunately we have had to furlough many families as a result of the economy turmoil and certainly the downward spiraling in the industry," he said. "I'd like to make sure that we don't have to go further to be able to support advanced technology work." The Chrysler executives said the day is coming when the whole Chrysler fleet has electric powertrains. "The goal is to achieve fundamental technology, get economies of scale, improve our ability to make the future generations more robust, less cost, smaller, more powerful, better performance," Press said. "Ultimately it will lead to a transformation of our entire fleet that will be in some manner electric drive." PHEV Research Center Chrysler is in the Advisory Council of the PHEV Research Center. Controversy Chrysler was among the companies boycotted by gay rights groups after removing advertisements from the ABC sitcom Ellen in 1997, which it deemed "controversial." In 1987, it was discovered that Chrysler sold an estimated 32,750 cars that had been test-driven with disconnected odometers - some as much as 500 miles - before being shipped to dealers. Chrysler settled out of court with complainants. Chrysler Fined for Safety ViolationsNew York Times, 12 Jul 1987 Chrysler to Pay Some 40,000 Owners in SettlementNew York Times, Aug 24 1988 Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca sought to minimize damage to the corporation's public image by calling a news conference in which he termed the action "dumb" and "unforgivable". Divisions Chrysler — Passenger cars, minivans and SUVs Dodge — Passenger cars, minivans, trucks and SUVs ENVI - division for creating electric-drive vehicles and related advanced-propulsion technologies. Jeep — SUVs Global Electric Motorcars (GEMCAR) — Battery electric low-speed vehicles Mopar — Replacement parts for Chrysler-built vehicles. Also comprises Mopar Performance, a subdivision providing performance aftermarket parts for Chrysler-built vehicles. Chrysler Financial — Financial services for Chrysler customers and dealers Total American sales Calendar Year Sales 1999 2,638,561 2000 2,522,695 2001 2,273,208 2002 2,205,446 2003 2,127,451 2004 2,206,024 2005 2,304,833 2006 2,142,505 2007 2,076,650 2008 1,453,122 See also List of automobile manufacturers American Motors Corporation Chrysler Building Hemi engine Lee Iacocca Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center Chrysler Proving Grounds Countries Chrysler Australia Chrysler Fevre Argentina Footnotes External links Chrysler LLC corporate website Chrysler Official UK brand site ALLPAR In the media The Chrysler bankruptcy - WSWS January 2008 Detroit's desperate struggle Jorn Madslien, BBC News Jan 10, 2007, BBC: Chrysler questions climate change Chrysler Commits to New Hybrids, Better Mileage. 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2,874 | Michael_Halliday | Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (often M.A.K. Halliday) (born 1925) is an Australian linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model, the systemic functional grammar (which also goes by the name of systemic functional linguistics [SFL]). Halliday was born and raised in England. He took a BA Honours degree in Modern Chinese Language and Literature (Mandarin) at the University of London. He then lived for three years in China, where he studied under Luo Changpei at Peking University and under Wang Li at Lingnan University, before returning to take a PhD in Chinese Linguistics at Cambridge. Having taught Chinese for a number of years, he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics, and developed systemic functional grammar, elaborating on the foundations laid by his British teacher J. R. Firth and a group of European linguists of the early 20th century, the Prague School. His seminal paper on this model was published in 1961. He became the Professor of Linguistics at the University of London in 1965. In 1976 he moved to Australia as Foundation Professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney, where he remained until he retired. The impact of his work extends beyond linguistics into the study of visual and multimodal communication, and he is considered to have founded the field of social semiotics. He has worked in various regions of language study, both theoretical and applied, and has been especially concerned with applying the understanding of the basic principles of language to the theory and practices of education. He received the status of emeritus professor of the University of Sydney and Macquarie University, Sydney, in 1987, and is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong. With his seminal lecture "New Ways of Meaning: the Challenge to Applied Linguistics" held at the AILA conference in Saloniki (1990), he became one of the pioneers of eco-critical discourse analysis (a discipline of ecolinguistics). Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. Children are motivated to acquire language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. Instrumental: This is when the child uses language to express their needs (e.g.'Want juice') Regulatory: This is where language is used to tell others what to do (e.g. 'Go away') Interactional: Here language is used to make contact with others and form relationships (e.g 'Love you, mummy') Personal: This is the use of language to express feelings, opinions and individual identity (e.g 'Me good girl') The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and representational, all helping the child to come to terms with his or her environment. Heuristic: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e.g. 'What the tractor doing?') Imaginative: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to create an imaginary environment. Representational: The use of language to convey facts and information. See also Thematic equative cline (linguistics) which notes Halliday's concept "cline of instantiation" Nominal group External links and references Systemic functional linguistics List of publications Halliday and SFL Overview Interview of Halliday by G Kress, R Hasan and JR Martin, May 1986 Gardiner, Alan: A level study guide, English Language Halliday, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973. Halliday, M.A.K., and C.M.I.M. Matthiessen. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 3d ed. 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2,875 | Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma | Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC </small> (25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979) was a British admiral and statesman and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He was the last Viceroy of the British Indian Empire (1947) and the first Governor-General of independent India (1947–48). From 1954 until 1959 he was the First Sea Lord, a position that had been held by his father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, some forty years earlier. Mountbatten was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), who planted a bomb in his boat at Mullaghmore, County Sligo in the Republic of Ireland. Ancestry Mountbatten was born as His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg, although his German styles and titles were dropped in 1917. He was the youngest child and the second son of Prince Louis of Battenberg and his wife Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. His maternal grandparents were Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, who was a daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. His paternal grandparents were Prince Alexander of Hesse and Princess Julia of Battenberg. His paternal grandparents' marriage was morganatic, because his grandmother was not of royal lineage; as a result, he and his father were styled "Serene Highness" rather than "Royal Highness," were not eligible to be titled Princes of Hesse and were given the less desirable Battenberg title. His siblings were Princess Alice of Greece (mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh), Queen Louise of Sweden, and George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven. Burke's Guide to the Royal Family: edited by Hugh Montgomery-Massingberd, p. 303. His father’s forty-five year career reached its pinnacle in 1912 when he was appointed as First Sea Lord in the Admiralty. However, two years later in 1914, due to the growing anti-German sentiments that swept across Europe during the first few months of WWI and a series of lost battles at sea, Prince Louis felt it was his duty to step down from the position. Lord Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979, in Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 27 (Nov., 1981), pp 355-364. Accessed 13/05/2009 at www.jstor.org/stable/769876 In 1917, when the Royal Family stopped using their German names and titles, Prince Louis of Battenberg became Louis Mountbatten, and was created Marquess of Milford Haven. His second son acquired the courtesy style Lord Louis Mountbatten and was known as Lord Louis informally until his death notwithstanding his being granted a viscountcy in recognition of his wartime service in the Far East and an earldom for his role in the transition of India from British dependency to sovereign state. Early life Mountbatten was home schooled for the first ten years of his life. He was then sent to Lockers Park Prep School and finally he followed his older brother to the Naval Cadet School.In childhood he visited the Imperial Court of Russia at St Petersburg and became intimate with the doomed Russian Imperial Family; in later life he was called upon authoritatively to rebut claims by pretenders to be the supposedly surviving Grand Duchess Anastasia. As a young man he had romantic feelings towards Anastasia's sister, the Grand Duchess Maria, and until the end of his life he kept her photograph at his bedside. After his nephew's change of name and engagement to the future Queen, he is alleged to have referred to the United Kingdom's dynasty as the future "House of Mountbatten", whereupon the Dowager Queen Mary reportedly refused to have anything to do with "that Battenberg nonsense", and the name of the Royal house remains Windsor by subsequent Royal decree — this can, however, be changed on the Monarch's wishes. After the marriage of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, it was decreed that their non-royal descendants were to bear the (maiden) surname "Mountbatten-Windsor". </center> Career Early career Lord Mountbatten served in the Royal Navy as a midshipman during WWI. After his service, he attended Cambridge University for two terms where he studied engineering in a program that was specially designed for ex-servicemen. During his time at Cambridge, Mountbatten had to balance his studies with the robust social life he enjoyed as a member of Christ’s College. In 1922, Mountbatten accompanied Edward, Price of Wales, on a royal tour of India. It was during this trip that he met and proposed to his wife-to-be Edwina Ashley. They wed on 18 July, 1922. Edward and Mountbatten formed a close friendship during the trip but their bond deteriorated during the Abdication Crisis. Mountbatten's loyalties between the wider Royal Family and the throne, on the one hand, and the then-King, on the other, were tested. Mountbatten came down firmly on the side of Prince Albert, the Duke of York, who was to assume the throne as George VI in his brother's place. Pursuing his interests in technological development and gadgetry, Mountbatten joined the Portsmouth Signal School in 1924 and then went on to briefly study electronics at Greenwich before returning to military service. In 1926, Mountbatten was appointed to Assistant Fleet Wireless and Signals Officer of the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Roger Keyes. Lord Mountbatten returned to the Signal School in 1929 as Senior Wireless Instructor. In 1931, he was again called back to military service when he was appointed Fleet Wireless Officer to the Mediterranean Fleet. It was during this time that he founded a Signal School in Malta and became acquaintances with all the radio operators in the fleet. In 1934, Mountbatten was appointed to his first command. His ship was a new destroyer which he was to sail to Singapore and exchange for an older ship. He successfully brought the older ship back to port in Malta. By 1936, Mountbatten had been appointed to the Admiralty at Whitehall as a member of the Fleet Air Arm<ref>Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979 </ref>. Second World War Lord Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander, seen during his tour of the Arakan Front in February 1944. When war broke out in 1939, Mountbatten was moved to active service as commander of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla from aboard his ship the HMS Kelly, which was famous for its many daring exploits Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979</ref>. In early May 1940, Mountbatten led a British convoy in through the fog to evacuate the Allied forces participating in the Namsos Campaign. It was also in 1940 that he invented the Mountbatten Pink naval camouflage pigment. His ship was sunk in May 1941 during the Battle of Crete. In August 1941 Mountbatten was appointed captain of HMS Illustrious which lay in Norfolk, Virginia for repairs following action at Malta in the Mediterranean in January. During this period of relative inactivity he paid a flying visit to Pearl Harbor, where he was not impressed with the poor state of readiness and a general lack of co-operation between the US Navy and US Army, including the absence of a joint HQ. Mountbatten was a favourite of Winston Churchill (although after 1948 Churchill never spoke to him again since he was famously annoyed with Mountbatten's later role in the independence of India and Pakistan), and on 27 October 1941 Mountbatten replaced Roger Keyes as Chief of Combined Operations. His duties in this role consisted of planning commando raids across the English Channel and inventing new technical aids to assist with opposed landings<ref>Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979 . He personally pushed through the disastrous Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942 (which certain elements of the Allied military, notably Field Marshal Montgomery, felt was ill-conceived from the start). The raid on Dieppe was widely considered to be a disaster, with casualties (including those wounded and/or taken prisoner) numbering in the thousands, the great majority of them Canadians. Historian Brian Loring Villa concluded that Mountbatten conducted the raid without authority, but that his intention to do so was known to several of his superiors, who took no action to stop him . Three noteworthy technical achievements of Mountbatten and his staff include: (1) the construction of an underwater oil pipeline from the English coast to Normandy, (2) an artificial harbor constructed of concrete caissons and sunken ships, and (3) the development of amphibious Tank-Landing Ships Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979</ref>. Another project that Mountbatten proposed to Churchill was Project Habakkuk. It was to be a massive and impregnable 600 meter aircraft carrier made from reinforced ice or "Pykrete." Habakkuk never was actualized due to its enormous price tag<ref>Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979 . Mountbatten claimed that the lessons learned from the Dieppe Raid were necessary for planning the Normandy invasion on D-Day nearly two years later. However, military historians such as former Royal Marine Julian Thompson have written that these lessons should not have needed a debacle such as Dieppe to be recognised. As a result, Mountbatten became a controversial figure in Canada, with the Royal Canadian Legion distancing itself from him during his visits there during his later career; his relations with Canadian veterans "remained frosty". "Who Was Responsible For Dieppe?" CBC Archives, broadcast 9 September 1962. Retrieved 1 August 2007. Nevertheless, a Royal Canadian Sea Cadet corps (RCSCC #134 Admiral Mountbatten in Sudbury, Ontario) was named after him in 1946. In October 1943, Churchill appointed Mountbatten the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Theatre. Characteristically he set up an elaborate headquarters in the Royal Palace at Kandy, Sri Lanka, although the American generals proved unimpressed. His less practical ideas were sidelined by an experienced planning staff led by Lt-Col. James Allason, though some, such as a proposal to launch an amphibious assault near Rangoon, got as far as Churchill before being quashed. The Hot Seat", James Allason, Blackthorn, London 2006.</ref> He would hold the post until the South East Asia Command (SEAC) was disbanded in 1946. During his time as Supreme Allied Commander of the Southeast Asia Theatre, his command oversaw the recapture of Burma from the Japanese by General William Slim. Here, he worked closely with esteemed American general Albert Coady Wedemeyer. His diplomatic handling of General "Vinegar Joe" Stilwell -- his deputy and also the officer commanding the American China Burma India Theatre -- and Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Chinese Nationalist forces, was as gifted as that of General Eisenhower with General Montgomery and Winston Churchill. A personal high point was the reception of the Japanese surrender in Singapore when British troops returned to the island to receive the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the region led by General Itagaki Seishiro on 12 September 1945, codenamed Operation Tiderace. Last Viceroy His experience in the region and in particular his perceived Labour sympathies at that time led to Clement Attlee appointing him Viceroy of India after the war. In his position as Viceroy, Mountbatten oversaw the granting of independence to the Partitioned India as India and Pakistan (In subsequent years, pre-Independence India has often been referred to as "British India." Prior to Partition and Independence, "British India" referred to those parts of India which were directly administered by the British, as opposed to those portions of pre-Independence India which were under the control of the Indian princes.) He developed a strong relationship with the Indian princes who were said to have considerable confidence in him, and on the basis of his relationship with the British monarchy persuaded most of them to accede to the new states of India and Pakistan. This was vitally important in the lead-up to Indian independence, though ultimately post-Independence India and Pakistan abolished their prerogatives. Mountbatten quickly realized that a unified India was an unachievable goal and he resigned himself to accept a plan that called for the partitioning of an independent India and Pakistan<ref>Zuckerman,Earl Mountbatten of Burma, K.G., O.M. 25 June 1900-27 August 1979 .The general atmosphere surrounding the presence of Mountbatten in India was one of pressing urgency. Even the British government felt the need for the process of independence for India had to be quickly advanced Ziegler, Philip, MOUNTBATTEN: INCLUDING HIS YEARS AS THE LAST VICEROY OF INDIA, (New York: Knopf, 1985) . With such feelings surrounding the situation, the mind frame of Mountbatten being determined to provide a rapid independence for India is understandable. Mountbatten was steadfast and insistent on the swift and efficient action of transferring power from the British to the Indians. However such narrowly, focused determination did provide the impression the British were serious about actually giving India independence. Mountbatten was adamant about creating a set date for the transference of power from the British to the Indians. He felt if a date or timeline was not set, there would be a higher level of distrust towards him and the British government because the lack of such a plan would cause the Indians to think the British want to draw out the process so they can stay and impose their authority for longer Ziegler, MOUNTBATTEN: INCLUDING HIS YEARS AS THE LAST VICEROY OF INDIA, 355 . Such a thought process demonstrates either the British are aware of Indian desires or they do not have the capacity to sustain colony as large as India thus the urgency to give independence. Gandhi in his struggle for freedom for India was emphatic in his message of gaining and maintaining a united India. The sentiment was successful for awhile to rally people around the cause for freedom, however when the prospect of actually having freedom and independence within reach, sentiments took a different turn. When Mountbatten was sent to India, he was sent with the instructions of providing independence to a united India however if the situation changes just do what it takes to get Britain out promptly with minimal reputational damage Ziegler, MOUNTBATTEN: INCLUDING HIS YEARS AS THE LAST VICEROY OF INDIA, 359 . Although there was emphasis on having a united India as a result of the transference of power, the weighted importance given to Britain escaping with their noses clean deemed to be a higher priority which in turn affected the way negotiations took place when independence was discussed, especially between divided parties of Hindus and Muslims. Mountbatten was fond of Nehru and his liberal outlook for the country SarDesai, D.R, INDIA: THE DEFINITIVE HISTORY (Boulder: Westview Press, 2008), 309-313 . However it was a different emotion expressed when he dealt with Jinnah, “…Mountbatten used strong language in describing Jinnah, epithets such as “a bastard” and “an evil genius.” SarDesai, INDIA: THE DEFINITIVE HISTORY , 309 Mountbatten did try to advocate for a united India, was almost successful at persuading Jinnah to maintain a united India because of Bengal and Punjab because of the inconvenience of segregated portioned amongst those specific states Greenberg, Jonathan D. “Generations of Memory: Remembering Partition in India/Pakistan and Israel/Palestine.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 25, no.1 (2005): 89. Project MUSE . Then Jinnah changed his mind and was unyielding at the insistence of a separate state being Pakistan even if it does have an uneven population and geographical shape due to the partitioning of Bengal and Punjab Greenberg, Jonathan D. “Generations of Memory: Remembering Partition in India/Pakistan and Israel/Palestine.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 25, no.1 (2005): 89. Project MUSE . Jinnah had the similar focused determination as Mountbatten in terms of the goals they wanted to achieve both being very different, yet Mountbatten was aware of the power which Jinnah possessed “ “If it could be said that any single man held the future of India in the palm of his hand in 1947,” said the viceroy, “that man was Mohammed Ali Jinnah,” SarDesai,, INDIA: THE DEFINITIVE HISTORY , 309 . Slowly the other Indian party leaders were coming to accept the stance of Jinnah; Gandhi was more or less the only one fighting for a united India close to the official independence of India Ziegler, MOUNTBATTEN: INCLUDING HIS YEARS AS THE LAST VICEROY OF INDIA, 373 . With the submitting to the idea of partition by other Indian leaders, this made the process of Indian independence gather speed in the proceedings which made life simpler for Mountbatten at the time. The levels of simplicity provided by the Indian leaders lowered the need for Mountbatten to fight for and gain a united India. After Independence (midnight of 14 August/15 August 1947, celebrated on the 14th in Pakistan and the 15th in India) he remained in New Delhi for ten months, serving as the first of independent India's two governors general until June 1948 (the monarchy being abolished in 1950 and the office of governor general of India replaced with a non-executive presidency.) Notwithstanding extremely effective self-promotion during his lifetime as to his own part in Indian independence — notably in the television series "The Life and Times of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten of Burma", produced by his son-in-law Lord Brabourne, and Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins's rather sensationalised Freedom at Midnight (as to which he was the main informant) — his record is seen as mixed; one view is that he hastened the independence process unduly, foreseeing vast disruption and loss of life and not wanting this to occur on the British watch, but thereby actually causing it to occur, especially during the partition of the Punjab, but also to a lesser extent, in Bengal. See, e.g., Wolpert, Stanley (2006). Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. John Kenneth Galbraith, the Canadian-American Harvard University economist, who advised governments of India during the 1950s, became an intimate of Nehru and served as the American ambassador from 1961–63, was a particularly harsh critic of Mountbatten in this regard. The horrific casualties of the partition of the Punjab are luridly described in Collins' and LaPierre's Freedom at Midnight and more latterly in Bapsi Sidhwa's novel Ice Candy Man (published in the USA as Cracking India), made into the film Earth. Career after India and Pakistan After India, Mountbatten served from 1948-1950 as commander of a cruiser squadron in the Medierranean Fleet. He then went on to serve as Fourth Sea Lord in the Admiralty from 1950-52 and then returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1952 to serve as Naval Commander-in-chief for three years. Mountbatten served his final posting in the Admiralty as First Sea Lord from 1955-59, the position which his father had held some forty years prior. This was the first time in Royal Naval history that a father and son had gained so high a rank Patton, Allyson, Broadlands: Lord Mountbatten's Country Home in British Heritage, Vol. 26, Issue 1,March 2005, pp. 14-17. Accessed from Academic Search Complete on 13/05/2009. . In his biography of Mountbatten, Philip Ziegler notes on his ambitious character: "His vanity, though child-like, was monstrous, his ambition unbridled. The truth, in his hands, was swiftly converted from what it was, to what it should have been. He sought to rewrite history with cavalier indifference to the facts to magnify his own achievements. There was a time when I became so enraged by what I began to feel was his determination to hoodwink me that I found it necessary to place on my desk a notice saying: REMEMBER, IN SPITE OF EVERYTHING, HE WAS A GREAT MAN." Ziegler, Philip Mountbatten New York, 1985. pp 17 While serving as First Sea Lord, his primary concerns dealt with devising plans on how the Royal Navy would keep shipping lanes open in the event that Britain was hit with a nuclear attack. Today this seems of minor importance but at the time few people the potential limitless destruction nuclear weapons possess and the ongoing dangers posed by the fallout. Military commanders had no need to understand the physics involved in a nuclear explosion. This becomes evident when Mountbatten had to be reassured that the fission reactions from the Bikini Atoll tests would not spread through the oceans and blow up the planet. Zuckerman, 363. As Mountbatten became more familiar with this new from of weaponry, he increasingly grew opposed to their use in combat yet at the same time he realized the potential nuclear energy had, especially with regards to submarines. Mountbatten clearly expresses his feelings towards the use of nukes in combat in his article "A Military Commander Surveys The Nuclear Arms Race," which was published shortly after his death in International Security in the winter of 1979-80. Mountbatten, Louis, "A Military Commander Surveys The Nuclear Arms Race," International Security, Vol. 4 No. 3 Winter 1979-1980, MIT Press. pp. 3-5 After leaving the Admiralty, Lord Mountbatten took the position of Chief of the Defense Staff. He served in this post for six years during which he was able to consolidate the three service departments of the military branch into a single Ministry of Defence. It is claimed that in 1967 Mountbatten attended a private meeting with press baron and MI5 agent Cecil King, and the Government's chief scientific adviser, Solly Zuckerman. King wanted to stage a coup against the then crisis-stricken Labour Government of Harold Wilson, and urged Mountbatten to become the leader of a Government of national salvation. Mountbatten apparently considered the idea of heading the coup, but Zuckerman pointed out that it was treason, and the idea came to nothing because of Mountbatten's reluctance to act. Claims of an MI5 plot against Wilson have been investigated a number of times and no credible evidence discovered. Mountbatten was appointed the first Lord Lieutenant of the Isle of Wight following that county's creation in 1974. He kept the position until his death. Mountbatten took great pride in enhancing intercultural understanding and in 1984, with his eldest daughter as the patron, the Mountbatten Internship Programme was developed to allow young adults the opportunity to enhance their intercultural appreciation and experience by spending time abroad. From 1967 until 1978, Mountbatten became president of the United World Colleges Organisation, then represented by a single college: that of Atlantic College in South Wales. Mountbatten supported the United World Colleges and encouraged heads of state, politicians and personalities throughout the world to share his interest. Under Mountbatten's presidency and personal involvement, the United World College of South East Asia was established in Singapore in 1971, followed by the UWC of the Pacific (now known as Pearson College) in Victoria, Canada in 1974. In 1978, Lord Mountbatten of Burma passed the Presidency to his great-nephew, HRH The Prince of Wales. Personal life Marriage Mountbatten's nickname among family and friends was "Dickie," notable in that "Richard" was not among his given names. This was because his great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, suggested the nickname of "Nicky", however it got mixed up with the many Nickys of the Russian Imperial Family ("Nicky" was particularly used to refer to Nicholas II, the last Tsar) so they changed it to Dickie. Mountbatten was married on 18 July 1922 to Edwina Cynthia Annette Ashley, daughter of Wilfred William Ashley, later 1st Baron Mount Temple, himself a grandson of the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury. She was the favourite granddaughter of the Edwardian magnate Sir Ernest Cassel and the principal heir to his fortune. There followed a glamorous honeymoon tour of European courts and America which famously included a visit with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin in Hollywood, Chaplin creating a widely seen home movie "Nice and Easy", featuring the talents of Fairbanks, Pickford, Chaplin and the Mountbattens. They had two daughters: Patricia Mountbatten, 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma (born on 14 February 1924), and Lady Pamela Carmen Louise (Hicks) (born on 19 April 1929). The couple, in some ways, seemed incompatible from the beginning. Lord Mountbatten's obsession with being organized led him to keep a very close watch on Edwina and he demanded her constant attention. Having no real hobby or passions and living the lifestyle of royalty, Edwina spent most of her time partying with the British and Indian elite, going on cruises and secluding herself at the couple's countryhouse on the weekends. Even with growing unhappiness on both their parts, Louis refused to get a divorce fearing that it would hinder his climb up the military command chain. There were charges of infidelity against both of them. Edwina's numerous affairs led Louis to pursue a relationship with a French woman named Yola Letellier. From this point forward their marriage disintegrated into constant accusations and suspicions. Throughout the 1930s both readily admitted to numerous affairs. WWII gave Edwina the opportunity to focus on something other than Louis' infidelity. She joined the St. John's Ambulance Brigade as an administrator. This role gave Edwina the legacy of being a heroine of the Partition Period because of her efforts to ease the pain and suffering of the people in the Punjab. It has been well documented that Edwina and India's first PM Jawaharlal Nehru became intimate friends after Indian Independence. During the summers, she would frequent the PM's house so she could lounge about on his veranda during the hot Delhi days. Personal correspondence between the two reveals a satisfying yet frustrating relationship. Edwina states in one of her letters "Nothing that we did or felf would ever be allowed to come between you and your work or me and mine -- because that would spoil everything." Bailey, Katherine, "India's Last Vicereine," British Heritage, Vol. 21, Issue 3, Apr/May 2000, pp. 16 Despite this, it is still debated whether or not their relationship became physical. Both Mountbatten daughters have candidly acknowledged that their mother had a fiery temperament and was not always supportive of her husband when jealousy of his high profile overbore a sense of their having common cause. Lady Mountbatten died on 21 February 1960 at the age of 58 while in Northern Borneo inspecting medical facilities. Her death is thought to have been cause by a heart condition. During the Indian viceroyalty, in particular, Mountbatten's evenings were often given over to assuaging his wife's feelings of angry resentment. Latterly, A.N. Wilson in his well-regarded After the Victorians: 1901–1953 has asserted that Mountbatten himself carried on affairs with lovers of both sexes and that he was known to friends as "Mountbottom." A.N. Wilson, After the Victorians: 1901–1953 (London: Hutchinson, 2005), pp.493–94. A small item in Private Eye magazine regarding drunken naval ratings at Mountbatten's London home, and which alluded to Mountbatten's bisexuality, was widely commented upon. Mountbatten's official biographer wrote that he could find nothing to support the allegation, but several eyewitness accounts supporting Private Eye were later published. Until his assassination in 1979, Mountbatten kept a photograph of his cousin Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia, beside his bed in memory of the crush he once had upon her. King and Wilson (2003), p. 49 Daughter as heir Since Mountbatten had no sons, when he was created Viscount on 23 August 1946, then Earl and Baron on 28 October 1947, the Letters Patent were drafted such that the titles would pass to the female line and its male issue. This was at his firm insistence: his relationship with his elder daughter had always been particularly close and it was his special wish that she succeed to the title in her own right. There was longstanding precedent for such remainders for military commanders: past examples included the 1st Viscount Nelson and the 1st Earl Roberts. Mentorship of Prince of Wales Mountbatten was a strong influence in the upbringing of his great-nephew, The Prince of Wales, and later as a mentor—"Honorary Grandfather" and "Honorary Grandson", they fondly called each other according to the Jonathan Dimbleby biography of the Prince—though according to both the Ziegler biography of Mountbatten and the Dimbleby biography of the Prince the results may have been mixed. He from time to time strongly upbraided the Prince for showing tendencies towards the idle pleasure-seeking dilettantism of his predecessor as Prince of Wales, King Edward VIII, later known as the Duke of Windsor, whom Mountbatten had known well in their youth. Yet he also encouraged the Prince to enjoy the bachelor life while he could and then to marry a young and inexperienced girl so as to ensure a stable married life. Mountbatten's qualification for offering advice to this particular heir to the throne was unique; it was he who had arranged the visit of George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Dartmouth Royal Naval College on 22 July 1939, taking care to include the young Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret in the invitation, but assigning his nephew, Cadet Prince Philip of Greece, to keep them amused while their parents toured the facility. This was the first recorded meeting of Charles's future parents. But a few months later, Mountbatten's efforts nearly came to naught when he received a letter from his sister Alice in Athens informing him that Philip was visiting her and had agreed to permanently repatriate to Greece. Within days, Philip received a command from his cousin and sovereign, King George II of the Hellenes, to resume his naval career in Britain which, though given without explanation, the young prince obeyed. In 1974 Mountbatten began corresponding with Charles about a potential marriage to his granddaughter, Hon. Amanda Knatchbull. It was about this time he also recommended that the 25-year-old prince get on with sowing some wild oats, and he made his own home available for Charles' romantic liaisons, which could be arranged with minimal press knowledge. Royal, by Robert Lacey, 2002. Charles dutifully wrote to Amanda's mother (who was also his godmother), Lady Brabourne, about his interest. Her answer was supportive, but advised him that she thought her daughter still rather young to be courted. Four years later Mountbatten secured an invitation for himself and Amanda to accompany Charles on his planned 1980 tour of India. Their fathers promptly objected. Prince Philip thought that the Indian public's reception would more likely reflect response to the uncle than to the nephew. Lord Brabourne counselled that the intense scrutiny of the press would be more likely to drive Mountbatten's godson and granddaughter apart than together. Charles was re-scheduled to tour India alone, but Mountbatten did not live to the planned date of departure. When Charles finally did propose marriage to Amanda, later in 1979, the circumstances were tragically changed, and she refused him. Death Mountbatten usually holidayed at his summer home in Mullaghmore, County Sligo, a small seaside village between Bundoran, County Donegal and Sligo, County Sligo on the northwest coast of Ireland. Bundoran was a popular holiday destination for volunteers of the IRA, many of whom were aware of Mountbatten's presence and movements in Mullaghmore. Despite security advice and warnings from the Garda Síochána, on 27 August 1979, Mountbatten went sailing in his thirty-foot (10 m) wooden boat, the Shadow V, which was moored in the small harbour at Mullaghmore. An IRA member named Thomas McMahon had slipped onto the unguarded boat that night and attached a radio-controlled fifty-pound (23 kg) bomb. When he was on the boat en route to Donegal Bay, McMahon detonated the bomb from shore. Mountbatten was fatally wounded and died soon after the blast. Others killed in the blast were Nicholas Knatchbull, his elder daughter's fourteen-year-old son; Paul Maxwell, a 15-year-old youth from County Fermanagh who was working as a crew member; and Baroness Brabourne, his elder daughter's 83-year-old mother-in-law who was seriously injured in the explosion, and died from her injuries the following day. Patton, Allyson, "Broadlands: Lord Mountbatten's Country Home," British Heritage March 2005, Vol. 26 Issue 1, pp. 14-17. Nicholas Knatchbull's mother and father, along with his twin brother Timothy, survived the explosion but were seriously injured. Sinn Féin vice-president Gerry Adams said of Mountbatten's death: The IRA gave clear reasons for the execution. I think it is unfortunate that anyone has to be killed, but the furor created by Mountbatten's death showed up the hypocritical attitude of the media establishment. As a member of the House of Lords, Mountbatten was an emotional figure in both British and Irish politics. What the IRA did to him is what Mountbatten had been doing all his life to other people; and with his war record I don't think he could have objected to dying in what was clearly a war situation. He knew the danger involved in coming to this country. In my opinion, the IRA achieved its objective: people started paying attention to what was happening in Ireland. On the same day Mountbatten was assassinated, the IRA also ambushed and killed eighteen British Army soldiers, sixteen of them from the Parachute Regiment at Warrenpoint, County Down in what became known as the Warrenpoint ambush. After this action, graffiti proclaiming "Bloody Sunday's Not Forgotten, We Got Eighteen And Mountbatten" was seen in some Republican areas in Ireland. Prince Charles took Mountbatten's death particularly hard, remarking to friends that things were never the same after losing his mentor. Royal by Robert Lacey, 2002. Funeral The President of Ireland, Patrick Hillery, and the Taoiseach, Jack Lynch, attended a memorial service for Mountbatten in St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. Mountbatten was buried in Romsey Abbey after a televised funeral in Westminster Abbey which he himself had comprehensively planned. On 23 November 1979, Thomas McMahon was convicted of murder for his part in the bombing and later was released in 1998 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. IRA bomb kills Lord Mountbatten — BBC News On This Day A Secret History of the IRA, Ed Moloney, 2002. (PB) ISBN 0-393-32502-4 (HB) ISBN 0-71-399665-X p.176 On hearing of Mountbatten's death, the then Master of the Queen's Music, Malcolm Williamson, was moved to write the Lament in Memory of Lord Mountbatten of Burma for violin and string orchestra. One of the most poignant of tributes paid to Mountbatten, the 11-minute work was given its first performance on 5 May 1980 by the Scottish Baroque Ensemble, conducted by Leonard Friedman. Malcolm Williamson Obituary The Independent, 4 March 2003 Styles from birth to death His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg (1900–1917) German: Durchlaucht Prinz Ludwig Franz Albrecht Viktor Nicholas Georg von Battenberg Mr. Louis Mountbatten (1917) Lord Louis Mountbatten (1917–1920) Lord Louis Mountbatten, MVO (1920–1922) Lord Louis Mountbatten, KCVO (1921–1937) Lord Louis Mountbatten, GCVO (1937–1941) Lord Louis Mountbatten, GCVO, DSO (1941–1943) Lord Louis Mountbatten, GCVO, CB, DSO (1943–1946) The Right Honourable The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCVO, KCB, DSO (1946–1947) The Right Honourable The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCVO, KCB, DSO, PC (1947) The Right Honourable The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, KCB, DSO, PC (1947–1955) The Right Honourable The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC (1955–1965) The Right Honourable The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC (1965–1979) Popular culture Lord Mountbatten (played by Christopher Owen) appears in the 2008 film The Bank Job, telling the story of a government-approved bank robbery in the 1970s. In a covert rendezvous at Paddington station, Mountbatten is portrayed as the representative of the British government and gives the robbers documents guaranteeing immunity from prosecution, in exchange for photographs potentially embarrassing to the Royal Family. Mountbatten quips "I haven't had this much excitement since the war". The Bank Job is Sweaty and Suspenseful - TIME In 1986, Masterpiece Theatre put on The Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy, starring Nichol Williamson and Janet Suzman as Lord and Lady Mountbatten. It focused on the India years and hinted at Lady Mountbatten's relationship with Nehru. In his song Post World War Two Blues, published on the LP Past, Present and Future from 1973, singer and songwriter Al Stewart has a reference to Mountbatten's controversy with Winston Churchill about India. Mountbatten is due to feature in an upcoming film Indian Summer which covers his time as Viceroy of India, and specifically the affair between his wife and Nehru. It is loosely based on the book Indian Summer: The Secret history of the end of an empire by Alex von Tunzelmann. Indian Summer: story of the Mountbattens - Times Online Lord Mountbatten was played by David Warner in the 2008 television film In Love with Barbara, a biopic of the romantic novelist Barbara Cartland which was shown on BBC Four in the United Kingdom. The Mountbatten School was opened in his name in 1969 on land that originally used to be part of the Broadlands Estate in Whitenap, Romsey. Benny Hill told a famous joke which went, "What's white and flies?" "Lord Mountbatten's Plimsol" In The Simpsons Dead Putting Society episode, when Bart and Todd decide to call the final round a draw and split the prize, one of the tournament announcers says "This is the most stirring display of gallantry and sportsmanship since Mountbatten gave India back to the Punjabs." Honours 1937: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order – GCVO (1920: MVO, 1922: KCVO) 1941: Distinguished Service Order – DSO 1943: Knight of Justice of St John – KJStJ 1946: Knight of the Garter – KG 1947: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India – GCSI 1947: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire – GCIE 1955: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath – GCB (1943: CB, 1945: KCB) 1956: Grand Commander of the Order of Thiri Thudhamma (Burma) 1965: Member of the Order of Merit – OM A road in South-Eastern Singapore was named Mountbatten Road, in honour of Louis Mountbatten. See also Mountbatten internship programme References Notes See also: David Leigh, "The Wilson Plot: The Intelligence Services and the Discrediting of a Prime Minister 1945-1976", London: Heinemann, 1988 Further reading Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten: the official biography, (Collins, 1985) Richard Hough, Mountbatten; Hero of our time, (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980) The Life and Times of Lord Mountbatten (Hutchinson, 1968) Andrew Roberts Eminent Churchillians, (Phoenix Press, 1994). Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins Freedom at Midnight, (Collins, 1975). Robert Lacey Royal (2002) A.N. Wilson After the Victorians: 1901-1953, (Hutchinson, 2005) Jon Latimer Burma: The Forgotten War, (John Murray, 2004) Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh (editor), Burke's Guide to the Royal Family, Burke's Peerage, London, 1973, ISBN 0220662223 Tony Heathcote The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734 - 1995'', (Pen & Sword Ltd, 2002), ISBN 0 85052 835 6 External links mountbattenofburma.com - Tribute & Memorial website to Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma Combined Ops Interaction with German U-Boat U-35 officers The Mountbatten Assassination: A retrospective The Mountbatten School, Romsey- http://www.mountbatten.hants.sch.uk/home/index.php |- |- |- |- | Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma |@lemmatized admiral:6 fleet:11 louis:23 francis:1 albert:4 victor:1 nicholas:5 mountbatten:159 earl:15 burma:22 kg:8 gcb:4 om:3 gcsi:5 gcie:5 gcvo:10 dso:9 pc:5 small:4 june:9 august:15 british:26 statesman:1 uncle:2 prince:28 philip:11 duke:5 edinburgh:2 last:10 viceroy:11 indian:21 empire:4 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2,876 | History_of_Indonesia | Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, were originally from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu and Buddhist influences with it. The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. The earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. By the early 20th century Dutch dominance extended to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, but a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which over half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically out-manoeuvred President Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests and Suharto's resignation on 21 May 1998. The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, the secession of East Timor, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas. Prehistory Geologically the area of modern Indonesia appeared sometime around the Pleistocene period, when it was still linked with the Asian mainland. The archipelago formed during the thaw after the latest ice age. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. cited in ; cited in ; cited in Recent discoveries on the island of Flores were dubbed "Flores Man" (Homo floresiensis), a miniature hominoid that grew only three feet tall, ; although whether this constitutes a separate species is still in dispute. See Flores Man Flores Man seems to have shared some islands with Java Man until only 10,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Taylor (2003), pages 5-7 Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet-field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and ikat weaving methods. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Pre-colonial civilisations Early kingdoms 1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of Jakarta. References to the Dvipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BC. The earliest archeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha from the 1st century AD was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island. There is also archeological evidence of a kingdom in Tatar Sunda / Sunda Territory in West Java dating from the 2nd century, and according to Dr Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Archeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was also built around this time. Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of the fourth century are found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests". In addition, the "Batu Tulis" monument ,a huge black boulder near Bogor, West Java, dates from around 450. On this monument, King Purnavarna inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarna, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. By the time of the European Renaissance, Java and Sumatra had already seen over a millennium of civilization and two major empires. One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 AD. Located in Sunda in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its fifth-century king, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions in Java. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project. Mary Somers Heidhues. Southeast Asia: A Concise History. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000. Pp. 45 and 63. The political history of Indonesia during the fourteenth and fifteen centuries is not well known due to scarcity of evidence. Two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably the greatest of the Muslim trading empires. Ricklefs (1991), page 15 Kingdom of Mataram Prambanan in Java; built during the Sanjaya dynasty of Mataram, it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in south-east Asia. Mataram was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries. The centre of the kingdom was moved from Central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. The move may have been caused by an eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi, or a power struggle. The first king of Mataram was Sri Sanjaya, who drove the Sailendras from Java and left inscriptions in stone. The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Daksa. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996. The kingdom collapsed into chaos at the end of Dharmawangsa's reign under military pressure from Srivijaya. Airlangga, a son of Udayana of Bali and a relative of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom including Bali under the name of Kahuripan. Srivijaya Empire The empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia. Srivijaya (-sri meaning glitters or radiant, -jaya meaning success or excellence) was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3 As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE. Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading center of present day Palembang. The empire was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland, and rival estuarine zones capable of forming rival power centres. The capital zone was administered directly by the ruler. The hinterland zone remained under its own local datus or chiefs who were organized into a network of allegiance to the maharaja. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari river basin centred on Jambi. The ruling lineage intermarried with and allied with the Sailendras of Central Java. Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Srivijaya established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, Srivijaya controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships, and remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century. This spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda in India in 671 and 695, and the eleventh-century Buddhist scholar Atisha, who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet. Travellers to these islands mentioned that gold coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland. In 1068, Rajendra Chola, the Chola king of Tamil Nadu, conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests throughout what is now Indonesia and Malaysia for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade. Srivijaya influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. At that time Srivijaya was briefly a tributary of the Khmer empire and later the Sukhothai kingdom. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. Singhasari and Majapahit Wringin Lawang, the split gate shows the red brick construction, and strong geometric lines of Majapahit architecture. Located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, East Java and believed to be the entrance to an important compound in Majapahit capital. A lack of historical evidence has meant the political history of Indonesia in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is unclear. Ricklefs (1991), p. 15. It is known, however, that Majapahit was the dominant kingdom of the Indonesian archipelago during this period, and the most dominant of all Indonesia's pre-Islamic states. Ricklefs (1991), p. 15. Evidence of smaller states, such as Pasai, is even more scarce such that almost no historical study is possible. Ricklefs (1991), p. 15. The Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms both rose in eastern Java and assumed the territory of Srivijaya. Singhasari was a kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history, when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali from about 1293 to around 1500. The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java altogether in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion. Gajah Mada, an ambitious Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Madah's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Srivijayan kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 1300s, Majapahit power began to decline with a war over succession that started in 1401 and went on for four years. Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of Majapah power. Other pre-colonial states The spread of Islam Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14 Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow. The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion. Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14 Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. Only Bali retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands. Sultanate of Mataram The Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the Sultanate of Demak Bintoro and the Sultanate of Pajang. According to Javanese records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of Pajang to the east, near the current site of Surakarta (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension. Pamanahan's son, Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father on the throne around 1584. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbors. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang. The reign of Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak (c. 1601-1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful Surabaya, already a major center in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613. Krapyak died that year. Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as Sultan Agung ("Great Sultan") in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646. After years of war Agung finally conquered Surabaya. The city surrounded by land and sea and starved it into submission. With Surabaya brought into the empire, the Mataram kingdom encompassed all of central and eastern Java, and Madura; only in the west did Banten and the Dutch settlement in Batavia remain outside Agung's control. He tried repeatedly in the 1620s and 1630s to drive the Dutch from Batavia, but his armies had met their match, and he was forced to share control over Java. In 1645 he began building Imogiri, his burial place, about fifteen kilometers south of Yogyakarta. Imogiri remains the resting place of most of the royalty of Yogyakarta and Surakarta to this day. Agung died in the spring of 1646, with his image of royal invincibility shattered by his losses to the Dutch, but he did leave behind an empire that covered most of Java and its neighboring islands. Upon taking the throne, Agung's son Susuhunan Amangkurat I tried to bring long-term stability to Mataram's realm, murdering local leaders that were insufficiently deferential to him, and closing ports so he alone had control over trade with the Dutch. By the mid-1670s dissatisfaction with the king fanned into open revolt. Raden Trunajaya, a prince from Madura, lead a revolt fortified by itinerant mercenaries from Makassar that captured the king's court at Mataram in mid-1677. The king escaped to the north coast with his eldest son, the future king Amangkurat II, leaving his younger son Pangeran Puger in Mataram. Apparently more interested in profit and revenge than in running a struggling empire, the rebel Trunajaya looted the court and withdrew to his stronghold in East Java leaving Puger in control of a weak court. Amangkurat I died just after his expulsion, making Amangkurat II king in 1677. He too was nearly helpless, though, having fled without an army or treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch, who then went to war to reinstate him. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favorable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. Dutch forces first captured Trunajaya, then forced Puger to recognize the sovereignty of his elder brother Amangkurat II. The Sultanate of Banten In 1524-25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of Demak Sultanate, seized the port of Banten from the Sunda kingdom, and established The Sultanate of Banten. This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population. At its peak in the first half of the seventeenth century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD. The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records. Colonial era Beginning in the sixteenth century, successive waves of Europeans—the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and British—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the 'Spice Islands' (Maluku) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe. Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions. The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history. Other scholars consider this view untenable, Ricklefs, page 22 arguing that European influence during the times of the early arrivals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was limited in both area and depth. This is in part due to Europe not being the most advanced or dynamic area of the world in the early fifteenth century. Rather, the major expansionist force of this time was Islam; in 1453, for example, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, while Islam continued to spread through Indonesia and the Philippines. European influence, particularly that of the Dutch, would not have its greatest impact on Indonesia until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Portuguese The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia. Europeans were, however, making technological advances. New found Portuguese expertise in navigation, ship building and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly-conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices and to extend the Catholic church's missionary efforts. Initial Portuguese attempts to establish a coalition and peace treaty in 1512 with the Sunda Kingdom at Kalapa ; failed due to hostilities amongst other indigenous Javan kingdoms. The Portuguese turned east to Maluku, which comprised a varied collection of principalities and kingdoms that were occasionally at war with each other but maintained significant inter-island and international trade. Through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions in eastern Indonesia including the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor. The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came at the latter half of the sixteenth century, after the pace of their military conquest in the archipelago had stopped and their commercial interest in Indonesia was shifting to Japan, Macau and China as well as sugar in Brazil and the Atlantic slave trade. The Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor in modern day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat in 1575 at Ternate at the hands of indigenous Ternateans, Dutch conquests in Ambon, north Maluku and Banda, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region. In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influences on Indonesian culture are small: the romantic keroncong guitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect Portuguese’s role as the 'lingua franca' of the archipelago alongside Malay; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc. The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia. There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese. Ricklefs (1991), pages 22 to 26 Dutch East-India Company The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the Dutch East-India Company (VOC). An early 18th century Dutch map from a time when only the north coastal ports of Java were well known to the Dutch In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta). The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten (Bantam). The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the world's richest colonial possessions. Dutch state rule Batavian (Jakarta) tea factory in the 1860s After the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, Ricklefs (1991), page 24 and after a short British rule under Thomas Stamford Raffles, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the Java War of 1825-1830. After 1830 a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the Cultivation System (in Dutch: cultuurstelsel). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian collaborators enormous wealth. The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government-owned plantations for 60 days of the year. The system was abolished in a more liberal period after 1870. In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms. For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state. Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia. The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province but relinquished it in 1999. The emergence of Indonesia Indonesian National Revival Sukarno, Indonesian Nationalist leader, and later, first president of Indonesia In 1908 the first nationalist movement was formed, Budi Utomo, followed in 1912 by the first nationalist mass movement, Sarekat Islam. The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. Many, including Indonesia's first president, Sukarno (1901-70), were imprisoned for political activities. In 1914 exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the Communist Party of Indonesia. Japanese occupation The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule, ; and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year. That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942. In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation. In March 1945 Japan organized an Indonesian committee (BPUPKI) on independence. At its first meeting in May, Supomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim Sarawak, Sabah, Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended. On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi in Vietnam. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August. After the Japanese surrender however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August. Indonesian National Revolution Under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno President, and Hatta Vice President. Ricklefs (1991), page 213; ; ; ; Reid (1973), page 30 Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese. The Netherlands, initially backed by the British tried to re-establish their rule, "Indonesian War of Independence" Dutch wanted to reoccupy Indonesia and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence. ; Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) but also firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3500 Europeans were killed and 20000 were missing, meaning more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance, led on Java by commander Nasution persisted. On 27 December, 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the United Nations, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). On 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia. Vickers (2005), page xiii Sukarno's presidency Democratic experiment With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination. Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions. Ricklefs (1991), page 237; Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant Darul Islam who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent Republic of South Maluku by Ambonese formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961. In contrast to the 1945 Constitution, the 1950 constitution mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to the parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. The long-postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; the Indonesian National Party (PNI)—considered Sukarno's party—topped the poll, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) received strong support, but no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short-lived coalitions. Guided Democracy Coat of Arms of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted 1950 By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was "based upon inherent conflict" which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state human relationships. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He proposed a threefold blend of nasionalisme ('nationalism'), agama ('religion'), and komunisme ('communism') into a co-operative 'Nas-A-Kom' government. This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics - the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957, 'Guided Democracy', and proposed a cabinet of representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI). Sukarno abrogated the 1950 Constitution on 9 July 1959 by a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly and restoring the 1945 Constitution. The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the President. Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to "mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people". Western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the Reformasi era. Sukarno's revolution and nationalism Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism. Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("older brother"), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West. He instigated a number of large, ideologically-driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy. Western New Guinea had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus claimed it on this basis. Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and military confrontation with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian-Soviet arms agreement in 1960. It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963. Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced Konfrontasi with the new state of Malaysia. The northern states of Borneo, formerly British Sarawak and Sabah, had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful rulers of the Malay race and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt in Brunei. Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno rallied against notions of British imperialism mounting military offensives along the Indonesia-Malaysia border in Borneo. As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia. Indonesia's economic position continued to deteriorate; by the mid-1960s, the cash-strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57 The New Order Transition to the New Order Described as the great dalang ("puppet master"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and PKI. Sukarno's anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army. On September 30, 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were executed in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the 30 September Movement, backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, Major General Suharto, commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear the coup, which had little coordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent New Order administration. Most historians agree that the coup and the surrounding events were not led by a single mastermind controlling all events, and that the full truth will never likely be known. While the PKI's role in the events of the night of 30 September-1 October remains debated, the effects on it were devastating. The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, and encouraged by Western embassies, Seeing the nationalist and pro-Communist Sukarno as a threat to their interests, the West was keen to exploit the situation to its advantage. Suharto's portrayal of events as 'communist carnage' was the official version promoted in the West. Yet evidence; has since emerged that the killings of PKI members were encouraged by the US and UK governments. According to a CIA memo, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and President John F. Kennedy had agreed to "liquidate President Sukarno, depending on the situation and available opportunities". In 1990 the American journalist Kathy Kadane revealed the extent of the secret American support of some of the massacres of 1965-66 that allowed Suharto to seize the Presidency. She interviewed many former US officials and CIA members, who spoke of compiled lists of 5,000 PKI operatives, which the Americans ticked off as the victims were killed or captured. They worked closely with the British; Sir Andrew Gilchrist cabled the Foreign Office in London saying: "…a little shooting in Indonesia would be an essential preliminary to effective change". went on a violent anti-communist purge across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed, Friend (2003), pages 107–109; ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290 and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and one million people were killed. ; ; Friend (2003), page 113 The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned. Friend (2003), page 113 Throughout the 1965-66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI’s destruction. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970. Entrenchment of the New Order Suharto was the military president of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Roosa, John and Nevins, Joseph (2005) "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia" Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era. The Library Congress. "History of Indonesia #10". Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption. "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".</ref> Annexation of West Irian At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea, and permitted steps toward self-government and a declaration of independence on December 1, 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion December 18 preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the New York Agreement, and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on May 1, 1963. Rejecting United Nations supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favor. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an "Act of Free Choice" was conducted 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. After training in Indonesian language they were warned to vote in favor of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia. A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia. West Irian was renamed Irian Jaya ('glorious Irian') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as Papua) gave rise to small-scale guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control. Annexation of East Timor In 1975, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of Portuguese Timor, the eastern half of the island of Timor whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. In the elections held in 1975, Fretilin, a left-leaning party and UDT, aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support. Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on August 11, 1975, and a month-long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory, and did not resume the decolonisation process. On November 28, Fretilin unilaterally declared independence, and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on December 7, Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally. Following the 1998 resignation of Suharto, on August 30, 1999, the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-sponsored referendum. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002. Transmigration The Transmigration program (Transmigrasi) was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of Indonesia (such as Java and Bali) to less populous areas of the country including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi. The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in receiving areas, in order to weaken separatist movements. The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations. Forcing out Suharto Pro-democracy movement In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson. After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations. Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums. Aspinall 1996 On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation. Amnesty International 1996 Economic crisis and Suharto's resignation In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis, which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, and Suharto's presidency. At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The rupiah, the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for receiving the aid of the IMF and other donors. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, and fees for public services including education rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. The austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order and led to popular protests. Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian 1998 Revolution. Dissent within the ranks of his own Golkar party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on May 21 he stood down from power. He was replaced by his deputy Jusuf Habibie. President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to re-establish International Monetary Fund and donor community support for an economic stabilization program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on June 7, 1999. For the national parliament, Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri) won 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party; formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; United Development Party (PPP, led by Hamzah Haz) 12%; and National Awakening Party (PKB, led by Abdurrahman Wahid) 10%. Politics since 1999 In October 1999, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected Abdurrahman Wahid, commonly referred to as "Gus Dur" as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice President, for 5-year terms. Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000. President Wahid's government continued to pursue democratization and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in Aceh, the Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya. In West Timor, the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate. During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government's performance. On January 29, 2001 thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and coordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the presidency on July 23. In 2004, the largest one-day election in the world and Indonesia's first direct Presidential election was held and was won by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, commonly referred by his initials SBY. See: Politics of Indonesia. Tsunami disaster and Aceh peace deal On 26 December 2004, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. Partly as a result of the need for cooperation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted. Accords signed in Helsinki created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for Acehnese nationalist forces to form their own party, and other autonomy measures. Notes References General references and further reading Dijk, Kees van. 2001. A country in despair. Indonesia between 1997 and 2000. KITLV Press, Leiden, ISBN 90-6718-160-9 Ricklefs, M.C. 1991. A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300. 2nd Edition, Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X Ricklefs, M.C. 2001. A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200. 3rd Edition, Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4480-7 Taylor, Jean Gelman. 2003. Indonesia: Peoples and histories. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09709-3 Schwarz, Adam. 1994. A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability. 2nd Edition. St Leonards, NSW : Allen & Unwin. Citations External links Sejarah Indonesia — Detailed timeline of events in Indonesian history Decolonisation - History links for the end of the European formal Empires, casahistoria.net | History_of_Indonesia |@lemmatized indonesia:84 archipelagic:1 country:13 island:21 inhabit:3 stretch:2 along:2 equator:1 south:7 east:39 asia:12 strategic:2 sea:3 lane:1 position:7 foster:2 inter:2 international:8 trade:20 since:5 fundamentally:1 shaped:1 indonesian:66 history:13 area:17 populate:2 people:19 various:1 migration:1 create:2 diversity:1 culture:4 ethnicity:1 language:2 archipelago:13 landforms:1 climate:1 significantly:1 influenced:1 agriculture:3 formation:2 state:23 fossilised:2 remains:4 homo:3 erectus:2 popularly:3 know:11 java:51 man:7 suggest:5 two:9 million:5 year:19 ago:3 austronesian:2 form:9 majority:3 modern:10 population:9 originally:1 taiwan:2 arrive:5 around:8 bce:3 seventh:4 century:35 ce:5 powerful:3 srivijaya:17 naval:2 kingdom:42 flourish:6 bring:6 hindu:10 buddhist:4 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2,877 | Oral_history | Oral history can be defined as the recording, preservation and interpretation of historical information, based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker. It often takes the form of eye-witness evidence about past events, but can include folklore, myths, songs and stories passed down over the years by word of mouth. While it is an invaluable way of preserving the knowledge and understanding of older people, it can also involve interviewing younger generations. More recently, the use of video recording techniques has expanded the realm of oral history beyond verbal forms of communication and into the realm of gesture. Modern tradition Contemporary oral history involves recording or transcribing eyewitness accounts of historical events. Some anthropologists started collecting recordings (at first especially of Native American folklore) on phonograph cylinders in the late 19th century. In the 1930s the Works Progress Administration (WPA) sent out interviewers to collect accounts from various groups, including surviving witnesses of the American Civil War, Slavery, and other major historical events. The Library of Congress also began recording traditional American music and folklore onto acetate discs. With the development of audio tape recordings after World War II, the task of oral historians became easier. In 1942 the New Yorker published a profile of Joe Gould, who claimed to be collecting “An Oral History of Our Time.” Although Gould never produced this work, the magazine story about him popularized the term oral history. In 1948 Alan Nevins, a Columbia University historian, established the Columbia Oral History Research Office, with a mission of recording, transcribing, and preserving oral history interviews. In 1967 American oral historians founded the Oral History Association, and in 1969 British oral historians founded the Oral History Society. There are now numerous national organizations and an International Oral History Association, which hold workshops and conferences and publish newsletters and journals devoted to oral history theory and practices. Historians, folklorists, anthropologists, sociologists, journalists, linguists, and many others employ some form of interviewing in their research. Although multi-disciplinary, oral historians have promoted common ethics and standards of practice, most importantly the attaining of the “informed consent” of those being interviewed. Usually this is achieved through a deed of gift, which also establishes copyright ownership that is critical for publication and archival preservation. Oral historians generally prefer to ask open-ended questions and avoid leading questions that encourage people to say what they think the interviewer wants them to say. Some interviews are “life reviews,” conducted with those at the end of their careers, others are focused on a specific period in their lives, such as war veterans, or specific events, such as those with survivors of Hurricane Katrina. The first oral history archives focused on interviews with prominent politicians, diplomats, military officers, and business leaders. By the 1960s and ‘70s, interviewing began being employed more often when historians investigate history from below. Whatever the field or focus of a project, oral historians attempt to record the memories of many different people when researching a given event. Interviewing a single person provides a single perspective. Individuals may misremember events or distort their account for personal reasons. By interviewing widely, oral historians seek points of agreement among many different sources, and also record the complexity of the issues. The nature of memory–both individual and community–is as much a part of the practice of oral history as are the stories collected. See also Intangible Cultural Heritage National Day of Listening Oral history preservation Postliterate society Reminiscence therapy External links Case studies and collections Cappel, Constance, "The Smallpox of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People". The Edwin Mellon Press, 2007. Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History, University of Kentucky Oral History Project on Memory and Displacement - Life Stories of Montrealers Displaced by War, Genocide and other Human Rights Violations African American Oral History Collection at University of Louisville (Louisville, Kentucky) American Life Histories- WPA Writers' Project 1936–1940 at Library of Congress (US) Recollections of WWII - directory of oral history collections relating to WWII Food Stories- Food related oral history recordings from the British Library Sound Archive Immigrants in Black & White: A Review of “Communities Without Borders” , The Indypendent, Susan Chenelle In the First Person - index of 2,500+ collections of international oral histories in English Oral history collection of combat veterans Oral history collections and activities, including National Life Stories, at the British Library Oral History in the Teaching of U.S. History Oral History Program, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Center for Lowell History Australian Centre for Oral History Project Jukebox, the oral history program of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks Testimony Project, Oral History of Mental Health Care Service Users in the UK Dipex, Oral History site for patients' view of care Refugee Stories, Oral History Site for refugee's to London stories Story Corps, US American site on cross-generational life story telling A rich vein of city records from Sept. 11, including more than 12,000 pages of oral histories rendered in the voices of 503 firefighters, paramedics, and emergency medical technicians Oral History page of Első Pesti Egyetemi Rádió, Hungary with downloadable voices in Hungarian American Century Oral History Project at St. Andrew's Episcopal School. One of the largest pre-collegiate oral history projects and archives in the U.S. Organizations Center for Studies in Oral Tradition Centre for Oral History and Digital Storytelling - Concordia University International Oral History Association Oral History Association of Australia Oral History Association (US) Oral History Society (GB) The Australian Centre for Oral History The french "Institut d'histoire du temps présent" Technical Advice on how to conduct oral history interviewing from the East Midlands Oral History Archive Testimony Software made available by the Australian Centre for Oral History. | Oral_history |@lemmatized oral:50 history:47 define:1 recording:5 preservation:3 interpretation:1 historical:3 information:1 base:1 personal:2 experience:1 opinion:1 speaker:1 often:2 take:1 form:3 eye:1 witness:2 evidence:1 past:1 event:6 include:4 folklore:3 myth:1 song:1 story:10 pass:1 year:1 word:1 mouth:1 invaluable:1 way:1 preserve:2 knowledge:1 understanding:1 old:1 people:4 also:5 involve:2 interview:10 young:1 generation:1 recently:1 use:1 video:1 record:6 technique:1 expand:1 realm:2 beyond:1 verbal:1 communication:1 gesture:1 modern:1 tradition:2 contemporary:1 transcribe:1 eyewitness:1 account:3 anthropologist:2 start:1 collect:4 first:3 especially:1 native:2 american:9 phonograph:1 cylinder:1 late:1 century:2 work:2 progress:1 administration:1 wpa:2 send:1 interviewer:2 various:1 group:1 survive:1 civil:1 war:4 slavery:1 major:1 library:4 congress:2 begin:2 traditional:1 music:1 onto:1 acetate:1 disc:1 development:1 audio:1 tape:1 world:1 ii:1 task:1 historian:10 become:1 easier:1 new:1 yorker:1 publish:2 profile:1 joe:1 gould:2 claim:1 time:1 although:2 never:1 produce:1 magazine:1 popularize:1 term:1 alan:1 nevins:1 columbia:2 university:6 establish:2 research:3 office:1 mission:1 transcribing:1 found:2 association:5 british:3 society:3 numerous:1 national:3 organization:2 international:3 hold:1 workshop:1 conference:1 newsletter:1 journal:1 devote:1 theory:1 practice:3 folklorists:1 sociologist:1 journalist:1 linguist:1 many:3 others:2 employ:2 multi:1 disciplinary:1 promote:1 common:1 ethic:1 standard:1 importantly:1 attaining:1 inform:1 consent:1 usually:1 achieve:1 deed:1 gift:1 copyright:1 ownership:1 critical:1 publication:1 archival:1 generally:1 prefer:1 ask:1 open:1 end:2 question:2 avoid:1 leading:1 encourage:1 say:2 think:1 want:1 life:6 review:2 conduct:2 career:1 focus:3 specific:2 period:1 veteran:2 survivor:1 hurricane:1 katrina:1 archive:4 prominent:1 politician:1 diplomat:1 military:1 officer:1 business:1 leader:1 investigate:1 whatever:1 field:1 project:7 attempt:1 memory:3 different:2 give:1 single:2 person:2 provide:1 perspective:1 individual:2 may:1 misremember:1 distort:1 reason:1 widely:1 seek:1 point:1 agreement:1 among:1 source:1 complexity:1 issue:1 nature:1 community:2 much:1 part:1 see:1 intangible:1 cultural:1 heritage:1 day:1 listen:1 postliterate:1 reminiscence:1 therapy:1 external:1 link:1 case:1 study:2 collection:6 cappel:1 constance:1 smallpox:1 odawa:1 tribe:1 l:1 arbre:1 croche:1 edwin:1 mellon:1 press:1 louie:1 b:1 nunn:1 center:3 kentucky:2 displacement:1 montrealers:1 displace:1 genocide:1 human:1 right:1 violation:1 african:1 louisville:2 writer:1 u:5 recollection:1 wwii:2 directory:1 relate:1 food:2 related:1 sound:1 immigrant:1 black:1 white:1 without:1 border:1 indypendent:1 susan:1 chenelle:1 index:1 english:1 combat:1 activity:1 teaching:1 program:2 massachusetts:1 lowell:2 australian:3 centre:4 jukebox:1 alaska:1 fairbanks:1 testimony:2 mental:1 health:1 care:2 service:1 user:1 uk:1 dipex:1 site:3 patient:1 view:1 refugee:2 london:1 corp:1 cross:1 generational:1 tell:1 rich:1 vein:1 city:1 sept:1 page:2 render:1 voice:2 firefighter:1 paramedic:1 emergency:1 medical:1 technician:1 első:1 pesti:1 egyetemi:1 rádió:1 hungary:1 downloadable:1 hungarian:1 st:1 andrew:1 episcopal:1 school:1 one:1 large:1 pre:1 collegiate:1 digital:1 storytelling:1 concordia:1 australia:1 gb:1 french:1 institut:1 histoire:1 du:1 temps:1 présent:1 technical:1 advice:1 east:1 midland:1 software:1 make:1 available:1 |@bigram eyewitness_account:1 multi_disciplinary:1 hurricane_katrina:1 external_link:1 cappel_constance:1 louisville_kentucky:1 alaska_fairbanks:1 mental_health:1 health_care:1 histoire_du:1 |
2,878 | Spam_(Monty_Python) | Terry Jones (in the back), Eric Idle, Graham Chapman and the Vikings in the Monty Python sketch "Spam". "Spam" is a popular Monty Python sketch, first televised in 1970. In the sketch, two customers are trying to order a breakfast from a menu that includes the processed meat product in almost every dish. The term spam (in electronic communication, and general slang) is derived from this sketch. spam - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary It features Terry Jones as The Waitress, Eric Idle as Mr. Bun and Graham Chapman as Mrs. Bun. The televised sketch also featured John Cleese as The Hungarian and Michael Palin as a historian, but this part was left out of audio recordings of the sketch. Sketch Only three and a half minutes long, it builds up into a semi-argument between the waitress who has a menu limited to having Spam in just about everything ("Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, baked beans, Spam, Spam, Spam and Spam"), and Mrs Bun, who is the only one in the room who does not want it. She asks for an item with the Spam removed (despite there already being some items mentioned that do not actually include Spam), much to the amazement of her Spam-loving husband. Eventually, Mrs Bun resorts to screaming, "I DON'T LIKE SPAM!!" At several points, a group of Vikings in the restaurant (referred to as the Green Midget Café in Bromley) interrupt conversation by loudly singing "Spam, lovely Spam, wonderful Spam." They are interrupted by the waitress several times, but they resume singing more and more loudly until the sketch cuts to a historian talking about the Vikings, "...and Spam selecting a Spam particular Spam item from the Spam menu, would Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam..." as the singing continues on and on... It premiered on December 15, 1970 as the final sketch of the 25th show of Monty Python's Flying Circus, and the following end credits were changed so every member of the crew has either Spam or some other food item from the menu added to their names. (Spam Terry Jones, Michael Spam Palin, John Spam John Spam John Spam Cleese, Graham Spam Spam Spam Chapman, Eric Spam Egg and Chips Idle, Terry Spam Sausage Spam Egg Spam Gilliam, etc.) The sketch became immensely popular. The word Spam is uttered at least 132 times. This sketch has also been featured in several Monty Python videos including Parrot Sketch Not Included - 20 Years of Monty Python. The DVD release of the sketch contains a deliberate subtitling error. When the Hungarian tries to order food, his words are "My lower intestine is full of Spam, Egg, Spam, Bacon, Spam, Tomatoes, Spam." Yet the subtitles read "Your intestine is full of Sperm." This is a continuation of the "Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook" sketch, earlier in the episode. The subtitles are a continuation to an argument some Python fans have waged over whether the Hungarian is saying "Spam" (which would be logical) or "Sperm" (which would tie in better with the Hungarian phrasebook's wording). The audio version of the sketch, since the Hungarian and historian are not featured, instead has the Vikings reaching an operatic climax. Spam was one of the few meats excluded from the British food rationing that began in World War II and continued for a number of years after the war, and the British grew heartily tired of it, hence the sketch. Impact The phenomenon, some years later, of marketers drowning out discourse by flooding Usenet newsgroups and individuals' email with junk mail advertising messages was named spamming, due to some early internet users that flooded forums with the word "spam" Origin of the term "spam" to mean net abuse recounting the repetitive and unwanted presence of Spam in the sketch. This phenomenon has been reported in court decisions handed down in lawsuits against spammers - see, for example, CompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc., 962 F.Supp. 1015, n. 1 (S.D.Ohio 1997). The Python programming language, named after Monty Python, prefers to use spam, ham, and eggs as metasyntactic variables, instead of the traditional foo, bar, and baz. Hormel's response The Hormel company, the makers of the meat product Spam, while never quite happy with the use of the word spam for junk email, have always seemed supportive of Monty Python and their sketch. Hormel issued a special tin of Spam for the Broadway premiere of Eric Idle's hit musical Spamalot. Also, the sketch is part of the company's Spam museum in Austin, Minnesota, United States. The sketch was also mentioned in Spam's on-can advertisements for the product's 70th anniversary in 2007, though the date of the Python sketch mentioned is incorrect (1971 when it should be 1970). In 2007 the Hormel company decided that such publicity was part of their corporate image, possibly for the better, and sponsored a game where their product is strongly associated with the Monty Python http://www.spamspamspamspam.co.uk even featuring a product with "Stinky French Garlic" as part of the promotion of SPAMalot, a musical based on Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Cultural references Comedy rap act Sudden Death incorporated the Monty Python Spam chant (albeit sung by the band, not sampled from the sketch) into the chorus of their song Spam, though the song is about the junk-e-mail spam and not the meat product Spam. Spam is mentioned in the Camelot scene of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where the Knights of the Round Table sing that they "eat ham and jam and Spam a lot". Spamalot then became the name of the Monty Python musical based on the film. References External links Spam sketch | Spam_(Monty_Python) |@lemmatized terry:4 jones:3 back:1 eric:4 idle:4 graham:3 chapman:3 viking:4 monty:12 python:15 sketch:23 spam:65 popular:2 first:1 televise:1 two:1 customer:1 try:2 order:2 breakfast:1 menu:4 include:4 processed:1 meat:4 product:6 almost:1 every:2 dish:1 term:2 electronic:1 communication:1 general:1 slang:1 derive:1 definition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 dictionary:1 feature:5 waitress:3 mr:4 bun:4 televised:1 also:4 john:4 cleese:2 hungarian:6 michael:2 palin:2 historian:3 part:4 leave:1 audio:2 recording:1 three:1 half:1 minute:1 long:1 build:1 semi:1 argument:2 limit:1 everything:1 baked:1 bean:1 one:2 room:1 want:1 ask:1 item:4 remove:1 despite:1 already:1 mention:4 actually:1 much:1 amazement:1 loving:1 husband:1 eventually:1 resort:1 scream:1 like:1 several:3 point:1 group:1 restaurant:1 refer:1 green:1 midget:1 café:1 bromley:1 interrupt:2 conversation:1 loudly:2 sing:4 lovely:1 wonderful:1 time:2 resume:1 cut:1 talk:1 select:1 particular:1 would:3 singing:1 continue:2 premier:1 december:1 final:1 show:1 fly:1 circus:1 following:1 end:1 credit:1 change:1 member:1 crew:1 either:1 food:3 add:1 name:4 egg:4 chip:1 sausage:1 gilliam:1 etc:1 become:2 immensely:1 word:5 utter:1 least:1 videos:1 parrot:1 year:3 dvd:1 release:1 contain:1 deliberate:1 subtitle:3 error:1 low:1 intestine:2 full:2 bacon:1 tomato:1 yet:1 read:1 sperm:2 continuation:2 dirty:1 phrasebook:2 earlier:1 episode:1 fan:1 wag:1 whether:1 say:1 logical:1 tie:1 good:2 version:1 since:1 instead:2 reach:1 operatic:1 climax:1 exclude:1 british:2 ration:1 begin:1 world:1 war:2 ii:1 number:1 grow:1 heartily:1 tire:1 hence:1 impact:1 phenomenon:2 later:1 marketer:1 drown:1 discourse:1 flood:2 usenet:1 newsgroups:1 individual:1 email:2 junk:3 mail:2 advertising:1 message:1 spamming:1 due:1 early:1 internet:1 user:1 forum:1 origin:1 mean:1 net:1 abuse:1 recount:1 repetitive:1 unwanted:1 presence:1 report:1 court:1 decision:1 hand:1 lawsuit:1 spammer:1 see:1 example:1 compuserve:1 inc:2 v:1 cyber:1 promotion:2 f:1 supp:1 n:1 ohio:1 programming:1 language:1 prefers:1 use:2 ham:2 metasyntactic:1 variable:1 traditional:1 foo:1 bar:1 baz:1 hormel:4 response:1 company:3 maker:1 never:1 quite:1 happy:1 always:1 seem:1 supportive:1 issue:1 special:1 tin:1 broadway:1 premiere:1 hit:1 musical:3 spamalot:3 museum:1 austin:1 minnesota:1 united:1 state:1 advertisement:1 anniversary:1 though:2 date:1 incorrect:1 decide:1 publicity:1 corporate:1 image:1 possibly:1 sponsor:1 game:1 strongly:1 associate:1 http:1 www:1 spamspamspamspam:1 co:1 uk:1 even:1 stinky:1 french:1 garlic:1 base:2 holy:2 grail:2 cultural:1 reference:2 comedy:1 rap:1 act:1 sudden:1 death:1 incorporate:1 chant:1 albeit:1 band:1 sample:1 chorus:1 song:2 e:1 camelot:1 scene:1 knight:1 round:1 table:1 eat:1 jam:1 lot:1 film:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram terry_jones:3 eric_idle:3 graham_chapman:2 monty_python:12 python_sketch:4 spam_spam:14 merriam_webster:1 mr_bun:4 michael_palin:1 baked_bean:1 fly_circus:1 immensely_popular:1 parrot_sketch:1 food_ration:1 usenet_newsgroups:1 f_supp:1 supp_n:1 metasyntactic_variable:1 foo_bar:1 bar_baz:1 http_www:1 holy_grail:2 mail_spam:1 external_link:1 |
2,879 | Lego | Lego, officially trademarked LEGO, is a line of construction toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately held company based in Billund, Denmark. The company's flagship product, Lego, consists of colorful interlocking plastic bricks and an accompanying array of gears, minifigures and various other parts. Lego bricks can be assembled and connected in many ways, to construct such objects as vehicles, buildings and even working robots. Anything constructed can then be taken apart again, and the pieces used to make other objects. The toys were originally designed in the 1940s in Europe and have achieved an international appeal, with an extensive subculture that supports Lego movies, games, competitions, and four Lego-themed amusement parks. Early history A Chrysler Building replica made entirely of Lego bricks, on display at the Times Square location of Toys "R" Us in New York City. The Lego Group began in the workshop of Ole Kirk Christiansen, a carpenter from Billund, Denmark, who began making wooden toys in 1932. In 1934, his company came to be called Lego. It expanded to producing plastic toys in 1940. In 1949, Lego began producing the now famous interlocking bricks, calling them "Automatic Binding Bricks". These bricks were based largely on the design of Kiddicraft Self-Locking Bricks, which were released in the United Kingdom in 1947. Lego modified the design of the Kiddiecraft brick after examining a sample given to it by a British supplier of an injection-moulding machine that Lego had purchased. The first Lego bricks, manufactured from cellulose acetate, were developed in the spirit of traditional wooden blocks that could be stacked upon one another; but these plastic bricks could be locked together. They had several round studs on top, and a hollow rectangular bottom. The blocks snapped together, but not so tightly that they required extraordinary effort to be separated. The company name Lego was coined by Christiansen from the Danish phrase leg godt, which means "play well". The name could also be interpreted as "I put together" and "I assemble" in Latin, though this would be a somewhat forced application of the general sense "I collect; I gather; I learn"; the word is most used in the derived sense "I read". The cognate Greek verb λέγω (lego) also means "gather, pick up", but this can include constructing a stone wall. Homer, Odyssey 18.359 The Lego Group's motto is "Only the best is good enough", a free translation of the Danish phrase Kun det bedste er godt nok. This motto was created by Ole Kirk to encourage his employees never to skimp on quality, a value he believed in strongly. The motto is still used within the company today. The use of plastic for toy manufacture was not highly regarded by retailers and consumers of the time. Many of the Lego Group's shipments were returned, after poor sales; it was thought that plastic toys could never replace wooden ones. By 1954, Christiansen's son, Godtfred Kirk Christiansen, had become the junior managing director of the Lego Group. It was his conversation with an overseas buyer that struck the idea of a toy system. Godtfred saw the immense potential in Lego bricks to become a system for creative play, but the bricks still had some problems from a technical standpoint: their locking ability was limited, and they were not very versatile. In 1958, the modern brick design was developed; and it took another five years to find the right material for it. The modern Lego brick was patented on January 28, 1958; and bricks from that year are still compatible with current bricks. Design A model of Trafalgar Square, London in Legoland Windsor Lego pieces of all varieties are a part of a universal system. Despite variation in the design and purpose of individual pieces over the years, each remains compatible in some way with existing pieces. Lego bricks from 1958 still interlock with those made in 2009, and Lego sets for young children are compatible with those made for teenagers. Bricks, beams, axles, mini figures, and all other parts in the Lego system are manufactured to an exacting degree of precision. When snapped together, pieces must have just the right amount of strength and flexibility mixed together to stick together. They must stay together until pulled apart. They cannot be too easy to pull apart, or the resulting constructions would be unstable; they also cannot be too difficult to pull apart, since the disassembly of one creation in order to build another is part of the Lego appeal. In order for pieces to have just the right "clutch power", Lego elements are manufactured within a tolerance of 2 µm. Primary concept and development work takes place at the Billund headquarters, where the company employs approximately 120 designers. The company also has smaller design offices in the UK, Spain, Germany, and Japan, which are tasked with developing products aimed specifically at these markets. The average development period for a new product is around twelve months, in three stages. The first stage is to identify market trends and developments, including contact by the designers directly with the market; some are stationed in toy shops close to holiday periods, while others interview children. The second stage is the design and development of the product based upon the results of the first stage. As of September 2008 the design teams use 3D modeling software such as Rhinoceros 3D to generate CAD drawings from initial design sketches. The designs are then prototyped using an in-house stereolithography machine. These are presented to the entire project team for comment and for testing by parents and children during the "validation" process. Designs may then be altered in accordance with the results from the focus groups. Virtual models of completed Lego products are built concurrently with the writing of the user instructions. Completed CAD models are also used in the wider organization, such as for marketing and packaging. Manufacture A Lego City Since 1963, Lego pieces have been manufactured from a strong, resilient plastic known as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). As of September 2008, the engineers use the NX CAD/CAM/CAE PLM software suite to model the elements. The software allows the parts to be optimized by way of mold flow and stress analysis. Prototype molds are sometimes built before the design is committed to mass production. The ABS plastic is heated to 232°C until at a dough-like consistency. It is then injected into the molds at pressures between 25 and 150 tons, and takes approximately 7 seconds to cool. The molds are permitted a tolerance of up to two thousandths of a millimeter, to ensure the bricks remain connected. Human inspectors check the output of the molds, to eliminate significant variations in color or thickness. Worn-out molds are encased in the foundations of buildings to prevent them from falling into competitors' hands. According to the Lego Group, about eighteen bricks out of every million fail to meet the standard required. Lego factories recycle all but about 1 percent of their plastic waste from the manufacturing process every year. If the plastic can't be re-used in LEGO bricks, it's processed and sold to industries that can make use of it. http://gizmodo.com/5019797/everything-you-always-wanted-to-know-about-lego Manufacturing of Lego bricks occurs at a number of locations around the world. Molding is done at one of two plants in Denmark and Czech Republic. Brick decorations and packaging is done at plants in Denmark, United States, Mexico and the Czech Republic. The Lego company estimates that in the course of five decades it has sold some 400 billion Lego blocks. Annual production of Lego bricks averages approximately 20 billion (2×1010) per year, or about 600 pieces per second. To put this in context, if all the Lego bricks ever produced were to be divided equally among a world population of six billion, each person would have 62 Lego bricks. In 2007, Lego Group announced a restructuring of the current production setup including the outsourcing of some of the production work to Flextronics, a Singaporean electronics company. Lego Group plans to close the production facility in Enfield, Connecticut and outsource this work to the Flextronics factory in Mexico. Flextronics will also oversee the factory in Kladno, Czech Republic. The Czech facilities would also be expanded due to the planned closing of the Swiss factory in Baar, which mostly manufactured TECHNIC parts. On February 19, 2008, Lego announced that the Lego Group would instead take over operations of the Kladno factory from March 1, 2008. The Prague Post Online: Business: Gearing up On July 1, 2008, Lego announced their intent to take over plants in Mexico and Hungary and "phase out the existing outsourcing agreement with Flextronics during 2009." http://www.lego.com/eng/info/default.asp?page=pressdetail&contentid=78308&countrycode=2057&yearcode=&archive=false Today Building products Since it began producing plastic bricks, the Lego Group has released thousands of play sets themed around a variety of topics. Examples include, but are not limited to, town and city, space, robots, pirates, vikings, the middle ages, dinosaurs, holiday locations, scuba diving and undersea exploration, the wild west, the Arctic, airports, miners, Star Wars, Batman, SpongeBob SquarePants, Avatar: The Last Airbender, Harry Potter, Indiana Jones and Speed Racer. New elements are often released along with new sets. There are also Lego sets designed to appeal to young girls such as the Belville and Clikits lines which consists of small interlocking parts that are meant to encourage creativity and arts and crafts, much like regular Lego bricks. Belville and Clikit pieces can interlock with regular Lego bricks as decorative elements. Also the new creation of Lego Factory gives people the chance to customize and build their own Lego set, any shape or size. Users can even customize the box that the set comes in. The Lego range has expanded to encompass accessory motors, gears, lights, sensors, and cameras designed to be used with Lego components. There are even special bricks, like the Lego NXT that can be programmed with a PC or a Mac to perform very complicated and useful tasks. These programmable bricks are sold under the name Lego Mindstorms. In January 2004 the Lego Company reported a deficit of Dkr1.4bn (£144m), which caused speculation that the owners of the Lego Company would be forced to sell to an American company. After re-evaluating its priorities and cutting expenses by selling their amusement parks and cutting a Lego line aimed at girls, Lego reported a net profit increase of 32% (DKr1.35bn), marking it as a company doing well during the global recession of the time http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/mar/26/lego-billund-denmark . In 2006 a new Lego Mindstorms kit called Mindstorms NXT was released. It is more advanced than the previous RCX, and has a new array of sensors. They include improved touch and light sensors, and new sound and ultrasonic sensor technology, the latter allowing the robot to measure distance. A rotation sensor, previously separate, is now directly incorporated into the NXT motors. There is also a Bluetooth compatible hookup that can send and receive messages from one's cellphone and other Bluetooth compatible devices. The RCX was only compatible with Windows (though the RCX using the educational software version called Robolab could be used on both Mac OS and Microsoft Windows), but the NXT is compatible with both Windows and Mac OS. There are several robotics competitions which use Lego bricks and the RCX or NXT. The earliest, and likely the largest, is Botball, a national U.S. middle- and high-school competition stemming from the MIT 6.270 Lego robotics tournament. A related competition is FIRST Lego League for elementary and middle schools. The international RoboCup Junior soccer competition involves extensive use of Lego Mindstorms equipment which is often pushed to its extreme limits. Bionicle is a line of toys by the Lego Group that is marketed towards those in the 7–16 year-old age range. The line was launched in January 2001 in Europe and June/July 2001 in the United States. The Bionicle idea originated from the earlier toy lines Slizers (also known as Throwbots) and Roboriders. Both of these lines had similar throwing disks and characters based on classical elements. The sets in the Bionicle line have increased in size and flexibility through the years. The Lego group's Duplo product, introduced in 1969, is a range of simple blocks which measure twice the width, height and depth of standard Lego blocks, and are aimed at younger children. Video Games Lego has a large list of video games that appeal to a wide age range, with titles like Lego Star Wars: The Video Game, Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy, Bionicle Heroes as well as the Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga and Lego Indiana Jones, a Lego Batman, and the upcoming Lego Universe MMOG. Lego Digital Designer is an official piece of Lego software for Windows and Mac OS X which allows users to build with Lego bricks on their computers. Users can then publish their creations online on the Lego Factory website, or purchase the physical bricks to build them. Lego Digital Designer includes some Lego products which only exist online, including models for the children's television programmes TUGS, Thomas and Friends and Speed Racer. On January 28, 2008, Lego celebrated the 50th anniversary of the patent on its interlocking blocks with a worldwide building contest. Google paid tribute to the anniversary by writing its name on the Google homepage in Lego bricks, along with the Lego figure on one of the letters. One of the largest Lego sets ever commercially produced is a minifig-scaled edition of the Star Wars Millennium Falcon. Designed by Jens Kronvold Fredericksen, it was released in 2007 and has 5,195 pieces. It was recently surpassed by a Lego model of the Taj Mahal which consists of 5,922 pieces. Other ventures Lego Group operates four Legoland amusement parks, the original in Billund, Denmark, the second in Windsor England and the third in Gunzburg, Germany; there is also one in Carlsbad, California. On July 13, 2005, the control of 70% of the Legoland parks was sold for $460 million to the Blackstone Group of New York while the remaining 30% is still held by the Lego Group. There are also three Legoland Discovery Centers, two in Germany Duisburg and Berlin, and one in Chicago, Illinois. Lego operates 43 retail stores (34 in the United States, 4 in the United Kingdom and 5 in Germany), including ones at the Downtown Disney shopping complexes at Disneyland and Walt Disney World Resorts as well as in the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota. There is also a franchised Lego store in Abu Dhabi. The opening of each store is celebrated with weekend long event where a Master Model Builder creates, with the help of volunteers most of which are children, a larger than life lego statue which is then displayed at the new store for several weeks. In art The Walt Disney World Resort features a sculpture of Brickley the Lego Sea Serpent made of Lego bricks. One hobby among enthusiasts is to make short movies or recreations of feature films using Lego bricks. Such movies are called "Lego movies", "Brickfilms", "Legomations", "Brick Flicks" and "cinema Lego". They usually use stop motion animation. Lego used to sell a line of sets named "Lego Studios" (now discontinued), which contains a Lego web cam (repackaged Logitech USB Quickcam Web), software to record video on a computer, black plastic rods which can be used to manipulate minifigures from off-camera and a minifigure resembling Steven Spielberg. Because of the low quality of the camera and software most Brickfilmers do not use it. Another notable example is the award-winning music video for the song "Fell in Love with a Girl" by The White Stripes. Director Michel Gondry filmed a live version of the video, digitized the result and then recreated it entirely with Lego bricks. Artists have also used Lego sets with one of the more notorious examples being Polish artist Zbigniew Libera's "Lego Concentration Camp" , a collection of mock Lego sets with a concentration camp theme. The Little Artists have created an entire Modern Art collection in a Lego Gallery. 'Art Craziest Nation' Art Craziest Nation was shown at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, UK. Such ambitious projects are sometimes called ‘Lego art’ or ‘brick art’. Several webcomics are illustrated with Lego such as Irregular Webcomic!. Brendan Powell Smith has created an illustrated bible using Lego bricks, called the Brick Testament. Adult Lego hobbyists or Adult Fans Of Lego (AFOL) span the globe defying the age recommendations on the boxed sets. Six people, primarily in North America, but also Europe and Asia, have taken the building hobby to the next level. As Lego Certified Professionals they are artists that use Lego bricks as their medium. This is done at a level that The Lego Group recognizes their efforts and they have the ability to not only use the Lego name and copyrighted logo, but have earned a special, in-depth relationship with the company. They are Robin Sather, Dan Parker, Sean Kenney, Nathan Sawaya, Rene Hoffmeister and Nicholas Foo. http://www.lego.com/eng/info/default.asp?page=affiliates Serious Play Since around 2000, the Lego Group has been promoting Lego Serious Play, a form of business consultancy fostering creative thinking, in which team members build metaphors of their organizational identities and experiences using Lego bricks. Participants work through imaginary scenarios using visual three-dimensional Lego constructions, imaginatively exploring possibilities in a serious form of play. See also LUGNET, Lego Users Group Network. References Further reading Bagnall, Brian. "Maximum LEGO® NXT: Building Robots with Java Brains". Variant Press. 2007. ISBN 0-9738649-1-5 Bagnall, Brian. "Core LEGO® Mindstorms". Prentice-Hall PTR. 2002. ISBN 0-13-009364-5 Bedford, Allan. The Unofficial LEGO® Builder's Guide. San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2005. ISBN 1-59327-054-2. Clague, Kevin, Miguel Agullo, and Lars C. Hassing. LEGO® Software Power Tools, With LDraw, MLCad, and LPub. 2003. ISBN 1-931836-76-0 Courtney, Tim, Ahui Herrera and Steve Bliss. Virtual LEGO®: The Official LDraw.org Guide to LDraw Tools for Windows. San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2003. ISBN 1-886411-94-8. McKee, Jacob H. Getting Started with LEGO® Trains. San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2003. ISBN 1-59327-006-2. Ferrari, Mario, Giulio Ferrari, and Ralph Hempel. Building Robots With LEGO® Mindstorms: The Ultimate Tool for Mindstorms Maniacs. 2001. ISBN 1-928994-67-9. Kristiansen, Kjeld Kirk, foreword. The Ultimate LEGO® Book. New York: DK Publishing Book, 1999. ISBN 0-7894-4691-X. Wiencek, Henry. The World of LEGO® Toys. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-8109-2362-9. Pilegaard, Ulrik, and Dooley, Mike. "Forbidden LEGO®". San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2007. ISBN 1-59327-137-9 External links Official Website Legoland Website | Lego |@lemmatized lego:130 officially:1 trademarked:1 line:9 construction:3 toy:12 manufacture:8 group:19 privately:1 hold:2 company:14 base:4 billund:5 denmark:6 flagship:1 product:8 consist:3 colorful:1 interlock:4 plastic:11 brick:44 accompany:1 array:2 gear:3 minifigures:2 various:1 part:7 assemble:2 connect:1 many:2 way:3 construct:3 object:2 vehicle:1 building:7 even:3 work:5 robot:5 anything:1 take:7 apart:4 piece:12 use:26 make:8 originally:1 design:16 europe:3 achieve:1 international:2 appeal:4 extensive:2 subculture:1 support:1 movie:4 game:4 competition:5 four:2 theme:3 amusement:3 park:4 early:3 history:1 chrysler:1 replica:1 entirely:2 display:2 time:3 square:2 location:3 r:1 u:2 new:12 york:4 city:3 begin:4 workshop:1 ole:2 kirk:4 christiansen:4 carpenter:1 wooden:3 come:2 call:7 expand:3 produce:5 famous:1 automatic:1 binding:1 largely:1 kiddicraft:1 self:1 lock:2 release:5 united:5 kingdom:2 modify:1 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2,880 | History_of_physics | Physics is the science of matter and its behaviour and motion. It is one of the oldest scientific disciplines. The first written work of physics with that title was Aristotle's Physics. Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. These disciplines began in Antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such as Archimedes and Ptolemy, then passed on to the Arabic-speaking world where they were critiqued and developed into a more physical and experimental tradition by scientists such as Ibn al-Haytham and Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in : before eventually passing on to Western Europe where they were studied by scholars such as Roger Bacon and Witelo. They were thought of as technical in character and many philosophers generally did not perceive their descriptive content as representing a philosophically significant knowledge of the natural world. Similar mathematical traditions also existed in ancient Chinese and Indian sciences. Meanwhile, philosophy, including what was called “physics”, focused on explanatory (rather than descriptive) schemes developed around the Aristotelian idea of the four types of “causes”. According to Aristotelian and, later, Scholastic physics, things moved in the way that they did because it was part of their essential nature to do so. Celestial objects were thought to move in circles, because perfect circular motion was considered an innate property of objects that existed in the uncorrupted realm of the celestial spheres. The theory of impetus, the ancestor to the concepts of inertia and momentum, also belonged to this philosophical tradition, and was developed by medieval philosophers such as John Philoponus, Avicenna and Jean Buridan. The physical traditions in ancient China and India were also largely philosophical. In the philosophical tradition of "physics", motions below the lunar sphere were seen as imperfect, and thus could not be expected to exhibit consistent motion. More idealized motion in the “sublunary” realm could only be achieved through artifice, and prior to the 17th century, many philosophers did not view artificial experiments as a valid means of learning about the natural world. Instead, physical explanations in the sublunary realm revolved around tendencies. Stones contained the element earth, and earthy objects tended to move in a straight line toward the center of the universe (which the earth was supposed to be situated around) unless otherwise prevented from doing so. Other physical explanations, which would not later be considered within the bounds of physics, followed similar reasoning. For instance, people tended to think, because people were, by their essential nature, thinking animals. Emergence of experimental method and physical optics The use of experiments in the sense of empirical procedures in geometrical optics dates back to second century Roman Egypt, where Ptolemy carried out several early such experiments on reflection, refraction and binocular vision. Due to his Platonic methodological paradigm of "saving the appearances", however, he discarded or rationalized any empirical data that did not support his theories, as the idea of experiment did not hold any importance in Antiquity. The incorrect emission theory of vision thus continued to dominate optics through to the 10th century. Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) The turn of the second millennium saw the emergence of experimental physics with the development of an experimental method emphasizing the role of experimentation as a form of proof in scientific inquiry, and the development of physical optics where the mathematical discipline of geometrical optics was successfully unified with the philosophical field of physics. The Iraqi physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), is considered a central figure in this shift in physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental and mathematical one, and the shift in optics from a mathematical discipline to a physical and experimental one. Due to his positivist approach, : his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy insisted on scientific demonstration and criticized Ptolemy's confirmation bias and conjectural undemonstrated theories. His Book of Optics (1021) was the earliest successful attempt at unifying a mathematical discipline (geometrical optics) with the philosophical field of physics, to create the modern science of physical optics. An important part of this was the intromission theory of vision, which in order to prove, he developed an experimental method to test his hypothesis. : : : He conducted various experiments to prove his intromission theory G. A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", pp. 686-7, in and other hypotheses on light and vision. The Book of Optics established experimentation as the norm of proof in optics, and gave optics a physico-mathematical conception at a much earlier date than the other mathematical disciplines. : His On the Light of the Moon also attempted to combine mathematical astronomy with physics, a field now known as astrophysics, to formulate several astronomical hypotheses which he proved through experimentation. Galileo Galilei and the rise of physico-mathematics Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) In the 17th century, natural philosophers began to mount a sustained attack on the Scholastic philosophical program, and supposed that mathematical descriptive schemes adopted from such fields as mechanics and astronomy could actually yield universally valid characterizations of motion. The Tuscan mathematician Galileo Galilei was the central figure in the shift to this perspective. As a mathematician, Galileo’s role in the university culture of his era was subordinated to the three major topics of study: law, medicine, and theology (which was closely allied to philosophy). Galileo, however, felt that the descriptive content of the technical disciplines warranted philosophical interest, particularly because mathematical analysis of astronomical observations—notably the radical analysis offered by astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus concerning the relative motions of the sun, earth, moon, and planets—indicated that philosophers’ statements about the nature of the universe could be shown to be in error. Galileo also performed mechanical experiments, and insisted that motion itself—regardless of whether that motion was natural or artificial—had universally consistent characteristics that could be described mathematically. Galileo used his 1609 telescopic discovery of the moons of Jupiter, as published in his Sidereus Nuncius in 1610, to procure a position in the Medici court with the dual title of mathematician and philosopher. As a court philosopher, he was expected to engage in debates with philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition, and received a large audience for his own publications, such as The Assayer and Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences, which was published abroad after he was placed under house arrest for his publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in 1632. Galileo’s interest in the mechanical experimentation and mathematical description in motion established a new natural philosophical tradition focused on experimentation. This tradition, combining with the non-mathematical emphasis on the collection of "experimental histories" by philosophical reformists such as William Gilbert and Francis Bacon, drew a significant following in the years leading up to and following Galileo’s death, including Evangelista Torricelli and the participants in the Accademia del Cimento in Italy; Marin Mersenne and Blaise Pascal in France; Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands; and Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle in England. The Cartesian philosophy of motion René Descartes (1596-1650) The French philosopher René Descartes was well-connected to, and influential within, the experimental philosophy networks. Descartes had a more ambitious agenda, however, which was geared toward replacing the Scholastic philosophical tradition altogether. Questioning the reality interpreted through the senses, Descartes sought to reestablish philosophical explanatory schemes by reducing all perceived phenomena to being attributable to the motion of an invisible sea of “corpuscles”. (Notably, he reserved human thought and God from his scheme, holding these to be separate from the physical universe). In proposing this philosophical framework, Descartes supposed that different kinds of motion, such as that of planets versus that of terrestrial objects, were not fundamentally different, but were merely different manifestations of an endless chain of corpuscular motions obeying universal principles. Particularly influential were his explanation for circular astronomical motions in terms of the vortex motion of corpuscles in space (Descartes argued, in accord with the beliefs, if not the methods, of the Scholastics, that a vacuum could not exist), and his explanation of gravity in terms of corpuscles pushing objects downward. Descartes, like Galileo, was convinced of the importance of mathematical explanation, and he and his followers were key figures in the development of mathematics and geometry in the 17th century. Cartesian mathematical descriptions of motion held that all mathematical formulations had to be justifiable in terms of direct physical action, a position held by Huygens and the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who, while following in the Cartesian tradition, developed his own philosophical alternative to Scholasticism, which he outlined in his 1714 work, The Monadology. Newtonian motion versus Cartesian motion Sir Isaac Newton, (1643-1727) In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Cartesian mechanical tradition was challenged by another philosophical tradition established by the Cambridge University mathematician Isaac Newton. Where Descartes held that all motions should be explained with respect to the immediate force exerted by corpuscles, Newton chose to describe universal motion with reference to a set of fundamental mathematical principles: his three laws of motion and the law of gravitation, which he introduced in his 1687 work Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Using these principles, Newton removed the idea that objects followed paths determined by natural shapes (such as Kepler’s idea that planets moved naturally in ellipses), and instead demonstrated that not only regularly observed paths, but all the future motions of any body could be deduced mathematically based on knowledge of their existing motion, their mass, and the forces acting upon them. However, observed celestial motions did not precisely conform to a Newtonian treatment, and Newton, who was also deeply interested in theology, imagined that God intervened to ensure the continued stability of the solar system. Gottfried Leibniz, (1646-1716) Newton’s principles (but not his mathematical treatments) proved controversial with Continental philosophers, who found his lack of metaphysical explanation for movement and gravitation philosophically unacceptable. Beginning around 1700, a bitter rift opened between the Continental and British philosophical traditions, which were stoked by heated, ongoing, and viciously personal disputes between the followers of Newton and Leibniz concerning priority over the analytical techniques of calculus, which each had developed independently. Initially, the Cartesian and Leibnizian traditions prevailed on the Continent (leading to the dominance of the Leibnizian calculus notation everywhere except Britain). Newton himself remained privately disturbed at the lack of a philosophical understanding of gravitation, while insisting in his writings that none was necessary to infer its reality. As the 18th century progressed, Continental natural philosophers increasingly accepted the Newtonians’ willingness to forgo ontological metaphysical explanations for mathematically described motions. Rational mechanics in the 18th century Leonhard Euler, (1707-1783) The mathematical analytical traditions established by Newton and Leibniz flourished during the 18th century as more mathematicians learned calculus and elaborated upon its initial formulation. The application of mathematical analysis to problems of motion was known as rational mechanics, or mixed mathematics (and was later termed classical mechanics). This work primarily revolved around celestial mechanics, although other applications were also developed, such as the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli’s treatment of fluid dynamics, which he introduced in his 1738 work Hydrodynamica. Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis, and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of legitimate means of analytical approximation. A representative contemporary textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath. By the end of the century analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the solar system solely on the basis of Newton’s laws without reference to divine intervention—even as deterministic treatments of systems as simple as the three body problem in gravitation remained intractable. British work, carried on by mathematicians such as Brook Taylor and Colin Maclaurin, fell behind Continental developments as the century progressed. Meanwhile, work flourished at scientific academies on the Continent, led by such mathematicians as Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, and Adrien-Marie Legendre. At the end of the century, the members of the French Academy of Sciences had attained clear dominance in the field. Physical experimentation in the 18th and early 19th centuries At the same time, the experimental tradition established by Galileo and his followers persisted. The Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences were major centers for the performance and reporting of experimental work, and Newton was himself an influential experimenter, particularly in the field of optics, where he was recognized for his prism experiments dividing white light into its constituent spectrum of colors, as published in his 1704 book Opticks (which also advocated a particulate interpretation of light). Experiments in mechanics, optics, magnetism, static electricity, chemistry, and physiology were not clearly distinguished from each other during the 18th century, but significant differences in explanatory schemes and, thus, experiment design were emerging. Chemical experimenters, for instance, defied attempts to enforce a scheme of abstract Newtonian forces onto chemical affiliations, and instead focused on the isolation and classification of chemical substances and reactions. Nevertheless, the separate fields remained tied together, most clearly through the theories of weightless “imponderable fluids", such as heat (“caloric”), electricity, and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Lavoisier’s identification of oxygen gas late in the century). Assuming that these concepts were real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical reactions. This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden Jar and the Voltaic Pile; and new kinds of measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones, such as the thermometer. Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black’s notion of latent heat and Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin’s characterization of electrical fluid as flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of positive and negative charges). Michael Faraday (1791-1867) delivering the 1856 Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution. While it was recognized early in the 18th century that finding absolute theories of electrostatic and magnetic force akin to Newton’s principles of motion would be an important achievement, none were forthcoming. This impossibility only slowly disappeared as experimental practice became more widespread and more refined in the early years of the 19th century in places such as the newly-established Royal Institution in London, where John Dalton argued for an atomistic interpretation of chemistry, Thomas Young argued for the interpretation of light as a wave, and Michael Faraday established the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Meanwhile, the analytical methods of rational mechanics began to be applied to experimental phenomena, most influentially with the French mathematician Joseph Fourier’s analytical treatment of the flow of heat, as published in 1822. Thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and electromagnetic theory William Thomson (1824-1907), later Lord Kelvin The establishment of a mathematical physics of energy between the 1850s and the 1870s expanded substantially on the physics of prior eras and challenged traditional ideas about how the physical world worked. While Pierre-Simon Laplace’s work on celestial mechanics solidified a deterministically mechanistic view of objects obeying fundamental and totally reversible laws, the study of energy and particularly the flow of heat, threw this view of the universe into question. Drawing upon the engineering theory of Lazare and Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron; the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work; and his own Cambridge mathematical tripos training in mathematical analysis; the Glasgow physicist William Thomson and his circle of associates established a new mathematical physics relating to the exchange of different forms of energy and energy’s overall conservation (what is still accepted as the “first law of thermodynamics”). Their work was soon allied with the theories of similar but less-known work by the German physician Julius Robert von Mayer and physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz on the conservation of forces. Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) Taking his mathematical cues from the heat flow work of Joseph Fourier (and his own religious and geological convictions), Thomson believed that the dissipation of energy with time (what is accepted as the “second law of thermodynamics”) represented a fundamental principle of physics, which was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait’s influential work Treatise on Natural Philosophy. However, other interpretations of what Thomson called thermodynamics were established through the work of the German physicist Rudolf Clausius. His statistical mechanics, which was elaborated upon by Ludwig Boltzmann and the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell, held that energy (including heat) was a measure of the speed of particles. Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term “entropy” to describe the disorganization of a state). The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as “Maxwell's demon”), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. Meanwhile, the new physics of energy transformed the analysis of electromagnetic phenomena, particularly through the introduction of the concept of the field and the publication of Maxwell’s 1873 Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which also drew upon theoretical work by German theoreticians such as Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber. The encapsulation of heat in particulate motion, and the addition of electromagnetic forces to Newtonian dynamics established an enormously robust theoretical underpinning to physical observations. The prediction that light represented a transmission of energy in wave form through a “luminiferous ether”, and the seeming confirmation of that prediction with Helmholtz student Heinrich Hertz’s 1888 detection of electromagnetic radiation, was a major triumph for physical theory and raised the possibility that even more fundamental theories based on the field could soon be developed. Research on the transmission of electromagnetic waves began soon after, with the experiments conducted by physicists such as Nikola Tesla, Jagadish Chandra Bose and Guglielmo Marconi during the 1890s leading to the invention of radio. The emergence of a new physics circa 1900 Marie Skłodowska Curie (1867-1934) The triumph of Maxwell’s theories was undermined by inadequacies that had already begun to appear. The Michelson-Morley experiment failed to detect a shift in the speed of light, which would have been expected as the earth moved at different angles with respect to the ether. The possibility explored by Hendrik Lorentz, that the ether could compress matter, thereby rendering it undetectable, presented problems of its own as a compressed electron (detected in 1897 by British experimentalist J. J. Thomson) would prove unstable. Meanwhile, other experimenters began to detect unexpected forms of radiation: Wilhelm Röntgen caused a sensation with his discovery of x-rays in 1895; in 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that certain kinds of matter emit radiation on their own accord. Marie and Pierre Curie coined the term “radioactivity” to describe this property of matter, and isolated the radioactive elements radium and polonium. Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy identified two of Becquerel’s forms of radiation with electrons and the element helium. In 1911 Rutherford established that the bulk of mass in atoms are concentrated in positively-charged nuclei with orbiting electrons, which was a theoretically unstable configuration. Studies of radiation and radioactive decay continued to be a preeminent focus for physical and chemical research through the 1930s, when the discovery of nuclear fission opened the way to the practical exploitation of what came to be called “atomic” energy. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Radical new physical theories also began to emerge in this same period. In 1905 Albert Einstein, then a Bern patent clerk, argued that the speed of light was a constant in all inertial reference frames and that electromagnetic laws should remain valid independent of reference frame—assertions which rendered the ether “superfluous” to physical theory, and that held that observations of time and length varied relative to how the observer was moving with respect to the object being measured (what came to be called the “special theory of relativity”). It also followed that mass and energy were interchangeable quantities according to the equation E=mc2. In another paper published the same year, Einstein asserted that electromagnetic radiation was transmitted in discrete quantities (“quanta”), according to a constant that the theoretical physicist Max Planck had posited in 1900 to arrive at an accurate theory for the distribution of blackbody radiation—an assumption that explained the strange properties of the photoelectric effect. The Danish physicist Niels Bohr used this same constant in 1913 to explain the stability of Rutherford’s atom as well as the frequencies of light emitted by hydrogen gas. The radical years: general relativity and quantum mechanics The gradual acceptance of Einstein’s theories of relativity and the quantized nature of light transmission, and of Niels Bohr’s model of the atom created as many problems as they solved, leading to a full-scale effort to reestablish physics on new fundamental principles. Expanding relativity to cases of accelerating reference frames (the “general theory of relativity”) in the 1910s, Einstein posited an equivalence between the inertial force of acceleration and the force of gravity, leading to the conclusion that space is curved and finite in size, and the prediction of such phenomena as gravitational lensing and the distortion of time in gravitational fields. Niels Bohr (1885-1962) The quantized theory of the atom gave way to a full-scale quantum mechanics in the 1920s. The quantum theory (which previously relied in the “correspondence” at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the “classical” world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave in much the same way as electromagnetic waves behave like particles (wave-particle duality). New principles of a “quantum” rather than a “classical” mechanics, formulated in matrix-form by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925, were based on the probabilistic relationship between discrete “states” and denied the possibility of causality. Erwin Schrödinger established an equivalent theory based on waves in 1926; but Heisenberg’s 1927 “uncertainty principle” (indicating the impossibility of precisely and simultaneously measuring position and momentum) and the “Copenhagen interpretation” of quantum mechanics (named after Bohr’s home city) continued to deny the possibility of fundamental causality, though opponents such as Einstein would assert that “God does not play dice with the universe”. Also in the 1920s, Satyendra Nath Bose's work on photons and quantum mechanics provided the foundation for Bose-Einstein statistics, the theory of the Bose-Einstein condensate, and the discovery of the boson. Constructing a new fundamental physics A “Feynman diagram” of a renormalized vertex in quantum electrodynamics. As the philosophically inclined continued to debate the fundamental nature of the universe, quantum theories continued to be produced, beginning with Paul Dirac’s formulation of a relativistic quantum theory in 1927. However, attempts to quantize electromagnetic theory entirely were stymied throughout the 1930s by theoretical formulations yielding infinite energies. This situation was not considered adequately resolved until after World War II ended, when Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga independently posited the technique of “renormalization”, which allowed for an establishment of a robust quantum electrodynamics (Q.E.D.). Meanwhile, new theories of fundamental particles proliferated with the rise of the idea of the quantization of fields through “exchange forces” regulated by an exchange of short-lived “virtual” particles, which were allowed to exist according to the laws governing the uncertainties inherent in the quantum world. Notably, Hideki Yukawa proposed that the positive charges of the nucleus were kept together courtesy of a powerful but short-range force mediated by a particle intermediate in mass between the size of an electron and a proton. This particle, called the “pion”, was identified in 1947, but it was part of a slew of particle discoveries beginning with the neutron, the “positron” (a positively-charged “antimatter” version of the electron), and the “muon” (a heavier relative to the electron) in the 1930s, and continuing after the war with a wide variety of other particles detected in various kinds of apparatus: cloud chambers, nuclear emulsions, bubble chambers, and coincidence counters. At first these particles were found primarily by the ionized trails left by cosmic rays, but were increasingly produced in newer and more powerful particle accelerators. Thousands of particles explode from the collision point of two relativistic (100 GeV per ion) gold ions in the STAR detector of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider; an experiment done in order to investigate the properties of a quark gluon plasma such as the one thought to exist in the ultrahot first few microseconds after the big bang The interaction of these particles by “scattering” and “decay” provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories. Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman brought some order to these new particles by classifying them according to certain qualities, beginning with what Gell-Mann referred to as the “Eightfold Way”, but proceeding into several different “octets” and “decuplets” which could predict new particles, most famously the , which was detected at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1964, and which gave rise to the “quark” model of hadron composition. While the quark model at first seemed inadequate to describe strong nuclear forces, allowing the temporary rise of competing theories such as the S-Matrix, the establishment of quantum chromodynamics in the 1970s finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a “standard model” based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravity, and which remains generally accepted within the domain to which it is designed to be applied. The “standard model” groups the electroweak interaction theory and quantum chromodynamics into a structure denoted by the gauge group SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1). The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. After the discovery, made at CERN, of the existence of neutral weak currents, F. J. Hasert et al. Phys. Lett. 46B 121 (1973). F. J. Hasert et al. Phys. Lett. 46B 138 (1973). F. J. Hasert et al. Nucl. Phys. B73 1(1974). mediated by the boson foreseen in the standard model, the physicists Salam, Glashow and Weinberg received the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their electroweak theory. While accelerators have confirmed most aspects of the standard model by detecting expected particle interactions at various collision energies, no theory reconciling the general theory of relativity with the standard model has yet been found, although “string theory” has provided one promising avenue forward. Since the 1970s, fundamental particle physics has provided insights into early universe cosmology, particularly the “big bang” theory proposed as a consequence of Einstein’s general theory. However, starting from the 1990s, astronomical observations have also provided new challenges, such as the need for new explanations of galactic stability (the problem of dark matter), and accelerating expansion of the universe (the problem of dark energy). The physical sciences With increased accessibility to and elaboration upon advanced analytical techniques in the 19th century, physics was defined as much, if not more, by those techniques than by the search for universal principles of motion and energy, and the fundamental nature of matter. Fields such as acoustics, geophysics, astrophysics, aerodynamics, plasma physics, low-temperature physics, and solid-state physics joined optics, fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and mechanics as areas of physical research. In the 20th century, physics also became closely allied with such fields as electrical, aerospace, and materials engineering, and physicists began to work in government and industrial laboratories as much as in academic settings. Following World War II, the population of physicists increased dramatically, and came to be centered on the United States, while, in more recent decades, physics has become a more international pursuit than at any time in its previous history. See also Famous physicists Nobel Prize in physics Further reading “Selected Works about Isaac Newton and His Thought” from The Newton Project. . . . . Nina Byers and Gary Williams, ed., OUT OF THE SHADOWS:Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-5218-2197-1 “Muslims and Evolution of Physics” from english.islamstory.com. Notes References Aristotle Physics translated by Hardie & Gaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | History_of_physics |@lemmatized physic:33 science:7 matter:7 behaviour:1 motion:31 one:6 old:2 scientific:4 discipline:7 first:5 write:1 work:20 title:2 aristotle:2 element:4 become:4 draw:4 primarily:4 field:14 astronomy:3 optic:17 mechanic:18 methodologically:1 unite:1 study:5 geometry:2 begin:12 antiquity:2 babylonian:1 hellenistic:1 writer:1 archimedes:1 ptolemy:4 pass:3 arabic:1 speaking:1 world:10 critique:1 develop:9 physical:19 experimental:14 tradition:17 scientist:1 ibn:3 al:6 haytham:3 abū:1 rayhān:1 bīrūnī:1 mariam:1 rozhanskaya:1 levinova:1 static:2 p:1 eventually:1 western:1 europe:1 scholar:1 roger:1 bacon:2 witelo:1 think:4 technical:2 character:1 many:3 philosopher:12 generally:2 perceive:2 descriptive:4 content:2 represent:3 philosophically:3 significant:3 knowledge:2 natural:9 similar:3 mathematical:27 also:16 exist:5 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2,881 | Grid_network | A grid network is a kind of computer network consisting of a number of (computer) systems connected in a grid topology. In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected with two neighbors along one or more dimensions. If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as a ring. Network systems such as FDDI use two counter-rotating token-passing rings to achieve high reliability and performance. In general, when an n-dimensional grid network is connected circularly in more than one dimension, the resulting network topology is a torus, and the network is called "toroidal". When the number of nodes along each dimension of a toroidal network is 2, the resulting network is called a hypercube. A parallel computing cluster or multi-core processor is often connected in regular interconnection network such as a de Bruijn graph "A Network-based Asynchronous Architecture for Cryptographic Devices" by Ljiljana Spadavecchia 2005. section "5.6.1.2 De Bruijn graphs", and section "5.6.2.2 Randomised routing in de Bruijn graphs". , a torus, or cube-connected cycles. See also Grid plan - street network Grid Computing Info Centre Note: a grid network is not the same as a grid computer (or computational grid) (even though the nodes in a grid network are usually computers, and grid computing obviously requires some kind of computer network to interconnect the computers). | Grid_network |@lemmatized grid:11 network:16 kind:2 computer:6 consist:1 number:2 system:2 connect:6 topology:4 regular:2 node:4 two:2 neighbor:1 along:2 one:3 dimension:3 dimensional:2 chain:1 form:1 circular:1 loop:1 result:3 know:1 ring:2 fddi:1 use:1 counter:1 rotate:1 token:1 passing:1 achieve:1 high:1 reliability:1 performance:1 general:1 n:1 circularly:1 torus:2 call:2 toroidal:2 hypercube:1 parallel:1 computing:1 cluster:1 multi:1 core:1 processor:1 often:1 interconnection:1 de:3 bruijn:3 graph:3 base:1 asynchronous:1 architecture:1 cryptographic:1 device:1 ljiljana:1 spadavecchia:1 section:2 randomise:1 routing:1 cube:1 cycle:1 see:1 also:1 plan:1 street:1 compute:2 info:1 centre:1 note:1 computational:1 even:1 though:1 usually:1 obviously:1 require:1 interconnect:1 |@bigram de_bruijn:3 |
2,882 | Galileo_Galilei | {{Infobox_Scientist |name = Galileo Galilei |image = Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|200px |caption = Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans |birth_date = |birth_place = Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy |residence = Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy |death_date = |death_place = Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy |field = Astronomy, Physics and Mathematics |work_institutions = University of PisaUniversity of Padua |alma_mater = University of Pisa |academic advisor = Ostilio Ricci |known_for = KinematicsDynamicsTelescopic observational astronomyHeliocentrism |religion = Roman Catholic |footnotes =}}Galileo Galilei' (15 February 1564 Drake (1978, p.1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar. – 8 January 1642) by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007 was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", (page 217) the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science." Finocchiaro (2007). Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science." "Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, by Stephen Hawking, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36 The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, named the Galilean moons in his honour, and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, improving compass design. Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric view that the Earth remained motionless at the centre of the universe. After 1610, when he began supporting heliocentrism publicly, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. Although he was cleared of any offence at that time, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to Scripture" in February 1616, Sharratt (1994, pp.127–131), McMullin (2005a). and Galileo was warned to abandon his support for it—which he promised to do. When he later defended his views in his most famous work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in 1632, he was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Life Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati. Four of their six children survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) became a noted lutenist and composer. Galileo's full name was Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei. At the age of 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years. He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence. Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, he enrolled for a medical degree at the University of Pisa at his father's urging. He did not complete this degree, but instead studied mathematics. Reston (2000, pp. 3–14). In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. Sharratt (1994, pp. 45–66). During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure science (for example, kinematics of motion, and astronomy) and applied science (for example, strength of materials, improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which in pre-modern disciplinary practice was seen as correlated to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic Sharratt (1994, pp.17, 213) , Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Sobel (2000, p.5) Chapter 1. Retrieved on 26 August 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother, he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her thirteenth birthday, he placed her at the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri." Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri. In 1610 Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, using this observation to argue in favor of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe against the dominant earth-centered Ptolemaic and Aristotelian theories. The next year Galileo visited Rome in order to demonstrate his telescope to the influential philosophers and mathematicians of the Jesuit Collegio Romano, and to let them see with their own eyes the reality of the four moons of Jupiter. Gebler (1879, pp. 22–35). While in Rome he was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei. In 1612, opposition arose to the Sun-centered theory of the universe which Galileo supported. In 1614, from the pulpit of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Father Tommaso Caccini (1574–1648) denounced Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, judging them dangerous and close to heresy. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself against these accusations, but, in 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy. There are contradictory documents describing the nature of this admonition and the circumstances of its delivery. Finocchiaro, The Galileo Affair, pp.147–149, 153 During 1621 and 1622 Galileo wrote his first book, The Assayer (Il Saggiatore), which was approved and published in 1623. In 1630, he returned to Rome to apply for a license to print the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in Florence in 1632. In October of that year, however, he was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome. Following a papal trial in which he was found vehemently suspect of heresy, Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by the Pope. From 1634 onward he stayed at his country house at Arcetri, outside of Florence. He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. He continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died. Allan-Olney (1870) Scientific methods Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. Sharratt (1994, pp.204–05) More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension. These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition. Galileo is perhaps the first to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures; ...". In Drake (1957, pp.237−238) His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. Wallace, (1984). Although he tried to remain loyal to the Catholic Church, his adherence to experimental results, and their most honest interpretation, led to a rejection of blind allegiance to authority, both philosophical and religious, in matters of science. In broader terms, this aided the separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. By the standards of his time, Galileo was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. Modern philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend also noted the supposedly improper aspects of Galileo's methodology, but he argued that Galileo's methods could be justified retroactively by their results. The bulk of Feyerabend's major work, Against Method (1975), was devoted to an analysis of Galileo, using his astronomical research as a case study to support Feyerabend's own anarchistic theory of scientific method. As he put it: 'Aristotelians ... demanded strong empirical support while the Galileans were content with far-reaching, unsupported and partially refuted theories. I do not criticize them for that; on the contrary, I favour Niels Bohr's "this is not crazy enough."' In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.250–52), Favaro (1898, 8:274–75) but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight. Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.252), Favaro (1898, 8:275) Thirdly, he recognized that his experimental data would never agree exactly with any theoretical or mathematical form, because of the imprecision of measurement, irreducible friction, and other factors. According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else, Hawking (1988, p.179). and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science. Einstein (1954, p.271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether." Astronomy Contributions It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of Jupiter. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610 The phases of Venus, observed by Galileo in 1610 Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope, invented by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification, and later made others with up to about 30x magnification. Drake (1990, pp.133–34). With this improved device he could see magnified, upright images on the earth – it was what is now known as a terrestrial telescope, or spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. His work on the device made for a profitable sideline with merchants who found it useful for their shipping businesses and trading issues. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger). On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible i.e., invisible to the naked eye. by their smallness", all within a short distance of Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Drake (1978, p.146). Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro,1892, 3:81) Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January. Drake (1978, p.152), however, after studying unpublished manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15 January. He had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons): Io, Europa, and Callisto. He discovered the fourth, Ganymede, on 13 January. Galileo named the four satellites he had discovered Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers. Sharratt (1994, p.17). Later astronomers, however, renamed them the Galilean satellites in honour of Galileo himself. A planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, Linton (2004, pp.98,205), Drake (1978, p.157). and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing. Drake (1978, p.158–68), Sharratt (1994, p.18–19). Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid 1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Kepler had believed impossible. Drake (1978, p.168), Sharratt (1994, p.93). From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In contrast, the geocentric model of Ptolemy predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth. Galileo's observations of the phases of Venus therefore decisively disproved the Ptolemaic version of geocentrism. They did not, however provide conclusive evidence for Copernicus's theory, because they were equally compatible with various other theories, such as the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe and the semi-Tychonic system proposed by Longomontanus, Nicolaus Reimers ("Ursus") and Helisæus Röslin. Thus, in the early 17th century, following Galileo's telescopic discoveries, the majority of professional astronomers tended to favour one or other of these geoheliocentric alternatives, rather than the heliocentric system of Copernicus. Thoren (1989, p.8). By the middle of the century, however, the overwhelming majority of leading Protestant astronomers were Copernicans (Van Helden, 1989, p.103). Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him. Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-11 Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although Kepler had unwittingly observed one in 1607, but mistook it for a transit of Mercury. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne, which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of Mercury. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens posited by orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics, but their regular periodic transits also confirmed the dramatic novel prediction of Kepler's Aristotelian celestial dynamics in his 1609 Astronomia Nova that the sun rotates, which was the first successful novel prediction of post-spherist celestial physics. In Kepler's Thomist 'inertial' variant of Aristotelian dynamics as opposed to Galileo's impetus dynamics variant all bodies universally have an inherent resistance to all motion and tendency to rest, which he dubbed 'inertia'. This notion of inertia was originally introduced by Averroes in the 12th century just for the celestial spheres in order to explain why they do not rotate with infinite speed on Aristotelian dynamics, as they should if they had no resistance to their movers. And in his Astronomia Nova celestial mechanics the inertia of the planets is overcome in their solar orbital motion by their being pushed around by the sunspecks of the rotating sun acting like the spokes of a rotating cartwheel. And more generally it predicted all but only planets with orbiting satellites, such as Jupiter for example, also rotate to push them around, whereas the Moon, for example, does not rotate, thus always presenting the same face to the Earth, because it has no satellites to push around. These seem to have been the first successful novel predictions of Thomist 'inertial' Aristotelian dynamics as well as of post-spherist celestial physics. In his 1630 Epitome (See p514 on p896 of the Encyclopædia Britannica 1952 Great Books of the Western World edition) Kepler keenly stressed he had proved the Sun's axial rotation from planetary motions in his Commentaries on Mars Ch 34 long before it was telescopically established by sunspot motion. And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, Drake (1978, p.209). Sizzi reported the observations he and his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10 April 1613 (Favaro,1901, 11:491 ). Morandi subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo. provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe. In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt, 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191–196) However, in Drake's judgment of this complex issue in Chapter 9 of his 1970 this is not so, for it does not refute non-geostatic geo-rotating geocentric models. For at most the variable annual inclinations of sunspots’ monthly paths to the ecliptic only proved there must be some terrestrial motion, but not necessarily its annual heliocentric orbital motion as opposed to a geocentric daily rotation, and so it did not prove heliocentrism by refuting geocentrism. Thus it could be explained in the semi-Tychonic geocentric model with a daily rotating Earth such as that of Tycho's follower Longomontanus. Especially see p190 and p196 of Drake's article. Thus on this analysis it only refuted the Ptolemaic geostatic geocentric model whose required daily geocentric orbit of the sun would have predicted the annual variation in this inclination should be observed daily, which it is not. For the seasonal variation refuted all non-geo-rotational geostatic planetary models such as the Ptolemaic pure geocentric model and the Tychonic geoheliocentric model in which the Sun orbits the Earth daily, whereby the variation should appear daily but does not. But it was explicable by all geo-rotational systems such as Longomontanus's semi-Tychonic geo-heliocentric model, Capellan and extended Capellan geo-heliocentric models with a daily rotating Earth, and the pure heliocentric model. A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes, looking for confirmation of Kepler's prediction of the sun's rotation. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615 proposal of the modern telescope design, which gave larger magnification at the cost of inverted images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design. Galileo was the first to report lunar mountains and craters, whose existence he deduced from the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. He even estimated the mountains' heights from these observations. This led him to the conclusion that the Moon was "rough and uneven, and just like the surface of the Earth itself," rather than a perfect sphere as Aristotle had claimed. Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice of it. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. Controversy over comets and The Assayer In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of Science itself. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how Science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Drake (1960, pp.vii,xxiii–xxiv), Sharratt (1994, pp.139–140). Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618 , Grassi (1960a). which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, Drake (1978, p.268), Grassi (1960a, p.16). and that it had been located well beyond the moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticized in a subsequent article, Discourse on the Comets , Galilei & Guiducci (1960). published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself. Drake (1960, p.xvi). Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets, Drake (1957, p.222), Drake (1960, p.xvii). although they did present some tentative conjectures which we now know to be mistaken. In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christopher Scheiner, Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xii), Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p.24). and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work. Sharratt (1994, p.135). The Jesuits were offended, Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xvii). and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance , Grassi (1960b). under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, Drake (1978, p.494), Favaro(1896, 6:111). The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a latinized version of his name and home town. purporting to be one of his own pupils.The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance. Galilei (1960). It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature, Sharratt (1994, p.137), Drake (1957, p.227). in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. Sharratt (1994, p.138–142). It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated. Drake (1960, p.xix). Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to his ideas, Drake (1960, p.vii). and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation. Sharratt (1994, p.175). The evidence for this is at best equivocal, however. Sharratt (1994, pp.175–78), Blackwell (2006, p.30). Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 67–9. Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was so important to Galileo that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 52 For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. Galileo circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. Finocchiaro (1989), pp.119–133 If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. Finocchiaro (1989), pp.127–131 and Drake (1953), pp. 432–6 Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. Einstein (1952) p. xvii Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides. Finocchiaro (1989), p. 128 Galileo also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets, considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits. Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni. A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory. Technology Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology, as distinct from pure physics, and suggested others. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, as opposed to episteme, or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Between 1595–1598, Galileo devised and improved a Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. About 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, Sobel (2000, p.43), Drake (1978, p.196). In the Starry Messenger, written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum". at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei. The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. Drake (1978, p.163–164), Favaro(1892, 3:163–164) By 1624 he had perfected Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p.286). a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, Drake (1978, p.289), Favaro(1903, 13:177) . and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi. Drake (1978, p.286), Favaro(1903, 13:208). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain debatable. A general view on this can be found in the article Hans Lippershey (last updated 2003-08-01), © 1995–2007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-08-28 The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope". Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2007-08-28. See also Timeline of microscope technology. Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope. Drake (1978, p.286). In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used by Lewis and Clark. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison. In his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock, a vectorial model of which may be seen here. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. Galilei created sketches of various inventions, such as a candle and mirror combination to reflect light throughout a building, an automatic tomato picker, a pocket comb that doubled as an eating utensil, and what appears to be a ballpoint pen. Physics Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. Drake (1978, pp.19,20). At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law of free fall. He had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p.20). This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. Drake (1978, p.9); Sharratt (1994, p.31). While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place. An exception is Drake (1978, pp.19–21, 414–416), who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as largely Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1935), page 49. and Simon Stevin. Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated here: E. J. Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955) vol. 1, pages 509 and 511. Available on-line at: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/cgi-bin/digitresor/display.cgi?bookname=Mechanics%20I&page=509 Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar. Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. Sharratt (1994, p.203), Galilei (1954, pp.251–54). He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t 2 ). Sharratt (1994, p.198), Galilei (1954, p.174). However, in neither case were these discoveries entirely original. The time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century, Clagett (1968, p.561). and Domingo de Soto, in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated. Sharratt (1994, p.198), Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force—often friction—acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by Ibn al-Haytham centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).Dome of the cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo" Galileo also claimed (incorrectly) that a pendulum's swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. That is, that a simple pendulum is isochronous. It is popularly believed that he came to this conclusion by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse to time it. It appears however, that he conducted no experiments because the claim is true only of infinitesimally small swings as discovered by Christian Huygens. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Technology above.) In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously. Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50. Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result. I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)," Isis, 31 (1940): 327–379, see pp. 332–333 Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In his 1632 Dialogue Galileo presented a physical theory to account for tides, based on the motion of the Earth. If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. In fact, the original title for the book described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition. His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Kepler and others correctly associated the Moon with an influence over the tides, based on empirical data; a proper physical theory of the tides, however, was not available until Newton. Galileo also put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity. Mathematics While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: Galileo's paradox, which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. Such seeming contradictions were brought under control 250 years later in the work of Georg Cantor. Church controversy Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition Western Christian biblical references Psalm 93:1, Psalm 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include (depending on translation) text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same tradition, says, "the LORD set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc. Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini, dated 12 April 1615. Translated from Favaro(1902, 12:171–172) . Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. By 1616 the attacks on Galileo had reached a head, and he went to Rome to try to persuade the Church authorities not to ban his ideas. In the end, Cardinal Bellarmine, acting on directives from the Inquisition, delivered him an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the centre. The decree did not prevent Galileo from discussing heliocentrism hypothesis (thus maintaining a facade of separation between science and the church). For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission. Pope Urban VIII personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. This fact made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book; an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defense of the Copernican theory. To add insult to injury, Galileo put the words of Pope Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. See Langford (1966, pp.133–134), and Seeger (1966, p.30), for example. Drake (1978, p.355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p.491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p.483) However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the blatant bias. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings. With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts: Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. Fantoli (2005, p.139), Finocchiaro (1989, p.288–293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line. "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p.140; Heilbron, 2005, pp.282-284). He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future. Drake (1978, p.367), Sharratt (1994, p.184), Favaro(1905, 16:209, 230). See Galileo affair for further details. Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves, but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similarly impertinent. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Drake (1978, p.356). The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake, 1978, p.357). After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest, and where he later became blind. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from both Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called, the "father of modern physics". Galileo died on 8 January 1642 at 77 years of age. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378). These plans were scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested. Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378); Sharratt (1994, p.207); Favaro(1906,18:378–80) . He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.380). He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour. Shea & Artigas (2003, p.200); Sobel (2000, p.380–384). The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. Heilbron (2005, p.299). In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p.347). which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. Heilbron (2005, p.303–04); Coyne (2005, p.347). The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p.279). In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. Heilbron (2005, p.307); Coyne (2005, p.347) The practical effect of the ban in its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition (1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the lunar theory. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the Church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index. McMullin (2005, p.6); Coyne (2005, p.346). In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that year. In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research ... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments" Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 1939-1986, Vatican City, p.34 His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo." Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p.411 On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome, An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p.81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p.178). Cardinal Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today." Ratzinger (1994, p.98). Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying “The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune.” Ratzinger (1994, p.98) The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views". On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and officially conceded that the Earth was not stationary, as the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture. . In March 2008 the Vatican proposed to complete its rehabilitation of Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls. In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy. His writings Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence. Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass. His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian-Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration. Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope and include the discovery of the Galilean moons. Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture. In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini. In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets. In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer – Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church. Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. The Little Balance (1586) On Motion (1590) Mechanics (c1600) The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius) Letters on Sunspots (1613) Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636) Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare) Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete) The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore) Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo) Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) Legacy Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft, the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non- unit of acceleration. To coincide in part with Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations using a telescope, the United Nations has scheduled 2009 to be the International Year of Astronomy. A global scheme laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it has also been endorsed by UNESCO — the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 is intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people. The 20th century German playwright Bertolt Brecht dramatised Galileo's life in his Life of Galileo (1943). There is also a 21st century drama on his life available. http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Robert%20Lalonde%22 Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. Notes References Clavelin, Maurice The Natural Philosophy of Galileo MIT Press 1974 Coffa,J Galileo's Concept of Inertia Physis 1968 Consolmagno, Guy; Schaefer, Marta (1994) Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-964131-9 Drabkin, Israel & Drake, Stillman (Eds & translators) On Motion and On Mechanics University of Wisconsin Press 1960 ISBN 0-299-02030-4 Drake, Stillman (1973). "Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall". Scientific American v. 228, #5, pp. 84–92. Dugas,René A History of Mechanics 1955, Dover Publications 1988 Duhem, Pierre Etudes sur Leonard de Vinci 1906-13 Duhem, Pierre Le Systeme du Monde 1913 - Duhem, Pierre History of Physics Catholic Encyclopedia Einstein, Albert (1952). Foreword to (Drake, 1953) Fantoli, Annibale (2003). Galileo — For Copernicanism and the Church, third English edition. Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 88-209-7427-4 Searchable online copy from the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence. Brief overview of Le Opere @ Finns Fine Books, and here Feyerabend, Paul Againat Method Verso 1975 Fillmore, Charles (1931, 17th printing July 2004). Metaphysical Bible Dictionary. Unity Village, Missouri: Unity House. ISBN 0-87159-067-0 Galilei, Galileo Galileo: Two New Sciences (Translation by Stillman Drake of Galileo's 1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences) University of Wisconsin Press 1974 ISBN 0-299-06400-X Geymonat, Ludovico (1965), Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science, translation of the 1957 Italian edition, with notes and appendix by Stillman Drake, McGraw-Hill Grant, Edward Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics Centaurus, 11, 1965-7 Grisar, Hartmann, S.J., Professor of Church history at the University of Innsbruck (1882). Historisch theologische Untersuchungen über die Urtheile Römischen Congegationen im Galileiprocess (Historico-theological Discussions concerning the Decisions of the Roman Congregations in the case of Galileo), Regensburg: Pustet. – Google Books ISBN 0-7905-6229-4. (LCC# QB36 – microfiche) Reviewed here (1883), pp.211–213 Hall, A. R. From Galileo to Newton 1963 Hall, A. R. Galileo and the Science of Motion in 'British Journal of History of Science', 2 1964-5 Hellman, Hal (1988). Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. New York: Wiley Humphreys, W. C. Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares 'British Journal of History of Science' 1967 Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London). Koyré, Alexandre A Documentary History of the Problem of Fall from Kepler to Newton Transaction of the American Philosophical Society, 1955 Koyré, Alexandre Galilean Studies Harvester Press 1978 Kuhn, T. The Copernican Revolution 1957 Kuhn, T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1962 Lattis, James M. (1994). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christopher Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, Chicago: the University of Chicago Press . Original edition by Desclee (New York, NY, 1966) Lessl, Thomas, "The Galileo Legend". New Oxford Review, 27–33 (June 2000). Losee, J. Drake, Galileo, and the Law of Inertia American Journal of Physics, 34, p.430-2 1966 Mach, Ernst. The Science of Mechanics 1893 Machamer, Peter (Ed) The Cambridge Companion to Galileo Cambridge University Press 1998 Naylor, Ronald H. (1990). "Galileo's Method of Analysis and Synthesis," Isis, 81: 695–707 Newall, Paul (2004). "The Galileo Affair" Remmert, Volker R. (2005). Galileo, God, and Mathematics. In: Bergmans, Luc/Koetsier, Teun (eds.): Mathematics and the Divine. A Historical Study, Amsterdam et al., 347–360 Settle, Thomas B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". Science, 133:19–23 Shapere, Dudley Galileo, a Philosophical Study University of Chicago Press 1974 Wallace, William A. (1984) Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science, (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr.), ISBN 0-691-08355-X White, Andrew Dickson (1898). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. New York 1898. White, Michael. (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. Weidenfeld & Nicolson:London, ISBN 978-0-297-84868-4. Wisan, Winifred Lovell (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation," Isis, 75: 269–286. Zik Yaakov, "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century", Perspectives on Science 2001, Vol. 9, 3, 259–284. See also Villa Il Gioiello (Galileo's main home in Florence) External links History of Science Museum - Florence Portraits of Galileo Original documents on the trial of Galileo Galilei in the Vatican Secret Archives Galileo Affair catholic.net The Galileo Project at Rice University PBS Nova Online: Galileo's Battle for the Heavens Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Galileo The Galilean Library, educational site. Galileo and the Catholic Church article at Catholic League Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72) Galileo's 1590 De Motu'' translation Works by Galileo Galilei: text with concordances and frequencies. CCD Images through a Galilean Telescope Modern recreation of what Galileo might have seen Galilei, Galileo. Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare 1610 Rome. From Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition. Galilei, Galileo. Istoria e Dimostrazioni Intorno Alle Macchie Solar 1613 Rome. From Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition. 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2,883 | East_Pakistan | East Pakistan (Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was a former province of Pakistan which existed between 1955 and 1971. East Pakistan was created from Bengal Province based on a plebiscite in what was then British India in 1947. Eastern Bengal chose to join the Dominion of Pakistan and became a province of Pakistan by the name East Bengal. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1956 and later became the independent country of Bangladesh after the bloody Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. Large sections of East Pakistan's people felt that they were colonised and suppressed by the West Pakistanis. Post-independence British India was partitioned in 1947, into the independent states of Pakistan and India. The Province of Bengal was split between them. The western part of the province became the West Bengal state of India and the eastern part became the East Bengal province of the Dominion of Pakistan, with an overwhelming Muslim majority and a large Hindu minority and much smaller minorities of Buddhists and Animists. East Bengal formed one of the five provinces of unified Pakistan. The other four Pakistani provinces (West Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier Province) were positioned on the other side of India, forming West Pakistan. Stamp showing both the East and West divisions of Pakistan Before the secession of Bangladesh. After independence from British rule, East Bengal was neglected by the central government based in the Western wing, which was at times under military or martial law. A major cause of resentment among the Bengalis was economic exploitation. For example, between 1948 and 1960, East Pakistan's export earnings had been 70% of national total, while it only received 25% of the earnings. Between 1950 and 1970, only 34% of the development expenditure was spent in East Bengal despite having more than half the population. Growing tensions led to the One Unit Policy, implemented in 1955, which abolished the provinces. Under this policy, West Punjab, Balochistan, Sindh, and the Northwest Frontier were merged under the nominal designation of West Pakistan and East Bengal became East Pakistan. Tensions peaked in 1971, following the cancellation by Pakistani President Yahya Khan of election results that gave the Awami League a majority in the parliament. The Awami League won almost all the seats in East Pakistan, but none in West Pakistan. East Pakistan had more than half the parliamentary seats because it was home to more than half the population. Although the Awami League was in a position to form a government without any coalition partner, it was forced to start negotiations with the Pakistan Peoples Party which had won most of the seats in West Pakistan. The negotiations failed and a 'military government' cancelled the results of the elections in East Pakistan. Under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Bangladesh began its struggle for independence. The official onset followed a harsh repression carried out by the Pakistan army on Bengali civilians on 25 March 1971. The Bangladeshi government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman claimed that an estimated 1-3 million Bengalis died during the war War Statistics between March and December 1971, while the Pakistani sources maintained that the total number of people from East and West Pakistan who were killed was less than 100,000. Independence of East Pakistan (Bangladesh) The tension between East and West Pakistan reached a climax when in 1970 the Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections in East Pakistan. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 300 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Yahya Khan, the leader of the Pakistan, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. This increased agitation for greater autonomy in the East. On 26 March 1971, the day after the military crackdown on civilians in East Pakistan, Sk. Mujibur Rahman declared the independence of Bangladesh just after midnight of March 25, 1971 before he was arrested by Pakistan army. All major Awami League leaders including elected leaders of national Assembly and Provincial Assembly fled to neighboring India and an exile government was formed headed by Sk. Mujibur Rahman. While he was in Pakistan Prison, Syed Nazrul Islam was the acting President with Tazuddin Ahmed as the Prime Minister. The exile government took oath on April 14, 1971 at Mujib Nagar - within East Pakistan territory of Kustia district and formally formed the government. Col (retd) MAG Osmani was appointed the commander in chief of liberation forces and whole East Pakistan was divided into eleven sectors headed by eleven sector commanders. All sector commanders were Bengali officers from Pakistan army. This started the Bangladesh Liberation War in which the freedom fighters, joined in December 1971 by 400,000 Indian soldiers, faced the Pakistani Army of 65,000 including the paramilitary forces. An additional approximately 25,000 ill-equipped civilian volunteers and police forces also sided with the Pakistan army. On 16 December 1971, the Pakistani Army surrendered to the joint liberation forces of Bangladesh freedom fighters and Indian army Headed by Lt. Gen Jagjit Singh Aurora. Air Vice Marshall AK Khondoker represented the Bangladesh freedom fighters. Pakistan General AAK NIazi signed the surrender letter. Bangladesh quickly gained recognition from most countries and with the signing of the Shimla Accord, most of the countries accepted the new state. Bangladesh joined the United Nations in 1974. Sk. Mujib returned to free Bangladesh on January 10, 1972. Upon his request, India withdrew all its army. 40 thousand Pakistan soldiers were transferred to India as prisoners of war as well as 45 thousand civilians. Government of East Pakistan On 14 October 1955, the last governor of East Bengal (Amiruddin Ahmad) became the first Governor of East Pakistan. At the same time the last Chief Minister of East Bengal became the first Chief Minister of East Pakistan. This system lasted until the military coup of 1958 when the post of Chief Minister was abolished in both East Pakistan and West Pakistan. From 1958 to 1971 the administration was largely in the hands of the President of Pakistan and the Governor of East Pakistan who at times held the title of Martial Law Administrator. TenureGovernor of East Pakistan 14 October 1955 - March 1956Amiruddin AhmadMarch 1956 - 13 April 1958A. K. Fazlul Huq13 April 1958 - 3 May 1958Hamid Ali (acting)3 May 1958 - 10 October 1958Sultanuddin Ahmad10 October 1958 - 11 April 1960Gov Zakir Husain11 April 1960 - 11 May 1962Lt Gen Azam Khan11 May 1962 - 25 October 1962Ghulam Faruque25 October 1962 - 23 March 1969Abdul Monem Khan23 March 1969 - 25 March 1969Mirza Nurul Huda25 March 1969 - 23 August 1969Major General Muzaffaruddin (acting martial law administrator as he was the GOC 14th Infantry Division)23 August 1969 - 1 September 1969Lt General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan (martial law administrator)1 September 1969 - 7 March 1971Vice Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan (governor)7 March 1971 - 31 August 1971Lt General Tikka Khan (martial law administrator and governor)31 August 1971 - 14 December 1971Abdul Motaleb Malik (governor)14 December 1971 - 16 December 1971Lt General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi (martial law administrator)16 December 1971Province of East Pakistan dissolved TenureChief Minister of East PakistanPolitical PartyAugust 1955 - September 1956Abu Hussain SarkarKrishan Sramik PartySeptember 1956 - March 1958Ata-ur-Rahman KhanAwami LeagueMarch 1958Abu Hussain SarkarKrishan Sramik PartyMarch 1958 - 18 June 1958Ata-ur-Rahman KhanAwami League18 June 1958 - 22 June 1958Abu Hussain SarkarKrishan Sramik Party22 June 1958 - 25 August 1958Governor's Rule25 August 1958 - 7 October 1958Ata-ur-Rahman KhanAwami League7 October 1958Post abolished16 December 1971Province of East Pakistan dissolved See also Partition of British India East Bengal West Pakistan Bangladesh Liberation War Biharis Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 The Blood telegram References External links Government of Bangladesh Government of Pakistan | East_Pakistan |@lemmatized east:39 pakistan:52 bengali:5 প:2 র:1 ব:1 ক:1 স:1 ত:1 ন:1 purbo:1 urdu:1 مشرقی:1 پاکستان:1 mashriqi:1 former:1 province:10 exist:1 create:1 bengal:14 base:2 plebiscite:1 british:4 india:9 eastern:2 choose:1 join:3 dominion:2 become:8 name:1 rename:1 later:1 independent:2 country:3 bangladesh:14 bloody:1 liberation:5 war:7 large:3 section:1 people:3 felt:1 colonise:1 suppress:1 west:14 pakistani:8 post:2 independence:5 partition:2 state:3 split:1 western:2 part:2 overwhelming:1 muslim:1 majority:3 hindu:1 minority:2 much:1 small:1 buddhist:1 animist:1 form:6 one:2 five:1 unified:1 four:1 punjab:2 sindh:2 baluchistan:1 north:1 frontier:2 position:2 side:2 stamp:1 show:1 division:2 secession:1 rule:1 neglect:1 central:1 government:11 wing:1 time:3 military:4 martial:6 law:6 major:2 cause:1 resentment:1 among:1 economic:1 exploitation:1 example:1 export:1 earnings:2 national:4 total:2 receive:1 development:1 expenditure:1 spend:1 despite:1 half:3 population:2 grow:1 tension:3 lead:2 unit:1 policy:2 implement:1 abolish:2 balochistan:1 northwest:1 merge:1 nominal:1 designation:1 peak:1 follow:2 cancellation:1 president:3 yahya:2 khan:5 election:3 result:2 give:2 awami:6 league:6 parliament:1 win:4 almost:1 seat:5 none:1 parliamentary:1 home:1 although:1 without:1 coalition:1 partner:1 force:5 start:2 negotiation:2 party:3 fail:1 cancel:1 leadership:1 sheikh:3 mujibur:5 rahman:9 begin:1 struggle:1 official:1 onset:1 harsh:1 repression:1 carry:1 army:8 civilian:4 march:12 bangladeshi:1 claim:1 estimate:1 million:1 die:1 statistic:1 december:8 source:1 maintain:1 number:1 kill:1 less:1 reach:1 climax:1 political:1 landslide:1 victory:1 allot:1 thus:1 assembly:3 constitutional:1 right:1 however:1 leader:3 refuse:1 allow:1 prime:2 minister:6 increased:1 agitation:1 great:1 autonomy:1 day:1 crackdown:1 sk:3 declare:1 midnight:1 arrest:1 include:2 elect:1 provincial:1 flee:1 neighbor:1 exile:2 head:3 prison:1 syed:2 nazrul:1 islam:1 act:3 tazuddin:1 ahmed:1 take:1 oath:1 april:5 mujib:2 nagar:1 within:1 territory:1 kustia:1 district:1 formally:1 col:1 retd:1 mag:1 osmani:1 appoint:1 commander:3 chief:4 whole:1 divide:1 eleven:2 sector:3 officer:1 freedom:3 fighter:3 indian:2 soldier:2 face:1 paramilitary:1 additional:1 approximately:1 ill:1 equipped:1 volunteer:1 police:1 also:2 surrender:2 joint:1 lt:1 gen:2 jagjit:1 singh:1 aurora:1 air:1 vice:1 marshall:1 ak:1 khondoker:1 represent:1 general:5 aak:1 niazi:2 sign:1 letter:1 quickly:1 gain:1 recognition:1 signing:1 shimla:1 accord:1 accept:1 new:1 united:1 nation:1 return:1 free:1 january:1 upon:1 request:1 withdraw:1 thousand:2 transfer:1 prisoner:1 well:1 october:8 last:3 governor:6 amiruddin:1 ahmad:1 first:2 system:1 coup:1 administration:1 largely:1 hand:1 hold:1 title:1 administrator:5 tenuregovernor:1 ahmadmarch:1 k:1 fazlul:1 may:4 ali:1 zakir:1 azam:1 monem:1 nurul:1 august:6 muzaffaruddin:1 goc:1 infantry:1 september:3 sahabzada:1 yaqub:1 admiral:1 mohammad:1 ahsan:1 tikka:1 motaleb:1 malik:1 amir:1 abdullah:1 dissolve:2 tenurechief:1 pakistanpolitical:1 partyaugust:1 hussain:3 sarkarkrishan:3 sramik:3 partyseptember:1 ur:3 khanawami:3 leaguemarch:1 partymarch:1 june:4 see:1 bihari:1 indo:1 blood:1 telegram:1 reference:1 external:1 links:1 |@bigram punjab_sindh:1 export_earnings:1 yahya_khan:2 awami_league:6 sheikh_mujibur:3 mujibur_rahman:5 landslide_victory:1 prime_minister:2 commander_chief:1 ill_equipped:1 lt_gen:1 yaqub_khan:1 indo_pakistani:1 external_links:1 |
2,884 | Arsenic | Arsenic (; also when attributive) is the chemical element that has the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250. Its atomic mass is 74.92. This is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has many allotropic forms: yellow (molecular non-metallic) and several black and grey forms (metalloids) are a few that are seen. Three metalloidal forms of arsenic with different crystal structures are found free in nature (the minerals arsenic sensu stricto and the much rarer arsenolamprite and pararsenolamprite), but it is more commonly found as arsenide and arsenate compounds. Several hundred such mineral species are known. Arsenic and its compounds are used as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and various alloys. The most common oxidation states for arsenic are -3 (arsenides: usually alloy-like intermetallic compounds), +3 (arsenates(III) or arsenites, and most organoarsenic compounds), and +5 (arsenates: the most stable inorganic arsenic oxycompounds). Arsenic also bonds readily to itself, forming square As43- ions in the arsenide skutterudite. In the +3 oxidation state, the stereochemistry of arsenic is affected by possession of a lone pair of electrons. History The word arsenic was borrowed from the Persian word Zarnikh meaning "yellow orpiment". Zarnikh was borrowed by Greek as arsenikon. Also from the similar Greek word "arsenikos" which means masculine or potent. Arsenic compounds (orpiment, realgar ) have been known and used since ancient times. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons. During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in bronze, which made the alloy harder (so-called "arsenical bronze"). Arsenic was first isolated by Geber (721–815), an Arabian alchemist George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science Cyberistan . Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) is believed to have been the first European to isolate the element in 1250 by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide. In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Alchemical symbol for arsenic Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), the first organometallic compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt by the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide. In the Victorian era, "arsenic" (colourless, crystalline, soluble "white arsenic" trioxide) was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to "improve their complexion". The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in approximately 20 deaths and 200 people taken ill with arsenic poisoning. Characteristics Isotopes Naturally occurring arsenic is composed of one stable isotope, 75As. As of 2003, at least 33 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 60 to 92. The most stable of these is 73As with a half-life of 80.3 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 75As tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions. At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is 68mAs with a half-life of 111 seconds. Allotropes Structure of yellow arsenic As4 and white phosphorus P4 Like phosphorus, arsenic is an excellent example of an element that exhibits allotropy, as its various allotropes have strikingly different properties. The three most common allotropes are metallic grey, yellow and black arsenic. The most common allotrope of arsenic is grey arsenic. It has a similar structure to black phosphorus (β-metallic phosphorus) and has a layered crystal structure somewhat resembling that of graphite. It consists of many six-membered rings which are interlinked. Each atom is bound to three other atoms in the layer and is coordinated by each 3 arsenic atoms in the upper and lower layer. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm3. Yellow arsenic () is soft and waxy, not unlike . Both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single bond, resulting in very high ring strain and instability. This form of the elements are the least stable, most reactive, more volatile, less dense, and more toxic than the other allotropes. Yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapour with liquid nitrogen. It is rapidly transformed into the grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm³. Black arsenic is similar in structure to red phosphorus. Chemical Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor in the Periodic Table, phosphorus. Like phosphorus, it forms colourless, odourless, crystalline oxides As2O3 and As2O5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid. Like phosphorus, arsenic forms an unstable, gaseous hydride: arsine (AsH3). The similarity is so great that arsenic will partly substitute for phosphorus in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. However, in subtoxic doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as medicinals by people in the mid 18th century. When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have an odour resembling garlic. This odour can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. Arsenic (and some arsenic compounds) sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state. The liquid state appears at 20 atmospheres and above, which explains why the melting point is higher than the boiling point. Compounds Arsenic compounds resemble in many respects those of phosphorus as both arsenic and phosphorus occur in the same group (column) of the periodic table. The most important compounds of arsenic are arsenic (III) oxide, As2O3, ("white arsenic"), the yellow sulfide orpiment (As2S3) and red realgar (As4S4), Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead hydrogen arsenate. The latter three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. Whilst arsenic trioxide forms during oxidation of arsenic, arsenic pentoxide is formed by the dehydration of arsenic acid. Both oxides dissolve in strong alkaline solution, with the formation of arsenite AsO33− and arsenate AsO43− respectively. The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid. However, arsenite and arsenous acid contain arsenic bonded to three oxygens and no hydrogen, in contrast to phosphite and phosphorous acid (more accurately termed 'phosphonic acid'), which contain non-acidic P-H bonds. Arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic, whereas phosphonic acid is not. A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known, As4S3, As4S4, As2S3 and As4S10. All arsenic(III) halogen compounds (except with astatine) are known and stable. For the arsenic(V) compounds the situation is different: only the arsenic pentafluoride is stable at room temperature. Arsenic pentachloride is only stable at temperatures below -50 °C and the pentabromide and pentaiodide are unknown. Arsenic is used as group 5 element as part of the III-V semiconducting compounds. Gallium arsenide, indium arsenide and aluminium arsenide are used as semiconductor material when the properties of silicon are not suitable for the application and the higher price of the compounds is acceptable. Arsenic acid (H3AsO4) Arsenous acid (H3AsO3) Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) Arsine (Arsenic Trihydride AsH3) Cadmium arsenide (Cd3As2) Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4) Arsenic also has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As4S4, realgar. This is achieved by pairing As atoms to produce dimeric cations [As-As]2+, so the total covalency of As is still in fact three. Occurrence A large sample of native arsenic. Arsenopyrite, also unofficially called mispickel, (FeAsS) is the most common arsenic-bearing mineral. In the litosphere the minerals of the formula M(II)AsS, with M(II) being mostly Fe, Ni and Co, are the dominat arsenic minerals. Realgar Orpiment and realgar were formerly used as painting pigments, though they have fallen out of use due to their toxicity and reactivity. Although arsenic is sometimes found native in nature, its main economic source is the mineral arsenopyrite mentioned above; it is also found in arsenides of metals such as silver, cobalt (cobaltite: CoAsS and skutterudite: CoAs3) and nickel, as sulfides, and when oxidised as arsenate minerals such as mimetite, Pb5(AsO4)3Cl and erythrite, Co3(AsO4)2. 8H2O, and more rarely arsenites ('arsenite' = arsenate(III), AsO33- as opposed to arsenate (V), AsO43-). In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Production Arsenic output in 2006 In 2005, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 50% world share, followed by Chile, Peru and Morocco, reports the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey. The arsenic was recovered mostly during mining operations, for example the production from Peru comes mostly from copper mining and the production in China is due to gold mining. Arsenic is part of the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters. On roasting in air of arsenopyrite, arsenic sublimes as arsenic (III) oxide leaving iron oxides, while roasting without air results in the production of metallic arsenic. For further purification of the arsenic from sulfur and other chacogenes is sublimed in vacuum or in a hydrogen atmosphere or by distilling it from molten lead-arsenic mixture. Applications Wood preservation The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria and fungi makes it an ideal component for the preservation of wood. The worldwide treatment with chromated copper arsenate, also known as CCA or Tanalith was the largest consumer of arsenic since the introduction of the process in the 1950s. Due to the environmental problems caused by the arsenic most countries banned the use of chromated copper arsenate on consumer products. The ban began in the European Union and in the United States in 2004. In 2002 in the United States 90% of the 19,600 metric tons of arsenic compounds were used to preserve wood, in 2007 still 50% of the 5,280 metric tons of consumption was used for this purpose. In the European Union the use of arsenic in consumer products According to the USEPA's website, CCA lumber was discontinued for residential and general consumer construction on December 31, 2003 and alternative methods are now used like ACQ, Borates, Copper Azole, Cyproconazole, and Propiconazole. Although discontinued, this application is also one of the most concern to the general public. The vast majority of older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA lumber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material. Although the use of CCA lumber was banned in many areas after studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the wood into the surrounding soil (from playground equipment, for instance), a risk is also presented by the burning of older CCA timber. The direct or indirect ingestion of wood ash from burnt CCA lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans; the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash. Scrap CCA lumber from construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic fires. Protocols for safe disposal of CCA lumber do not exist evenly throughout the world; there is also concern in some quarters about the widespread landfill disposal of such timber. Medical Arsphenamine (Salvarsan) During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine as well as Neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern antibiotics. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 500 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The US Food and Drug Administration in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to ATRA. It was also used as Fowler's solution in psoriasis. Recently new research has been done in locating tumours using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). The advantages of using this isotope instead of the previously used iodine-124 is that the signal in the PET scan is clearer as the iodine tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing a lot of noise. Pigments Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many different names, including 'Paris Green' and 'Emerald Green'. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings. Scheele's Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets. Military After World War I the United States built up a stockpile of 20,000 tons of Lewisite; a chemical weapon, acting as a vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico after the 1950s. Code Red - Weapons of Mass Destruction [Online Resource] - Blister Agents During the Vietnam War the United States used Agent Blue (a mixture of sodium cacodylate) and dimethyl arsinic acid (cacodylic acid) as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive the Vietnamese of valuable crops. Other uses Various agricultural insecticides, termination and poisons. For example Lead hydrogen arsenate was used well into the 20th century as an insecticide on fruit trees. Peryea F.J. 1998. Historical use of lead arsenate insecticides, resulting in soil contamination and implications for soil remediation. Proceedings, 16th World Congress of Soil Science, Montpellier, France. 20–26. Aug. Available online: http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/leadhistory.htm Its use sometimes resulted in brain damage to those working the sprayers. In the last half century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture. Used in animal feed, particularly in the US as a method of disease prevention (section 5.3, pg. 310) and growth stimulation. One example is roxarsone which was used by 69.8 and 73.9% of the broiler starter and growers between 1995 to 2000. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in silicon. Unlike silicon it is direct bandgap, and so can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to directly convert electricity into light. Also used in bronzing and pyrotechnics. Up to 2% of arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shots and bullets. Arsenic is added in small quantities to brass to make it Dezincification resistant. This grade of brass is used to make plumbing fittings. Biological role thumb| Trimethylarsine thumb| Arsenobetaine Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolised to less toxic forms of arsenic through a process of methylation. For example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produce significant amounts of trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present. The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50 µg/day. Values about 1000 µg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms. But there is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic. Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr). In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just like ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that historically these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain PHS-1 has been isolated and is related to the γ-Proteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues. Safety Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase and by competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration, and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure, probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A post mortem reveals brick red colored mucosa, due to severe hemorrhage. Although arsenic causes toxicity, it can also play a protective role. Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the environment" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens. Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis due to its manifestation in drinking water, “the most common species being arsenate [HAsO42- ; As(V)] and arsenite [H3AsO3 ; As(III)]”. The ability of arsenic to undergo redox conversion between As(III) and As(V) makes its availability in the environment more abundant. According to Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn, and Newman, “[the] understanding [of] what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic. Croal, Laura R., Jeffrey A. Gralnick, Davin Malasarn, and Dianne K. Newman. "The Genetics of Geochemisty." Annual Review of Genetics 38.1 (2004): 175–206. 24 April, 2006. <http://web103.epnet.com> Treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is easily accomplished. British anti-Lewisite (dimercaprol) is prescribed in dosages of 5 mg/kg up to 300 mg each 4 hours for the first day. Then administer the same dosage each 6 hours for the second day. Then prescribe this dosage each 8 hours for eight additional days. AJ Giannini. The Psychiatric, Psychogenic ans Somatopsychic Disorders Handbook New Hyde Park, NY. Medical Examination Publishing Co.1978, pp. 81–82. Arsenic in drinking water Arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, Macmillan Science, 2005. and neighbouring countries. Presently 42 major incidents around the world have been reported on groundwater arsenic contamination. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion. However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 parts per billion. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in South East Asia, such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and China have geological environments conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and the dissolved arsenic in the Chao Phraya River is suspected of containing high levels of naturally occurring arsenic, but has not been a public health problem due to the use of bottled water. The northern United States, including parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas are known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water. Increased levels of skin cancer have been associated with arsenic exposure in Wisconsin, even at levels below the 10 part per billion drinking water standard. Epidemiological evidence from Chile shows a dose dependent connection between chronic arsenic exposure and various forms of cancer, particularly when other risk factors, such as cigarette smoking, are present. These effects have been demonstrated to persist below 50 parts per billion. Analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable risk increase for bladder cancer at 10 parts per billion. According to Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge, roughly 80 million people worldwide consume between 10 and 50 parts per billion arsenic in their drinking water. If they all consumed exactly 10 parts per billion arsenic in their drinking water, the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict an additional 2,000 cases of bladder cancer alone. This represents a clear underestimate of the overall impact, since it does not include lung or skin cancer, and explicitly underestimates the exposure. Those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current WHO standard should weigh the costs and benefits of arsenic remediation. Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through coprecipitation of iron minerals by oxidation and filtering. When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive arsenic removal media may be utilized. Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for point-of-service use in a study funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). Magnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic field gradients have been demonstrated in point-of-use water purification with high-surface-area and monodisperse magnetite (Fe3O4) nanocrystals. Using the high specific surface area of Fe3O4 nanocrystals the mass of waste associated with arsenic removal from water has been dramatically reduced. Epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between chronic consumption of drinking water contaminated with arsenic and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. However, the literature provides insufficient scientific evidence to show cause and effect between arsenic and the onset of diabetes mellitus type 2. Occupational Exposures Industries that use inorganic arsenic and its compounds include wood preservation, glass production, nonferrous metal alloys, and electronic semiconductor manufacturing. Inorganic arsenic is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the smelter industry. Occupational exposure and poisoning may occur in persons working in these industries. See also Aqua Tofana Arsenic poisoning Fowler's solution Grainger challenge White arsenic Arsenic trioxide References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory – Arsenic CTD's Arsenic page and CTD's Arsenicals page from the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database A Small Dose of Toxicology ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity Contaminant Focus: Arsenic by the EPA. Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001 by the WHO. Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds by the IARC. 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2,885 | Francis_Crick | Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004), was a British molecular biologist, physicist, and neuroscientist, and most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953. He, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material" . The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962. Nobel Prize Site for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962. Crick is widely known for use of the term “central dogma” to summarize an idea that genetic information flow in cells is essentially one-way, from DNA to RNA to protein. Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the genetic code. During the remainder of his career, he held the post of J.W. Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. His later research centered on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness. He remained in this post until his death; "he was editing a manuscript on his death bed, a scientist until the bitter end" said Christof Koch . Family and education Francis Crick, the first son of Harry Crick (1887-1948) and Annie Elizabeth Crick, née Wilkins, (1879-1955), was born and raised in Weston Favell, then a small village near the English town of Northampton in which Crick’s father and uncle ran the family’s boot and shoe factory. His grandfather, Walter Drawbridge Crick (1857-1903), an amateur naturalist, wrote a survey of local foraminifera (single-celled protists with shells), corresponded with Charles Darwin, and had two gastropods (snails or slugs) named after him. At an early age, he was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child, he was taken to church by his parents, but by about age 12 he told his mother that he no longer wanted to attend, preferring a scientific search for answers over religious belief. — Crick described himself as agnostic, with a "strong inclination towards atheism". He was educated at Northampton Grammar School and, after the age of 14, Mill Hill School in London (on scholarship), where he studied mathematics, physics, and chemistry with his best friend John Shilston. At the age of 21, Crick earned a B.Sc. degree in physics from University College of London (UCL) Chapters 1 and 2 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick — provide Crick's description of his early life and education after he had failed to gain his intended place at a Cambridge college, probably through failing their requirement for Latin; his contemporaries in British DNA research Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins both went up to Cambridge colleges, to Newnham and St. John's respectively. Crick later became a PhD student and Honorary Fellow of Caius College and mainly worked at the Cavendish Laboratory and the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. He was also an Honorary Fellow of Churchill College and of University College London. Crick began a Ph.D. research project on measuring viscosity of water at high temperatures (what he later described as "the dullest problem imaginable" Page 13 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. ) in the laboratory of physicist Edward Neville da Costa Andrade, but with the outbreak of World War II (in particular, an incident during the Battle of Britain when a bomb fell through the roof of the laboratory and destroyed his experimental apparatus), Nature, Obituary, volume 430, 19 August 2004, p 845 Crick was deflected from a possible career in physics. During World War II, he worked for the Admiralty Research Laboratory, from which emerged a group of many notable scientists, including David Bates, Robert Boyd, George Deacon, John Gunn, Harrie Massey and Nevill Mott; he worked on the design of magnetic and acoustic mines and was instrumental in designing a new mine that was effective against German minesweepers. Bio at Wellcome Trust After World War II, in 1947, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biology research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall, who had helped win the war with inventions such as radar. Crick had to adjust from the "elegance and deep simplicity" of physics to the "elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years." He described this transition as, "almost as if one had to be born again." According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important—hubris—and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences such as biology. Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics. For the better part of two years, Crick worked on the physical properties of cytoplasm at Cambridge's Strangeways Laboratory, headed by Honor Bridget Fell, with a Medical Research Council studentship, until he joined Max Perutz and John Kendrew at the Cavendish Laboratory. The Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge was under the general direction of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who won the Nobel Prize in 1915 at the age of 25. Bragg was influential in the effort to beat a leading American chemist, Linus Pauling, to the discovery of DNA's structure (after having been 'pipped-at-the-post' by Pauling's success in determining the alpha helix structure of proteins). At the same time Bragg's Cavendish Laboratory was also effectively competing with King's College London, whose Biophysics department was under the direction of Sir John Randall. (Randall had turned down Francis Crick from working at King's College.) Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins of King's College were personal friends, which influenced subsequent scientific events as much as the close friendship between Crick and James Watson. Crick and Wilkins first met at King's College and not, as erroneously recorded by two authors, at the Admiralty during World War II. He married twice, was father to three children and grandfather to six grandchildren; his younger brother (Tony) had predeceased him in 1966: Spouses: Ruth Doreen Crick, née Dodd (b. 1913, m. 18 February 1940 – 8 May 1947); Odile Crick, née Speed (b. 11 August 1920, m. 14 August 1949 – 28 July 2004, d. 5 July 2007) Children: Michael (b. 25 November 1940) [by Doreen Crick]; Gabrielle (b. 15 July 1951) and Jacqueline [later Nichols] (b. 12 March 1954) [by Odile Crick]; Grandchildren: Alex (b. March 1974), Camberley (b. June 1978), Francis (b. February 1981), Kindra (b. May 1976),(Michael & Barbara Crick's children); Mark and Nicholas (Jacqueline Nichols' children). Crick died of colon cancer on 28 July 2004 at the University of California San Diego (UCSD) Thornton Hospital in La Jolla]; he was cremated and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean. A public memorial was held on 27th of September 2004 at The Salk Institute, La Jolla, near San Diego, California; guest speakers included James D. Watson, Sydney Brenner, Alex Rich, the late Seymour Benzer, Aaron Klug, Christof Koch, Pat Churchland, Vilayanur Ramachandran, Tomaso Poggio, the late Leslie Orgel, Terry Sejnowski, his son Michael Crick, and his youngest daughter Jacqueline Nichols. A more private memorial for family and colleagues had previously been held on 3rd of August 2004. Biology research Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology. First, how molecules make the transition from the non-living to the living, and second, how the brain makes a conscious mind. Page 17 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. He realized that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of biophysics. It was at this time of Crick’s transition from physics into biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and Erwin Schrödinger. Page 18 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. It was clear in theory that covalent bonds in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold genetic information in cells. It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule. Page 22 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. Page 30 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0-87969-478-5. In Crick’s view, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, Gregor Mendel’s genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, revealed the secret of life. Page 25 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. It was clear that some macromolecule such as protein was likely to be the genetic molecule. Page 32 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. However, it was well-known that proteins are structural and functional macromolecules, some of which carry out enzymatic reactions of cells. In the 1940s, some evidence had been found pointing to another macromolecule, DNA, the other major component of chromosomes, as a candidate genetic molecule. In the 1944 Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment, Oswald Avery and his collaborators showed that a heritable phenotypic difference could be caused in bacteria by providing them with a particular DNA molecule. An X-ray diffraction image for the protein myoglobin. At the time when Crick participated in the discovery of the DNA Double Helix, he was doing his thesis research on X-ray diffraction analysis of protein structure (see below). However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules. Pages 33–34 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949), to join Max Perutz’s project at Cambridge University, and he began to work on the X-ray crystallography of proteins. Chapter 4 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules. 1949–1950 Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. Page 46 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. "..there was no alternative but to teach X-ray diffraction to myself." During the period of Crick's study of X-ray diffraction, researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the α helix). Linus Pauling was the first to identify Atomic Coordinates and Structure Factors for Two Helical Configurations of Polypeptide Chains by Linus Pauling and Robert B. Corey in Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1951) volume 37, pages 235–240. the 3.6 amino acids per helix turn ratio of the α helix. Crick was witness to the kinds of errors that his co-workers made in their failed attempts to make a correct molecular model of the α helix; these turned out to be important lessons that could be applied, in the future, to the helical structure of DNA. For example, he learned Page 58 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. the importance of the structural rigidity that double bonds confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to peptide bonds in proteins and the structure of nucleotides in DNA. Francis Crick's first sketch of the deoxyribonucleic acid double-helix pattern 1951–1953: DNA structure In 1951, together with William Gemmell Cochran and V. Vand, Crick assisted in the development of a mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction by a helical molecule. Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix", Acta Cryst., 5, 581-586. This theoretical result matched well with X-ray data obtained for proteins that contain sequences of amino acids in the Alpha helix conformation (published in Nature in 1952). See "Evidence for the Pauling-Corey alpha-Helix in Synthetic Polypeptides" (1952) Nature Volume 169 pages 234–235 (download PDF). Crick's scientific publications and letters are in the list of Francis Crick's Papers from the Wellcome Library or the National Library of Medicine. Helical diffraction theory turned out to also be useful for understanding the structure of DNA. Late in 1951, Crick started working with James D. Watson at Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, England. Using "Photo 51" (the X-ray diffraction results of Raymond Gosling and Rosalind Franklin of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Maurice Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids by James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick. Nature 171, 737–738 (1953). For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Maurice Wilkins. Francis Crick's 1962 Biography from the Nobel foundation. When James Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old post-graduate student (due to his work during WWII) and Watson was only 23, but he already had a Ph.D. They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic information might be stored in molecular form. Crick traced his interest in the physical nature of the gene back to the start of his work in biology, when he was in the Strangeways laboratory; Page 22 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. In The Eighth Day of Creation, Horace Judson describes the development of Watson's thinking about the physical nature of genes. On page 89, Judson explains that by the time Watson came to Cambridge, he believed genes were made of DNA and he hoped that he could use X-ray diffraction data to determine the structure. Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the idea that it might be possible to guess a good molecular model of its structure. Page 22 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. A key piece of experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained by Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin, and their research student, Raymond Gosling. In November 1951, Wilkins came to Cambridge and shared his data with Watson and Crick. Alexander Stokes (another expert in helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached the conclusion that X-ray diffraction data for DNA indicated that the molecule had a helical structure—but Franklin vehemently disputed this conclusion. Stimulated by their discussions with Wilkins and what Watson learned by attending a talk given by Franklin about her work on DNA, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA. Their hurry to produce a model of DNA structure was driven in part by Watson's belief that they were competing against Linus Pauling. Given Pauling's recent success in discovering the Alpha helix, it was not unreasonable to worry that Pauling might also be the first to determine the structure of DNA. Page 90, In The Eighth Day of Creation by Horace Judson. Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in May 1952. Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History Special Collections, The Valley Library, Oregon State University. He might have been invited to see some of the Wilkins/Franklin X-ray diffraction data, and such an event might have led him to a double helix model (which remains—as said above—total speculation). As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the U. S. government and he did not visit the UK until later, at which point he met none of the DNA researchers in England—but at any rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA. Chapter 3 in The Eighth Day of Creation by Horace Judson. Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis; Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952, Watson did X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were forbidden to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA. Diagram that emphasizes the phosphate backbone of DNA. Watson and Crick first made helical models with the phosphates at the center of the helices. Of great importance to the model building effort of Watson and Crick was Rosalind Franklin's understanding of basic chemistry, which indicated that the hydrophilic phosphate-containing backbones of the nucleotide chains of DNA should be positioned so as to interact with water molecules on the outside of the molecule while the hydrophobic bases should be packed into the core. Franklin shared this chemical knowledge with Watson and Crick when she pointed out to them that their first model (from 1951, with the phosphates inside) was obviously wrong. Crick described what he saw as the failure of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin to cooperate and work towards finding a molecular model of DNA as a major reason why he and Watson eventually made a second attempt to do so. They asked for, and received, permission to do so from both William Lawrence Bragg and Wilkins. In order to construct their model of DNA, Watson and Crick made use of information from unpublished X-ray diffraction images of Franklin's (shown at meetings and freely shared by Wilkins), including preliminary accounts of Franklin's results/photographs of the X-ray images that were included in a written progress report for the King's College laboratory of Sir John Randall from late 1952. It is a matter of debate whether Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results without her knowledge or permission, and before she had had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data which were included in the progress report. However, Watson and Crick found fault in her steadfast assertion that, according to her data, a helical structure was not the only possible shape for DNA—so they had a dilemma. In an effort to clarify this issue, Max Ferdinand Perutz later published what had been in the progress report, and suggested that nothing was in the report that Franklin herself had not said in her talk (attended by Watson) in late 1951. Further, Perutz explained that the report was to a Medical Research Council (MRC) committee that had been created in order to "establish contact between the different groups of people working for the Council". Randall's and Perutz's laboratories were both funded by the MRC. It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results from the progress report actually were for the model-building done by Watson and Crick. After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, William Astbury had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angström (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only eight references in Franklin's first paper on DNA. Franklin's citation to the earlier work of W. T. Astbury is in: Analysis of Astbury's published DNA results and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angströms [2.7 nm] in the compact A form, 34 angströms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson. Crick did not see Franklin's B form X-ray images (Photo 51) until after the DNA double helix model was published. One of the few references cited by Watson and Crick when they published their model of DNA, was to a published article that included Sven Furberg's DNA model that had the bases on the inside. Thus, the Watson and Crick model was not the first "bases in" model to be published. Furberg's results had also provided the correct orientation of the DNA sugars with respect to the bases. During their model building, Crick and Watson learned that an anti-parallel orientation of the two nucleotide chain backbones worked best to orient the base pairs in the centre of a double helix. Crick's access to Franklin's progress report of late 1952 is what made Crick confident that DNA was a double helix with anti-parallel chains, but there were other chains of reasoning and sources of information that also led to these conclusions. In chapter 3 of The Eighth Day of Creation, Horace Judson describes the development of Watson's and Crick's thinking about the structure of DNA and how it evolved during their model building. Watson and Crick were open to the idea of tentatively ignoring all individual experimental results, in case they might be wrong or misleading. Judson describes how Watson spent a large amount of time ignoring Crick's belief (based on Franklin's determination of the space group) that the two backbone strands were antiparallel. On page 176, Judson quotes a letter written by Watson, "The model has been derived almost entirely from stereochemical considerations with the only X-ray consideration being the spacing between the pair of bases 3.4 A which was originally found by Astbury." As a result of leaving King's College for another institution, Franklin was asked by John Randall to give up her work on DNA. When it became clear to Wilkins and the supervisors of Watson and Crick that Franklin was going to the new job, and that Linus Pauling was working on the structure of DNA, they were willing to share Franklin's data with Watson and Crick, in the hope that they could find a good model of DNA before Pauling was able. Franklin's X-ray diffraction data for DNA and her systematic analysis of DNA's structural features was useful to Watson and Crick in guiding them towards a correct molecular model. The key problem for Watson and Crick, which could not be resolved by the data from King's College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix. Diagrammatic representation of some key structural features of DNA. The similar structures of guanine:cytosine and adenine:thymine base pairs is illustrated. The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds. The phosphate backbones are anti-parallel. Another key to finding the correct structure of DNA was the so-called Chargaff ratios, experimentally determined ratios of the nucleotide subunits of DNA: the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine. A visit by Erwin Chargaff to England in 1952 reinforced the salience of this important fact for Watson and Crick. The significance of these ratios for the structure of DNA were not recognized until Watson, persisting in building structural models, realized that A:T and C:G pairs are structurally similar. In particular, the length of each base pair is the same. The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds, the same non-covalent interaction that stabilizes the protein α-helix. Watson's recognition of the A:T and C:G pairs was aided by information from Jerry Donohue about the most likely structures of the nucleobases. See Chapter 3 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0-87969-478-5. Judson also lists the publications of W. T. Astbury that described his early X-ray diffraction results for DNA. After the discovery of the hydrogen bonded A:T and C:G pairs, Watson and Crick soon had their double helix model of DNA with the hydrogen bonds at the core of the helix providing a way to "unzip" the two complementary strands for easy replication: the last key requirement for a likely model of the genetic molecule. As important as Crick's contributions to the discovery of the double helical DNA model were, he stated that without the chance to collaborate with Watson, he would not have found the structure by himself. Page 75 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. "If Jim had been killed by a tennis ball, I am reasonably sure I would not have solved the structure alone". Crick did tentatively attempt to perform some experiments on nucleotide base pairing, but he was more of a theoretical than an experimental biologist. There was another near-discovery of the base pairing rules in early 1952. Crick had started to think about interactions between the bases. He asked John Griffith to try to calculate attractive interactions between the DNA bases from chemical principles and quantum mechanics. Griffith's best guess was that A:T and G:C were attractive pairs. At that time, Crick was not aware of Chargaff's rules and he made little of Griffith's calculations, although it did start him thinking about complementary replication. Identification of the correct base-pairing rules (A-T, G-C) was achieved by Watson "playing" with cardboard cut-out models of the nucleotide bases, much in the manner that Linus Pauling had discovered the protein alpha helix a few years earlier. The Watson and Crick discovery of the DNA double helix structure was made possible by their willingness to combine theory, modeling and experimental results (albeit mostly done by others) to achieve their goal. The discovery was made on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25,1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guys Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953 which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in The News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, "Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953 with the headline "Form of `Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important.(The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30th, 1953. Bragg's original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the press! Molecular biology In 1954, at the age of 37, Crick completed his Ph.D. thesis: "X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins" and received his degree. Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on ribonuclease and the mechanisms of protein synthesis. David Harker, the American X-ray crystallographer, was described as "the John Wayne of crystallography" by Vittorio Luzzati, a crystallographer at the Centre for Molecular Genetics in Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris, who had worked with Rosalind Franklin. After the discovery of the double helix model of DNA, Crick's interests quickly turned to the biological implications of the structure. In 1953, Watson and Crick published another article in Nature which stated: "it therefore seems likely that the precise sequence of the bases is the code that carries the genetical information". Collagen triple helix. In 1956, Crick and Watson speculated on the structure of small viruses. They suggested that spherical viruses such as Tomato bushy stunt virus had icosahedral symmetry and were made from 60 identical subunits. *. After his short time in New York, Crick returned to Cambridge where he worked until 1976, at which time he moved to California. Crick engaged in several X-ray diffraction collaborations such as one with Alexander Rich on the structure of collagen. However, Crick was quickly drifting away from continued work related to his expertise in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins. George Gamow established a group of scientists interested in the role of RNA as an intermediary between DNA as the genetic storage molecule in the nucleus of cells and the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm. It was clear to Crick that there had to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid in a newly synthesized protein. In 1956, Crick wrote an informal paper about the genetic coding problem for the small group of scientists in Gamow's RNA group. "On Degenerate Templates and the Adaptor Hypothesis: A Note for the RNA Tie Club" by Francis Crick (1956). In this article, Crick reviewed the evidence supporting the idea that there was a common set of about 20 amino acids used to synthesize proteins. Crick proposed that there was a corresponding set of small "adaptor molecules" that would hydrogen bond to short sequences of a nucleic acid, and also link to one of the amino acids. He also explored the many theoretical possibilities by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 amino acids. Molecular model of a tRNA molecule. Crick predicted that such adaptor molecules might exist as the links between codons and amino acids. During the mid-to-late 1950s Crick was very much intellectually engaged in sorting out the mystery of how proteins are synthesized. By 1958, Crick's thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly way all of the key features of the protein synthesis process: genetic information stored in the sequence of DNA molecules a "messenger" RNA molecule to carry the instructions for making one protein to the cytoplasm adaptor molecules ("they might contain nucleotides") to match short sequences of nucleotides in the RNA messenger molecules to specific amino acids ribonucleic-protein complexes that catalyse the assembly of amino acids into proteins according to the messenger RNA The adaptor molecules were eventually shown to be tRNAs and the catalytic "ribonucleic-protein complexes" became known as ribosomes. An important step was later realization (in 1960) that the messenger RNA was not the same as the ribosomal RNA. None of this, however, answered the fundamental theoretical question of the exact nature of the genetic code. In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had others, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid. Such a code might be "degenerate", with 4×4×4=64 possible triplets of the four nucleotide subunits while there were only 20 amino acids. Some amino acids might have multiple triplet codes. Crick also explored other codes in which, for various reasons, only some of the triplets were used, "magically" producing just the 20 needed combinations. Experimental results were needed; theory alone could not decide the nature of the code. Crick also used the term "central dogma" to summarize an idea that implies that genetic information flow between macromolecules would be essentially one-way: DNA → RNA → Protein Some critics thought that by using the word "dogma", Crick was implying that this was a rule that could not be questioned, but all he really meant was that it was a compelling idea without much solid evidence to support it. In his thinking about the biological processes linking DNA genes to proteins, Crick made explicit the distinction between the materials involved, the energy required, and the information flow. Crick was focused on this third component (information) and it became the organizing principle of what became known as molecular biology. Crick had by this time become a highly influential theoretical molecular biologist. Proof that the genetic code is a degenerate triplet code finally came from genetics experiments, some of which were performed by Crick. The details of the code came mostly from work by Marshall Nirenberg and others who synthesized synthetic RNA molecules and used them as templates for in vitro protein synthesis. Controversy about using King's College London's results An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and her student Raymond Gosling. The controversy arose from the fact that some of the data were shown to them, without her knowledge, by Maurice Wilkins and Max Perutz. Chapter 3 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0-87969-478-5. Her experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals, and these results were most consistent with the three sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Maurice Wilkins; The Third Man of the Double Helix by Maurice Wilkins (ISBN 0-19-860665-6). Wilkins provides a detailed account of the fact that Franklin's results were interpreted as most likely indicated three, and possibly four, polynucleotide strands in the DNA molecule. Franklin personally told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside, whilst vehemently stating that her data did not force one to conclude that DNA has a helical structure. Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the DNA strands were antiparallel, which helped Watson and Crick decide to look for DNA models with two antiparallel polynucleotide strands. The X-ray diffraction images collected by Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA—but she failed to recognise this fact. However Franklin's experimental work proved important in Crick and Watson's development of the correct model. Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little interaction with Franklin. Crick and Watson felt that they had benefited from collaborating with Maurice Wilkins. They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first described the double helix structure of DNA. Wilkins turned down the offer, and was in part responsible for the terse character of the acknowledgment of experimental work done at King's College London. Rather than make any of the DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick double helix article, the solution was to publish two additional papers from King's College along with the helix paper. Brenda Maddox suggested that because of the importance of her experimental results in Watson and Crick's model building and theoretical analysis, Franklin should have had her name on the original Watson and Crick paper in Nature. Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA by Brenda Maddox. (2002) ISBN 0-06-018407-8. Franklin and Gosling submitted their own joint 'second' paper to Nature at the same time as Wilkins, Stokes, and Wilson submitted theirs (i.e. the 'third' paper on DNA). Views on religion Crick once joked, "Christianity may be OK between consenting adults in private but should not be taught to young children." In his book Of Molecules and Men, Crick expressed his views on the relationship between science and religion. Of Molecules and Men (Prometheus Books, 2004; original edition 1967) ISBN 1-59102-185-5. A portion of the book was published as "The Computer, the Eye, the Soul" in Saturday Review (1966): 53–55. After suggesting that it would become possible for people to wonder if a computer might be programmed so as to have a soul, he wondered: at what point during biological evolution did the first organism have a soul? At what moment does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea. For Crick, the mind is a product of physical brain activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years. Crick felt that it was important that evolution by natural selection be taught in public schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction. Crick felt that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous Christian concepts about the nature of humans and the world would no longer be tenable; traditional conceptions of the "soul" would be replaced by a new understanding of the physical basis of mind. He was sceptical of organized religion, referring to himself as a sceptic and an agnostic with "a strong inclination towards atheism". Francis Crick refers to himself as a sceptic and an agnostic with "a strong inclination towards atheism", see reference 42. In 1960, Crick accepted a fellowship at Churchill College Cambridge, one factor being that the new college did not have a chapel. Sometime later a large donation was made to establish a chapel and the fellowship elected to accept it. Crick resigned his fellowship in protest. See also e.g. Telegraph Article In October 1969, Crick participated in a celebration of the 100th year of the journal Nature. Crick attempted to make some predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology. His speculations were later published in Nature. Near the end of the article, Crick briefly mentioned the search for life on other planets, but he held little hope that extraterrestrial life would be found by the year 2000. He also discussed what he described as a possible new direction for research, what he called "biochemical theology". Crick wrote, "So many people pray that one finds it hard to believe that they do not get some satisfaction from it". Crick suggested that it might be possible to find chemical changes in the brain that were molecular correlates of the act of prayer. He speculated that there might be a detectable change in the level of some neurotransmitter or neurohormone when people pray. Crick may have been imagining substances such as dopamine that are released by the brain under certain conditions and produce rewarding sensations. Crick's suggestion that there might someday be a new science of "biochemical theology" seems to have been realized under an alternative name: there is now the new field of neurotheology. Crick's view of the relationship between science and religion continued to play a role in his work as he made the transition from molecular biology research into theoretical neuroscience. Directed panspermia During the 1960s, Crick became concerned with the origins of the genetic code. In 1966, Crick took the place of Leslie Orgel at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life. Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms. At that time, everyone thought of proteins as the only kind of enzymes and ribozymes had not yet been found. Many molecular biologists were puzzled by the problem of the origin of a protein replicating system that is as complex as that which exists in organisms currently inhabiting Earth. In the early 1970s, Crick and Orgel further speculated about the possibility that the production of living systems from molecules may have been a very rare event in the universe, but once it had developed it could be spread by intelligent life forms using space travel technology, a process they called “Directed Panspermia”. " Directed Panspermia” by Francis Crick and Leslie E Orgel in Icarus (1973) Volume 19 pages 341–346. Crick later wrote a book about directed panspermia: In a retrospective article, Crick and Orgel noted that they had been overly pessimistic about the chances of abiogenesis on Earth when they had assumed that some kind of self-replicating protein system was the molecular origin of life. Neuroscience, other interests Results from an fMRI experiment in which people made a conscious decision about a visual stimulus. The small region of the brain coloured orange shows patterns of activity that correlate with the decision making process. Crick stressed the importance of finding new methods to probe human brain function. Crick's period at Cambridge was the pinnacle of his long scientific career, but he left Cambridge in 1977 after 30 years, having been offered (and having refused) the Mastership of Gonville & Caius. James Watson claimed at a Cambridge conference marking the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the structure of DNA in 2003: "Now perhaps it's a pretty well kept secret that one of the most uninspiring acts of Cambridge University over this past century was to turn down Francis Crick when he applied to be the Professor of Genetics, in 1958. Now there may have been a series of arguments, which lead them to reject Francis. It was really saying, don't push us to the frontier." The apparently "pretty well kept secret" had already been recorded in Soraya De Chadarevian's "Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II", published by CUP in 2002. His major contribution to molecular biology in Cambridge is well documented in The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990), which was published by Cambridge University Press in 1992. According to the University of Cambridge's genetics department official website, the electors of the professorship could not reach consensus, prompting the intervention of then University Vice-Chancellor Lord Adrian. Lord Adrian first offered the professorship to a compromise candidate, Guido Pontecorvo, who refused, and is said to have offered it then to Crick, who also refused. In 1976, Crick took a sabbatical year at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. Crick had been a nonresident fellow of the Institute since 1960. Crick wrote, "I felt at home in Southern California." Page 145 of What Mad Pursuit by Francis Crick. After the sabbatical, Crick left Cambridge in order to continue working at the Salk Institute. He was also a professor at the University of California, San Diego. He taught himself neuroanatomy and studied many other areas of neuroscience research. It took him several years to disengage from molecular biology because exciting discoveries continued to be made, including the discovery of alternative splicing and the discovery of restriction enzymes, which helped make possible genetic engineering. Eventually, in the 1980s, Crick was able to devote his full attention to his other interest, consciousness. His autobiographical book, What Mad Pursuit, includes a description of why he left molecular biology and switched to neuroscience. Upon taking up work in theoretical neuroscience, Crick was struck by several things: there were many isolated subdisciplines within neuroscience with little contact between them many people who were interested in behaviour treated the brain as a black box consciousness was viewed as a taboo subject by many neurobiologists Crick hoped he might aid progress in neuroscience by promoting constructive interactions between specialists from the many different subdisciplines concerned with consciousness. He even collaborated with neurophilosophers such as Patricia Churchland. Crick established a collaboration with Christof Koch that lead to publication of a series of articles on consciousness during the period spanning from 1990 "Towards a Neurobiological Theory of Consciousness" by Francis Crick and Christof Koch in Seminars in the Neurosciences (1990): Volume 2 pages 263–275. to 2005. Crick made the strategic decision to focus his theoretical investigation of consciousness on how the brain generates visual awareness within a few hundred milliseconds of viewing a scene. Crick and Koch proposed that consciousness seems so mysterious because it involves very short-term memory processes that are as yet poorly understood. Crick also published a book describing how neurobiology had reached a mature enough stage so that consciousness could be the subject of a unified effort to study it at the molecular, cellular and behavioural levels. The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search For The Soul by Francis Crick. (Scribner reprint edition, 1995) ISBN 0-684-80158-2 Crick's book The Astonishing Hypothesis made the argument that neuroscience now had the tools required to begin a scientific study of how brains produce conscious experiences. Crick was skeptical about the value of computational models of mental function that are not based on details about brain structure and function. Reactions to Crick and his work Crick has widely been described as talkative, brash, and lacking modesty. Watson's book The Double Helix painted a vivid image of Crick, starting with the famous line, "I have never seen Francis Crick in a modest mood." The first chapter of Horace Judson's book The Eighth Day of Creation describes the importance of Crick's talking and his boldness in his scientific style. His personality combined with his scientific accomplishments produced many opportunities for Crick to stimulate reactions from others, both inside and outside of the scientific world, which was the centre of his intellectual and professional life. Describing Crick's influence on his scientific colleagues, Francis Crick Papers archivist Chris Beckett wrote of the importance of, ".....Crick's presence and eloquence —direct and beguiling, by all accounts in the archive— at conference after conference, through formal lectures, extempore summaries, informal meetings and individual conversations. Indeed, one has the impression that it was through these frequent persuasive moments of personal delivery and purposive conversations that Crick was most influential.". Also described as an example of Crick's wide recognition and public profile are some of the times Crick was addressed as "Sir Francis Crick" with the assumption that someone so famous must have been knighted. Crick spoke rapidly, and rather loudly, and had an infectious and reverberating laugh, and a lively sense of humour. One colleague from the Salk Institute described him as "a brainstorming intellectual powerhouse with a mischievous smile.... Francis was never mean-spirited, just incisive. He detected microscopic flaws in logic. In a room full of smart scientists, Francis continually reearned his position as the heavyweight champ." Eagleman, D.M. (2005). Obituary: Francis H. C. Crick (1916-2004). Vision Research. 45: 391-393. Eugenics Crick occasionally expressed his views on eugenics, usually in private letters. For example, Crick advocated a form of positive eugenics in which wealthy parents would be encouraged to have more children. Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code by Matt Ridley, published in 2006 by HarperCollins Publishers. He once remarked, "In the long run, it is unavoidable that society will begin to worry about the character of the next generation... It is not a subject at the moment which we can tackle easily because people have so many religious beliefs and until we have a more uniform view of ourselves I think it would be risky to try and do anything in the way of eugenics... I would be astonished if, in the next 100 or 200 years, society did not come round to the view that they would have to try to improve the next generation in some extent or one way or another." Creationism It has been suggested by some observers that Crick's speculation about panspermia "fits neatly into the intelligent design concept." Intelligent design tied to creationism in Dover trial by Bill Toland for the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (28 September 2005). Crick's name was raised in this context in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial over the teaching of intelligent design. Crick was, however, a firm critic of Young earth creationism. In the 1987 United States Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard, Crick joined a group of other Nobel laureates who advised that, "'Creation-science' simply has no place in the public-school science classroom." Amicus Curiae Brief of 72 Nobel Laureates, 17 State Academies of Science, and 7 Other Scientific Organization in Support of Appellees filed in the case Edwards v. Aguillard before the U.S. Supreme Court (1986). Crick was also an advocate for the establishment of Darwin Day as a British national holiday. Press release from the British Humanist Association: Darwin Day a natural holiday? (12 February 2003). Recognition Stained glass window in the dining hall of Caius College, in Cambridge, commemorating Francis Crick and representing the structure of DNA. In addition to the 1962 Nobel prize he received many awards and honours, including the Royal and Copley medals of the Royal Society (1972 and 1975), and also the Order of Merit (November 27 1991); he refused an offer of a CBE in 1963 and later refused an offer of a knighthood, but was often referred to in error as 'Sir Francis Crick' and even on occasions as 'Lord Crick'; Richard Lewontin's review of The Double Helix by James Watson in "The Chicago Sunday Times" on February 25 1968 contained an astonishing four references to "Sir Francis Crick" - in error. On Saturday, October 20 1962 the award of Nobel prizes to John Kendrew and Max Perutz, and to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins was satirised in a short sketch in the BBC TV programme That Was The Week That Was with the Nobel Prizes being referred to as 'The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools.' The Francis Crick Prize Lectures at The Royal Society, London The Francis Crick Prize Lecture was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, Sydney Brenner, joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. The Francis Crick Lecture (2003): The Royal Society website. Retrieved 12 July 2006 The lecture is delivered annually in any field of biological sciences, with preference given to the areas in which Francis Crick himself worked. Importantly, the lectureship is aimed at younger scientists, ideally under 40, or whose career progression corresponds to this age. The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures at the University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge Graduate School of Biological, Medical and Veterinary Sciences hosts The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures. The first two lectures were by John Gurdon and Tim Hunt. Back and Forward: From University to Research Institute; From Egg to Adult, and Back Again by Professor Sir John Gurdon, Francis Crick Graduate Lectures, 29 November 2005. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 12 July 2006. A Life in Science by Dr Tim Hunt, Francis Crick Graduate Lectures, 29 June 2005. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 12 July 2006. "For my generation, Francis Crick was probably the most obviously influential presence. He was often at lunch in the canteen of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology where he liked to explain what he was thinking about, and he was always careful to make sure that everyone round the table really understood. He was a frequent presence at talks in and around Cambridge, where he liked to ask questions. Sometimes, I remember thinking, they seemed slightly ignorant questions to which a man of his extraordinary range and ability ought to have known the answers. Only slowly did it dawn on me that he only and always asked questions when he was unclear or unsure, a great lesson." (Tim Hunt, first Francis Crick Graduate Lecturer: June 2005) The wording on the new DNA sculpture (which was donated by James Watson) outside Clare College's Thirkill Court, Cambridge, England is a) on the base: i) "These strands unravel during cell reproduction. Genes are encoded in the sequence of bases." ii) "The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins." b) on the helices: i) "The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson while Watson lived here at Clare." ii) "The molecule of DNA has two helical strands that are linked by base pairs Adenine - Thymine or Guanine - Cytosine." The aluminium sculpture stands fifteen feet high. It took a pair of technicians a fortnight to build it. For the artist responsible it was an opportunity to create a monument that brings together the themes of science and nature; Charles Jencks, Sculptor said "It embraces the trees, you can sit on it and the ground grows up and it twists out of the ground. So it's truly interacting with living things like the turf, and that idea was behind it and I think it does celebrate life and DNA." Tony Badger, Master of Clare, said: "It is wonderful to have this lasting reminder of his achievements while he* was at Clare and the enormous contribution he* and Francis Crick have made to our understanding of life on earth." * James D. Watson. Westminster City Council unveiled a green plaque to Francis Crick on the front façade of 56 St George's Square, Pimlico, London SW1 on the 20 June 2007; Crick lived in the first floor flat, together with Robert Dougall of BBC radio and later TV fame, a former Royal Navy associate.</sup>; Robert Dougall had replaced George Kreisel who left the flat in 1946. Crick was elected a fellow of CSICOP in 1983 and a Humanist Laureate of the International Academy of Humanism in the same year. In 1995, Francis Crick was one of the original endorsers of the Ashley Montagu Resolution to petition for an end to the genital mutilation of children. Another sculpture entitled Discovery, was installed on Tuesday,13 December 2005 and a formal ribbon-cutting ceremony was held on Thursday, 15 December 2005 at 11.00am in Abington Street, Northampton. According to the late Mr Lynn Wilson, chairman of the Wilson Foundation, "The sculpture celebrates the life of a world class scientist who must surely be considered the greatest Northamptonian of all time - by discovering DNA he unlocked the whole future of genetics and the alphabet of life." Fellow of the Royal Society Fellow International Academy of Humanism Fellow CSICOP Books by Francis Crick Of Molecules and Men (Prometheus Books, 2004; original edition 1967) ISBN 1-59102-185-5 Life Itself (Simon & Schuster, 1981) ISBN 0-671-25562-2 What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) ISBN 0-465-09138-5 The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search For The Soul (Scribner reprint edition, 1995) ISBN 0-684-80158-2 Kreiseliana: about and around Georg Kreisel; ISBN 1-56881-061-X; 495 pages. For pages 25 - 32 "Georg Kreisel: a Few Personal Recollections" contributed by Francis Crick. Books about Francis Crick and the structure of DNA discovery John Bankston, Francis Crick and James D. Watson; Francis Crick and James Watson: Pioneers in DNA Research (Mitchell Lane Publishers, Inc., 2002) ISBN 1-58415-122-6 Soraya De Chadarevian; Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II, CUP 2002, 444 pp; ISBN 0-521-57078-6 Edwin Chargaff; Heraclitean Fire, Rockefeller Press, 1978 S. Chomet (Ed.), "D.N.A. Genesis of a Discovery", 1994, Newman- Hemisphere Press, London Dickerson, Richard E.; "Present at the Flood: How Structural Molecular Biology Came About", Sinauer, 2005; ISBN 0-878-93168-6; Edward Edelson, "Francis Crick And James Watson: And the Building Blocks of Life"' Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-19-513971-2. Hager, Thomas; "Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling", Simon & Schuster 1995; ISBN 0-684-80909-5 Graeme Hunter; Light Is A Messenger, the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg, ISBN 0-19-852921-X; Oxford University Press, 2004. Horace Freeland Judson, "The Eighth Day of Creation. Makers of the Revolution in Biology"; Penguin Books 1995, first published by Jonathan Cape, 1977; ISBN 0-14-017800-7. Torsten Krude (Ed.); DNA Changing Science and Society (ISBN 0-521-82378-1) CUP 2003. (The Darwin Lectures for 2003, including one by Sir Aaron Klug on Rosalind Franklin's involvement in the determination of the structure of DNA). Brenda Maddox Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA, 2002. ISBN 0-00-655211-0. Robert Olby; The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA; first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; ISBN 0-486-68117-3; revised in 1994, with a 9-page postscript. Robert Olby; Oxford National Dictionary article: ‘Crick, Francis Harry Compton (1916–2004)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, January 2008; Robert Olby; "Crick: A Biography", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,ISBN 978-087969798-3, to be published in August 2009. Matt Ridley; Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives) first published in June 2006 in the USA and then in the UK September 2006, by HarperCollins Publishers; 192 pp, ISBN 0-06-082333-X. Anne Sayre. 1975. Rosalind Franklin and DNA. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-32044-8. James D. Watson; The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Atheneum, 1980, ISBN 0-689-70602-2 (first published in 1968) is a very readable firsthand account of the research by Crick and Watson. The book also formed the basis of the award winning television dramatization Life Story by BBC Horizon (also broadcast as Race for the Double Helix). James D. Watson; The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA; The Norton Critical Edition, which was published in 1980, edited by Gunther S. Stent: ISBN 0-393-01245-X. (It does not include Erwin Chargaff's critical review unfortunately.) James D. Watson; "Avoid boring people and other lessons from a life in science" New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-41284-4, 366pp Maurice Wilkins; The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins ISBN 0-19-860665-6. See also Neural correlates of consciousness Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids Crick's wobble hypothesis Crick, Brenner et al. experiment List of atheists References External links Crick papers Crick's personal papers at Mandeville Special Collections Library, Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego Francis Crick Archive - Papers by Francis Crick are available for study at the Wellcome Library’s Archives and Manuscripts department. These papers include those dealing with Crick’s career after he moved to the Salk Institute in San Diego. The Crick papers Comprehensive list of pdf files of Crick's papers from 1950 to 1990 - National Library of Medicine. Francis Crick papers - Nature.com http://www.intuition.org/txt/crick2.htm for Crick's comments on LSD Manuscripts and Correspondence - Mark Bretscher Discovery of Crick's original scientific material in Cambridge, England. Key Participants: Francis H. C. Crick - Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History Hear or see Crick An interview with Francis Crick and Christof Koch, 2001 Listen to Francis Crick Presentation speech at the Nobel Prize ceremony in 1962. The Quest for Consciousness - The Quest for Consciousness - 65 minute audio program - a conversation on Consciousness with neurobiologist Francis Crick of the Salk Institute and neurobiologist Christof Koch from Caltech. Listen to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974. The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology - a 1995 talk delivered by Crick at Oregon State University About his work The Crick Papers at the Wellcome Trust. "Quiet debut for the double helix" by Professor Robert Olby, Nature 421 (23 January 2003): 402-405. Reading list for discovery of DNA story from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education. About his life Salk Institute Press Release on the death of Francis Crick. BBC News: Francis Crick dies aged 88 Francis Crick - MSN Encarta Miscellaneous National DNA Day, 25 April 2006 Moderated Chat Transcript Archive Obituary in "The Times" (London) of Francis Crick, 30 July 2004. Independent On Line article about Consciousness, 7 June 2006. Francis Crick Obituary The Biochemist Obituary: Francis H. C. Crick (1916-2004) by David M. Eagleman, in Vision Research Obituary: Francis Crick's Legacy for Neuroscience by Ralph M. Siegel and Edward M. Callaway, in PLoS Biology 100 Scientists and Thinkers: James Watson and Francis Crick from TIME magazine. Francis Crick: Nobel Prize 1962, Physiology or Medicine Associated Press story on the death of Francis Crick King's College London team of - in alphabetical order - Franklin, Gosling, Randall, Stokes, Wilkins, and Wilson, all of whom worked under the direction of (Sir) John Randall. First press stories on DNA but for the 'second' DNA story in The New York Times, see: http://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/dna-article.pdf - for reproduction of the original text in June 1953. 'Death' of DNA Helix (Crystalline) joke funeral card. Lynne Elkins' article on Franklin. 50th anniversary series of articles -from The New York Times. Quotes of Robert Olby on exactly who may have discovered the structure of DNA. listen to Matt Ridley talking about Francis Crick. A celebration of Francis Crick's life in science. The People's Archive interview Odile Crick's page (with music!) on the Crick family web site. Obituary by Peter Lawrence and Mark Bretscher, "Current Biology". 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2,886 | Fallout_shelter | A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in New York City. A fallout shelter is an enclosed space specially designed to protect occupants from radioactive debris or fallout resulting from a nuclear explosion. Many such shelters were constructed as civil defence measures during the Cold War. After a nuclear explosion, matter vaporized in the resulting fireball is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive. When this material condenses in the cloud, it forms dust and light sandy material that resembles ground pumice. The fallout emits both beta particles and gamma rays. Much of this highly radioactive material then falls to earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation, a significant hazard. A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to minimize exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has decayed to a safer level. History Idealized American fallout shelter from around 1957. During the Cold War many countries built fallout shelters for high-ranking government officials and crucial military facilities. Plans were made, however, to use existing buildings with sturdy below-ground-level basements as makeshift fallout shelters. These buildings were usually placarded with the yellow and black trefoil sign as shown in the top of this article. The initial blast of a nuclear attack might have rendered these basements either buried under many tons of rubble and thus impossible to leave, or removed their upper framework, thus leaving the basements unprotected. In the U.S. in September 1961 the Federal Government started the Community Fallout Shelter Program. (A letter from President Kennedy advising the use of fallout shelters appeared in the September, 1961 issue of Life magazine.) DOE.gov Switzerland built an extensive network of fallout shelters (mainly through extra hardening of government buildings such as schools) of a scale to protect and feed the entire population for two years after a nuclear attack. This nation has the highest ratio of shelter space to national population of any country. All these shelters are capable of withstanding nuclear fallout and biological or chemical (NBC) attacks but the blast-proof requirement varies depending on the size of the building. The largest buildings usually have dedicated shelters tunneled into solid rock. Similar projects have been undertaken in Finland, which requires all buildings with area over 600 m² to have an NBC shelter, and Norway, which requires all buildings with an area over 1000 m² to have a shelter. The former Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries often designed their underground mass-transit and subway tunnels to serve as bomb and fallout shelters in the event of an attack. Interest in fallout shelters has largely dropped, as the perceived threat of global nuclear war reduced after the end of the Cold War. In Switzerland, most residential shelters are no longer stocked with the food and water required for prolonged habitation and a large number have been converted by the owners to other uses (e.g. wine cellars, ski rooms, gyms). However, a renewed interest has been seen since 2001. These shelters also provide a safe haven from natural disasters such as tornadoes and hurricanes, although Switzerland is rarely subject to such natural phenomena. Details of shelter construction Door to a light fallout shelter Shielding A basic fallout shelter consists of shields that reduce gamma ray exposure by a factor of 1000. The required shielding can be accomplished with 10 times the amount of any quantity of material capable of cutting gamma ray effects in half. Shields that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2) include 1 cm (0.4 inch) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed dirt or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. Thus, a practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of packed dirt, reducing gamma rays by 1024 times (210). Usually, an expedient purpose-built fallout shelter is a trench, with a strong roof buried by ~1 m (3 ft) of dirt. The two ends of the trench have ramps or entrances at right angles to the trench, so that gamma rays cannot enter (they can travel only in straight lines). To make the overburden waterproof (in case of rain), a plastic sheet should be buried a few inches below the surface and held down with rocks or bricks. Climate control Dry earth is a reasonably good thermal insulator, and over several weeks of habitation, a shelter will become too hot for comfort. The simplest form of effective fan to cool a shelter is a wide, heavy frame with flaps that swings in the shelter's doorway and can be swung from hinges on the ceiling. The flaps open in one direction and close in the other, pumping air. Attach a rope, and take turns swinging it. (This is a Kearny Air Pump, or KAP, named after the inventor.) Fallout shelter sign on a school dormitory in Mission, South Dakota. Unfiltered air is safe, since the most dangerous fallout has the consistency of sand or finely ground pumice. Such large particles are not easily ingested into the soft tissues of the body, so extensive filters are not required. Any exposure to fine dust is far less hazardous than exposure to the gamma from the fallout outside the shelter. Dust fine enough to pass the entrance will probably pass through the shelter. Locations Effective public shelters can be the middle floors of some tall buildings or parking structures, or below ground level in most buildings with more than 10 floors. The thickness of the upper floors must form an effective shield, and the windows of the sheltered area must not view fallout-covered ground that is closer than 1.5 km (1 mi). Contents A battery-powered radio is very helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance. In many countries (including the U.S.) civilian radio stations have emergency generators with enough fuel to operate for extended periods without commercial electricity. It is possible to construct an electrometer-type radiation meter called the Kearny Fallout Meter from plans with just a coffee can or pail, gypsum board, monofilament fishing line, and aluminum foil. Plans are in the reference "Nuclear War Survival Skills" by Cresson Kearny. Usage Inhabitants should plan to remain sheltered for at least two weeks, then work outside for gradually increasing amounts of time, to four hours a day at three weeks. The normal work is to sweep or wash fallout into shallow trenches to decontaminate the area. They should sleep in a shelter for several months. Evacuation at three weeks is recommended by official authorities. If available, inhabitants should take potassium iodide at the rate of 130 mg/day per adult (65 mg/day per child) as an additional measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine, a component of most fallout and reactor waste. (For more info, including storage, and use of an inexpensive saturated solution, see potassium iodide). Protection offered by the solid walls and roof of a structure The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report and the second edition of The Radiochemical Manual The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with 10 cm of concrete shielding. The protection factor provided by 10 cm of concrete shielding where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout. The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with 20 cm of concrete shielding. The protection factor provided by 20 cm of concrete shielding where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout. The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with 30 cm of concrete shielding. The protection factor provided by 30 cm of concrete shielding where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout. The fallout from either a weapon or an accident is a complex mixture of many radioisotopes. For weapons fallout the photon energy is assumed to be the same as the gamma rays from 60Co. Data collected after the Chernobyl accident can serve in a simulation of fallout shelter efficacy, reconstructing the contribution of different radioisotopes to the radiation dose over time. The simulation detailed below assumes that no chemical separation occurred during the transport of radioactivity to the site where the fallout fell (this in real life is not true), and that no decontamination or removal of fallout (e.g. weathering) occurs. No shielding Using the data for the source term (radioactive release) from Chernobyl, and other literature data it is possible to estimate how much protection a wall of concrete will offer in the event of a Chernobyl like accident. These calculations are for a room with no windows or doors. The radioactive dust on the roof, and the windows and doors will make the estimation of the protection factor more difficult. 10 cm concrete shielding These graphs show that thicker walls increase the protection factor. The protection factor is the ratio of the dose rate suffered by a person inside the shelter divided by the dose rate in the open. The protection factor changes as a function of time. This is because some of the short-lived isotopes such as 95Zr and 95Nb generate very high energy gamma photons, while the longer lived 137Cs have a lower photon energy. As the wall is made thicker the average gamma photon energy for those photons which pass through the wall becomes higher. So each additional layer of concrete has a smaller effect on the dose rate. 20 and 30 cm concrete shielding (Refer to charts, at right) As the shield becomes thicker the very high photon energy emitters such as 140Ba/140La and 95Zr/95Nb become more and more important. Other matters and simple improvements In the long term it is important to consider the protection which is offered by a person's home in the months and years after an event such as the Chernobyl accident. While the person's home may not be a purpose-made shelter, it can be thought of as a shelter if any action is taken to improve the degree of protection. Measures to lower the beta dose The main threat from beta emitters is from a hot particle which is in contact or close to the skin of the person. Also a swallowed or inhaled hot particle could cause beta burns. As it is important to avoid bringing hot particles into the shelter, one option is to remove one's outer clothing on entry. Measures to lower the gamma dose rate The gamma dose rate due to the contamination brought into the shelter on the clothing of a person is likely to be small compared to gamma radiation that penetrates through the walls of the shelter. The following measures can be taken to reduce the amount of gamma radiation entering the shelter: Roofs and gutters should be cleaned to lower the dose rate in the house. The top inch of soil in the area near the house should be either removed or dug up and mixed with the deeper layers of soil. This reduces the dose rate as the gamma photons have to pass through the soil before they can irradiate a person. Nearby roads can be rinsed and washed down to remove dust and debris; the contaminated materials would collect in the sewers and gutters for easier disposal. In Kiev after the Chernobyl accident a program of road washing was used to control the spread of radioactivity. Windows can be bricked up, or the sill raised to reduce the hole in the shielding formed by the wall. Gaps in the shielding can be blocked using water cans, such as bottles of water. While water only has a density which is one tenth that of lead, it is still able to absorb gamma rays. Earth can be heaped up against the exposed walls of the building, this forces the gamma rays to pass through a thicker layer of shielding before entering the house. Nearby trees can be removed to reduce the dose due to fallout which is on the branches and leaves. It has been suggested by the US government that a fallout shelter should not be dug close to trees for this reason. Different types of radiation emitted by fallout Alpha In the vast majority of accidents and in all atomic bombs the threat due to beta and gamma emitters is far greater than that posed by the small amount of alpha emitters in the fallout. Alpha radiation can be very harmful, but only if radioactive materials are ingested or inhaled. Alpha particles can be blocked easily by a sheet of paper. Beta It is likely that even a light structure will give good protection against most beta emitters, but small particles of fallout can cause localised radiation injuries known as beta burns. It is thought that if a person entering a fallout shelter was to change their footwear and leave their outer clothing outside the main area then the persons inside will be protected from these beta burns. Beta rays are more penetrating than alpha rays, but internal exposure will tend to do less damage because the LET is lower. Three centimeters of aluminum can block the beta emissions from even a high energy beta emitter such as 90Sr, while a lower energy beta emitter such as tritium or 14C will be stopped by thinner objects. Gamma These are not charged particles but electromagnetic rays, and are thus more able to pass through objects and may pose a great threat to a person in a fallout shelter. Most of the design of a fallout shelter is intended to protect against gamma rays. The rays' intensity can be reduced by dense materials such as lead, steel, concrete or packed earth. Weapons fallout The bulk of the radioactivity in nuclear accident fallout is more long-lived than that in weapons fallout. A good table of the nuclides such as that provided by the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute includes the fission yields of the different nuclides. From this data it is possible to calculate the isotopic mixture in the fallout (due to fission products in bomb fallout). The mixture of radioisotopes present in used power reactor fuel can be more complex because neutron activation of fission products is possible, a good example of this is the caesium isotopic signature. In terms of activity (becquerels or curies), the activity in a power reactor fuel one hour after shutdown tends to be more long lived because the majority of the short lived fission products will have had time to decay. For example, some fissile material is used in a bomb, and that in 1012 fissions an equal number of 131I and 137Cs atoms are formed. Because the 131I has such a short half life when compared with the 137Cs, the activity ratio of 131I to 137Cs will be very much in favour of the 131I one hour after the fission event. If, on the other hand, a lump of fuel in a power reactor undergoes 1012 fissions, which will generate a given amount of 131I, if the reactor was run at a constant power for one year then the majority of the 131I will have had time to decay. However the vast majority of the 137Cs atoms will not have had time to decay. So the 131I to 137Cs ratio is more in favour of 137Cs than the mixture formed. Pop culture In popular culture, fallout shelters feature prominently in the Robert A. Heinlein novel Farnham's Freehold (Heinlein built a fairly extensive shelter near his home in Colorado Springs in 1963) site: Robert A. Heinlein - Archives - PM 6/52 Article , Pulling Through by Dean Ing, A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller and the David Brin novel Earth. The idealized fallout shelter can be seen in the motion picture Blast from the Past. The Twilight Zone episode The Shelter, from a Rod Serling script, deals with the consequences of actually using a shelter. In book 11 of the Cirque Du Freak book series, Darren and Harkat must go into an alternate world. They then find a fallout shelter with post cards on the refrigerator from the late 1940's and realized that they had gone back in time. In the Fallout series of video games, fallout shelter vaults, are supposed to safely house their 1000 inhabitants from nuclear war. See also Blast shelter Bomb shelter Bunker Collective protection Command center Continuity of government Diefenbunker Fallout Protection Fission product Survivalism Retreat (survivalism) Survival Under Atomic Attack Urban exploration Sonnenberg Tunnel References External links Nuclear fallout decontamination device. (www.greeneyetech.com) Fallout exposure based on size of bomb and distance from explosion. (www.bomb-shelter.net) Bomb Shelter Questions and Answers (www.undergroundbombshelter.com) Arabs put nuclear bunkers in grounds of their houses (UK) Oregon Institute of Science and MedicineThis website offers the entire online version of Nuclear War Survival Skills with full graphics and web navigation, created with the permission of the author Cresson Kearny. This manual has proven technical info on expedient fallout shelter, shelter habitation, and assorted shelter system needs that can be created from common household items. OISM also offers free downloads of other civil defense and shelter information as well. SurvivalRing Hosts hundreds of freely downloadable PDF files including dozens of authentic fallout shelter plans, fallout shelter regulations, fallout technological data, and cold war related fallout shelter defense data. | Fallout_shelter |@lemmatized sign:3 point:1 old:1 fallout:61 shelter:61 new:1 york:1 city:1 enclosed:1 space:2 specially:1 design:4 protect:5 occupant:2 radioactive:7 debris:2 result:2 nuclear:12 explosion:4 many:5 construct:2 civil:2 defence:1 measure:5 cold:4 war:8 matter:2 vaporize:1 fireball:1 expose:1 neutron:2 absorb:2 becomes:1 material:8 condense:1 cloud:1 form:6 dust:5 light:3 sandy:1 resemble:1 ground:6 pumice:2 emit:2 beta:13 particle:8 gamma:20 ray:14 much:3 highly:1 fall:1 earth:5 subject:2 anything:1 within:1 line:3 sight:1 radiation:8 significant:1 hazard:1 allow:1 minimize:1 exposure:6 harmful:2 radioactivity:4 decay:4 safe:3 level:3 history:1 idealized:2 american:1 around:1 country:4 build:5 high:6 ranking:1 government:5 official:2 crucial:1 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2,887 | Fredericton | Fredericton () is the capital of the Canadian province of New Brunswick, by virtue of the provincial parliament which sits there. An important cultural, artistic, and educational centre for the province (and for Eastern Canada at large), Fredericton is home to three universities, as well as cultural institutions such as the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, the York-Sunbury Museum, and The Playhouse—a performing arts venue. The city hosts the annual Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival, attracting regional and international jazz, blues, rock, and world artists. Fredericton is also widely known for its indie rock scene, featuring jamband-reminiscent artists like Grand Theft Bus, and the record label Forward Music Group. As a provincial capital, its economy is inextricably tied to the fortunes of the public sector; however, the city also contains a growing IT and commercial sector. The city has the highest percentage of residents with a post-secondary education in the province and one of the highest per capita incomes. In the 2006 census, the population of the city of Fredericton was 50,535 and the population of the census agglomeration (termed "Greater Fredericton") was 85,688. The first major expansion of the city occurred on July 1, 1945 when it amalgamated with the town of Devon. Today the city of Fredericton comprises Fredericton proper, and the boroughs of Silverwood, Nashwaaksis, Barker's Point and Marysville, which were incorporated into the city in 1973. The city is situated in the west-central portion of the province and, along with Moncton and Saint John, is one of the main urban centres in southern New Brunswick. The St. John River flows in a west-east direction, bisecting the city and providing the dominant natural feature for the municipality. History Christ Church Cathedral, construction began in 1845 (officially opened 1853). The cathedral is modelled after St. Mary's Church, Snettisham, Norfolk. Aboriginal, French, and early British settlement The area of the present-day City of Fredericton was first used for seasonal farming by the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet peoples. Corn was the primary crop grown in the area. Interestingly, the site of Fredericton served as a sort of capital for Aboriginals in the area. Aucpaque, the "principal village" of the Aboriginals in the area, was located a few kilometres upriver from the site of present-day Fredericton. The first European contact was by the French in the late 17th century, who granted the land to Joshua J Mahoney. In 1692, he built a fort (Fort Nashwaak) on the north side of the Saint John River, at the mouth of the Nashwaak River. For a period, Fort Nashwaak served as the capital of the French colony of Acadia. After Mahoney's death in 1700 and a devastating flood, the fort was abandoned. The Fredericton area was first permanently settled and named Pointe-Sainte-Anne (often anglicized to Ste. Anne's Point) in 1732 by Acadians fleeing Nova Scotia after the British took over the territory. Their townsite was on the south side of the river, approximately a mile upriver from Fort Nashwaak. The British captured Ste. Anne's Point after the expulsion of the Acadians in 1755, burning the settlement to the ground. A 1762 settlement attempt by the British was unsuccessful due to the hostility of local Acadian and Aboriginal populations. These settlers ended up building a community downriver at what is today the town of Maugerville (pronounced "majorville"). However, three fur traders managed to permanently settle there in 1768. One out of the 300 settlers "vikings" was Faloula Daley, founder of Portobello Drive. Faloula made huge contributions to the development Maugerville. Faloulas monument can be found at the museum of Natural History in Fredericton. (Right in between Victoria Daleys house and the Alien research centre.) The Loyalists and the founding of Fredericton The flag of Fredericton In 1783, United Empire Loyalists settled in Ste. Anne's Point after the American Revolution, although many died during the harsh and long first winter in Fredericton. Those who perished during that winter were buried in what became the Loyalist cemetery, which is still found on the south bank of the Saint John River. When spring came, more Loyalists left the new settlement to take up land grants in other areas of the countryside. When New Brunswick became a separate colony from Nova Scotia in 1784, Ste. Anne's Point became the provincial capital, winning out over Parrtown (present-day Saint John) due to its central inland location meaning it was less prone to American attack from the sea. A street plan was laid out to the west of the original townsite, King's College (now the University of New Brunswick) was founded, and the locale was renamed "Frederick's Town", in honour of the second son of King George III of the United Kingdom, Prince Frederick Augustus, Duke of York. The name was shortened to Fredericton shortly after the city became the official provincial capital of New Brunswick on April 25, 1785. Thus, in a period of less than three years, the area of Fredericton went from being a sparsely populated region to being the capital of the new colony of New Brunswick. The same attributes that made Fredericton the capital city also made it an ideal spot for a military installation. Many of the original military buildings downtown still stand, and are now tourist attractions. A building was constructed to house the provincial legislative assembly in 1788, but it was destroyed by a fire in 1880. Two years later, the present Legislature Building was constructed. Nineteenth and twentieth centuries In 1848, Christ Church Cathedral (part of the Church of England) was built, allowing Fredericton to achieve city status. A Maliseet settlement, today called the St. Mary's First Nation, was founded on the north side of the river in 1847. However, St. Mary's saw its initial allocation reduced as Fredericton grew and surrounded it. Until Devon (a town incorporated in 1917 after the merger of the villages of St. Mary's Ferry and Gibson) was amalgamated with Fredericton in 1945, the corporate limit of the city of Fredericton was restricted to the south side. The postwar period (until the end of the 1970s) saw a growth in Fredericton's population - and the development of the flat area along with the establishment of bedroom communities such as New Maryland. This was due to the growth of the provincial government and the universities. In 1973, the city annexed several bedroom communities, such as Nashwaaksis, Marysville, Barker's Point, and Silverwood. Although all of these names are still in common use, references to simply the "north side" or the "south side" (with the Saint John River being the dividing line) are generally used by local residents. Historic Marysville One of the communities annexed to Fredericton in 1973, Marysville, has a unique and distinctive history of its own. Marysville is located on the Nashwaak River - a tributary of the Saint John River - just north of pre-1973 Fredericton. The community is distinguished by its 19th century Mill and historic buildings, which include nineteenth century company houses and buildings patterned after those of British industrial towns. Marysville can be described as a prime example of a nineteenth century mill town. In the 1830s, a saw mill was built on the site of Marysville by two local entrepreneurs. However, the saw mill frequently changed ownership and never showed a profit. It was Alexander Gibson (popularly referred to as "Boss Gibson") who turned this situation around and built a prosperous industrial town. In 1883, under the direction of Gibson, construction began of a Cotton Mill which was state of the art for its time. "Boss" Gibson named the company town that grew up around the mill Marysville in honour of his wife. In 1908, having faced financial problems, Gibson sold the mill to a Montreal-based company which, in turn, sold it to Canadian Cottons Ltd. After WWII, foreign competition devastated the Mill's business and it ceased operations in 1954. There were numerous attempts to re-open the Mill however, in 1980, it closed its doors permanently. The Mill was renovated and re-opened in 1985 as provincial government offices. The Mill still remains the dominant feature in the Marysville skyline. Neighbourhoods The City of Fredericton is bisected by the Saint John River. This has created two distinctive regions of the city characterized as "The Northside" and the "Southside". The Beaverbrook Art Gallery. The Southside is characterized by a downtown core consisting of provincial government departments, historical buildings, and numerous business establishments, banks, and law firms. Downtown also hosts many of the city's cultural attractions such as The Playhouse, the York-Sunbury Museum, and the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, to name a few. Many notable historical buildings are also located in or near downtown, including many grand Victorian-era residences, the New Brunswick Legislative Building, and Christ Church Cathederal. South of downtown, the city's elevation rises along a sloping hill (part of the river valley feature of the city). "The Hill", as it is called, includes an area known as "College Hill", where the adjoining campuses of the University of New Brunswick and St. Thomas University are located, slightly southeast of the downtown area. South of the universities is the Doctor Everett Chalmers Hospital, the main hospital serving central/western New Brunswick. East of the universities is the Skyline Acres/Southwood Park area, a growing suburban district of the city. Further east, on the city limits, is the Industrial Park consisting of box stores, wholesalers, and warehouses. Southwest of downtown, on the Hill, is O'Dell Park, a large preserved forest area. Its trails and wooded areas are a favourite for hiking, jogging and cross-country skiing for city residents. West of the park is Hanwell Road, Golf Club Road, and Silverwood neighbourhoods consisting largely of suburban residences. South of the "Hill Area", where it plateaus, is a sizeable shopping district consisting of two malls—The Fredericton Uptown Centre (formerly the Fredericton Mall) and The Regent Mall—as well as numerous other retail outlets. The Uptown Centre decided to follow the American trend of eliminating indoor passageways between retail outlets; this has also resulted in the closure of many of its smaller independent outlets. The City's "Northside" consists of several boroughs which were at one time separate communities. These include Devon, Nashwaaksis, Marysville and Barker's Point. These communities are largely suburban neighbourhoods and retail outlets. Union Street, which runs just north of the St. John River includes numerous retail outlets as well as an eclectic array of businesses including IT firms, law firms, and real estate agents, among others. Also located on the Northside is the Brookside Mall, a low-end retail mall combined with a call centre operated by Avis Budget Group. A new development including a Power centre and a Wal-Mart is located at Two-nations Crossing. A new multi-million dollar sports complex opened in the same area in 2007. The Northside is also home to the Saint Mary's First Nation Aboriginal reserve, which includes a community centre and a shopping centre along with private residences. During the Christmas season, residences of the Saint Mary's First Nations sport some of the most colourful and creative decorations in the city. Geography and climate Fredericton is located at the bottom of the Saint John River, with most of the city's post-war suburban development occurring on the gently sloping hills on either side of the river (although the downtown core is flat and lies low to the river). At an altitude of approximately 17 metres above sea level, the city of Fredericton is embedded in the Pennsylvanian Basin. It contrasts markedly from the geologically older parts of the province. There are roughly two distinct areas in the region that are divided around Wilsey Road, in the east end of the city. In one area, the underlying bedrock is topographically dominant, whereas the other is controlled by Pleistocene and recent deposits leading to the rivers (resulting in the area being shallow and wide). Fredericton and its surroundings are rich in water resources, which, coupled with highly arable soil, make the Fredericton region ideal for agriculture. The Saint John River and one of its major tributaries, the Nashwaak River, come together in Fredericton. The uninhabited parts of the city are heavily forested. Fredericton has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) and enjoys a mild climate compared to most of Canada, although its location away from the coast means it is more prone to extreme temperatures than most other major cities in Atlantic Canada. The average January low temperature is -16°C; while the average high in July high is 26°C. The city gets a fair amount of precipitation, although major paralyzing snow and rain storms such as blizzards and hurricanes are uncommon compared to more coastal cities like Moncton or Halifax (but do happen on occasion). On average, Fredericton receives approximately 1100 mm of precipitation per year. Snowfall is common between late November and early April, and snow usually stays on the ground beginning in December. Flooding occurs during the spring of most years on area rivers and affects the city's low-lying neighbourhoods. Education and research Universities and colleges Looking down the hill from UNB towards downtown and the Saint John River. Fredericton's status as an educational centre is evident in the city's three degree granting universities: the University of New Brunswick (UNB), Yorkville University and St. Thomas University (STU). The University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 and - along with the University of Georgia - is the oldest public university in North America. Built in 1826, UNB's Old Arts Building is the oldest university building still in use in Canada. UNB also houses Renaissance College which is a leading leadership training institution in New Brunswick. UNB houses a Faculty of Law which is one of two Anglophone common-law schools in Atlantic Canada. Saint Thomas University is the province's only Catholic university and has been located in Fredericton since 1964, when it moved from its Chatham, New Brunswick campus. It a liberal arts university with programs in gerontology, criminology, journalism, social work, native studies, and education. Adding to Fredericton's cultural and artistic life is the New Brunswick College of Craft and Design which houses the province's leading programs in photography and visual arts. The New Brunswick Community College maintains a small campus in Fredericton providing two year degree programs oriented to quick entry into the job market; however, NBCC's major campuses are located in other communities. The Maritime College of Forest Technology maintains its English-language campus in the city; MCFT is a small post-secondary school training students from across the Maritime provinces. Fredericton is also home to a small Pentecostal College, the Northeastern Christian College, located on the city's northside. This college trains and certifies Pentecostal ministers. School system Fredericton's schools are located in District 18 (formerly known as District 26). Fredericton is home to three public high schools, two operating in the English language and one in the French language. Fredericton High School, which was once the largest school in the Commonwealth of Nations, primarily serves students living on Fredericton's south side. It is also one of the oldest public high schools in Canada tracing its beginnings to 1785 - having celebrated its bicentennial in 1985. The District 18 office is located here. Fredericton High School is home to several sports teams - including basketball, hockey, soccer, and football - which dominated New Brunswick provincial high school sports championships during much of the 1980s and 1990s. Leo Hayes High School, which opened in 1999, primarily serves students living on Fredericton's north side. In addition, there are four middle schools, fourteen elementary schools and three private schools in the city. A recent issue with middle schools in the city has been the location of George Street Middle School and Albert Street Middle School close to the city centre. This fails to account for the city's changing demographic which has seen the growth of suburban neighbourhoods. Recently it was announced that Albert Street Middle School will be replaced with a new Middle School built in the Kimble Road Park area of Skyline Acres. It is to be open by Fall 2009. Fredericton is also serviced by the French language École Sainte-Anne and École des Bâtisseurs, which provides K-5 (ÉDB) and 6-12 (ESA) French language education. École Sainte-Anne is in the same building as that used by the French community centre - the Centre communautaire Sainte-Anne, which also houses the French public library, the Dr. Marguerite Michaud Library, and an amphitheatre. Both schools are administered by a school district system (District 1) separate from that which governs the English language schools in the city. Research Fredericton hosts several major research centres - dealing with policy development, agriculture, forestry, and engineering. These research institutions are connected to the city's two universities as well as the provincial and federal governments. The Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre (including Provincial and Federal Departments) is the leading forestry research centre in Atlantic Canada. This Centre carries out major research endeavours in forestry management and scientific research. The Centre closely collaborates with the Forestry Department at the University of New Brunswick which is one of the top Forestry Departments in Canada. As well, research and development in agriculture and crop development is carried out at the Agricultural Research Station in Lincoln. The University of New Brunswick is the site of several major research centres in social science, forestry, geomatics and biomedical engineering, and policy development. These include the Centre for Conflict Studies, which carries out research on military and strategic issues and the Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Violence Research, which carries out multi-disciplinary research on family violence issues. Furthermore, the Institute of Biomedical Engineering has completed groundbreaking work on prosthetic limbs to aid war amputees in developing countries. As well, the city's growing IT sector has been the basis for new research on IT and computer programming development, including the October 2002 opening of the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Information Technology – e-Business facility, located on the University of New Brunswick campus. Fredericton is also the home of New Brunswick's Provincial Research Organization (PRO), RPC. RPC specializes in applied research and technical services in support of New Brunswick industry. Specializations include capabilities in aquaculture, mining, manufacturing, energy and the environment. RPC Economy The 19th and early 20th centuries, the lumber industry - with its corresponding mills - was a primary sector of Fredericton's economy. Over the course of the 20th century, this industry declined and gave way to the provincial government and the universities becoming the primary employers in the city. The policies of centralizing provincial government functions during the 1960s under New Brunswick Premier Louis Robichaud - along with the expanded role of the public sector characteristic of the 1960s/70s - led to a sizeable expansion of the city's population. It was during these decades that the Hill area on the city's Southside was largely developed and bedroom communities such as New Maryland emerged. Downtown Fredericton. The 1960s also saw an expansion of the University of New Brunswick - due to increased post-war university enrollment - as well as the construction of the Fredericton campus of Saint Thomas University. Also contributing to this expansion was the move of the Law School to the Fredericton area. This expansion of the post-secondary sector also contributed to Fredericton's population growth during the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, the city's population has continued to grow though at a slower rate due to slower growth of the government sector - along with hiring freezes and in some cases layoffs - during the Frank McKenna and Bernard Lord governments. In recent years, increased student enrollment at the city's universities has led to greater demand for rental property. This has led to the construction of new university residences and apartment buildings in the city, and increased rates of rent - making them the highest rental rates in the province. It is due to the predominance of the universities and government in the city that Fredericton has not been subjected to the severe economic fluctuations faced by other Atlantic Canadian cities that have had to deal with mill shutdowns and the decline of the fishing industry in recent decades. It is for this reason that Fredericton is one of the few Atlantic Canadian cities, along with Moncton and Halifax, Nova Scotia that has actually reported a population increase in recent years. The city has been investing actively in IT infrastructure. The City of Fredericton was recently the winner of the "Judges Innovation Award" at the 2004 C.I.P.A. (Canadian Information Productivity Awards) due to their "Fred-eZone" free municipality wide WiFi network initiative. This and other innovations by the city's utelco, e-Novations, led Intel to do a case study on their successes. Fred-eZone spans much of the city’s downtown and parts of surrounding residential areas, as well as peripheral commercial areas such as Fredericton's Regent Mall. The Intelligent Community Forum (a New York City based think tank) selected Fredericton as a 2008 and a 2009 Top 7 Intelligent Community based partly on the City's work in the IT sector. . Retrieved July 11, 2008. Recently, the New Brunswick government has been seeking to attract more immigrants to the province (and consequently the Fredericton area) to increase the labour force and compensate for an aging population. The Greater Fredericton Region has also established an investment attraction tool, Invest Greater Fredericton , to provide investors and site selectors with one central source for economic information such as real estate, demographics, key industries and more. Culture The Beaverbrook Art Gallery. Due to the presence of the universities, Fredericton is more cosmopolitan than many cities its size. This is reflected in cuisine offered by local ethnic restaurants (which include Caribbean, Chinese, Greek, Indian, Italian, Japanese, Lebanese, Mexican, Pakistani and Vietnamese foods). There are also several retail outlets that sell ethnic products and artifacts. Fredericton is an important cultural centre of the region featuring art galleries, the New Brunswick College of Craft and Design, museums and theatres which promote local artistic and literary talent. Architecturally, Fredericton spans more than two centuries. The city features an eclectic mix of buildings and residences ranging from classical Victorian style to modern office buildings and architecture. Fredericton’s skyline is also distinguished by many historic churches. Arts Lord Beaverbrook. The Beaverbrook Art Gallery, a prestigious art gallery on the south bank of the Saint John River, is New Brunswick's provincial art gallery and maintains a collection of considerable quality, including several paintings by Salvador Dalí. The gallery was established and built in 1958 by British press baron Lord Beaverbrook as a gift to his native province. Gallery 78, located across the street, features works by prominent Atlantic visual artists. The Playhouse hosts plays and musicals throughout the year, as well as presenting visiting comedians and musical performances by both Canadian and international artists. The Playhouse acts as the main venue for Theatre New Brunswick (TNB). TNB was founded by prominent Canadian director Walter Learning in 1969, and is the province’s largest professional theatre company. Officer's Square is located at the centre of the city, and serves as a venue for outdoor concerts during the summer, featuring a variety of local and national talent. During the winter, Officer's Square is transformed into an outdoor skating rink. Every fall Fredericton hosts the Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival that transforms the mood of the city’s downtown by giving it a Blues spark. The week-long Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival draws artists from all over North America. The Harvest Jazz and blues festival has grown from a small festival beginning in 1991 to a large, diverse festival which attracts artists from around the world. Legendary acts such as Buddy Guy, Warren Hayes, Oscar Peterson, and Parliament are now able to grace the stages of downtown Fredericton due to consistent and growing success. The Festival unites young and old with a culture of music, festivities, and celebration. Beyond International Acts, the festival also prides itself on providing a stage for local, provincial, and maritime talent. The festival has been pivotal in the developing the careers of many New Brunswick artists, including Hot Toddy, Grand Theft Bus, David Myles, and Ross Neilson, all local musicians who have grown to become heard well beyond their hometown. The festival itself is considered by many to be the highlight of the year for Frederictonians Art and Culture community. Fredericton is home to the New Brunswick Summer Music Festival, which, each August, features professional chamber music by top local players and nationally renowned performers. Motion Ensemble, NB’s contemporary music organization, is also based here. In addition, Symphony New Brunswick performs most of its season in Fredericton. Every November Fredericton hosts the Silver Wave Film Festival. Originally called the Tidal Wave Film Festival, it has been running since 2001. Each year attendance and interest in the festival has risen. Because of its relationship with the Toronto Film Festival people in New Brunswick have had the opportunity to see films that would often be overlooked in their smaller market. Films created by people in New Brunswick are also screened at the festival. Many of the local films come from shorts created through the University of New Brunswick or the New Brunswick Filmmaker's Co-operative. Historically, Fredericton has been referred to as the Poet's Corner of Canada, because it was the birthplace of Bliss Carman, Charles G. D. Roberts and Francis Joseph Sherman. Sports and recreation Willie O'Ree was born here and was the first ever black hockey player to be drafted into the National Hockey League. There are no professional sports teams in Fredericton, although both universities have extensive athletic programs. The UNB Varsity Reds and St. Thomas Tommies are rivals in most sports, and their hockey games are called the "Battle of the Hill". The American Hockey League was once represented in Fredericton, with the Fredericton Express playing between 1981 and 1988, and the Fredericton Canadiens between 1990 and 1999. The "AAA" hockey system in Fredericton still uses the name Canadiens as their team names in Pee Wee, Bantam, and Midget levels. Fredericton has several parks, including Odell Park and Wilmot Park. Killarney Lake and nearby Mactaquac Provincial Park have small beaches which are popular in the summer. Skiing (and snowboarding in recent years) at nearby Crabbe Mountain is also a common winter activity among city residents. There are also several cross-country skiing trails that cross the city. Fredericton has just built two sports and leisure complexes which have two hockey rinks each, as well as health club facilities and an indoor track. Fredericton has a strong Rugby history with the Fredericton Loyalists RFC. Fredericton Loyalists. Each summer the Loyalists host the New Brunswick Black Spruce team which competes in the Rugby Canada Super League. Government and politics NB Legislative Building, seat of New Brunswick Government since 1882. Fredericton City Hall in 2005. Administrative structure Fredericton has a mayor-council and non-partisan form of government, with the mayor and council serving fixed four-year terms (three years until 2004), and elections held in May.The last election was in 2004. The current mayor is Brad Woodside, who first served from 1986 until 1999 but was re-elected in 2004. He was re-elected in May 2008 for his seventh term. The city is divided into twelve wards (six on each side of the Saint John River), with each ward electing one councillor. The Boyce Farmers Market, open on Saturday mornings, is a place where municipal, provincial and federal politicians frequently visit to mingle with their electorate - something which has evolved into a political tradition. Local MP Andy Scott is a familiar fixture at the market on most Saturdays. Municipal politics in Fredericton The population of Fredericton consists of a mix of social conservatives and social liberals. There is a large and active gay community in the city as well as two liberal arts oriented universities. Political life in Fredericton is characterized by this cleavage between social conservatives and social liberals. Activist groups, based at the universities, sometimes hold demonstrations. Woodside made a controversial decision in 1997 by refusing to proclaim Gay Pride Week. He subsequently was ordered to make the proclamation by the New Brunswick Human Rights Commission - upon complaints by gay rights activists led by Allison Brewer (who later would become leader of the New Brunswick New Democratic Party- resigned in 2006) and Kim Hill. Woodside later stepped down as mayor to launch an unsuccessful bid as a Liberal candidate in Fredericton North in the 1999 provincial election. In 2004 he entered the mayoral race on the final day of nominations, and defeated incumbent Les Hull and second term councillor Joel Richardson. Some notable councillors include second term councillor Bruce Grandy of Ward 2 (Nashwaaksis) and third term councillor Mike O'Brien of Ward 3 (Fulton Heights/North Devon), and first term councillor Jordan Graham of Ward 11 (UNB/East End Area). Graham is a University of New Brunswick student and the youngest councillor ever elected to city council. Fredericton and provincial/federal politics In the September 18, 2006 provincial election, Fredericton was expanded to four provincial legislative districts: Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak - Liberal Kelly Lamrock was re-elected. Fredericton-Nashwaaksis(formerly Fredericton-North) - Liberal T.J. Burke was re-elected. Fredericton-Silverwood (formerly Fredericton-South) - Liberal Rick Miles defeated incumbent Progressive Conservative Brad Green. Fredericton-Lincoln (the new riding) - Liberal Greg Byrne became the first MLA for this new riding. Provincially, Fredericton elected Progressive Conservatives from 1952 until electoral sweep of the Liberal Party in 1987 when they won every seat in New Brunswick under Frank McKenna. Since then there has been greater political alteration in the provincial electoral landscape in Fredericton. In 1991, the anti-bilingual Confederation of Regions Party won the riding of Fredericton North (along with several other nearby ridings). In 1999 Progressive Conservatives swept all three Fredericton area seats; however, in 2003, Fredericton-North and Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak returned to the Liberals. Federally, the city forms most of the riding of Fredericton. This riding was formerly known as Fredericton-York-Sunbury but was redistributed prior to the 1997 general election. From 1957 until 1993 Fredericton returned Progressive Conservatives. However, since 1993, the riding has been represented by Liberal Andy Scott, who just recently announced his intention not to re-offer as a candidate is the next federal election. The 2008 Federal Election saw the Conservative Party of Canada take the seat with former New Maryland MLA Keith Ashfield taking this seat with 42% of the popular vote. Demographics Historical populations Censusyear Population 1871 6,006 1881 6,218 1891 6,502 1901 7,117 1911 7,208 1921 8,114 1931 8,830 1941 10,062* 1951 16,018 1956 18,303 1961 19,683 1966 22,460 1971 24,254 1976 45,248** 1981 43,723 1991 46,510 2001 47,560 2006 50,535 * Boundary change ** City amalgamated with surroundings in 1973 The population of City of Fredericton is 50,535 (greater Fredericton 85,688, both per 2006 census), although unofficial reports indicate a number nearer 59,500 due to the student population which is often not counted in official censuses. Along with Moncton and Halifax, Fredericton is one of three Maritime cities to register a population growth in recent years. Ethnicity Fredericton's population is predominantly White. However, a significant Black minority has had a long presence in the city, and lives primarily in the Barker's Point borough. As well, Willie O'Ree, the first Black player in the NHL, was from Fredericton. The largest non-White ethnic group in Fredericton are Aboriginals who live primarily on the Saint Mary's Reserve located on the City's Northside. The 1960s and 1970s saw the beginning of an influx of immigrants from Asia and the Middle East. However, their numbers remain small. Since 2000, the city's universities - Saint Thomas University and the University of New Brunswick - have seen a growing number of students from overseas attending. However, this population is not permanent and generally not counted in the census. The ethnic breakdown of Fredericton is as follows: White: 45,555 or 97.4% mixed race: 640 or 0.8% Chinese: 440 or 0.5% Asian: 430 or 0.5% Black: 470 or 1.0% (single responses only) Religion The residents of Fredericton are predominantly Christian, with Protestants forming the largest denomination. The city is notable for its many churches - a high number per capita in comparison to most other Canadian cities. The small Pentecostal Northeastern Christian college is located on the city's Northside. While the Roman Catholic population is not as large, the city does boast the province's only Roman Catholic university - Saint Thomas University. Recent discussions at Saint Thomas University have concerned whether the university should adopt a more Catholic character. Fredericton has a synagogue, a mosque, and a Hindu temple as well. The importance of these institutions has been growing in recent years warranting visits by prominent politicians in the area seeking election. A Unitarian Fellowship has been serving Fredericton since 1960 as a place for people to find a liberal religious home. The religious breakdown of Fredericton is as follows: 52.0% Protestant 29.6% Roman Catholic 2.1% other Christian 1.6% non-Christian 17.4% non-religious Language While a predominantly Anglophone city, the civil service has seen an increase in the City's Francophone population. This population is serviced by the Centre Communautaire Sainte-Anne (which includes K-12 schooling, a radio station, a public library, and cultural centre). As well, Fredericton is serviced by the Francophone church located on Regent Street. The linguistic breakdown of Fredericton is as follows: 75.6% English 23.6% bilingual (French and English) 0.5% French 0.3% other Media Transportation Airport Air service is provided out of the Fredericton International Airport, located approximately 15 kilometres east of downtown in Lincoln. It is served by two airlines: Air Canada (which operates direct flights to Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal and Halifax), Air Transat has also commenced weekly flights to London Gatwick. Public transit, roads, highways, rail services, water Fredericton Transit provides public transportation six days a week in the city. There is no rail service into Fredericton. Passenger service was cancelled in the early 1960s and was restored between 1981-1985 before being cut again. Freight service stopped in 1996 and all railway tracks have been abandoned and removed, with the city joining St. John's and Charlottetown as provincial capitals without rail service. Fredericton is served by Acadian intercity bus lines which provides bus transit services to cities in Eastern Canada and the Northeastern United States. Fredericton is located on the Trans-Canada Highway, which passes along the southern municipal boundary. Routes 7 and 8 (the latter being a former alignment of the Trans-Canada) also pass through the city. Two highway bridges, the Westmorland Street Bridge and the Princess Margaret Bridge, cross the Saint John River. Those bridges both feed into controlled-access roads (Routes 8 and 105 serving the city's north side. The city's highway system is mostly complete, and traffic jams rarely occur. There are some issues with heavy traffic on Regent Street which connects Fredericton to the bedroom community of New Maryland. Traffic does become heavy and slowed during evenings when government employees are returning home from work. However, Regent Street has been expanded to four lanes in many areas to combat problems of clogged traffic. Streets in downtown follow a grid pattern. In residential areas of downtown, some neighbourhoods are traffic-calmed and include traffic circles at intersections to slow the speed of cars and discourage thoroughfare traffic. Northumberland Street and Odell Avenue have adopted speedbumps to slow fast moving traffic. The pattern of streets in the rest of the city varies including straight thoroughfares (such as Smythe Street, Prospect Street and Regent Street), to curved streets and cul-de-sacs in primarily residential areas. Fredericton Transit provides bus transit service to most areas of the city. All city buses include bike racks in the summer months so that cyclists can take advantage of bus services as well. Furthermore, during the last budget the Federal Government pledged more money towards urban infrastructure - some of this money will go towards upgrading Fredericton's bus transit system. Fredericton is also serviced by several taxi companies. As of 2006, Fredericton water is not fluoridated, however, it is treated to remove excess manganese, and of course the water is chlorinated. Fredericton trail system Fredericton has an extensive network of rail trails for non-motorized recreational use. Railway service through Fredericton was discontinued by CP Rail in fall 1993 and CN Rail in spring 1996. Following abandonment, both companies sold their right-of-ways to the provincial government which developed the trail network in partnership with the city and volunteer trail organizations. The trails are used by residents for walking, biking, and jogging and boast several scenic vistas along the Saint John and Nashwaak rivers as well as a mix of urban and wooded/natural scenery. On the south side of the city, CP Rail's Fredericton Subdivision enters the city from Rusagonis to the south, following the Wilsey Road and Beaverbrook Street to the former railway yard where a Sobeys supermarket has been built along Regent Street. The abandoned CP passenger station (York Street Railway Station) is located at the end of the Fredericton Subdivision and is currently in a state of neglect while various levels of government decide how to best preserve the structure. On the north side of the city, CP Rail's Gibson Subdivision enters the city from Douglas in the west, following the Saint John River through Naswaaksis to South Devon. CP Rail's Minto Subdivision enters the city from Barker's Point in the east and follows the Saint John River to South Devon and crossing the Nashwaak River. CP Rail's Marysville Spur runs from Barker's Point to Marysville along the east bank of the Nashwaak River. On the south side, CN Rail's Oromocto Subdivision enters the city from Lincoln in the east and parallels the former CP line to the downtown rail yard and York Street Station. CN's former Centreville Subdivision continues beyond the station to Silverwood in the west; this rail line was abandoned west of the Hanwell Road after the Mactaquac Dam opened in 1968 and flooded the right-of-way through to Woodstock. CN Rail's Nashwaak Subdivision joined the Oromocto Subdivision at Una Junction, immediately north of Beaverbrook Street opposite the University of New Brunswick campus. The line proceeds north, crossing the Saint John River on the Fredericton Railway Bridge, to the former railway yard in South Devon where CP Rail's Gibson and Minto subdivisions join. The Nashwaak Subdivision continues up the Nashwaak River valley to McGivney. Reading Park Trail, (pronounced Redding) is a 1.1 km forested trail in Skyline Acres on the City's south side. Protected by trees, and constructed in a loop, Reading Park Trail is very popular with city residents for walking their dogs. The rail trail system in Fredericton is part of the Sentier NB Trail system and some of these trails are also part of the larger Trans-Canada Trail network. Attractions Historical buildings and museums Fredericton Beaverbrook Art Gallery New Brunswick Provincial Legislature Building. Old Government House Historic Garrison District York-Sunbury Museum Boyce Farmers Market Christ Church Cathedral New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame Gallery 78 Science East Loyalist Cemetery Old Burial Ground Sir Howard Douglas Hall (Old Arts Building) Parks and public spaces Fredericton contains numerous public parks featuring preserved forest lands - such as O'dell Park - along with a botanical garden, and areas for picnics and family recreation. Furthermore, Fredericton features tree lined streets and elm trees in particular which have earned the city its nickname "The City of Stately Elms." Fredericton's parks and public spaces include: The Green - along the north and south banks of the Saint John River featuring biking/walking trails, two football/soccer fields, picnic areas, a baseball field and the Lighthouse which is a restaurant/tourist attraction. Odell Park - features preserved forested areas and trails, as well as recreational spaces for picnics and outdoor gatherings, adjacent to the Fredericton Botanic Garden. Kings Landing Historical Settlement (located in Prince William) - historical recreation of 19th century village. Consists of houses and buildings that were moved to this location to avoid permanent flooding upon construction of the Mactaquac Hydro-electric dam. Mactaquac Provincial Park (located in Mactaquac) - beaches Kingswood Park Killarney Lake Park - beaches and picnic spots as well as nature trails Wilmot Park - recreational park in downtown featuring wading pool, playground, and family oriented activities. Queen Square Park - this popular park, located in the heart of downtown Fredericton, features a new pool (a hybrid of a kids wading pool with fun water toys and a lap pool), playground, tennis courts and 2 baseball fields. Tennis courts are flooded in winter to create a skating rink. Officer's Square - Venue for outdoor concerts and skating rink in the winter. Partner Cities Gangnam-gu, South Korea See also List of cities in Canada List of notable Frederictonians References Dallison, Robert L. "A Tour of Boss Gibson's Marysville: A Nineteenth Century Mill Town." Fredericton Heritage Trust, 1991. Hachey, Philip Osmond "The geology and ground water of the Fredericton district." UNB Thesis, 1955. McIntyre, Glen, Bruce Oliver and Bob Watson, "A Valuable and Important Place - Fredericton's Loyalist Origins 1783." A Fredericton Historical Research Project, 1983. History of Christchurch Cathedral External links City links Official City of Fredericton Website Greater Fredericton Airport (YFC) Acadien Bus Lines Education links The University of New Brunswick St. Thomas University Yorkville University Maritime College of Forest Technology Art, culture & tourism links Fredericton Tourism Beaverbrook Art Gallery Farmer's Market Multicultural Association of Fredericton Fredericton Heritage Trust Summer Music Festival Silver Wave Film Festival Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival Kings Landing Historical Settlement York-Sunbury Museum Forward Music Group Business, development & technology links Fredericton Chamber of Commerce Downtown Fredericton Inc. 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2,888 | Oolong | Oolong () is a traditional Chinese tea (Camellia sinensis) somewhere between green and black in oxidation. It ranges from 10% to 70% oxidation. Seven Cups, , www.sevencups.com It is among the most popular types of teas served in typical Chinese restaurants. In Chinese tea culture, semi-oxidized oolong teas are collectively grouped as qīngchá (). Oolong has a taste more akin to green tea than to black tea: it lacks the rosy, sweet aroma of black tea but it likewise does not have the stridently grassy vegetal notes that typify green tea. It is commonly brewed to be strong, with the bitterness leaving a sweet aftertaste. Several subvarieties of oolong, including those produced in the Wuyi Mountains of northern Fujian and in the central mountains of Taiwan, are among the most famous Chinese teas. Oolong tea leaves are processed in two different ways. Some teas are rolled into long curly leaves, while some are pressed into a ball-like form similar to gunpowder tea. The former method of processing is the older of the two. The name oolong tea comes into the English language from the Chinese name (), which is pronounced as O·-liông tê in the Min Nan spoken variant. The Chinese name means "black dragon tea". There are three widely accepted explanations on how this Chinese name came about. According to the "tribute tea" theory, oolong tea was a direct descendant of Dragon-Phoenix Tea Cake tribute tea. Oolong tea replaced it when loose tea came into fashion. Since it was dark, long and curly, it was called the Black Dragon tea. According to the "Wuyi" theory, oolong tea first existed in Wuyi Mountain. This is evidenced by Qing dynasty poems such as Wuyi Tea Song (Wuyi Chage) and Tea Tale (Chashuo). It was said that oolong tea was named after the part of Wuyi mountain where it was originally produced. According to the "Anxi" theory, oolong tea had its origin in the Anxi oolong tea plant. A man named Sulong, Wulong or Wuliang discovered it. Another tale tells of a man named Wu Liang (later corrupted to Wu Long, or Oolong) who discovered oolong tea by accident when he was distracted by a deer after a hard day's tea-picking, and by the time he remembered about the tea it had already started to oxidize. Fergus Ray-Murray, , oolong.co.uk Classification and grade Tea connoisseurs classify the tea by its aroma (often floral or fruity), taste and aftertaste (often melony). Oolongs comes in either roasted (炭焙) or light (密香 or 清香). , Issue 1 www.the-art-of-tea.com 陳國義, , www.besttea.com While most oolongs can be consumed immediately postproduction, like pu-erh tea, many oolong can benefit from long aging with regular light roasting with a low charcoal fire (烘培, pinyin:hōngpeì, literally: bake cultivation or 焙火, pinyin:peìhǔo, dry roasting by fire). 有記名茶, , www.wangtea.com.tw Before roasting, Oolong tea leaves are rolled and bruised to break open cell walls and stimulate enzymatic activity. The process of roasting removes unwanted odours from the tea and reduces any sour or astringent tastes; in addition, the process is believed to make the oolong tea more gentle on the stomach. Varieties of Oolong Tea Wǔyí cliff tea (武夷岩茶 Wǔyí yán chá) from Fújiàn province Wuyi Huang Guan Yin tea leaves Wuyi Qi Lan Oolong tea leaves The most famous and expensive Oolong teas are made here but the production is still usually accredited as organic. A lot of Shuǐ Xiān is grown elsewhere in Fujian. Some of the better known cliff teas are: Dà Hóng Páo (大红袍) Big Red Robe in Chinese, a highly prized tea and a Si Da Ming Cong (四大名樅, literally: The Four Great Bushes). This tea is also one of the two Oolongs that make it to the list of Chinese famous teas. Shuǐ Jīn Guī (水金亀) Golden Water Turtle in Chinese, a Si Da Ming Cong. Tiě Luó Hàn (鉄羅漢) Iron Arhat in Chinese, a Si Da Ming Cong tea Bái Jī Guān (白鸡冠) White Cockscomb in Chinese, a Si Da Ming Cong tea. A light tea with light, yellowish leaves. Ròu Guì (肉桂) Cinnamon in Chinese, a dark tea with a spicy aroma. Shuǐ Xiān (水仙) Water Sprite in Chinese, a very dark tea, often grown elsewhere. Fújiàn province Tiě Guān Yīn Tiě Guān Yīn or Ti Kuan Yin (鐵觀音) Iron Guanyin in Chinese, this is a tea from Anxi in South Fujian. It is very famous, in fact a 'Chinese famous tea' and very popular. Guangdong province Dān Cōng (单丛) A family of stripe-style oolong teas from Guangdong Province. The doppelganger of teas, Dancong teas are noted for their ability to naturally imitate the flavors and fragrances of various flowers and fruits, such as orange blossom, orchid, grapefruit, almond, ginger flower, etc. As the name implies, Dancong ("single bush") teas are clonal or single-bush productions. Taiwan Tea cultivation only began in Taiwan in the mid 19th century. Since then, many of the teas which are grown in Fujian province have also been grown in Taiwan. Since the 1970s the tea industry in Taiwan has grown at a rapid rate, in line with the rest of Taiwan's economy. Due to high domestic demand and a strong tea culture, the majority of Taiwanese tea is bought and consumed by the Taiwanese. As the weather in Taiwan is highly variable, quality of tea may differ from season to season. Although the island is not particularly large, it is geographically varied, with high, steep mountains rising quickly from low-lying coastal plains. The different weather patterns, temperatures, altitudes and soil ultimately result in differences in appearance, aroma and flavour of the tea grown in Taiwan. In some mountainous areas, teas have been cultivated at ever higher elevations to produce a unique sweet taste that fetches a premium price. Dòng Dǐng (凍頂) The name means Frozen Summit or Ice Peak. Dong Ding is a mountain in Nantou County, Central Taiwan. This is a tightly rolled tea with a light, distinctive fragrance. Dong Fang Mei Ren (東方美人茶) The name means Oriental (Eastern) Beauty. Also known as Bai Hao Oolong. This tea is tippy (the leaves frequently have white or golden tips), with natural fruity aromas, a bright red appearance and a sweet taste. Alishan (阿里山茶) Grown in the Alishan area of Chiayi County, this tea has large rolled leaves that have a purple-green appearance when dry. It is grown at an elevation of 1000 to 1400 metres. There is only a short period during the growing season when the sun is strong, which results in a sweeter and less astringent brew. It produces a golden yellow tea which has a unique fruity aroma. The Tea Cup, , theteacup.co.uk Lishan Grown in the north-central region of Taiwan this tea is very similar in appearance to Alishan teas but is often considered to be one of the best teas from Taiwan. It is grown at an elevation of above 1000 metres with Dayuling, Lishan, and Fusou being the best well know regions and teas of Lishan. Pouchong (包種茶) Also romanized as Baozhong, the lightest and most floral Oolong, with unrolled leaves of a light green to brown color. Originally grown in Fujian it is now widely cultivated and produced in Pinglin Township near Taipei, Taiwan. Other oolong teas Darjeeling Oolong: Darjeeling tea made according to Chinese methods. Vietnamese Oolong Thai Oolong African Oolong: made in Malawi and in Kenya Brewing A small tea pot brewing charcoal fire oolong Generally, 2.25 grams of tea per 170 grams of water, or about two teaspoons of oolong tea per cup, should be used. Oolong teas should be prepared with 180°F to 190°F (82°C-87°C) water (not boiling) and steeped 3-4 minutes. Upton Tea Imports, High quality oolong can be brewed multiple times from the same leaves, and unlike other teas it improves with reuse. It is common to brew the same leaves three to five times, the third or fourth steeping usually being the best. Dragon Pearl Whole Teas, An additional widely used method of brewing oolongs in Taiwan and China is called gongfucha. This method utilizes a small brewing vessel, such as a gaiwan or Yixing clay teapot, with a large amount of tea to water ratio. Multiple short steeps of 20 seconds to 1 minute are done and are often served in small tasting cups about the size of a thimble. See also Chinese tea culture Fujian tea ceremony Pouchong Chiuchow cuisine References External links Official site of Oolong tea -(from the Fujian Government) eDom Tea - Official distributor of Wu-Yi Oolong Tea in the UK and Western Europe. Photos of oolong tea plantations in former KMT base of Doi Mae Salong, Chiang Rai province, Thailand | Oolong |@lemmatized oolong:40 traditional:1 chinese:18 tea:89 camellia:1 sinensis:1 somewhere:1 green:5 black:5 oxidation:2 range:1 seven:1 cup:4 www:4 sevencups:1 com:4 among:2 popular:2 type:1 serve:2 typical:1 restaurant:1 culture:3 semi:1 oxidize:2 collectively:1 group:1 qīngchá:1 taste:5 akin:1 lack:1 rosy:1 sweet:4 aroma:6 likewise:1 stridently:1 grassy:1 vegetal:1 note:2 typify:1 commonly:1 brew:6 strong:3 bitterness:1 leave:4 aftertaste:2 several:1 subvarieties:1 include:1 produce:5 wuyi:8 mountain:6 northern:1 fujian:7 central:3 taiwan:13 famous:5 leaf:8 process:3 two:4 different:2 way:1 roll:4 long:4 curly:2 press:1 ball:1 like:2 form:1 similar:2 gunpowder:1 former:2 method:4 processing:1 old:1 name:10 come:4 english:1 language:1 pronounce:1 liông:1 tê:1 min:1 nan:1 speak:1 variant:1 mean:3 dragon:4 three:2 widely:3 accept:1 explanation:1 accord:4 tribute:2 theory:3 direct:1 descendant:1 phoenix:1 cake:1 replace:1 loose:1 fashion:1 since:3 dark:3 call:2 first:1 exist:1 evidence:1 qing:1 dynasty:1 poem:1 song:1 chage:1 tale:2 chashuo:1 say:1 part:1 originally:2 anxi:3 origin:1 plant:1 man:2 sulong:1 wulong:1 wuliang:1 discover:2 another:1 tell:1 wu:3 liang:1 later:1 corrupt:1 accident:1 distract:1 deer:1 hard:1 day:1 picking:1 time:3 remember:1 already:1 start:1 fergus:1 ray:1 murray:1 co:2 uk:3 classification:1 grade:1 connoisseurs:1 classify:1 often:5 floral:2 fruity:3 melony:1 either:1 roast:3 炭焙:1 light:7 密香:1 清香:1 issue:1 art:1 陳國義:1 besttea:1 consume:2 immediately:1 postproduction:1 pu:1 erh:1 many:2 benefit:1 age:1 regular:1 low:2 charcoal:2 fire:3 烘培:1 pinyin:2 hōngpeì:1 literally:2 bake:1 cultivation:2 焙火:1 peìhǔo:1 dry:2 roasting:2 有記名茶:1 wangtea:1 tw:1 bruise:1 break:1 open:1 cell:1 wall:1 stimulate:1 enzymatic:1 activity:1 remove:1 unwanted:1 odour:1 reduce:1 sour:1 astringent:2 addition:1 believe:1 make:5 gentle:1 stomach:1 variety:1 wǔyí:2 cliff:2 武夷岩茶:1 yán:1 chá:1 fújiàn:2 province:6 huang:1 guan:1 yin:2 qi:1 lan:1 expensive:1 production:2 still:1 usually:2 accredit:1 organic:1 lot:1 shuǐ:3 xiān:2 grow:11 elsewhere:2 good:1 know:3 dà:1 hóng:1 páo:1 大红袍:1 big:1 red:2 robe:1 highly:2 prize:1 si:4 da:4 ming:4 cong:4 四大名樅:1 four:1 great:1 bush:3 also:5 one:2 list:1 jīn:1 guī:1 水金亀:1 golden:3 water:5 turtle:1 tiě:3 luó:1 hàn:1 鉄羅漢:1 iron:2 arhat:1 bái:1 jī:1 guān:3 白鸡冠:1 white:2 cockscomb:1 yellowish:1 ròu:1 guì:1 肉桂:1 cinnamon:1 spicy:1 水仙:1 sprite:1 yīn:2 ti:1 kuan:1 鐵觀音:1 guanyin:1 south:1 fact:1 guangdong:2 dān:1 cōng:1 单丛:1 family:1 stripe:1 style:1 teas:1 doppelganger:1 dancong:2 ability:1 naturally:1 imitate:1 flavor:1 fragrance:2 various:1 flower:2 fruit:1 orange:1 blossom:1 orchid:1 grapefruit:1 almond:1 ginger:1 etc:1 implies:1 single:2 clonal:1 begin:1 mid:1 century:1 industry:1 rapid:1 rate:1 line:1 rest:1 economy:1 due:1 high:4 domestic:1 demand:1 majority:1 taiwanese:2 buy:1 weather:2 variable:1 quality:2 may:1 differ:1 season:3 although:1 island:1 particularly:1 large:3 geographically:1 varied:1 steep:4 rise:1 quickly:1 lie:1 coastal:1 plain:1 pattern:1 temperature:1 altitude:1 soil:1 ultimately:1 result:2 difference:1 appearance:4 flavour:1 grown:1 mountainous:1 area:2 cultivate:2 ever:1 elevation:3 unique:2 fetch:1 premium:1 price:1 dòng:1 dǐng:1 凍頂:1 frozen:1 summit:1 ice:1 peak:1 dong:2 ding:1 nantou:1 county:2 tightly:1 distinctive:1 fang:1 mei:1 ren:1 東方美人茶:1 oriental:1 eastern:1 beauty:1 bai:1 hao:1 tippy:1 frequently:1 tip:1 natural:1 bright:1 alishan:3 阿里山茶:1 chiayi:1 purple:1 metre:2 short:2 period:1 sun:1 sweeter:1 less:1 yellow:1 theteacup:1 lishan:3 north:1 region:2 consider:1 best:3 dayuling:1 fusou:1 well:1 pouchong:2 包種茶:1 romanize:1 baozhong:1 unrolled:1 brown:1 color:1 pinglin:1 township:1 near:1 taipei:1 darjeeling:2 vietnamese:1 thai:1 african:1 malawi:1 kenya:1 small:3 pot:1 brewing:2 generally:1 gram:2 per:2 teaspoon:1 use:2 prepare:1 f:2 c:2 boil:1 minute:2 upton:1 import:1 multiple:2 unlike:1 improve:1 reuse:1 common:1 five:1 third:1 fourth:1 pearl:1 whole:1 additional:1 china:1 gongfucha:1 utilize:1 vessel:1 gaiwan:1 yixing:1 clay:1 teapot:1 amount:1 ratio:1 second:1 tasting:1 size:1 thimble:1 see:1 ceremony:1 chiuchow:1 cuisine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:1 government:1 edom:1 distributor:1 yi:1 western:1 europe:1 photo:1 plantation:1 kmt:1 base:1 doi:1 mae:1 salong:1 chiang:1 rai:1 thailand:1 |@bigram oolong_tea:22 min_nan:1 qing_dynasty:1 enzymatic_activity:1 guan_yin:1 guangdong_province:2 orange_blossom:1 fujian_province:1 coastal_plain:1 sweet_taste:2 taipei_taiwan:1 external_link:1 |
2,889 | ANSI_C | ANSI C is the standard published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for the C programming language. Software developers writing in C are encouraged to conform to the requirements in the document, as it encourages easily portable code. History of ANSI C and ISO C The first standard for C was published by ANSI. Although this document was subsequently adopted by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and subsequent revisions published by ISO have been adopted by ANSI, the name ANSI C (rather than ISO C) is still more widely used. While some software developers use the term ISO C, others are standards body–neutral and use Standard C. C89 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. After a long and arduous process, the standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as "ANSI C", or sometimes "C89" (to distinguish it from C99). C90 In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with a few minor modifications) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization as ISO/IEC 9899:1990. This version is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to essentially the same language. C99 In March 2000, ANSI adopted the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard. This standard is commonly referred to as C99, and it is the current standard for C programming language. Support from major compilers ANSI C is now supported by almost all the widely used compilers. Most of the C code being written nowadays is based on ANSI C. Any program written only in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is virtually guaranteed to compile correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation. Without such precautions, most programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to the reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of certain data types and byte endianness. Compliance detectability To mitigate the differences between K&R C and the ANSI C standard, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&R sections. #if __STDC__ extern int getopt(int, char * const *, const char *); #else extern int getopt(); #endif It's better to use "#if __STDC__" as above rather than "#ifdef __STDC__" because some implementation may set __STDC__ to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance. "#if" will treat any identifiers that couldn't be replaced by a macro as zero (0). Thus even if the macro "__STDC__" is not defined to signify non-ANSI compliance, "#if" will work as shown. In the above example, a prototype is used in a function declaration for ANSI compliant implementations, while an obsolescent non-prototype declaration is used otherwise. Those are still ANSI-compliant as of C99 and C90, but their use is discouraged. Vendors supporting ANSI C Microsoft (C90. A few features of C99) ARM RealView See also C++ SystemC External links ISO C working group Draft ANSI C Standard (ANSI X3J11/88-090), Third Public Review (May 13, 1988) References | ANSI_C |@lemmatized ansi:21 c:26 standard:16 publish:3 american:2 national:2 institute:2 programming:2 language:5 software:2 developer:2 write:3 encourage:2 conform:2 requirement:1 document:2 easily:1 portable:1 code:3 history:1 iso:8 first:1 although:1 subsequently:1 adopt:4 international:2 organization:2 standardization:2 subsequent:1 revision:1 name:1 rather:2 still:2 widely:2 use:9 term:2 others:1 body:1 neutral:1 form:1 committee:1 establish:1 specification:1 long:1 arduous:1 process:1 complete:1 ratify:1 program:3 version:2 often:1 refer:3 sometimes:2 distinguish:1 minor:1 modification:1 iec:2 call:1 therefore:1 essentially:1 march:1 commonly:1 current:1 support:3 major:1 compiler:4 almost:1 used:1 nowadays:1 base:1 without:2 hardware:1 dependent:1 assumption:1 virtually:1 guarantee:1 compile:2 correctly:1 platform:3 implementation:3 precaution:1 may:3 certain:2 particular:1 due:1 example:2 non:4 library:2 gui:1 reliance:1 specific:1 attribute:1 exact:1 size:1 data:1 type:1 byte:1 endianness:1 compliance:3 detectability:1 mitigate:1 difference:1 k:2 r:2 macro:3 split:1 section:1 extern:2 int:3 getopt:2 char:2 const:2 else:1 endif:1 good:1 ifdef:1 set:1 zero:2 indicate:1 treat:1 identifier:1 replace:1 thus:1 even:1 define:1 signify:1 work:2 show:1 prototype:2 function:1 declaration:2 compliant:2 obsolescent:1 otherwise:1 discourage:1 vendor:1 microsoft:1 feature:1 arm:1 realview:1 see:1 also:1 systemc:1 external:1 link:1 group:1 draft:1 third:1 public:1 review:1 reference:1 |@bigram organization_standardization:2 standardization_iso:2 iso_iec:2 const_char:1 external_link:1 |
2,890 | Meiji_Restoration | The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure. It occurred in the latter half of the 19th century, a period that spans both the late Edo period (often called Late Tokugawa shogunate) and the beginning of the Meiji Era. Probably the most important foreign account of the events between 1862–1869 is contained in A Diplomat in Japan by Sir Ernest Satow. The restoration was a direct response to the opening of Japan by the arrival of the Black Ships of Commodore Matthew Perry and made Imperial Japan a great power. Alliances and allegiances The formation in 1866 of the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori, the leader of the Satsuma domain, and Kido Takayoshi, the leader of the Chōshū domain, built the foundation of the Meiji restoration. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei (Emperor Meiji's father) and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryoma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate (bakufu) and restoring the emperor to power. On February 3,1867, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne after Emperor Kōmei's death on January 30, 1867. This period also saw Japan change from being a feudal society to having a capitalist economy and left the Japanese with a lingering Western influence. The Restoration The Tokugawa Shogunate came to an official end on November 9, 1867, when the 15th Tokugawa Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu "put his prerogatives at the Emperor's disposal" and then resigned his position 10 days later. This was effectively the "restoration" (Taisei Hōkan) of imperial rule, although Yoshinobu retained considerable power. It was on January 3, 1868 that the Emperor fully regained power. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War (War of the Year of the Dragon) started with the Battle of Toba-Fushimi in which an army led by forces from Chōshū and Satsuma defeated the ex-shogun's army and forced Emperor Meiji to strip Yoshinobu of all power. On January 3, 1868, the Emperor made a formal declaration of the restoration of his power: Some shogunate forces escaped to Hokkaidō, where they attempted to set up the breakaway Republic of Ezo, but this came to an early end in May 1869 with the Battle of Hakodate in Hokkaidō. The defeat of the armies of the former shogun (led by Enomoto Takeaki and Hijikata Toshizo) marked the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate; all defiance to the emperor and his rule ended. Motives The leaders of the Meiji Restoration, as this revolution came to be known, acted in the name of restoring imperial rule. The word "Meiji" means "enlightened rule" and the goal was to combine "western advancements" with the traditional, "eastern" values. Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia et al.. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. Vol. C. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 2009. 712-13. The main leaders of this were: Ito Hirobumi, Matsusaka Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Okubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi. However, political power simply moved from the Tokugawa Shogun to an oligarchy consisting of these leaders, mostly from the Satsuma Province (Okubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori), and the Chōshū province (Ito Hirobumi, Yamagata Aritomo, and Kido Takayoshi). This reflected their belief in the more traditional practice of imperial rule, whereby the emperor performs his high priestly duties and his ministers govern the nation in his name. Changes made Year(s) Production/Exports (annual average(in tons)) 1868-1872 1026/646 1883 1682/1347 1889-1893 640 1899-1903 7103/4098 1909-1914 12460/9462 With industrialization came the demand for coal. There was dramatic rise in production, as shown in the table below. Year Coal Production (metric tons) 1875 600,000 1885 1,200,000 1895 5,000,000 1905 13,000,000 1913 21,300,000 Coal was needed for two things: steamships and railroads. The growth of these sectors is shown below. Year Number of Steamships 1873 26 1894 169 1904 797 1913 1514 Year Track (in miles) 1872 18 1883 240 1887 640 1894 2100 1904 4700 1914 7100 Effects The Meiji Restoration accelerated industrialization in Japan, which led to its rise as a military authority by the year 1905, under the slogan of . The Meiji oligarchy that formed the government under the rule of the Emperor first introduced measures to consolidate their power against the remnants of the Edo period government, the shogunate, daimyo, and the samurai class. In 1868, all Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under "imperial control", thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. In 1869, the daimyo of the Tosa, Hizen, Satsuma and Chōshū domains, who were pushing most fiercely against the shogunate, were persuaded to 'return their domains to the Emperor'. Other daimyo were subsequently persuaded to do so, thus creating, arguably for the first time, a central government in Japan which exercised direct power through the entire 'realm' (). Finally, in 1871, the daimyo, past and present, were summoned before the Emperor, where it was declared that all domains were now to be returned to the Emperor. The roughly 300 domains (han) were turned into prefectures, each under the control of a state-appointed governor. By 1888, several prefectures had been merged in several steps to reduce their number to 75. The daimyo were promised 1/10 of their fiefs' income as private income. Later, their debts and payments of samurai stipends were to be taken over by the state. The oligarchs also endeavoured to abolish the four divisions of society. Throughout Japan at the time, the samurai numbered 1.9 million. (For comparison, this was more than 10 times the size of the French privileged class before the 1789 French Revolution. Moreover, the samurai in Japan were not merely the lords, but also their higher retainers--people who actually worked.) With each samurai being paid fixed stipends, their upkeep presented a tremendous financial burden, which may have prompted the oligarchs to action. Whatever their true intentions, the oligarchs embarked on another slow and deliberate process to abolish the samurai class. First, in 1873, it was announced that the samurai stipends were to be taxed on a rolling basis. Later, in 1874, the samurai were given the option to convert their stipends into government bonds. Finally, in 1876, this commutation was made compulsory. To reform the military, the government instituted nationwide conscription in 1873, mandating that every male would serve in the armed forces upon turning 21 for four years; followed by three more years in the reserves. One of the primary differences between the samurai and peasant class was the right to bear arms; this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. Furthermore, samurai were no longer allowed to walk about town bearing a sword or weapon to show their status as in former times. Not surprisingly, this led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the major riots was the one led by Saigō Takamori, the Satsuma Rebellion, which eventually turned into a civil war. This rebellion was, however, put down swiftly by the newly formed Imperial Japanese Army, trained in Western tactics and weapons, even though the core of the new army was the Tokyo police force, which was largely composed of former samurai. This sent a strong message to the dissenting samurai that their time was indeed up. There were fewer subsequent samurai uprisings and the distinction became all but a name as the samurai joined the new society. The ideal of samurai military spirit lived on in romanticized form and was often used as propaganda during the early 20th century wars of the Empire of Japan. However, it is equally true that the majority of samurai were content despite having their status abolished. Many found employment in the government bureaucracy, which resembled an elite class in its own right. The samurai, being better educated than most of the population, became teachers, gun makers, government officials, or military officers. While the formal title of samurai was abolished, the elitist spirit that characterized the samurai class lived on. The oligarchs also embarked on a series of land reforms. In particular, they legitimized the tenancy system which had been going on during the Tokugawa period. Despite the bakufu's best efforts to freeze the four classes of society in place, during their rule villagers had begun to lease land out to other farmers, becoming rich in the process. This greatly disrupted the clearly defined class system which the bakufu had envisaged, partly leading to their eventual downfall. Controversy in semantics An ongoing debate is currently occurring between historians as to the historical legitimacy of the name "restoration", as opposed to a "coup" or "revolution". There are reasons to call it all three. Advocates of the term "coup" would point out the fact that there was a change in only the regime, with the fighting confined to the elite, which managed to avoid being spread to the rest of society and that there was a shared sense of national mission and class values. However, this term only refers to the political leaders—not commoners. More importantly, it also does not represent the wider historical context of the period, and the various ideological struggles of the time in addition to the subsequent radical changes of society. The direct challenge to the legitimacy of the Tokugawa Regime in 1868 identifies this event as a revolution. This term also implies an anticipation of subsequent radical changes and indicates that the regime was toppled through the combination of concerns and actions of different groups. This term is problematic because it gives the false impression that rebels had unified or coherent plans for the future and it does not account for the relatively peaceful transition or how much actually stayed the same within the country. The events of 1868 can be viewed in terms of a restoration because the opposition made claims that the Tokugawa Shogunate had usurped the power to govern from the emperor. This claim as well as the strictly isolationist sentiments of the times is an accurate representation of the event, in some ways. The word restoration implies a focus on the elite ideological debates but does not address the regional and religious tensions of the period. It also undervalues the strategic nature of restorationist claims and gives a false impression of unity among the rebelling houses. The most detrimental implication of this term is that it offers no concrete explanation of how ordinary people came to accept the legitimacy of direct imperial rule. See also Lists of incumbents Meiji-era leaders Modernization of Japanese Military 1868-1931 Meiji Constitution Bakumatsu Chinese Tongzhi Restoration that failed References Further reading Breen, John, ‘The Imperial Oath of April 1868: ritual, power and politics in Restoration Japan’, Monumenta Nipponica,51,4 (1996) Harry D. Harootunian, Toward Restoration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), “Introduction”, pp 1 – 46; on Yoshida: chapter IV “The Culture of Action – Yoshida Shōin”, pp 184 – 219). Najita Tetsuo, The Intellectual Foundations of Modern Japanese Politics (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press), chapter 3: “Restorationism in Late Tokugawa”, pp 43 – 68. H. Van Straelen, Yoshida Shōin, Forerunner of the Meiji Restoration: A Biographical Study (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1952). David M. Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972), on Yoshida: “Attitude toward the Emperor/ Nation”, pp 161 – 192. Also pp. 82 – 105. Marius B Jansen, Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994) especially chapter VIII: “Restoration”, pp 312 – 346. W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1972), especially chapter VI: “Dissenting Samurai”, pp 140 – 171. Conrad Totman, “From Reformism to Transformism, bakufu Policy 1853 – 1868”, in: T. Najita & V. J. Koshmann, Conflict in Modern Japanese History (New Jersay: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 62 – 80. Jansen, Marius B.: The Meiji Restoration, in: Jansen, Marius B. (ed.): The Cambridge history of Japan, Volume 5: The nineteenth century (New York: Cambridge UP, 1989), pp. 308–366. External links Tokugawa Period's Influence on Meiji Restoration Essay on The Meiji Restoration Era, 1868-1889 on the About Japan, A Teacher's Resource website be-x-old:Рэстаўрацыя Мэйдзі | Meiji_Restoration |@lemmatized also:10 know:2 meiji:19 ishin:1 revolution:5 renewal:1 chain:1 event:5 lead:7 enormous:1 change:6 japan:14 political:3 social:1 structure:1 occur:2 latter:1 half:1 century:3 period:8 span:1 late:3 edo:2 often:2 call:2 tokugawa:13 shogunate:8 beginning:1 era:3 probably:1 important:1 foreign:1 account:2 contain:1 diplomat:1 sir:1 ernest:1 satow:1 restoration:20 direct:4 response:1 opening:1 arrival:1 black:1 ship:1 commodore:1 matthew:1 perry:1 make:5 imperial:8 great:1 power:11 alliance:2 allegiances:1 formation:1 satsuma:6 chōshū:5 saigō:3 takamori:3 leader:8 domain:6 kido:3 takayoshi:3 build:1 foundation:2 two:2 support:1 emperor:18 kōmei:2 father:1 bring:1 together:1 sakamoto:2 ryoma:1 purpose:1 challenge:2 rule:9 bakufu:4 restore:2 february:1 ascend:1 throne:1 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2,891 | Cuisine_of_New_England | The American lobster, a favorite ingredient in New England cuisine. New England cuisine is a type of American cuisine found in New England, in the northeastern region of the United States. New England cooking is characterized by extensive use of seafood and dairy products, which results from its historical reliance on its seaports and fishing industry, as well as extensive dairy farming in inland regions. Two outstandingly characteristic ingredients native to New England are maple syrup and cranberries. The standard starch is potato. Parsley and sage are common, with a few Caribbean additions like nutmeg. Due to the reliance on dairy, creams are standard. The favored cooking techniques are stewing and baking. History Well into the 19th century, molasses from the Caribbean and honey were staple sweeteners for all but the upper class. Many herbs were uncommon, particularly Mediterranean herbs, which are not hardy in much of New England away from the coast. As a result, most New England dishes do not have much strong seasoning, nor are there many particularly spicy staple items. Prior to Prohibition, some of the finest rum distilleries were located in New England. The Boston Molasses Disaster occurred on January 15, 1919, in the North End neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, when a huge molasses tank used to prepare rum collapsed. Even today, traditional cuisine remains a strong part of New England's identity. Some of its plates are now enjoyed by the entire United States, including clam chowder, baked beans, and homemade ice cream. In the past two centuries, New England cooking was strongly influenced and transformed by Irish Americans, the Portuguese fishermen of coastal New England, and Italian Americans. The oldest operating restaurant in the United States, the Union Oyster House, is located in Boston, Massachusetts. State dishes and staples Maine is known for its lobster. Once a poor man's supper, lobster has now become a dish of the middle and upper classes. Northern Maine is known for its potato crops, second only to Idaho in US production. Moxie, America's first mass-produced soft drink and the official state soft drink, is known for its strong aftertaste and is found throughout New England. Although originally from New Jersey, wax-wrapped salt water taffy is a popular item sold in tourist areas. Wild blueberries are also a common ingredient or garnish. Vermont is known for its cheddar cheese and other dairy products. It is best known outside of New England for its maple syrup, which is generally considered to be of the highest quality available in America. Maple syrup is used as an ingredient in many Vermont dishes, including baked beans. Rhubarb pie is a common dessert and is often combined with strawberries in late spring. Coastal Massachusetts is known for its clams, haddock, and cranberries, and previously cod. Apples are grown in the Commonwealth's interior. Boston is known for, among other things, baked beans, bulkie rolls, and various pastries. Hot roast beef sandwiches served with a sweet barbecue sauce and usually on an onion roll is popular in Boston's surrounding area. The North Shore area is locally known for its roast beef establishments. Southern New Hampshire cuisine is similar to that of the Boston area, featuring fish, shellfish and local apples. As with Maine and Vermont, French-Canadian dishes are popular, including tourtière, which is traditionally served on Christmas Eve. Corn chowder, which is similar to clam chowder but with corn and bacon replacing the clams, is also common. Portsmouth is known for its orange cake, often containing cranberries. Rhode Island and bordering Bristol County, Massachusetts are known for Rhode Island clam chowder (clear chowder), quahog (hard clams), johnnycakes, coffee milk, celery salt, hot dogs, grinders, pizza strips, dynamites (a sloppy joe-like sandwich), and Del's frozen lemonade. Another food item popular in Rhode Island and southern Massachusetts is called a "New York System weiner," although, ironically, they are unknown in New York (including Coney Island). This food consists of a weiner (similar to a hot dog but skinnier and more orange in color) on a steamed roll with meat sauce and, often, mustard and raw onions ("all the way"). This hot dog is quite popular at the popular restaurant George's Coney Island in Worcester. Portuguese influences are becoming increasingly popular in the region, with Italian cooking already long established. The coastal communities and islands, including Block Island, offer more colonial New England fare than the more recent immigrant-influenced varieties found around the Providence area. Connecticut is known for its apizza (particularly the white clam pie), shad and shadbakes, grinders (including the state-based Subway chain), and New Haven's claim as the birthplace of the hamburger sandwich. Italian-inspired cuisine is dominant in the New Haven area, while Southeastern Connecticut relies heavily on the fishing industry. Irish American influences are common in the interior portions of the state, including the Hartford area. Hasty pudding is sometimes found in rural communities, particularly around Thanksgiving. Typical foods Various types of seafood (often fried, baked, broiled, or boiled): Cod, haddock, halibut, scrod, shad, salmon and trout Lobster, scallops, clams, quahogs, mussels, steamers Fried clams Lobster roll Crab cake New England clam bake, also known as New England Clam Boil American chop suey (not to be confused with the American Chinese dish known as chop suey) Apple cider, hot apple cider Apple Pie, Apple Crisp and Apples themselves bought from local orchards. Blueberries, especially in Blueberry pie Boiled Dinner Boston baked beans Boston creme doughnuts and other pastries Brown bread, not to be confused with whole-wheat bread; a molasses-sweetened bread, often studded with raisins, typically steamed in a coffee can Chowders of various types, such as clam chowder, corn chowder, fish chowder, etc. Cranberry cocktail, cranberry mash/crushed cranberries, jellied cranberries and cranberry bread Fluffernutter Concord Grapes Frappes, or cabinets in Rhode Island (see milkshakes) Hasty pudding Hot buttered rum Ice creams from local dairies as well as companies like Ben & Jerry's Indian pudding Johnny cakes New England boiled dinner Whoopie pies New England also has its own food lingo. In New England, hot and cold sandwiches in elongated rolls are called Subs or Grinders, as opposed to Hoagies, Gyros or Heroes. Sub is short for submarine sandwich, which was invented in Massachusetts. In Maine, these types of sandwiches are referred to as Italian sandwiches or simply Italians. New England is also known for many of its fine local lagers and ales, the most famous of which is Samuel Adams of the Boston Beer Company in Boston, Massachusetts (even though the recipe for the beer does not come from New England); as well as for alcoholic ciders such as Vermont-based Woodchuck Draft Cider. Notable food and drink companies Connecticut Bigelow Tea Company (Fairfield) Foxon Park (East Haven) Hosmer Mountain Soda (Willimantic) Pepperidge Farms (Norwalk) Stew Leonard's (Norwalk) Subway Sandwiches (Milford) Maine Amato's (Portland) Country Kitchen Bread (Lewiston) Giffords Ice Cream (Skowhegan) J.J. Nissen Bakery (Biddeford and Portland) Jordans Hot Dogs (Portland) Moody's Diner (Waldoboro) Moxie (Farmington) Reds Eats (Wiscasset) Shipyard Brewing (Portland) Massachusetts Boston Beer Company, maker of Samuel Adams (Boston) Dunkin' Donuts (Quincy) Friendly's (Wilbraham) D'Angelo Sandwich Shop (Dedham) HP Hood Milk (Charlestown) Legal Sea Foods (Cambridge) Marshmallow Fluff (Lynn) Necco Wafers (Boston) Ocean Spray (Middleborough/Lakeville) Kelly's Roast Beef (Revere, Saugus, Natick, Danvers, and Medford) Papa Gino's (Dedham) Polar Beverages (Worcester) Howard Johnsons (Quincy) New Hampshire Stonyfield Farm (Londonderry) Rhode Island Autocrat (Lincoln) Del's Lemonade (Cranston) Vermont Ben & Jerry's (South Burlington/Waterbury (factory)) Cabot Creamery (Cabot) See also Cuisine of the United States New England Further reading Cuisine of Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts, with extensive notes on local history and personal anecdotes from the author. | Cuisine_of_New_England 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2,892 | International_Electrotechnical_Commission | The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a not-for-profit, non-governmental international standards organization that prepares and publishes International Standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies – collectively known as "electrotechnology". IEC standards cover a vast range of technologies from power generation, transmission and distribution to home appliances and office equipment, semiconductors, fibre optics, batteries, solar energy, nanotechnology and marine energy as well as many others. The IEC also manages three global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its International Standards. The IEC charter embraces all electrotechnologies including energy production and distribution, electronics, magnetics and electromagnetics, electroacoustics, multimedia and telecommunication, as well as associated general disciplines such as terminology and symbols, electromagnetic compatibility (by its Advisory Committee on Electromagnetic Compatibility, ACEC), measurement and performance, dependability, design and development, safety and the environment. History The IEC held its inaugural meeting on 26 June 1906, following discussions between the British IEE, the American Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) (then called AIEE), and others, which began at the 1900 Paris International Electrical Congress, and continued with Colonel R. E. B. Crompton playing a key role. It currently counts more than 130 countries. Sixty-seven of these are members, while another 69 participate in the Affiliate Country Programme, which is not a form of membership but is designed to help industrializing countries get involved with the IEC. Originally located in London, the commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948. It now has regional centres in Asia-Pacific (Singapore), Latin America (São Paulo, Brazil) and North America (Boston, USA). Today, the IEC is the world's leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10 000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs and others with an interest in the subject. The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly the gauss, hertz, and weber. They also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the , or Système International d’unités (in English, the International System of Units). In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify electrical terminology. This effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries. The CISPR (Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques) – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC. IEC standards See also: List of IEC standards IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as IEC 60417: Graphical symbols for use on equipment. The numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC 27 became IEC 60027. The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). In addition, it works with several major standards development organizations, including the IEEE with which it signed a cooperation agreement in 2002, which was amended in 2008 to include joint development work. Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC 26300, Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument) v1.0 carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 on Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO. Other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045-1. Membership and participation The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, and each NC represents its nation's electrotechnical interests in the IEC. This includes manufacturers, providers, distributors and vendors, consumers and users, all levels of governmental agencies, professional societies and trade associations as well as standards developers from national standards bodies. National committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, and some are private sector only. About 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry. Member countries include: Algeria Argentina - Instituto Argentino de Normalización y Certificación (IRAM) Australia- Standards Australia Austria - Österreichischer Verband für Elektrotechnik (ÖVE) Belarus Belgium Bosnia & Herzegovina Brazil - Comitê Brasileiro de Eletricidade, Eletrônica, Iluminação e Telecomunicações (Cobei) Bulgaria Canada - Standards Council of Canada Colombia China - Standardization Administration of China (SAC) Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Egypt Estonia Finland France - Union technique de l'électricité et de la communication (UTE) Germany - Deutsche Kommission Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik im DIN und VDE (DKE) Greece Hungary Iceland India - Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy - Comitato Elettrotecnico Italiano (CEI) Japan - Japanese Industrial Standards Committee Kazakhstan Kenya Latvia Libya Lithuania Luxembourg Malaysia Malta Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia - Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology (Rostekhregulirovaniye) Saudi Arabia Serbia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Democratic People's Republic of Korea South Korea - Korea Agency for Technology and Standards (KATS) South Africa - South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) Spain - Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación (AENOR) Sri lanka Sweden - Swedish Electrical Standard(SEK) Switzerland - Swiss Electrotechnical Committee (CES) Thailand The Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom - British Electrotechnical Committee (BEC) also known by its previous name, British Standards Institution (BSI) United States - American National Standards Institute (ANSI) (USNC/IEC); NEMA also helps to develop and promote IEC standards "The IEC and NEMA", nema.org, accessed 2009-04-12 Vietnam - Vietnamese National Committee Directorate for Standards and Quality (STAMEQ) In 2001 and in response to calls from the WTO to open itself to more developing nations, the IEC launched the Affiliate Country Programme to encourage developing nations to become involved in the Commission's work and/or to use its International Standards. Countries signing a pledge to participate in the work and to encourage the use of IEC Standards in national standards and regulations are granted access to a limited number of technical committee documents for the purposes of commenting. In addition, they can select a limited number of IEC Standards for their national standards' library. Countries participating in the Affiliate Country Programme include: Afghanistan Albania Angola Antigua and Barbuda Armenia Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Botswana Brunei Darussalam Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Congo (Democratic Rep. of) Costa Rica Cote D'Ivoire Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Fiji Gabon Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Jordan Kyrgyzstan Lao Pdr Lebanon Lesotho Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Moldova Mongolia Mozambique Myanmar Namibia Nepal Niger Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Rwanda Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Trinidad and Tobago Turkmenistan Uganda Uruguay Venezuela Yemen Zambia See also List of IEC Technical Committees References External links http://www.iec.ch — IEC Home Page http://www.electropedia.org — Free online multilingual dictionary of 20 000 electrical and electronic terms http://www.iecq.org — IEC System for quality assessment of electronic components and associated materials and processes http://www.iecex.org — IEC Scheme for certification to standards for electrical equipment for explosive atmospheres List of IEC Technical Committees on IEC Official Website Technical Committee Webpages http://tc3.iec.ch — IEC Graphical Symbols http://tc4.iec.ch — IEC Hydraulic Turbines http://tc17.iec.ch — IEC Switchgear http://tc56.iec.ch — IEC Dependability http://tc57.iec.ch — IEC Power Systems Management http://tc86.iec.ch — IEC Fibre Optics http://tc100.iec.ch — IEC Multimedia IEC Standards and tools in database format International Electrotechnical Vocabulary IEC Glossary IEC 60061: Lamp caps, lampholders and gauges IEC 60417 - ISO 7000: Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment IEC 60617: Graphical Symbols for Diagrams IEC 61360: Component Data Dictionary | 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2,893 | Margaret_Mitchell | Margaret Mitchell (November 8 1900 – August 16 1949) was an American author, who won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937 for her novel Gone with the Wind. The novel is one of the most popular books of all time, selling more than 30 million copies (see list of best-selling books). An American film adaptation, released in 1939, became the highest-grossing film in the history of Hollywood, and received a record-breaking ten Academy Awards. Margaret Mitchell was born in Atlanta, Georgia to Eugene Mitchell, a lawyer, and Mary Isabelle, much referred to as May Belle, a suffragist of Irish Catholic origin. Mitchell's brother, Stephens, was four years her senior. Her childhood was spent in the laps of Civil War veterans and of her maternal relatives, who had lived through the Civil War. After graduating from Washington Seminary (now The Westminster Schools), she attended Smith College, but withdrew during her freshman year in 1918. She returned to Atlanta to take over the household after her mother's death earlier that year from the great Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. Shortly afterward, she defied the conventions of her class and times by taking a job at the Atlanta Journal. Under the name Peggy Mitchell she wrote a weekly column for the newspaper's Sunday edition, thereby making her mark as one of the first female columnists at the South's largest newspaper. Mitchell's first professional writing assignment was an interview with an Atlanta socialite, whose couture-buying trip to Italy was interrupted by the Fascist takeover. Mitchell married Berrien “Red” Upshaw in 1922, but they were divorced after it was revealed that he was a bootlegger and an abusive alcoholic. She later married Upshaw's friend, John Marsh, on July 4, 1925; Marsh had been best man at her first wedding and legend has it that both men courted Mitchell in 1921 and 1922, but Upshaw proposed first. Occupation From 1922 to 1926, Mitchell wrote dozens of articles, interviews, sketches, and book reviews, including interviews with silent-screen star Rudolph Valentino, high-society murderer Harry K. Thaw, and a Georgia prisoner who made artificial flowers from scraps and sold them from his cell to support his family. She also wrote profiles of prominent Georgia Civil War generals. The first of these were so popular in Atlanta that her editors assigned her several more. Scholars believe that it is her research for the profiles that later led her to write Gone With the Wind. Using Mitchell's scrapbooks from the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia, editor Patrick Allen collected 64 of the columns Mitchell considered her best work. They were published in 2000 under the title Margaret Mitchell, Reporter. Mitchell, Margaret. Margaret Mitchell, Reporter. Edited by Patrick Allen (Athens, GA: Hill Street Press, 2000) http://hillstreetpress.com/MMReporter.html Her portraits and personality sketches in particular show a promise of her skill to portray the kind of characters who made Gone With the Wind the second best-selling book, next to the Bible, at the time of publication. Even as a supposedly neutral reporter, her irrepressible personality shines through. This collection of Mitchell's journalism transcends fact-gathering, showing Mitchell as a young woman and providing a compelling snapshot of life in the Jazz Age South. Writing Gone with the Wind Mitchell is reported to have begun writing Gone With the Wind while bedridden with a broken ankle. Her husband, John Marsh, brought home historical books from the public library to amuse her while she recuperated. After she supposedly read all the historical books in the library, he told her, "Peggy, if you want another book, why don't you write your own?" She drew upon her encyclopedic knowledge of the Civil War and dramatic moments from her own life, and typed her epic novel on an old Remington typewriter. She originally called the heroine "Pansy O'Hara", and Tara was "Fontenoy Hall". She considered naming the novel Tote The Weary Load or Tomorrow Is Another Day. Andre Bernard, Now All We Need is a Title: Famous Book Titles and How They Got That Way, W. W. Norton & Company, 1995, p. 81. ISBN 0393314367 Mitchell wrote for her own amusement, and with solid support from her husband, kept her novel secret from her friends. She hid the voluminous pages under towels, disguising them as a divan, hid them in her closets, and under her bed. She wrote the last chapter first, and skipped around from chapter to chapter. Her husband regularly proofread the growing manuscript to help in continuity. By 1929, her ankle had healed, most of the book was written, and she lost interest in pursuing her literary efforts. The bulk of the work was written between 1925 and 1930 in an apartment Mitchell called "The Dump" : the Crescent Apartments are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are operated as a museum to Mitchell's memory. While Mitchell used to say that her Gone With the Wind characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in her life, and people she knew or heard of. For example, the character Rhett Butler may have been modeled after her first husband. The last thing he said to her (supposedly) was, "My dear, I don't give a damn", which Rhett says to Scarlett before he leaves her in the book. ("Frankly" was added for the movie.) Historic basis On April 4, 1989, Dr. E. Lee Spence, an internationally known shipwreck expert, archaeologist, and historian from Charleston, South Carolina, announced his discovery that Mitchell, who had claimed that her Pulitzer Prize winning novel Gone With The Wind was pure fiction, had actually taken much of her compelling story of love, greed and war from real life "Newsmakers: Frankly, My Dear, Historian is on Pins and Needles," Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1989, p. 2-A and that Mitchell had actually based Rhett Butler on the life of George Alfred Trenholm, a tall, handsome shipping and banking magnate from Charleston, South Carolina, who had made millions of dollars from blockade running, was accused of making off with much of the Confederate treasury, and had been thrown into prison after the Civil War. Oggi (Italian weekly magazine), 5 dicembre 1994, pp. 38-40 "The Rhett Butler Connection," Treasure Diver, Volume 1, Number One, pp. 35-40 Spence's literary discovery that had its roots in his prior discoveries of some of Trenholm's wrecked blockade runners made international news. "Rhett Butler," La Stampa, Turin, Italy, 18/4/1989, p.5 In his book, Treasures of the Confederate Coast: The "Real Rhett Butler" and Other Revelations, Dr. Spence reveals what the editors of Life magazine called "overwhelming evidence" that Trenholm was the historical basis for Mitchell's romantic sea captain. Spence's book gives a compelling case that Mitchell had falsely claimed Rhett was pure fiction. Amazon Press book review "A superb unveiling of the real Rhett & his hidden treasures", March 8, 1997 According to Dr. Spence's research, Trenholm had been on the verge of bankruptcy at the outbreak of hostilities, yet by the end of the Civil War controlled over sixty large steamers and numerous sailing ships. His amazingly successful blockade-running ventures had earned him today's equivalent of well over $1 billion in gold, making him both fabulously wealthy and enormously powerful. Trenholm's ships sailed out of the ports of Charleston, South Carolina, Wilmington, North Carolina, Savannah, Georgia, and New York City. Mitchell wrote that Atlanta believed Rhett had made off with the gold of the Confederate Treasury, an improbable feat for the captain of a ship. However, unlike Rhett, Trenholm was not just a ship's captain. By the end of the Civil War, he was not only the South's most successful blockade runner, but also Treasurer of the Confederacy. When the government gold and the jewels entrusted to the Treasury by banks and private citizens disappeared, many believed Trenholm had stolen it. There are several parallels between the fictional character Rhett Butler and the shipping magnate George Trenholm. After the Civil War, both men were arrested and threatened with execution. Both had much younger women visit them in jail and both men tried to comfort them as the women shed tears over the men's proposed fate. Both women were from good families and were widows of Confederate officers. Each had a reputation for being "fast", but was still received in society. In fact, when Trenholm's lady friend was introduced to the famed novelist Lord Thackeray at a party, he insulted her by saying that he had been looking forward to meeting her because he had heard she was the "fastest" lady received in society. She returned the insult by saying that they had both been misinformed because she had been told he was a "gentleman." Publication Mitchell lived as a modest Atlanta newspaperwoman until a visit from Macmillan editor Harold Latham, who visited Atlanta in 1935. Simon & Schuster: Gone With the Wind (Trade Paperback) - Read an Excerpt Latham was scouring the South for promising writers, and Mitchell agreed to escort him around Atlanta at the request of her friend, Lois Cole, who worked for Latham. Latham was enchanted with Mitchell, and asked her if she had ever written a book. Mitchell demurred. "Well, if you ever do write a book, please show it to me first!" Latham implored. Later that day, a friend of Mitchell, having heard this conversation, laughed. "Imagine, anyone as silly as Peggy writing a book!" she said. Mitchell stewed over this comment, went home, and found most of the old, crumbling envelopes containing her disjointed manuscript. She arrived at The Georgian Terrace Hotel, just as Latham prepared to depart Atlanta. "Here," she said, "take this before I change my mind!" Latham bought an extra suitcase to accommodate the giant manuscript. When Mitchell arrived home, she was horrified over her impetuous act, and sent a telegram to Latham: "Have changed my mind. Send manuscript back." But Latham had read enough of the manuscript to realize it would be a blockbuster. He wrote to her of his thoughts about its potential success. MacMillan soon sent her a check in advance to encourage her to complete the novel — she had not composed a first chapter. She completed her work in March 1936. Gone With the Wind was published on June 30, 1936. The book was dramatized by David O. Selznick, and released three years later. The premiere of the film was held in Atlanta on December 15, 1939. "Gone with the Wind" was such an overnight success that its publisher George Platt Brett, President of Macmillan Publishing, gave all its employees an 18% bonus in 1936. Death Mitchell's grave in Oakland Cemetery in Atlanta Mitchell was struck by a speeding automobile as she crossed Peachtree Street at 13th Street with her husband, John Marsh, on her way to see the British film A Canterbury Tale at The Peachtree Art Theatre in August 1949. She died at Grady Hospital five days later without regaining consciousness. The driver, Hugh Gravitt, was an off-duty taxi driver. He was driving his personal vehicle at the time, but his occupation led to many erroneous references over the years to Mitchell’s having been struck by a taxi. Gravitt had been out on $5,450 bond, having been arrested for drunken driving. This incident prompted Georgia Gov. Herman Talmadge to announce that the state would tighten regulations for licensing taxi drivers. Gravitt was later convicted of involuntary manslaughter and served 11 months in prison. COX News Service http://www.coxnetspecialedition.com/se/content/news/2006/10/25questions.html His conviction was controversial because witnesses said Mitchell stepped into the street without looking, and her friends claimed she often did this. She was buried in Oakland Cemetery in Atlanta. The house where Mitchell lived while writing her manuscript is known today as The Margaret Mitchell House and located in Midtown Atlanta. A museum dedicated to Gone with the Wind lies a few miles north of Atlanta, in Marietta, Georgia. It is called "Scarlett On the Square", as it is located on the historic Marietta Square. It houses costumes from the film, screenplays, and many artifacts from Gone With the Wind including Mitchell's collection of foreign editions of her book. The house and the museum are major tourist destinations. Another dedication to Mitchell was the 1994 film A Burning Passion: The Margaret Mitchell Story, starring Shannen Doherty as the writer. Clayton County, the area just south of Atlanta and the setting for the fictional O'Hara plantation, Tara, maintains "The Road to Tara" Museum in the old railroad depot in downtown Jonesboro. For decades it was thought that Mitchell had only ever written one complete novel. (In fact, periodically claims are made that she never wrote it at all due to the lack of any other published work by her). But in the 1990s, a manuscript by Mitchell of a novel entitled Lost Laysen was discovered among a collection of letters Mitchell had given in the early 1920s to a suitor named Henry Love Angel. The manuscript had been written in two notebooks in 1916. In the 1990s, Angel's son discovered the manuscript and sent it to the Road to Tara Museum, which authenticated the work. A special edition of Lost Laysen — a romance set in the South Pacific — was edited by Debra Freer, augmented with an account of Mitchell and Angel's romance including a number of her letters to him, and published by the Scribner imprint of Simon & Schuster in 1996. Further reading Edwards, Anne. Road to Tara: The Life of Margaret Mitchell New Haven: Tichnor and Fields, 1983. Farr, Finnis. Margaret Mitchell of Atlanta: The Author of Gone With the Wind.New York: William Morrow, 1965. Pyron, Darden Asbury. Southern Daughter: The Life of Margaret Mitchell and the Making of Gone With the Wind. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Walker, Marianne. Margaret Mitchell & John Marsh: The Love Story Behind Gone With the Wind. Atlanta: Peachtree, 1993. External links Obituary, NY Times, August 17, 1949 Miss Mitchell, 49, Dead of Injuries New Georgia Encyclopedia (biographical entry) Margaret Mitchell timeline Bio of Margaret Mitchell prepared by the Margaret Mitchell House and Museum Biography of Margaret Mitchell - Books & Writers website References | Margaret_Mitchell |@lemmatized margaret:15 mitchell:55 november:1 august:3 american:2 author:2 win:2 pulitzer:2 prize:2 novel:9 go:16 wind:15 one:4 popular:2 book:20 time:6 sell:2 million:2 copy:1 see:2 list:2 best:4 selling:2 film:6 adaptation:1 release:2 become:1 high:2 grossing:1 history:1 hollywood:1 receive:3 record:1 break:1 ten:1 academy:1 award:1 bear:1 atlanta:18 georgia:8 eugene:1 lawyer:1 mary:1 isabelle:1 much:4 refer:1 may:2 belle:1 suffragist:1 irish:1 catholic:1 origin:1 brother:1 stephen:1 four:1 year:5 senior:1 childhood:1 spend:1 lap:1 civil:8 war:9 veteran:1 maternal:1 relative:1 live:3 graduate:1 washington:1 seminary:1 westminster:1 school:1 attend:1 smith:1 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2,894 | Miles_Davis | Miles Dewey Davis III (May 26, 1926 – September 28, 1991) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, and composer. Widely considered one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century, Davis was at the forefront of almost every major development in jazz from World War II to the 1990s: he played on various early bebop records and recorded one of the first cool jazz records; he was partially responsible for the development of hard bop and modal jazz, and both jazz-funk and jazz fusion arose from his work with other musicians in the late 1960s and early 1970s; and his final album blended jazz and rap. Many leading jazz musicians made their names in Davis' groups, including: Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, saxophonists John Coltrane, Julian "Cannonball" Adderley, Gerry Mulligan, Wayne Shorter, George Coleman, and Kenny Garrett, drummer Tony Williams and guitarist John McLaughlin. As a trumpeter, Davis had a pure, round sound but also an unusual freedom of articulation and pitch. He was known for favoring a low register and for a minimalist playing style, but was also capable of highly complex and technically demanding trumpet work. On March 13, 2006, Davis was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He has also been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame, Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame, and [[Down Beat|Down Beat'''s Jazz Hall of Fame]]. Biography Early life (1926 to 1944) Miles Davis was born on May 26, 1926, to a relatively affluent family in Alton, Illinois. His father, Dr. Miles Henry Davis, was a dentist. In 1927, the family moved to East St. Louis. They also owned a substantial ranch in northern Arkansas, where Davis learned to ride horses as a boy. Davis' mother, Cleota Mae (Henry) Davis, wanted her son to learn the piano; she was a capable blues pianist but kept this fact hidden from her son. His musical studies began at 13, when his father gave him a trumpet and arranged lessons with local musician Elwood Buchanan. Davis later suggested that his father's instrument choice was made largely to irk his wife, who disliked the instrument's sound. Against the fashion of the time, Buchanan stressed the importance of playing without vibrato, and Davis would carry his clear signature tone throughout his career. Buchanan was said to slap Davis' knuckles every time he started using heavy vibrato. Miles Davis and Quincy Trope, Miles: The Autobiography, Simon and Schuster, 1989, ISBN 0671635042. Davis once remarked on the importance of this signature sound, saying, "I prefer a round sound with no attitude in it, like a round voice with not too much tremolo and not too much Baseline bass. Just right in the middle. If I can’t get that sound I can’t play anything." Ashley Kahn Kind of Blue: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece. Clark Terry was another important early influence and friend. By the age of 16, Davis was a member of the music society and working professionally when not at school. At 17, he spent a year playing in bandleader Eddie Randle's band, Blue Devils. During this time, Sonny Stitt tried to persuade him to join the Tiny Bradshaw band then passing through town, but Davis's mother insisted that he finish his final year of high school. In 1944, the Billy Eckstine band visited East St. Louis. Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker were members of the band, and Davis was taken on as third trumpet for a couple of weeks because Buddy Anderson was out sick. When Eckstine's band left Davis behind to complete the tour, the trumpeter's parents were still keen for him to continue formal academic studies. New York and the Bebop years (1945 to 1948) In the fall of 1944, following graduation from high school, Miles moved to New York City to study at the Juilliard School of Music. Upon arriving in New York, Davis spent most of his first weeks in town trying to get in contact with Charlie Parker, despite being advised to the contrary by several people he met during his quest, including the famous saxophonist Coleman Hawkins. Having finally succeded in locating his idol, Davis became part of the milieu of musicians that centered around the jam sessions that were kept nightly in two of Harlem's night clubs, Minton's Playhouse and Monroe's, a group that at the time included many of the future protagonists of the bebop revolution, young musicians such as Fats Navarro, Freddie Webster, J.J. Johnson. Already accredited jazzmen such as Thelonious Monk and Kenny Clarke were also regular attenders of these occasions. In the same period, he dropped out of Juilliard, having first asked permission from his father. In his autobiography, he criticized the Juilliard classes for centering too much on the classical European and "white" repertoire. He also did partly acknowledge that the Juilliard period contributed to the theoretical background, that he would rely greatly upon in later years. He began playing professionally in many jazz combos, performing in several 52nd Street clubs with Coleman Hawkins and Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis. In 1945, he entered for the first time in a recording studio as a member of the group of Herbie Fields. Around that period, Dizzy Gillespie parted ways with Parker, who hired Davis as Gillespie's replacement in his quintet, which also featured Max Roach at the drums, Al Haig (replaced later by Sir Charles Thompson and Duke Jordan) at the piano, and Curley Russell (later replaced by Tommy Potter and Leonard Gaskin) as bass player. With Parker's quintet, Davis recorded on several occasions: on an oft-quoted take of Parker's signature song, "Now's the Time", he takes a melodic solo, whose unbop-like quality anticipates the following "cool jazz" period. The group also toured the United States: during a tour in Los Angeles, Parker had a nervous breakdown that landed him in the Camarillo State Mental Hospital for several months, and Davis found himself stranded in L.A. He roomed and collaborated for some time with Charles Mingus, before getting a job with Billy Eckstine on a California tour which brought him back to New York. On this occasion, Mingus criticised bitterly Davis for abandoning his "musical father" (see Autobiography)" In 1948, Parker returned from Los Angeles, and Davis joined his group again, resuming recording and public performances as a member of the combo. The relationship within the group, however, were growing tense. This was in part due to Parker's erratic behavior, attributable to his well known drug addiction) as well as his artistic choices (both Davis and Roach objected to having Duke Jordan as a pianist and would have preferred Bud Powell). In December of that year, economic problems (Davis says he wasn't being paid) began to deteriorate even more the relationship with the band leader, and Davis left the group following a tense confrontation with Parker at the Royal Roost. For Davis, this marked the beginning of a period in which he worked mainly freelance and as sideman in many of the most important combos of the New York scene. Birth of the Cool (1948-1949) In 1948 Davis grew close to the Canadian composer and arranger Gil Evans. Evans' house had become the meeting point of several young musicians and composers (among which Davis, Roach, the pianist John Lewis and the baritone sax player Gerry Mulligan) unhappy with the increasingly virtuosic instrumentalism which dominated the bebop scene of the time. Evans had been the arranger for the orchestra of Claude Thornhill and it was the sound of this group, as well as Duke Ellington's example, that suggested the creation of an unusual lineup, a nonet comprising a french horn and a tuba, which accounts for the "Tuba band" moniker that was to be associated with the combo. Davis took a very active role in the project, "Miles, the bandleader. He took the initiative and put the theories to work. He called the rehearsals, hired the halls, called the players, and generally cracked the whip." Gerry Mulligan "I hear America singing". so much so that it soon became "his project". The objective was achieving a sound similar to a human voice, over carefully arranged compositions and giving preminence to a relaxed and melodic approach in the improvised parts. The nonet debuted in the summer of 1948, with a two-week appointment at the Royal Roost. The sign announcing the band gave an unusual importance to the role of the arrangers: "Miles Davis Nonet. Arrangements by Gil Evans, John Lewis and Gerry Mulligan". It was in fact so unusual that Davis had to persuade the Roost's manager, Ralph Watkins, in order to hang it, and only prevailed with the help of Monte Kay, the artistic director of the club. The nonet was active to the end of 1949, undergoing several changes in personnel: Roach and Davis were constantly featured, along with Mulligan, the tuba player Bill Barber, and the altoist Lee Konitz who had been preferred to Sonny Stitt, whose playing was considered too bop oriented. Over the months, John Lewis alternated with Al Haigh at the piano, Mike Zwerin with Kai Winding at the trombone (Johnston was touring at the time), Junior Collins with Sandy Siegelstein and Gunther Schuller at the French Horn and Al McKibbon with Joe Shulman at the bass. The singer Kenny Hagood was added for one track during the recording sessions. The strong presence of white musicians angered African American jazz players, many of which were unemployed at the time, but they were angrily dismissed by Davis. "So I just told them that if a guy could play as good as Lee Konitz played - that's who they were mad about most, because there were a lot of black alto players around - I would hire him every time, and I wouldn't give a damn if he was green with red breath. I'm hiring a motherfucker to play, not for what color he is." Miles Davis, Autobiography A contract with Capitol Records granted the nonet several recording sessions between January 1949 and April 1950. This material was released in an album whose title - Birth of the Cool - became the namesake of the so called "cool jazz" movement which developed at the same time and partly shared the musical direction championed by Davis' group. For his part, Davis was fully aware of the importance of his project, which he pursued to the point of turning down a job with Duke Ellington's orchestra. The importance of the nonet experience was to become clear to the critics and the larger public only in later years but, commercially, the nonet was not a success. The liner notes of the first recordings of the Davis Quintet for Columbia Records call it one of the most spectacular failures of the jazz club scene. This was bitterly noted by Davis, which claimed the invention of the cool style, and resented the success that was later tributed by the media to other white "cool jazz" musicians (Mulligan and Dave Brubeck being the front runners). This experience also marked the beginning of the lifelong friendship between Davis and Gil Evans, an alliance which would bear important results in the following years. Hard Bop and the "Blue Period" (1950 to 1954) After recording more in both the bebop and cool genres, Davis recorded Walkin', a seminal record that many would come to mark as the birth of the hard bop genre. Like cool jazz, the music was slower than regular bebop, but unlike cool jazz, it had a much harder, grooving beat to it. It took in certain elements of rhythm and blues, and inspired a whole host of new music in the decade to come. First great quintet and sextet (1955 to 1958) In 1955, Davis formed the first incarnation of the Miles Davis Quintet. This band featured John Coltrane (tenor saxophone), Red Garland (piano), Paul Chambers (double bass) and Philly Joe Jones (drums). Eschewing the rhythmic and harmonic complexity of the then-prevalent bebop, Davis was allowed the space to play long, legato, and essentially melodic lines in which he would begin to explore modal jazz. Davis was influenced at around this time by pianist Ahmad Jamal, whose sparse style contrasted with the "busy" sound of bebop. The first recordings of this group were made for Columbia Records in 1955, released on 'Round About Midnight. Davis was still under contract to Prestige, but had an agreement that he could make recordings for subsequent releases using his new label. His final recordings for Prestige were the product of two days of recording in 1956, released as Relaxin' with the Miles Davis Quintet. Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet, Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet, and Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet.Miles Davis performing live at Birdland in New York, 1958. Photo by Dennis Stock The quintet was never stable, however; several of the other members used heroin, and the Miles Davis Quintet disbanded in early 1957. That year, Davis traveled to France to compose the score to Louis Malle's Ascenseur pour l'Échafaud. He recorded the entire soundtrack with the aid of French session musicians Barney Wilen, Pierre Michelot and René Urtreger, and American drummer Kenny Clarke. In 1958, the quintet reformed as a sextet, with the addition of Julian "Cannonball" Adderley on alto saxophone, and recorded Milestones. Recordings with Gil Evans (1957 to 1963) In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Davis recorded a series of albums with Gil Evans, often playing flugelhorn as well as trumpet. The first, Miles Ahead (1957), showcased his playing with a jazz big band and a horn section beautifully arranged by Evans. Songs included Dave Brubeck's "The Duke," as well as Léo Delibes' "The Maids Of Cadiz," the first piece of European classical music Davis had recorded. Another important feature of the album was the innovative use of editing to join the tracks together, turning each side of the album into a seamless piece of music. In 1958, Davis and Evans recorded Porgy and Bess, an arrangement of pieces from George Gershwin's opera of the same name. This album featured members of his contemporary band including Paul Chambers, Philly Joe Jones, and Julian "Cannonball" Adderley. Davis named the album one of his own favorites.Sketches of Spain (1959–1960) featured songs by contemporary Spanish composer Joaquin Rodrigo and also Manuel de Falla, as well as Gil Evans originals with a Spanish theme. Miles Davis at Carnegie Hall (1961) includes Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez, along with other songs recorded at a concert with an orchestra under Evans' direction. Sessions in 1962 resulted in the album Quiet Nights, a short collection of bossa nova songs that was released against the wishes of both artists. That was the last time that the two created a full album again. In his autobiography, Davis noted that ". . . my best friend is Gil Evans". You Can't Steal a Gift: Dizzy, Clark, Milt, and Nat, by Lees, Gene, Yale University Press (2001), p. 24 Kind of Blue (1959 to 1964) After recording Milestones, Garland and Jones were replaced by Bill Evans and Jimmy Cobb. The introspective improvisation of Evans, who was classically trained, influenced the sound of the band and allowed them to explore the music more deeply than ever before, furthering the advancement of modal jazz, as seen on the '58 Sessions. Evans departed late in 1958. He was replaced by Wynton Kelly. In March and April 1959, Davis re-entered the studio with his working sextet to record what is widely considered his magnum opus, Kind of Blue. He called back Bill Evans, months away from forming what would become his seminal trio, for the album sessions as the music had been planned around Evans' piano style. Khan, Ashley. Kind of Blue: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece. New York: Da Capo Press, 2000; ISBN 0-306-81067-0, p.95. Both Davis and Evans had direct familiarity with the ideas of pianist George Russell regarding modal jazz, Davis from discussions with Russell and others before what came to be known as the Birth of the Cool sessions, and Evans from study with Russell in 1956. Ibid., pp. 29–30, p. 74. Miles, however, had neglected to inform current pianist Kelly as to Evans's role in the recordings, Kelly subsequently playing only on the track "Freddie Freeloader", and not being present at all on the April dates for the album. Ibid., p. 95. "So What" and "All Blues" had been played by the sextet at performances prior to the recording sessions, but for the other three compositions, Davis and Evans prepared skeletal harmonic frameworks which the other musicians saw for the first time on the day of recording, to generate an improvisational approach. The resulting album has proven to be a huge influence on other musicians. According to the RIAA, Kind of Blue is the best-selling jazz album of all time, having been certified as quadruple platinum (4 million copies sold). The same year, while taking a break outside the famous Birdland nightclub in New York City, Davis was beaten by the New York police and subsequently arrested. Believing the assault to have been racially motivated (it is said he was beaten by a single policeman who was angered by Davis being with a white woman), he attempted to pursue the case in the courts, before eventually dropping the proceedings in a plea bargain to recover his suspended Cabaret Card. Davis persuaded Coltrane to play with the group on one final European tour in the spring of 1960. Coltrane then departed to form his classic quartet, although he returned for some of the tracks on the 1961 album Someday My Prince Will Come. Davis tried various replacement saxophonists, including Jimmy Heath, Sonny Stitt and Hank Mobley. The quintet with Hank Mobley was recorded in the studio and on several live engagements at Carnegie Hall and the Black Hawk jazz club in San Francisco. Stitt's playing with the group is found on both a recording made in Olympia, Paris (where Davis and Coltrane had played a few months before) and the Live in Stockholm album. In 1963, Davis' long-time rhythm section of Kelly, Chambers, and Cobb departed. He quickly got to work putting together a new group, including tenor saxophonist George Coleman and bassist Ron Carter. Davis, Coleman, Carter, and a few other musicians recorded half an album in the spring of 1963. A few weeks later, drummer Tony Williams and pianist Herbie Hancock joined the group, and soon thereafter Davis, Coleman and the rhythm section recorded the rest of Seven Steps to Heaven.The rhythm section clicked very quickly with each other and the horns; the group's rapid evolution can be traced through the aforementioned studio album, In Europe (July 1963), My Funny Valentine, and Four and More (both February 1964). The group played essentially the same repertoire of bebop and standards that earlier Davis bands did, but tackled them with increasing structural and rhythmic freedom and (in the case of the up-tempo material) breakneck speed. Coleman left in the spring of 1964, to be replaced by avant-garde saxophonist Sam Rivers, on the suggestion of Tony Williams. Rivers remained in the group only briefly, but was recorded live with the quintet in Japan; the group can be heard on In Tokyo! (July 1964). By the end of the summer, Davis had convinced Wayne Shorter to quit Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. Shorter became the principal composer of Davis' quintet, and some of his compositions of this era ("Footprints," "Nefertiti") are now standards. While on tour in Europe, the group quickly made their first official recording, Miles in Berlin (Fall 1964). On return to the United States later that year, Davis (at Jackie DeShannon's urging) was instrumental in getting The Byrds signed to Columbia Records. Second Great Quintet (1964 to 1968) By the time of E.S.P. (1965) Davis' lineup consisted of Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums). This lineup, the last of his acoustic bands, is often known as "the second great quintet." A two-night Chicago gig in late 1965 is captured on The Complete Live at The Plugged Nickel 1965, released in 1995. Unlike the group's studio albums, the live engagement shows the group still playing primarily standards and bebop songs. This was followed by a series of studio recordings: Miles Smiles (1966), Sorcerer (1967), Nefertiti (1967), Miles in the Sky (1968) and Filles de Kilimanjaro (1968). The quintet's approach to improvisation came to be known as "time no changes" or "freebop," because they abandoned the chord-change-based approach of bebop for a modal approach. Through Nefertiti, the studio recordings consisted primarily of originals composed by Shorter, and to a lesser degree of compositions by the other sidemen. In 1967, the group began to play their live concerts in continuous sets, with each tune flowing into the next and only the melody indicating any sort of demarcation; Davis's bands would continue to perform in this way until his retirement in 1975.Miles in the Sky and Filles de Kilimanjaro, on which electric bass, electric piano and guitar were tentatively introduced on some tracks, pointed the way to the subsequent fusion phase in Davis' output. Davis also began experimenting with more rock-oriented rhythms on these records. By the time the second half of Filles de Kilimanjaro had been recorded, Dave Holland and Chick Corea had replaced Carter and Hancock in the working band, though both Carter and Hancock would occasionally contribute to future recording sessions. Davis soon began to take over the compositional duties of his sidemen. Electric Miles (1968 to 1975) Miles Davis in Rio de Janeiro, May 1984. Davis' influences included late 1960s acid rock and funk artists such as Sly and the Family Stone, James Brown and Jimi Hendrix, many of whom he met through Betty Mabry, a young model and songwriter Davis married in September 1968 and divorced a year later. The musical transition required that Davis and his band adapt to electric instruments in both live performances and the studio. By the time In a Silent Way had been recorded in February 1969, Davis had augmented his standard quintet with additional players. At various times Hancock or Joe Zawinul were brought in to augment Corea on electric keyboards, and guitarist John McLaughlin made the first of his many appearances. By this point, Shorter was also doubling on soprano saxophone. After recording this album, Williams left to form his group Lifetime and was replaced by Jack DeJohnette. Six months later an even larger group of musicians, including Jack DeJohnette, Airto Moreira and Bennie Maupin recorded the double LP Bitches Brew, which became a huge seller, hitting gold status by 1976. This album and In a Silent Way were among the first fusions of jazz and rock that were commercially successful, building on the groundwork laid by Charles Lloyd, Larry Coryell, and many others who pioneered a genre that would become known simply as "Jazz-rock fusion." During this period, Davis toured with the "lost quintet" of Shorter, Corea, Holland and DeJohnette. The group's repertoire included material from Bitches Brew, In a Silent Way, the 1960s quintet albums, and an occasional standard. In 1972, Davis was introduced to the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen by Paul Buckmaster, leading to a period of new creative exploration for Davis. Biographer J.K. Chambers wrote that "The effect of Davis's study of Stockhausen could not be repressed for long. ... Davis's own 'space music' shows Stockhausen's influence compositionally." His recordings and performances during this period were described as "space music" by fans, by music critic Leonard Feather, and by Buckmaster, who stated: "a lot of mood changes — heavy, dark, intense — definitely space music." Both Bitches Brew and In a Silent Way feature "extended" (more than 20 minutes each) compositions that were never actually "played straight through" by the musicians in the studio. Instead, Davis and producer Teo Macero selected musical motifs of various lengths from recorded extended improvisations and edited them together into a musical whole which only exists in the recorded version. Bitches Brew made use of such electronic effects as multi-tracking, tape loops and other editing techniques. Both records, especially Bitches Brew, proved to be huge sellers. Starting with Bitches Brew, Davis' albums began to often feature cover art much more in line with psychedelic art or black power movements than that of his earlier albums. He took significant cuts in his usual performing fees in order to open for rock groups like the Steve Miller Band, the Grateful Dead and Santana. Several live albums were recorded during the early 1970s at such performances: Live at the Fillmore East, March 7, 1970: It's About That Time (March 1970), Black Beauty (April 1970) and Miles Davis at Fillmore: Live at the Fillmore East (June 1970). By the time of Live-Evil in December 1970, Davis' ensemble had transformed into a much more funk-oriented group. Davis began experimenting with wah-wah effects on his horn. The ensemble with Gary Bartz, Keith Jarrett and Michael Henderson, often referred to as the "Cellar Door band" (the live portions of Live-Evil were recorded at a club by that name), never recorded in the studio, but is documented in the six CD Box Set The Cellar Door Sessions, which was recorded over four nights in December 1970. In 1970, Davis contributed extensively to the soundtrack of a documentary about the African-American boxer heavyweight champion Jack Johnson. Himself a devotee of boxing, Davis drew parallels between Johnson, whose career had been defined by the fruitless search for a Great White Hope to dethrone him, and Davis' own career, in which he felt the musical establishment of the time had prevented him from receiving the acclaim and rewards that were due him. The resulting album, 1971's A Tribute to Jack Johnson, contained two long pieces that utilized musicians (some of whom were not credited on the record) including guitarists John McLaughlin and Sonny Sharrock, Herbie Hancock on a broken Farfisa organ and drummer Billy Cobham. McLaughlin and Cobham went on to become founding members of the Mahavishnu Orchestra in 1971. As Davis stated in his autobiography, he wanted to make music for the young African-American audience. On the Corner (1972) blended funk elements with the traditional jazz styles he had played his entire career. The album was highlighted by the appearance of saxophonist Carlos Garnett. Critics were not kind to the album; in his autobiography, Davis stated that critic could categorize it and complained that the album was not promoted by the "traditional" jazz radio stations. After recording On the Corner, Davis put together a new band, with only Michael Henderson, Carlos Garnett and percussionist Mtume returning from the previous band. It included guitarist Reggie Lucas, tabla player Badal Roy, sitarist Khalil Balakrishna and drummer Al Foster. It was unusual in that none of the sidemen were major jazz instrumentalists; as a result, the music emphasized rhythmic density and shifting textures instead of individual solos. This group, which recorded in the Philharmonic Hall for the album In Concert (1972), was unsatisfactory to Davis. Through the first half of 1973, he dropped the tabla and sitar, took over keyboard duties, and added guitarist Pete Cosey. The Davis/Cosey/Lucas/Henderson/Mtume/Foster ensemble would remain virtually intact over the next two years. Initially, Dave Liebman played saxophones and flute with the band. In 1974, he was replaced by Sonny Fortune.Big Fun (1974) was a double album containing four long jams, recorded between 1969 and 1972. Similarly, Get Up With It (1974) collected recordings from the previous five years. Get Up With It included "He Loved Him Madly", a tribute to Duke Ellington, as well as one of Davis' most lauded pieces from this era, "Calypso Frelimo". This was his last studio album of the 1970s. In 1974 and 1975, Columbia recorded three double-LP live Davis albums: Dark Magus, Agharta and Pangaea. Dark Magus is a 1974 New York concert; the latter two are recordings of consecutive concerts from the same February 1975 day in Osaka. At the time, only Agharta was available in the US; Pangaea and Dark Magus were initially released only by CBS/Sony Japan. All three feature at least two electric guitarists (Reggie Lucas and Pete Cosey, deploying an array of post-Hendrix electronic distortion devices; Dominique Gaumont is a third guitarist on Dark Magus), electric bass, drums, reeds, and Davis on electric trumpet and organ. These albums were the last he was to record for five years. Davis was troubled by osteoarthritis (which led to a hip replacement operation in 1976, the first of several), sickle-cell anemia, depression, bursitis, ulcers and a renewed dependence on alcohol and drugs (primarily cocaine), and his performances were routinely panned throughout late 1974 and early 1975. By the time the group reached Japan in February 1975, Davis was teetering on a physical breakdown and required copious amounts of vodka and narcotics to complete his engagements. After a Newport Jazz Festival performance at Avery Fisher Hall in New York on July 1, 1975, Davis withdrew almost completely from the public eye for six years. As Gil Evans said, "His organism is tired. And after all the music he's contributed for 35 years, he needs a rest." Davis characterized this period in his memoirs as a colorful time when wealthy women lavished him with sex and drugs. In reality, he had become completely dependent upon various drugs, spending nearly all of his time propped up on a couch in his apartment watching television, leaving only to score more drugs. In 1976, Rolling Stone reported rumors of his imminent demise. Although he stopped practicing trumpet on a regular basis, Davis continued to compose intermittently and made three attempts at recording during his exile from performing; these sessions (one with the assistance of Paul Buckmaster and Gil Evans, who left after not receiving promised compensation) bore little fruit and remain unreleased. In 1979, he placed in the yearly Top 10 trumpeter poll of Down Beat magazine. Columbia continued to issue compilation albums and records of unreleased vault material to fulfill contractual obligations. During his period of inactivity, Davis saw the fusion music that he had spearheaded over the past decade firmly enter into the mainstream. When he emerged from retirement, Davis' musical descendants would be in the realm of New Wave rock, and in particular the stylings of Prince. Last Decade (1981 to 1991) Miles Davis at the Nice Jazz Festival in July 1989. Miles Davis at North Sea Jazz Festival in 1987 By 1979, Davis had rekindled his relationship with actress Cicely Tyson. With Tyson, Davis would overcome his cocaine addiction and regain his enthusiasm for music. As he had not played trumpet for the better part of three years, regaining his famed embouchure proved to be particularly arduous. While recording The Man with the Horn (sessions were spread sporadically over 1979–1981), Davis played mostly wah-wah with a younger, larger band. The initial large band was eventually abandoned in favor of a smaller combo featuring saxophonist Bill Evans and bass player Marcus Miller, both of whom would be among Davis's most regular collaborators throughout the decade. He married Tyson in 1981; they would divorce in 1988. The Man with the Horn was finally released in 1981 and received a poor critical reception despite selling fairly well. In May, the new band played two dates as part of the Newport Jazz Festival. The concerts, as well as the live recording We Want Miles from the ensuing tour, received positive reviews. By late 1982, Davis's band included French percussionist Mino Cinelu and guitarist John Scofield, with whom he worked closely on the album Star People. In mid-1983, while working on the tracks for Decoy, an album mixing soul music and electronica that was released in 1984, Davis brought in producer, composer and keyboardist Robert Irving III, who had earlier collaborated with Davis on The Man with the Horn. With a seven-piece band, including Scofield, Evans, keyboardist and music director Irving, drummer Al Foster and bassist Darryl Jones (later of The Rolling Stones), Davis played a series of European gigs to positive receptions. While in Europe, he took part in the recording of Aura, an orchestral tribute to Davis composed by Danish trumpeter Palle Mikkelborg.You're Under Arrest, Davis' next album, was released in 1985 and included another brief stylistic detour. Included on the album were his interpretations of Cyndi Lauper's ballad "Time After Time," and "Human Nature" from Michael Jackson. Davis considered releasing an entire album of pop songs and recorded dozens of them, but the idea was scrapped. The Last Years of Miles Davis Songfacts. Retrieved January 14, 2009. Davis noted that many of today's accepted jazz standards were in fact pop songs from Broadway theater, and that he was simply updating the "standards" repertoire with new material.You're Under Arrest also proved to be Davis' final album for Columbia. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis publicly dismissed Davis' more recent fusion recordings as not being "'true' jazz," comments Davis initially shrugged off, calling Marsalis "a nice young man, only confused". This changed after Marsalis appeared, unannounced, onstage in the midst of a Davis performance. Marsalis whispered into Davis' ear that "someone" had told him to do so; Davis responded by ordering him off the stage. Miles: The Autobiography, Picador, page 364. Davis grew irritated at Columbia's delay releasing Aura. The breaking point in the label/artist relationship appears to have come when a Columbia jazz producer requested Davis place a good-will birthday call to Marsalis. Davis signed with Warner Brothers shortly thereafter. Davis collaborated with a number of figures from the British new wave movement during this period, including Scritti Politti. Intro.de article (in German). At the invitation of producer Bill Laswell, Davis recorded some trumpet parts during sessions for Public Image Ltd.'s Album, according to Public Image's John Lydon in the liner notes of their Plastic Box box set. In Lydon's words, however, "strangely enough, we didn't use (his contributions)." (Also according to Lydon in the Plastic Box notes, Davis favorably compared Lydon's singing voice to his trumpet sound.) Fodderstompf Having first taken part in the Artists United Against Apartheid recording, Davis signed with Warner Brothers records and reunited with Marcus Miller. The resulting record, Tutu (1986), would be his first to use modern studio tools &mdash programmed synthesizers, samples and drum loops &mdash to create an entirely new setting for Davis' playing. Ecstatically reviewed on its release, the album would frequently be described as the modern counterpart of Sketches of Spain and won a Grammy in 1987. He followed Tutu with Amandla, another collaboration with Miller and George Duke, plus the soundtracks to four movies: Street Smart, Siesta, The Hot Spot, and Dingo. He continued to tour with a band of constantly rotating personnel and a critical stock at a level higher than it had been for 15 years. His last recordings, both released posthumously, were the hip hop-influenced studio album Doo-Bop and Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux, a collaboration with Quincy Jones for the 1991 Montreux Jazz Festival in which Davis performed the repertoire from his 1940s and 1950s recordings for the first time in decades. In 1988 he had a small part as a street musician in the film Scrooged, starring Bill Murray. He received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990. In early 1991, he appeared in the Rolf de Heer film Dingo as a jazz musician. In the film's opening sequence, Davis and his band unexpectedly land on a remote airstrip in the Australian outback and proceed to perform for the stunned locals. The performance was one of Davis' last on film. Miles Davis died on September 28, 1991 from a stroke, pneumonia and respiratory failure in Santa Monica, California at the age of 65. He is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx. Awards Winner; Down Beat Reader's Poll Best Trumpet Player 1955 Winner; Down Beat Reader's Poll Best Trumpet Player 1957 Winner; Down Beat Reader's Poll Best Trumpet Player 1961 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Composition Of More Than Five Minutes Duration for Sketches of Spain (1960) Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance, Large Group Or Soloist With Large Group for Bitches Brew (1970) Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist for We Want Miles (1982) Sonning Award for Lifetime Achievement In Music (1984; Copenhagen, Denmark) Doctor of Music, honoris causa (1986; New England Conservatory) Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist for Tutu (1986) Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist for Aura (1989) Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band for Aura (1989) Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1990) Australian Film Institute Award for Best Original Music Score for Dingo, shared with Michel Legrand (1991) Knighted into the Legion of Honor (July 16, 1991; Paris) Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance for Doo-Bop (1992) Grammy Award for Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance for Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux (1993) Hollywood Walk of Fame Star (February 19, 1998) Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction (March 13, 2006) Hollywood's Rockwalk Induction (September 28, 2006) RIAA Quadruple Platinum for Kind of BlueSt. Louis Walk of Fame Discography Notes References Carr, Ian. Miles Davis. ISBN 0-00-653026-5. Chambers, Jack. Milestones: The Music and Times of Miles Davis. ISBN 0-306-80849-8. Cole, George. The Last Miles: The Music of Miles Davis 1980 – 1991. ISBN 1-904768-18-0. Davis, Miles & Troupe, Quincy. Miles: The Autobiography. ISBN 0-671-63504-2. Davis, Gregory. Dark Magus: The Jekyll & Hyde Life of Miles Davis. ISBN 978-0-87930-875-9. Early, Gerald. Miles Davis and American Culture. ISBN 1-883982-37-5 cloth, ISBN 1-883982-38-3, paper. Szwed, John. So What: The Life of Miles Davis. ISBN 0-434-00759-5. Tingen, Paul. Miles Beyond: The Electric Explorations of Miles Davis, 1967–1991''. ISBN 0-8230-8360-8. Mandel, Howard (2007). "Miles, Ornette, Cecil: Jazz Beyond Jazz". Routledge. ISBN 0415967147. External links Web sites dedicated to Miles Davis: Miles Davis - official website. Miles Davis - official Sony Music website. Miles Ahead - large site dedicated to Miles Davis, contains an extensive data base of sessions and a Discography. The Sound of Miles Davis - site dedicated to Jan Lohmann's pioneering discography of all Davis's recordings. Miles Beyond - Paul Tingen's book and web site on the electric music of Miles Davis, 1967–1991. The Last Miles - George Cole's book and website on the last decade of Miles Davis's music. Milestones: A Miles Davis Collector's Site - collector's site with much material. Web site pages about Miles Davis: Miles Davis discography at Discogs. . Miles Davis at All About Jazz. . Miles Davis biography at the African American Registry. Miles Davis in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Sons of Miles: Interviews and profiles with Miles Davis and musicians influenced by him. 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2,895 | Balkans | Balkan peninsula with northwest border Soča-Krka-Sava The Balkans (often referred to as the Balkan Peninsula although the two are not coterminous) is a geographic region of southeastern Europe. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains, which run through the centre of Bulgaria into eastern Serbia. The region has a combined area of and a population of about 55 million people. is an old Turkish word meaning "a chain of wooded mountains". The ancient Greek name for the Balkan Peninsula was the "Peninsula of Haemus” (, Chersónēsos tou Haímou). The Balkans are also referred to as Southeastern Europe. Definitions and boundaries The Balkan Peninsula The Balkan Peninsula, as defined by the Danube-Sava-Kupa line. The Balkan Peninsula may be defined as an area of southeastern Europe surrounded by water on three sides: the Adriatic Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea (including the Ionian and Aegean seas) to the south and the Black Sea to the east. Its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa rivers. Countries which are geographically fully located within the Balkan peninsula: Countries which are significantly located in the peninsula: Countries which are located mostly outside the peninsula: The Balkans The term "The Balkans" covers not only those countries which lie within the boundaries of the "Balkan Peninsula", but may also include Croatia, Slovenia, Romania. Slovenia, which was part of Yugoslavia from 1919 to 1991, lies north of the Danube-Sava line and therefore outside the Peninsula, but prior to 1991 the whole of Yugoslavia was considered to be part of the Balkans. The European territories of Turkey, which are located geographically in the Balkan Peninsula, are not generally included in the Balkan region. In most of the English-speaking, western world, the countries commonly included in the Balkan region are: britannica.com; encarta.msn.com; The Columbia Encyclopedia. Other countries sometimes included are: Etymology and evolving meaning The region takes its name from the Stara Planina mountain range in Bulgaria, commonly known as the Balkan Mountains (from the Turkish meaning "a chain of wooded mountains"). The name is still preserved in Central Asia where there exist the Balkan Mountains and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. On a larger scale, the mountains are only one part of a long continuous chain of mountains crossing the region in the form of a reversed letter S, from the Carpathians south to the Balkan range proper, before marching away east into Anatolian Turkey. On the west coast, an offshoot of the Dinaric Alps follows the coast south through Dalmatia and Albania, crosses Greece and continues into the sea in the form of various islands. The first attested time the name "Balkan" was used in the West for the mountain range in Bulgaria was in a letter sent in 1490 to Pope Innocent VIII by Buonaccorsi Callimaco, an Italian humanist, writer and diplomat. In English traveler, John Morritt, introduced this term into the English literature at the end of the 18th century, and other authors started applying the name to the wider area between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. The concept of the “Balkan peninsula” was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808. As time passed, the term gradually obtained political connotations far from its initial geographic meaning, arising from political changes from the late 1800s to the creation of post-World War I Yugoslavia (initially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes). Zeune's goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer, and, to a large extent, due to oscillating political circumstances. The term Balkans is generally used to describe areas that remained under Turkish rule after 1699, namely: Bulgaria, Serbia (except for Vojvodina), Macedonia, Thrace, Albania, Epirus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro (except for the Boka Bay and Budva), central Greece and the Peloponnese. Vojvodina and Transylvania, it is argued, do not belong to Balkans. After the split of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term 'Balkans' again received a negative meaning, even in casual usage (see Balkanization). Over the last decade, in the wake of the former Yugoslav split, Slovenes have rejected their former label as 'Balkan nations'. This is in part due to the pejorative connotation of the term 'Balkans' in the 1990s, and continuation of this meaning until now. Today, the term 'Southeast Europe' is preferred or, in the case of Slovenia and Croatia, 'Central Europe'. Southeastern Europe Because of the negative connotations of the term 'Balkan', writers such as Maria Todorova and Vesna Goldsworthy have suggested the use of the term Southeastern Europe instead. The use of this term is slowly growing; a European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and the online newspaper Balkan Times renamed itself Southeast European Times in 2003. The use of this term to mean the Balkan peninsula (and only that) technically ignores the geographical presence of Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and Ciscaucasus, which are also located in the southeastern part of the European continent. The Western Balkan states according to the European Union Western Balkans European Union institutions and member states define the "Western Balkans" as Albania and the constituent republics of the former Yugoslavia, minus Slovenia. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development uses "Western Balkans" to refer to the above states, minus Croatia. Regional organizations Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) member states Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)Central European Initiative (CEI) member statesSoutheast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) See also the Black Sea Regional organizations Nature and natural resources Most of the area is covered by mountain ranges running from north-west to south-east. The main ranges are the Dinaric Alps in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia, the Šar massif which spreads from Albania to Republic of Macedonia and the Pindus range, spanning from southern Albania into central Greece. In Bulgaria there are ranges running from east to west: the Balkan mountains and the Rhodope mountains at the border with Greece. The highest mountain of the region is Rila in Bulgaria, with Mussala at 2925 m, with Mount Olympus in Greece, the throne of Zeus, being second at 2919 m and Vihren in Bulgaria being the third at 2914. On the coasts the climate is Mediterranean, in the inland it is moderate continental. In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part winters are milder. During the centuries many woods have been cut down and replaced with bush. In the southern part and on the coast there is evergreen vegetation. In the inland there are woods typical of Central Europe (oak and beech, and in the mountains, spruce, fir and pine). The tree line in the mountains lies at the height of 1800–2300 m. The soils are generally poor, except on the plains where areas with natural grass, fertile soils and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage. Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers and poor soils, although certain cultures such as olives and grapes flourish. Resources of energy are scarce. There are some deposits of coal, especially in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia. Lignite deposits are widespread in Greece. Petroleum is most notably present in Romania, although scarce reserves exist in Greece, Serbia, Albania and Croatia. Natural gas deposits are scarce. Hydropower stations are largely used in energetics. Metal ores are more usual than other raw materials. Iron ore is rare but in some countries there is a considerable amount of copper, zinc, tin, chromite, manganese, magnesite and bauxite. Some metals are exported. History and geopolitical significance 250|Political history of the Balkans The Balkans at the end of the 19th century The Balkan region was the first area of Europe to experience the arrival of farming cultures in the Neolithic era. The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the Fertile Crescent by way of Anatolia, and spread west and north into Pannonia and Central Europe. The identity of the Balkans is dominated by its geographical position; historically the area was known as a crossroads of various cultures. It has been a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire, the destination of a massive influx of pagan Slavs, an area where Orthodox and Catholic Christianity met, as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity. In pre-classical and classical antiquity, this region was home to Greeks, Illyrians, Paeonians, Thracians, Dacians and other ancient groups. Later the Roman Empire conquered most of the region and spread Roman culture and the Latin language but significant parts still remained under classical Greek influence. During the Middle Ages, the Balkans became the stage for a series of wars between the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires. Possibly the historical event that left the biggest mark on the collective memories of the peoples of the Balkans was the expansion and later fall of the Ottoman Empire. By the end of the 16th century, it had become the controlling force in the region, although it was centered around Anatolia. Many people in the Balkans and Carpathians place their greatest folk heroes in the era of either the onslaught or the retreat of the Ottoman Empire. As examples, for Croats, Nikola Šubić Zrinski and Petar Kružić; for Serbs, Miloš Obilić and Tzar Lazar; for Albanians, Skanderbeg; for ethnic Macedonians, Nikola Karev; for Bosniaks, Husein Gradaščević; and for Bulgarians, Vasil Levski, Georgi Sava Rakovski and Hristo Botev. In the past 550 years, because of the frequent Ottoman wars in Europe fought in and around the Balkans, and the comparative Ottoman isolation from the mainstream of economic advance (reflecting the shift of Europe's commercial and political centre of gravity towards the Atlantic), the Balkans has been the least developed part of Europe. The Balkan nations began to regain their independence in the 19th century (Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro), and in 1912–1913 a Balkan League reduced Turkey's territory to its present extent in the Balkan Wars. The First World War was sparked in 1914 by the assassination in Sarajevo (the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina) of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. The Ottoman empire was one of the three most important parties of the Central powers. An important contribution towards the entente victory took place in the region, after Greece joined the war in 1917, with the capitulation of Bulgaria and the Ottoman empire, which led to the swift capitulation of Austria-Hungary. The Greek success against the Axis forces during World War II, and the subsequent Albanian, Greek and Serb resistance, changed the course of the war and gave the allies a decisive step towards victory. After the Second World War, the Soviet Union and communism played a very important role in the Balkans. During the Cold War, most of the countries in the Balkans were ruled by Soviet-supported communist governments. Greece remained the only non Soviet country, but was also the only country in Europe to which the cold war turned 'hot' due to the Greek Civil War. However, despite being under communist governments, Yugoslavia (1948) and Albania (1961) fell out with the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia, led by marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), first propped up then rejected the idea of merging with Bulgaria, and instead sought closer relations with the West, later even joining many third world countries in the Non-Aligned Movement. Albania on the other hand gravitated toward Communist China, later adopting an isolationist position. The only non-communist countries were Greece and Turkey, which were (and still are) part of NATO. In the 1990s, the region was gravely affected by armed conflict in the former Yugoslav republics, resulting in intervention by NATO forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and the Republic of Macedonia. The status of Kosovo and ethnic Albanians in general is still mostly unresolved. Balkan countries control the direct land routes between Western Europe and South West Asia (Asia Minor and the Middle East). Since 2000, all Balkan countries are friendly towards the EU and the USA. Greece has been a member of the European Union since 1981; Slovenia and Cyprus since 2004. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007. In 2005, the European Union decided to start accession negotiations with candidate countries; Croatia, Turkey, and the Macedonia were accepted as candidates for European Union membership. As of April 2009, Ceremony marks the accession of Albania and Croatia to NATO, NATO - News, 7 April 2009, retrieved 2009-04-18 Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Slovenia are also members of NATO. Bosnia and Herzegovina and what was then Serbia and Montenegro started negotiations with the EU over the Stabilisation and Accession Agreements, although shortly after they started, negotiations with Serbia and Montenegro were suspended for lack of co-operation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. All other countries have expressed a desire to join the EU but at some date in the future. The Balkans today is a very diverse ethno-linguistic region, being home to multiple Slavic, Romance, and Turkic languages, as well as Greek, Albanian and others. Through its history many other ethnic groups with their own languages lived in the area, among them Thracians, Illyrians, Romans, Pechenegs, Cumans, Avars, Celts and various Germanic tribes-folk. Population composition by nationality and religion Ethnic map of the Balkans prior to the First Balkan War, by Paul Vidal de la Blache. The region's principal ethnicities include: Romanians (19.4 million if all of Romania is considered to be included in the Balkans) Greeks (10.3 million) Turks (10 million) Serbs (8.5 million if all of Serbia is considered to be included in the Balkans) Bulgarians (6.9 million) Albanians (6.8 million) Croats (4.7 million if all of Croatia is considered to be included in the Balkans) Bosniaks (4.5 million) Slovenes (2 million if all of Slovenia is considered to be included in the Balkans) Macedonians (1.4 million) Montenegrins (350,000) others (Roma, Jews) The region's principal religions are Christianity (Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic) and Islam. A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church. Eastern Orthodoxy is the principal religion in the following countries: Bulgaria (Bulgarian Orthodox Church) Greece (Church of Greece) Republic of Macedonia (Macedonian Orthodox Church) Montenegro (Serbian Orthodox Church) Romania (Romanian Orthodox Church) Serbia (Serbian Orthodox Church) Albania (Albanian Orthodox Church) Roman Catholicism is the principal religion in the following countries: Croatia (87.83% Catholics (3 897 332); according to 2001 census official data) Slovenia (57.80% Catholics (1 135 626); according to 2002 census official data) Islam is the principal religion in the following countries: Albania (majority) Bosnia and Herzegovina (relative/partial majority) Turkey The following countries have significant minority religious groups of the following denominations: Albania: Eastern Orthodoxy (see Albanian Orthodox Church and Orthodoxy in Albania), Catholicism. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Eastern Orthodoxy (see Orthodoxy in Bosnia and Herzegovina), Catholicism Bulgaria: Islam Croatia: Orthodoxy Republic of Macedonia: Islam Montenegro: Islam Serbia: Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism Romania: Catholicism, Protestantism For more detailed information and a precise ethnic breakdown see articles about particular states: Demographics of Albania Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina Demographics of Bulgaria Demographics of Croatia Demographics of Greece Demographics of Montenegro Demographics of the Republic of Macedonia Demographics of Serbia Demographics of Slovenia Demographics of Turkey Jewish communities of the Balkans The Jewish communities of the Balkans were some of the oldest in Europe and date back to ancient times as well as having received a large influx of Sephardic Jews and later Ashkenazi Jews. In Slovenia, there were Jewish immigrants dating back to Roman times pre-dating the 6th Century settlement of the region by the Slavic peoples. Jews of Yugoslavia 1941–1945 Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters, Jasa Romano In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the tiny Jewish community is 90% Sephardic and Ladino is still spoken among the elderly. The Sephardi Jewish cemetery in Sarajevo has tombstones of a unique shape, inscribed in ancient Ladino. European Jewish Congress - Bosnia-Herzegovina [Accessed July 15, 2008]. However the Jewish communities in the Balkans suffered immensely during World War II and the vast majority were killed in the Holocaust. Most of the remainder emigrated to Israel and elsewhere. See also History of the Balkans Historical regions of the Balkan Peninsula Balkan wars Balkan languages Balkan sprachbund Balkanization Balkan Insight Balkan ethnic conflict in the 1940s Orient Express Music of Southeastern Europe The Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina Notes Sources Carter, Francis W., ed. An Historical Geography of the Balkans Academic Press, 1977. Dvornik, Francis. The Slavs in European History and Civilization Rutgers University Press, 1962. Fine, John V. A., Jr. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century [1983]; The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, [1987]. John R. Lampe and Marvin R. Jackson; Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations Indiana University Press, 1982 Király, Béla K., ed. East Central European Society in the Era of Revolutions, 1775–1856. 1984 External links South-East Europe Review Balkan History by Steven W. Sowards SEEurope.net - news coverage on Southeastern Europe Southeast European Times The Centre for South East European Studies Balkans region: Oil and Gas Fact Sheet - United States Department of Energy Analysis Brief Balkans urged to curb trafficking - BBC News from Balkans Analysis from Balkans Balkan Business News be-x-old:Балканская паўвыспа | Balkans |@lemmatized balkan:78 peninsula:18 northwest:1 border:2 soča:1 krka:1 sava:5 often:2 refer:3 although:5 two:1 coterminous:1 geographic:2 region:20 southeastern:8 europe:21 take:3 name:6 mountain:16 run:3 centre:3 bulgaria:16 eastern:8 serbia:12 combined:1 area:10 population:2 million:11 people:4 old:3 turkish:3 word:1 meaning:5 chain:3 wooded:2 ancient:4 greek:8 haemus:1 chersónēsos:1 tou:1 haímou:1 also:7 definition:1 boundaries:1 define:3 danube:3 kupa:2 line:3 may:2 surround:1 water:1 three:2 side:1 adriatic:2 sea:8 west:8 mediterranean:2 include:10 ionian:1 aegean:1 south:9 black:4 east:8 northern:2 boundary:2 give:2 river:1 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2,896 | Fick's_laws_of_diffusion | Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D. They were derived by Adolf Fick in the year 1855. Fick's First Law Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration field, by postulating that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial derivative). In one (spatial) dimension, this is where is the diffusion flux in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length−2 time-1], example . measures the amount of substance that will flow through a small area during a small time interval. is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity in dimensions of [length2 time−1], example (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length−3], example is the position [length], example is proportional to the squared velocity of the diffusing particles, which depends on the temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size of the particles according to the Stokes-Einstein relation. In dilute aqueous solutions the diffusion coefficients of most ions are similar and have values that at room temperature are in the range of 0.6x10-9 to 2x10-9 m2/s. For biological molecules the diffusion coefficients normally range from 10-11 to 10-10 m2/s. In two or more dimensions we must use , the del or gradient operator, which generalises the first derivative, obtaining . The driving force for the one-dimensional diffusion is the quantity which for ideal mixtures is the concentration gradient. In chemical systems other than ideal solutions or mixtures, the driving force for diffusion of each species is the gradient of chemical potential of this species. Then Fick's first law (one-dimensional case) can be written as: where the index i denotes the ith species, c is the concentration (mol/m<sup>3</sub>), R is the universal gas constant (J/(K mol)), T is the absolute temperature (K), and μ is the chemical potential (J/mol). Fick's Second Law Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration field to change with time: Where is the concentration in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length-3], example is time [s] is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of [length2 time-1], example is the position [length], example It can be derived from Fick's First law and the mass balance: Assuming the diffusion coefficient D to be a constant we can exchange the orders of the differentiating and multiplying by the constant: and, thus, receive the form of the Fick's equations as was stated above. For the case of diffusion in two or more dimensions the Second Fick's Law is: , which is analogous to the heat equation. If the diffusion coefficient is not a constant, but depends upon the coordinate and/or concentration, the Second Fick's Law becomes: An important example is the case where is at a steady state, i.e. the concentration does not change by time, so that the left part of the above equation is identically zero. In one dimension with constant , the solution for the concentration will be a linear change of concentrations along . In two or more dimensions we obtain which is Laplace's equation, the solutions to which are called harmonic functions by mathematicians. Example solution in one dimension: diffusion length A simple case of diffusion with time t in one dimension (taken as the x-axis) of a density from a boundary located at position where the density is maintained at a value is . where erfc is the complementary error function. The length is called the diffusion length and provides a measure of how far the density has propagated in the x-direction by diffusion in time t. For more detail on diffusion length, see these examples. History In 1855, physiologist Adolf Fick first reported A. Fick, Poggendorff's Annel. Physik. (1855), 94, 59. A. Fick, Phil. Mag. (1855), 10, 30. (in English) his now-well-known laws governing the transport of mass through diffusive means. Fick's work was inspired by the earlier experiments of Thomas Graham, but which fell short of proposing the fundamental laws for which Fick would become famous. The Fick's law is analogous to the relationships discovered at the same epoch by other eminent scientists: Darcy's law (hydraulic flow), Ohm's law (charge transport), and Fourier's Law (heat transport). Fick's experiments (modeled on Graham's) dealt with measuring the concentrations and fluxes of salt, diffusing between two reservoirs through tubes of water. It is notable that Fick's work primarily concerned diffusion in fluids, because at the time, diffusion in solids was not considered generally possible. Jean Philibert, One and a Half Century of Diffusion: Fick, Einstein, before and beyond, Diffusion Fundamentals 2, 2005 1.1-1.10 Today, Fick's Laws form the core of our understanding of diffusion in solids, liquids, and gases (in the absence of bulk fluid motion in the latter two cases). When a diffusion process does not follow Fick's laws (which does happen), we refer to such processes as non-Fickian, in that they are exceptions that "prove" the importance of the general rules that Fick outlined in 1855. Applications Equations based on Fick's law have been commonly used to model transport processes in foods, neurons, biopolymers, pharmaceuticals, porous soils, population dynamics, semiconductor doping process, etc. Theory of all voltammetric methods is based on solutions of Fick's equation. A large amount of experimental research in polymer science and food science has shown that a more general approach is required to describe transport of components in materials undergoing glass transition. In the vicinity of glass transition the flow behavior becomes "non-Fickian". See also non-diagonal coupled transport processes (Onsager relationship). Biological perspective The first law gives rise to the following formula: in which, is the permeability, an experimentally determined membrane "conductance" for a given gas at a given temperature. is the surface area over which diffusion is taking place. is the difference in concentration of the gas across the membrane for the direction of flow (from to ). Fick's first law is also important in radiation transfer equations. However, in this context it becomes inaccurate when the diffusion constant is low and the radiation becomes limited by the speed of light rather than by the resistance of the material the radiation is flowing through. In this situation, one can use a flux limiter. The exchange rate of a gas across a fluid membrane can be determined by using this law together with Graham's law. Fick's flow in liquids When two miscible liquids are brought into contact, and diffusion takes place, the macroscopic (or average) concentration evolves following Fick's law. On a mesoscopic scale, that is, between the macroscopic scale described by Fick's law and molecular scale, where molecular randon walks take place, fluctuations cannot be neglected. Such situations can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale. D. Brogioli and A. Vailati, Diffusive mass transfer by nonequilibrium fluctuations: Fick's law revisited, Phys. Rev. E 63, 012105/1-4 (2001) In particular, fluctuating hydrodynamic equations include a Fick's flow term, with a given diffusion coefficient, along with hydrodynamics equations and stochastic terms describing fluctuations. When calculating the fluctuations with a perturbative approach, the zero order approximation is Fick's law. The first order gives the fluctuations, and it comes out that fluctuations contribute to diffusion. This represents somehow a tautology, since the phenomena described by a lower order approximation is the result of a higher order approximation: this problem is solved only by renormalizing fluctuating hydrodynamics equations. Semiconductor fabrication applications IC Fabrication technologies, model processes like CVD, Thermal Oxidation, and Wet Oxidation, Doping etc using Diffusion equations obtained from Ficks law. In certain cases, the solutions are obtained for boundary conditions such as constant source concentration diffusion, limited source concentration, or moving boundary diffusion (where junction depth keeps moving into the substrate). See also Gas exchange Lung Alveoli Osmosis Vascular permeability Diffusion Churchill-Bernstein Equation Fick Notes References W.F. Smith, Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill (2004) H.C. Berg, Random Walks in Biology, Princeton (1977) External links Diffusion fundamentals Diffusion coefficient (of gases & liquids in polymer and composite materials) Ficks Law Calculator and a host of other science tools - Rex Njoku & Dr.Anthony Steyermark | Fick's_laws_of_diffusion |@lemmatized fick:33 law:28 diffusion:37 describe:5 use:6 solve:2 coefficient:9 derive:2 adolf:2 year:1 first:9 relate:1 diffusive:3 flux:5 concentration:18 field:2 postulate:1 go:1 region:2 high:2 low:3 magnitude:1 proportional:2 gradient:4 spatial:2 derivative:2 one:8 dimension:13 amount:5 substance:4 length:9 time:10 example:10 measure:3 flow:7 small:2 area:2 interval:1 diffusivity:1 ideal:3 mixture:3 position:3 squared:1 velocity:1 diffusing:1 particle:2 depend:2 temperature:4 viscosity:1 fluid:4 size:1 accord:1 stokes:1 einstein:2 relation:1 dilute:1 aqueous:1 solution:7 ion:1 similar:1 value:2 room:1 range:3 biological:2 molecule:1 normally:1 two:6 must:1 del:1 operator:1 generalise:1 obtain:4 drive:1 force:2 dimensional:2 quantity:1 chemical:3 system:1 driving:1 specie:3 potential:2 case:6 write:1 index:1 denote:1 ith:1 c:2 mol:3 sup:1 sub:1 r:1 universal:1 gas:7 constant:7 j:2 k:2 absolute:1 μ:1 second:4 predict:1 cause:1 change:3 mass:3 balance:1 assume:1 exchange:3 order:5 differentiating:1 multiplying:1 thus:1 receive:1 form:2 equation:12 state:2 analogous:2 heat:2 upon:1 coordinate:1 become:3 important:2 steady:1 e:2 left:1 part:1 identically:1 zero:2 linear:1 along:2 laplace:1 call:2 harmonic:1 function:2 mathematician:1 simple:1 take:4 x:2 axis:1 density:3 boundary:3 locate:1 maintain:1 erfc:1 complementary:1 error:1 provide:1 far:1 propagate:1 direction:2 detail:1 see:3 history:1 physiologist:1 report:1 poggendorff:1 annel:1 physik:1 phil:1 mag:1 english:1 well:1 know:1 govern:1 transport:6 mean:1 work:2 inspire:1 early:1 experiment:2 thomas:1 graham:3 fell:1 short:1 propose:1 fundamental:3 would:1 famous:1 relationship:2 discover:1 epoch:1 eminent:1 scientist:1 darcy:1 hydraulic:1 ohm:1 charge:1 fourier:1 model:4 dealt:1 salt:1 diffuse:1 reservoir:1 tube:1 water:1 notable:1 primarily:1 concern:1 solid:2 consider:1 generally:1 possible:1 jean:1 philibert:1 half:1 century:1 beyond:1 today:1 core:1 understanding:1 liquid:4 absence:1 bulk:1 motion:1 latter:1 process:6 follow:2 happen:1 refer:1 non:3 fickian:2 exception:1 prove:1 importance:1 general:2 rule:1 outline:1 application:2 base:2 commonly:1 food:2 neuron:1 biopolymers:1 pharmaceutical:1 porous:1 soil:1 population:1 dynamic:1 semiconductor:2 dope:2 etc:2 theory:1 voltammetric:1 method:1 large:1 experimental:1 research:1 polymer:2 science:4 show:1 approach:2 require:1 component:1 material:4 undergo:1 glass:2 transition:2 vicinity:1 behavior:1 becomes:2 also:3 diagonal:1 couple:1 onsager:1 perspective:1 give:5 rise:1 following:1 formula:1 permeability:2 experimentally:1 determine:2 membrane:3 conductance:1 surface:1 place:3 difference:1 across:2 radiation:3 transfer:2 however:1 context:1 inaccurate:1 limit:1 speed:1 light:1 rather:1 resistance:1 situation:2 limiter:1 rate:1 together:1 miscible:1 bring:1 contact:1 macroscopic:3 average:1 evolve:1 mesoscopic:1 scale:5 molecular:3 randon:1 walk:2 fluctuation:7 cannot:1 neglect:1 successfully:1 landau:1 lifshitz:1 fluctuate:3 hydrodynamics:3 theoretical:1 framework:1 due:1 whose:1 brogioli:1 vailati:1 nonequilibrium:1 revisit:1 phys:1 rev:1 particular:1 hydrodynamic:1 include:1 term:2 stochastic:1 calculate:1 perturbative:1 approximation:3 come:1 contribute:1 represent:1 somehow:1 tautology:1 since:1 phenomenon:1 result:1 problem:1 renormalize:1 fabrication:2 ic:1 technology:1 like:1 cvd:1 thermal:1 oxidation:2 wet:1 ficks:2 certain:1 condition:1 source:2 limited:1 move:2 junction:1 depth:1 keep:1 substrate:1 lung:1 alveoli:1 osmosis:1 vascular:1 churchill:1 bernstein:1 note:1 reference:1 w:1 f:1 smith:1 foundation:1 engineering:1 ed:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 h:1 berg:1 random:1 biology:1 princeton:1 external:1 link:1 composite:1 calculator:1 host:1 tool:1 rex:1 njoku:1 dr:1 anthony:1 steyermark:1 |@bigram diffusion_coefficient:9 spatial_dimension:1 aqueous_solution:1 sup_sub:1 identically_zero:1 phys_rev:1 semiconductor_fabrication:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 |
2,897 | James_Alan_McPherson | James Alan McPherson (born September 16, 1943 in Savannah, Georgia) is a United States short story writer and essayist, and a recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1973. Biography McPherson won the 1978 Pulitzer Prize for fiction, for his short story collection, Elbow Room. He was the recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship in 1981. His work has appeared in 27 journals and magazines, seven short-story anthologies, and The Best American Essays. In 1995, McPherson was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has been educated at Morgan State University, Morris Brown College, Harvard Law School, The University of Iowa's Writers' Workshop, and the Yale Law School. He has taught English at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Harvard, and also lectured in Japan at Meiji University and Chiba University. He is now a professor in the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop. In 2000, John Updike selected his short story "Gold Coast" for his collection Best American Short Stories of the Century (Houghton Mifflin). Story collections Hue and Cry (1968) Elbow Room (1977) Other Crabcakes (memoir) (1998) A Region Not Home (essays) (2000) References | James_Alan_McPherson |@lemmatized james:1 alan:1 mcpherson:3 born:1 september:1 savannah:1 georgia:1 united:1 state:2 short:5 story:6 writer:3 essayist:1 recipient:2 guggenheim:1 fellowship:2 biography:1 win:1 pulitzer:1 prize:1 fiction:1 collection:3 elbow:2 room:2 macarthur:1 work:1 appear:1 journal:1 magazine:1 seven:1 anthology:1 best:2 american:3 essay:2 induct:1 academy:1 art:1 science:1 educate:1 morgan:1 university:6 morris:1 brown:1 college:1 harvard:2 law:2 school:2 iowa:2 workshop:2 yale:1 teach:1 english:1 california:1 santa:1 cruz:1 also:1 lecture:1 japan:1 meiji:1 chiba:1 professor:1 john:1 updike:1 select:1 gold:1 coast:1 century:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 hue:1 cry:1 crabcakes:1 memoir:1 region:1 home:1 reference:1 |@bigram savannah_georgia:1 writer_essayist:1 guggenheim_fellowship:1 pulitzer_prize:1 macarthur_fellowship:1 santa_cruz:1 houghton_mifflin:1 |
2,898 | Fiorello_H._La_Guardia | LaGuardia redirects here. For the airport, see LaGuardia Airport. Fiorello Henry La Guardia (born Fiorello Enrico La Guardia; December 11, 1882 September 20, 1947) was Mayor of New York for three terms from 1934 to 1945. He was popularly known as "the Little Flower," the translation of his Italian first name, Fiorello, and, most likely, a reference to his short stature. A Republican, he was a popular mayor and a strong supporter of the New Deal. La Guardia led New York's recovery during the Great Depression and became a national figure, serving as President Roosevelt's director of civilian defense during the run-up to the United States joining the Second World War. Background La Guardia was born in Greenwich Village to an Italian lapsed-Catholic father, Achille La Guardia, from Cerignola, and an Italian mother of Jewish origin from Trieste, Irene Coen Luzzato; he was raised an Episcopalian. His middle name Enrico was changed to Henry (the English form of Enrico) when he was a child. He lived in Prescott, Arizona, his mother's hometown, after his father was discharged from his bandmaster position in the U.S. Army in 1898. For one biographical account about Achille LaGuardia, see http://www.territorialbrass.com/LaGuardia.html. La Guardia served in U.S. consulates in Budapest, Trieste, and Rijeka (1901–1906). Fiorello returned to the U.S. to continue his education at New York University. During this time, he worked for New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and as an interpreter for the U.S. Bureau of Immigration at the Ellis Island immigrant station (1907–1910). The Congressional years He became Deputy Attorney General of New York in 1914. In 1916, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he had a reputation as a fiery and devoted reformer. In Congress, La Guardia represented then-Italian East Harlem almost continuously until 1933. According to his biographer-historian Howard Zinn, there were two brief interruptions, one to fly with U.S. forces in Italy during World War I, and the other to serve during 1920 and 1921 as president of the New York City Board of Aldermen. Zinn, Howard LaGuardia in Congress New York: W. W. Norton, 1959 Zinn wrote that La Guardia represented "the conscience of the twenties": As Democrats and Republicans cavorted like rehearsed wrestlers in the center of the political ring, LaGuardia stalked the front rows and bellowed for real action. While Ku Klux Klan membership reached the millions and Congress tried to legislate the nation toward racial 'purity,' LaGuardia demanded that immigration bars be let down to Italians, Jews, and others. When self-styled patriots sought to make the Caribbean an American lake, LaGuardia called to remove the marines from Nicaragua. Above the clatter of ticker-tape machines sounding their jubilant message, LaGuardia tried to tell the nation about striking miners in Pennsylvania. Zinn continued (p. viii): "The progressives of the twenties and early thirties, however, did not merely complain; they offered remedies, again and again.... Most of the New Deal legislation was anticipated by LaGuardia... and others both before and after the 1929 crash, so that, when Franklin D. Roosevelt took his oath of office, a great deal of initial work had already been done." Out of office 120x|Fiorello LaGuardia between two Italian officers in front of a Ca.44, circa 1918La Guardia briefly served in the armed forces from 1917–1919, commanding a unit of the United States Army Air Service and flying Ca.44 bombers on the Italian-Austrian front in World War I, rising to the rank of major. In 1921, his wife died of tuberculosis. La Guardia, having nursed her through the 17-month ordeal, grew depressed and turned to alcohol, spending most of the year following her death on an alcoholic binge. He recovered and became a teetotaler. Congressman again "Fio" La Guardia (as his close family and friends called him) won a seat in Congress again in 1922 and served in the House until March 3, 1933. Extending his record as a reformer, La Guardia sponsored labor legislation and railed against immigration quotas. In 1929, he ran for mayor of New York, but was overwhelmingly defeated by the incumbent Jimmy Walker. In 1932, along with Senator George Norris (R-NE), La Guardia sponsored the pro-union Norris-La Guardia Act. In 1932, he was defeated for re-election to the House by James J. Lanzetta, the Democratic candidate (1932 was not a good year for Republican candidates, and the 20th Congressional district was shifting from a Jewish and Italian-American population to a Puerto Rican population). Mayor of New York Fiorello La Guardia statue at LaGuardia Place in Greenwich Village, NYC La Guardia was elected mayor of New York City on an anti-corruption Fusion ticket during the Great Depression, which united him in an uneasy alliance with New York's Jewish population and liberal bluebloods (WASPs). These included the architect and historian Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes whose patrician manners La Guardia detested. Surprisingly, the two men became friends. Phelps-Stokes had nursed his wife during the last five years of her life, during which she was paralyzed and speechless due to a series of strokes. On learning of Phelps-Stokes's experience, so like his own, La Guardia ceased bickering and the two developed genuine affection. Being of Italian descent and growing up in a time when crime and criminals were prevalent in New York, La Guardia loathed the gangsters who brought a negative stereotype and shame to the Italian community. When he was elected to his first term in 1933, the first thing he did after being sworn in was to pick up the phone and order the chief of police to arrest mob boss Lucky Luciano on whatever charges could be found. La Guardia then went after the gangsters with a vengeance, stating in a radio address to the people of New York in his high-pitched, squeaky voice, "Let's drive the bums out of town." In 1934, La Guardia went on a search-and-destroy mission looking for mob boss Frank Costello's slot machines, which La Guardia executed with gusto, rounding up thousands of the "one armed bandits," swinging a sledgehammer and dumping them off a barge into the water for the newspapers and media. In 1936, La Guardia had special prosecutor Thomas E. Dewey, a future Republican presidential candidate, single out Lucky Luciano for prosecution. Dewey led a successful investigation into Luciano's lucrative prostitution operation, eventually sending Luciano to jail with a 30-50 year sentence. La Guardia was hardly an orthodox Republican. He also ran as the nominee of the American Labor Party, a union-dominated anti-Tammany grouping that supported Franklin Delano Roosevelt for President beginning in 1936. La Guardia supported Roosevelt, chairing the Independent Committee for Roosevelt and Wallace with Senator Norris during the 1940 presidential election. La Guardia was the city's first Italian-American mayor, but was not a typical Italian New Yorker. He was a Republican Episcopalian who had grown up in Arizona, and had an Istrian Jewish mother and a Roman Catholic-turned-atheist Italian father. He reportedly spoke seven languages, including Hebrew, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Yiddish. La Guardia's fans credit him for, among other things, restoring the economic lifeblood of New York City during and after the Great Depression. His massive public works programs administered by his Parks Commissioner Robert Moses employed thousands of unemployed New Yorkers, and his constant lobbying for federal government funds allowed New York to develop its economic infrastructure. He is remembered for reading the newspaper comics on WNYC radio during a 1945 newspaper strike, and pushing to have a commercial airport (Floyd Bennett Field, and later LaGuardia Airport) within city limits. Responding to popular disdain for the sometimes corrupt City Council, La Guardia successfully proposed a reformed 1938 City Charter that created a powerful new New York City Board of Estimate, similar to a corporate board of directors. He was an outspoken and early critic of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime. In a public address in 1934, La Guardia warned, "Part of Hitler's program is the complete annihilation of the Jews in Germany." In 1937, speaking before the Women's Division of the American Jewish Congress, La Guardia called for the creation of a special pavilion at the upcoming New York World's Fair "a chamber of horrors" for "that brown-shirted fanatic." La Guardia's sister, Gemma La Guardia Gluck, was arrested by the Germans in a roundup of Jews in Hungary in 1944. She was held under privileged conditions at Ravensbrück concentration camp and released after the war. Times Online, Adolf Eichmann's List In 1940, one of the many interns serving in city government was David Rockefeller, who became his secretary for eighteen months in a "dollar a year" public service position. Although La Guardia took pains to point out that Rockefeller was only one of 60 interns, Rockefeller's working space was the vacant office of the deputy mayor. In 1941, during the run-up to American involvement in World War II, President Roosevelt appointed La Guardia as the director of the new Office of Civilian Defense (OCD). The OCD was responsible for preparing for the protection of the civilian population in case America was attacked. It was also responsible for the maintenance of public morale, promoting volunteer service, and co-ordination with other federal departments to ensure they were serving the needs of a country in war. La Guardia remained Mayor of New York during this appointment, but after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 he was succeeded at the OCD by a full-time director, James M. Landis. According to Try and Stop Me by Bennett Cerf, La Guardia often officiated in municipal court. He handled routine misdemeanor cases, including, as Cerf wrote, a man who had stolen a loaf of bread for his starving family. La Guardia insisted on levying the fine of ten dollars. Then he said "I'm fining everyone in this courtroom fifty cents for living in a city where a man has to steal bread in order to eat!" He passed a hat and gave the fines to the defendant, who left the court with $47.50. Mikkelson, Barbara and David; (2008-01-01). LaGuardian Angel. Snopes. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. Later life and death The grave of Fiorello LaGuardia La Guardia was the director general for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in 1946. A man of very short stature, La Guardia's height is sometimes given as 1.52m (five feet). According to an article in the New York Times, however, his actual height was 1.57m (five feet, two inches). He became a member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity. He died of pancreatic cancer in his home at 5020 Goodridge Avenue, in the Riverdale section of the Bronx at the age of 64 and is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx. Jackson, Nancy Beth. "If You're Thinking of Living In/Fieldston; A Leafy Enclave in the Hills of the Bronx", The New York Times, February 17, 2002. Accessed May 3, 2008. "Fiorello H. La Guardia, a three-time mayor of New York, lived and died at 5020 Goodridge Avenue." Legacy LaGuardia Airport, the smallest of New York's three major currently operating airports, bears his name; the airport was voted the "greatest airport in the world" by the worldwide aviation community in 1960. LaGuardia Airport still holds La Guardia's name after he ordered construction of the airport after his TWA flight arrived at Newark, which is in the neighboring state of New Jersey. His airline ticket had an arrival city that read "New York" which outraged him and caused him to order the plane to fly to Brooklyn's Floyd Bennett Field. Not long after, the city voted to build a new airport in La Guardia's name. LaGuardia Place, a street in Greenwich Village which runs from Houston Street to Washington Square, is named for La Guardia; there is also a statue of the mayor on that street. La Guardia loved music, and was famous for spontaneously conducting professional and student orchestras. He once said that the "most hopeful accomplishment" of his administration as mayor was the creation of the High School of Music & Art in 1936, now the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts. Steigman, Benjamin: Accent on Talent New York's High School of Music & Art Wayne State University Press, 1984 ISBN 0686879759 In addition to LaGuardia High School, a number of other institutions are also named for him, including LaGuardia Community College. He was the subject of the Pulitzer Prize-winning Broadway musical Fiorello!. La Guardia Bridge in Prescott, Arizona on North Montezuma Avenue. In 1940, La Guardia received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York." Rehov LaGuardia (LaGuardia Street) is a major road and the name of a highway interchange on the Ayalon Highway in Tel Aviv, Israel. Ulica Fiorella LaGuardie is the name of a street in Rijeka. In Popular Culture In the radio show "Fibber McGee and Molly", the mayor of the fictitious town of Wistful Vista was named "LaTrivia" as a nod to La Guardia. Mayor LaTrivia was played by Gale Gordon. When La Guardia died the Fibber McGee and Molly Show had just two weeks left of its 1947 summer vacation. Out of respect, they quietly suspended the character of LaTrivia, and had Gale Gordon play a new character for the 1947-48 season named "Foggy Williams", a weatherman. Foggy Williams' last appearance was on June 1, 1948 and Mayor LaTrivia returned after the show's 1948 summer vacation, again played by Gordon. While searching for "Maybe Dick the Wailing Whale" Rocky and Bullwinkle meet "Fiorello LaPompadour" the Mayor of Submurbia. In Ghostbusters II, the Mayor of New York mentions to one of his aides that he spent an hour in his bedroom talking with La Guardia, "and he's been dead for forty years". In "The Plot Against America" by Philip Roth, he is depicted as one of the leaders of the opposition against president Charles Lindbergh. In "The Court Martial of Billy Mitchell," he is portrayed by Phil Arnold. In the 1974 film "The Taking of Pelham 123", the Mayor's wife sarcastically calls her husband "a regular Fiorello La Guardia" after he dithers over paying the ransom of $1m. Tom Bradby's latest novel 'Blood Money' is set in New York during the 1929 Mayoral election, and LaGuardia is mentioned frequently as the candidate unwanted by the corrupt incumbent and his supporters. See also La Guardia Commission, a study on the effects of marijuana in U.S. society New York City mayoral elections for votes in 1929, 1933, 1937 and 1941. References External links Obituary, NY Times, September 21, 1947 La Guardia Is Dead; City Pays Homage To 3-Time Mayor from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Fiorello H. 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2,899 | Modus_ponens | In classical logic, modus ponendo ponens (Latin for mode that affirms by affirming; often abbreviated to MP or modus ponens) is a valid, simple argument form sometimes referred to as affirming the antecedent or the law of detachment. It is closely related to another valid form of argument, modus tollens or "denying the consequent". Modus ponens is a very common rule of inference, and takes the following form: If P, then Q. P. Therefore, Q. Formal notation The modus ponens rule may be written in sequent notation: or in rule form: Explanation The argument form has two premises. The first premise is the "if–then" or conditional claim, namely that P implies Q. The second premise is that P, the antecedent of the conditional claim, is true. From these two premises it can be logically concluded that Q, the consequent of the conditional claim, must be true as well. In Artificial Intelligence, modus ponens is often called forward chaining. An example of an argument that fits the form modus ponens: If today is Tuesday, then I will go to work. Today is Tuesday. Therefore, I will go to work. This argument is valid, but this has no bearing on whether any of the statements in the argument are true; for modus ponens to be a valid argument, the conclusion must be true when all the premises are true. An argument can be valid but nonetheless unsound if one or more premises are false; if an argument is valid and all the premises are true, then the argument is sound. A propositional argument using modus ponens is said to be deductive. In metalogics, modus ponens is the cut rule. The cut-elimination theorem says that the cut is valid (an admissible rule) in some logical calculus (sequent calculus). Justification via truth table The validity of modus ponens in classical two-valued logic can be clearly demonstrated by use of a truth table. + p q p → q T T T T F F F T T F F T In instances of modus ponens we assume as premises that p → q is true and p is true. Only one line of the truth table - the first - satisfies these two conditions. On this line, q is also true. Therefore, whenever p → q is true and p is true, q must also be true. See also Hypothetical syllogism Modus tollens Modus tollendo ponens Affirming the consequent Denying the antecedent Disjunctive syllogism Inference rule References External links Modus ponens at Wolfram MathWorld | Modus_ponens |@lemmatized classical:2 logic:2 modus:15 ponendo:1 ponens:13 latin:1 mode:1 affirms:1 affirm:3 often:2 abbreviate:1 mp:1 valid:7 simple:1 argument:11 form:6 sometimes:1 refer:1 antecedent:3 law:1 detachment:1 closely:1 relate:1 another:1 tollens:2 deny:2 consequent:3 common:1 rule:6 inference:2 take:1 following:1 p:10 q:10 therefore:3 formal:1 notation:2 may:1 write:1 sequent:2 explanation:1 two:4 premise:8 first:2 conditional:3 claim:3 namely:1 implies:1 second:1 true:12 logically:1 conclude:1 must:3 well:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 call:1 forward:1 chain:1 example:1 fit:1 today:2 tuesday:2 go:2 work:2 bearing:1 whether:1 statement:1 conclusion:1 nonetheless:1 unsound:1 one:2 false:1 sound:1 propositional:1 use:2 say:2 deductive:1 metalogics:1 cut:3 elimination:1 theorem:1 admissible:1 logical:1 calculus:2 justification:1 via:1 truth:3 table:3 validity:1 value:1 clearly:1 demonstrate:1 f:5 instance:1 assume:1 line:2 satisfies:1 condition:1 also:3 whenever:1 see:1 hypothetical:1 syllogism:2 tollendo:1 disjunctive:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 wolfram:1 mathworld:1 |@bigram modus_ponens:11 closely_relate:1 modus_tollens:2 artificial_intelligence:1 sequent_calculus:1 affirm_consequent:1 disjunctive_syllogism:1 external_link:1 wolfram_mathworld:1 |
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