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1,700 | Economy_of_Germany | Germany has the world's fourth largest economy in USD exchange-rate terms, , comparable IMF figures, billion dollars, current prices: United States: 13,807.550 Japan: 4,381.576 Germany: 3,320.913 China: 3,280.224 , IMF staff estimates: United States: 14,334.034 Japan: 4,844.362 China: 4,222.423 Germany: 3,818.470 and the largest economy in Europe. The German economy is heavily export-oriented; , Germany is the world's leading exporter of merchandise, and exports account for more than one-third of national output. As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic and political integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union () members and EU single market legislation. Germany uses the common European currency, the euro, and its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt, Germany. Most foreign and German experts agree that there are/were domestic structural problems to be addressed. Beginning in 2003, the government gradually deregulated the labour market to tackle formerly high unemployment, and employment levels have been increasing. , the overall unemployment rate, as measured by the German authorities, was 7.2 percent (6.0 percent in West Germany, and 11.8 percent in East Germany). , as measured by standards the German unemployment rate was 6.2 percent (compared with 7.4 percent as measured by German standards). Further issues, which are being addressed by governmental policies, are high non-wage labour costs and bureaucratic regulations that burden businesses and the process of starting new businesses. Nevertheless, the export oriented economy is doing extremely well. Export growth in 2007 is estimated to be 9%, underscoring Germany's role as the world's biggest exporter. GDP growth in 2006 was 2.9% and in 2007 was 2.5%. However in 2008 GDP slowed down to a growth of 1.3%, because of the Economic crisis of 2008. A problem can be seen in the weak domestic market, most likely stemming from stagnating wages over more than a decade. Germany finances its reunification to a large extent by social insurance contributions, forcing up non-wage labour costs. To conserve the competitiveness of German workers, unions have abandoned high wage demands since the mid-1990s. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, the average net income after deduction of consumer price rises declined by 2% between 1991 and 2005). However, in 2007 collective bargaining sessions, unions' wage demands were strongly up compared with averages of the last decade. Primary sectors In 2004 agriculture, forestry, and mining accounted for only 1.1% of Germany’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employed only 2.2% of the population, down from 4% in 1991. Much of the reduction in employment occurred in the eastern states, where the number of agricultural workers declined by as much as 75% following reunification. However, agriculture is extremely productive, and Germany is able to cover 90% of its nutritional needs with domestic production. In fact, Germany is the third largest agricultural producer in the European Union (EU) after France and Italy. Germany’s principal agricultural products are potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, and cabbages. Despite Germany’s high level of industrialization, roughly one-third of its territory is covered by forest. The forestry industry provides for about two-thirds of domestic consumption of wood and wood products, so Germany is a net importer of these items. Mining and minerals Coal is Germany’s most important energy resource, although government policy is to reduce subsidies for coal extraction. Coal production has declined since 1989 as a result of environmental policy and the closing of inefficient mines in the former East Germany. The two main grades of coal in Germany are “hard coal” and lignite, which is also called “brown coal.”. Despite its considerable reserves, the strong demand and high cost of domestic coal production turned Germany into a net importer of coal. Also as of January 2004, proven natural gas reserves were , the third largest in the EU. Nearly 90% of Germany’s natural gas production takes place in the state of Lower Saxony. In 2002 Germany imported of natural gas, or 75% of its requirements. The most important source of natural gas imports is Russia, with a 40.8% share, followed by Norway at 31.5%, and the Netherlands at 22.3%. Energy In 2002 Germany was the world’s fifth largest consumer of energy, behind the United States, China, India and Japan with two-thirds of its primary energy being imported. In the same year, Germany was Europe’s largest consumer of electricity; electricity consumption that year totalled 512.9 billion kilowatt-hours. Government policy emphasizes conservation and the development of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal. As a result of energy-saving measures, energy efficiency (the amount of energy required to produce a unit of gross domestic product) has been improving since the beginning of the 1970s. The government has set the goal of meeting half the country’s energy demands from renewable sources by 2050. In 2000 the government and the German nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. However, renewables currently play a more modest role in energy consumption. In 2002 energy consumption was met by the following sources: oil (40%), coal (23%), natural gas (22%), nuclear (11%), hydro (2%), and other renewables (2%). Industry The world's largest coherent chemistry plant BASF near Ludwigshafen Industry and construction accounted for 29% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2003, a comparatively large share even without taking into account related services. The sector employed 26.4% of the workforce. Germany excels in the production of automobiles, machine tools, and chemicals. With the manufacture of 5.5 million vehicles in 2003, Germany was the world’s third largest producer of automobiles after the United States and Japan, although the People's Republic of China was threatening to displace Germany in the world rankings as early as 2005. In 2004 Germany enjoyed the largest world market share in machine tools (19.3%). German-based multinationals such as Adidas, Continental AG, Daimler, BMW, Bosch, BASF, Bayer, Siemens,Miele, and Volkswagen are brand names throughout the world. Of vital importance is the role of small- to medium-sized manufacturing firms, which specialize in niche products and often are owned by management (see also: Mittelstand). Venohr, Bernd and Meyer, Klaus E. (2007): The German Miracle Keeps Running: How Germany's Hidden Champions Stay Ahead in the Global Economy, Working Paper 30, FHW Berlin.(PDF 363 KB) These firms employ two-thirds of the German workforce. Service sector In 2002 services constituted 70% of gross domestic product (GDP), and the sector employed 71.3% of the workforce. The subcomponents of services are financial, renting, and business activities (30.5%); trade, hotels and restaurants, and transport (18%); and other service activities (21.7%). Tourism Domestic and international tourism generates about 8% of gross domestic product (GDP) and 2.8 million jobs. Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. In 2004 Germany registered 45 million overnight stays by international tourists, 4% higher than in the previous year and an all-time record. Two-thirds of all major trade fairs are held in Germany, and each year they attract 9 to 10 million business travellers, about 20% of whom are foreigners. The four most important trade fairs take place in Hanover, Frankfurt, Cologne, and Düsseldorf. Germany’s hosting of the FIFA World Cup in 2006 presented an opportunity for the tourism sector. Financial Services By tradition, Germany’s financial system is bank-oriented rather than stock market-oriented. The process of disintermediation, whereby businesses and individuals arrange financing by directly accessing the financial markets versus seeking loans from banks acting as intermediaries, has not fully taken hold in Germany. One of the reasons that banks are so important in German finance is that they have never been subject to a legal separation of commercial and investment banking. Instead, under a system known as universal banking, banks have offered a wide range of services from lending to securities trading to insurance. Another reason for the strong influence of banks is that there is no prohibition of interlocking ownership between banks and their client companies. However, in January 2002 the government moved to discourage this practice and promote more rational capital allocation by eliminating the capital gains tax on the sale of corporate holdings from one company to another. At the end of 2000, 2,713 out of 2,931 German financial institutions (92.6%) were universal banks, including 354 commercial banks, 1,798 credit cooperatives, and 561 savings banks. The non-universal banks specialized in such activities as mortgage banking and investments. The list of the six largest German banks illustrates the diversity of bank structure and ownership. Of the top six banks, ranked by total assets as of year-end 2002, four are private, but the fifth largest is public, and the sixth largest is a cooperative. Despite the central role of banks in finance, stock markets are competing for influence. The Deutsche Börse (German stock exchange), a private corporation, is responsible for managing Germany’s eight stock markets, by far the largest of which is the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, which handles 90% of all securities trading in Germany. The leading stock index on the Frankfurt exchange is the DAX, which, like the New York Stock Exchange’s Dow Jones Industrial Average, is composed of 30 blue-chip companies. The other German stock exchanges are located in Berlin, Bremen, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Hanover, Munich, and Stuttgart. Xetra is Germany’s electronic trading platform. As of the end of 2004, the total market capitalization of the German stock markets was nearly US$1.1 trillion, representing about 45% of gross domestic product (GDP). The shares of some 684 companies trade on the exchanges. Trade Port of Hamburg In 2003 Germany conducted slightly more than half of its trade within the then 15-member EU, followed by, in order of volume, developing countries, Eastern Europe (including countries like Poland that subsequently joined the EU), the United States and Canada, non-EU Europe (Switzerland, Norway, Liechtenstein, and Iceland), and Japan. Increasing emphasis is being placed on trade with Russia and the People's Republic of China. The 2005 Hanover trade fair devoted much of its attention to Germany’s growing economic and trade ties to Russia, particularly in the area of energy. Germany is Russia’s top trade partner. In 2002, the People's Republic of China overtook Japan as Germany’s top trade partner in Asia, and Germany is investing heavily in that rapidly rising economic power. German trade is consistent with the policy of the European Union (EU) to expand trade among the 25 member states and also with the goal of global trade liberalization through the latest Doha Round of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Germany uses its position as the world’s leading merchandise exporter — a fact that partially reflects the strength of the euro — to compensate for subdued domestic demand. German companies derive one-third of their revenues from foreign trade. Therefore, Germany is committed to reducing trade restrictions, whether involving tariffs or non-tariff barriers, and improving the transparency of foreign markets, including access to public works projects. The United States is Germany's second-largest trading partner after France. Two-way trade in goods totalled $88 billion in 2000. German exports to the USA totalled $58.7 billion while US imports to Germany were $29.2 billion. Germany's main exports to the USA include motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals, and heavy electrical equipment, while imports from the USA included aircraft, electrical, telecommunications and data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. Exports and imports German exports in 2006 In 2003 Germany imported US$601.4 billion of merchandise, while imports of goods and services totalled US$773.4 billion. Principal merchandise imports were motor vehicles (US$64.4 billion), chemical products (US$63.2 billion), machinery (US$41.8 billion), oil and gas (US$39.9 billion), and computers (US$30.5 billion). Germany’s main import partners were France (9.0%), the Netherlands (7.8%), the United States (7.3%), Italy (6.1%), the United Kingdom (6.1%), Belgium (4.9%), China (3.8%), and Austria (3.8%). In 2003 Germany exported US$748.4 billion of merchandise, while exports of goods and services totalled US$873.3 billion. Principal merchandise exports were motor vehicles (US$145.5 billion), machinery (US$103.0 billion), electrical goods (US$210 billion), chemical products (US$181.5 billion), and telecommunications technology (US$35.1 billion). Germany’s main export partners were France (10.6%), the United States (9.3%), the United Kingdom (8.4%), Italy (7.4%), the Netherlands (6.2%), Austria (5.3%), Belgium (5.0%), and Spain (4.9%). (Note: A more up-to-date list of the export and import information is found further up the page on the side bar on the right.) Germany's main exports: Machinery Vehicles Chemicals Metals and Manufactures Foodstuffs Electronics Germany's main imports are: Machinery Vehicles Chemicals Foodstuffs Textiles Metals CIA Factbook 2005 Balance of payments and currency In 2003 the current account balance was a positive US$54.9 billion, or 2.2% of gross domestic product. In 2003 Germany posted a merchandise trade surplus of US$147 billion. In 2002 total public debt was about US$1.5 trillion, or 60.8% of gross domestic product. Germany’s currency is the euro. Because Germany has adopted the euro, the Bundesbank, which had been responsible for conducting monetary policy and maintaining a stable German mark, has ceded much of its previous influence to the European Central Bank. Foreign Investment In 2003 net foreign direct investment was inbound US$11 billion Investments Germany follows a liberal policy toward foreign investment. During the period 1998-99, France was the largest source of direct investment, followed by the United Kingdom and the United States (18%). From 1995 to 1999, annual average flows of U.S. direct investment in Germany were $3.4 billion, while those of German investors in the United States reached $21 billion. In terms of cumulative position (historical cost basis), German investment in the United States was valued at $111 billion in 1999, having more than doubled since 1995, while U.S. investment in Germany was worth just under $50 billion, having grown 12% since 1995. Despite persistence of structural rigidities in the labour market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive, not least because of its highly skilled work force. Although production costs are high, Germany is still an export powerhouse. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, social security, and financial-sector reforms. In the future, Germany faces further fundamental (and perhaps even more sweeping) economic adjustments to boost growth and job creation. Labour force The distribution of Germany’s workforce by sector is very similar to the relative output of each sector. In 2004 the workforce was distributed as follows: agriculture, 2.2%; industry, 26.4%; and services, 71.3%. Participants in the workforce totalled 38.87 million. In Summer 2007, Germany’s seasonally adjusted national unemployment rate decreased to 9%, or nearly 3,8 million people. While as recently as December 2007 there was an even further decline to 8.4 percent. Landler These statistics represented post-war records. Unemployment approached 20% in some states in the East, where high wages are not matched by productivity. However, by September 2005 overall unemployment had declined to 11.2%, or 4.65 million people. Germany's national unemployment rate is only partially comparable to unemployment rates in the United Kingdom or United States, because it includes a significant share of part-timers, who work less than 15 hours a week. Everyone working less than 15 hours a week, who is seeking and available for a job with full social security insurance (normally full-time job or part-time above 15 hours a week), can be registered as unemployed. Around one quarter of Germany's national unemployment are underemployed part-timers. As a labour market performance index and for the current situation on the German labour market, the German job index BA-X has been established in early 2007. At the start of 2005, the seasonally adjusted number of registered unemployed persons initially showed another sharp increase, reaching a rate of 12.6%, with more than 5.2 million Germans out of work. The considerable rise in the unemployment figures is largely due to the fact that former recipients of income support who now receive the new class-II unemployment benefit are registered as unemployed. This means that people who used to be numbered among the latent manpower reserve are now shown as registered unemployed persons. In particular, the labour-market statistics now include more unemployed young, older and low-skilled people. A quarterly report prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit on behalf of Barclays Wealth in 2007 estimated that there were 2,400,000 dollar millionaires in Germany. (page 7) Other statistics Investment (gross fixed): 17.6% of GDP (2004) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.6% highest 10%: 25.1% (1997) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 28.3 (2000) Agriculture - products: potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbages; cattle, pigs, poultry Industrial production growth rate: 2.2% (2004 est.) Electricity: production: 560 TWh (2003) consumption: 519.5 TWh (2003) exports: 53.8 TWh (2003) imports: 45.8 TWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 61.8% hydro: 4.2% other: 4.1% (2001) nuclear: 29.9% Oil: production: 74,100 barrel/day (2003) consumption: 2.891 million barrel/day (2003) exports: 12,990 barrel/day (2003) imports: 2.135 million barrel/day (2003) proved reserves: 395.8 million barrel (1 January 2004) Natural gas: production: 21 billion m³ (2003) consumption: 99.55 billion m³ (2003) exports: 7.731 billion m³ (2003) imports: 85.02 billion m³ (2003) proved reserves: 293 billion m³ (1 January 2004) Private financial assets: €4.07 trillion (2004) Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: $96.84 billion (2003) Debt - external: NA Economic aid - donor: ODA, $5.6 billion (1998) Exchange rates: Euro: May 2009: 1.39 USD = 1 EUR November 2007: 1.48 USD = 1 EUR July 2005: 1.20 USD = 1 EUR January 2000: 0.99 USD = 1 EUR 1999: 0.94 USD = 1 EUR Deutsche Mark: January 1999 1 USD = 1.69 DEM 1998 1 USD = 1.76 DEM 1997 1 USD = 1.73 DEM 1996 1 USD = 1.50 DEM 1995 1 USD = 1.43 DEM 2008 Recession In November 2008, the economy contracted more than expected by economists in the 3rd quarter, confirming entry to its worst technical recession in at least 12 years. Gross domestic product fell 0.5% from the 2nd quarter, when it dropped a revised 0.4%, the first decline since late 2004, according to the Wiesbaden Federal Statistics Office: "A negative effect on gross domestic product came from foreign trade, with a strong increase in imports and weakening exports." German industrial output dropped to 3.6% in September vis-a-vis August. bloomberg.com, German Economy Enters Worst Recession in 12 Years ap.google.com, German economy falls into recession Sebastian Wanke at Dekabank predicted: "There won't be an improvement in the fourth quarter. The situation will only get worse." Carsten Brzeski at ING Financial Markets said: "Anecdotal evidence and leading indicators are scary." news.bbc.co.uk, German economy now in recession ] See also German model Trade unions in Germany Taxation in Germany Common Agricultural Policy Economy of Europe Great power - Germany European Union References - Germany Ländler, Mark. Germany surprises with big drop in unemployment for December. International Herald Tribune. 3 Jan. 2008. http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/01/03/business/gcon.php?page=1 External links ExportNation Global Export Import Statistics Is the US a Good Model for Reducing Social Exclusion in Europe? August 2006 OECD's Germany country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Germany Federal Statistical Office Germany MySME Information for foreign SMEs in Germany (In English) German Embassy (Washington, D.C.), Economic Trends Germany and the Future of the Transatlantic Economy, Policy Bulletin by the Atlantic Council of the U.S. Germany’s growth performance in the 1990’s - Published by the European Commission and in particular dealing with the influence of the reunification on German growth rates [NO LONGER AVAILABLE] see | Economy_of_Germany |@lemmatized germany:80 world:12 fourth:2 large:18 economy:12 usd:11 exchange:9 rate:10 term:2 comparable:2 imf:2 figure:2 billion:33 dollar:2 current:4 price:2 united:16 state:16 japan:6 china:7 staff:1 estimate:3 europe:6 german:34 heavily:2 export:21 orient:4 lead:3 exporter:3 merchandise:7 account:5 one:6 third:10 national:4 output:3 result:3 traditionally:1 key:1 element:1 macroeconomic:1 expansion:1 strong:5 advocate:1 close:1 european:10 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1,701 | GeekSpeak | GeekSpeak is a radio program on the Central Coast of California, broadcast weekly by KUSP in Santa Cruz, California since 1998 and distributed on the internet since 2002. It is one of the top five most popular tech podcasts on the NPR website and maintains a 5-star rating from iTunes listeners. GeekSpeak attempts to bridge the gap between geeks and the rest of humanity through an hour long talk radio program. The show's hosts are a group of local technology aficionados, many with industry experience, who offer light-hearted commentary on current news topics and events while delving deeper into specific areas each week with special guest interviews. Broadcasts usually conclude with call-in advice, commentary and discussion by telephone and email. A worldwide fanbase has developed and show streams have been downloaded in excess of 100,000 times. GeekSpeak was initially conceived and broadcast by Chris Neklason, Peggy Dolgenos and Mark Hanford of Cruzio. Currently, the host is Lyle Troxell. GeekSpeak Co-Hosts include: - Drew Meyer with NetApp - Sean Cleveland with Nvidia - Miles Elam with Surf Control - John Tracy with Felton Games - Dedi Hubbard with New York University (NYU) - Chris Dunphy with radven.net - Ryder Brooks - Alex Sleeis - Ben Jaffe See also KUSP Computer jargon Technobabble External links GeekSpeak Website Podcast iTunes Podcast | GeekSpeak |@lemmatized geekspeak:5 radio:2 program:2 central:1 coast:1 california:2 broadcast:3 weekly:1 kusp:2 santa:1 cruz:1 since:2 distribute:1 internet:1 one:1 top:1 five:1 popular:1 tech:1 podcasts:1 npr:1 website:2 maintain:1 star:1 rating:1 itunes:2 listener:1 attempt:1 bridge:1 gap:1 geek:1 rest:1 humanity:1 hour:1 long:1 talk:1 show:2 host:3 group:1 local:1 technology:1 aficionado:1 many:1 industry:1 experience:1 offer:1 light:1 hearted:1 commentary:2 current:1 news:1 topic:1 event:1 delve:1 deeper:1 specific:1 area:1 week:1 special:1 guest:1 interview:1 usually:1 conclude:1 call:1 advice:1 discussion:1 telephone:1 email:1 worldwide:1 fanbase:1 develop:1 stream:1 download:1 excess:1 time:1 initially:1 conceive:1 chris:2 neklason:1 peggy:1 dolgenos:1 mark:1 hanford:1 cruzio:1 currently:1 lyle:1 troxell:1 co:1 include:1 draw:1 meyer:1 netapp:1 sean:1 cleveland:1 nvidia:1 mile:1 elam:1 surf:1 control:1 john:1 tracy:1 felton:1 game:1 dedi:1 hubbard:1 new:1 york:1 university:1 nyu:1 dunphy:1 radven:1 net:1 ryder:1 brook:1 alex:1 sleeis:1 ben:1 jaffe:1 see:1 also:1 computer:1 jargon:1 technobabble:1 external:1 link:1 podcast:2 |@bigram santa_cruz:1 light_hearted:1 external_link:1 |
1,702 | Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan | The Military of Kazakhstan is derived from a remnant force of the former Soviet Union. On June 30, 1992, the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District disbanded, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The most powerful grouping of forces from the Turkestan Military District then became the core of Kazakhstan's new military which acquired all the units of the 40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including 6 land force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, 2 rocket brigades, 2 artillery regiments and a large amount of equipment which had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. Kazakhstan maintains naval forces operating on the Caspian Sea with a strength of 3,000, equipped with 12 inshore patrol craft; including 4 Almaty, 1 Dauntless, 5 Guardian, and 2 Zhuk class vessels. IISS Military Balance 2008, p.346 Today there are four regional commands: Regional Command Astana, Regional Command South at Taraz, Regional Command East at Semipalatinsk, Regional Command West at Aktobe, as well as the Air Defence Forces, the Air Mobile Forces of three brigades, and the Artillery and Missile Forces (formed as a separate branch on 7 May 2003). http://www.mod.kz/indexe2d7.html?post=310&lang=eng Kazakhs and NATO Kazakhstan sent 49 military engineers to Iraq under NATO command as part of Multinational Division Central-South. These engineers were sent to assist the US occupation in Iraq in order to provide a show of support to the West, while maintaining a cost-effective force. Ground forces Members of the Kazakhstan Republican Guard perform precision drill routines during CENTRASBAT (Central Asian Peacekeeping Battalion) 2000 opening ceremonies. In the middle of the 1990s Kazakhstan's land forces included the 1st Army Corps (HQ Semipalatinsk), with the 68th (the former 372nd Red Banner Novgorod Rifle Division) Motor Rifle Division (Sary Ozek, in Kyzylorda Province) – 4 motor-rifle and one tank regiment and the 78th Tank Division (Ayaguz). Machine translated and cleaned up from a Russian source at http://www.nomad.su/?a=2-200205081022, 'Military-political safety of Kazakhstan' While the 68th Division was called a motor-rifle formation, in equipment terms it had almost 600 tanks and about 500 armoured fighting vehicles. The 78th Tank Division had 550 tanks, 390 armoured fighting vehicles and 190 artillery pieces. The 210th Separate Training Center (a former motor rifle training division) had 15000 soldier and officers and 220 tanks and 220 artillery pieces, so was a strengthened division. (It was often called the Division of Guards by Kazakh sources). Since 2000, the Kazakhstan Army has been rapidly expanded. Many of the systems are Russian made, with a small number of American systems also entering service in the Kazakh inventory. Additionally, a elite Republican Guard exists, with 3,500 soldiers (1997), but this force is not considered a part of the Army and positioned like a U.S. national guard. Some of Kazakhstan's officers learned in United States Military Academy at West Point. The largest expansion of the Kazakhstan Army has been focused on armored units in recent years. Since 1990, armored units have expanded from 500, to and 1,613 or more in 2005-2008. Many of these are Soviet-era in russian's modern prodaction MBT's. Commando units Kazakhstani soldier with AK-74 (CENTRASBAT 2000) Arystan ('Lions') - a Kazakstani main battle commando (former USSR Turkestan's ALFA spetsnaz gruop), locations: Almaty, Astana, Aktau (including battle swimming fighters); Border Service Commando Groups: Buran, Orlan, special paratroops brigade - "Ak-Barys" (army groups of KNB); Police special operations: Bron and Berkut gruops; Presidental commando forces: SoP, Kokzhal ('Wolves') Army commando: 1st paratroops of Kapshagai brigade; paratroops of Taldykorgan brigade; 3d kazakh caspian marines brigade; Kazakh mountain brigade; Current inventory A Kazak army commando sniper Light equipment AK-74; AKS-74U; AK-101; AK-103; AK-107; RPG-7; bazalt; PK machine gun; SVD rifle; NSV (machine gun); Tanks 4900, in service - 1550. http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ T-62 - 250 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ T-72 - 1372 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ Infantry Fighting Vehicles A Kazakstani BTR-80 driver sits atop his troop carrier vehicle. APC units: 5179; in service - 2806; http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ BRDM - 140; http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ BMP-1-BMP-2 - 2702; http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ HMMWV - 40; mod.kz BTR - 104; http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ Artillery Towed Artillery 100 mm MT-12 - 230; 122 mm D-30 - 440; 130 mm M-46 - 585; 152 mm D-20 - 330; 152 mm 2A36 - 300; 152 mm 2A65 - 290; Self-propelled Artillery 122 mm 2S1 - 50; 152 mm 2S3 - 119; 170 mm M-1978 - 80; Rocket Artillery 107 mm Type-63 - 220; 122 mm BM-21 - 190; 122 mm BM-14 - ~80; 220 mm 9P140 Uragan - 130; 240 mm M-1985 - 13; Helicopters Attack helicopters: 85 Mi-24 Hind Transport Helicopters: 45 Mi-8 Hip/Mi-17 Hip-H Air and Air Defense Forces ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Fighter Aircraft |----- | Mikoyan MiG-23 || || fighter || MiG-23 || 70 || |----- | Mikoyan MiG-25 || || fighter || MiG-25 || 29 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ || |----- | Mikoyan MiG-29 || || fighter || MiG-29 || 41 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ || |----- | Mikoyan MiG-31 Foxhound || || interceptor || MiG-31 || 44 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ ||Former 356th Fighter Aviation Regiment, flying from Semipalitinsk Airport; aircraft in storage. Ten aircraft to be refurbished by RSK MIG, Sept 2007. http://idr.janes.com/public/idr/upgrade_update.shtml and Reuben F Johnson, 'Kazakhstan signs MiG-31 update deal with Russia,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 12 September 2007, p.53 |----- | Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker || || fighter || Su-27 || 60 || |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Ground-Attack Aircraft |----- | Sukhoi Su-24 Fencer || || bomber ||Su-24Su-24MR || 37 http://www.tsiganok.ru/publications/smi/doc/322/ 12 || |----- | Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot || || attack || Su-25Su-25UB || 2512 || |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Transport and Liaison Aircraft |----- | Antonov An-26 Curl || || tactical transport || An-26 || 16 || |----- | C-130 Hercules || || transport || C-130 || 2 || |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Attack Helicopters |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind || || attack helicopter (russian modernisation) || Mi-24V || 42 || |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Transport and Utility Helicopters |----- | Bell UH-1 Iroquois || || multi-role helicopter || UH-1H Huey II || 20 || |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip || || transport helicopter || Mi-17 || 24 || |----- | Mil Mi-26 Halo || || transport helicopter || Mi-26 || 17 ||-- |----- |} Surface-to-Air Missiles include many of: Lavochkin SA-2 Guideline Isayev SA-3 Goa Almaz SA-5 Gammon S-300 missile systems S-300 MPU-2 FAVORIT missile systems References CIA World Factbook, 2003 edition. see also - http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/4472 see also - Building National Armies - Kazakhstan see also - Kazakhstan army slide show see also - Kazakhstan army video see also - Photogallery of kazakhi army | Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan |@lemmatized military:9 kazakhstan:14 derive:1 remnant:1 force:15 former:6 soviet:4 union:2 june:1 armed:2 turkestan:3 district:2 disband:1 follow:1 collapse:1 powerful:1 grouping:1 become:1 core:1 new:1 acquire:1 unit:5 army:14 part:3 corp:2 include:5 land:2 division:10 storage:2 base:1 air:6 landing:1 brigade:8 rocket:2 artillery:8 regiment:3 large:2 amount:1 equipment:3 withdraw:1 urals:1 signing:1 treaty:1 conventional:1 europe:1 maintain:2 naval:1 operate:1 caspian:2 sea:1 strength:1 equip:1 inshore:1 patrol:1 craft:1 almaty:2 dauntless:1 guardian:1 zhuk:1 class:1 vessel:1 iiss:1 balance:1 p:2 today:1 four:1 regional:5 command:6 astana:2 south:2 taraz:1 east:1 semipalatinsk:2 west:3 aktobe:1 well:1 defence:2 mobile:1 three:1 missile:4 form:1 separate:2 branch:1 may:1 http:15 www:14 mod:2 kz:2 html:1 post:1 lang:1 eng:1 kazakh:5 nato:2 send:2 engineer:2 iraq:2 multinational:1 central:2 assist:1 u:2 occupation:1 order:1 provide:1 show:2 support:1 cost:1 effective:1 ground:2 member:1 republican:2 guard:4 perform:1 precision:1 drill:1 routine:1 centrasbat:2 asian:1 peacekeeping:1 battalion:1 open:1 ceremony:1 middle:1 hq:1 red:1 banner:1 novgorod:1 rifle:6 motor:4 sary:1 ozek:1 kyzylorda:1 province:1 one:1 tank:7 ayaguz:1 machine:3 translate:1 clean:1 russian:4 source:3 nomad:1 su:7 political:1 safety:1 call:2 formation:1 term:1 almost:1 armoured:1 fighting:2 vehicle:4 armour:1 piece:2 training:1 center:6 train:1 soldier:3 officer:2 strengthened:1 often:1 since:2 rapidly:1 expand:2 many:3 system:4 make:1 small:1 number:1 american:1 also:6 enter:1 service:5 inventory:3 additionally:1 elite:1 exists:1 consider:1 position:1 like:1 national:2 learn:1 united:1 state:1 academy:1 point:1 expansion:1 focus:1 armored:1 recent:1 year:1 armor:1 era:1 modern:1 prodaction:1 mbt:1 commando:6 kazakhstani:1 ak:7 arystan:1 lion:1 kazakstani:2 main:1 battle:2 ussr:1 alfa:1 spetsnaz:1 gruop:1 location:1 aktau:1 swim:1 fighter:7 border:1 group:2 buran:1 orlan:1 special:2 paratroops:3 barys:1 knb:1 police:1 operation:1 bron:1 berkut:1 gruops:1 presidental:1 sop:1 kokzhal:1 wolf:1 kapshagai:1 taldykorgan:1 marine:1 mountain:1 current:1 kazak:1 sniper:1 light:1 rpg:1 bazalt:1 pk:1 gun:2 svd:1 nsv:1 tsiganok:11 ru:11 publication:11 smi:11 doc:11 infantry:1 fight:1 btr:2 driver:1 sits:1 atop:1 troop:1 carrier:1 apc:1 brdm:1 bmp:2 hmmwv:1 tow:1 mm:14 mt:1 self:1 propel:1 type:2 bm:2 uragan:1 helicopter:9 attack:5 mi:9 hind:2 transport:7 hip:3 h:1 defense:1 style:11 text:6 align:11 left:6 background:11 aacccc:6 aircraft:7 origin:1 version:1 world:2 aerospace:1 book:1 aviation:2 week:1 space:1 technology:1 january:1 note:1 lavender:5 colspan:5 mikoyan:4 mig:10 foxhound:1 interceptor:1 fly:1 semipalitinsk:1 airport:1 ten:1 refurbish:1 rsk:1 sept:1 idr:2 janes:1 com:1 public:1 shtml:1 reuben:1 f:1 johnson:1 sign:1 update:1 deal:1 russia:1 jane:1 weekly:1 september:1 sukhoi:3 flanker:1 fencer:1 bomber:1 frogfoot:1 liaison:1 antonov:1 curl:1 tactical:1 c:2 hercules:1 mil:3 modernisation:1 utility:1 bell:1 uh:2 iroquois:1 multi:1 role:1 huey:1 ii:1 halo:1 surface:1 lavochkin:1 sa:3 guideline:1 isayev:1 goa:1 almaz:1 gammon:1 mpu:1 favorit:1 reference:1 cia:1 factbook:1 edition:1 see:5 cacianalyst:1 org:1 q:1 node:1 building:1 slide:1 video:1 photogallery:1 kazakhi:1 |@bigram soviet_union:2 caspian_sea:1 patrol_craft:1 iiss_military:1 http_www:14 ak_ak:4 www_tsiganok:11 tsiganok_ru:11 publication_smi:11 smi_doc:11 tow_artillery:1 mm_mm:6 self_propel:1 propel_artillery:1 mi_hind:2 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 inventory_aerospace:1 align_center:5 background_lavender:5 lavender_colspan:5 mikoyan_mig:4 mig_fighter:3 sukhoi_su:3 su_flanker:1 antonov_curl:1 helicopter_mil:1 mil_mi:3 utility_helicopter:1 bell_uh:1 uh_iroquois:1 |
1,703 | Leap_second | + Leap seconds to date Year June 30 December 31 1972 +1 +1 1973 0 +1 1974 0 +1 1975 0 +1 1976 0 +1 1977 0 +1 1978 0 +1 1979 0 +1 1980 0 0 1981 +1 0 1982 +1 0 1983 +1 0 1984 0 0 1985 +1 0 1986 0 0 1987 0 +1 1988 0 0 1989 0 +1 1990 0 +1 1991 0 0 1992 +1 0 1993 +1 0 1994 +1 0 1995 0 +1 1996 0 0 1997 +1 0 1998 0 +1 1999 0 0 2000 0 0 2001 0 0 2002 0 0 2003 0 0 2004 0 0 2005 0 +1 2006 0 0 2007 0 0 2008 0 +1 2009 0 Year June 30 December 31 Total 9 15 24 A leap second is a positive or negative one-second adjustment to the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) time scale that keeps it close to mean solar time. UTC, which is used as the basis for official time-of-day radio broadcasts for civil time, is maintained using extremely precise atomic clocks. To keep the UTC time scale close to mean solar time, UTC is occasionally corrected by an intercalary adjustment, or "leap", of one second. Over long time periods, leap seconds must be added at an ever increasing rate (see ΔT). The timing of leap seconds is now determined by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). Leap seconds were determined by the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) prior to January 1, 1988, when the IERS assumed that responsibility. When a positive leap second is added at 23:59:60 UTC, it delays the start of the following UTC day (at 00:00:00 UTC) by one second, effectively slowing the UTC clock. Reason for leap seconds Leap seconds are necessary because time is measured using stable atomic clocks (TAI or International Atomic Time), whereas the rotation of Earth is much more variable. Originally, the second was defined as 1/86400 of a mean solar day (see solar time) as determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and around the Sun. By the middle of the 20th century, it was apparent that the rotation of the Earth did not provide a sufficiently uniform time standard and in 1956 the second was redefined in terms of the annual orbital revolution of the Earth around the Sun. In 1967 the second was redefined, once again, in terms of a physical property: the oscillations of an atom of cesium-133, which were measurable by an atomic clock. But the solar day becomes 1.7 ms longer every century due mainly to tidal friction (2.3 ms/cy, reduced by 0.6 ms/cy due to glacial rebound). F.R. Stephenson, L.V. Morrison. "Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A 351 (1995) 165-202. The SI second counted by atomic time standards has been defined on the basis of a history going back to the former standard time scale of ephemeris time (ET). It can now be seen to be close to the average second of 1/86400 of a mean solar day between 1750 and 1892. The current SI second was defined in 1967, as 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom. This number first arose from calibration of the cesium standard by the second of ET: in 1958, the second of ET was determined as the duration of cycles of the chosen cesium transition. W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), 'Frequency of cesium in terms of ephemeris time', Phys Rev Letters v1 (1958), 105-107. Later verification showed that the SI second referred to atomic time was in agreement, within 1 part in 1010, with the second of ephemeris time as determined from lunar observations. Wm Markowitz (1988) 'Comparisons of ET(Solar), ET(Lunar), UT and TDT', in (eds.) A K Babcock & G A Wilkins, 'The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geophysics', IAU Symposia #128 (1988), at pp 413-418. Time as measured by Earth's rotation has accumulated a delay with respect to atomic time standards. From 1961 to 1971, the rate of (some) atomic clocks was (for purposes of UTC) constantly slowed to stay in sync with Earth's rotation. (Before 1961, broadcast time was synchronized to astronomically determined Greenwich Mean Time.) Since 1972, broadcast seconds have been exactly equal to the standard SI second chosen in 1967. UTC is counted by atomic clocks, but is kept approximately in sync with UT1 (mean solar time) by introducing a leap second when necessary. This happens when the difference (UT1 − UTC) approaches 0.9 seconds, and is typically scheduled either at the end of June 30 or December 31 (though leap seconds can be applied at the end of any month). On January 1, 1972, the initial offset of UTC from TAI was chosen to be 10 seconds, which approximated the total difference which had accumulated since 1958, when TAI was defined equal to UT2, a smoothed version of UT1 (GMT) no longer used. The table shows the number of leap seconds added since then. The total difference between TAI and UTC is 10 seconds more than the total number of leap seconds. Graph showing the difference between UT1 and UTC. Vertical segments correspond to leap seconds. The leap second adjustment (which is approximately 0.6 seconds per year) is necessary because of the difference between the length of the SI day (based on the mean solar day between 1750 and 1892) and the length of the current mean solar day (which is about 0.002 seconds longer). The difference between these two will increase with time, but only by 0.0017 seconds per century. In other words, the adjustment is required because we have decoupled the definition of the second from the current rotational period of the Earth. The actual rotational period varies due to unpredictable factors such as the motion of mass within Earth, and has to be observed rather than computed. For example, suppose an atomic clock is used to count seconds from the Unix epoch of 00:00:00 on January 1, 1970. UTC and mean solar time (UT1) were almost identical at that time. After Earth makes one full rotation with respect to the mean Sun, the counter will register 86400.002 seconds (once again, the precise value will vary). Based on the counter, and assuming that a day is 24×60×60=86400 seconds long, the date will be calculated as 00:00:00.002 January 2, 1970. After 500 rotations, it will be 00:00:00 May 16, 1971 in solar time (UT1), but the counter will register 43,200,001 atomic seconds. Since 86400 × 500 is 43,200,000 seconds, the date will be calculated as 00:00:01 on May 16, 1971, as measured by atomic time. If a leap second had been added on December 31, 1970, then the date would be computed as 00:00:00 on May 16, 1971. The system involving leap seconds was set up to allow TAI and UT1 to have an offset of 10 seconds on January 1, 1972. Tidal braking slows down Earth's rotation, causing the number of SI seconds in a mean solar day to increase from approximately 86400.002 to 86400.004 over 100 years. For unknown reasons, Earth sped up after year 2000, so the mean solar day has become 1 ms shorter and fewer leap seconds have been needed after year 2000. Announcement of leap seconds Screencapture of the clock at time.gov showing the leap second added December 31, 2008, as seen in the Central Standard Time zone.The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) announces the insertion of a leap second whenever the difference between UTC and UT1 approaches 0.6 s, to keep the difference between UTC and UT1 from exceeding 0.9 s. The announcement appears in IERS "Bulletin C", typically published every six months. The most recent leap second was added at the end of 2008. After UTC 23:59:59, a positive leap second at 23:59:60 would be counted, before the clock indicates 00:00:00 of the next day. Negative leap seconds are also possible, should the Earth's rotation become slightly faster - in that case, 23:59:58 would be followed by 00:00:00 - but have not yet been used. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of June 30 or December 31. Unlike leap days, they occur simultaneously worldwide; for example, the leap second on December 31, 2005 occurred at 23:59:60 UTC. This was 6:59:60 p.m. U.S. Eastern Standard Time and 12:59:60 a.m. on January 1, 2006 Central European Time. Historically, leap seconds have been inserted about every 18 months. However, because the Earth's rotation rate is unpredictable in the long term, it is not possible to predict the need for them more than six months in advance. From June 1972 through December 2005, the BIH/IERS gave instructions to insert a leap second on 23 occasions, after an initial 10 second offset from TAI on January 1, 1972. The interval between January 1, 1999 and December 31, 2005 was the longest period without a leap second since the system was introduced. Some time signal broadcasts give voice announcements of the impending leap-second. Proposal to abolish leap seconds On July 5, 2005, the Head of the Earth Orientation Center of the IERS sent a notice to IERS Bulletins C and D subscribers, soliciting comments on a U.S. proposal before the ITU-R Study Group 7's WP7-A to eliminate leap seconds from the UTC broadcast standard before 2008. (The ITU-R is responsible for the definition of UTC). The Wall Street Journal noted that the proposal was considered by a U.S. official to be a "private matter internal to the ITU", Why the U.S. Wants To End the Link Between Time and Sun by The Wall Street Journal . It was expected to be considered in November 2005, but the discussion has since been postponed. Leap second talks are postponed by BBC News Under the proposal, leap seconds would be technically replaced by leap hours as an attempt to satisfy the legal requirements of several ITU-R member nations that civil time be astronomically tied to the Sun. Several arguments for the abolition have been presented. Some of these have only become relevant with the recent proliferation of computers using UTC as their internal time representation. For example, currently it is not possible to correctly compute the elapsed interval between two instants of UTC without consulting manually updated and maintained tables of when leap seconds have occurred. Moreover, it is not possible even in theory to compute such time intervals for instants more than about six months in the future. This is not a matter of computer programmers being "lazy"; rather, the uncertainty of leap seconds introduces to those applications needing accurate notions of elapsed time intervals either fundamentally new (and often untenable) operational burdens for computer systems (the need to do online lookups) or insurmountable theoretical concerns (the inability in a UTC-based computer to accurately schedule any event more than six months in the future to within a few seconds). A number of objections to the proposal have been raised. Dr. P. Kenneth Seidelmann, editor of the Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, wrote a letter UTC redefinition or change by Kenneth Seidelmann lamenting the lack of consistent public information about the proposal and adequate justification. Steve Allen of the University of California, Santa Cruz cited the large impact on astronomers in a Science News article. Cowen 2006 He has an extensive online site UTC might be redefined without Leap Seconds by Steve Allen devoted to the issues and the history of leap seconds, including a set of references about the proposal and arguments against it. Proposed US Contribution to ITU-R WP 7A Arguments against the proposal include the unknown expense of such a major change and the fact that universal time will no longer correspond to sundial time. It is also answered that two timescales that do not follow leap seconds are already available, International Atomic Time (TAI) and Global Positioning System (GPS) time. Computers, e.g., could use these and convert to UTC or local civil time as necessary for output. Inexpensive GPS timing receivers are readily available and the satellite broadcasts include the necessary information to convert GPS time to UTC. It is also easy to convert GPS time to TAI as TAI is always exactly 19 seconds ahead of GPS time. Examples of systems based on GPS time include the CDMA digital cellular systems IS-95 and CDMA2000. At the 47th meeting of Civil Global Positioning System Service Interface Committee in Fort Worth, Texas, it was announced that a mailed vote would go out on stopping leap seconds. The plan for the vote is: April 2008: ITU Working Party 7A will submit to ITU Study Group 7 project recommendation on stopping leap seconds During 2008, Study Group 7 will conduct a vote through mail among member states 2011: If 70% of member states agree, the World Radio Conference will approve the recommendation 2013: application of leap seconds will stop and UTC will become a continuous time scale if 70% of member states have voted to abolish the leap second See also Clock drift Leap year Unix time, a common representation of time for computer systems which ignores leap seconds Delta-T Some stations that continuously broadcast UTC CHU (radio station) WWV (radio station) Notes References Ahuja, Anjana (October 30, 2005). "Savouring the last leap second in history". New Straits Times, p. F10. Grossman, Wendy M. (November 2005). "Wait a Second". Scientific American, pp. 12–13. Cowen, Ron. (April 22, 2006). Leap or Not to Leap: Scientists debate a timely issue". Science News External links UTC vs UT1 1972–2005 IERS Bulletins C provided by Earth Orientation Center Last IERS Bulletin C, where leap seconds are announced IERS information about Bulletin C and when leap seconds may occur IERS Archive, to view old announcements USNO article on leap seconds USNO Leapsecs mailing list (until Junuary 2007) (with an archive) USNO Leapsecs mailing list (current) (with an archive) Leap Seconds in NTP, GPS, DCF77 Dynamic differences between UTC and TAI How to Watch a Leap Second The Year 2005 to Have 'Leap Second' Added, NPR audio segment by Joe Palca NIST FAQ about leap year and leap second Time Scales in Satellite Geodesy UTC redefinition The leap second: its history and possible future UTC might be redefined without Leap Seconds Summary of the US Working Group proposal Opposition to the change Efforts to abolish leap seconds | Leap_second |@lemmatized leap:61 second:87 date:4 year:9 june:5 december:9 total:4 positive:3 negative:2 one:4 adjustment:4 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1,704 | Boston | Boston (pronounced ) is the capital and largest city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is considered the economic and cultural center of the region, and is sometimes regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England". Boston city proper had a 2007 estimated population of 608,352, making it the twenty-first largest in the country. Boston is also the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called Greater Boston, home to 4.5 million people and the tenth-largest metropolitan area in the country. Greater Boston as a commuting region includes parts of Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Maine; it includes 7.5 million people, making it the fifth-largest Combined Statistical Area in the United States. In 1630, Puritan colonists from England founded the city on the Shawmut Peninsula. During the late 18th century, Boston was the location of several major events during the American Revolution, including the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. Several early battles of the American Revolution, such as the Battle of Bunker Hill and the Siege of Boston, occurred within the city and surrounding areas. Through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the peninsula. After American independence was attained Boston became a major shipping port and manufacturing center, and its rich history now attracts 16.3 million visitors annually. The city was the site of several firsts, including America's first public school, Boston Latin School (1635), and first college, Harvard College (1636), in neighboring Cambridge. Boston was also home to the first subway system in the United States. With many colleges and universities within the city and surrounding area, Boston is a center of higher education and a center for medicine. The city's economy is also based on research, electronics, engineering, finance, and technology—principally biotechnology. Boston ranks first in the country in jobs per square mile ahead of New York City and Washington, D.C. The city has been experiencing gentrification and has one of the highest costs of living in the United States, though it remains high on world livability rankings. History Boston was founded on September 17, 1630, by Puritan colonists from England. The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony are sometimes confused with the Pilgrims, who founded Plymouth Colony ten years earlier in what is today Bristol County, Plymouth County, and Barnstable County, Massachusetts. The two groups, which differed in religious practice, are historically distinct. The separate colonies were not united until the formation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691. The Shawmut Peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus and was surrounded by the waters of Massachusetts Bay and the Back Bay, an estuary of the Charles River. Several prehistoric Native American archaeological sites that were excavated in the city have shown that the peninsula was inhabited as early as 5,000 BC. Boston's early European settlers first called the area Trimountaine, but later renamed the town after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, from which several prominent colonists had emigrated. Massachusetts Bay Colony's original governor, John Winthrop, gave a famous sermon entitled "A Model of Christian Charity," popularly known as the "City on a Hill" sermon, which captured the idea that Boston had a special covenant with God. (Winthrop also led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, which is regarded as a key founding document of the city.) Puritan ethics molded a stable and well-structured society in Boston. For example, shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans founded America's first public school, Boston Latin School (1635), and America's first college, Harvard College (1636). Boston was the largest town in British North America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century. In the 1770s, British attempts to exert more-stringent control on the thirteen colonies—primarily via taxation—prompted Bostonians to initiate the American Revolution. The Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and several early battles—including the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston—occurred in or near the city. During this period, Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride. After the Revolution, Boston had become one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports because of the city's consolidated seafaring tradition—exports included rum, fish, salt, and tobacco. During this era, descendants of old Boston families were regarded as the nation's social and cultural elites; they were later dubbed the Boston Brahmins. The Embargo Act of 1807, adopted during the Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812 significantly curtailed Boston's harbor activity. Although foreign trade returned after these hostilities, Boston's merchants had found alternatives for their capital investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the city's economy, and by the mid-1800s, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 1900s, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers and was notable for its garment production and leather-goods industries. A network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region made for easy shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a dense network of railroads facilitated the region's industry and commerce. From the mid-19th to late 19th century, Boston flourished culturally; it became renowned for its rarefied literary culture and lavish artistic patronage. It also became a center of the abolitionist movement. The city reacted strongly to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which contributed to President Franklin Pierce's attempt to make an example of Boston after the Burns Fugitive Slave Case. In 1822, the citizens of Boston voted to change the official name from "the Town of Boston" to "the City of Boston", and on March 4, 1822, the people of Boston accepted the charter incorporating the City. At the time Boston was chartered as a city, the population was about 46,226, while the area of the city was only . In the 1820s, Boston's population began to swell, and the city's ethnic composition changed dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants. Irish immigrants dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period. By 1850, about 35,000 Irish lived in Boston. In the latter half of the 19th century, the city saw increasing numbers of Irish, Germans, Lebanese, Syrians, French Canadians, and Russian and Polish Jews settle in the city. By the end of the 19th century, Boston's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrants—Italians inhabited the North End, Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown, and Russian Jews lived in the West End. Irish and Italian immigrants brought with them Roman Catholicism. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community, and since the early 20th century, the Irish have played a major role in Boston politics—prominent figures include the Kennedys, Tip O'Neill, and John F. Fitzgerald. Between 1631 and 1890, the city tripled its physical size by land reclamation—by filling in marshes, mud flats, and gaps between wharves along the waterfront . Also see —a process that Walter Muir Whitehill called "cutting down the hills to fill the coves." The largest reclamation efforts took place during the 1800s. Beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-acre (20 ha) mill pond that later became the Haymarket Square area. The present-day State House sits atop this lowered Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the South End, the West End, the Financial District, and Chinatown. After The Great Boston Fire of 1872, workers used building rubble as landfill along the downtown waterfront. During the mid-to-late 19th century, workers filled almost 600 acres (2.4 km²) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of the Boston Common with gravel brought by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. Also, the city annexed the adjacent towns of Roxbury (1868), Dorchester (1870), Brighton, West Roxbury (including present day Jamaica Plain, Roslindale, and West Roxbury), and Charlestown. The last three towns were annexed in 1874. Other towns include Hyde Park, Mattapan, and East Boston. By the early 20th and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere. Boston responded by initiating various urban renewal projects under the direction of the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), which was established in 1957. In 1958, BRA initiated a project to improve the historic West End neighborhood. Extensive demolition was met with vociferous public opposition to the new agency. BRA subsequently reevaluated its approach to urban renewal in its future projects, including the construction of Government Center. In 1965, the first Community Health Center in the United States opened, the Columbia Point Health Center, in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston. It mostly served the massive Columbia Point public housing complex adjoining it, which was built in 1953. The health center is still in operation and was rededicated in 1990 as the Geiger-Gibson Community Health Center. Roessner, Jane. "A Decent Place to Live: from Columbia Point to Harbor Point – A Community History," Boston: Northeastern University Press, c2000. Cf. p. 80, "The Columbia Point Health Center: The First Community Health Center in the Country." By the 1970s, the city's economy boomed after 30 years of economic downturn. Hospitals such as Massachusetts General Hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Brigham and Women's Hospital led the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Schools such as Harvard University, MIT, Tufts University, Boston University, Boston College, and Northeastern University attracted students to the Boston area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over desegregation busing, which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s. In 1984, the City of Boston gave control of the Columbia Point public housing complex to a private developer, who redeveloped and revitalized the property from its rundown and dangerous state into an attractive residential mixed-income community called Harbor Point Apartments, which was opened in 1988 and completed by 1990. It was the first federal housing project to be converted to private, mixed-income housing in the United States, and was used as a model for the federal HUD HOPE VI public housing revitalization program that began in 1992. Cf. Roessner, p.293. "The HOPE VI housing program, inspired in part by the success of Harbor Point, was created by legislation passed by Congress in 1992." In the early 21st century, the city has become an intellectual, technological, and political center. It has, however, experienced a loss of regional institutions, which included the acquisition of The Boston Globe by The New York Times, and the loss to mergers and acquisitions of local financial institutions such as FleetBoston Financial, which was acquired by Charlotte-based Bank of America in 2004. Boston-based department stores Jordan Marsh and Filene's have both been merged into the New York-based Macy's. Boston has also experienced gentrification in the latter half of the 20th century, with housing prices increasing sharply since the 1990s. Living expenses have risen, and Boston has one of the highest costs of living in the United States, and was ranked the 99th most expensive major city in the world in a 2008 survey of 143 cities. Despite cost, Boston ranks high on livability ratings, ranking 35th worldwide in quality of living in 2009 in a survey of 215 major cities. Geography Owing to its early founding, Boston is very compact. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 89.6 square miles (232.1 km²)—48.4 square miles (125.4 km²) (54.0%) of land and 41.2 square miles (106.7 km²) (46.0%) of water. Boston is the country's fourth most densely populated city that is not a part of a larger city's metropolitan area. After New York City, San Francisco, and Chicago. Many cities, such as Paterson, New Jersey, are denser but are part of a larger city's metropolitan area. Of United States cities with more than 600,000 people, only San Francisco is smaller in land area. Boston is surrounded by the "Greater Boston" region and is bordered by the cities and towns of Winthrop, Revere, Chelsea, Everett, Somerville, Cambridge, Watertown, Newton, Brookline, Needham, Dedham, Canton, Milton, and Quincy. The Charles River separates Boston proper from Cambridge, Watertown, and the neighborhood of Charlestown. To the east lies Boston Harbor and the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area. The Neponset River forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the city of Quincy and the town of Milton. http://www.massbike.org/bikeways/neponset/ The Mystic River separates Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett, and Chelsea Creek and Boston Harbor separate East Boston from Boston proper. Boston's official elevation, as measured at Logan International Airport, is 19 ft (5.8 m) above sea level. The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill at 330 ft (101 m) above sea level, and the lowest point is at sea level. Much of the Back Bay and South End neighborhoods are built on reclaimed land—all of the earth from two of Boston's three original hills, the "trimount," was used as landfill material. Only Beacon Hill—the smallest of the three original hills—remains partially intact; only half of its height was cut down for landfill. The downtown area and immediate surroundings consist mostly of low-rise brick or stone buildings, with many older buildings in the Federal style. Several of these buildings mix in with modern high-rises, notably in the Financial District, Government Center, the South Boston waterfront, and Back Bay, which includes many prominent landmarks such as the Boston Public Library, Christian Science Center, Copley Square, Newbury Street, and New England's two tallest buildings—the John Hancock Tower and the Prudential Center. Near the John Hancock Tower is the old John Hancock Building with its prominent weather forecast beacon—the color of the illuminated light gives an indication of weather to come: "steady blue, clear view; flashing blue, clouds are due; steady red, rain ahead; flashing red, snow instead." (In the summer, flashing red indicates instead that a Red Sox game has been rained out.) Smaller commercial areas are interspersed among single-family homes and wooden/brick multi-family row houses. Currently, the South End Historic District remains the largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighborhood in the U.S. Along with downtown, the geography of South Boston was particularly impacted by the Central Artery/Tunnel (CA/T) Project (or the "Big Dig"). The unstable reclaimed land in South Boston posed special problems for the project's tunnels. In the downtown area, the CA/T Project allowed for the removal of the unsightly elevated Central Artery and the incorporation of new green spaces and open areas. Boston Common, located near the Financial District and Beacon Hill, is the oldest public park in the United States. Along with the adjacent Boston Public Garden, it is part of the Emerald Necklace, a string of parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted to encircle the city. Franklin Park, which is also part of the Emerald Necklace, is the city's largest park and houses the Franklin Park Zoo. Another major park is the Esplanade, located along the banks of the Charles River. The Hatch Shell, an outdoor concert venue, is located adjacent to the Charles River Esplanade. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks and beaches located near Castle Island; in Charlestown; and along the Dorchester, South Boston, and East Boston shorelines. Climate Boston has what may basically be described as something between a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate, such as is very common in coastal southern New England. Summers are typically warm and humid, while winters are cold, windy, and snowy. Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore affect Boston, minimizing the influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Spring in Boston can be warm, with temperatures as high as the 90s when winds are offshore, although it is just as possible for a day in late May to remain in the lower 40s because of cool ocean waters. The hottest month is July, with an average high of 82 °F (28 °C) and an average low of 66 °F (18 °C), with conditions usually humid. The coldest month is January, with an average high of 36 °F (2 °C) and an average low of 22 °F (−6 °C). Periods exceeding in summer and below in winter are not uncommon but are rarely prolonged. The record high temperature is 104 °F (40 °C), recorded on July 4, 1911. The record low temperature is −18 °F (−28 °C), recorded on February 9, 1934. February in Boston has seen 70 °F (21 °C) only once in recorded history, on February 24, 1985. The highest temperature recorded in March was 89 °F (31 °C), on March 31, 1998. Boston's coastal location on the North Atlantic, although it moderates temperatures, also makes the city very prone to Nor'easter weather systems that can produce much snow and rain. The city averages about 43 in (108 cm) of precipitation a year, with 40.9 in (104 cm) of snowfall a year. Snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city (Especially north and west of the city)—away from the warming influence of the ocean. Most snowfall occurs from December through March. There is usually little or no snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October. Fog is prevalent, particularly in spring and early summer, and the occasional tropical storm or hurricane can threaten the region, especially in early autumn. Due to its situation along the North Atlantic, the city is often subjected to sea breeze, especially in the late spring, when water temperatures are still quite cold and temperatures at the coast can be ten to twenty degrees colder than a few miles inland, sometimes dropping by that amount near midday. Demographics According to the 2000 United States Census, there were 589,141 people, 239,528 households, and 115,212 families residing in the city. The population density was 12,166 people per square mile (4,697/km²). Of major US cities, Includes only cities larger than 250,000 only New York City, San Francisco and Chicago have a greater population density than Boston. There were 251,935 housing units at an average density of 5,203 per square mile (2,009/km²). The 2007 U.S. Census population estimate for the city is 608,352, a 3.3% increase from 2000. During weekdays, the population of Boston can grow during the daytime to about 1.2 million. This fluctuation of people is caused by hundreds of thousands of suburban residents who travel to the city for work, education, health care, and special events. In the city, the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 16.2% from 18 to 24, 35.8% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males. There were 239,528 households, of which 22.7% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 27.4% were married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.9% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.17. The median income for a household in the city was $39,629, and the median income for a family was $44,151. Males had a median income of $37,435 versus $32,421 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families are below the poverty line. Of the total population, 25.6% of those under the age of 18 and 18.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, the city's population was 58.4% White (50.0% non-Hispanic White alone), 25.3% Black or African American (22.2% non-Hispanic Black or African American alone), 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 8.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 9.4% from some other race, and 2.6% from two or more races. 15.6% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. According to a 2006 estimate, the White population comprises 53.5% of the population, and Hispanics make up 15.5%. People of Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in the city, making up 15.8% of the population, followed by Italians, accounting for 8.3% of the population. People of West Indian ancestry are another sizeable group, at 6.4%, about half of whom are of Haïtian ancestry. Some neighborhoods, such as Dorchester, have received an influx of people of Vietnamese ancestry in recent decades. Neighborhoods such as Jamaica Plain and Roslindale have experienced a growing number of Dominican Americans. The City of Boston also has one of the largest LGBT populations per capita. It ranks 5th of all major cities in the country (behind San Francisco, and slightly behind Seattle, Atlanta, and Minneapolis respectively), with 12.3% of the city recognizing themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Dialect The "Boston accent" is widely parodied in the U.S. as the speech of the Kennedys and Harvard graduates. It is non-rhotic (i.e., drops the "r" sound at the end of syllables unless the next syllable starts with a vowel) and uses a "broad a" so words like "bath" sound like "baath". Boston English has many dialect words like "wicked", meaning "very", and "frappe", meaning "milkshake". The accent originated in the non-rhotic speech of 17th century East Anglia and Lincolnshire, where many of the first Bostonians originated. Crime The city has seen a great reduction in violent crime since the early 1990s. Boston's low crime rate in the last years of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century has been credited to the Boston Police Department's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as involvement from the United States Attorney and District Attorney's offices. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the "Boston Miracle". Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100,000 people) to just 31—not one of them a juvenile—in 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100,000). In more recent years, however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared with the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 64 in 2004, and 75 in 2005. Although the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime. Economy Boston's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract high-tech industries to the city and surrounding region. The Boston area is home to technology companies such as EMC Corp. and Analog Devices as well as E-Commerce companies VistaPrint and CSN Stores. Boston is also a major hub for biotechnology companies, including Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Merck & Co., Millipore, Genzyme, and Biogen Idec. According to a 2003 report by the Boston Redevelopment Authority, students enrolled in Boston's colleges and universities contribute $4.8 billion annually to the city's economy. Boston also receives the highest absolute amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health of all cities in the United States. Tourism comprises a large part of Boston's economy. In 2004, tourists spent $7.9 billion and made the city one of the ten-most-popular tourist locations in the country. Some of the other important industries are financial services, especially mutual funds and insurance. Boston-based Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States. The city is also the regional headquarters of major banks such as Bank of America and Sovereign Bank, and it is a center for venture capital. State Street Corporation, which specializes in asset management and custody services, has its is headquarters in the city. Boston is also a printing and publishing center—Houghton Mifflin is headquartered within the city, along with Bedford-St. Martin's Press, Beacon Press, and Little, Brown and Company. Pearson PLC publishing units also employ several hundred people in Boston. The city is home to four major convention centers—the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay, the Bayside Expo Center in Dorchester, and the World Trade Center Boston and Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront. Because of Boston's status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government are another major component of the city's economy. Some of the major companies headquartered within the city are the Liberty Mutual insurance company; Gillette (now owned by Procter & Gamble); and Teradyne, one of the world's leading manufacturers of semiconductor and other electronic test equipment. New Balance has its headquarters in the city. Boston is also home to management consulting firms The Boston Consulting Group and Bain & Company, as well as the private equity group Bain Capital. Other major companies are located outside the city, especially along Route 128. Route 128 serves as the center of the region's high-tech industry. In 2006, Boston and its metropolitan area ranked as the fourth-largest cybercity in the United States with 191,700 high-tech jobs. Only NYC Metro, DC Metro, and Silicon Valley had bigger high-tech sectors. AeA ranks Atlanta 10th-largest U.S. cybercity. The Port of Boston is a major seaport along the United States' East Coast and is also the oldest continuously operated industrial and fishing port in the Western Hemisphere. Boston is classified as an "incipient global city" by a 2004 study group at Loughborough University in England. Leading World Cities, GaWC, Loughborough University A 2008 study ranked Boston among the top 10 cities in the world for a career in finance. Top 10 Cities For A Career In Finance Culture Boston shares many cultural roots with greater New England, including a dialect of the non-rhotic Eastern New England accent known as Boston English, and a regional cuisine with a large emphasis on seafood, salt, and dairy products. Irish Americans are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions. Boston also has its own collection of neologisms known as Boston slang. Many consider Boston to have a strong sense of cultural identity, perhaps as a result of its intellectual reputation; much of Boston's culture originates at its universities. The city has a number of ornate theatres, including the Cutler Majestic Theatre, Boston Opera House, Citi Performing Arts Center, the Colonial Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre. Renowned performing-arts organizations include the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Boston Ballet, Boston Early Music Festival, Boston Lyric Opera Company, OperaBoston, and the Handel and Haydn Society (one of the oldest choral companies in the United States). The city is also a major center for contemporary classical music, with a number of performing groups, some of which are associated with the city's conservatories and universities. There are also many major annual events such as First Night, which occurs on New Year's Eve, the annual Boston Arts Festival at Christopher Columbus Waterfront Park, Italian summer feasts in the North End honoring Catholic saints, and several events during the Fourth of July period. These events include the week-long Harborfest festivities and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the Charles River. Because of the city's prominent role in the American Revolution, several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the Boston National Historical Park. Many are found along the Freedom Trail, which is marked by a red line of bricks embedded in the ground. The city is also home to several prominent art museums, including the Museum of Fine Arts and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. In December 2006, the Institute of Contemporary Art moved from its Back Bay location to a new contemporary building designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro located in the Seaport District. The University of Massachusetts campus at Columbia Point houses the John F. Kennedy Library. The Boston Athenaeum (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States), Boston Children's Museum, Bull & Finch Pub (whose building is known from the television show Cheers), Museum of Science, and the New England Aquarium are within the city. Boston is also one of the birthplaces of the hardcore punk genre of music. Boston musicians have contributed greatly to this music scene over the years (see also Boston hardcore). Boston neighborhoods were home to one of the leading local third wave ska and ska punk scenes in the 1990s, led by bands such as The Mighty Mighty Bosstones and the The Allstonians. The 1980s' hardcore punk-rock compilation This Is Boston, Not L.A. highlights some of the bands that built the genre. Several nightclubs, such as The Channel, Bunnratty's in Allston, and The Rathskeller, were renowned for showcasing both local punk-rock bands and those from farther afield. All of these clubs are now closed. Many were razed during recent gentrification. Media The Boston Globe (owned by The New York Times Company) and the Boston Herald are Boston's two major daily newspapers. The Christian Science Monitor, a third daily, is edited in Boston and printed in a series of regional presses across the U.S. The city is also served by other publications such as The Boston Phoenix, Boston magazine, The Improper Bostonian, Boston's Weekly Dig, and the Boston edition of Metro. The Boston Globe also releases a teen publication to the city's public high schools. The newspaper Teens in Print or T.i.P. is written by the city's teens and delivered quarterly within the school year. Boston has the largest broadcasting market in New England, with the Boston radio market being the eleventh largest in the United States. Several major AM stations include talk radio WRKO 680 AM, sports/talk station WEEI 850 AM, and news radio WBZ 1030 AM. A variety of FM radio formats serve the area, as do NPR stations WBUR and WGBH. College and university radio stations include WERS (Emerson), WHRB (Harvard), WUMB (UMass Boston), WMBR (M.I.T.), WZBC (Boston College), WMFO (Tufts University), WBRS (Brandeis University), WTBU (Boston University, campus and web only), WRBB (Northeastern University) and WMLN (Curry College). The Boston television DMA, which also includes Manchester, New Hampshire, is the seventh largest in the United States. The city is served by stations representing every major American network including WBZ 4 (CBS), WCVB 5 (ABC), WHDH 7 (NBC), WFXT 25 (Fox), WUNI 27 (Univision), and WLVI 56 (The CW). Boston is also home to PBS station WGBH 2, a major producer of PBS programs, which also operates WGBX 44. Most Boston television stations have their transmitters in nearby Needham and Newton. Sports The Boston Red Sox, a founding member of the American League of Major League Baseball in 1901, play their home games at Fenway Park, near Kenmore Square in the Fenway section of Boston. Built in 1912, it is the oldest sports arena or stadium in active use in the United States among the four major professional sports. Boston was also the site of the first game of the first modern World Series, in 1903. The series was played between the AL Champion Boston Americans and the NL champion Pittsburgh Pirates. Please note: This source, like many others, uses the erroneous "Pilgrims" name that is debunked by the Nowlin reference following. Persistent reports that the team was known in 1903 as the "Boston Pilgrims" appear to be unfounded. Boston's first professional baseball team was the Red Stockings, one of the charter members of the National League in 1871. The team played under that name until 1883, under the name Beaneaters until 1911, and under the name Braves from 1912 until they moved to Milwaukee after the 1952 season. Since 1966 they have played in Atlanta as the Atlanta Braves. The TD Banknorth Garden (formerly called the FleetCenter and the Shawmut Center) is adjoined to North Station and is the home of three major league teams: the Boston Blazers of the National Lacrosse League, the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League; and the Boston Celtics, the 2008 National Basketball Association champions. The arena seats 18,624 for basketball games and 17,565 for ice hockey venues. The Bruins were the first American member of the National Hockey League and an Original Six franchise. The Boston Celtics were founding members of the Basketball Association of America, one of the two leagues that merged to form the NBA. The Celtics have the distinction of having won more championships than any other NBA team, with seventeen. While they have played in suburban Foxborough since 1971, the New England Patriots were founded in 1960 as the Boston Patriots. A charter member of the American Football League, the team joined the National Football League in 1970. The team has won the Super Bowl three times, in 2001, 2003, and 2004. They share Gillette Stadium with the New England Revolution of Major League Soccer. Boston's many colleges and universities are active in college athletics. There are four NCAA Division I members in the city—Boston College (member of the Atlantic Coast Conference), Boston University (America East Conference), Northeastern University (Colonial Athletic Association), and Harvard University (Ivy League). All except Harvard, which belongs to ECAC Hockey, belong to the Hockey East conference. The hockey teams of these four universities meet every year in a four-team tournament known as the "Beanpot Tournament," which is played at the TD Banknorth Garden over two Monday nights in February. One of the most-famous sporting events in the city is the Boston Marathon, the 26.2 mile (42.2 km) run from Hopkinton to Copley Square in the Back Bay. The Marathon, the world's oldest, is popular and heavily attended. It is run on Patriots' Day in April and always coincides with a Red Sox home baseball game that starts at 11:05 AM, the only MLB game all year to start before noon local time. Another major event held in the city is the Head of the Charles Regatta rowing competition on the Charles River. Club League Sport Venue Established Championships Boston Red Sox MLB Baseball Fenway Park 1901 7 World Series Titles12 AL Pennants New England Patriots NFL Football Gillette Stadium 1960 3 Super Bowl Titles6 AFC Championships Boston Celtics NBA Basketball TD Banknorth Garden 1946 17 NBA Titles Boston Bruins NHL Hockey TD Banknorth Garden 1924 5 Stanley Cups New England Revolution MLS Soccer Gillette Stadium 1995 1 U.S. Open Cup, 1 Superliga Boston Cannons MLL Lacrosse (Outdoor) Harvard Stadium 2001 None Boston Blazers NLL Lacrosse (Indoor) TD Banknorth Garden 2008 None New England Riptide NPF Softball Martin Softball Field 2004 1 Cowles Boston Breakers WPS Soccer Harvard Stadium 2009 None Government Boston has a strong mayor – council government system in which the mayor is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor is elected to a four-year term by plurality voting. The current mayor of Boston is Thomas Menino. Boston City Council is elected every two years. There are nine district seats, each elected by the residents of that district through plurality voting, and four at-large seats. Each voter casts up to four votes for at-large councilors, with no more than one vote per candidate. The candidates with the four highest vote totals are elected. The president of the city council is elected by the councilors from within themselves. The school committee for the Boston Public Schools is appointed by the mayor. The Boston Redevelopment Authority and the Zoning Board of Appeals (a seven-person body appointed by the mayor) share responsibility for land-use planning. In addition to city government, numerous commissions and state authorities—including the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, the Boston Public Health Commission, and the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)—play a role in the life of Bostonians. As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in state politics. The city has several properties relating to the United States federal government, including the John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building and the Thomas P. O'Neill Federal Building. Boston also serves as the home of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit and of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts; Boston is the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (the First District of the Federal Reserve). The city is in the Eighth and Ninth Congressional districts. Education Boston's reputation as "the Athens of America" derives in large part from the teaching and research activities of more than 100 colleges and universities located in the Greater Boston Area, with more than 250,000 students attending college in Boston and Cambridge alone. Within the city, Boston University exudes a large presence as the city's fourth-largest employer, and maintains a campus along the Charles River on Commonwealth Avenue and its medical campus in the South End. Northeastern University, another large private university, is located in the Fenway area, and is particularly known for its Business and Health Science schools and cooperative education program. Wheelock College, Massachusetts College of Art and Design, Simmons College, Emmanuel College, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, and Wentworth Institute of Technology, founding members of the Colleges of the Fenway, are adjacent to Northeastern University. Suffolk University, a small private university known for its law school, maintains a campus on Beacon Hill. New England School of Law, a small private law school located in the theater district, was originally established as America's only all female law school. Emerson College, a small private college with a strong reputation in the fields of performing arts, journalism, writing, and film, is located nearby on Boston Common. Boston College, whose original campus was located in South Boston, moved its campus west to a site that straddles the Boston(Brighton)-Newton border. Boston College is expanding further into the Brighton neighborhood following the purchase of adjacent land from the Boston Catholic Archdiocese. Boston is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including the Art Institute of Boston, Massachusetts College of Art, New England School of Art and Design (part of Suffolk University), and the New England Conservatory of Music (the oldest independent conservatory in the United States). Other conservatories include the Boston Conservatory, the School of the Museum of Fine Arts and Berklee College of Music. Boston has one major public university, the University of Massachusetts Boston, located on Columbia Point in Dorchester, while Roxbury Community College and Bunker Hill Community College are the city's two community colleges. Several major national universities located outside Boston have a major presence in the city. Harvard University, the nation's oldest, is located across the Charles River in Cambridge. The business and medical schools are in Boston, and there are plans for additional expansion into Boston's Allston neighborhood. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which originated in Boston and was long known as "Boston Tech," moved across the river to Cambridge in 1916. Tufts University administers its medical and dental school adjacent to the Tufts Medical Center, a 451-bed academic medical institution that is home to both a full-service hospital for adults and the Floating Hospital for Children. The Eastern Nazarene College, in Quincy, is the only evangelical Christian college in metropolitan Boston and is active in homeless ministry in the City of Boston. Boston Public Schools, the oldest public school system in the U.S., enrolls 57,000 students from kindergarten to grade 12. The system operates 145 schools, which includes Boston Latin School (the oldest public school in the United States, established in 1635; which, along with Boston Latin Academy, is a highly prestigious public exam school admitting students in the 7th and 9th grades only and serving grades 7–12), English High (the oldest public high school, established 1821), and the Mather School (the oldest public elementary school, established in 1639). The city also has private, parochial, and charter schools. 3000 students of racial minorities attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council, or METCO. It also operates Boston High School. In 2002, Forbes Magazine ranked the Boston Public Schools as the best large city school system in the country, with a graduation rate of 82%. In 2005, the student population within the school system was 45.5% Black or African American, 31.2% Hispanic or Latino, 14% White, and 9% Asian, as compared with 24%, 14%, 49%, and 8% respectively for the city as a whole. High school age students have the opportunity to participate in the Boston Youth Fund which provides summer placement jobs for those who qualify. http://www.bostonyouthzone.com/teenzone/employment/byf/ Healthcare and utilities The Longwood Medical and Academic Area is a region of Boston with a concentration of medical and research facilities, including Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Children's Hospital Boston, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, and Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. Massachusetts General Hospital is near the Beacon Hill neighborhood, with the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital nearby. St. Elizabeth's Medical Center is in Brighton Center of Boston's Brighton neighborhood. New England Baptist Hospital is in Mission Hill. Boston has Veterans Affairs medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods. The Boston Public Health Commission, an agency of the Massachusetts government, oversees health concerns for Boston residents. Many of Boston's major medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area and in Massachusetts General Hospital are well-known research medical centers affiliated with Harvard Medical School. Tufts Medical Center (formerly Tufts-New England Medical Center), located in the southern portion of the Chinatown neighborhood, is affiliated with Tufts University School of Medicine. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighborhood, is the primary teaching facility for the Boston University School of Medicine as well as the largest trauma center in the Boston area; it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital, which was the first municipal hospital in the United States. Water supply and sewage-disposal services are provided by the Boston Water and Sewer Commission. The Commission in turn purchases wholesale water and sewage disposal from the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. The city's water comes from the Quabbin Reservoir and the Wachusett Reservoir, which are about and west of the city respectively. NSTAR is the exclusive distributor of electric power to the city, though due to deregulation, customers now have a choice of electric generation companies. Natural gas is distributed by National Grid plc (originally KeySpan, the successor company to Boston Gas); only commercial and industrial customers may choose an alternate natural gas supplier. Verizon, successor to New England Telephone, NYNEX, Bell Atlantic, and earlier, the Bell System, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various national wireless companies. Cable television is available from Comcast and RCN, with broadband Internet access provided by the same companies in certain areas. A variety of DSL providers and resellers are able to provide broadband Internet over Verizon-owned phone lines. Transportation Logan International Airport, located in the East Boston neighborhood, handles most of the scheduled passenger service for Boston. Surrounding the city are three major general aviation relievers: Beverly Municipal Airport to the north, Hanscom Field in Bedford, to the west, and Norwood Memorial Airport to the south. T. F. Green Airport serving Providence, Rhode Island, Bradley International Airport outside of Hartford, Connecticut, and Manchester-Boston Airport in Manchester, New Hampshire, also provide scheduled passenger service to the Boston area. Downtown Boston's streets are not organized on a grid, but grew in a meandering organic pattern beginning early in the seventeenth century. They were created as needed, and as wharves and landfill expanded the area of the small Boston peninsula. Along with several rotaries, roads change names and lose and add lanes seemingly at random. On the other hand, streets in the Back Bay, East Boston, the South End, and South Boston do follow a grid system. Boston is the eastern terminus of I-90, which in Massachusetts runs along the Mass Pike. I-95, which surrounds the city, is locally referred to as Route 128, its historical state route numbering. U.S. 1, I-93 and Massachusetts Route 3 run concurrently north to south through the city from Charlestown to Dorchester. The elevated Central Artery, which carried these routes through downtown Boston and was constantly prone to heavy traffic, was replaced with an underground tunnel through the Big Dig, substantially completed in early 2006. Nearly a third of Bostonians use public transit for their commute to work. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operates what was the first underground rapid transit system in the United States and is now the fourth busiest rapid transit system in the country, having been expanded to 65.5 miles (105 km) of track, reaching as far north as Malden, as far south as Braintree, and as far west as Newton – collectively known as the "T." The MBTA also operates the nation's sixth busiest bus network, as well as water shuttles, and the nation's fifth-busiest commuter rail network, totaling over 200 miles (321 km), extending north to the Merrimack Valley, west to Worcester, and south to Providence. Amtrak's Northeast Corridor and Chicago lines originate at South Station and stop at Back Bay. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which service New York City, Washington, D.C., and points in between, also stop at Route 128 Station in the southwestern suburbs of Boston. Meanwhile, Amtrak's Downeaster service to Maine originates at North Station. Nicknamed "The Walking City", pedestrian commutes play a larger role than in comparably populated cities. Owing to factors such as the compactness of the city and large student population, 13% of the population commutes by foot, making it the highest percentage of pedestrian commuters in the country out of the major American cities. Of cities over 250,000 In its March 2006 issue, Bicycling magazine named Boston as one of the worst cities in the U.S. for cycling; regardless, it has one of the highest rates of bicycle commuting. In September 2007, Mayor Menino started a bicycle program called Boston Bikes with a goal of improving bicycling conditions. Sister cities Boston has eight official sister cities as recognized by Sister Cities International. The date column indicates the year in which the relationship was established. Kyoto was Boston's first sister city. City Country Date References Kyoto Japan 1959 Strasbourg France 1960 Barcelona Spain 1980 Hangzhou People's Republic of China 1982 Padua Italy 1983 Melbourne Australia 1985 Taipei Republic of China (Taiwan) 1996 Sekondi-Takoradi Ghana 2001 Boston also has less formal friendship or partnership relationships with an additional three cities. City Country Date References Boston, Lincolnshire United Kingdom 1999 Haifa Israel 1999 Valladolid Spain 2007 See also Boston in fiction Boston nicknames List of Bostonians List of fictional people from Boston List of songs about Boston List of tallest buildings in Boston List of television shows set in Boston Notes References External links City of Boston official website Greater Boston Chamber of Commerce Greater Boston Convention and Visitors Bureau The Boston Indicators Project from The Boston Foundation Open Space Plan 2002–2006 from the City of Boston official website Historical Maps of Boston from the Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library GIS Property Maps from MainStreetGIS Boston Streets: Mapping Directory Data from Tufts University, with support from the Institute of Museum and Library Services and The Bostonian Society Maps of income, landfill growth, public transport, and squares from Radical Cartography Photographic atlas of historic sites throughout Boston | Boston |@lemmatized boston:264 pronounce:1 capital:7 large:35 city:137 commonwealth:2 massachusetts:26 one:22 old:20 united:28 state:35 new:35 england:23 consider:2 economic:3 cultural:4 center:40 region:11 sometimes:3 regard:3 unofficial:1 proper:3 estimated:1 population:20 make:13 twenty:2 first:25 country:12 also:41 anchor:1 substantially:2 metropolitan:7 area:30 call:6 great:10 home:16 million:4 people:14 tenth:1 commute:4 include:29 part:12 rhode:2 island:3 hampshire:3 maine:2 fifth:2 combined:1 statistical:1 puritan:5 colonist:3 found:7 shawmut:3 peninsula:5 late:5 century:15 location:4 several:17 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1,705 | Austroasiatic_languages | The Austro-Asiatic languages are a large language family of Southeast Asia, and also scattered throughout India and Bangladesh. The name comes from the Latin word for "south" and the Greek name of Asia, hence "South Asia." Among these languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have a long established recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in Vietnam and Cambodia, respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. Ethnologue identifies 168 Austro-Asiatic languages. These are traditionally divided into two families, Mon-Khmer and Munda, but two recent classifications have abandoned Mon-Khmer as a valid node, albeit tentatively and not generally accepted. Austro-Asiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. It is widely believed that the Austro-Asiatic languages are the autochthonous languages of Southeast Asia and the eastern Indian subcontinent, and that the other languages of the region, including the Indo-European, Kradai, Dravidian, and Sino-Tibetan languages, are the result of later migrations of people. There are, for example, Austro-Asiatic words in the Tibeto-Burman languages of eastern Nepal. Some linguists have attempted to prove that Austro-Asiatic languages are related to Austronesian languages, thus forming the Austric superfamily. The Austro-Asiatic languages are well known for having a "sesqui-syllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of a reduced minor syllable plus a full syllable. Many of them also have infixes. Classification Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austro-Asiatic: the Mon-Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published, and it is possible that the linguistic classification has been influenced by researchers' subjective perception of a racial dichotomy between the speakers of languages that have traditionally been classified as Mon-Khmer and those that have traditionally been classified as Munda. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. However, the relationships between these families within Austro-Asiatic is debated; in addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accept traditional Mon-Khmer as a valid unit. It should be noted that little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. Gérard Diffloth (2005) Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations. As a schematic, we have: Or in more detail, Munda languages (India) Koraput: 7 languages Core Munda languages Kharian-Juang: 2 languages North Munda languages Korku Kherwarian: 12 languages Khasi-Khmuic languages (Northern Mon-Khmer) Khasian: 3 languages of eastern India and Bangladesh Palaungo-Khmuic languages Khmuic: 13 languages of Laos and Thailand Palaungo-Pakanic languages Pakanic or Palyu: 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam Palaungic: 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand Nuclear Mon-Khmer languages Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon-Khmer) Vieto-Katuic languages ? Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family. Vietic: 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the Vietnamese language, which has the most speakers of any Austro-Asiatic language. These are the only Austro-Asiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems. Katuic: 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. Khmero-Bahnaric languages Bahnaric: 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Khmeric languages The Khmer dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Pearic: 6 languages of Cambodia. Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon-Khmer) Nicobarese languages: 6 languages of the Nicobar Islands, a territory of India. Asli-Monic languages Aslian: 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia] and Thailand. Monic: 2 languages, the Mon language of Burma and the Nyahkur language of Thailand. Ilia Peiros (2004) Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that a language may appear to be more distantly related than it actually is due to language contact, so it is only a starting point for a proper genealogical classification. Nicobarese Munda-Khmer Munda Mon-Khmer Khasi Nuclear Mon-Khmer Mangic (Mang + Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK) Vietic (perhaps in Northern MK) Northern Mon-Khmer Palaungic Khmuic' Central Mon-Khmer Khmer dialects Pearic Asli-Bahnaric Aslian Mon-Bahnaric Monic Katu-Bahnaric Katuic Bahnaric Diffloth (1974) Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon-Khmer—in Ethnologue. Munda North Munda Korku Kherwarian South Munda Kharia-Juang Koraput Munda Mon-Khmer Eastern Mon-Khmer Khmer (Cambodian) Pearic Bahnaric Katuic Vietic (includes Vietnamese) Northern Mon-Khmer Khasi (Meghalaya, India) Palaungic Khmuic Southern Mon-Khmer Mon Aslian (Malaya) Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands) Protolanguage Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of proto-Mon Khmer as follows: *p*t*c*k*ʔ*b*d*ɟ*ɡ*ɓ*ɗ*ʄ *m*n*ɲ*ŋ*w*l, *r*j *s *h This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for , which is better preserved in the Katuic languages which Sidwell specializes in than in other branches of Austro-Asiatic. Notes References Adams, K. L. (1989). Systems of numeral classification in the Mon-Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0858833735 Byomkes Chakrabarti, A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali, 1994 Filbeck, D. (1978). T'in: a historical study. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0858831724 Hemeling, K. (1907). Die Nanking Kuanhua. (German language) Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries. Peiros, Ilia. 1998. Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia. Pacific Linguistics Series C-142. Canberra, Australian National University. Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). A Mon-Khmer comparative dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-570-3 Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon-Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. Sidwell, Paul (2005) "Proto-Katuic Phonology and the Sub-grouping of Mon-Khmer Languages". In Sidwell, ed., SEALSXV: papers from the 15th meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society. Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics, The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). External links Mon-Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell Ethnologue classification Mon-Khmer languages at SEAlang | Austroasiatic_languages |@lemmatized austro:12 asiatic:12 language:54 large:1 family:5 southeast:6 asia:7 also:2 scatter:1 throughout:1 india:8 bangladesh:4 name:2 come:1 latin:1 word:2 south:4 greek:1 hence:1 among:1 vietnamese:4 khmer:31 mon:29 long:1 establish:1 recorded:1 history:1 official:1 status:1 vietnam:6 cambodia:4 respectively:1 rest:1 speak:2 minority:1 group:1 ethnologue:3 identifies:1 traditionally:4 divide:1 two:4 munda:12 recent:2 classification:11 abandon:2 valid:3 node:1 albeit:1 tentatively:1 generally:1 accept:3 disjunct:1 distribution:1 across:1 separate:1 region:2 widely:2 believe:1 autochthonous:1 eastern:5 indian:1 subcontinent:1 include:3 indo:2 european:1 kradai:1 dravidian:1 sino:1 tibetan:1 result:1 late:1 migration:1 people:1 example:1 tibeto:1 burman:1 nepal:1 linguist:1 attempt:2 prove:1 relate:2 austronesian:1 thus:1 form:1 austric:1 superfamily:1 well:2 know:1 sesqui:1 syllabic:1 pattern:1 basic:1 noun:1 verbs:1 consisting:1 reduce:1 minor:1 syllable:2 plus:1 full:1 many:1 infix:1 linguists:1 recognize:1 primary:1 division:1 northeast:1 nicobar:3 island:3 east:1 central:2 part:1 however:2 evidence:2 ever:2 publish:2 possible:1 linguistic:2 influence:1 researcher:1 subjective:1 perception:1 racial:1 dichotomy:1 speaker:2 classify:3 write:1 boldface:1 type:1 clade:2 relationship:1 within:1 debate:1 addition:1 traditional:2 proposal:1 give:1 neither:1 unit:1 note:2 little:1 data:1 use:2 compete:1 therefore:1 cannot:1 evaluate:1 peer:1 review:1 gérard:1 diffloth:6 compare:1 reconstruction:2 various:1 base:2 shared:1 innovation:1 schematic:1 detail:1 koraput:2 core:1 kharian:1 juang:2 north:2 korku:2 kherwarian:2 khasi:3 khmuic:5 northern:5 khasian:1 palaungo:2 languages:4 lao:4 thailand:6 pakanic:2 palyu:2 southern:5 china:2 palaungic:3 burma:2 nuclear:2 khmero:2 vietic:4 vieto:2 katuic:8 sidwell:7 cast:1 doubt:1 hypothesis:1 say:1 ambiguous:1 clear:1 belong:1 highly:1 developed:1 tone:1 system:2 bahnaric:7 khmeric:1 dialect:2 pearic:3 nico:1 monic:4 nicobarese:4 territory:1 asli:2 aslian:4 peninsular:1 malaysia:1 nyahkur:1 ilia:1 peiros:3 lexicostatistic:1 percentage:1 share:1 vocabulary:1 mean:1 may:1 appear:1 distantly:1 actually:1 due:1 contact:1 starting:1 point:1 proper:1 genealogical:1 mangic:1 mang:1 perhaps:2 mk:2 katu:1 cite:1 original:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 except:2 breakup:1 kharia:1 cambodian:1 meghalaya:1 malaya:1 protolanguage:1 reconstruct:1 consonant:1 inventory:1 proto:2 follow:1 p:1 c:3 k:3 ʔ:1 b:2 ɟ:1 ɡ:1 ɓ:1 ɗ:1 ʄ:1 n:1 ɲ:1 ŋ:1 w:1 l:4 r:1 j:1 h:3 identical:1 earlier:1 preserve:1 specialize:1 branch:1 reference:1 adams:1 numeral:1 subfamily:1 austroasiatic:2 canberra:4 australia:1 dept:2 linguistics:8 research:2 school:2 pacific:5 study:5 australian:4 national:4 university:5 isbn:3 byomkes:1 chakrabarti:1 comparative:4 santali:1 bengali:1 filbeck:1 historical:1 hemeling:1 die:1 nanking:1 kuanhua:1 german:1 peck:1 comp:1 enumerative:1 bibliography:3 asian:2 dictionary:2 ilium:1 series:1 shorto:2 harry:1 edit:1 paul:3 cooper:1 doug:1 bauer:1 christian:1 tai:1 london:2 oriental:1 v:2 oxford:1 press:1 phonology:1 sub:1 grouping:1 ed:1 sealsxv:1 paper:1 meeting:1 society:1 zide:1 norman:1 milton:1 e:1 barker:1 hague:1 mouton:1 iranian:1 monograph:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 lecture:1 sealang:1 |@bigram austro_asiatic:12 southeast_asia:5 mon_khmer:25 indian_subcontinent:1 indo_european:1 sino_tibetan:1 tibeto_burman:1 nicobar_island:3 peer_review:1 lao_thailand:1 vietnam_lao:2 lao_cambodia:1 thailand_vietnam:1 peninsular_malaysia:1 malaysia_thailand:1 distantly_relate:1 genealogical_classification:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 study_santali:1 santali_bengali:1 comparative_linguistics:1 southeast_asian:1 hague_mouton:1 indo_iranian:1 external_link:1 |
1,706 | Lactantius | Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius?) Firmianus Lactantius was an early Christian author (ca. 240 – ca. 320). Biography Lactantius, a Latin-speaking native of North Africa, was a pupil of Arnobius (according to Methodius, Chastity 9.2) and taught rhetoric in various cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, ending in Constantinople. He wrote apologetic works explaining Christianity in terms that would be palatable to educated pagans while defending it from pagan philosophers. His Divinae Institutiones ("Divine Institutions") is an early example of a systematic presentation of Christian thought. He was considered somewhat heretical after his death, but Renaissance humanists picked up renewed interest in him, more for his elaborately rhetorical Latin style than for his theology. Lactantius was born a pagan and in his early life taught rhetoric in his native place, which may have been Cirta in Numidia, where an inscription mentions a certain 'L. Caecilius Firmianus'. Lactantius had a successful public career at first. At the request of Roman Emperor Diocletian, he became an official professor of rhetoric in Nicomedia, the voyage from Africa described in his poem Hodoeporicum. Having converted to Christianity, he would have been dismissed after the publication of Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" (February 24, 303), and as a Latin rhetor he lived in poverty according to Jerome and eked out a living by writing, until Constantine I became his patron. The new emperor appointed the aged scholar 311 or 313. The friendship of the Emperor Constantine raised him from penury and he became tutor in Latin to his son Crispus, whom Lactantius may have followed to Trier in 317, when Crispus was made Caesar (minor co-emperor) and sent to the city. Crispus was put to death in 326, but when Lactantius died and in what circumstances is not known. Like so many of the early Christian authors, Lactantius depended on classical models. The early Humanists called him the "Christian Cicero" (Cicero Christianus). Nicolaus Copernicus The astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus mocks Lactantius in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium of 1543: Perhaps there will be babblers who claim to be judges of astronomy although completely ignorant of the subject and, badly distorting some passage of Scripture to their purpose, will dare to find fault with my undertaking and censure it. I disregard them even to the extent of despising their criticism as unfounded. For it is not unknown that Lactantius, otherwise an illustrious writer but hardly an astronomer, speaks quite childishly about the earth's shape, when he mocks those who declared that the earth has the form of a globe. Hence scholars need not be surprised if any such persons will likewise ridicule me. Astronomy is written for astronomers. The German TV documentary on "The worlds 7 greatest lies" states that medieval scholars knew very well that the Earth was a sphere. Copernicus is blamed for omitting that Lactantius was the exception rather than the rule. Works De Opificio Dei ("The Works of God"), an apologetic work, written in 303 or 304 during Diocletian's persecution, and dedicated to a former pupil, a rich Christian named Demetrianius. The apologetic principles underlying all the works of Lactantius are well set forth in this treatise. The Divine Institutions (Divinarum Institutionum Libri VII), written between 303 and 311. This is the most important of the writings of Lactantius. As an apologetic treatise it was intended to point out the futility of pagan beliefs and to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity as a response to pagan critics. It was also the first attempt at a systematic exposition of Christian theology in Latin, planned on a scale sufficiently broad to silence all opponents. The Catholic Encyclopedia said, "The strengths and the weakness of Lactantius are nowhere better shown than in his work. The beauty of the style, the choice and aptness of the terminology, cannot hide the author's lack of grasp on Christian principles and his almost utter ignorance of Scripture." Included in this treatise is a quote from the nineteenth of the Odes of Solomon, one of only two known texts of the Odes until the early twentieth century. Charlesworth, James Hamilton. The Odes of Solomon. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973, pp. 1, 82 An Epitome of the "Divine institutions" is a summary treatment of the subject. De Ira Dei ("On the Wrath of God"), directed against the Stoics and Epicureans, dealing with anthropomorphic deities. De Mortibus Persecutorum has an apologetic character, but has been treated as a work of history by Christian writers. The point of the work is to describe the deaths of the persecutors of Christians: Nero, Domitian, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and the contemporaries of Lactantius himself, Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Maximinus. This work is taken as a chronicle of the last and greatest of the persecutions, in spite of the moral point each anecdote has been arranged to tell. Here Lactantius preserves the story of Constantine's vision of the Chi Rho before his conversion to Christianity. The full text is found in only one manuscript, which bears the title, Lucii Caecilii liber ad Donatum Confessorem de Mortibus Persecutorium. Widely attributed to Lactantius although it shows no overt sign of Christianity, the poem The Phoenix (de Ave Phoenice) tells the story of the death and rebirth of that mythical bird. That poem in turn appears to have been the principal source for the famous Anglo-Saxon poem to which the modern title The Phoenix is given. 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1,707 | Down_syndrome | Down syndrome, Down's syndrome, or trisomy 21 is a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. It is named after John Langdon Down, the British doctor who described the syndrome in 1866. The disorder was identified as a chromosome 21 trisomy by Jérôme Lejeune in 1959. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome in a baby can be identified with amniocentesis during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome tend to have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate developmental disabilities. A small number have severe to profound mental disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,000 births, although these statistics are heavily influenced by the age of the mother. Other factors may also play a role. Many of the common physical features of Down syndrome also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They may include a single transverse palmar crease (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms, also called the Simian crease), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an epicanthic fold of the eyelid, upslanting palpebral fissures (the separation between the upper and lower eyelids), shorter limbs, poor muscle tone, a larger than normal space between the big and second toes, and protruding tongue. Health concerns for individuals with Down syndrome include a higher risk for congenital heart defects, gastroesophageal reflux disease, recurrent ear infections, obstructive sleep apnea, and thyroid dysfunctions. Early childhood intervention, screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and vocational training can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Although some of the physical genetic limitations of Down syndrome cannot be overcome, education and proper care will improve quality of life. Roizen NJ, Patterson D.Down's syndrome. Lancet. 2003 12 April;361(9365):1281–9. Review. PMID 12699967 Characteristics Example of white spots on the iris known as Brushfield spots Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: oblique eye fissures with epicanthic skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, muscle hypotonia (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a single palmar fold, a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils), a short neck, white spots on the iris known as Brushfield spots, excessive joint laxity including atlanto-axial instability, congenital heart defects, excessive space between large toe and second toe, a single flexion furrow of the fifth finger, and a higher number of ulnar loop dermatoglyphs. Most individuals with Down syndrome have mental retardation in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range, with individuals having Mosaic Down syndrome typically 10–30 points higher. In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system. They also may have a broad head and a very round face. Genetics Karyotype for trisomy Down syndrome. Notice the three copies of chromosome 21 Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the 21st chromosome, either in whole (trisomy 21) or part (such as due to translocations). The effects of the extra copy vary greatly among people, depending on the extent of the extra copy, genetic history, and pure chance. Down syndrome occurs in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species such as chimpanzees McClure HM, Belden KH, Pieper WA, Jacobson CB. Autosomal trisomy in a chimpanzee: resemblance to Down's syndrome. Science. 1969 5 September;165(897):1010–2. PMID 4240970 and mice. Recently, researchers have created transgenic mice with most of human chromosome 21 (in addition to the normal mouse chromosomes). The extra chromosomal material can come about in several distinct ways. A typical human karyotype is designated as 46,XX or 46,XY, indicating 46 chromosomes with an XX arrangement typical of females and 46 chromosomes with an XY arrangement typical of males. For a description of human karyotype see Trisomy 21 Trisomy 21 (47,XX,+21) is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. With nondisjunction, a gamete (i.e., a sperm or egg cell) is produced with an extra copy of chromosome 21; the gamete thus has 24 chromosomes. When combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, the embryo now has 47 chromosomes, with three copies of chromosome 21. Trisomy 21 is the cause of approximately 95% of observed Down syndromes, with 88% coming from nondisjunction in the maternal gamete and 8% coming from nondisjunction in the paternal gamete. Mosaicism Trisomy 21 is usually caused by nondisjunction in the gametes prior to conception, and all cells in the body are affected. However, when some of the cells in the body are normal and other cells have trisomy 21, it is called mosaic Down syndrome (46,XX/47,XX,+21). Mosaic Down syndrome on the Web International Mosaic Down syndrome Association This can occur in one of two ways: a nondisjunction event during an early cell division in a normal embryo leads to a fraction of the cells with trisomy 21; or a Down syndrome embryo undergoes nondisjunction and some of the cells in the embryo revert to the normal chromosomal arrangement. There is considerable variability in the fraction of trisomy 21, both as a whole and among tissues. This is the cause of 1–2% of the observed Down syndromes. Robertsonian translocation The extra chromosome 21 material that causes Down syndrome may be due to a Robertsonian translocation in the karyotype of one of the parents. In this case, the long arm of chromosome 21 is attached to another chromosome, often chromosome 14 (45,XX, t(14;21q)) or itself (called an isochromosome, 45,XX, t(21q;21q)). A person with such a translocation is phenotypically normal. During reproduction, normal disjunctions leading to gametes have a significant chance of creating a gamete with an extra chromosome 21, producing a child with Down syndrome. Translocation Down syndrome is often referred to as familial Down syndrome. It is the cause of 2–3% of observed cases of Down syndrome. It does not show the maternal age effect, and is just as likely to have come from fathers as mothers. Duplication of a portion of chromosome 21 Rarely, a region of chromosome 21 will undergo a duplication event. This will lead to extra copies of some, but not all, of the genes on chromosome 21 (46,XX, dup(21q)). Petersen MB, Tranebjaerg L, McCormick MK, Michelsen N, Mikkelsen M, Antonarakis SE. Clinical, cytogenetic, and molecular genetic characterization of two unrelated patients with different duplications of 21q. Am J Med Genet Suppl. 1990;7:104-9. PMID 2149934 If the duplicated region has genes that are responsible for Down syndrome physical and mental characteristics, such individuals will show those characteristics. This cause is very rare and no rate estimates are available. Incidence Graph showing probability of Down syndrome as a function of maternal age. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at one per 800 to one per 1000 births. Based on estimates by National Institute of Child Health & Human Development In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated the rate as one per 733 live births in the United States (5429 new cases per year). Approximately 95% of these are trisomy 21. Down syndrome occurs in all ethnic groups and among all economic classes. Maternal age influences the chances of conceiving a baby with Down syndrome. At maternal age 20 to 24, the probability is one in 1562; at age 35 to 39 the probability is one in 214, and above age 45 the probability is one in 19. PMCID: PMC1051343 Although the probability increases with maternal age, 80% of children with Down syndrome are born to women under the age of 35, Estimate from reflecting the overall fertility of that age group. Recent data also suggest that paternal age, especially beyond 42, also increases the risk of Down Syndrome manifesting in pregnancies in older mothers. Warner, Jennifer. "Dad's Age Raises Down Syndrome Risk, Too", Current research (as of 2008) has shown that Down syndrome is due to a random event during the formation of sex cells or pregnancy. There has been no evidence that it is due to parental behavior (other than age) or environmental factors. Prenatal screening Procedures Pregnant women can be screened for various complications during pregnancy. Many standard prenatal screens can discover Down syndrome. Genetic counseling along with genetic testing, such as amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), or percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling (PUBS) are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome, or where normal prenatal exams indicate possible problems. ACOG guidelines recommend that non-invasive screening and invasive testing be offered to all women, regardless of their age, and most likely all physicians currently follow these guidelines. However, some insurance plans will only reimburse invasive testing if a woman is >34 years old or if she has received a high-risk score from a non-invasive screening test. Amniocentesis and CVS are considered invasive procedures, in that they involve inserting instruments into the uterus, and therefore carry a small risk of causing fetal injury or miscarriage. The risks of miscarriage for CVS and amniocentesis are often quoted as 1% and 0.5% respectively. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate a fetus with Down syndrome. These are normally performed in the late first trimester or early second trimester. Due to the nature of screens, each has a significant chance of a false positive, suggesting a fetus with Down syndrome when, in fact, the fetus does not have this genetic abnormality. Screen positives must be verified before a Down syndrome diagnosis is made. Common screening procedures for Down syndrome are given in Table 1. + Table 1: First and second trimester Down syndrome screensScreenWhen performed (weeks gestation)Detection rateFalse positive rateDescriptionQuad screen15–2081% ACOG Guidelines Bulletin #77 clearly state that the sensitivity of the Quad Test is 81% 5%This test measures the maternal serum alpha feto protein (a fetal liver protein), estriol (a pregnancy hormone), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, a pregnancy hormone), and inhibin-Alpha (INHA). For a current estimate of rates, see Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan (2001). "Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results". Prenatal Diagnosis 21 (1): 46–51. doi:10.1002/1097-0223(200101)21:1<46::AID-PD984>3.0.CO;2-C. PMID 11180240 Nuchal translucency/free beta/PAPPA screen (aka "1st Trimester Combined Test")10–13.585% ACOG Guidelines Bulletin #77 state that the sensitivity of the Combined Test is 82-87% 5%Uses ultrasound to measure Nuchal Translucency in addition to the freeBeta hCG and PAPPA (pregnancy-associated plasma protein A). NIH has confirmed that this first trimester test is more accurate than second trimester screening methods. NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 (353):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 (353):19). Performing an NT ultrasound requires considerable skill; a Combined test may be less accurate if there is operator error, resulting in a lower-than-advertised sensitivity and higher false-positive rate, possibly in the 5-10% range.Integrated Test10-13.5 and 15–2095% ACOG Guidelines Bulletin #77 state that the sensitivity of the Integrated Test is 94-96% 5%The Integrated test uses measurements from both the 1st Trimester Combined test and the 2nd trimester Quad test to yield a more accurate screening result. Because all of these tests are dependent on accurate calculation of the gestational age of the fetus, the real-world false-positive rate is >5% and maybe be closer to 7.5%. Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome and megacystis Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%–95% and the rate of false positive is 2%–5%. Inaccuracies can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins. Confirmation of screen positive is normally accomplished with amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling (CVS). Amniocentesis is an invasive procedure and involves taking amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac and identifying fetal cells. The lab work can take several weeks but will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate. Ethical issues A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies in the United States with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated. PMID 10521836 This is similar to 90% results found by PMID 10951466 Data from the National Down Syndrome Cytogenetic Register in the United Kingdom indicates that from 1989 to 2006 the proportion of women choosing to terminate a pregnancy following prenatal diagnosis of Down Syndrome has remained constant at around 92%. Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications of this. Conservative commentator George Will called it "eugenics by abortion". British peer Lord Rix stated that "alas, the birth of a child with Down's syndrome is still considered by many to be an utter tragedy" and that the "ghost of the biologist Sir Francis Galton, who founded the eugenics movement in 1885, still stalks the corridors of many a teaching hospital". Letter: Ghost of eugenics stalks Down's babies | Independent, The (London) | Find Articles at BNET.com Doctor David Mortimer has argued in Ethics & Medicine that "Down's syndrome infants have long been disparaged by some doctors and government bean counters." New Eugenics and the newborn: The historical "cousinage" of eugenics and infanticide, The | Ethics & Medicine | Find Articles at BNET.com Some members of the disability rights movement "believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals." PMID 12587137 A 1998 study of Finnish doctors found that "Only very few, pediatricians somewhat more often, thought that Down's syndrome is not a good enough reason for pregnancy termination, but more (15-21%) thought that current prenatal screenings in general are (partly) based on eugenic thinking." Finnish physicians' opinions of Down's syndrome screening Cognitive development Cognitive development in children with Down syndrome is quite variable. It is not currently possible at birth to predict the capabilities of any individual reliably, nor are the number or appearance of physical features predictive of future ability. The identification of the best methods of teaching each particular child ideally begins soon after birth through early intervention programs. Also Since children with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities, success at school can vary greatly, which underlines the importance of evaluating children individually. The cognitive problems that are found among children with Down syndrome can also be found among typical children. Therefore, parents can use general programs that are offered through the schools or other means. Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech, and commonly individuals with Down syndrome have a speech delay, requiring speech therapy to improve expressive language. Also, Fine motor skills are delayed and often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development. Effects of the disorder on the development of gross motor skills are quite variable. Some children will begin walking at around 2 years of age, while others will not walk until age 4. Physical therapy, and/or participation in a program of adapted physical education (APE), may promote enhanced development of gross motor skills in Down syndrome children. Individuals with Down syndrome differ considerably in their language and communication skills. It is routine to screen for middle ear problems and hearing loss; low gain hearing aids or other amplification devices can be useful for language learning. Early communication intervention fosters linguistic skills. Language assessments can help profile strengths and weaknesses; for example, it is common for receptive language skills to exceed expressive skills. Individualized speech therapy can target specific speech errors, increase speech intelligibility, and in some cases encourage advanced language and literacy. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) methods, such as pointing, body language, objects, or graphics are often used to aid communication. Relatively little research has focused on the effectiveness of communications intervention strategies. In education, mainstreaming of children with Down syndrome is becoming less controversial in many countries. For example, there is a presumption of mainstream in many parts of the UK. Mainstreaming is the process whereby students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their chronological peers. Children with Down syndrome may not age emotionally/socially and intellectually at the same rates as children without Down syndrome, so over time the intellectual and emotional gap between children with and without Down syndrome may widen. Complex thinking as required in sciences but also in history, the arts, and other subjects can often be beyond the abilities of some, or achieved much later than in other children. Therefore, children with Down syndrome may benefit from mainstreaming provided that some adjustments are made to the curriculum. Also, see Finally, see a survey by NDSS on inclusion, Some European countries such as Germany and Denmark advise a two-teacher system, whereby the second teacher takes over a group of children with disabilities within the class. A popular alternative is cooperation between special schools and mainstream schools. In cooperation, the core subjects are taught in separate classes, which neither slows down the typical students nor neglects the students with disabilities. Social activities, outings, and many sports and arts activities are performed together, as are all breaks and meals. There are many such programs. One is described by Action Alliance for Children, Also, see Health The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. The health aspects of Down syndrome encompass anticipating and preventing effects of the condition, recognizing complications of the disorder, managing individual symptoms, and assisting the individual and his/her family in coping and thriving with any related disability or illnesses. Down syndrome can result from several different genetic mechanisms. This results in a wide variability in individual symptoms due to complex gene and environment interactions. Prior to birth, it is not possible to predict the symptoms that an individual with Down syndrome will develop. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as epilepsy. The most common manifestations of Down syndrome are the characteristic facial features, cognitive impairment, congenital heart disease (typically a ventricular septal defect), hearing deficits (maybe due to sensory-neural factors, or chronic serous otitis media, also known as Glue-ear), short stature, thyroid disorders, and Alzheimer's disease. Other less common serious illnesses include leukemia, immune deficiencies, and epilepsy. However, health benefits of Down syndrome include greatly reduced incidence of many common malignancies except leukemia and testicular cancer Yang Q, Rasmussen SA, Friedman JM. Mortality associated with Down's syndrome in the USA from 1983 to 1997: a population-based study. Lancet 2002 23 March;359(9311):1019–25. PMID 11937181 — although it is, as yet, unclear whether the reduced incidence of various fatal cancers among people with Down syndrome is as a direct result of tumor-suppressor genes on chromosome 21 (such as Ets2), because of reduced exposure to environmental factors that contribute to cancer risk, or some other as-yet unspecified factor. In addition to a reduced risk of most kinds of cancer, people with Down syndrome also have a much lower risk of hardening of the arteries and diabetic retinopathy. Life expectancy These factors can contribute to a shorter life expectancy for people with Down syndrome. One study, carried out in the United States in 2002, showed an average lifespan of 49 years, with considerable variations between different ethnic and socio-economic groups. However, in recent decades, the life expectancy among persons with Down syndrome has increased significantly up from 25 years in 1980. The causes of death have also changed, with chronic neurodegenerative diseases becoming more common as the population ages. Most people with Down Syndrome who survive into their 40s and 50s begin to suffer from an alzheimer's-like dementia. Current Medical Dianosis & Treatment 1999 ed. Lawrence M. Tierney, Jr., MD, Stephen J. McPhee, MD, Maxine A. Papadakis, MD, Appleton & Lange, 1999. pp.1546 ISBN 0-8385-1550-9 Fertility Fertility amongst both males and females is reduced; males are usually unable to father children, while females demonstrate significantly lower rates of conception relative to unaffected individuals. Approximately half of the offspring of someone with Down syndrome also have the syndrome themselves. There have been only three recorded instances of males with Down syndrome fathering children. Research Down syndrome is “a developmental abnormality characterized by trisomy of human chromosome 21" (Nelson 619). The extra copy of chromosome-21 leads to an over expression of certain genes located on chromosome-21. Research by Arron et al. shows that some of the phenotypes associated with Down cyndrome can be related to the dysregulation of transcription factors (596), and in particular, NFAT. NFAT is controlled in part by two proteins, DSCR1 and DYRK1A; these genes are located on chromosome-21 (Epstein 582). In people with Down cyndrome, these proteins have 1.5 times greater concentration than normal (Arron et al. 597). The elevated levels of DSCR1 and DYRK1A keep NFAT primarily located in the cytoplasm rather than in the nucleus, preventing NFATc from activating the transcription of target genes and thus the production of certain proteins (Epstein 583). This dysregulation was discovered by testing in transgenic mice that had segments of their chromosomes duplicated to simulate a human chromosome-21 trisomy (Arron et al. 597). A test involving grip strength showed that the genetically modified mice had a significantly weaker grip, much like the characteristically poor muscle tone of an individual with Down syndrome (Arron et al. 596). The mice squeezed a probe with a paw and displayed a .2 newton weaker grip (Arron et al. 596). Down syndrome is also characterized by increased socialization. When modified and unmodified mice were observed for social interaction, the modified mice showed as much as 25% more interactions as compared to the unmodified mice (Arron et al. 596). The genes that may be responsible for the phenotypes associated may be located proximal to 21q22.3. Testing by Olson et al. in transgenic mice show the duplicated genes presumed to cause the phenotypes are not enough to cause the exact features. While the mice had sections of multiple genes duplicated to approximate a human chromosome-21 triplication, they only showed slight craniofacial abnormalities (688-690). The transgenic mice were compared to mice that had no gene duplication by measuring distances on various points on their skeletal structure and comparing them to the normal mice (Olson et al. 687). The exact characteristics of Down syndrome were not observed, so more genes involved for Down Syndrome phenotypes have to be located elsewhere. Reeves et al., using 250 clones of chromosome-21 and specific gene markers, were able to map the gene in mutated bacteria. The testing had 99.7% coverage of the gene with 99.9995% accuracy due to multiple redundancies in the mapping techniques. In the study 225 genes were identified (311-313). The search for major genes that may be involved in Down syndrome symptoms is normally in the region 21q21–21q22.3. However, studies by Reeves et al. show that 41% of the genes on chromosome-21 have no functional purpose, and only 54% of functional genes have a known protein sequence. Functionality of genes was determined by a computer using exon prediction analysis (312). Exon sequence was obtained by the same procedures of the chromosome-21 mapping. Research has led to an understanding that two genes located on chromosome-21, that code for proteins that control gene regulators, DSCR1 and DYRK1A can be responsible for some of the phenotypes associated with Down syndrome. DSCR1 and DYRK1A cannot be blamed outright for the symptoms; there are a lot of genes that have no known purpose. Much more research would be needed to produce any appropriate or ethically acceptable treatment options. Recent use of transgenic mice to study specific genes in the Down syndrome critical region has yielded some results. APP , gene located at 21q21. Retrieved on 2006-12-05. is an Amyloid beta A4 precursor protein. It is suspected to have a major role in cognitive difficulties. Another gene, ETS2 , located at 21 q22.3. Retrieved on 2006-12-05. is Avian Erythroblastosis Virus E26 Oncogene Homolog 2. Researchers have "demonstrated that over-expression of ETS2 results in apoptosis. Transgenic mice over-expressing ETS2 developed a smaller thymus and lymphocyte abnormalities, similar to features observed in Down syndrome." Vitamin supplements, in particular supplemental antioxidants and folinic acid, have been shown to be ineffective in the treatment of Down syndrome. Sociological and cultural aspects Advocates for people with Down syndrome point to various factors, such as additional educational support and parental support groups to improve parenting knowledge and skills. There are also strides being made in education, housing, and social settings to create environments which are accessible and supportive to people with Down syndrome. In most developed countries, since the early twentieth century many people with Down syndrome were housed in institutions or colonies and excluded from society. However, since the early 1960s parents and their organizations (such as MENCAP), educators and other professionals have generally advocated a policy of inclusion, bringing people with any form of mental or physical disability into general society as much as possible. In many countries, people with Down syndrome are educated in the normal school system; there are increasingly higher-quality opportunities to move from special (segregated) education to regular education settings. Despite these changes, the additional support needs of people with Down syndrome can still pose a challenge to parents and families. Although living with family is preferable to institutionalization, people with Down syndrome often encounter patronizing attitudes and discrimination in the wider community. The first World Down Syndrome Day was held on 21 March 2006. The day and month were chosen to correspond with 21 and trisomy respectively. It was proclaimed by European Down Syndrome Association during their European congress in Palma de Mallorca (febr. 2005). In the United States, the National Down Syndrome Society observes Down Syndrome Month every October as "a forum for dispelling stereotypes, providing accurate information, and raising awareness of the potential of individuals with Down syndrome." National Down Syndrome Society In South Africa, Down Syndrome Awareness Day is held every October 20. Down Syndrome South Africa Organizations such as Special Olympics Hawaii provide year-round sports training for individuals with intellectual disabilities such as down syndrome. History English physician John Langdon Down first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental disability in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866. For a history of the disorder, see or Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities (epicanthal folds) with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race, Down used the term mongoloid, derived from prevailing ethnic theory. By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability. Most individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the (then) 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was "Action T4" in Nazi Germany, a program of systematic murder. Court challenges, scientific advances and public revulsion led to discontinuation or repeal of such sterilization programs during the decades after World War II. Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown. However, the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. Other theories focused on injuries sustained during birth. With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s, it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, Jérôme Lejeune discovered that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome. The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as trisomy 21. In 1961, eighteen geneticists wrote to the editor of The Lancet suggesting that Mongolian idiocy had "misleading connotations," had become "an embarrassing term," and should be changed. The Lancet supported Down's Syndrome. The World Health Organization (WHO) officially dropped references to mongolism in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate. However, almost 40 years later, the term ‘mongolism’ still appears in leading medical texts such as General and Systematic Pathology, 4th Edition, 2004, edited by Professor Sir James Underwood. In 1975, the United States National Institutes of Health convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: "The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder." A planning meeting was held on 20 March 1974, resulting in a letter to The Lancet. The conference was held 10 February-11 February 1975, and reported to The Lancet shortly afterward. Although both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries; Down's syndrome is still used in the United Kingdom and other areas. Notable individuals Scottish award-winning film and TV actress Paula Sage receives her BAFTA award with Brian Cox. Stephane Ginnsz, actor (Duo)—In 1996 was first actor with Down syndrome in the lead part of a motion picture. Joey Moss, Edmonton Oilers locker room attendant. Isabella Pujols, adopted daughter of St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Albert Pujols and inspiration for the Pujols Family Foundation. Paula Sage, Scottish film actress and Special Olympics netball athlete. Her role in the 2003 film AfterLife brought her a BAFTA Scotland award for best first time performance and Best Actress in the Bratislava International Film Festival, 2004. Chris Burke, American actor who portrayed "Corky Thatcher" on the television series Life Goes On and "Taylor" on Touched By An Angel. Edward Barbanell, played Billy in 2005's The Ringer. Danny Alsabbagh, Australian actor who played Toby in the Australian mocumentary series Summer Heights High Tommy Jessop, British actor who played Ben in Coming Down the Mountain, opposite Nicholas Hoult Rene Moreno, subject of "Up Syndrome" - a documentary film about life with Down syndrome. from the Corpus-Christi Caller Times Portrayal in fiction Bret Lott: Jewel Bernice Rubens: A Solitary Grief Paul M Belous & Robert Wolterstorff: Quantum Leap: Jimmy Emily Perl Kingsley: Welcome to Holland The Kingdom and its American counterpart, Kingdom Hospital Stephen King: Dreamcatcher Dean Koontz: The Bad Place Jeffrey Eugenides: The Virgin Suicides Janet Mitchell, character in EastEnders Kim Edwards: The Memory Keeper's Daughter June Rae Wood: The Man Who Loved Clowns Jaco van Dormael: Le huitième jour Mark Haddon: Coming Down the Mountain (BBC Radio play and BBC TV Drama) Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell's mother: Prison Break Chris Burke as Charles "Corky" Thatcher in Life Goes On "Toby": Summer Heights High See also Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities Footnotes References Research bibliography General bibliography Hassold, T.J., D. Patterson, eds. (1999). Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together. New York: Wiley Liss. Pueschel, S.M., M. Sustrova, eds. (1997). Adolescents with Down Syndrome: Toward a More Fulfilling Life. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. 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1,708 | Misdemeanor | A misdemeanor, or misdemeanour, in many common law legal systems, is a "lesser" criminal act. Misdemeanors are generally punished much less severely than felonies, but theoretically more so than administrative infractions (also known as regulatory offenses). Many misdemeanors are punished with monetary fines. Usually only repeat misdemeanor offenders are punished by actual jail time. It is highly unlikely that a first time misdemeanant will serve any jail time. It is likely that if one is convicted of a misdemeanor that it will be expunged. In the United States, the federal government generally considers a crime punishable with incarceration for one year or less to be a misdemeanor. 18 USC 3559. All other crimes are felonies. Many states also follow this. The distinction between a felony and misdemeanor has been abolished by most other common law jurisdictions (e.g. Crimes Act 1958 (Vic., Australia) s. 332B(1), Crimes Act 1900 (NSW., Australia) s. 580E(1)). Those jurisdictions have generally adopted some other classification, e.g. in Canada, Australia, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, the crimes are divided into summary offences and indictable offences. In some jurisdictions, those who are convicted of a misdemeanor are known as misdemeanants (as contrasted with those convicted of a felony who are known as felons). Depending on the jurisdiction, examples of misdemeanors may include: petty theft, prostitution, public intoxication, simple assault, disorderly conduct, trespass, vandalism, drug possession, DUI and other similar crimes. In the United States, misdemeanors are crimes with a maximum punishment of 12 months of incarceration, typically in a local jail (again, as contrasted with felons, who are typically incarcerated in a prison). Those people who are convicted of misdemeanors are often punished with probation, community service or part-time imprisonment, served on the weekends. Misdemeanors usually do not result in the loss of civil rights, but may result in loss of privileges, such as professional licenses, public offices, or public employment. Such effects are known as the collateral consequences of criminal charges. This is more common when the misdemeanor is related to the privilege in question (such as the loss of a taxi driver's license after a conviction for reckless driving), or when the misdemeanor involves moral turpitude and in general is evaluated on a case-by-case basis. One prominent example of this is found in the United States Constitution, which provides that the President may be impeached by Congress for "high crimes and misdemeanors" and removed from office accordingly. The definition of a "high crime" is left to the judgment of Congress. Within classes of offenses, the form of punishment can vary widely. For example, the US federal government and many U.S. states divide misdemeanors into several classes, with certain classes punishable by jail time and others carrying only a fine. When a statute does not specify the class, it is referred to as an unclassified misdemeanor. Sometimes this is done when legislators wish to impose a penalty that falls outside the framework specified in the classes. For instance, Virginia has four classes of misdemeanors, with Class 1 and Class 2 misdemeanors being punishable by twelve-month and six-month jail sentences, respectively, and Class 3 and Class 4 misdemeanors being non-jail offenses payable by fines; but first-time marijuana possession is an unclassified misdemeanor punishable by serving up to 30 days in jail § 18.2-250.1. Possession of marijuana unlawful, Code of Virginia. § 18.2-11. Punishment for conviction of misdemeanor, Code of Virginia. . 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1,709 | Economy_of_Japan | The economy of Japan is the second largest economy in the world, after the United States at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and third after the United States and China when adjusted for purchasing power parity. The workers of Japan rank 18th in the world in GDP per hour worked as of 2006. Groningen Growth and Development Centre (GGDC) Japan's economy is highly efficient, highly diversified, and very competitive, being ranked 19th among 111 countries on productivity. Japan has a well-educated work force and high levels of savings and investment rates. For three decades, Japan's overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Japan - Patterns Of Development Sliding stock and real estate prices marked the end of the "Japanese asset price bubble" of the late 1980s, and ushered in a decade of stagnant economic growth. These problems may have been exacerbated by domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1.5% yearly between 1991-1999, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. Growth in Japan throughout the 1990s was slower than growth in other major industrial nations, and the same as in France and Germany. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the global economy. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html "Japan Economy," CIA World Factbook However, GDP per worker has increased steadily even through the nineties, growing at 2.0% per year in 2003 and 2004, and 2.8 percent in 2005. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. As predicted, the economic recovery continued in 2006 and 2007. Natural resources A mountainous, volcanic island country, Japan has inadequate natural resources to support its growing economy and large population. Although many kinds of minerals were extracted throughout the country, most mineral resources had to be imported in the postwar era. Local deposits of metal-bearing ores were difficult to process because they were low grade. The nation's large and varied forest resources, which covered 70 percent of the country in the late 1980s, were not utilized extensively. Because of the terrain, underdeveloped road network, and high percentage of young trees, domestic sources were only able to supply between 25 and 30 percent of the nation's timber needs. Agriculture and fishing were the best developed resources, but only through years of painstaking investment and toil. The nation therefore built up the manufacturing and processing industries to convert raw materials imported from abroad. This strategy of economic development necessitated the establishment of a strong economic infrastructure to provide the needed energy, transportation, communications, and technological know-how. Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. Iron ore, copper, and bauxite must be imported, as well as many forest products. Infrastructure Shinkansen As of 2005, one half of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, a fifth from coal, and 14% from natural gas. Chapter 7 Energy, Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007 Nuclear power in Japan makes a quarter of electricity production and Japan would like to double it in the next decades. Japan's road spending has been large. Japan's Road to Deep Deficit Is Paved With Public Works, New York Times in 1997 . The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation. Chapter 9 Transport, Statistical Handbook of Japan Japan has left-hand traffic. A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive. Car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy-efficiency. Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; for instance, 7 JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation. Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. All trains are known for punctuality. There are 176 airports and flying is a popular way to travel between cities. The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's busiest airport. The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area). The largest ports include Nagoya Port. Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 57% at present. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Demand for oil is also dampened by higher government taxes on automobile engines over 2000 cc, as well as on gasoline itself, currently 54 yen per liter sold retail. Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north. Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied gas with tanks in the car trunks. A recent success towards greater fuel economy was the introduction of mass-produced Hybrid vehicles. Former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, who was working on Japan's economic revival, signed a treaty with Saudi Arabia and UAE about the rising prices of oil. Macro-economic trend Trend of Historical value of Japanese Yen This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Japan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Japanese Yen. See also Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1955 8,369,500 ￥360.00 1960 16,009,700 ￥360.00 1965 32,866,000 ￥360.00 1970 73,344,900 ￥360.00 1975 148,327,100 ￥297.26 1980 240,707,315 ￥225.82 75 1985 323,541,300 ￥236.79 86 1990 440,124,900 ￥144.15 92 1995 493,271,700 ￥122.78 98 2000 501,068,100 ￥107.73 100 2005 502,905,400 ￥110.01 97 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at ￥125.16. Services Japan Airlines is one of the largest airlines in the world. Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries such as Mitsubishi UFJ, Mizuho, NTT, TEPCO, Nomura, Mitsubishi Estate, Tokio Marine, JR East, Seven & I, and Japan Airlines counting as one of the largest companies in the world. The Koizumi government set Japan Post, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services for privatization by 2014. The six major keiretsus are the Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa Groups. Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3% (as of 2006). Industry Lexus LS. The rapid growth and success of Toyota's Lexus and other Japanese automakers is reflected Japan's strength and global dominance in the automobile industry.. Japanese manufacturing is very diversified, with a variety of advanced industries that are highly successful. Industry is concentrated in several regions, in the following order of importance: the Kantō region surrounding Tokyo, especially the prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama and Tokyo (the Keihin industrial region); the Tōkai region , including Aichi, Gifu, Mie, and Shizuoka prefectures (the Chukyo-Tokai industrial region); Kinki (Kansai), including Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe, ( the Hanshin industrial region); the southwestern part of Honshū and northern Shikoku around the Inland Sea (the Setouchi industrial region); and the northern part of Kyūshū (Kitakyūshū). In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers is found between Tokyo and Fukuoka, established by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns. The fields in which Japan enjoys relatively high technological development include consumer electronics, automobile manufacturing, semiconductor manufacturing, optical fibers, optoelectronics, optical media, facsimile and copy machines, and fermentation processes in food and biochemistry. Agriculture Rice is a very important crop in Japan as shown here in a rice paddy in Autumn, Kurihara, Miyagi prefecture. Only 12% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. Due to this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km² (14 million acres) cultivated. Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and was restricted to a quota of only 7.2% of average rice consumption from 1968 to 1988. Imports beyond the quota are unrestricted in legal terms, but subject to a 341 yen per kilogram tariff. This tariff is now estimated at 490%, but the rate will soar to a massive 778% under new calculation rules to be introduced as part of the Doha Round. "http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=2378" Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods) and wheat, the country must import about 50% "http://www.skillclear.co.uk/japan/default.asp" of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. Japan imports large quantities of wheat, sorghum, and soybeans, primarily from the United States. Japan is the largest market for EU agricultural exports. Apples are also grown, mostly in Tohoku and Hokkaidō; Pears and Oranges are mainly grown in Shikoku and in Kyūshū. Pears and oranges were first introduced by Dutch traders, in Nagasaki in the late 18th century. Fishery Japan ranked second in the world behind the People's Republic of China in tonnage of fish caught—11.9 million tons in 1989, up slightly from 11.1 million tons in 1980. After the 1973 energy crisis, deep-sea fishing in Japan declined, with the annual catch in the 1980s averaging 2 million tons. Offshore fisheries accounted for an average of 50 % of the nation's total fish catches in the late 1980s although they experienced repeated ups and downs during that period Coastal fishing by small boats, set nets, or breeding techniques accounts for about one third of the industry's total production, while offshore fishing by medium-sized boats makes up for more than half the total production. Deep-sea fishing from larger vessels makes up the rest. Among the many species of seafood caught are sardines, skipjack tuna, crab, shrimp, salmon, pollock, squid, clams, mackerel, sea bream, saury, tuna and Japanese amberjack. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch "https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html#Econ" , prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. "http://www.atimes.com/oceania/AH31Ah01.html" Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling. "http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4118990.stm" Labor force Unemployment rate of Japan In 2008, Japan's labour force consisted of some 66 million workers—40% of whom were women—and was rapidly shrinking. Labour union membership is about 12 million. The unemployment rate is currently 4.4%. In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation. One major long-term concern for the Japanese labour force is a low birthrate. In the first half of 2005, the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population, initially predicted to start in 2007, had already started. While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to remove barriers to immigration, the Japanese government has been reluctant to do so. In July 2006, the unemployment rate in Japan was 4.1%, according to the OECD. At the end of February 2009, it stood at 4.4% This seemingly modest rate however understates the situation. According to The Economist, the ratio of job offers to number of applicants has declined to just 0.59, from almost 1 at the start of 2008, while average work hours also declined. Average wages also went down by 2.9% over the 12 months ending in February. see also: Labor market of Japan Law and government Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index 2008. Japan has one of the smallest tax burdens in the developed world. After deductions, the majority of workers are free from personal income taxes. Value-added tax rate is only 5%, while corporate tax rates are high. Shareholder activism is rare despite the fact that the corporate law gives shareholders strong powers over managers. Recently, more shareholders have stood up against managers. Activist shareholders swarm in Japan, The Economist The government's liabilities include the third largest public debt of any nation. Japan's central bank has the second largest foreign exchange reserves after China. Culture Overview Nemawashi (根回し) in Japanese culture is an informal process of quietly laying the foundation for some proposed change or project, by talking to the people concerned, gathering support and feedback, and so forth. It is considered an important element in any major change, before any formal steps are taken, and successful nemawashi enables changes to be carried out with the consent of all sides. Japanese companies are known for management methods such as "The Toyota Way". Kaizen (改善, Japanese for "improvement") is a Japanese philosophy that focuses on continuous improvement throughout all aspects of life. When applied to the workplace, Kaizen activities continually improve all functions of a business, from manufacturing to management and from the CEO to the assembly line workers. By improving standardized activities and processes, Kaizen aims to eliminate waste (see Lean manufacturing). Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses during the country's recovery after World War II, including Toyota, and has since spread to businesses throughout the world. Europe Japan Centre, Kaizen Strategies for Improving Team Performance, Ed. Michael Colenso, London: Pearson Education Limited, 2000 Some companies have powerful enterprise unions and shuntō. The Nenko System or Nenko Joretsu as it is called in Japan, is the Japanese system of promoting an employee in order of his or her proximity to retirement. The advantage of the system is that it allows older employees to achieve a higher salary level before retirement and that it usually brings more experience to the executive ranks. The disadvantage of the system is that it does not allow new talent to be merged with the experience and those with specialized skills cannot be promoted to the already crowded executive ranks. It also does not guarantee or even attempt to bring the "right person for the right job". Relationships between government bureaucrats and companies are often cozy. is the institutionalised practice where Japanese senior bureaucrats retire to high-profile positions in the private and public sectors. The practice is increasingly viewed as corrupt and a drag on unfastening the ties between private sector and state which prevent economic and political reforms. Lifetime employment (shushin koyo) and seniority-based career advancement have been common in the Japanese work environment. OECD: Economic survey of Japan 2008 Recently, Japan has begun to gradually move away from some of these norms. The Economist: Going hybrid refers to someone whose income is salary based; particularly those working for corporations. Its frequent use by Japanese corporations, and its prevalence in Japanese manga and anime has gradually led to its acceptance in English-speaking countries as a noun for a Japanese white-collar businessman. The word can be found in many books and articles pertaining to Japanese culture. Immediately following World War II, becoming a salaryman was viewed as a gateway to a stable, middle-class lifestyle. In modern use, the term carries associations of long working hours, low prestige in the corporate hierarchy, absence of significant sources of income other than salary, wage slavery, and karōshi. The term salaryman refers almost exclusively to males. An office lady, often abbreviated OL (Japanese: オーエル Ōeru), is a female office worker in Japan who performs generally pink collar tasks such as serving tea and secretarial or clerical work. Like many unmarried Japanese, OLs often live with their parents well into early adulthood. Office ladies are usually full-time permanent staff, although the jobs they do usually have little opportunity for promotion, and there is usually the tacit expectation that they leave their jobs once they get married. (other spellings below) is a Japanese expression for people between the age of 15 and 34 who lack full time employment or are unemployed, excluding homemakers and students. They may also be described as underemployed or freelance workers. These people do not start a career after high school or university but instead usually live as parasite singles with their parents and earn some money with low skilled and low paid jobs. The low income makes it difficult for freeters to start a family, and the lack of qualifications makes it difficult to start a career at a later point in life. , which can be translated quite literally from Japanese as "death from overwork", is occupational sudden death. The major medical causes of karōshi deaths are heart attack and stroke due to stress. , (sometimes also translated as corporate bouncers, meeting-men, or corporate blackmailers) are a form of specialized racketeer unique to Japan, and often associated with the yakuza that extort money from or blackmail companies by threatening to publicly humiliate companies and their management, usually in their . is a Japanese term for moneylender, or loan shark. It is a contraction of the Japanese words for salaryman and cash. Around 14 million people, or 10% of the Japanese population, have borrowed from a sarakin. In total, there are about 10,000 firms (down from 30,000 a decade ago); however, the top seven firms make up 70% of the market. The value of outstanding loans totals $100 billion. The biggest sarakin are publicly traded and often allied with big banks. Lenders of first resort, The Economist, May 22, 2008 The first "Western-style" department store in Japan was Mitsukoshi, founded in 1904, which has its root as a kimono store called Echigoya from 1673. When the roots are considered, however, Matsuzakaya has an even longer history, dated from 1611. The kimono store changed to a department store in 1910. In 1924, Matsuzakaya store in Ginza allowed street shoes to be worn indoors, something innovative at the time. These former kimono shop department stores dominated the market in its earlier history. They sold, or rather displayed, luxurious products, which contributed for their sophisticated atmospheres. Another origin of Japanese department store is that from railway company. There have been many private railway operators in the nation, and from 1920s, they started to build department stores directly linked to their lines' termini. Seibu and Hankyu are the typical examples of this type. From the 1980s and onwards, Japanese department stores are facing the fierce competition from supermarkets and convenience stores, gradually losing their presences. Still, depāto are bastions of several aspects of cultural conservatism in the country. Gift certificates for prestigious department stores are frequently given as formal presents in Japan. Department stores in Japan generally offer a wide range of services and can include foreign exchange, travel reservations, ticket sales for local concerts and other events. Keiretsu A is a set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings. It is a type of business group. The prototypical keiretsu are those which appeared in Japan during the "economic miracle" following World War II. Before Japan's surrender, Japanese industry was controlled by large family-controlled vertical monopolies called zaibatsu. The Allies dismantled the zaibatsu in the late 1940s, but the companies formed from the dismantling of the zaibatsu were reintegrated. The dispersed corporations were re-interlinked through share purchases to form horizontally-integrated alliances across many industries. Where possible, keiretsu companies would also supply one another, making the alliances vertically integrated as well. In this period, official government policy promoted the creation of robust trade corporations which could withstand heavy pressures from intensified world trade competition. "Japan Again Plans Huge Corporations," New York Times. July 17, 1954. The major keiretsu were each centered around one bank, which lent money to the keiretsu's member companies and held equity positions in the companies. Each central bank had great control over the companies in the keiretsu and acted as a monitoring entity and as an emergency bail-out entity. One effect of this structure was to minimize the presence of hostile takeovers in Japan, because no entities could challenge the power of the banks. There are two types of keiretsu: vertical and horizontal. Vertical keiretsu illustrates the organization and relationships within a company (for example all factors of production of a certain product will be connected), while a horizontal keiretsu shows relationships between entities and industries, normally centered around a bank and trading company. Both are complexly woven together and self-sustain each other. The Japanese recession in the 1990s had profound effects on the keiretsu. Many of the largest banks were hit hard by bad loan portfolios and forced to merge or go out of business. This had the effect of blurring the lines between the keiretsu: Sumitomo Bank and Mitsui Bank, for instance, became Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation in 2001, while Sanwa Bank (the banker for the Hankyu-Toho Group) became part of Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ. Additionally, many companies from outside the keiretsu system, such as Sony, began outperforming their counterparts within the system. Generally, these causes gave rise to a strong notion in the business community that the old keiretsu system was not an effective business model, and led to an overall loosening of keiretsu alliances. While the keiretsu still exist, they are not as centralized or integrated as they were before the 1990s. This, in turn, has led to a growing corporate acquisition industry in Japan, as companies are no longer able to be easily "bailed out" by their banks, as well as rising derivative litigation by more independent shareholders. Current economic issues The Koizumi administration, which held office until 2006, enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future. "Japan, Refutation of Neoliberalism", Post-Autistic Economics Network, 5 January 2004. Retrieved 14 May 2006. Heterodox economists tend to claim that Japan's economy is far stronger than generally believed. Issue no. 23 of the Post-Autistic Economics Review Some mainstream economists acknowledge that Japan, which unlike most Western countries has maintained its industrial base, and has vast capital reserves, currently has a strong economic outlook. The privatization of Japan Post, the Japanese postal system which also runs insurance and deposit-taking businesses, is a major issue. A political battle over privatization caused a political stalemate in August, 2005, and ultimately led to the dissolution of the Japanese House of Representatives. The Postal Savings deposits, which have until now been used to fund public works projects, many of which have had questionable economic value, stands in excess of 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars, and could be a major force in energizing the private sector. Dispatches from Japan The Japanese monetary authorities' continued desire to depress the price of yen relative to other key specific currencies to protect domestic business from imports may no longer be feasible. The most recent record intervention in 2003 amounted to over 17 trillion yen, more than one third of one trillion US dollars at the time and nearly 3% of Japan's 2003 GDP, being sold in favor of other non-yen denominated assets. However, since 2005, Japan has not directly intervened to buy currency, as yen carry trade has effectively carried out the same task. Interestingly, international trade has expanded by 60% from 91.4 trillion yen to 142.6 trillion yen from 2001 to 2006. However, taking in account the economic participation rate, Japan's GDP per worker has increased steadily. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development downgraded its economic forecasts on March 20, 2008 for the Japan for the first half of 2008. Japan does not have room to ease fiscal or monetary policy, the 30-nation group warned. For Japan, the OECD said the pace of underlying growth appears to be softening despite support from buoyant neighboring Asian economies. The organization expects first-quarter GDP to be up 0.3 percent and predicts a rise of 0.2 in the second quarter. On November 17, 2008, Japanese government officials announced that the economy was in a recession. It was reported that Japan's economy contracted at an annual pace of 1.8% in the third quarter of 2008. It is forecasted to have shrunk 0.8% through the fiscal year that ends March 2009. Economic history An 1856 ukiyo-e depicting Echigoya, the current Mitsukoshi. The economic history of Japan is one of the most studied for its spectacular growth after the Meiji Revolution to be the first non European power and after the World War II when the island nation rose to become the world's second largest economy. First contacts with Europe (16th century) Renaissance Europeans were quite admiring of Japan when they reached the country in the 16th century. Japan was considered as a country immensely rich in precious metals, mainly owing to Marco Polo's accounts of gilded temples and palaces, but also due to the relative abundance of surface ores characteristic of a volcanic country, before large-scale deep-mining became possible in Industrial times. Japan was to become a major exporter of copper and silver during the period. Japan was also perceived as a sophisticated feudal society with a high culture and a strong pre-industrial technology. It was densely populated and urbanized. It had Buddhist “universities” larger than any learning institution in the West, such as Salamanca or Coimbra. Prominent European observers of the time seemed to agree that the Japanese "excel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they surpass the Europeans as well" (Alessandro Valignano, 1584, "Historia del Principo y Progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales). Early European visitors were amazed by the quality of Japanese craftsmanship and metalsmithing. This stems from the fact that Japan itself is rather poor in natural resources found commonly in Europe, especially iron. Thus, the Japanese were famously frugal with their consumable resources; what little they had they used with expert skill. Her copper and steel were the best in the world, her weapons the sharpest, her paper industries were unequaled. The cargo of the first Portuguese ships (usually about 4 smaller-sized ships every year) arriving in Japan almost entirely consisted of Chinese goods (silk, porcelain). The Japanese were very much looking forward to acquiring such goods, but had been prohibited from any contacts with the Emperor of China, as a punishment for Wakō pirate raids. The Portuguese (who were called Nanban, lit. Southern Barbarians) therefore found the opportunity to act as intermediaries in Asian trade. Edo period The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period, during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built her first ocean-going Western-style warships, such as the San Juan Bautista, a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, were active throughout Asia. In order to eradicate the influence of Christianization, Japan entered in a period of isolation called sakoku, during which its economy enjoyed stability and mild progress. Economic development during the Edo period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts. By the mid-eighteenth century, Edo had a population of more than 1 million and Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods. Rice was the base of the economy, as the daimyo collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, about 40% of the harvest. The rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. To raise money, the daimyo used forward contracts to sell rice that was not even harvested yet. These contracts were similar to modern futures trading. During the period, Japan progressively studied Western sciences and techniques (called rangaku, literally "Dutch studies") through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima. The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, or wadokei, inspired from Western techniques. From the Meiji Restoration to World War II Since the mid-nineteenth century, when the Tokugawa government first opened the country to Western commerce and influence, Japan has gone through two periods of economic development. The first began in earnest in 1868 and extended through World War II; the second began in 1945 and continued into mid-1980s. In the Meiji period (1868-1912), leaders inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Oyatoi gaikokujin). The government also built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. To promote industrialization, the government decided that, while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth. The greatest role of government was to help provide the economic conditions in which business could flourish. In short, government was to be the guide and business the producer. In the early Meiji period, the government built factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their value. Many of these businesses grew rapidly into the larger conglomerates. Government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of probusiness policies. In the mid 1930s, the Japanese nominal wage rates were 10 times less than the one of the U.S (based on mid-1930s exchange rates), while the price level is estimated to have been about 44% the one of the U.S. Post-war economic history Japanese exports in 2005 From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the late 1990s, largely due to the Bank of Japan's failure to cut interest rates quickly enough to counter after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s. Some economists believe that because the Bank of Japan failed to cut rates quickly enough, Japan entered a liquidity trap. Therefore, to keep its economy afloat, Japan ran massive budget deficits (added trillions in Yen to Japanese financial system) to finance large public works programs. By 1998, Japan's public works projects still could not stimulate demand enough to end the economy's stagnation. In desperation, the Japanese government undertook "structural reform" policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Unfortunately, these policies led Japan into deflation on numerous occasions between 1999 and 2004. In his 1998 paper, Japan's Trap, Princeton economics professor Paul Krugman argued that based on a number of models, Japan had a new option. Krugman's plan called for a rise in inflation expectations to, in effect, cut long-term interest rates and promote spending. Japan used another technique, somewhat based on Krugman's, called Quantitative easing. As opposed to flooding the money supply with newly printed money, the Bank of Japan expanded the money supply internally to raise expectations of inflation. Initially, the policy failed to induce any growth, but it eventually began to effect inflationary expectations. By late 2005, the economy finally began what seems to be a sustained recovery. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period. Masake, Hisane. A farewell to zero. Asia Times Online (2006-03-02). Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor of growth. Despite having interest rates down near zero for a long period of time, the Quantitative easing strategy did not succeed in stopping price deflation. This led some economists, such as Paul Krugman, and some Japanese politicians, to speak of deliberately causing hyperinflation. See, as one example, Paul Krugman's website, http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/jpage.html In July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended. In 2008, the Japanese Central Bank still has the lowest interest rates in the developed world, deflation has still not been eliminated and the Nikkei 225 has fallen over approximately 50% (between June 2007 and December 2008). The Economist has suggested that improvements to bankruptcy law, land transfer law, and tax laws will aid Japan's economy. The Mises Institute recommends that government regulators allow natural market forces to correct for the monetary expansion of the 1980s, and that, ultimately, a return to an asset- or commodity-backed currency (such as the Gold Standard) is necessary. In recent years, Japan has been the top export market for almost 15 trading nations worldwide. Other economic indicators Current account balance 2006 Current account balance, U.S. dollars, Billions from IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008 Industrial Production Growth Rate: 3.3% (2006 est.) Investment (gross fixed): 100% of GDP (2006 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: Lowest 10%: 4.8% Highest 10%: 21.7% (1993) Agriculture - Products: rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish Exports - Commodities: machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, semiconductors, chemicals Imports - Commodities: machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001) Exchange rates: Japanese Yen per US$1 - 100.320 (2008) 109.690016 (2005), 115.933 (2003), 125.388 (2002), 121.529 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995) Electricity: Electricity - consumption: 946.3 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - production: 996 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003) Electricity - Production by source: Fossil Fuel: 56.68% Hydro: 8.99% Nuclear: 31.93% Other: 2.4% (1998) Electricity - Standards: 100 volts at 50 Hz from the Oi River (in Shizuoka) Northward; 100 volts at 60 Hz Southward Oil: production: 125,000 bbl/day (2006) consumption: 5.578 million bbl/day (2005) exports: 93,360 barrel/day (2001) imports: 5.449 million barrel/day (2001) net imports: 5.3 million barrel/day (2004 est.) proved reserves: 59 million bbl (1 January 2006) See also Economic history of Japan Japanese post-war economic miracle Japanese asset price bubble Quantitative easing Notes | Economy_of_Japan |@lemmatized economy:20 japan:105 second:6 large:24 world:23 united:4 state:5 around:6 u:10 trillion:7 term:7 nominal:2 gdp:9 third:5 china:4 adjust:1 purchase:3 power:8 parity:2 worker:8 rank:6 per:9 hour:3 work:11 groningen:1 growth:20 development:9 centre:2 ggdc:1 highly:4 efficient:1 diversified:2 competitive:1 among:2 country:16 productivity:1 well:8 educate:1 force:7 high:14 level:4 saving:3 investment:5 rate:21 three:3 decade:5 overall:4 real:8 economic:31 spectacular:2 average:12 pattern:1 slide:1 stock:4 estate:6 price:8 mark:1 end:6 japanese:54 asset:4 bubble:2 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1,710 | Objective-C | Objective-C is a reflective, object-oriented programming language, which adds Smalltalk-style messaging to the C programming language. Today it is used primarily on Apple's Mac OS X and iPhone OS; two environments based on, although not compliant with, the OpenStep standard. Objective-C is the primary language used for Apple's Cocoa API, though it was originally used as the main language on NeXT's NeXTSTEP OS. Generic Objective-C programs which do not make use of these libraries can also be compiled for any system supported by gcc, which includes an Objective-C compiler. History In the early 1980s, common software engineering practice was based on structured programming. Structured programming was implemented in order to help "break down" programs into smaller parts, primarily to make them easier to work on as they grew increasingly large. However, as the problems being solved grew in size, structured programming became less useful as more and more procedures had to be written, leading to complex control structures and a low level of code reuse. Many saw object-oriented programming as a potential solution to the problem. In fact, Smalltalk had already addressed many of these engineering issues; some of the most complex systems in the world were Smalltalk environments. On the downside, Smalltalk used a virtual machine. The virtual machine interpreted an object memory called an image, containing all development tools. The Smalltalk image was very large and tended to require huge amounts of memory for the time and ran very slowly, partly due to the lack of useful hardware VM/container support. Objective-C was created primarily by Brad Cox and Tom Love in the early 1980s at their company Stepstone. Both had been introduced to Smalltalk while at ITT Corporation’s Programming Technology Center in 1981. Cox had become interested in the problems of true reusability in software design and programming. He realized that a language like Smalltalk would be invaluable in building powerful development environments for system developers at ITT. Cox began by modifying the C compiler to add some of the capabilities of Smalltalk. He soon had a working implementation of an object-oriented extension to the C language, which he called "OOPC" for Object-Oriented Programming in C. Meanwhile, Love was hired by Schlumberger Research in 1982 and had the opportunity to acquire the first commercial copy of Smalltalk-80, which further influenced development of their brainchild. In order to demonstrate that real progress could be made, Cox showed that making interchangeable software components really needed only a few practical changes to existing tools. Specifically, they needed to support objects in a flexible manner, come supplied with a usable set of libraries, and allow for the code (and any resources needed by the code) to be bundled into a single cross-platform format. Love and Cox eventually formed a new venture, Productivity Products International (PPI), to commercialize their product, which coupled an Objective-C compiler with powerful class libraries. In 1986, Cox published the main description of Objective-C in its original form in the book Object-Oriented Programming, An Evolutionary Approach. Although he was careful to point out that there is more to the problem of reusability than just the language, Objective-C often found itself compared feature for feature with other languages. Popularization through NeXT After Steve Jobs left Apple, he started the company NeXT. In 1988, NeXT licensed Objective-C from StepStone (the owner of the Objective-C trademark) and released its own Objective-C compiler and libraries on which the NeXTstep user interface and interface builder were based. Although the NeXT workstations failed to make a great impact in the marketplace, the tools were widely lauded in the industry. This led NeXT to drop hardware production and focus on software tools, selling NeXTstep (and OpenStep) as a platform for custom programming. The GNU project started work on its free clone of NeXTStep, named GNUstep, based on the OpenStep standard. Dennis Glatting wrote the first gnu-objc runtime in 1992. The GNU Objective-C runtime which has been in use since 1993 is the one developed by Kresten Krab Thorup when he was a university student in Denmark. Kresten also worked at NeXT from 1993 to 1996. After acquiring NeXT in 1996, Apple Inc. used OpenStep in its new operating system, Mac OS X. This included Objective-C and NeXT's Objective-C based developer tool, Project Builder (later replaced by Xcode), as well as its interface design tool, Interface Builder. Most of Apple's present-day Cocoa API is based on OpenStep interface objects, and is the most significant Objective-C environment being used for active development. Syntax Objective-C is a very thin layer on top of C. Objective-C is a strict superset of C. That is, it is possible to compile any C program with an Objective-C compiler. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk. Most of the syntax (including preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls) is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was created to enable Smalltalk-style messaging. Messages Objective-C syntax offers alternatives to a few "kludges" in C syntax but more importantly supports object-oriented programming (OOP). The Objective-C model of object-oriented programming is based on sending messages to sovereign (even self-correcting) objects. This is unlike the Simula-style programming model used by C++ and this distinction is semantically important. The basic difference is that in Objective-C one does not call a method; one sends a message. In Objective-C the "receiver" of a message can opt to refuse it. Both styles carry their own strengths and weaknesses. Simula-style OOP allows multiple inheritance and faster execution by using compile-time binding whenever possible but does not support dynamic binding by default. It also forces all methods to have a corresponding implementation unless they are virtual (an implementation is still required for the method to be called). Smalltalk-style OOP allows messages to go unimplemented and is dynamically bound but at best an Objective-C message takes over three times as long as a C++ virtual method call. Performance Comparisons of Common Operations An object with method method is said to "respond" to the message method. Sending the message method to the object pointed to by the pointer obj would require the following code in C++: obj->method(parameter); which in Objective-C is written as follows: [obj method:parameter]; This mechanism allows messages to be sent to an object defined first at runtime — something statically typed languages are incapable of per the current standards (e.g. C++ does not support dynamic typing). See the dynamic typing section below for more advantages of dynamic (late) binding. Objective-C has a few features in message-passing that relate to how it handles OOP. Objective-C messages do not need to execute because they are dynamically bound. If a message is implemented by an object, it will execute. If not, it will not execute, yet the code will still compile and run. So for example, every object is sent an "awakeFromNib" message, but those objects don't necessarily have to implement "awakeFromNib" to compile – if an object does implement "awakeFromNib", then that code will be executed when the message is sent, otherwise the message is ignored. Messages can also be sent to the object that implements them or to the superclass that an object is derived from. These can be accessed using the "self" and "super" object pointers. Also, messages can be sent to nil objects. Interfaces and implementations Objective-C requires that the interface and implementation of a class be in separately declared code blocks. By convention, the interface is put in a header file and the implementation in a code file; the header files, normally suffixed .h, are similar to C header files; the implementation (method) files, normally suffixed .m, can be very similar to C code files. Interface The interface of the class is usually defined in a header file. A common convention is to name the header file after the name of the class. The interface for class Class would thus be found in the file Class.h. The interface declaration of the form: @interface classname : superclassname { // instance variables } +classMethod1; +(return_type)classMethod2; +(return_type)classMethod3:(param1_type)parameter_varName; -(return_type)instanceMethod1:(param1_type)param1_varName :(param2_type)param2_varName; -(return_type)instanceMethod2WithParameter:(param1_type)param1_varName andOtherParameter:(param2_type)param2_varName; @end Plus signs denote class methods, minus signs denote instance methods. Class methods have no access to instance variables. If you are translating from C++ the above code is somewhat equivalent to: class classname : superclassname { // instance variables // Class (static) functions static void* classMethod1(); static return_type classMethod2(); static return_type classMethod3(param1_type parameter_varName); // Instance (member) functions return_type instanceMethod1(param1_type param1_varName, param2_type param2_varName); return_type instanceMethod2WithParameter(param1_type param1_varName, param2_type param2_varName=default); }; Note that instanceMethod2WithParameter demonstrates Objective C's named parameter capability for which there is no direct equivalent in C/C++. Return types can be any standard C type, a pointer to a generic Objective-C object, or a pointer to a specific type of object such as NSArray *, NSImage *, or NSString *. The default return type is the generic Objective-C type id. Method arguments begin with a colon followed by the expected argument type in parentheses followed by the argument name. In some cases (e.g. when writing system APIs) it is useful to add descriptive text before each parameter. -(void) setRange:(int)start :(int)end; -(void) importDocumentWithName:(NSString *)name withSpecifiedPreferences:(Preferences *)prefs beforePage:(int)insertPage; Implementation The interface only declares the class interface and not the methods themselves; the actual code is written in the implementation. Implementation (method) files normally have the file extension .m. @implementation classname +classMethod { // implementation } -instanceMethod { // implementation } @end Methods are written as with their interface declarations. Comparing Objective-C and C: -(int)method:(int)i { return [self square_root: i]; } int function(int i) { return square_root(i); } The syntax allows pseudo-naming of arguments. -(int)changeColorToRed:(float)red green:(float)green blue:(float)blue [myColor changeColorToRed:5.0 green:2.0 blue:6.0]; Internal representations of this method vary between different implementations of Objective-C. If myColor is of the class Color, internally, instance method -changeColorToRed:green:blue: might be labeled _i_Color_changeColorToRed_green_blue. The i is to refer to an instance method, with the class and then method names appended, colons translated to underscores. As the order of parameters is part of the method name, it cannot be changed to suit coding style or expression as in true named parameters. However, internal names of the function are rarely used directly, and generally messages are converted to function calls defined in the Objective-C runtime library – it's not necessarily known at link time which method will be called: the class of the receiver (the object being sent the message) need not be known until runtime. Instantiation Once an Objective-C class is written, it can be instantiated. This is done by first allocating the memory for a new object and then by initializing it. An object isn't fully functional until both steps have been completed. These steps are typically accomplished with a single line of code: MyObject * o = [[MyObject alloc] init]; The alloc call allocates enough memory to hold all the instance variables for an object, and the init call can be overridden to set instance variables to specific values on creation. The init method is often written as follows: -(id) init { self = [super init]; if (self) { ivar1 = value1; ivar2 = value2; . . . } return self; } Protocols Objective-C was extended at NeXT to introduce the concept of multiple inheritance of specification, but not implementation, through the introduction of protocols. This is a pattern achievable either as an abstract multiply-inherited base class in C++, or as an "interface" (as in Java and C#). Objective-C makes use of ad-hoc protocols, called informal protocols, and compiler enforced protocols called formal protocols. An informal protocol is a list of methods which a class can implement. It is specified in the documentation, since it has no presence in the language. Informal protocols often include optional methods, where implementing the method can change the behavior of a class. For example, a text field class might have a delegate which should implement an informal protocol with an optional autocomplete method. The text field discovers whether the delegate implements that method (via reflection), and, if so, calls it to support autocomplete. A formal protocol is similar to an interface in Java or C#. It is a list of methods which any class can declare itself to implement. Versions of Objective-C before 2.0 required that a class must implement all methods in a protocol it declares itself as adopting; the compiler will emit an error if the class does not implement every method of its declared protocols. However, Objective-C 2.0 added support for marking certain methods in a protocol optional; the compiler will not enforce that such methods are implemented. The Objective-C concept of protocols is different from the Java or C# concept of interfaces in that a class may implement a protocol without being declared to implement that protocol. The difference is not detectable from outside code. Formal protocols cannot provide any implementations, they simply assure callers that classes which conform to the protocol will provide implementations. In the NeXT/Apple library, protocols are frequently used by the Distributed Objects system to represent the capabilities of an object executing on a remote system. The syntax @protocol Locking - (void)lock; - (void)unlock; @end denotes that there is the abstract idea of locking which is useful, and when stated in a class definition @interface SomeClass : SomeSuperClass <Locking> @end denotes that instances of SomeClass will provide an implementation for the two instance methods using whatever means they want. This abstract specification is particularly useful to describe the desired behaviors of plug-ins for example, without constraining at all what the implementation hierarchy should be. Dynamic typing Objective-C, like Smalltalk, can use dynamic typing: an object can be sent a message that is not specified in its interface. This can allow for increased flexibility — in Objective-C an object can "capture" this message, and depending on the object, can send the message off again to a different object (who can respond to the message correctly and appropriately, or likewise send the message on again). This behavior is known as message forwarding or delegation (see below). Alternatively, an error handler can be used instead, in case the message cannot be forwarded. If the object does not forward the message, handle the error, or respond to it, a runtime error occurs. Static typing information may also optionally be added to variables. This information is then checked at compile time. In the following statements, increasingly specific type information is provided. The statements are equivalent at runtime, but the additional information allows the compiler to warn the programmer if the passed argument does not match the type specified. In the first statement, the object may be of any class. In the second statement, the object must conform to the aProtocol protocol, and in the third, it must be a member of the NSNumber class. - setMyValue:(id) foo; - setMyValue:(id <aProtocol>) foo; - setMyValue:(NSNumber*)foo; Dynamic typing can be a powerful feature. When implementing container classes using statically-typed languages without generics like pre-1.5 Java, the programmer is forced to write a container class for a generic type of object, and then cast back and forth between the abstract generic type and the real type. Casting however breaks the discipline of static typing – if you put in an Integer and read out a String, you get an error. One way of alleviating the problem is to resort to generic programming, but then container classes must be homogeneous in type. This need not be the case with dynamic typing. Forwarding Since Objective-C permits the sending of a message to an object which might not respond to it, the object has a number of things it can do with the message. One of these things could be to forward the message on to an object which can respond to it. Forwarding can be used to implement certain design patterns, such as the Observer pattern or the Proxy pattern, very simply. The Objective-C runtime specifies a pair of methods in Object forwarding methods: - (retval_t) forward:(SEL) sel :(arglist_t) args; // with GCC - (id) forward:(SEL) sel :(marg_list) args; // with NeXT/Apple systems action methods: - (retval_t) performv:(SEL) sel :(arglist_t) args; // with GCC - (id) performv:(SEL) sel :(marg_list) args; // with NeXT/Apple systems and as such an object wishing to implement forwarding needs only to override the forwarding method to define the forwarding behaviour. The action methods performv:: need not be overridden as this method merely performs the method based on the selector and arguments. Example Here is an example of a program which demonstrates the basics of forwarding. Forwarder.h #import <objc/Object.h> @interface Forwarder : Object { id recipient; //The object we want to forward the message to. } //Accessor methods - (id) recipient; - (id) setRecipient:(id) _recipient; @end Forwarder.m #import "Forwarder.h" @implementation Forwarder - (retval_t) forward: (SEL) sel : (arglist_t) args { /* * Check whether the recipient actually responds to the message. * This may or may not be desirable, for example, if a recipient * in turn does not respond to the message, it might do forwarding * itself. */ if([recipient respondsTo:sel]) return [recipient performv: sel : args]; else return [self error:"Recipient does not respond"]; } - (id) setRecipient: (id) _recipient { recipient = _recipient; return self; } - (id) recipient { return recipient; } @end Recipient.h #import <objc/Object.h> // A simple Recipient object. @interface Recipient : Object - (id) hello; @end Recipient.m #import "Recipient.h" @implementation Recipient - (id) hello { printf("Recipient says hello!\n"); return self; } @end main.m #import "Forwarder.h" #import "Recipient.h" int main(void) { Forwarder *forwarder = [Forwarder new]; Recipient *recipient = [Recipient new]; [forwarder setRecipient:recipient]; //Set the recipient. /* * Observe forwarder does not respond to a hello message! It will * be forwarded. All unrecognized methods will be forwarded to * the recipient * (if the recipient responds to them, as written in the Forwarder) */ [forwarder hello]; return 0; } Notes If we were to compile the program, the compiler would report: $ gcc -x objective-c -Wno-import Forwarder.m Recipient.m main.m -lobjc main.m: In function `main': main.m:12: warning: `Forwarder' does not respond to `hello' $ The compiler is reporting the point made earlier, that Forwarder does not respond to hello messages. In certain circumstances, such a warning can help us find errors, but in this circumstance, we can safely ignore this warning, since we have implemented forwarding. If we were to run the program, we would see this output: $ ./a.out Recipient says hello! Categories The maintainability of large code bases was one of the main concerns during the design of Objective C. Experience from the structured programming world had shown that one of the main ways to improve code was to break it down into smaller pieces. Objective-C borrowed and extended the concept of Categories to help with this process from Smalltalk implementations (e.g., see http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7466310348707586940&ei=0dr7SIe6L46qrgLk7dHsDg&q=Smalltalk-80 ). A category collects method implementations into separate files. The programmer can place groups of related methods into a category to make them more readable. For instance, one could create a "SpellChecking" category "on" the String object, collecting all of the methods related to spell checking into a single place. Furthermore, the methods within a category are added to a class at runtime. Thus, categories permit the programmer to add methods to an existing class without the need to recompile that class or even have access to its source code. For example, if the system you are supplied with does not contain a spell checker in its String implementation, you can add it without modifying the String source code. Methods within categories become indistinguishable from the methods in a class when the program is run. A category has full access to all of the instance variables within the class, including private variables. Categories provide an elegant solution to the fragile base class problem for methods. If you declare a method in a category with the same method signature as an existing method in a class, the category’s method is adopted. Thus categories can not only add methods to a class, but also replace existing methods. This feature can be used to fix bugs in other classes by rewriting their methods, or to cause a global change to a class’ behavior within a program. If two categories have methods with the same method signature, it is undefined which category’s method is adopted. Other languages have attempted to add this feature in a variety of ways. TOM took the Objective-C system a step further and allowed for the addition of variables as well. Other languages have instead used prototype oriented solutions, the most notable being Self. Example usage of categories This example builds up an Integer class, by defining first a basic class with only accessor methods implemented, and adding two categories, Arithmetic and Display, which extend the basic class. Whilst categories can access the base class’ private data members, it is often good practice to access these private data members through the accessor methods, which helps keep categories more independent from the base class. This is one typical usage of categories—the other is to use categories to add or replace certain methods in the base class (however it is not regarded as good practice to use categories for subclass overriding, also known as monkey patching). Integer.h #import <objc/Object.h> @interface Integer : Object { int integer; } - (int) integer; - (id) integer: (int) _integer; @end Integer.m #import "Integer.h" @implementation Integer - (int) integer { return integer; } - (id) integer: (int) _integer { integer = _integer; return self; } @end Arithmetic.h #import "Integer.h" @interface Integer (Arithmetic) - (id) add: (Integer *) addend; - (id) sub: (Integer *) subtrahend; @end Arithmetic.m #import "Arithmetic.h" @implementation Integer (Arithmetic) - (id) add: (Integer *) addend { return [self integer: [self integer] + [addend integer]]; } - (id) sub: (Integer *) subtrahend { return [self integer: [self integer] - [subtrahend integer]]; } @end Display.h #import "Integer.h" @interface Integer (Display) - (id) showstars; - (id) showint; @end Display.m #import "Display.h" @implementation Integer (Display) - (id) showstars { int i, x = [self integer]; for(i=0; i < x; i++) printf("*"); printf("\n"); return self; } - (id) showint { printf("%d\n", [self integer]); return self; } @end main.m #import "Integer.h" #import "Arithmetic.h" #import "Display.h" int main(void) { Integer *num1 = [Integer new], *num2 = [Integer new]; int x; printf("Enter an integer: "); scanf("%d", &x); [num1 integer:x]; [num1 showstars]; printf("Enter an integer: "); scanf("%d", &x); [num2 integer:x]; [num2 showstars]; [num1 add:num2]; [num1 showint]; } Notes Compilation is performed, for example, by gcc -x objective-c main.m Integer.m Arithmetic.m Display.m -lobjc One can experiment by omitting the #import "Arithmetic.h" and [num1 add:num2] lines and omit Arithmetic.m in compilation. The program will still run. This means that it is possible to "mix-and-match" added categories if necessary – if one does not need to have some capability provided in a category, one can simply not compile it in. Posing Objective-C permits a class to wholly replace another class within a program. The replacing class is said to "pose as" the target class. Note: Class posing was declared deprecated with Mac OS X v10.5 and unavailable in the 64-bit runtime. For the versions still supporting posing: All messages sent to the target class are instead received by the posing class. There are several restrictions: A class may only pose as one of its direct or indirect superclasses The posing class must not define any new instance variables which are absent from the target class (though it may define or override methods). The target class may not have received any messages prior to the posing. Posing, similarly to categories, allows globally augmenting existing classes. Posing permits two features absent from categories: A posing class can call overridden methods through super, thus incorporating the implementation of the target class. A posing class can override methods defined in categories. For example, @interface CustomNSApplication : NSApplication @end @implementation CustomNSApplication - (void) setMainMenu: (NSMenu*) menu { // do something with menu } @end class_poseAs ([CustomNSApplication class], [NSApplication class]); This intercepts every invocation of setMainMenu to NSApplication. #import In the C language, the #include pre-compile directive always causes a files contents to be inserted into the source at that point. Objective-C has the equivalent #import directive except each file is included only once per build. Other features Objective-C's features often allow for flexible, and often easy, solutions to programming issues. Delegating methods to other objects and remote invocation can be easily implemented using categories and message forwarding. Swizzling of the isa pointer allows for classes to change at runtime. Typically used for debugging where freed objects are swizzled into zombie objects, whose only purpose is to report an error when someone calls them. Swizzling was also used in EOF to create database faults. Swizzling is used today by Apple’s Foundation Framework to implement Key-Value Observing. Serialization, commonly called archival in Objective-C, can be done by overriding write and read methods. Language variants Objective-C++ Objective-C++ is a front-end to the GNU Compiler Collection which can compile source files which use a combination of C++ and Objective-C syntax. Objective-C++ adds to C++ the extensions Objective-C adds to C. As nothing is done to unify the semantics behind the various language features, certain restrictions apply: A C++ class cannot derive from an Objective-C class and vice versa. C++ namespaces cannot be declared inside an Objective-C declaration. Objective-C classes cannot have instance variables of C++ classes which do not have a default constructor or which have one or more virtual methods, but pointers to C++ objects can be used as instance variables without restriction (allocate them with new in the -init method). C++ "by value" semantics cannot be applied to Objective-C objects, which are only accessible through pointers. An Objective-C declaration cannot be within a C++ template declaration and vice versa. Objective-C types, (e.g., Classname *) can be used as C++ template parameters, however. Objective-C and C++ exception handling is distinct; the handlers of each cannot handle exceptions of the other type. Care must be taken since the destructor calling conventions of Objective-C and C++’s exception run-time models do not match (i.e., a C++ destructor will not be called when an Objective-C exception exits the C++ object’s scope). The new 64-bit runtime resolves this by introducing interoperability with C++ exceptions in this sense. http://developer.apple.com/ReleaseNotes/Cocoa/RN-ObjectiveC/index.html Objective-C 2.0 At the 2006 Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced the forthcoming release of "Objective-C 2.0," a revision of the Objective-C language to include "modern garbage collection, syntax enhancements http://lists.apple.com/archives/Objc-language/2006/Aug/msg00039.html , runtime performance improvements http://lists.apple.com/archives/Objc-language/2006/Aug/msg00018.html , and 64-bit support". Mac OS X v10.5, released in October 2007, included an Objective-C 2.0 compiler. It is not yet known when these language improvements will be available in the GNU runtime. Garbage collection Objective-C 2.0 provides an optional conservative yet generational garbage collector. When run in backwards-compatible mode, the runtime turns reference counting operations such as "retain" and "release" into no-ops. All objects are subject to garbage collection when garbage collection is enabled. Regular C pointers may be qualified with "__strong" to also trigger the underlying write-barrier compiler intercepts and thus participate in garbage collection. A zero-ing weak subsystem is also provided such that pointers marked as "__weak" are set to zero when the object (or more simply GC memory) is collected. The garbage collector does not exist on the iPhone implementation of Objective-C 2.0. Garbage Collection in Objective-C runs on a low-priority background thread, and can halt on user events, with the intention of keeping the user experience responsive. http://developer.apple.com/leopard/overview/objectivec2.html Properties Objective-C 2.0 introduces a new syntax to declare instance variables as properties, with optional attributes to configure the generation of accessor methods. Properties are, in a sense, public instance variables; that is, declaring an instance variable as a property provides external classes with access (possibly limited, e.g. readonly) to that property. A property may be declared as "readonly", and may be provided with storage semantics such as "assign", "copy" or "retain". By default, properties are considered atomic, which results in a lock preventing multiple threads from accessing them at the same time. A property can be declared as "nonatomic" which removes this lock. @interface Person : NSObject { @public NSString *name; @private int age; } @property(copy) NSString *name; @property(readonly) int age; -(id)initWithAge:(int)age; @end Properties are implemented by way of the @synthesize keyword, which generates getter and setter methods according to the property declaration. Alternately, the @dynamic keyword can be used to indicate that accessor methods will be provided by other means. @implementation Person @synthesize name; @dynamic age; -(id)initWithAge:(int)initAge { age = initAge; // NOTE: direct instance variable assignment, not property setter return self; } -(int)age { return 29; // NOTE: lying about age } @end Properties can be accessed using the traditional message passing syntax, dot notation, or by name via the "valueForKey:"/"setValue:forKey:" methods. Person *aPerson = [[Person alloc] initWithAge: 53]; aPerson.name = @"Steve"; // NOTE: dot notation, uses synthesized setter, equivalent to [aPerson setName: @"Steve"]; NSLog(@"Access by message (%@), dot notation(%@), property name(%@) and direct instance variable access (%@)", [aPerson name], aPerson.name, [aPerson valueForKey:@"name"], aPerson->name); In order to use dot notation to invoke property accessors within an instance method, the "self" keyword should be used: -(void) introduceMyselfWithProperties:(BOOL)useGetter { NSLog(@"Hi, my name is %@.", (useGetter ? self.name : name)); // NOTE: getter vs. ivar access } A class or protocol's properties may be dynamically introspected. int i, propertyCount = 0; objc_property_t *propertyList = class_copyPropertyList([aPerson class], &propertyCount); for (i=0; i<propertyCount; i++) { objc_property_t *thisProperty = propertyList + i; const char* propertyName = property_getName(*thisProperty); NSLog(@"Person has a property: '%s'", propertyName); } Fast enumeration Instead of using an NSEnumerator object or indices to iterate through a collection, Objective-C 2.0 offers the fast enumeration syntax. In Objective-C 2.0, the following loops are functionally equivalent, but have different performance characteristics. NSEnumerator *enumerator = [thePeople objectEnumerator]; Person *p; while ((p = [enumerator nextObject]) != nil) { NSLog(@"%@ is %i years old.", [p name], [p age]); } for (int i=0; i<[thePeople count]; i++) { Person *p = [thePeople objectAtIndex:i]; NSLog(@"%@ is %i years old.", [p name], [p age]); } for (Person *p in thePeople) NSLog(@"%@ is %i years old.", [p name], [p age]); Fast enumeration generates more efficient code than standard enumeration because method calls to enumerate over objects are replaced by pointer arithmetic using the NSFastEnumeration protocol. Implications for Cocoa development All Objective-C applications developed for Mac OS X that make use of the above improvements for Objective-C 2.0 are incompatible with all operating systems prior to 10.5 (Leopard). Even using fast enumeration, which one might expect to generate the exact same binaries as standard enumeration, will cause an application to crash on OS X version 10.4 or earlier. Today Objective-C today is often used in tandem with a fixed library of standard objects (often known as a "kit" or "framework"), such as Cocoa or GNUstep. These libraries often come with the operating system: the GNUstep libraries often come with Linux distributions and Cocoa comes with Mac OS X. The programmer is not forced to inherit functionality from the existing base class (NSObject). Objective-C allows for the declaration of new root classes which do not inherit any existing functionality. Originally, Objective-C based programming environments typically offered an Object class as the base class from which almost all other classes inherited. With the introduction of OpenStep, NeXT created a new base class named NSObject which offered additional features over Object (an emphasis on using object references and reference counting instead of raw pointers, for example). Almost all classes in Cocoa inherit from NSObject. Not only did the renaming serve to differentiate the new default behavior of classes within the OpenStep API, but it allowed code which used Object — the original base class used on NeXTSTEP (and, more or less, other Objective-C class libraries) — to co-exist in the same runtime with code which used NSObject (with some limitations). As well, the introduction of the two letter prefix became a sort of simplistic form of namespaces, which Objective-C lacks. Using a prefix to create an informal packaging identifier became an informal coding standard in the Objective-C community, and continues to this day. Portable Object Compiler Besides the GCC/NeXT/Apple implementation, which added several extensions to the original Stepstone implementation, there exists another free open-source Objective-C implementation, which implements a slightly different set of extensions: The Portable Object Compiler http://users.pandora.be/stes/compiler.html implements, among other things, also Smalltalk-like blocks for Objective-C. Analysis of the language Objective-C implementations use a thin runtime written in C which adds little to the size of the application. In contrast, most OO systems at the time that it was created used large virtual machine runtimes. Programs written in Objective-C tend to be not much larger than the size of their code and that of the libraries (which generally do not need to be included in the software distribution), in contrast to Smalltalk systems where a large amount of memory was used just to open a window. Objective-C applications tend to be larger than similar C or C++ applications because Objective-C dynamic typing does not allow methods to be stripped or inlined. Likewise, the language can be implemented on top of existing C compilers (in GCC, first as a preprocessor, then as a module) rather than as a new compiler. This allows Objective-C to leverage the huge existing collection of C code, libraries, tools, and mindshare. Existing C libraries can be wrapped in Objective-C wrappers to provide an OO-style interface. All of these practical changes lowered the barrier to entry, likely the biggest problem for the widespread acceptance of Smalltalk in the 1980s. The first versions of Objective-C did not support garbage collection. At the time this decision was a matter of some debate, and many people considered long "dead times" (when Smalltalk did collection) to render the entire system unusable. Some 3rd party implementations have added this feature (most notably GNUstep) and Apple has implemented it as of Mac OS X v10.5. Another common criticism is that Objective-C does not have language support for namespaces. Instead, programmers are forced to add prefixes to their class names, which are traditionally shorter than namespace names and thus more prone to collisions. As of 2007, all Mac OS X classes and functions in the Cocoa programming environment are prefixed with "NS" (e.g. NSObject, NSButton) to identify them as belonging to the Mac OS X core; the "NS" derives from the names of the classes as defined during the development of NeXTstep. Since Objective-C is a strict superset of C, it does not treat C primitive types as first-class objects either. Unlike C++, Objective-C does not support operator overloading. Also unlike C++, Objective-C allows an object to directly inherit only from one class (forbidding multiple inheritance). However, categories and protocols may be used as alternative functionality to multiple inheritance. Because Objective-C uses dynamic runtime typing and because all method calls are function calls (or, in some cases, syscalls), many common performance optimizations cannot be applied to Objective-C methods (for example: inlining, constant propagation, interprocedural optimizations, and scalar replacement of aggregates). This limits the performance of Objective-C abstractions relative to similar abstractions in languages such as C++. Philosophical differences between Objective-C and C++ The design and implementation of C++ and Objective-C represent different approaches to extending C. In addition to C’s style of procedural programming, C++ directly supports object-oriented programming, generic programming, and metaprogramming. C++ also comes with a large standard library which includes several container classes. Objective-C, on the other hand, adds only object-oriented features to C. Objective-C in its purest fashion does not contain the same number of standard library features, but in most places where Objective-C is used, it is used with an OpenStep-like library such as OPENSTEP, Cocoa, or GNUstep which provide similar functionality to some of C++’s standard library. One notable difference is that Objective-C provides runtime support for some reflective features, whereas C++ adds only a small amount of runtime support to C. In Objective-C, an object can be queried about its own properties, for example whether it will respond to a certain message. In C++ this is not possible without the use of external libraries. The use of reflection is part of the wider distinction between dynamic (run-time) features versus static (compile-time) features of a language. Although Objective-C and C++ each employ a mix of both features, Objective-C is decidedly geared toward run-time decisions while C++ is geared toward compile-time decisions. The tension between dynamic and static programming involves many of the classic trade-offs in programming. See also Comparison of programming languages Notes References External links Introduction to The Objective-C Programming Language (Apple Developer Connection) The Objective-C 2.0 Programming Language, PDF download from Apple Objective-C GNUstep Base Programming Manual Object-Oriented Programming and The Objective-C Language Beginner’s Guide to Objective-C ObjectiveLib: variant of a Standard Template Library Objective-C by Brad Cox Object Oriented Programming in Objective-C Objective-C FAQ comp.lang.objective-C FAQ Objective-C: Links, Resources, Stuff Objective-C mailing list AST for Objective-C in C# iDevApps - Mac programming forum | Objective-C |@lemmatized objective:122 c:189 reflective:2 object:77 orient:13 programming:25 language:29 add:25 smalltalk:19 style:9 messaging:2 today:4 use:53 primarily:3 apple:18 mac:10 x:19 iphone:2 two:6 environment:6 base:20 although:4 compliant:1 openstep:9 standard:12 primary:1 cocoa:9 api:3 though:2 originally:2 main:13 next:15 nextstep:6 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1,711 | Maine | The State of Maine () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, New Hampshire to the southwest, and the Canadian provinces of Quebec to the northwest and New Brunswick to the northeast. Maine is the northernmost portion of New England and is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States. It is known for its scenery — its jagged, mostly rocky coastline, its low, rolling mountains, and its heavily forested interior — as well as for its seafood cuisine, especially lobsters and clams. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking peoples. The first European settlement in Maine was in 1604 by a French party. The first English settlement in Maine, the short-lived Popham Colony, was established by the Plymouth Company in 1607. A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s, although the rugged climate, deprivations, and Indian attacks wiped out many of them over the years. As Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen settlements still survived. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812. Maine was an exclave of Massachusetts until 1820, when as a result of the growing population, it became the 23rd state on March 15 under the Missouri Compromise. Etymology There is no definitive answer for the origin of the name Maine. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, which stated that the state was named after the ancient French province of Maine. Other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed in 1665 when the King's Commissioners ordered that the "Province of Maine" be entered from then on in official records. Geography To the south and east is the Atlantic Ocean and to the north and northeast is New Brunswick, a province of Canada. The Canadian province of Quebec is to the northwest. Maine is both the northernmost state in New England and the largest, accounting for nearly half the region's entire land area. Maine also has the distinction of being the only state to border just one other state (New Hampshire to the west). The municipalities of Eastport and Lubec are, respectively, the easternmost city and town in the United States. Estcourt Station is Maine's northernmost point and also the northernmost point in the New England region of the United States. (For more information see extreme points of the United States). Maine Maine's Moosehead Lake is the largest lake wholly in New England (Lake Champlain being located between Vermont and New York). A number of other Maine lakes, such as South Twin Lake, are described by Thoreau. Mount Katahdin is both the northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail, which extends to Springer Mountain, Georgia, and the southern terminus of the new International Appalachian Trail which, when complete, will run to Belle Isle, Newfoundland and Labrador. Maine also has several unique geographical features. Machias Seal Island and North Rock, off its easternmost point, are claimed by both the U.S. and Canada and are within one of four areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute, but is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area is the Old Sow, the largest tidal whirlpool in the Western Hemisphere. Maine is the most sparsely populated state east of the Mississippi River. It is called the Pine Tree State; ninety percent of its land is forested. In the forested areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). The Northwest Aroostook, Maine unorganized territory in the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of 2,668 square miles (6,910 km²) and a population of 27, or one person for every 100 square miles (255 km²). Maine is equally well known for its ocean scenery, with almost of shoreline. West Quoddy Head is the easternmost piece of land in the contiguous 48 United States. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including the Isles of Shoals, which straddle the New Hampshire border. Jagged rocks and cliffs and thousands of bays and inlets add to the rugged beauty of Maine's coast. Just inland, by contrast, are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been aptly summed up by American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay of Rockland and Camden, Maine in "Renascence": The rocky coast around Kennebunk River. "All I could see from where I stood was three long mountains and a wood I turned and looked the other way and saw three islands in a bay" More prosaic geologists describe this type of landscape as a drowned coast, where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops. drowned coast: Definition and Much More from Answers.com A rise in the elevation of the land due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not strong enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features. The noted American ecologist Rachel Carson did much of her research at one of the Maine seacoast's most characteristic features, a tide pool for her classic "The Edge of the Sea." The spot where she conducted observations is now preserved as the Rachel Carson Salt Pond Reserve at Pemaquid Point. George Lorenzo Noyes, known as the thoreauvian of Maine is a noted state naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer and landscape artist. He lived a devout wilderness lifestyle in the mountains of Norway, Maine, expressing in his paintings his spiritual reverence for nature and writing of the values of a simple life of sustainable living. Harvard Quarry at the summit of Noyes Mountain, named in his honor, in Greenwood, provides an excellent panoramic view and is a popular destination for rock and mineral collectors. Much of Maine's geography was created by heavy glacial activity at the end of the last ice age. Prominent glacial features include Somes Sound and Bubble Rock. Carved by glaciers, Somes Sound is considered to be the only fjord on the eastern seaboard and reaches depths of . The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigious Hinckley Yachts. Bubble Rock is what is known as a "glacial erratic" and is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park. By analyzing the type of granite, geologists were able to discover that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from the town of Lucerne, Maine--30 miles away. |Boothbay Harbor Acadia National Park is the only national park in New England. Areas under the protection and management of the National Park Service include: Acadia National Park near Bar Harbor Appalachian National Scenic Trail Maine Acadian Culture in St. John Valley Roosevelt Campobello International Park near Lubec Saint Croix Island International Historic Site at Calais Climate Maine experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), with warm (although generally not hot), humid summers. Winters are cold and snowy throughout the state, and are especially severe in the northern parts of Maine. Coastal areas are moderated somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean. Daytime highs are generally in the 75-80 °F (24-27 °C) range throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s°F (around 15 °C). January temperatures range from highs near 32 °F (0 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows below 0 °F (-18 °C) in the far north. Maine is generally safe from hurricanes and tropical storms. By the time they reach the state, many have become extratropical and few hurricanes have made landfall in Maine. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of the Rockies, with most of the state averaging less than 20 days of thunderstorms a year. Tornadoes are rare in Maine with the state averaging fewer than two per year, mostly occurring in the southern part of the state. NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006. In January 2009, a new record low temperature for the state was set at -50°F, tying the New England record. The state's record high temperature is 105°F, set in July 1911. Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures (°F) For Various Maine Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Caribou 19/0 23/3 34/15 47/29 63/41 72/50 76/55 74/53 64/44 51/34 37/24 25/8 Portland 31/12 34/16 42/25 53/35 63/44 73/53 79/59 77/57 69/48 58/37 47/30 36/19 History Maine State House, designed by Charles Bulfinch, built 1829–1832 The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscots. The first European settlement in Maine was in 1604 by a French party that included Samuel de Champlain, the noted explorer. The French named the entire area, including the portion that later became the State of Maine, Acadia. The first English settlement in Maine was established by the Plymouth Company at Popham in 1607, the same year as the settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Both colonies were predated by the Roanoke Colony by 22 years. Because the Popham Colony did not survive the harsh Maine winters and the Roanoke Colony was lost, Jamestown enjoys the distinction of being regarded as America's first permanent English-speaking settlement. The coastal areas of western Maine first became the Province of Maine in a 1622 land patent. Eastern Maine north of the Kennebec River was more sparsely settled and was known in the 17th century as the Territory of Sagadahock. The province within its current boundaries became part of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1652. Maine was much fought over by the French and English during the 17th and early 18th centuries. After the defeat of the French in the 1740s, the territory from the Penobscot River east fell under the nominal authority of the Province of Nova Scotia, and together with present day New Brunswick formed the Nova Scotia county of Sunbury, with its court of general sessions at Campobello. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, and British forces occupied eastern Maine in both conflicts. Woodard, Colin. The Lobster Coast. New York. Viking/Penguin, ISBN 0-670-03324-3, 2004, pp. 139-140, 150-151 . The treaty concluding revolution was ambiguous about Maine's boundary with British North America. The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed, although the final border with British territory was not established until the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. (Indeed, in 1839 Governor Fairfield declared war on Britain over a boundary dispute between New Brunswick and northern Maine. Known as the Aroostook War, this is the only time a state has declared war on a foreign power. The dispute was settled, however, before any blood was shed. Because it was physically separated from the rest of Massachusetts and was growing in population at a rapid rate, Maine became the 23rd state on March 15, 1820 through the Missouri Compromise. This compromise allowed admitting both Maine and Missouri (in 1821) into the union while keeping a balance between slave and free states. Maine's original capital was Portland, the largest city in Maine, until it was moved to Augusta in 1832 to make it more central within the state. Demographics As of 2008, Maine has an estimated population of 1,321,504, which is an increase of 6,520, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 46,582, or 3.7%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 6,413 people (that is 71,276 births minus 64,863 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,808 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 5,004 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 36,804 people. The population density of the state is 41.3 people per square mile. Maine Population Density Map Maine is a very popular tourist destination, but it also experiences harsh winters, and consequently, the great temporary influx of visitors occurs during the warmer months. Many of these visitors establish an alternate secondary residence in Maine during the warm months and then depart for their primary residence in the off-season. These are the summer people of Maine lore. Official census figures normally count a person as a resident only once, at the place of the primary home. Therefore, there are some situations in which official census figures could be misleading for Maine. For example, some communities may have a much larger seasonal retail sector than their official, small population figure would imply. The mean population center of Maine is located in Kennebec County, in or near the town of Mount Vernon. The Greater Portland metropolitan area is the most densely populated with nearly 20% of Maine's population. As explained in detail under "Geography", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior. Race, ancestry, and language The largest ancestries in the state are: English American (21.5%), Irish (15.1%), French or French Canadian (14.2%), American (9.4%), and German (6.7%). Maine is second only to New Hampshire in the percentage of French Americans among U.S. states. It also has the largest percentage of non-Hispanic whites of any state and the highest percentage of current French-speakers who come from Quebec. Franco-Mainers tended to settle in rural northern Maine (particularly Aroostook County) and the industrial cities of inland Maine (especially Lewiston), whereas much of the midcoast and downeast sections remain mostly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, including Italian and Polish have settled throughout the state since the early 20th c. immigration waves. The 2000 Census reported 92.25% of Maine residents age 5 and older speak English at home. Census figures show Maine has a greater proportion of people speaking French at home than any other state in the nation, a result of Maine's large French-Canadian community, who migrated from adjacent Quebec and New Brunswick. 5.28% of Maine households are French-speaking, compared with 4.68% in Louisiana. Spanish is the third most spoken language at 0.79%, followed by German at 0.33% and Italian at 0.12% . Religion The religious affiliations of the people of Maine are shown below: Christian – 82% Protestant – 45% Baptist (mostly American Baptist) – 16% Methodist (mostly United Methodist Church with 31.689 members) http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/23_2000.asp – 9% Episcopalian – 8% United Church of Christ (29,122 members) / Congregational – 8% Pentecostal – 6% Lutheran – 3% Other Protestant or general Protestant – 10% Roman Catholic (283.024 members) – 37% Other Christian – 1% Other Religions – 1% Non-Religious – 17% Economy Maine State Quarter Maine is ranked 2nd nationally in craft breweries per capita. Craft Brewing Industry Statistics The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maine's total gross state product for 2003 was US$41 billion. Its per capita personal income for 2003 was US$29,164, 29th in the nation. Maine's agricultural outputs include poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries (the state produces 25% of all blueberries in North America, making it the largest blueberry producer in the world), apples, maple syrup and maple sugar. Aroostook County is known for its potato crops. Commercial fishing, once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, particularly lobstering and groundfishing. Western Maine aquifers and springs are a major source of bottled water. Maine's industrial outputs consist chiefly of paper, lumber and wood products, electronic equipment, leather products, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well, with Bath Iron Works in Bath and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery. Naval Air Station Brunswick is also in Maine, and serves as a large support base for the U.S. Navy. However, the BRAC campaign recommended Brunswick's closing, despite a recent government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities. Tourism and outdoor recreation play a major and increasingly important role in Maine's economy. The state is a popular destination for sport hunting (particularly deer, moose and bear), sport fishing, snowmobiling, skiing, boating, camping and hiking, among other activities. Maine's unemployment rate is 4.8% Maine ports play a key role in national transportation. Beginning around 1880, Portland's rail link and ice-free port made it Canada's principal winter port, until the aggressive development of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the mid-1900s. In 2001, Maine's largest city of Portland surpassed Boston as New England's busiest port (by tonnage), due to its ability to handle large tankers. Maine's Portland International Jetport was recently expanded, providing the state with increased air traffic from carriers such as JetBlue. Maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state, and fewer than before due to consolidations and mergers, particularly in the pulp and paper industry. Some of the larger companies that do maintain headquarters in Maine include Fairchild Semiconductor in South Portland; IDEXX Laboratories, in Westbrook; Unum, in Portland; TD Banknorth, in Portland; L.L. Bean in Freeport; Cole Haan and Delorme, both located in Yarmouth. Maine is also the home of The Jackson Laboratory, the world's largest non-profit mammalian genetic research facility and the world's largest supplier of genetically purebred mice. Maine has an income tax structure containing 4 brackets, which range from 2% to 8.5% of personal income. Maine's general sales tax rate is 5%. The state also levies charges of 7% on lodging and prepared food and 10% on short-term auto rentals. Commercial sellers of blueberries, a Maine staple, must keep records of their transactions and pay the state 1.5 cents per pound ($1.50 per 100 pounds) of the fruit sold each season. All real and tangible personal property located in the state of Maine is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. The administration of property taxes is handled by the local assessor in incorporated cities and towns, while property taxes in the unorganized territories are handled by the State Tax Assessor. Shipbuilding Maine has a longstanding tradition of being home to many shipbuilding companies. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Maine was home to many shipyards that produced wooden sailing ships. The main function of these ships was to transport either cargoes or passengers overseas. One of these yards was located in Pennellville Historic District in what is now Brunswick, Maine. This yard, owned by the Pennell family, was typical of the many family-owned shipbuilding companies of the time period. Other such examples of shipbuilding families were the Skofields and the Morses. During the 18th and 19th ceunturies, wooden shipbuilding of this sort made up a sizable portion of the economy. Transportation Airports Maine receives passenger jet service at its two largest airports, the Portland International Jetport in Portland, and the Bangor International Airport in Bangor. Both are served daily by many major airlines to destinations such as New York, Atlanta, and Orlando. Essential Air Service also subsidizes service to a number of smaller airports in Maine, bringing small turboprop aircraft to regional airports such as the Augusta State Airport, Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport, Knox County Regional Airport, and the Northern Maine Regional Airport at Presque Isle. These airports are served by US Airways Express with small 19 to 30 seat planes. Many smaller airports are scattered throughout Maine, only serving general aviation traffic. Highways The Penobscot Narrows Bridge, carrying U.S. Route 1 and Maine State Route 3 over the Penobscot River. A southbound Downeaster passenger train at Ocean Park, Maine, as viewed from the cab of a northbound train. Interstate 95 runs through Maine, as well as its easterly branch I-295. In addition, U.S. Route 1 starts in Fort Kent and runs to Florida. The eastern terminus of the eastern section of U.S. Route 2 starts in Houlton, near the New Brunswick, Canada border to Rouses Point, New York, at US 11 . There is also another US 2A connecting Old Town and Orono, Maine, primarily serving the University of Maine campus. U.S. Route 2, Route 6 and Route 9 are often used by truckers and other motorists of the Maritime Provinces en route to other destinations in the United States or as a short cut to Central Canada. Rail Passenger The Downeaster passenger train, operated by Amtrak, provides passenger service between Portland and Boston's North Station, with stops in Old Orchard Beach, Saco, and Wells. The Downeaster makes five southbound trips and five northbound trips every day. Seasonal passenger excursions between Brunswick and Rockland are operated by the Maine Eastern Railroad, which leases the state-owned Rockland Branch rail corridor. Freight Freight service throughout the state is provided by a handful of regional and shortline carriers: Pan Am Railways (formerly known as Guilford Rail System), which operates the former Boston & Maine and Maine Central railroads; St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad; Maine Eastern Railroad; Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway; and New Brunswick Southern Railway. See also: List of Maine railroads Law and government The Maine Constitution structures Maine's state government, composed of three co-equal branches - the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state of Maine also has three Constitutional Officers (the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, and the State Attorney General) and one Statutory Officer (the State Auditor). The legislative branch is the Maine Legislature, a bicameral body composed of the Maine House of Representatives, with 151 members, and the Maine Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing laws. The executive branch is responsible for the execution of the laws created by the Legislature and is headed by the Governor of Maine (currently John Baldacci, a Democrat). The Governor is elected every four years; no individual may serve more than two consecutive terms in this office. The current attorney general of Maine is G. Steven Rowe. As with other state legislatures, the Maine Legislature can by a two-thirds majority vote from both the House and Senate override a gubernatorial veto. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting state laws. The highest court of the state is the Maine Supreme Judicial Court. The lower courts are the District Court, Superior Court and Probate Court. All judges except for probate judges serve full-time; are nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the Legislature for terms of seven years. Probate judges serve part-time and are elected by the voters of each county for four-year terms. Counties Maine is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. As of 1860 there were 16 counties in the state, ranging in size from 370 to 6,829 square miles. MAINE COUNTIESCounty nameCounty seatYear founded2000 populationPercent of totalArea (sq. mi.)Percent of totalAndroscogginAuburn1854103,7938.14 %4971.44 %AroostookHoulton183973,9385.80 %6,82919.76 %CumberlandPortland1760265,61220.83 %1,2173.52 %FranklinFarmington183829,4672.31 %1,7445.05 %HancockEllsworth178951,7914.06 %1,5224.40 %KennebecAugusta1799117,1149.19 %9512.75 %KnoxRockland186039,6183.11 %1,1423.30 %LincolnWiscasset176033,6162.64 %7002.03 %OxfordParis180554,7554.29 %2,1756.29 %PenobscotBangor1816144,91911.37 %3,55610.29 %PiscataquisDover-Foxcroft183817,2351.35 %4,37712.67 %SagadahocBath185435,2142.76 %3701.07 %SomersetSkowhegan180950,8883.99 %4,09511.85 %WaldoBelfast182736,2802.85 %8532.47 %WashingtonMachias179033,9412.66 %3,2559.42 %YorkAlfred1636186,74214.65 %1,2713.68 %Total Counties: 16 Total 2000 population: 1,274,923 Total State area: 34,554 square miles State and local politics See also: Maine gubernatorial election, 2006; Maine gubernatorial election, 2010; Maine Democratic Party; Maine Green Independent Party; Libertarian Party of Maine; Maine Republican Party; Electoral reform in Maine In state general elections, Maine voters tend to accept independent and third-party candidates more frequently than most states. Maine has had two independent governors recently (James B. Longley, 1975–1979 and Angus King, 1995–2003). The Green Party candidate won nine percent of the vote in the 2002 gubernatorial election, more than in any election for a statewide office for that party until the 2006 Illinois gubernatorial election. The locally organized Maine Green Independent Party also elected John Eder to the office of State Representative in the Maine House of Representatives, the highest elected Green official nationwide. Pat LaMarche, 2004 Green Party vice-presidential candidate, resides in the southern coastal town of Yarmouth. Maine state politicians, Republicans and Democrats alike, are noted for having more moderate views than many in the national wings of their respective parties. Maine is an Alcoholic beverage control state. On May 6, 2009, Maine became the fifth state to legalize same-sex marriage. Maine legalizes same-sex marriage/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/06/maine.same.sex.marriage/index.html See also: Same-sex marriage in Maine. Federal politics Maine's federal politics are notable and are dramatic for several reasons. In the 1930s, it was one of very few states which remained dominated by the Republican Party. In the 1936 Presidential election, Franklin D. Roosevelt received the electoral votes of every state other than Maine and Vermont. In the 1960s, Maine began to lean toward the Democrats, especially in Presidential elections. In 1968, Hubert Humphrey became just the second Democrat in half a century to carry Maine thanks to the presence of his running mate, Maine Senator Edmund Muskie, although the state voted Republican in every Presidential election in the 1970s and 1980s. Maine has since become a left-leaning swing state and has voted Democratic in five successive Presidential elections, casting its votes for Bill Clinton twice, Al Gore in 2000, John Kerry (with 53.6% of the vote) in 2004, and Barack Obama in 2008. Republican strength is greatest in Washington and Piscataquis counties. Though Democrats have carried the state in presidential elections in recent years, Republicans have largely maintained their control of the state's U.S. Senate seats, with Ed Muskie, William Hathaway and George Mitchell being the only Maine Democrats serving in the U.S. Senate in the past fifty years. Ross Perot achieved a great deal of success in Maine in the presidential elections of 1992 and 1996. In 1992 as an independent candidate, Perot came in second to Bill Clinton, despite the longtime presence of the Bush family summer home in Kennebunkport. In 1996, as the nominee of the Reform Party, Maine was again Perot's best state. Since 1969, two of Maine's four electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election. The other two go to the highest vote-winner in each of the state's two congressional districts. 2004's presidential race saw reports that the campaign of President George W. Bush had made the calculation to devote attention to one of Maine's two Congressional Districts with the possibility of carrying the district's vote for an Electoral Vote in a close national race. Famous politicians from Maine include Percival Baxter, James Blaine, Owen Brewster, William Cohen, Susan Collins, Hannibal Hamlin, George J. Mitchell, Edmund Muskie, Thomas Brackett Reed, Margaret Chase Smith, Olympia Snowe, and Wallace H. White, Jr.. Maine's U.S. senators are Republicans Olympia Snowe and Susan Collins. The state's two members of the U.S. House of Representatives are Democrats Chellie Pingree and Mike Michaud. Municipalities Organized municipalities An organized municipality has a form of elected local government which administers and provides local services, keeps records, collects licensing fees, and can pass locally binding ordinances among other responsibilities of self-government. The governmental format of most organized towns and plantations is the Town Meeting while the format of most cities is the Council-Manager form. As of 2007 the organized municipalities of Maine consists of 22 cities, 432 towns, and 34 plantations. Collectively these 488 organized municipalities cover less than half of the state's territory. Maine also has 3 Reservations: Indian Island, Indian Township Reservation, and Pleasant Point Indian Reservation. Maine City and Town Index The largest municipality in Maine, by population, is the city of Portland (pop. 64,249). The smallest city by population is Eastport (pop. 1,640). The largest town by population is Brunswick (pop. 21,172). The smallest town by population is Frye Island, a resort town which reported zero year-round population in the 2000 Census; one plantation, Glenwood Plantation, Maine, also reported a permanent population of zero. In the 2000 Census, the smallest town aside from Frye Island was Centerville with a population of 26, but since that Census, Centerville voted to disincorporate and therefore is no longer a town. The next smallest town with a population listed in that Census is Beddington, (pop. 29). The largest municipality by land area is the town of Allagash (128 square miles). The smallest municipality by land area is the plantation of Monhegan Island (0.86 square miles). Unorganized territory Unorganized territory has no local government. Administration, services, licensing, and ordinances are handled by the State Government. The Unorganized Territory of Maine consists of over 400 townships (towns are incorporated, townships are unincorporated), plus many coastal islands that do not lie within any municipal bounds. The UT land area is slightly over one half the entire area of the State of Maine. Year round residents in the UT number approximately 9,000, about 1.3% of the state's total population, with many more people residing only seasonally within the UT. Only four of Maine's sixteen counties are entirely incorporated, although a few others are nearly so, and most of the unincorporated area is in the vast and sparsely populated Great North Woods of Maine. Maine Township Listing (Unorganized Territories) Most populous cities and towns Fact Finder US Census Maine Portland: + The 49 most populous cities and towns as of the year 2000 US Census [2006 Estimate in brackets] Portland (64,249) [63,011] Lewiston (35,690) [35,734] Bangor (31,473) [31,008] South Portland (23,324) [23,784] Auburn (23,203) [23,156] Biddeford (20,942)[22,092] Brunswick (21,172) [21,915] Sanford (20,806) [21,534] Augusta (18,560) [18,560] Scarborough (16,970) [18,880] Saco (16,822) [18,289] Westbrook (16,142) [16,201] Waterville (15,605) [15,639] Windham (14,904) [16,546] Gorham (14,141) [15,402] York (12,854) [13,302] Kennebunk (10,476) [11,505] Falmouth (10,310) [10,557] Kittery (9,543) [10,495] Presque Isle (9,511) [9,253] Wells (9,400) [10,038] Standish (9,285) [9,832] Bath (9,266) [9,184] Orono (9,112) [9,712] Topsham (9,100) [9,940] Lisbon (9,077) [9,419] Cape Elizabeth (9,068) [8,826] Brewer (8,987) [9,079] Old Orchard Beach (8,856) [9,349] Skowhegan (8,824) [8,876] Yarmouth (8,360) [8,132] Caribou (8,312) [8,283] Old Town (8,130) [7,723] Freeport (7,800) [8,151] Winslow (7,743) [7,944] Rockland (7,609) [7,578] Buxton (7,452) [8,171] Farmington (7,410) [7,580] Cumberland (7,159) [7,653] Gray (6,820) [7,420] South Berwick (6,671) [7,252] Fairfield (6,573) [6,787] Houlton (6,476) [6,283] Rumford (6,472) [6,409] Ellsworth (6,456) [7,075] Belfast (6,381) [6,803] Berwick (6,353) [7,403] Hampden (6,327) [6,771] Winthrop (6,232) [6,475] Throughout Maine, many municipalities, although each separate governmental entities, nevertheless form portions of a much larger population base. There are many such population clusters throughout Maine, but some examples from the municipalities appearing in the above listing are: Portland, South Portland, Cape Elizabeth, Westbrook, Scarborough, and Falmouth</li> Lewiston and Auburn</li> Bangor, Orono, Brewer, Old Town, and Hampden</li> Biddeford and Saco</li> Brunswick and Topsham</li> Waterville, Winslow, Fairfield, and Oakland</li> Fact Finder US Census Maine Portland Education Public schools Maine has four types of school departments: the first is a local school, one which serves only one municipality, and is headed by a superintendent. Usually, it serves kindergarten through grade 12, although some only go to grade 8. Usually, independent school districts which do not have a high school are not totally independent; they are part of a school union, the second type of school district. A school union is two or more school departments that share a superintendent but nothing else; each town has an independent school board. Usually, only one of the schools in the school union has a high school, but unlike MSADs (discussed below), students in the whole school union are not compelled to attend that school. School union students are given a choice of neighboring school districts, and the school union pays for the student's tuition. The third type is a MSAD (Maine School Administrative District). This is a regional school district that incorporates two or more towns into one school department with one high school and middle school. These towns do not have independent school boards, but instead have one central board governing the entire district. Students are obligated to attend the central high school. Usually, a MSAD comprises one larger town and one or more smaller towns. The larger town is equipped with a high school and middle school, while the surrounding towns have elementary schools as well, but no secondary schools. The elementary schools usually cut off after grade 5 or grade 6. Sometimes, towns in a MSAD do not have an elementary school but possess a high school and/or middle school, whereas the surrounding towns have the elementary schools. The last type of school district is a CSD (Community School District, sometimes called a Consolidated School District). This usually (but not always) exists in school districts with such a small student population between several towns that the school district cannot justify an elementary school outside the largest town in the district. In rare cases a CSD refers to only a high school of a school union. Sometimes, in towns geographically isolated (such as island towns) the entire student population attends one school grades PK-12. Students can choose to attend a school in another district if the parents agree to pay the school tuition. Vocational centers are usually regional, so one school department will administer a technical center but other school districts will transport their students there to take classes. Private schools Private schools are less common than public schools. A large number of private elementary schools with under 20 students exist, but most private high schools in Maine are actually semi-private high schools. This means that while it costs money to send children there, towns will make a contract with a school to take children from a town or MSAD at a slightly reduced rate. Often this is done when it is deemed cheaper to subsidize private tuition than build a whole new school when a private one already exists. Magnet schools Maine has one major magnet school: The Maine School of Science and Mathematics in Limestone. Another specialty public school exists in Portland: the Maine School of Performing Arts. Colleges and universities Bangor Theological Seminary Bates College Beal College Bowdoin College Colby College College of the Atlantic Husson College Maine College of Art Maine Community College System Central Maine Community College Kennebec Valley Community College Eastern Maine Community College Northern Maine Community College Southern Maine Community College Boat School at Eastport (a branch of Husson College) Washington County Community College York County Community College Maine Maritime Academy St. Joseph's College Thomas College Unity College University of Maine System University of Maine at Augusta University of Maine at Farmington University of Maine at Fort Kent University of Maine at Machias University of Maine at Orono, the flagship campus University of Maine at Rockland University of Maine at Presque Isle University of Maine School of Law University of Southern Maine University of New England Professional sports teams Lewiston Maineiacs, junior hockey, Quebec Major Junior Hockey League Maine Red Claws, basketball, NBA Development League Portland Pirates, minor league hockey, American Hockey League Portland Sea Dogs, minor league baseball, Eastern League (U.S. baseball) Miscellany Four U.S. Navy ships have been named USS Maine in honor of the state. Maine is the only U.S. state to have a name one syllable long; all other 49 states have at least two syllables. It also is the only state within the 48 contiguous states to border only one other state. Maine is the number one exporter of blueberries and toothpicks. The largest toothpick manufacturing plant in the United States is located in Strong, Maine. The Strong Wood Products Incorporated plant produces twenty million toothpicks a day. Cadillac Mountain in Bar Harbor, Mt. Katahdin in Baxter State Park, and Mars Hill Mountain in the town of Mars Hill each battle to be the first site in the contiguous United States to see the morning's sunlight. Maine's first light depends on the time of year, as the sunrise moves from South to North. From October 7 to March 6, Cadillac Mountain is first. From March 7 to March 24, West Quoddy Head is first in the country. Warmer months, March 25 to September 18, Mars Hill sees first light. Then, when the sun starts getting lower in the sky, The country's day begins between September 19 to October 6 back at West Quoddy Head. Maine has 62 lighthouses, of which more than 50 are still in use. Maine has traditionally been a source for Maine Salmon, however economic considerations and environmental activism have caused some of the industry to move to Canada. State symbols State berry: Wild Blueberry State bird: Black-capped Chickadee State cat: Maine Coon State fish: Land-locked salmon State flower: White Pinecone and Tassel State fossil: Pertica Quadrifaria State gemstone: Tourmaline State herb: Wintergreen State insect: European honey bee State mammal: Moose State animal: Moose State beverage: Moxie State soil: Chesuncook soil series State song: State of Maine Song State tree: Eastern White Pine State vessel: Arctic exploration schooner Bowdoin State motto: Dirigo ("I lead" or "I direct") (See also: www.maine.gov portal.) Maine in fiction List of Maine writers each with a short biography and list of works. List of Maine mystery writers with short biography and works. List of books set in Maine. Literature Charlotte Agell lives in Maine and has several books set in Maine. Gerald Warner Brace (1901–1978) lived in Deer Isle. All of his novels are set in New England, some in Maine. The Cider House Rules, a novel by John Irving (and later a motion picture) is set in several fictional Maine towns. Sarah Orne Jewett (1849-1909) lived in South Berwick, Maine. Many of her novels and short stories were set in Maine. Robert P. T. Coffin (1892–1955) — Iconic Maine writer. Elijah Kellogg Jr (1813–1901) — Popular author of Horatio Alger, Jr.-style boy's books. Many of these out-of-copyright books are available online at books.google.com. Stephen King bases much of his fiction in Maine. H. P. Lovecraft, who set almost all of his stories in New England, occasionally mentions Maine. Robert McCloskey (1914–2003 ) — Beloved children's author. The Moosepath League series of books by Van Reid are humorous adventures set in 19th century Maine. Night Chills, a horror/suspense novel by Dean Koontz takes place in the fictional town of Black River, Maine. Maine is mentioned in a chapter of Henry David Thoreau's Walden, who visited the Maine woods during his stay at Walden Pond. Maine the subject matter of the The Maine Woods by Henry David Thoreau. Film Casper, a 1996 children's film set in the town of Friendship, Maine. Darkness Falls, a 2003 horror film, is set in the fictional Maine town of Darkness Falls but was filmed mostly in Australia. Empire Falls, a motion picture based on Richard Russo's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name, was filmed almost entirely in Waterville and Skowhegan. Todd Field's 2001 Academy Award-nominated film for Best Picture, In the Bedroom, is set in many towns throughout Maine including Rockland, Owls Head, Rockport, Camden, Thomaston, Trevette and Old Orchard Beach. The Iron Giant, based on the novel The Iron Man by Ted Hughes, is an award-winning animated film that takes place in the fictional town of Rockwell, Maine in the 1950s. The Man Without a Face, a 1993 film starring Mel Gibson, was shot throughout midcoast Maine. The Shawshank Redemption, an award-winning 1993 movie, was set in Maine. Storm of the Century, a miniseries based on the Stephen King novel, takes place in Maine, along with many other adaptations of his books. Welcome to Mooseport was a 2004 movie set in the fictional city of Mooseport, Maine. The Mist, a Stephen King movie, is set in Maine. Peyton Place, filmed in 1957, was set in New Hampshire but filmed in Camden region of Maine. On Golden Pond was set at Great Pond, Maine, but filmed at Squam Pond, New Hampshire. Television Dark Shadows is set in the fictional coastal town of Collinsport, Maine. Hawkeye Pierce, a central character of the television sitcom M*A*S*H, is a resident of the fictional town of Crabapple Cove, Maine. The role of Pierce was played by Alan Alda. The series was based upon the writings of Dr. H. Richard Hornberger, who following the war resided in Pittsfield. Murder, She Wrote, a television series starring Angela Lansbury, is set in the fictional Maine village of Cabot Cove. Famous Mainers A citizen of Maine is known as a "Mainer," though the term "Downeaster" may be applied to residents of the northeast coast of the state. Business Leon Leonwood (L.L.) Bean, clothing maker and retailer Milton Bradley, board game inventor Reuben Colburn, shipbuilder from Pittston, and guide for Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, part of the Invasion of Canada (1775) Francis Edgar Stanley and Freelan O. Stanley, inventors, Stanley Steamer Entertainment and media Christopher Daniel Barnes, actor Corey Beaulieu, Band member/songwriter of Trivium Anna Belknap, actress Gordon Bok, folksinger/songwriter John Cariani, actor Ernie Coombs, actor (Mr. Dressup) Bob Crowley, winner of Survivor: Gabon Howie Day, singer/songwriter Patrick Dempsey, actor Richard Dysart, actor Kevin Eastman, co-creator of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles James Flavin, actor Jonathan Frakes, actor Dan Fogelberg, singer/songwriter Todd Field, writer/director, actor John Ford, director, actor Frank Fixaris, sports broadcaster Patty Griffin, singer/songwriter Marsden Hartley, Artist Juliana Hatfield, musician Tim Janis, musician Anna Kendrick, actress David E. Kelley, producer Ray Lamontagne, singer/songwriter Steve Lavigne, comic book illustrator Linda Lavin, actress David Mallett, singer/songwriter Bob Marley, comedian Andrea Martin, actress, comedienne Hiram Stevens Maxim, Sangerville Invented the machine gun. Judd Nelson, actor (member of the Brat Pack) Rachel Nichols, actress Sarah Paulson, actress Shirley Povich, Washington Post sports columnist Victoria Rowell, actress Tim Sample, humorist Andrew St. John, actor Noel Paul Stookey, singer/songwriter Phyllis Thaxter, actress Gary Thorne, sports broadcaster Liv Tyler, actress (daughter of singer Steven Tyler) Steven Zirnkilton, voiceover actor, best known for the opening narration of the NBC television drama series Law & Order. Bob Ludwig, Owner and founder of Gateway Mastering and DVD, a resident of Maine. Literature and the Arts Walter Van Tilburg Clark, writer Margaret Creighton, historian, author Thomas A. Desjardin, writer Stephen Etnier, artist Nancy A. Henry, poet Winslow Homer, artist (27 year resident) Sarah Orne Jewett, writer Stephen King, writer Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, poet Robert McCloskey writer Edna St. Vincent Millay, poet Ruth Moore, writer George Lorenzo Noyes, writer and artist Lincoln Peirce, cartoonist Walter Piston, composer Phineas Quimby, 19th century philosopher, writer Van Reid, novelist Kenneth Roberts, historical novelist Edwin Arlington Robinson, poet Richard Russo, writer Harriet Beecher Stowe, novelist & abolitionist Artemus Ward, writer E.B. White, writer (28 year resident) Andrew Wyeth, artist Marguerite Yourcenar, writer and first female chosen for the French Academy (Resident in Mount Desert Island, from 1950 to 1987) Government and Politics Myron Avery, creator of the Appalachian Trail Percival P. Baxter, governor, creator of Baxter State Park James G. Blaine, politician, presidential candidate Owen Brewster, politician William S. Cohen, politician (former United States Senator and Secretary of Defense) Dorothea Dix, civil rights reformer Hannibal Hamlin, politician (Abraham Lincoln's first Vice President) George J. Mitchell, politician (former U.S. Senate Majority Leader) Edmund Muskie, politician, US Senator, and Secretary of State to Jimmy Carter, 1980 Thomas Brackett Reed, politician Margaret Chase Smith, politician, first woman elected to both houses of the United States Congress Samantha Smith, "America's Youngest Ambassador" Olympia Snowe, Senior Republican Senator from Maine Sam Webb, politician, Communist Party USA Leader John H. Reed, governor, former Chairman of the National Governor's Assiocation Military Joshua Chamberlain, governor, Civil War General and hero, Medal of Honor recipient Ronald Speirs, famous from the HBO series Band of Brothers, WW2 Gary Gordon, Medal of Honor recipient (3 October 1993, Mogadishu, Somalia) Oliver Otis Howard, Civil War General, founder of Howard University Henry Knox, first U.S. Secretary of War Sports Cindy Blodgett, former WNBA basketball player and current head women's basketball coach at the University of Maine Mike Brown, a mixed martial arts, WEC, UFC fighter and featherweight belt contender. Amanda Buckner, MMA fighter in Mixed Fighting Championship 7 and was a contestant on MMA reality show BodogFight TV. Ricky Craven, NASCAR driver Ian Crocker, Olympic swimmer Marcus Davis, MMA fighter in the UFC and was a contestant on the Ultimate Fighter 2 on Spike TV. Scott Garland, professional wrestler formerly employed by World Wrestling Entertainment under the ring name of 'Scotty 2 Hotty.' James "Chico" Hernandez, featured on a box of Wheaties and is a FIAS World Sombo Wrestling Champion Paul Kariya, NHL Hockey Player Matt Kinney, MLB Baseball Player | SF Giants (minor leagues) Dick MacPherson, former head coach of the New England Patriots and Syracuse University Orangemen Stump Merrill, baseball coach and former manager of the New York Yankees Les Otten, Boston Red Sox owner Joan Benoit Samuelson, marathon runner Louis Sockalexis, first American Indian (Penobscot) MLB baseball player Matt Stairs, MLB Baseball Player | Toronto Blue Jays Tim Sylvia, former Ultimate Fighting Championship Heavyweight Champion Seth Wescott, 2006 Olympic Gold Medalist - Snowboard Cross Mike Bordick, Baseball Player for the Baltimore Orioles. Attended Highschool and college in Maine. Roger Levesque, Professional Soccer Player, Seattle Sounders. Played in MLS for San Jose Earthquakes. Led Sounders in scoring. Eric Weinrich Former NHL Player Gallery See also Index of Maine-related articles Notes External links State government Maine government Maine Office of Tourism Search for tourism-related businesses Visit Maine (agriculture) Maine fairs, festivals, etc. - Agricultural Dept. U.S. government U.S. EIA Energy Profile for Maine - economic, environmental and energy data U.S. Geological Survey Real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Maine U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Maine State Facts - agricultural U.S. Census Bureau Quick facts on Maine Information Maine Historical Society Old USGS maps of Maine. 1860 Map of Maine by Mitchell. 1876 Panoramic Birdseye View of Portland by Warner at LOC., Portland Stage Company Comprehensive compilation of media sources in Maine. be-x-old:Мэн (штат) | Maine |@lemmatized state:127 maine:252 new:34 england:13 region:4 northeastern:1 united:13 america:5 border:6 atlantic:6 ocean:5 southeast:1 hampshire:6 southwest:1 canadian:4 province:9 quebec:6 northwest:3 brunswick:14 northeast:3 northernmost:4 portion:4 easternmost:5 contiguous:4 know:10 scenery:2 jagged:2 mostly:6 rocky:2 coastline:1 low:6 rolling:1 mountain:11 heavily:1 forest:3 interior:3 well:7 seafood:1 cuisine:1 especially:4 lobster:2 clam:1 original:3 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1,712 | Ludwig_Von_Drake | {{DisneyChar | name =Ludwig von Drake | image =Image:Ludwig von Drake.png | first appearance =The Wonderful World of Color (premiere) (September 24, 1961) | created by =Walt Disney | voiced by =Paul Frees, Walker Edmiston, Corey Burton | aliases = | relatives = Donald Duck (nephew) Scrooge McDuck | friends = | rivals = }} Ludwig von Drake is one of Walt Disney's cartoon and comic book characters. He was first introduced on September 24, 1961, as the presenter (and singer of "The Spectrum Song") in the cartoon An Adventure in Color, part of the first show of Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color on NBC. Ludwig is a V.I.P. member of the Mickey Mouse Club. Said to be an uncle of Donald Duck, he was supposedly named after either Ludwig von Mises or Ludwig van Beethoven. The character displayed his "expert" knowledge on a variety of subjects in eighteen episodes of the classic anthology series, as well as on a number of Disneyland Records. Paul Frees was the original voice of Ludwig von Drake. Frees retired from the role before his death in 1986, and Walker Edmiston took over. news from me - ARCHIVES Corey Burton currently voices the character. Character Ludwig von Drake comes from Vienna, Austria. Some creators have presumed that his family is a German branch of the Duck family but that hasn't been included in any major stories. (According to a theory by Don Rosa the professor married Matilda McDuck, one of Scrooge McDuck's sisters. Though this is by no means canon, it might be the only way that Ludwig could be Donald's uncle.) Ludwig has a fascination with knowledge. Since his youth he has been trying to obtain as many diplomas, in any science, as possible. He is often shown as having little social competence, however, and is often portrayed as being very forgetful, sometimes even somewhat senile. In the comics Ludwig usually visits with Donald Duck and Donald's nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie. On occasion, Daisy Duck would coax (or even trick) the professor into giving lectures and tours for her ladies' club. Sometimes Ludwig and Gyro Gearloose have competed as to who is the greater inventor. Inside Donald Duck Among his many interests is psychology, and he has tried to make a psychological study of his nephew Donald Duck. Ludwig was best fleshed out in this anthology cartoon, where Donald's psychology was examined, as we got to see some of his worst temper tantrums. Ludwig however was well understood by the end of the cartoon. His Germanic ancestry betrayed itself in his language - for example "as we say in the psychiatry" is a very German Anglicanism. In comics translated into German he sometimes speaks with an Austrian accent, like "ein bisserl" instead of "ein bisschen". He also let fly some seriously questionable jokes, for instance "What you have here is a depressed Duck! And there is nothing worse than depressed duck...unless you like depressed duck...but the taste is sometimes...." almost suggesting cannibalism. Cartoon appearances (1980s-present) Von Drake has appeared on several Disney animated cartoon series: DuckTales, Raw Toonage, Bonkers, Mickey Mouse Works, Quack Pack, House of Mouse, Mickey Mouse Clubhouse and in numerous television specials. In all of these, Von Drake wears a pink shirt, black tie, red vest, and a lab coat. In the 1991 version of Mickey and the Beanstalk (originally as the segment featured on Fun and Fancy Free), it is revealed that Ludwig Von Drake has a Bootle Beetle companion named Herman. In Disney's House of Mouse, Von Drake appears as a recurring character. In "Ask Von Drake", Mickey tries to prove that Ludwig Von Drake doesn't know everything. At the end, Mickey convinces him that during the headcount of all the Disney characters, he forgot himself. Also, in "House of Genius", Ludwig creates robot duplicates of Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Daisy, Goofy, and Pluto. At the end, when Ludwig brings in a robot duplicate of himself, Mickey tells the robot to send the real Ludwig packing. Ludwig von Drake in the Sing-Along Songs series In the Sing-Along Songs series of videos, he has hosted these six volumes:You Can Fly (January 5, 1988)Fun With Music (along with Professor Owl) (September 28, 1989)Under the Sea (August 14, 1990)I Love to Laugh (a.k.a. Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious) (December 28, 1990)Colors of the Wind (July 21, 1995)101 Notes of Fun (March 12, 1994) Print appearances The Disney studio encouraged the writers of Duck comics to introduce this new character in print, and already in September 1961, Von Drake started appearing in Al Taliaferro and Bob Karp's featured daily strips. However, aside from a solitary cameo appearance in a one page story in Uncle Scrooge #54 (December 1964), the character was not used by leading Disney duck artist Carl Barks. In 1961, Dell Comics launched a comic book series starring von Drake and illustrated by Tony Strobl 'Ludwig von Drake' comic book #1-#4 featuring Tony Strobl List , but it only lasted for four issues before being discontinued. The character made subsequent appearances in other comic titles such as Walt Disney's Comics and Stories and in the Donald Duck'' newspaper strip. 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1,713 | List_of_Governors_of_Michigan | The following are governors of the Territory of Michigan and the U.S. state of Michigan. Prior to becoming its own territory, parts of Michigan were part of Northwest Territory (see List of Governors of Ohio), Indiana Territory (see List of Governors of Indiana) and Illinois Territory (see List of Governors of Illinois). Territorial governors Name Dates served Brac Hull March 1, 1805 to October 29, 1813 Lewis Cass October 29, 1813 to August 6, 1831 George Bryan Porter August 6, 1831 to July 6, 1834 Stevens T. Mason George Bryan Porter died in office on July 6, 1834. Territorial Secretary, Stevens T. Mason, was authorized to become Acting Governor, though there was no formal succession and he was never officially named as Territorial Governor. July 6, 1834 to September 15, 1835 John S. Horner On August 29, 1835, in order to appease Ohio over the Toledo War border dispute, President Andrew Jackson appointed Charles Shuler, a judge in Pennsylvania, to replace Stevens T. Mason as Secretary and Acting Governor. Shuler declined the appointment. On September 15, Jackson appointed John S. Horner as Secretary and Acting Governor to replace Mason, though Horner did not commence his duties until September 21, 1835. In October 1835, Michigan authorized a state constitution and elected Mason as governor of the new state, although the U.S. Congress did not recognize the state until 1837. Horner was mostly ignored by the people of Michigan and he became Secretary of Wisconsin Territory in July 1836. September 15, 1835 to July 3, 1836 State governors From statehood until the election of 1966, governors were elected to two-year terms. Elections are held in November and the governor assumes office the following January, except in the case of death or resignation. From statehood until 1851, elections were held in odd-numbered years. A new state constitution was drafted in 1850 and took effect in 1851. As part of the process bringing the constitution into effect, there was a single one-year term of governor in 1851. Thereafter elections were held on even years. The constitution adopted in 1963 changed the governor's term to four years, starting in 1967. Since then, gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years from U.S. Presidential elections (e.g., Presidential elections were in 2000 and 2004, gubernatorial elections were in 1998 and 2002). The winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on January 1 of the year following the election. In 1992, an amendment to the Michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four-year terms for the office of governor. Prior to this, they were not limited as to how many terms they could serve; John Engler, the governor at the time, was exempt from the rule and served three terms, reelected in 1994 and 1998 before retiring in 2003. #NameTook officeLeft officePartyLt. GovernorNotes1Stevens T. MasonOctober 6, 1835January 7, 1840DemocraticEdward Mundy2William WoodbridgeJanuary 7, 1840February 23, 1841WhigJ. Wright Gordon Resigned to take an elected seat in the United States Senate. 3J. Wright GordonFebruary 23, 1841January 3, 1842WhigThomas J. Drake As lieutenant governor, acted as governor for unexpired term. 4John S. BarryJanuary 3, 1842January 5, 1846DemocraticOrigen D. Richardson5Alpheus FelchJanuary 5, 1846March 3, 1847DemocraticWilliam L. Greenly6William L. GreenlyMarch 4, 1847January 3, 1848DemocraticCharles P. Bush7Epaphroditus RansomJanuary 3, 1848January 7, 1850DemocraticWilliam M. Fenton8John S. BarryJanuary 7, 1850January 1, 1852DemocraticWilliam M. Fenton9 Robert McClelland After a new state constitution was drafted in 1850, McClelland was elected to a single one-year term in 1851. He was then re-elected to a full two-year term in 1852. January 1, 1852 March 7, 1853Democratic Calvin Britain Resigned to become United States Secretary of the Interior. Andrew Parsons10Andrew ParsonsMarch 8, 1853January 3, 1855DemocraticGeorge Griswold11Kinsley S. BinghamJanuary 3, 1855January 5, 1859RepublicanGeorge Coe12Moses WisnerJanuary 5, 1859January 2, 1861RepublicanEdmund B. Fairfield13 Austin Blair January 2, 1861 January 3, 1865RepublicanJames M. BirneyJoseph R. WilliamsHenry T. Backus Charles S. May14 Henry H. Crapo January 3, 1865 January 6, 1869RepublicanEbenezer GrosvenorDwight May15Henry P. BaldwinJanuary 6, 1869January 1, 1873RepublicanMorgan Bates16John J. BagleyJanuary 1, 1873January 3, 1877RepublicanHenry H. Holt17Charles CroswellJanuary 3, 1877January 1, 1881RepublicanAlonzo Sessions18David JeromeJanuary 1, 1881January 1, 1883RepublicanMoreau S. Crosby19Josiah BegoleJanuary 1, 1883January 1, 1885DemocraticMoreau S. Crosby20Russell AlgerJanuary 1, 1885January 1, 1887RepublicanArchibald Buttars21 Cyrus G. Luce January 1, 1887 January 1, 1891RepublicanJames H. MacDonaldWilliam Ball22Edwin B. WinansJanuary 1, 1891January 1, 1893DemocraticJohn Strong23 John T. Rich January 1, 1893 January 1, 1897Republican J. Wight Giddings Alfred Milnes Joseph R. McLaughlin24 Hazen S. Pingree January 1, 1897 January 1, 1901RepublicanThomas B. DunstanOrrin W. Robinson25 Aaron T. Bliss January 1, 1901 January 1, 1905Republican Orrin W. Robinson Alexander Maitland26 Fred M. Warner January 1, 1905 January 2, 1911Republican Alexander Maitland Patrick H. Kelley27Chase OsbornJanuary 2, 1911January 1, 1913RepublicanJohn Q. Ross28Woodbridge Nathan FerrisJanuary 1, 1913January 1, 1917DemocraticJohn Q. RossLuren Dickinson29Albert SleeperJanuary 1, 1917January 1, 1921RepublicanLuren Dickinson30Alex GroesbeckJanuary 1, 1921January 1, 1927RepublicanThomas ReadGeorge W. Welsh31Fred GreenJanuary 1, 1927January 1, 1931RepublicanLuren Dickinson32Wilber Marion BruckerJanuary 1, 1931January 1, 1933RepublicanLuren Dickinson33William ComstockJanuary 1, 1933January 1, 1935DemocraticAllen E. Stebbins34Frank FitzgeraldJanuary 1, 1935January 1, 1937RepublicanThomas Read35Frank MurphyJanuary 1, 1937January 1, 1939DemocraticLeo J. Nowicki36Frank FitzgeraldJanuary 1, 1939March 16, 1939RepublicanLuren Dickinson Died in office. 37Luren DickinsonMarch 16, 1939January 1, 1941RepublicanMatilda Dodge Wilson38Murray Van WagonerJanuary 1, 1941January 1, 1943DemocraticFrank Murphy39Harry KellyJanuary 1, 1943January 1, 1947RepublicanEugene C. KeyesVernon J. Brown40Kim SiglerJanuary 1, 1947January 1, 1949RepublicanEugene C. Keyes41G. Mennen WilliamsJanuary 1, 1949January 1, 1961DemocraticJohn W. ConnollyWilliam C. VandenbergClarence A. ReidPhilip A. HartJohn B. Swainson42John SwainsonJanuary 1, 1961January 1, 1963DemocraticT. John Lesinski43George W. RomneyJanuary 1, 1963January 22, 1969RepublicanT. John Lesinski Resigned to become United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. William Milliken44William MillikenJanuary 22, 1969January 1, 1983RepublicanThomas F. Schweigert As lieutenant governor, acted as governor for unexpired term, and was later elected in his own right. James H. BrickleyJames J. DammanJames H. Brickley45James BlanchardJanuary 1, 1983January 1, 1991DemocraticMartha Griffiths46John EnglerJanuary 1, 1991January 1, 2003RepublicanConnie Binsfeld Binsfeld served during the first two terms; Posthumus served the third term. Dick Posthumus47Jennifer GranholmJanuary 1, 2003IncumbentDemocraticJohn D. Cherry, Jr. Governor Granholm's second term expires in 2011 due to term limits. Notes Other high offices held This is a table of congressional and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Michigan. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take. NameGubernatorial termU.S. CongressOther offices heldHouseSenateLewis Cass1813–1831 (territorial)SPresident pro tempore of the Senate, Ambassador to France, U.S. Secretary of War, U.S. Secretary of StateWilliam Woodbridge1840–1841S*Territorial DelegateAlpheus Felch1846–1847S*Robert McClelland1852–1853HU.S. Secretary of the Interior*Kinsley S. Bingham1855–1859HSAustin Blair1861–1865HHenry P. Baldwin1869–1873SJosiah Begole1883–1885HRussell A. Alger1885–1887SU.S. Secretary of WarEdwin B. Winans1891–1893HJohn Tyler Rich1893–1897HAaron T. Bliss1901–1905HWoodbridge Nathan Ferris1913–1917SWilber Marion Brucker1931–1933U.S. Secretary of the ArmyFrank Murphy1937–1939Recorders' Court Judge, Mayor of the City of Detroit, High Commissioner to the Philippines, U.S. Attorney General, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Governor-General of the PhilippinesG. Mennen Williams1949–1961Ambassador to the Philippines, Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court George W. Romney1963–1969U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development*James Blanchard1983–1991HAmbassador to Canada Living former governors , three former governors were alive, the oldest being William Milliken (1969–1983, born 1922). The most recent governor to die was George W. Romney (1963–1969), on July 26, 1995. NameGubernatorial termDate of birthWilliam Milliken1969–1983March 26, 1922James Blanchard1983–1991August 8, 1942John Engler1991–2003October 12, 1948 See also Lieutenant Governor of Michigan External links | List_of_Governors_of_Michigan |@lemmatized following:2 governor:29 territory:6 michigan:9 u:6 state:10 prior:2 become:5 part:3 northwest:1 see:4 list:3 ohio:2 indiana:2 illinois:2 territorial:5 name:2 date:1 serve:5 brac:1 hull:1 march:2 october:3 lewis:1 ca:1 august:3 george:4 bryan:2 porter:2 july:6 stevens:3 mason:5 die:3 office:9 secretary:12 authorize:2 acting:1 though:2 formal:1 succession:1 never:1 officially:1 september:4 john:6 horner:4 order:1 appease:1 toledo:1 war:2 border:1 dispute:1 president:1 andrew:2 jackson:2 appoint:2 charles:2 shuler:2 judge:2 pennsylvania:1 replace:2 act:4 decline:1 appointment:1 commence:1 duty:1 constitution:6 elect:5 new:3 although:1 congress:1 recognize:1 mostly:1 ignore:1 people:1 wisconsin:1 statehood:2 election:10 two:5 year:10 term:15 hold:5 november:1 assume:1 january:17 except:1 case:1 death:1 resignation:1 odd:1 numbered:1 draft:2 take:4 effect:2 process:1 bring:1 single:2 one:2 thereafter:1 even:1 adopt:1 change:1 four:2 start:1 since:1 gubernatorial:3 offset:1 presidential:2 e:2 g:2 winner:1 noon:1 follow:1 amendment:1 impose:1 lifetime:1 limit:3 many:1 could:1 engler:1 time:1 exempt:1 rule:1 three:2 reelect:1 retire:1 nametook:1 officeleft:1 officepartylt:1 masonoctober:1 woodbridgejanuary:1 wright:2 gordon:1 resign:4 elected:1 seat:1 united:3 senate:2 gordonfebruary:1 j:6 drake:1 lieutenant:3 unexpired:2 barryjanuary:2 felchjanuary:1 l:2 greenlymarch:1 p:3 ransomjanuary:1 robert:2 mcclelland:2 full:1 calvin:1 britain:1 interior:2 parsonsmarch:1 binghamjanuary:1 wisnerjanuary:1 b:5 austin:1 blair:1 birneyjoseph:1 r:2 williamshenry:1 backus:1 henry:1 h:6 crapo:1 grosvenordwight:1 baldwinjanuary:1 bagleyjanuary:1 croswelljanuary:1 jeromejanuary:1 begolejanuary:1 algerjanuary:1 cyrus:1 luce:1 macdonaldwilliam:1 winansjanuary:1 rich:1 wight:1 giddings:1 alfred:1 milne:1 joseph:1 hazen:1 pingree:1 dunstanorrin:1 w:7 aaron:1 bliss:1 orrin:1 robinson:1 alexander:2 fred:1 warner:1 maitland:1 patrick:1 osbornjanuary:1 q:2 nathan:2 ferrisjanuary:1 rossluren:1 sleeperjanuary:1 groesbeckjanuary:1 readgeorge:1 greenjanuary:1 marion:2 bruckerjanuary:1 comstockjanuary:1 fitzgeraldjanuary:2 murphyjanuary:1 dickinson:1 dickinsonmarch:1 dodge:1 van:1 wagonerjanuary:1 kellyjanuary:1 c:3 keyesvernon:1 siglerjanuary:1 mennen:2 williamsjanuary:1 connollywilliam:1 vandenbergclarence:1 reidphilip:1 hartjohn:1 swainsonjanuary:1 romneyjanuary:1 lesinski:1 housing:2 urban:2 development:2 william:2 millikenjanuary:1 f:1 schweigert:1 later:1 right:1 james:2 brickleyjames:1 dammanjames:1 blanchardjanuary:1 englerjanuary:1 binsfeld:2 first:1 posthumus:1 third:1 dick:1 granholmjanuary:1 cherry:1 jr:1 granholm:1 second:1 expire:1 due:1 note:1 high:2 table:1 congressional:1 federal:1 representative:1 senator:1 mention:1 represent:1 denotes:1 namegubernatorial:2 termu:1 congressother:1 heldhousesenatelewis:1 spresident:1 pro:1 tempore:1 ambassador:1 france:1 statewilliam:1 delegatealpheus:1 kinsley:1 waredwin:1 tyler:1 armyfrank:1 court:3 mayor:1 city:1 detroit:1 commissioner:1 philippine:2 attorney:1 general:2 associate:1 justice:2 supreme:2 philippinesg:1 canada:1 live:1 former:2 alive:1 old:1 milliken:1 bear:1 recent:1 romney:1 termdate:1 birthwilliam:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram stevens_mason:3 andrew_jackson:1 odd_numbered:1 gubernatorial_election:3 presidential_election:2 lieutenant_governor:3 unexpired_term:2 pro_tempore:1 tempore_senate:1 supreme_court:2 external_link:1 |
1,714 | B-tree | A B-tree of order 5. In computer science, a B-tree is a tree data structure that keeps data sorted and allows searches, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic amortized time. Unlike self-balancing binary search trees, it is optimized for systems that read and write large blocks of data. It is most commonly used in databases and filesystems. In B-trees, internal (non-leaf) nodes can have a variable number of child nodes within some pre-defined range. When data are inserted or removed from a node, its number of child nodes changes. In order to maintain the pre-defined range, internal nodes may be joined or split. Because a range of child nodes is permitted, B-trees do not need re-balancing as frequently as other self-balancing search trees, but may waste some space, since nodes are not entirely full. The lower and upper bounds on the number of child nodes are typically fixed for a particular implementation. For example, in a 2-3 B-tree (often simply referred to as a 2-3 tree), each internal node may have only 2 or 3 child nodes. A B-tree is kept balanced by requiring that all leaf nodes are at the same depth. This depth will increase slowly as elements are added to the tree, but an increase in the overall depth is infrequent, and results in all leaf nodes being one more node further away from the root. B-trees have substantial advantages over alternative implementations when node access times far exceed access times within nodes. This usually occurs when most nodes are in secondary storage such as hard drives. By maximizing the number of child nodes within each internal node, the height of the tree decreases, balancing occurs less often, and efficiency increases. Usually this value is set such that each node takes up a full disk block or an analogous size in secondary storage. While 2-3 B-trees might be useful in main memory, and are certainly easier to explain, if the node sizes are tuned to the size of a disk block, the result might be a 257-513 B-tree (where the sizes are related to larger powers of 2). A B-tree of order m (the maximum number of children for each node) is a tree which satisfies the following properties: Every node has at most m children. Every node (except root and leaves) has at least children. The root has at least two children if it is not a leaf node. All leaves appear in the same level, and carry information. A non-leaf node with k children contains k–1 keys Rudolf Bayer and Ed McCreight invented the B-tree while working at Boeing R. Bayer, E. McCreight. Organization and Maintenance of Large Ordered Indexes, in Acta Informatica, Vol. 1, Fasc. 3, 1972 pp. 173-189 , but did not explain what, if anything, the B stands for. Douglas Comer suggests a number of possibilities: "Balanced," "Broad," or "Bushy" might apply [since all leaves are at the same level]. Others suggest that the "B" stands for Boeing [since the authors worked at Boeing Scientific Research Labs in 1972]. Because of his contributions, however, it seems appropriate to think of B-trees as "Bayer"-trees. Douglas Comer. The Ubiquitous B-Tree. Computing Surveys, 11(2):123. June 1979. Online (slow download) Node structures Each internal node's elements act as separation values which divide its subtrees. For example, if an internal node has three child nodes (or subtrees) then it must have two separation values or elements a1 and a2. All values in the leftmost subtree will be less than a1 , all values in the middle subtree will be between a1 and a2, and all values in the rightmost subtree will be greater than a2. Internal nodes in a B-tree — nodes which are not leaf nodes — are usually represented as an ordered set of elements and child pointers. Every internal node contains a maximum of U children and — other than the root — a minimum of L children. For all internal nodes other than the root, the number of elements is one less than the number of child pointers; the number of elements is between L-1 and U-1. The number U must be either 2L or 2L-1; thus each internal node is at least half full. This relationship between U and L implies that two half-full nodes can be joined to make a legal node, and one full node can be split into two legal nodes (if there is room to push one element up into the parent). These properties make it possible to delete and insert new values into a B-tree and adjust the tree to preserve the B-tree properties. Leaf nodes have the same restriction on the number of elements, but have no children, and no child pointers. The root node still has the upper limit on the number of children, but has no lower limit. For example, when there are fewer than L-1 elements in the entire tree, the root will be the only node in the tree, and it will have no children at all. A B-tree of depth n+1 can hold about U times as many items as a B-tree of depth n, but the cost of search, insert, and delete operations grows with the depth of the tree. As with any balanced tree, the cost grows much more slowly than the number of elements. Some balanced trees store values only at the leaf nodes, and so have different kinds of nodes for leaf nodes and internal nodes. B-trees keep values in every node in the tree, and may use the same structure for all nodes. However, since leaf nodes never have children, a specialized structure for leaf nodes in B-trees will improve performance. Best case and worst case heights The best case height of a B-Tree is: The worst case height of a B-Tree is: Where M is the maximum number of children a node can have. Algorithms Search Search is performed in the typical manner, analogous to that in a binary search tree. Starting at the root, the tree is traversed top to bottom, choosing the child pointer whose separation values are on either side of the value that is being searched. Binary search is typically (but not necessarily) used within nodes to find the separation values and child tree of interest. Insertion A B Tree insertion example with each iteration. All insertions happen at the leaf nodes. By searching the tree, find the leaf node where the new element should be added. If the leaf node contains fewer than the maximum legal number of elements, there is room for one more. Insert the new element in the node, keeping the node's elements ordered. Otherwise the leaf node is split into two nodes. A single median is chosen from among the leaf's elements and the new element. Values less than the median are put in the new left node and values greater than the median are put in the new right node, with the median acting as a separation value. That separation value is added to the node's parent, which may cause it to be split, and so on. If the splitting goes all the way up to the root, it creates a new root with a single separator value and two children, which is why the lower bound on the size of internal nodes does not apply to the root. The maximum number of elements per node is U-1. When a node is split, one element moves to the parent, but one element is added. So, it must be possible to divide the maximum number U-1 of elements into two legal nodes. If this number is odd, then U=2L and one of the new nodes contains (U-2)/2 = L-1 elements, and hence is a legal node, and the other contains one more element, and hence it is legal too. If U-1 is even, then U=2L-1, so there are 2L-2 elements in the node. Half of this number is L-1, which is the minimum number of elements allowed per node. An improved algorithm supports a single pass down the tree from the root to the node where the insertion will take place, splitting any full nodes encountered on the way. This prevents the need to recall the parent nodes into memory, which may be expensive if the nodes are on secondary storage. However, to use this improved algorithm, we must be able to send one element to the parent and split the remaining U-2 elements into two legal nodes, without adding a new element. This requires U = 2L rather than U = 2L-1, which accounts for why some textbooks impose this requirement in defining B-trees. Deletion There are two popular strategies for deletion from a B-Tree. locate and delete the item, then restructure the tree to regain its invariants or do a single pass down the tree, but before entering (visiting) a node, restructure the tree so that once the key to be deleted is encountered, it can be deleted without triggering the need for any further restructuring The algorithm below uses the former strategy. There are two special cases to consider when deleting an element: the element in an internal node may be a separator for its child nodes deleting an element may put it under the minimum number of elements and children. Each of these cases will be dealt with in order. Deletion from a leaf node Search for the value to delete. If the value is in a leaf node, it can simply be deleted from the node, perhaps leaving the node with too few elements; so some additional changes to the tree will be required. Deletion from an internal node Each element in an internal node acts as a separation value for two subtrees, and when such an element is deleted, two cases arise. In the first case, both of the two child nodes to the left and right of the deleted element have the minimum number of elements, namely L-1. They can then be joined into a single node with 2L-2 elements, a number which does not exceed U-1 and so is a legal node. Unless it is known that this particular B-tree does not contain duplicate data, we must then also (recursively) delete the element in question from the new node. In the second case, one of the two child nodes contains more than the minimum number of elements. Then a new separator for those subtrees must be found. Note that the largest element in the left subtree is the largest element which is still less than the separator. Likewise, the smallest element in the right subtree is the smallest element which is still greater than the separator. Both of those elements are in leaf nodes, and either can be the new separator for the two subtrees. If the value is in an internal node, choose a new separator (either the largest element in the left subtree or the smallest element in the right subtree), remove it from the leaf node it is in, and replace the element to be deleted with the new separator. This has deleted an element from a leaf node, and so is now equivalent to the previous case. Rebalancing after deletion If deleting an element from a leaf node has brought it under the minimum size, some elements must be redistributed to bring all nodes up to the minimum. In some cases the rearrangement will move the deficiency to the parent, and the redistribution must be applied iteratively up the tree, perhaps even to the root. Since the minimum element count doesn't apply to the root, making the root be the only deficient node is not a problem. The algorithm to rebalance the tree is as follows: If the right sibling has more than the minimum number of elements. Add the separator to the end of the deficient node. Replace the separator in the parent with the first element of the right sibling. Make the first child of the right sibling into the last child of the deficient node Otherwise, if the left sibling has more than the minimum number of elements. Add the separator to the start of the deficient node. Replace the separator in the parent with the last element of the left sibling. Make the last child of the left sibling into the first child of the deficient node If both immediate siblings have only the minimum number of elements Create a new node with all the elements from the deficient node, all the elements from one of its siblings, and the separator in the parent between the two combined sibling nodes. Remove the separator from the parent, and replace the two children it separated with the combined node. If that brings the number of elements in the parent under the minimum, repeat these steps with that deficient node, unless it is the root, since the root may be deficient. The only other case to account for is when the root has no elements and one child. In this case it is sufficient to replace it with its only child. Initial construction In applications, it's frequently useful to build a B-tree to represent a large existing collection of data and then update it incrementally using standard B-tree operations. In this case, the most efficient way to construct the initial B-tree is not to insert every element in the initial collection successively, but instead to construct the initial set of leaf nodes directly from the input, then build the internal nodes from these. This approach to B-tree construction is called bulkloading. Initially, every leaf but the last one has one extra element, which will be used to build the internal nodes. For example, if the leaf nodes have maximum size 4 and the initial collection is the integers 1 through 24, we would initially construct 5 leaf nodes containing 5 values each (except the last, which contains 4): 12345 678910 1112131415 1617181920 21222324 We build the next level up from the leaves by taking the last element from each leaf node except the last one. Again, each node except the last will contain one extra value. In the example, suppose the internal nodes contain at most 2 values (3 child pointers). Then the next level up of internal nodes would be: 51015 20 1234 6789 11121314 16171819 21222324 This process is continued until we reach a level with only one node and it is not overfilled. In the example only the root level remains: <table> 15 510 20 1234 6789 11121314 16171819 21222324 Notes Each node will always have between L and U children, inclusively, with one exception: the root node may have anywhere from 2 to U children inclusively. In other words, the root is exempt from the lower bound restriction. This allows the tree to hold small numbers of elements. The root having one child makes no sense, since the subtree attached to that child could simply be attached to the root. Giving the root no children is also unnecessary, since a tree with no elements is typically represented as having no root node. Multi-way combining and splitting It is possible to modify the above algorithm to, when trying to find extra elements for a deficient node, examine other siblings, and if one has more than the minimum number of values rearrange values across a larger number of siblings to make up the deficit in one. Similarly, when a node is split, extra elements can be moved to nearby, less populated siblings; or the split can involve a number of siblings, redistributing elements among them rather than splitting a node. In practice, the most common use of B-trees involves keeping the nodes on secondary storage, where it is slow to access a node which is not already being used. Using only two-ways splits and combines helps decrease the number of nodes needed for many common situations, but may be useful in others. Relationship between U and L It is almost universal to split nodes by choosing a single median and creating two new nodes. This constrains the relationship between L and U. Trying to insert an element into a node with U elements — involves redistributing U elements. One of these, the median, will move to the parent, and the remaining elements will be split as equally as possible among the two new nodes. For example, in a 2-3 B-tree, adding an element to a node with three child nodes, and thus two separator values, involves three values — the two separators and the new value. The median becomes the new separator in the parent, and each of the other two becomes the sole elements in nodes with one value and two children. Generally, if U is odd, each of the two new nodes has (U+1)/2 children. If U is even, one has U/2 children and the other U/2+1. If full nodes are split into exactly two nodes, L must be small enough to allow for the sizes after a node is split. But it is possible to split full nodes into more than two new nodes. Choosing to split a node into more than two nodes would require a lower value of L for the same value of U. As L gets smaller, it allows for more unused space in the nodes. This might decrease the frequency of node splitting, but it is also likely to increase the amount of memory needed to store the same number of values, and the number of nodes that have to be examined for any particular operation. Theoretical results Robert Tarjan proved that the amortized number of splits/merges is 2. Access concurrency Lehman and Yao http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=319663&dl=GUIDE&coll=GUIDE&CFID=61777986&CFTOKEN=74351190 showed that linking the tree blocks at each level together with a next pointer results in a tree structure where read locks on the tree blocks can be avoided as the tree is descended from the root to the leaf for both search and insertion. Write locks are only required as a tree block is modified. Minimizing locking to a single node held only during its modification helps to maximize access concurrency by multiple users, an important consideration for databases and/or other B-Tree based ISAM storage methods. References Original papers: R. Bayer, Binary B-Trees for Virtual Memory, Proceedings of 1971 ACM-SIGFIDET Workshop on Data Description, Access and Control, San Diego, California, November 11-12, 1971. R. Bayer and E. McCreight, ORGANIZATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LARGE ORDERED INDICES, Mathematical and Information Sciences Report No. 20, Mathematical and Information Sciences Laboratory, BOEING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH LABORATORIES, July 1970. Summary: Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.4: Multiway Trees, pp.481–491. Also, pp.476–477 of section 6.2.3 (Balanced Trees) discusses 2-3 trees. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Chapter 18: B-Trees, pp.434–454. Other External links B-tree and UB-tree on Scholarpedia Curator: Dr Rudolf Bayer B-Tree Applet by Kubo Kovac B-Trees: Balanced Tree Data Structures NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: B-tree C++ source code for a balanced tree (B-tree) (Windows required for test timings) WB disk-based B-tree C-library/Java-library/C#-library B-Trees in Perl | B-tree |@lemmatized b:44 tree:81 order:6 computer:2 science:3 data:9 structure:7 keep:5 sort:1 allow:5 search:12 insertion:6 deletion:6 logarithmic:1 amortized:2 time:4 unlike:1 self:2 balance:7 binary:4 optimize:1 system:1 read:2 write:2 large:9 block:6 commonly:1 use:10 database:2 filesystems:1 internal:20 non:2 leaf:31 node:142 variable:1 number:36 child:46 within:4 pre:2 defined:2 range:3 insert:6 remove:3 change:2 maintain:1 may:11 join:3 split:19 permit:1 need:5 balancing:1 frequently:2 waste:1 space:2 since:8 entirely:1 full:8 low:5 upper:2 bound:3 typically:3 fix:1 particular:3 implementation:2 example:8 often:2 simply:3 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1,715 | Capetian_dynasty | The Capetian dynasty is the largest European royal house, consisting of the descendants of Hugh Capet of France in the male line. King Juan Carlos of Spain and Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg are members of this family, both through the Bourbon branch of the dynasty. Name origins and usage The name of the dynasty derives from its founder, Hugh, who was known as "Hugh Capet". The meaning of "Capet" (a nickname rather than a surname of the modern sort) is unknown. While folk etymology identifies it with "cape", other suggestions suggest it to be connected to the Latin word caput ("head"), and thus explain it as meaning "chief" or "big head". The name "Capetian" came to be applied to both the ruling house of France, and to the wider-spread male-line descendants of Hugh Capet, by historians. It was not a contemporary practice. The name "Capet" has also been used as a surname for French royals, particularly but not exclusively those of the House of Capet – one notable use was during the French Revolution, when the dethroned King Louis XVI (a member of the House of Bourbon, though a direct male-line descendant of Hugh Capet) and Queen Marie Antoinette (a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine) were referred to as "Louis and Antoinette Capet" (the Queen being addressed as "the Widow Capet" after the death of her husband). The Robertians and before The Robertians probably originated in the county Hesbaye, around Tongeren in modern-day Belgium. The first certain ancestor is Robert the Strong count of Paris. From this Robert is derived the dynastic surname given to the family prior to Hugh Capet's election as King of France: the Robertians or Robertines. The sons of Robert the Strong were Odo and Robert, who both ruled as king of Western Francia. The family became Counts of Paris under Odo and Dukes of the Franks under Robert, possessing large parts of Neustria. The Carolingian dynasty ceased to rule France upon the death of Louis V. After the death of Louis, the son of Hugh the Great, Hugh Capet, was elected by the nobility as king of France. Hugh was crowned at Noyon on July 3, 987 with the full support from Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. With Hugh's coronation, a new era began for France, and his descendants came to be named, after him, the Capetians. Robertians (Robertiner) Family Branches Rodbert Ingerman of Hesbaye Ermengarde of Hesbaye, wife of Louis the Pious Cancor, founder of the Lorsch Abbey Landrada Saint Chrodogang, Archbishop of Metz, Abbot of the Lorsch Abbey Robert of Hesbaye Robert of Worms Robert the Strong Odo, king of Western Francia Richildis, married to a count of Troyes Robert, king of Western Francia Emma, married Rudolph of Burgundy Adela, married Herbert II, Count of Vermandois Hugh the Great Hugh Capet Hadwig, married Reginar IV, Count of Mons Robert II Otto-Henry Odo Beatrix, married Frederick of Bar Emma, married Richard I of Normandy Herbert, bishop of Auxerre Capetians through history Over the succeeding centuries, Capetians spread throughout Europe, ruling every form of provincial unit from kingdoms to manors. Besides being the most numerous royal family in Europe, it also is one of the most incestuous, especially in the Spanish Monarchy. Salic Law Salic Law, reestablished during the Hundred Years' War from an ancient Salic Frank tradition, caused the French monarchy to permit only direct male descendants of Hugh to succeed to the throne of France. Without Salic Law, upon the death of Charles IV, the crown would have passed to Isabella of France, the last surviving child of Philip IV of France, and her heir, Edward III of England. Thus instead of the above succession, the French crown passed from the House of Capet after the death of Charles IV to Philip VI of France of the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, then to Louis XII of Valois-Orleans, a cadet line of the Valois, then to François d'Angoulème (who became François Ier), belonging to a cadet line of the Valois-Orleans, then to Henri de Navarre, (who became Henri IV of France), from the House of Bourbon, a cadet line of the Capetian Dynasty. This did not affect monarchies not under that law such as Portugal, Spain, Navarre, and various smaller duchies and counties. Therefore, many royal families appear and disappear in the French succession or become cadet branches upon marriage. A complete list of the senior-most line of Capetians is available below. Capetian Cadet Branches The Capetian Dynasty has been broken many times into (sometimes rival) cadet branches. A cadet branch is a line of descent from another line than the senior-most. This list of cadet branches shows most of the Capetian cadet lines, although some sub-branches are not shown: House of Burgundy (1032-1361) Afonsine House of Burgundy (1109-1383) House of Vermandois (1085-1212) House of Dreux (1137-1345) Dukes of Brittany (1213-1341) Montfort (1322-1488) House of Courtenay (1150-1727) House of Courtenay - Latin Emperors of Constantinople (1217-1283) House of Artois (1237-1472) Elder House of Anjou (initially ruling house of Sicily, then of Naples, became ruling house of Hungary) (1247-1382) Elder House of Anjou - Naples branch (1309-1343) Elder House of Anjou - Taranto branch (1294-1374) Elder House of Anjou - Durazzo branch (1309-1414) House of Bourbon (1268-1503) House of Bourbon - La Marche branch (became Vendome branch) (1356-1836) House of Bourbon - Preaux branch (1385-1429) House of Bourbon - La Carency branch (1393-1515) House of Bourbon-Montpensier (1477-1608) House of Bourbon - Condé branch (1557-1830) House of Bourbon - Conti branch (1629-1814) House of Bourbon - Soissons branch (1569-1641) House of Bourbon-Orleans (1661-) Orleans-Nemours, then (1891) House of Orleans-Braganza (1814-present) Orleans-Alençon (1844-1970) Orleans-Aumale (1822-1872) Orleans-Montpensier, then Orleans-Galliera (1824-present) House of Bourbon - Anjou or Spanish branch (1700-1833) House of Bourbon-Parma (1748-present) Parma-Luxembourg, called House of Nassau-Weilburg (1919-present) House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1751-present) House of Bourbon-Braganza (1752-1979), also called Borbon y Braganza or Branch of the Infant Gabriel House of Bourbon - Molina or Carlist branch (1819-1936) House of Bourbon - de Paula branch (1819-present) (became Anjou branch in 1933) House of Bourbon - Barcelona branch (1933-) House of Bourbon - Artois branch (1775-1883) House of Bourbon - Montpensier branch (1443-1527) House of Valois (1293-1498) House of Valois - Alencon branch (1325-1525) Younger House of Anjou (1356-1481) House of Valois-Burgundy (1364-1477) House of Valois-Burgundy - Brabantine branch (1404-1430) House of Valois-Burgundy - Nevers branch (1404-1491) House of Valois - Orleans branch (1392-1515) House of Valois - Orleans-Angouleme branch (1407-1589) House of Évreux (1303-1400) House of Évreux - Navarre branch (1328-1425) Capetians and their domains 3 Latin Emperors (1216-1217, 1221-1261) Pierre (1216-1217) Robert (1221 - 1228) Baldwin II (1228-1261) 38 Kings of France (888-898, 922-923, 987-1792, 1814-1815, 1815-1848) Odo (888-898) Robert I (922-923) Hugues Capet (987-996) Robert II (996-1031) Henri I (1031-1060) Philippe I (1060-1108) Louis VI (1108-1137) Louis VII (1137-1180) Philippe II (1180-1223) Louis VIII (1223-1226) Louis IX (1226-1270) Philippe III (1271-1285) Philippe IV (1285-1314) Louis X (1314-1316) Jean I (1316) Philippe V (1316-1322) Charles IV (1322-1328) Philippe VI (1328-1350) Jean II (1350-1364) Charles V (1364-1380) Charles VI (1380-1422) Charles VII (1422-1461) Louis XI (1461-1483) Charles VIII (1483-1498) Louis XII (1498-1515) François I (1515-1547) Henri II (1547-1559) François II (1559-1560) Charles IX (1560-1574) Henri III (1574-1589) Henri IV (1589-1610) Louis XIII (1610-1643) Louis XIV (1643-1715) Louis XV (1715-1774) Louis XVI (1754-1792) Louis XVIII (1814-1824) Charles X (1824-1830) Louis XIX (1830) Henri V (1830) Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) 9 Kings and Queens of Portugal (1139-1580, 1640-1853) Afonso I Henriques (1112-1185) Sancho I (1185-1211) Afonso II (1211-1223) Sancho II (1223-1247) Afonso III (1247-1279) Dinis (1279-1325) Afonso IV (1325-1357) Pedro I (1357-1367) Fernando I (1367-1383) 11 Kings and Queens of Naples (1266-1442, 1700-1707, 1735-1806) Charles I (1266-1285) Charles II (1285-1309) Robert (1309-1343) Joanna I (1343-1382) Karol III (1382-1386) Ladislas (1386-1414) Joanna II (1414-1435) René I (1435-1442) Felipe (1700-1707) Carlos VII (1735-1759) Fernando IV (1759-1806) 4 Kings of Sicily (1266-1282, 1700-1713, 1735-1815) Charles I (1266-1285) Felipe (1700-1713) Carlos VII (1735-1759) Fernando III (1759-1815) 4 Kings of the Two Sicilies (1815-1860) Ferdinando I (1815-1825) Francis I (1825-1830) Ferdinando II (1830-1859) Francis II (1859-1860) 12 Kings of Navarre (1305-1441, 1572-1792) Louis I (1305-1316) Philippe II (1316-1322) Charles I (1322-1328) Jeanne II (1328-1349) Charles II (1349-1387) Charles III (1387-1425) Blanche of Navarre (1425-1441) Henry III (1572-1610) Louis II (1610-1643) Louis III (1643-1715) Louis IV (1715-1774) Louis V (1774-1792) 3 Kings and Queen of Poland (1370-1399, 1573-1574) Louis I of Hungary (1370-1382) Jadwiga of Poland (1384-1399) Henry V (1573-1574) 10 Kings and Queen of Spain (1700-1808, 1813-1868, 1874-1931, 1975-Present) Felipe V (1700-1724, 1724-1746) Luis I (1724) Fernando VI (1746-1759) Carlos III (1759-1788) Carlos IV (1788-1808, 1808) Fernando VII (1808) Fernando VII (1813-1833) Isabel II (1833-1868) Alfonso XII (1874-1885) Alfonso XIII (1886-1931) Juan Carlos (1975-Present) 2 Kings of Etruria (1801-1807) Louis (1801-1803) Charles Louis (1803-1807) 4 Kings and Queen of Hungary (1310-1386) Károly I) (1310-1342) Lajos, I (1342-1382) Mária (1382-1385, 1386-1395) Károly II (1385-1386) 9 Prince and Princesses of Achaea (1278-1289, 1313-1322, 1333-1381, 1383-1386) Charles I (1278-1285) Charles II (1285-1289) Louis (1313-1316) Robert (1318-1322) Robert (1333-1364) Catherine (1333-1346) Philippe (1364-1373) Jeanne I (1373-1381) Charles III (1383-1386) 2 Grand Dukes of Luxembourg (1964-Present) Jean (1964-2000) Henri (2000-Present) 21 Dukes and Duchess of Burgundy (956-1002, 1026-1361, 1363-1482) Otto of Paris (956-965) Eudes-Henri (965–1002) Henri I (1026–1032) Robert I (1032–1076) Hughes I (1076–1079) Odo I (1079–1103) Hughes II (1103–1143) Odo II (1143–1162) Hughes III (1162–1192) Odo III (1192–1218) Hughes IV (1218–1272) Robert II (1272–1306) Hughes V (1306–1315) Odo IV (1315–1349) Philippe I of Rouvre (1349–1361) Jean I the Good, also John II of France (1361–1363) Philippe II the Bold (1363–1404) Jean II the Fearless (1404–1419) Philippe III the Good (1419–1467) Charles the Bold (1467–1477) Marie the Rich (1477–1482) 15 Dukes and Duchess of Brittany (1212-1345, 1364-1532) Pierre I (1213-1237) Jean I (1237-1286) Jean II (1286-1305) Arthur II (1305-1316) Jean III (1312-1341) Jean IV (1341-1345) Jean V (1364-1399) Jean VI (1399-1442) François I (1442-1450) Pierre II (1450-1457) Arthur III (1457-1458) François II (1458-1488) Anna (1488-1514) Claudia (1514-1524) François IV (1524-1532) 6 Dukes and Duchess of Hainaut (1253-1256, 1417-1482, 1700-1713) 6 Dukes and Duchess of Brabant (1405-1482) Antoine (1406-1415) Jean IV (1415-1427) Philippe I (1427-1430) Philippe II (1430-1467) Charles (1467-1477) Marie (1477-1482) 6 Dukes and Duchess of Luxembourg (1412-1415, 1419-1482, 1700-1713) 3 Dukes of Lorraine (1431-1473) René I (1431-1453) Jean II (1453-1470) Nicholas I (1470-1473) 1 Duchess of Guelders (1477-1482) 1 Duchess of Limburg (1477-1482) 1 Duke of Milan (1700-1713) 7 Dukes and Duchess of Parma (1731-1735, 1748-1802, 1814-1859) 2 Duchess and Duke of Lucca (1817-1847) 7 Margraves and Marchionesses of Namur (1217-1237, 1429-1482, 1700-1713) 9 Counts and Countess of Provence (1245-1481) 1 Count of Portugal (1093-1112) Henrique (1093-1112) 8 Counts and Countesses of Burgundy (Franche Comte) (1329-1382, 1383-1482) 6 Counts and Countess of Flanders (1383-1482, 1700-1713) 3 Counts and Countess of Holland (1433-1482) 3 Counts and Countess of Zeeland (1433-1482) Senior Capets Throughout most of history, the Senior Capet and the King of France were synonymous terms. Only in the time before Hugh Capet took the crown for himself and after the reign of Charles X is the term necessary to identify which. However, since the Salic Law provided for the succession of the French throne for most of French history, here is a list of all the predecessors of the French monarchy, all the French kings from Hugh until Charles, and all the Legitimist pretenders thereafter. All dates are for seniority, not reign. It is important to note that historians class the predecessors of Hugh Capet as Robertians, not Capetians. Noblemen in Neustria and their descendants (dates uncertain): Cheribert (Until 636) Chrodobertus (From 636) Lambert I (Until 650) Chrodobertus (650-653) Lambert II (653-741) Count in the Upper Rhine Valley and Wormgau: Rutpert I (741-757) Thuringbert (757-770) Rutpert II (770-807) Rutpert III (807 -834) Rutpert IV (834-866) King of France: Odo (866-898) Robert I (898-923) Count of Paris: Hugh (923-956) King of France: Hughes (956-996) Robert II (996-1031) Henri I (1031-1060) Philippe I (1060-1108) Louis VI (1108-1137) Louis VII (1137-1180) Philippe II (1180-1223) Louis VIII (1223-1226) Louis IX (1226-1270) Philippe III (1271-1285) Philippe IV (1285-1314) Louis X (1314-1316) Jean I (1316) Philippe V (1316-1322) Charles IV (1322-1328) Philippe VI (1328-1350) Jean II (1350-1364) Charles V (1364-1380) Charles VI (1380-1422) Charles VII (1422-1461) Louis XI (1461-1483) Charles VIII (1483-1498) Louis XII (1498-1515) François I (1515-1547) Henri II (1547-1559) François II (1559-1560) Charles IX (1560-1574) Henri III (1574-1589) Henri IV (1589-1610) Louis XIII (1610-1643) Louis XIV (1643-1715) Louis XV (1715-1774) Louis XVI (1774-1793) Louis XVII (1793-1795) Louis XVIII (1795-1824) Charles X (1824-1836) Count of Marnes: Louis XIX (1836-1844) Count of Chambord: Henri (1844-1883) Count of Montizón: Juan (1883-1887) Duke of Madrid: Carlos (1887-1909) Duke of Anjou and Madrid: Jacques (1909-1931) Duke of San Jaime: Alfonso Carlos (1931-1936) King of Spain: Alfonso XIII (1936-1941) Duke of Anjou and Segovia: Jacques Henri (1941-1975) Duke of Anjou and Cádiz: Alphonse (1975-1989) Duke of Anjou: Louis (1989-Present) The Capetian dynasty today Many years have passed since the Capetian monarchs ruled a large part of Europe, however they still remain as kings, as well as other titles. Currently two Capetian monarchs still rule in Spain and Luxembourg. In addition, seven pretenders represent exiled dynastic monarchies in Brazil, France, Spain, Portugal, Parma and Two Sicilies. The current legitimate senior family member is Louis Alfonso, the Duke of Anjou, who also holds the Legitimist claim to the French throne. Overall, dozens of branches of the Capetian dynasty still exist throughout Europe. Except for the House of Braganza, all current major Capetian branches are of the Bourbon cadet branch. Within the House of Bourbon, many of these lines are themselves well-defined cadet lines of the House. Current Capetian rulers Juan Carlos, King of Spain (since 1975) Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (since 2000) Current Capetian pretenders Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, Legitimist pretender to France since 1989 Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria, pretender to the Two Sicilies since 1964 Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro, pretender to the Two Sicilies since 2008 Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, Carlist pretender to Spain since 1979 Prince Henry, Count of Paris, Orléanist pretender to France since 1999 Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza, pretender to Portugal since 1976. Further reading Fawtier, Robert. The Capetian Kings of France: Monarchy & Nation (987–1328). Macmillan, 1960. (translated from French edition of 1941) Hallam, Elizabeth M. Capetian France 987-1328. Longman, 1980. Le Hête, Thierry. Les Capetiens: Le Livre du Millenaire. Editions Christian, 1987. External links Genealogies of the Capetian dynasty from Genealogy.eu | Capetian_dynasty |@lemmatized capetian:23 dynasty:10 large:3 european:1 royal:4 house:54 consist:1 descendant:6 hugh:17 capet:18 france:21 male:4 line:12 king:25 juan:4 carlos:10 spain:8 grand:3 duke:25 henri:18 luxembourg:6 member:4 family:7 bourbon:24 branch:36 name:5 origin:1 usage:1 derives:1 founder:2 know:1 meaning:1 nickname:1 rather:1 surname:3 modern:2 sort:1 unknown:1 folk:1 etymology:1 identifies:1 cape:1 suggestion:1 suggest:1 connect:1 latin:3 word:1 caput:1 head:2 thus:2 explain:1 mean:1 chief:1 big:1 come:2 apply:1 ruling:1 wider:1 spread:2 historian:2 contemporary:1 practice:1 also:5 use:2 french:11 particularly:1 exclusively:1 one:2 notable:1 revolution:1 dethroned:1 louis:46 xvi:3 though:1 direct:2 queen:7 marie:3 antoinette:2 habsburg:1 lorraine:2 refer:1 address:1 widow:1 death:5 husband:1 robertians:5 probably:1 originate:1 county:2 hesbaye:4 around:1 tongeren:1 day:1 belgium:1 first:1 certain:1 ancestor:1 robert:21 strong:3 count:17 paris:5 derive:1 dynastic:2 give:1 prior:1 election:1 robertines:1 son:2 odo:10 rule:7 western:3 francia:3 become:7 frank:2 possess:1 part:2 neustria:2 carolingian:1 cease:1 upon:3 v:11 great:2 elect:1 nobility:1 crown:4 noyon:1 july:1 full:1 support:1 holy:1 roman:1 emperor:3 otto:3 iii:20 coronation:1 new:1 era:1 begin:1 robertiner:1 rodbert:1 ingerman:1 ermengarde:1 wife:1 pious:1 cancor:1 lorsch:2 abbey:2 landrada:1 saint:1 chrodogang:1 archbishop:1 metz:1 abbot:1 worm:1 richildis:1 marry:5 troyes:1 emma:2 rudolph:1 burgundy:8 adela:1 herbert:2 ii:40 vermandois:2 hadwig:1 reginar:1 iv:21 mon:1 henry:5 beatrix:1 frederick:1 bar:1 married:1 richard:1 normandy:1 bishop:1 auxerre:1 history:3 succeed:2 century:1 throughout:3 europe:4 every:1 form:1 provincial:1 unit:1 kingdom:1 manor:1 besides:1 numerous:1 incestuous:1 especially:1 spanish:2 monarchy:6 salic:5 law:5 reestablish:1 hundred:1 year:2 war:1 ancient:1 tradition:1 cause:1 permit:1 throne:3 without:1 charles:30 would:1 pass:3 isabella:1 last:1 surviving:1 child:1 philip:2 heir:1 edward:1 england:1 instead:1 succession:3 vi:9 valois:11 cadet:12 xii:4 orleans:11 françois:9 angoulème:1 belong:1 de:2 navarre:5 affect:1 portugal:5 various:1 small:1 duchy:1 therefore:1 many:4 appear:1 disappear:1 marriage:1 complete:1 list:3 senior:5 available:1 break:1 time:2 sometimes:1 rival:1 descent:1 another:1 show:2 although:1 sub:1 afonsine:1 dreux:1 brittany:2 montfort:1 courtenay:2 constantinople:1 artois:2 elder:4 anjou:13 initially:1 sicily:7 naples:3 hungary:3 taranto:1 durazzo:1 la:2 marche:1 vendome:1 preaux:1 carency:1 montpensier:3 condé:1 conti:1 soissons:1 nemours:1 braganza:5 present:11 alençon:1 aumale:1 galliera:1 parma:5 call:2 nassau:1 weilburg:1 two:6 borbon:1 infant:1 gabriel:1 molina:1 carlist:2 paula:1 barcelona:1 alencon:1 young:1 brabantine:1 nevers:1 angouleme:1 évreux:2 domain:1 pierre:3 baldwin:1 hugues:1 philippe:20 vii:8 viii:4 ix:4 x:5 jean:15 xi:2 xiii:4 xiv:2 xv:2 xviii:2 xix:2 afonso:4 henriques:1 sancho:2 dinis:1 pedro:1 fernando:6 joanna:2 karol:1 ladislas:1 rené:2 felipe:3 ferdinando:2 francis:2 jeanne:2 blanche:1 poland:2 jadwiga:1 luis:1 isabel:1 alfonso:5 etruria:1 károly:2 lajos:1 mária:1 prince:4 princess:1 achaea:1 catherine:1 duchess:9 eudes:1 hughes:6 rouvre:1 good:2 john:1 bold:2 fearless:1 rich:1 arthur:2 anna:1 claudia:1 hainaut:1 brabant:1 antoine:1 nicholas:1 guelders:1 limburg:1 milan:1 lucca:1 margrave:1 marchioness:1 namur:1 countess:5 provence:1 henrique:1 franche:1 comte:1 flanders:1 holland:1 zeeland:1 synonymous:1 term:2 take:1 reign:2 necessary:1 identify:1 however:2 since:10 provide:1 predecessor:2 legitimist:3 pretender:9 thereafter:1 date:2 seniority:1 important:1 note:1 class:1 nobleman:1 uncertain:1 cheribert:1 chrodobertus:2 lambert:2 upper:1 rhine:1 valley:1 wormgau:1 rutpert:4 thuringbert:1 xvii:1 marnes:1 chambord:1 montizón:1 madrid:2 jacques:2 san:1 jaime:1 segovia:1 cádiz:1 alphonse:2 today:1 monarch:2 still:3 remain:1 well:2 title:1 currently:1 addition:1 seven:1 represent:1 exile:1 brazil:1 current:4 legitimate:1 hold:1 claim:1 overall:1 dozen:1 exist:1 except:1 major:1 within:1 define:1 ruler:1 infante:1 calabria:1 carlo:1 castro:1 sixtus:1 orléanist:1 duarte:1 pio:1 far:1 read:1 fawtier:1 nation:1 macmillan:1 translate:1 edition:2 hallam:1 elizabeth:1 longman:1 le:2 hête:1 thierry:1 les:1 capetiens:1 livre:1 du:1 millenaire:1 christian:1 external:1 links:1 genealogy:2 eu:1 |@bigram capetian_dynasty:7 hugh_capet:9 juan_carlos:3 folk_etymology:1 louis_xvi:3 marie_antoinette:1 habsburg_lorraine:1 louis_pious:1 salic_law:4 bourbon_parma:2 louis_xiv:2 louis_xv:2 louis_xviii:2 afonso_henriques:1 jadwiga_poland:1 alfonso_xii:1 alfonso_xiii:2 duke_anjou:6 duke_braganza:1 le_livre:1 external_links:1 |
1,716 | Demographics_of_Laos | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Laos, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. A street market in Luang Prabang. Laos' population was estimated at about 6 million in July 2004, dispersed unevenly across the country. Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries. Vientiane Prefecture, which includes Vientiane, the capital and largest city of the country, had about 569,000 residents in 1999. The country's population density is 23.4/km². Overview The demographic makeup of the population is uncertain as the government divides the people into three groups according to the altitude at which they live, rather than according to ethnic origin. The lowland Lao (Lao Loum) account for 68%, upland Lao (Lao Theung) for 22%, and the highland Lao (Lao Soung, including the Hmong and the Yao) for 9%. Ethnic Vietnamese constitutes about 2% of the population. Ethnic Lao, the principal lowland inhabitants and politically and culturally dominant group, make up the bulk of the Lao Loum and around 60% of the total population. The Lao are a branch of the Tai people who began migrating southward from China in the first millennium A.D. In the north, there are mountain tribes of Miao-Yao, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman - Hmong, Yao, Akha, and Lahu who migrated into the region in the 19th century. Collectively, they are known as Lao Sung or highland Lao. In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer tribes known as Lao Theung or upland Lao, predominate. Some Vietnamese and Chinese minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left in two waves - after independence in the late 1940s and again after 1975. The predominant religion is Theravada Buddhism. Animism is common among the mountain tribes. Buddhism and spirit worship coexist easily. There also is a small number of Christians and Muslims. The official and dominant language is Lao, a tonal language of the Tai linguistic group. Midslope and highland Lao speak an assortment of tribal languages. French, once common in government and commerce, has declined in usage, while knowledge of English - the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - has increased in recent years. Demographics of Laos, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. A primary school in a village in northern rural Laos CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 6,068,117 (June 2004 est.) - 6,521,998 (July 2007 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 41% (male 1,374,966/female 1,362,945) 15-64 years: 55.9% (male 1,846,375/female 1,885,029) 65 years and over: 3.1% (male 91,028/female 117,191) (2008 est.) Population growth rate: 2.344% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 38.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) - 34.46 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 13.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) - 11.02 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.85 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 94.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) - 81.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 53.09 years (2000 est.) - 55.89 years (2007 est.) male: 52.74 years (2000 est.) - 53.82 years (2007 est.) female: 56.80 years (2000 est.) - 58.04 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate: 5.21 children born/woman (2000 est.) - 4.59 children born/woman (2007 est.) Nationality: noun: Lao(s) or Laotian(s) adjective: Lao or Laotian Ethnic groups: Lao Loum (lowland) 67%, Lao Theung (upland) 22%, Lao Soung (highland) including the Hmong and the Yao (Mien) 9%, Vietnamese 2% Laos recognizes 68 different ethnic groups in its territory. Religions: Buddhist 98%, Christian 1.5%, other 0.5% (Note:Animism is also practiced widely with Buddhism) (see Religion in Laos) Languages: Lao (official), French, Vietnamese, and various ethnic languages Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 68.7% male: 77% female: 60.9% (2001 est.) See also List of ethnic groups in Laos References CIA World Factbook | Demographics_of_Laos |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:18 lao:27 include:4 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 street:1 market:1 luang:1 prabang:1 estimate:1 million:1 july:2 disperse:1 unevenly:1 across:1 country:3 people:3 live:4 valley:1 mekong:1 river:1 tributary:1 vientiane:2 prefecture:1 capital:1 large:1 city:1 resident:1 overview:1 makeup:1 uncertain:1 government:2 divide:1 three:1 group:6 accord:2 altitude:1 rather:1 ethnic:7 origin:1 lowland:3 loum:3 account:1 upland:3 theung:3 highland:4 soung:2 hmong:3 yao:4 vietnamese:4 constitutes:1 principal:1 inhabitant:2 politically:1 culturally:1 dominant:2 make:1 bulk:1 around:1 total:5 branch:1 tai:2 begin:1 migrate:2 southward:1 china:1 first:1 millennium:1 north:1 mountain:3 tribe:3 miao:1 austro:1 asiatic:1 tibeto:1 burman:1 akha:1 lahu:1 region:1 century:1 collectively:1 know:2 sung:1 central:1 southern:1 mon:1 khmer:1 predominate:1 chinese:1 minority:1 remain:1 particularly:1 town:1 many:1 leave:1 two:1 wave:1 independence:1 late:1 predominant:1 religion:3 theravada:1 buddhism:3 animism:2 common:2 among:1 spirit:1 worship:1 coexist:1 easily:1 also:3 small:1 number:2 christian:2 muslim:1 official:2 language:5 tonal:1 linguistic:1 midslope:1 speak:1 assortment:1 tribal:1 french:2 commerce:1 decline:1 usage:1 knowledge:1 english:1 association:1 southeast:1 asian:1 nation:1 asean:1 increase:1 recent:1 year:14 data:1 fao:1 thousand:1 primary:1 school:1 village:1 northern:1 rural:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 june:1 est:21 age:2 structure:1 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:7 death:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:2 bear:2 woman:2 nationality:1 noun:1 laotian:2 adjective:1 mien:1 recognize:1 different:1 territory:1 buddhist:1 note:1 practice:1 widely:1 see:2 languages:1 various:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 list:1 laos:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 luang_prabang:1 mekong_river:1 lao_lao:3 politically_culturally:1 austro_asiatic:1 tibeto_burman:1 mon_khmer:1 theravada_buddhism:1 southeast_asian:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,717 | Developmental_psychology | 'Developmental psychology', also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development, aging, and the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as problem solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation. Developmental psychology includes issues such as the extent to which development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge versus stage-like development, or the extent to which children are born with innate mental structures versus learning through experience. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors including social context, and their impact on development; others take a more narrowly focused approach. Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology, and forensic developmental psychology. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology. Approaches Many theoretical perspectives attempt to explain development; among the most prominent are: Jean Piaget's Stage Theory, Lev Vygotsky's Social Contextualism (and its heirs, the Cultural Theory of Development of Michael Cole, and the Ecological Systems Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner), Albert Bandura's Social learning theory, and the information processing framework employed by cognitive psychology. To a lesser extent, historical theories continue to provide a basis for additional research. Among them are Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development and John B. Watson's and B. F. Skinner's behaviorism (for more on behaviorism's role see Behavior analysis of child development). Many other theories are prominent for their contributions to particular aspects of development. For example, attachment theory describes kinds of interpersonal relationships and Lawrence Kohlberg describes stages in moral reasoning. Theorists and theories John Bowlby, Harry Harlow, Mary Ainsworth: Attachment theory Urie Bronfenbrenner: the social ecology of human development Jerome Bruner: Cognitive (constructivist); learning theory / Narrative construction of reality Erik Erikson: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual development Jerome Kagan: A pioneer of developmental psychology Lawrence Kohlberg: Kohlberg's stages of moral development Jean Piaget: Theory of cognitive development, Genetic epistemology Lev Vygotsky: Social contextualism; Zone of proximal development Judith Rich Harris: Modular theory of social development Piagetian stages of cognitive development Piaget was a French speaking Swiss theorist who posited that children learn through actively constructing knowledge through hands-on experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials for the child to interact and construct. He would use Socratic questioning to get the children to reflect on what they were doing. He would try to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. He also developed stages of development. His approach can be seen in how the curriculum is sequenced in schools, and in the pedagogy of preschool centers across the United States. Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory Vygotsky was a theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience, as Piaget suggested. However, unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. This technique is called "scaffolding," because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. Ecological Systems Theory Also called "Development in Context" or "Human Ecology" theory, Ecological Systems Theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (ISBN 0-674-22457-4) has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments — from the family to economic and political structures — have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood. Attachment theory Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on close, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Protocol and the concept of the secure base. See also the critique by developmental psychology pioneer Jerome Kagan. Nature/nurture A significant question in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "nature versus nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such extreme positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology. One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. Mechanisms of development Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, but they do not need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models to explain the mechanisms of development. Research areas Cognitive development Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, thus development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to be obtained. Modern cognitive development has largely moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and is influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms. Social and emotional development Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. Research methods Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot always be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development. Methods and techniques Techniques for studying infants Children Adolescents When studying older children, especially adolescents, adult measurements of behavior can often be used, but they may need to be simplified to allow children to perform certain tasks. Adults (refers specifically to this section above) Research design Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. In a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or normative) and occur in most members of a cohort. Researchers may also observe ways in which development varies between individuals and hypothesize about the causes of variation observed in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may in fact be universal only to their cohort. In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires less resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confounding factor. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to different historical events. An accelerated longitudinal design or cross-sequential study or cohort-sequential design combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. By comparing differences and similarities in development, one can more easily determine what changes can be attributed to individual or historical environment, and which are truly universal. Clearly such a study can be even more resource-consuming than a longitudinal study. Additionally, these are all correlational, not experimental, designs, and so one cannot readily infer causation from the data they yield. Nonetheless, correlational research methods are common in the study of development, in part due to ethical concerns. In a study of the effects of poverty on development, for instance, one cannot easily randomly assign certain families to a poverty condition and others to an affluent one, and so observation alone has to suffice. Stages of development The prenatal development of human beings is viewed in three separate stages, which are not the same as the trimesters of a woman's pregnancy: Germinal (conception through week 2) Embryonic (weeks 3 through 8) Fetal (week 9 through birth) The germinal stage begins when a sperm penetrates an egg in the act of conception (normally the result of sexual intercourse between a man and a woman). At this point a zygote is formed. Through the process of mitosis, the cells divide and double. The embryonic stage occurs once the zygote has firmly implanted itself in the uterine wall. It is in this stage that the vital organs are formed, and while the external body is still extremely dissimilar from an adult human, some features such as eyes and arms, and eventually ears and feet, become recognizable. The fetal period is the pre-natal period when the brain has its greatest development, becoming more and more complex over the last few months. During pregnancy there is a risk to the developing child from drugs and other teratogens, spousal abuse and other stress on the mother, nutrition and the age of the mother. Genetic testing prior to pregnancy is also increasingly available. Three methods of determining fetal defects and health include the ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. Although difficult, some methods of treating fetal disorders have been developed, both surgical and drug based. Infancy From birth until the onset of speech, the child is referred to as an infant. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear. While no agreement has yet been reached regarding the level of stimulation an infant requires, a normal level of stimulation is very important, and a lack of stimulation and affection can result in learning difficulties and a host of other developmental and social disorders Some feel that classical music, particularly Mozart is good for an infant's mind. While some tentative research has shown it to be helpful to older children, no conclusive evidence is available involving infants. The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal. Infants can be seen to have 6 states, grouped into pairs: quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM occurs) quiet waking, and active waking fussing and crying Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states. Habituation is frequently used in testing psychological phenomenon. Both infants and adults attend less as a result of consistent exposure to a particular stimulus. The amount of time spent attending to an alternate stimulus (after habituation to the initial stimulus) is indicative of the strength of the remembered percept of the previous stimulus, or dishabituation. Habituation is used to discover the resolution of perceptual systems, for example, by habituating a subject to one stimulus, and then observing responses to similar ones, one can detect the smallest degree of difference that is detectable by the subject. Infants have a wide variety of reflexes, some of which are permanent (blinking, gagging), and others transient in nature. Some have obvious purposes, some are clearly vestigial, and some do not have obvious purposes. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like dementia or traumatic lesions. A partial list of infantile reflexes includes: Moro reflex or startle reflex: Startle spreading out the arms (adduction) unspreading the arms (abduction) Crying (usually) Tonic neck reflex or fencer's reflex Rooting reflex, sucking reflex, suckling reflex: can be initiated by scratching the infant's cheek; the reaction is pursing of the lips for sucking. Stepping reflex, step-up reflex: can be initiated if you support the infant upright from its armpits below a given surface so the baby lifts its foot and steps up on the surface (like climbing a stair). Grasp reflex: can be initiated by scratching the infant's palm. Parachute reflex: the infant is suspended by the trunk and suddenly lowered as if falling for an instant. The child spontaneously throws out the arms as a protective mechanism. The parachute reflex appears before the onset of walking. Plantar reflex or Babinski reflex: a finger is stroked firmly down the outer edge of the baby's sole; the toes spread and extend out. Infants have significantly worse vision than older children. Infant sight, blurry in early stages, improves over time. Infants less than 2 months old are thought to be color blind. Hearing is well-developed prior to birth, however, and a preference for the mother's heartbeat is well established. Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction from which a sound comes, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to that of adults. Smell and taste are present, with infants having been shown to prefer the smell and taste of a banana, while rejecting the taste of shrimp. There is good evidence for infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others. Infants have a fully developed sense of touch at birth, and the myth believed by some doctors even today that infants feel no pain is inaccurate. Doctors are slowly becoming aware of the need for pain prevention for newborns. Piaget asserted that there were several sensorimotor stages within his broader Theory of cognitive development. The first sub-stage occurs from birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the development of reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over these first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping. (Gruber and Vaneche, 1977 *Piaget, J. (1977). "The essential Piaget" ed by Howard E. Gruber and J. Jacques Voneche Gruber, New York: Basic Books ). The second sub-stage occurs from six weeks to four months and is associated primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only ones own body begin. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin (Gruber et al., 1977). The third sub-stage occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object occur begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic (Gruber et al., 1977). Towards the late part of this sub-stage infants begin to have a sense of object permanence, passing the A-not-B error test. The fourth sub-stage occurs from nine to twelve months and is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the "first proper intelligence." Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective (Gruber et al. 1977). The fifth sub-stage occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the "young scientist," conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges (Gruber et al. 1977). The sixth sub-stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage. Special methods are used to study infant behavior. When studying infants, the habituation methodology is an example of a method often used to assess their performance. This method allows researchers to obtain information about what types of stimuli an infant is able to discriminate. In this paradigm, infants are habituated to a particular stimulus and are then tested using different stimuli to evaluate discrimination. The critical measure in habituation is the infants' level of interest. Typically, infants prefer stimuli that are novel relative to those they have encountered previously. Several methods are used to measure infants' preference. These include the high-amplitude sucking procedure, in which infants suck on a pacifier more or less depending on their level of interest, the conditioned foot-kick procedure, in which infants move their legs to indicate preference, and the head-turn preference procedure, in which the infant's level of interest is measured by the amount of time spent looking in a particular direction. A key feature of all these methods is that, in each situation, the infant controls the stimuli being presented. This gives researchers a means of measuring discrimination. If an infant is able to discriminate between the habituated stimulus and a novel stimulus, they will show a preference for the novel stimulus. If, however, the infant cannot discriminate between the two stimuli, they will not show a preference for one over the other. Object permanence is an important stage of cognitive development for infants. Numerous tests regarding it have been done, usually involving a toy, and a crude barrier which is placed in front of the toy, and then removed, repeatedly. In sensorimotor stages 1 and 2, the infant is completely unable to comprehend object permanence. Jean Piaget conducted experiments with infants which led him to conclude that this awareness was typically achieved at eight to nine months of age. Infants before this age are too young to understand object permanence, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone. "Out of sight, out of mind." A lack of Object Permanence can lead to A-not-B errors, where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be. (see also: Infant metaphysics) Toddler Intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed. Thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversible manner. Egocentric thinking predominates. Socially, toddlers are little people attempting to become independent at this stage, which they are commonly called the " terrible twos". They walk, talk, use the toilet, and get food for themselves. Self-control begins to develop. If taking the initiative to explore, experiment, risk mistakes in trying new things, and test their limits is encouraged by the caretaker(s) the child will become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident. If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed for the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development will be inhibited, and be less prepared to successfully deal with the world in the future. Early childhood When children attend preschool, they broaden their social horizons and become more engaged with those around them. Impulses are channeled into fantasies, which leaves the task of the caretaker to balance eagerness for pursuing adventure, creativity and self expression with the development of responsibility. If caretakers are properly encouraging and consistently disciplinary, children are more likely to develop positive self-esteem while becoming more responsible, and will follow through on assigned activities. If not allowed to decide which activities to perform, children may begin to feel guilt upon contemplating taking initiative. This negative association with independence will lead them to let others make decisions in place of them. Childhood In middle childhood, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes. Children go through the transition from the world at home to that of school and peers. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. Children can now receive feedback from outsiders about their accomplishments. If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence. If they are not successful or cannot discover pleasure in the process, they may develop a sense of inferiority and feelings of inadequacy that may haunt them throughout life. This is when children think of them selves as industrious or as inferior Adolescence Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose (see William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998) Developmental Theory The adolescent asks "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity. Early adulthood The person must learn how to form intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. The development of this skill relies on the resolution of other stages. It may be hard to establish intimacy if one has not developed trust or a sense of identity. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others. However, an Inuit proverb claims that 'privation and suffering are the basis of all great things', so ultimately this isolation may be to an individual's long-term best interest. A related framework for studying this part of the life span is that of Emerging adulthood, introduced in 2000 by Jeffrey Arnett. Scholars of emerging adulthood are interested not only in relationship development (focusing on the role of dating in helping individuals settle on a long-term spouse/partner), but also the development of sociopolitical views and occupational choice. Middle age Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 65. During this period, the middle-aged experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to the next generation and their community or a sense of purposelessness. Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men do not have an equivalent to menopause, but they do experience a decline in sperm count and speed of ejaculation and erection. Most men and women remain capable of sexual satisfaction after middle age. Old age This stage generally refers to those over 75 years. During old age, people experience a conflict between integrity vs. despair. When reflecting on their life, they either feel a sense of accomplishment or failure. Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to severe diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to Dementia or Alzheimer's Disease. However, partially due to a lifetime's accumulation of antibodies, the elderly are less likely to suffer from common diseases such as the cold. Whether or not intellectual powers increase or decrease with age remains controversial. Longitudinal studies have suggested that intellect declines, while cross-sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. Other findings Parenting In Western developed societies, mothers (and women generally) were emphasized to the exclusion of other caregivers, particularly as the traditional role of the father was more the breadwinner, and less the direct caregiver of an infant, he has been traditionally viewed as impacting an infant indirectly through interactions with the mother of the child. The emphasis of study has shifted to the primary caregiver (regardless of gender or biological relation), as well as all persons directly or indirectly influencing the child (the family system). The roles of the mother and father are more significant than first thought as we moved into the concept of primary caregiver. Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father. Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy. ERIC Digest "Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2125328669291708941 2:57) In particular, a study in the U.S.A. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls. Bruce J. Ellis, Child Development May/June 2003, 74:3, pp. 801-821 Covariate factors used included early conduct problems, maternal age at first childbirth, race, maternal education, father's occupational status, family living standards, family life stress, early mother-child interaction, measures of psychosocial adjustment and educational achievement, school qualifications, mood disorder, anxiety disorder, suicide attempts, violent offending, and conduct disorder. Further research has found fathers have an impact on child academic performance, including involved nonresident fathers. However, father absence is associated with a range of negative outcomes for children, including child and later criminal behavior. Rebekah Levine Coley and Bethany L. Medeiros, Reciprocal Longitudinal Relations Between Nonresident Father Involvement and Adolescent Delinquency, Child Development, 78:1, pp. 132-147, Jan 2007 Historical antecedents The modern form of developmental psychology has its roots in the rich psychological tradition represented by Aristotle, Tabari, Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [361] Rhazes, David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2). Alhazen, Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. and Descartes. William Shakespeare had his melancholy character Jacques (in As You Like It) articulate the seven ages of man: these included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood. In the mid-eighteenth century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of childhood: infans (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence in Emile: Or, On Education. Rousseau's ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time. In the late nineteenth century, psychologists familiar with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development; prominent here was G. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. A more scientific approach was initiated by James Mark Baldwin, who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes. In 1905, Sigmund Freud articulated five psychosexual stages. Later, Rudolf Steiner articulated stages of psychological development throughout human life. The first three of these stages, which correspond closely with Piaget's later-described stages of childhood, were first presented in Steiner's 1911 essay The Education of the Child. By the early to mid-twentieth century, the work of Vygotsky and Piaget, mentioned above, had established a strong empirical tradition in the field. See also Child development Developmental psychobiology Developmental psychopathology Developmental stage Evolutionary developmental psychopathology Pre- and perinatal psychology References Further reading Bjorklund, D. F. & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology. Child Development, 71, 1687-1708. Full text Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. (2005). Developmental science: An advanced textbook. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005. Johnson-Pynn, J., Fragaszy, D.M., & Cummins-Sebree, S. (2003). Common territories in comparative and developmental psychology: The quest for shared means and meaning in behavioral investigations. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 16, 1-27. Full text Lerner, R. M. Concepts and theories of human development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002. External links The British Psychological Society Developmental Psychology: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology Developmental psychology at The Psychology Wiki Developmental psychology forum GMU’s On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology: a web directory of developmental psychology organizations Psychology Wikia IRC channel The Society for Research in Child Development Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH) An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library. Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a specific bibliography. 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1,718 | Geography_of_North_Korea | Map of North Korea North Korea is located in east Asia on the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. North Korea shares a border with three states, including China along the Amnok River, Russia along the Duman River, and South Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The Yellow Sea and the Korea Bay are off the west coast and the Sea of Japan (also called East Sea of Korea) is off the east coast. Boundaries, coastline, and islands North Korea's geographic coordinates are at 40°00'N, 127°00'E. It has an area of 120,540 km², of which 120,410 km² is land and 130 km² is water. It has 1673 km of land boundaries; of these, 1416 km are with China, 238 km are with South Korea, and 19 km are with Russia. The Korean Peninsula extends for about 1000 km southward from the northeast Asian continental landmass. The 8460-km coastline of Korea is highly irregular, and North Korea accounts for 2495 km of this, roughly half. Some 3579 islands lie adjacent to the Korean Peninsula, mostly along the south and west coasts. Maritime claims The North Korean government claims territorial waters extending 12 nautical miles (22.224 km) from shore. It also claims an exclusive economic zone 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) from shore. In addition, a maritime military boundary that lies fifty nautical miles (92.6 km) offshore in the Sea of Japan (East Sea of Korea) and 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) offshore in the Yellow Sea demarcates the waters and airspace into which foreign ships and planes are prohibited from entering without permission. Waters of the Yellow Sea are demarcated between North Korea and South Korea by the disputed Northern Limit Line unilaterally drawn by the U.S. military forces in early 1950s and not officially recognized by North Korea. Korea was split after the Korean war. Topography and drainage Satellite image of Korea, taken by NASA The terrain consists mostly of hills and mountains separated by deep, narrow valleys. The coastal plains are wide in the west and discontinuous in the east. Topography of North Korea Elevation extremes Lowest point: Sea of Japan (East Sea of Korea) 0 m (Sea level) Highest point: Baekdu Mountain (Paektusan) 2744 m Early European visitors to Korea remarked that the country resembled "a sea in a heavy gale" because of the many successive mountain ranges that crisscross the peninsula. Some 80 percent of North Korea's land area is composed of mountains and uplands, with all of the peninsula's mountains with elevations of 2000 m or more located in North Korea. The great majority of the population lives in the plains and lowlands. Baekdu Mountain, the highest point in North Korea, is a volcanic mountain near the Chinese border with basalt lava plateau with elevations between 1400 and 2000 m above sea level. The Hamgyeong Range, located in the extreme northeastern part of the peninsula, has many high peaks including Mt. Gwanmosan at approximately 1756 m. Other major ranges include the Rangrim Mountains, which are located in the north-central part of North Korea and run in a north-south direction, making communication between the eastern and western parts of the country rather difficult; and the Kangnam Range, which runs along the North Korea-China border. Geumgangsan, often written Mt Kumgang, or Diamond Mountain, (approximately 1,638 meters) in the Taebaek Range, which extends into South Korea, is famous for its scenic beauty. For the most part, the plains are small. The most extensive are the Pyeongyang and Chaeryŏng plains, each covering about 500 square kilometers. Because the mountains on the east coast drop abruptly to the sea, the plains are even smaller there than on the west coast. The mountain ranges in the northern and eastern parts of North Korea form the watershed for most of its rivers, which run in a westerly direction and empty into the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay. The longest is the Amnok River, which is navigable for 678 of its 790 kilometers. The Duman River, one of the few major rivers to flow into the Sea of Japan (East Sea), is the second longest at 521 kilometers but is navigable for only 85 kilometers because of the mountainous topography. The third longest river, the Daedong River, flows through Pyeongyang and is navigable for 245 of its 397 kilometers. Lakes tend to be small because of the lack of glacial activity and the stability of the earth's crust in the region. Unlike neighboring Japan or northern China, North Korea experiences few severe earthquakes. The country is well-endowed with spas and hot springs, which number 124 according to one North Korean source. Climate Snowfall in Korea The climate is temperate with rainfall concentrated in summer. Natural hazards include late spring droughts which often are followed by severe flooding. There are occasional typhoons during the early fall. Located between 38 and 43 north latitude, North Korea has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. Long winters bring bitter cold and clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow from Siberia. The daily average high and low temperatures for P'yongyang in January are -3 °C and -13 °C. Average snowfall is thirty-seven days during the winter. The weather is likely to be particularly harsh in the northern, mountainous regions. Summer tends to be short, hot, humid, and rainy because of the southern and southeastern monsoon winds that bring moist air from the Pacific Ocean. The daily average high and low temperatures for Pyongyang in August are 29 °C and 20 °C. On average, approximately 60% of all precipitation occurs from June to September. Typhoons affect the peninsula on an average of at least once every summer. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons marked by mild temperatures and variable winds and bring the most pleasant weather. Environmental protection Environment - current issues: localized air pollution attributable to inadequate industrial controls; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water; deforestation. Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78); signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea. Lack of information makes it difficult to assess the extent to which industrialization and urbanization have damaged North Korea's natural environment. Using generally obsolete technology transferred from the former Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, the country embarked on a program of ambitious industrialization after the Korean War. Air pollution is moderated by the extensive reliance on electricity rather than on fossil fuels, both for industry and the heating of urban residences. Air pollution is further limited by the absence of private automobiles and restrictions on using gasoline-powered vehicles because of the critical shortage of petroleum. Significant deforestation since the 1990s, due to timber and firewood harvesting, drought, and clearing of farmland. Degradation of farmland due to deforestation has been blamed as a contributing factor in declining crop yields. Resources and land use Natural resources include coal, lead, tungsten, zinc, graphite, magnesite, iron ore, copper, gold, pyrites, salt, fluorspar and hydropower. Land use arable land:14%permanent crops:2%permanent pastures:0%forests and woodland:61%other:23% Data: (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 14,600 km² (1993 est.) Miscellaneous Strategic location bordering China, South Korea, and Russia Mountainous interior is isolated and sparsely populated See also List of Korea-related topics Geography of South Korea External links North Korea Uncovered, (North Korea Google Earth) the most authoritative mapping of North Korea on Google Earth. | Geography_of_North_Korea |@lemmatized map:1 north:25 korea:37 locate:5 east:8 asia:1 northern:6 half:2 korean:8 peninsula:7 share:1 border:4 three:1 state:1 include:5 china:6 along:5 amnok:2 river:8 russia:3 duman:2 south:8 demilitarize:1 zone:2 dmz:1 yellow:4 sea:17 bay:2 west:4 coast:5 japan:5 also:3 call:1 boundary:3 coastline:2 island:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 n:1 e:1 area:2 land:7 water:6 km:11 extend:3 southward:1 northeast:1 asian:1 continental:2 landmass:1 highly:1 irregular:1 account:1 roughly:1 lie:2 adjacent:1 mostly:2 maritime:2 claim:3 government:1 territorial:1 nautical:4 mile:4 shore:2 exclusive:1 economic:1 addition:1 military:2 fifty:1 offshore:2 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1,719 | André-Marie_Ampère | André-Marie Ampère FRS (20 January 1775 – 10 June 1836), was a French physicist and mathematician who is generally regarded as one of the main discoverers of electromagnetism. The unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere, is named after him. Early days Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 in Lyon, France, and lived from 1775 to 1796 in the nearby burg of Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or. His father began to teach him Latin, until he discovered the boy's preference and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works of Euler and Bernoulli. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. During the French Revolution, Ampere's father stayed at Lyon expecting to be safer there. Nevertheless, after the revolutionaries had taken the city he was captured and executed. This death was a great shock to Ampère. In 1796 Ampère met Julie Carron, and in 1799 they were married. From about 1796, Ampère gave private lessons at Lyon in mathematics, chemistry, and languages. In 1801 he moved to Bourg, as professor of physics and chemistry, leaving his ailing wife and infant son (Jean-Jacques Ampère) at Lyon. Her death, in July 1803, troubled Ampère for the rest of his life. Also in 1804, Ampère was appointed professor of mathematics at the lycée of Lyon. Ampère claimed that "at eighteen years he found three culminating points in his life, his First Communion, the reading of Antoine Leonard Thomas's "Eulogy of Descartes", and the Taking of the Bastille. On the day of his wife's death he wrote two verses from the Psalms, and the prayer, 'O Lord, God of Mercy, unite me in Heaven with those whom you have permitted me to love on earth.' Serious doubts harassed him at times, and made him very unhappy. Then he would take refuge in the reading of the Bible and the Fathers of the Church." Physics and further studies Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre's recommendation obtained for Ampère the Lyon appointment, and afterwards (1805) a minor position in the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1809. Here Ampère continued to pursue his scientific research and his diverse studies with unabated diligence. He was admitted as a member of the Institute in 1814. Ampère's fame mainly rests on his establishing the relations between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics. On 11 September 1820 he heard of H. C. Ørsted's discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current. Only a week later, on 18 September, Ampère presented a paper to the Academy containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. On the same day, Ampère also demonstrated before the Academy that parallel wires carrying currents attract or repel each other, depending on whether currents are in the same (attraction) or in opposite directions (repulsion). This laid the foundation of electrodynamics. The field of electromagnetism thus opened up, he explored with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathematical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic phenomena already observed, but also predicted many new ones. Last years Grave of Ampere Ampère died at Marseille and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of his character are well brought out in his Journal et correspondence (Paris, 1872). Ampère's final work, published posthumously, was Essai sur la philosophie des sciences, ou exposition analytique d'une classification naturelle de toutes les connaissances humaines ("Essay on the philosophy of science or analytical exposition on the natural classification of human knowledge"). See also Monge–Ampère equation References Further reading External links Ampère and the history of electricity - a French-language, edited by CNRS, site with Ampère's correspondence (full text and critical edition with links to manuscripts pictures, more than 1000 letters), an Ampère bibliography, experiments, and 3D simulations Ampère Museum - a French-language site from the museum in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near Lyon, France Catholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère | André-Marie_Ampère |@lemmatized andré:2 marie:2 ampère:24 fr:1 january:2 june:1 french:4 physicist:1 mathematician:1 generally:1 regard:1 one:2 main:1 discoverer:1 electromagnetism:3 unit:1 measurement:1 electric:1 current:4 ampere:3 name:1 early:1 day:3 bear:1 lyon:7 france:2 live:1 nearby:1 burg:1 poleymieux:2 au:2 mont:2 father:3 begin:1 teach:1 latin:2 discover:1 boy:1 preference:1 aptitude:1 mathematical:2 study:3 young:1 however:1 soon:1 resume:1 lesson:2 enable:1 master:1 work:2 euler:1 bernoulli:1 late:1 life:3 claim:2 know:2 much:1 mathematics:4 science:5 eighteen:2 ever:1 polymath:1 reading:3 embrace:1 history:2 travel:1 poetry:1 philosophy:2 natural:2 revolution:1 stay:1 expect:1 safe:1 nevertheless:1 revolutionary:1 take:2 city:1 capture:1 execute:1 death:3 great:2 shock:1 meet:1 julie:1 carron:1 marry:1 give:1 private:1 chemistry:2 language:3 move:1 bourg:1 professor:3 physic:2 leave:1 ail:1 wife:2 infant:1 son:1 jean:2 jacques:1 july:1 trouble:1 rest:2 also:4 appoint:2 lycée:1 year:2 find:1 three:1 culminate:1 point:1 first:1 communion:1 antoine:1 leonard:1 thomas:1 eulogy:1 descartes:1 taking:1 bastille:1 write:1 two:1 verse:1 psalm:1 prayer:1 lord:1 god:1 mercy:1 unite:1 heaven:1 permit:1 love:1 earth:1 serious:1 doubt:1 harass:1 time:1 make:1 unhappy:1 would:1 refuge:1 bible:1 church:1 baptiste:1 joseph:1 delambre:1 recommendation:1 obtain:1 appointment:1 afterwards:1 minor:1 position:1 polytechnic:1 school:1 paris:3 continue:1 pursue:1 scientific:1 research:1 diverse:1 unabated:1 diligence:1 admit:1 member:1 institute:1 fame:1 mainly:1 establish:1 relation:1 electricity:2 magnetism:1 develop:2 call:1 electrodynamics:2 september:2 hear:1 h:1 c:1 ørsted:1 discovery:1 magnetic:1 needle:1 act:1 voltaic:1 week:1 later:1 present:1 paper:1 academy:2 contain:1 far:2 complete:1 exposition:3 kindred:1 phenomenon:2 demonstrate:1 parallel:1 wire:1 carry:1 attract:1 repel:1 depend:1 whether:1 attraction:1 opposite:1 direction:1 repulsion:1 lay:1 foundation:1 field:1 thus:1 open:1 explore:1 characteristic:1 industry:1 care:1 theory:1 explain:1 electromagnetic:1 already:1 observe:1 predict:1 many:1 new:1 last:1 grave:1 die:1 marseille:1 bury:1 cimetière:1 de:3 montmartre:1 amiability:1 childlike:1 simplicity:1 character:1 well:1 bring:1 journal:1 et:1 correspondence:2 final:1 publish:1 posthumously:1 essai:1 sur:1 la:1 philosophie:1 ou:1 analytique:1 une:1 classification:2 naturelle:1 toutes:1 le:1 connaissances:1 humaines:1 essay:1 analytical:1 human:1 knowledge:1 see:1 monge:1 equation:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 link:2 edit:1 cnrs:1 site:2 full:1 text:1 critical:1 edition:1 manuscript:1 picture:1 letter:1 bibliography:1 experiment:1 simulation:1 museum:2 near:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram andré_marie:2 marie_ampère:2 jean_jacques:1 jean_baptiste:1 electricity_magnetism:1 bury_cimetière:1 cimetière_de:1 publish_posthumously:1 essai_sur:1 la_philosophie:1 external_link:1 |
1,720 | Language_family | Distribution of major language families A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. As with biological families, the evidence of relationship is observable shared characteristics. An accurately identified family is a phylogenetic unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all attested descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Most of the world's languages are known to belong to language families. For the others, family relationships are not known or only tentatively proposed. The concept of language families is based on the assumption that over time languages gradually diverge into dialects and then into new languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than biological ancestry, because there are extreme cases of languages mixing due to language contact in conquest or trade, whereas biological species normally don't interbreed. In the formation of creole languages and other types of mixed languages, there may be no one ancestor of a given language. In addition, a number of sign languages have developed in isolation and may have no relatives at all. However, these cases are relatively rare and most languages can be unambiguously classified. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly, since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method—a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the list of language families. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called Proto-Indo-European. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing. Sometimes, though, a proto-language can be identified with a historically known language. For instance, dialects of Old Norse are the proto-language of Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. Likewise, the Appendix Probi depicts Proto-Romance, a language almost unattested due to the prestige of Classical Latin, a highly stylised literary dialect not representative of the speech of ordinary people. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. However, the term family is not restricted to any one level of this "tree". The Germanic family, for example, is a branch of the Indo-European family. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. The terms superfamily, phylum, and stock are applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical linguistic methods. Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate; but the meaning of isolate in such cases is usually clarified. For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate. The isolation of modern Greek, however, is not typical of its relationship to other languages at other times in its history. Several Greek dialects evolved out of the larger Indo-European language group; and later, Greek words influenced many other languages. By contrast, the Basque language is a living modern language and a near perfect isolate. The history of its lexical, phonetic, and syntactic structures is not known, and is not easily associated to other languages, though it has been influenced by Romance languages in the region, like Castilian Spanish, Occitan, French and Portuguese. Connections within and between language families are often used by geneticists and archaeologists, in combination with DNA evidence and archaeological evidence, to help reconstruct prehistoric migrations and other prehistoric developments, such as the spread of the Neolithic complex of farming, herding, pottery, and polished stone utensils. For the scientists concerned, this is treacherous but necessary ground: the linguistic evidence is often vital to resolving the problems concerned, but must be handled with caution, for two reasons: first, it is often a delicate matter to relate languages to archaeological cultures, on the one hand, and to genetic lineages, on the other; second, many proposed language relationships are controversial, which often requires non-linguists to take a stand on linguistic issues, a professionally uncomfortable but often inevitable situation. The Linguist List is now working on a National Science Foundation funded project entitled Multitree, to build a database of all hypothesized language relationships, with a full searchable bibliography for each. Grouping Membership of languages in the same language family is determined by a genetic relationship. The languages involved present shared retentions, i.e., features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained better by chance or borrowing (convergence). Membership in a branch/group/subgroup within a language family is determined by shared innovations which are presumed to have taken place in a common ancestor. For example, what makes Germanic languages "Germanic" is that large parts of the structures of all the languages so designated can be stated just once for all of them. In other words, they can be treated as an innovation that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages. Shared innovations acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be "areal features". More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Germanic and Baltic/Slavic that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family. A sprachbund is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. See also Auxiliary language Constructed language Endangered language Extinct language Global language system ISO 639-5 List of language families List of languages by number of native speakers Proto-language Bibliography Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9. Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com). Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University. Harrison, K. David. (2007) When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press. Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X. Ross, Malcom. (2005). Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages. In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples (PDF) Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world's languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published). Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages''. New York: Elsevier. 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1,721 | Kerberos_(protocol) | Kerberos is a computer network authentication protocol, which allows nodes communicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. It is also a suite of free software published by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) that implements this protocol. Its designers aimed primarily at a client-server model, and it provides mutual authentication — both the user and the server verify each other's identity. Kerberos protocol messages are protected against eavesdropping and replay attacks. Kerberos builds on symmetric key cryptography and requires a trusted third party. Extensions to Kerberos can provide for the use of public-key cryptography during certain phases of authentication. History and development MIT developed Kerberos to protect network services provided by Project Athena. The protocol was named after the Greek mythological character Kerberos (or Cerberus), known in Greek mythology as being the monstrous three-headed guard dog of Hades. Several versions of the protocol exist; versions 1–3 occurred only internally at MIT. Steve Miller and Clifford Neuman, the primary designers of Kerberos version 4, published that version in the late 1980s, although they had targeted it primarily for Project Athena. Version 5, designed by John Kohl and Clifford Neuman, appeared as RFC 1510 in 1993 (made obsolete by RFC 4120 in 2005), with the intention of overcoming the limitations and security problems of version 4. MIT makes an implementation of Kerberos freely available, under copyright permissions similar to those used for BSD. In 2007, MIT formed the Kerberos Consortium along with some of the major vendors and users of Kerberos such as Sun Microsystems, Apple, Google, Microsoft, Centrify Corporation, etc., to foster continued development. Authorities in the United States classified Kerberos as a munition and banned its export because it used the DES encryption algorithm (with 56-bit keys). A non-US Kerberos 4 implementation, KTH-KRB developed at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden, made the system available outside the US before the US changed its cryptography export regulations (circa 2000). The Swedish implementation was based on a version called eBones. eBones was based on the exported MIT Bones release (stripped of both the encryption functions and the calls to them) based on version Kerberos 4 patch-level 9. This somewhat limited Kerberos was called the eBones release. A Kerberos version 5 implementation, Heimdal, was released by basically the same group of people releasing KTH-KRB. Windows 2000 and later use Kerberos as their default authentication method. Some Microsoft additions to the Kerberos suite of protocols are documented in RFC 3244 "Microsoft Windows 2000 Kerberos Change Password and Set Password Protocols". RFC 4757 documents Microsoft's use of the RC4 cipher. While Microsoft uses the Kerberos protocol, it does not use the MIT software. Apple's Mac OS X also uses Kerberos in both its client and server versions. Sun's Solaris also uses Kerberos in both its client and server versions. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4 and later uses Kerberos in both client and server versions. , the IETF Kerberos working group is updating the specifications. Recent updates include: Encryption and Checksum Specifications" (RFC 3961). Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Encryption for Kerberos 5 (RFC 3962). A new edition of the Kerberos V5 specification "The Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5)" (RFC 4120). This version obsoletes RFC 1510, clarifies aspects of the protocol and intended use in a more detailed and clearer explanation. A new edition of the GSS-API specification "The Kerberos Version 5 Generic Security Service Application Program Interface (GSS-API) Mechanism: Version 2." (RFC 4121). Description Kerberos uses as its basis the symmetric Needham-Schroeder protocol. It makes use of a trusted third party, termed a key distribution center (KDC), which consists of two logically separate parts: an Authentication Server (AS) and a Ticket Granting Server (TGS). Kerberos works on the basis of "tickets" which serve to prove the identity of users. The KDC maintains a database of secret keys; each entity on the network — whether a client or a server — shares a secret key known only to itself and to the KDC. Knowledge of this key serves to prove an entity's identity. For communication between two entities, the KDC generates a session key which they can use to secure their interactions. The security of the protocol relies heavily on participants maintaining loosely synchronized time and on short-lived assertions of authenticity called Kerberos tickets. Protocol The following is an intuitive description. The client authenticates itself to the Authentication Server and receives a ticket. It then contacts the Ticket Granting Server, and using the ticket it demonstrates its identity and asks for a service. If the client is eligible for the service, then the Ticket Granting Server sends another ticket to client. The client then contacts the Service Server, and using this ticket it proves that it has been approved to receive the service. A simplified and more detailed description of the protocol follows. We use the following abbreviations: AS = Authentication Server SS = Service Server TGS = Ticket-Granting Server TGT = Ticket-Granting Ticket The client authenticates to the AS once using a long-term shared secret (e.g. a password) and receives a TGT from the AS. Later, when the client wants to contact some SS, it can (re)use this ticket to get additional tickets for SS without resorting to using the shared secret. These tickets can be used to prove authentication to SS. The phases are detailed below. User Client-based Logon A user enters a username and password on the client machine. The client performs a one-way function (hash mostly) on the entered password, and this becomes the secret key of the client/user. Client Authentication The client sends a cleartext message to the AS requesting services on behalf of the user. Sample message: "User XYZ would like to request services". Note: Neither the secret key nor the password is sent to the AS. However, even though the secret key is not sent to the AS, the AS is still able to generate the same secret key by hashing the password for the client/user from its own security database (e.g. Active Directory in Windows Server). The AS checks to see if the client is in its database. If it is, the AS sends back the following two messages to the client: Message A: Client/TGS Session Key encrypted using the secret key of the client/user. Message B: Ticket-Granting Ticket (which includes the client ID, client network address, ticket validity period, and the client/TGS session key) encrypted using the secret key of the TGS. Once the client receives messages A and B, it decrypts message A to obtain the Client/TGS Session Key. This session key is used for further communications with the TGS. (Note: The client cannot decrypt Message B, as it is encrypted using TGS's secret key.) At this point, the client has enough information to authenticate itself to the TGS. Client Service Authorization When requesting services, the client sends the following two messages to the TGS: Message C: Composed of the TGT from message B and the ID of the requested service. Message D: Authenticator (which is composed of the client ID and the timestamp), encrypted using the Client/TGS Session Key. Upon receiving messages C and D, the TGS retrieves message B out of message C. It decrypts message B using the TGS secret key. This gives it the "client/TGS session key". Using this key, the TGS decrypts message D (Authenticator) and sends the following two messages to the client: Message E: Client-to-server ticket (which includes the client ID, client network address, validity period and Client/Server Session Key) encrypted using the service's secret key. Message F: Client/server session key encrypted with the Client/TGS Session Key. Client Service Request Upon receiving messages E and F from TGS, the client has enough information to authenticate itself to the SS. The client connects to the SS and sends the following two messages: Message E from the previous step (the client-to-server ticket, encrypted using service's secret key). Message G: a new Authenticator, which includes the client ID, timestamp and is encrypted using client/server session key. The SS decrypts the ticket using its own secret key to retrieve the Client/Server Session Key. Using the sessions key, SS decrypts the Authenticator and sends the following message to the client to confirm its true identity and willingness to serve the client: Message H: the timestamp found in client's Authenticator plus 1, encrypted using the Client/Server Session Key. The client decrypts the confirmation using the Client/Server Session Key and checks whether the timestamp is correctly updated. If so, then the client can trust the server and can start issuing service requests to the server. The server provides the requested services to the client. Drawbacks Single point of failure: It requires continuous availability of a central server. When the Kerberos server is down, no one can log in. This can be mitigated by using multiple Kerberos servers and fallback authentication mechanisms. Kerberos requires the clocks of the involved hosts to be synchronized. The tickets have a time availability period and if the host clock is not synchronized with the Kerberos server clock, the authentication will fail. The default configuration requires that clock times are no more than 10 minutes apart. In practice Network Time Protocol daemons are usually used to keep the host clocks synchronized. The administration protocol is not standardized and differs between server implementations. Password changes are described in RFC 3244. Since the secret keys for all users are stored on the central server, a compromise of that server will compromise all users' secret keys. A compromised client will compromise the user's password See also Single sign-on Identity management SPNEGO S/Key Secure remote password protocol (SRP) Generic Security Services Application Program Interface (GSS-API) Host Identity Protocol (HIP) References SDK Team, "Microsoft Kerberos (Windows)", MSDN Library aa378747(VS.85) B. Clifford Neuman and Theodore Ts'o, Kerberos: An Authentication Service for Computer Networks, IEEE Communications, 32(9) pp33–38. September 1994. John T. Kohl, B. Clifford Neuman, and Theodore Y. T'so, The Evolution of the Kerberos Authentication System. Distributed Open Systems, pp78–94. IEEE Computer Society Press, 1994. (Postscript format) Cisco Systems Kerberos Overview- An Authentication Service for Open Network Systems External links How Kerberos Authentication Works Kerberos page at MIT Kerberos Working Group at IETF Kerberos Consortium at MIT White Papers at MIT Vendor Documentation and Specifications at MIT Kerberos How-to Kerberos explained visually The Kerberos FAQ Heimdal Kerberos page Shishi, a free Kerberos implementation for the GNU system Designing an Authentication System: A Dialogue in Four Scenes. Humorous play concerning how the design of Kerberos evolved. RFC 4120: The Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5) Description of Kerberos 5 in the SPORE library Kerberos Authentication in Windows Server 2003 Kerberos Tutorial Novell Inc's Comment to the Proposed Settlement between Microsoft and the Department of Justice - Microsoft purposefully breaks Kerberos interoperability | Kerberos_(protocol) |@lemmatized kerberos:53 computer:3 network:11 authentication:19 protocol:16 allow:1 node:1 communicate:1 non:2 secure:4 prove:5 identity:8 one:3 another:2 manner:1 also:4 suite:2 free:2 software:2 publish:2 massachusetts:1 institute:2 technology:2 mit:11 implement:1 designer:2 aim:1 primarily:2 client:57 server:35 model:1 provide:4 mutual:1 user:13 verify:1 message:27 protect:2 eavesdropping:1 replay:1 attack:1 build:1 symmetric:2 key:37 cryptography:3 require:4 trusted:2 third:2 party:2 extension:1 use:36 public:1 certain:1 phase:2 history:1 development:2 develop:2 service:22 project:2 athena:2 name:1 greek:2 mythological:1 character:1 cerberus:1 know:2 mythology:1 monstrous:1 three:1 head:1 guard:1 dog:1 hades:1 several:1 version:15 exist:1 occur:1 internally:1 steve:1 miller:1 clifford:4 neuman:4 primary:1 late:2 although:1 target:1 design:3 john:2 kohl:2 appear:1 rfc:11 make:4 obsolete:1 intention:1 overcome:1 limitation:1 security:5 problem:1 implementation:6 freely:1 available:2 copyright:1 permission:1 similar:1 bsd:1 form:1 consortium:2 along:1 major:1 vendor:2 sun:2 microsystems:1 apple:2 google:1 microsoft:8 centrify:1 corporation:1 etc:1 foster:1 continued:1 authority:1 united:1 state:1 classify:1 munition:1 ban:1 export:2 de:1 encryption:5 algorithm:1 bit:1 u:3 kth:2 krb:2 royal:1 sweden:1 system:7 outside:1 change:3 regulation:1 circa:1 swedish:1 base:4 call:4 ebones:3 exported:1 bone:1 release:4 strip:1 function:2 patch:1 level:1 somewhat:1 limited:1 heimdal:2 basically:1 group:3 people:1 window:5 later:2 default:2 method:1 addition:1 document:2 password:10 set:1 protocols:1 cipher:1 mac:1 x:1 solaris:1 red:1 hat:1 enterprise:1 linux:1 us:1 ietf:2 work:4 update:2 specification:5 recent:1 updates:1 include:4 checksum:1 advance:1 standard:1 aes:1 new:3 edition:2 obsoletes:1 clarify:1 aspect:1 intend:1 detailed:2 clear:1 explanation:1 g:4 api:3 generic:2 application:2 program:2 interface:2 gss:2 mechanism:2 description:4 basis:2 needham:1 schroeder:1 term:2 distribution:1 center:1 kdc:4 consist:1 two:6 logically:1 separate:1 part:1 ticket:22 grant:3 tgs:17 serve:3 maintain:2 database:3 secret:17 entity:3 whether:2 share:3 knowledge:1 communication:3 generate:2 session:15 interaction:1 rely:1 heavily:1 participant:1 loosely:1 synchronized:1 time:4 short:1 lived:1 assertion:1 authenticity:1 following:6 intuitive:1 authenticate:4 receive:6 contact:3 demonstrate:1 ask:1 eligible:1 send:8 approve:1 simplified:1 follow:2 abbreviation:1 ss:2 granting:3 tgt:3 long:1 e:5 want:1 get:1 additional:1 without:1 resort:1 detail:1 logon:1 enter:1 username:1 machine:1 perform:1 way:1 hash:2 mostly:1 entered:1 become:1 cleartext:1 requesting:2 behalf:1 sample:1 xyz:1 would:1 like:1 request:3 note:2 neither:1 however:1 even:1 though:1 still:1 able:1 active:1 directory:1 check:2 see:2 sends:1 back:1 encrypt:9 b:8 id:5 address:2 validity:2 period:3 decrypt:7 obtain:1 cannot:1 point:2 enough:2 information:2 authorization:1 c:3 compose:2 requested:2 authenticator:5 timestamp:4 upon:2 retrieve:2 give:1 f:2 connect:1 previous:1 step:1 confirm:1 true:1 willingness:1 h:1 find:1 plus:1 confirmation:1 correctly:1 trust:1 start:1 issue:1 drawback:1 single:2 failure:1 continuous:1 availability:2 central:2 log:1 mitigate:1 multiple:1 fallback:1 clock:5 involved:1 host:4 synchronize:3 fail:1 configuration:1 minute:1 apart:1 practice:1 daemon:1 usually:1 keep:1 administration:1 standardize:1 differs:1 describe:1 since:1 store:1 compromise:3 compromised:1 sign:1 management:1 spnego:1 remote:1 srp:1 hip:1 reference:1 sdk:1 team:1 msdn:1 library:2 v:1 theodore:2 ieee:2 september:1 evolution:1 distribute:1 open:2 society:1 press:1 postscript:1 format:1 cisco:1 overview:1 external:1 link:1 page:2 white:1 paper:1 documentation:1 explain:1 visually:1 faq:1 shishi:1 gnu:1 dialogue:1 four:1 scene:1 humorous:1 play:1 concern:1 evolve:1 spore:1 tutorial:1 novell:1 inc:1 comment:1 propose:1 settlement:1 department:1 justice:1 purposefully:1 break:1 interoperability:1 |@bigram client_server:13 sun_microsystems:1 microsoft_window:1 aes_encryption:1 rely_heavily:1 short_lived:1 client_tgs:6 tgs_session:6 decrypt_message:4 kerberos_authentication:4 external_link:1 |
1,722 | Mazovia | Historical division of Masovia Masovia or Mazovia () is a geographic and historic region situated in eastern Poland's Masovian Plain. Its historic capitals include Płock. Contemporary borders of the Masovian Voivodeship do not follow historical boundaries of the region. Lomza, a Masovian city, belongs to the Podlasie Voivodeship, Skierniewice belongs to Lodz Voivodeship and Wloclawek belongs to the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, while Radom, historically part of Lesser Poland, is now part of the Masovian Voivodeship. History Early history Masovia probably became part of Poland by the reign of Mieszko I in the 10th century, the first historically known Piast duke of the Polans in the 10th century. After the death of Mieszko II in 1034, the local governor Miecław supported an anti-Christian rebellion, which was subsequently subdued by Casimir I, Duke of Poland, in 1047 with help from Ruthenian units. Duchy of Masovia Following the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth, Poland was divided into duchies, according to his testament (see fragmentation of Poland). After the death of the last Masovian Piast, Janusz III, in 1526, the province became a voivodeship of the Kingdom of Poland. In late XVI century, importance of Masovia within borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth significantly grew, due to the decision of King Sigismund III Vasa, who in 1596 moved capital of the country from Krakow to Warsaw. Modern history Masovia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia during the 18th century Partitions of Poland and briefly administered within South Prussia and New East Prussia. Among others the territory became part of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 during the Napoleonic Wars, but was included within Congress Poland, a puppet state of the Russian Empire, in 1815. In 1918 following World War I, Masovia was included within the newly formed Second Polish Republic. During World War II, Nazi-occupied Masovia was divided between the General Government and Regierungsbezirk Zichenau in East Prussia. Between October 1939 and June 1941 (see: Operation Barbarossa), eastern Masovia, with Lomza, was occupied by the Soviets, who were allied with the Nazis. Whole province was subsequently restored to Poland after the war. In 1999 the Masovian Voivodeship was created as one of 16 administrative regions of Poland. It is the biggest voivodeship of the country. See also Świdermajer - The characteristic architecture in the area | Mazovia |@lemmatized historical:2 division:1 masovia:9 mazovia:1 geographic:1 historic:2 region:3 situate:1 eastern:2 poland:11 masovian:6 plain:1 capital:2 include:3 płock:1 contemporary:1 border:2 voivodeship:8 follow:3 boundary:1 lomza:2 city:1 belong:1 podlasie:1 skierniewice:1 belongs:2 lodz:1 wloclawek:1 kuyavian:1 pomeranian:1 radom:1 historically:2 part:4 less:1 history:3 early:1 probably:1 become:3 reign:1 mieszko:2 century:4 first:1 know:1 piast:2 duke:2 polans:1 death:3 ii:2 local:1 governor:1 miecław:1 support:1 anti:1 christian:1 rebellion:1 subsequently:2 subdue:1 casimir:1 help:1 ruthenian:1 unit:1 duchy:3 bolesław:1 iii:3 wrymouth:1 divide:2 accord:1 testament:1 see:3 fragmentation:1 last:1 janusz:1 province:2 kingdom:2 late:1 xvi:1 importance:1 within:4 polish:2 lithuanian:1 commonwealth:1 significantly:1 grow:1 due:1 decision:1 king:1 sigismund:1 vas:1 move:1 country:2 krakow:1 warsaw:2 modern:1 annex:1 prussia:4 partition:1 briefly:1 administer:1 south:1 new:1 east:2 among:1 others:1 territory:1 napoleonic:1 war:4 congress:1 puppet:1 state:1 russian:1 empire:1 world:2 newly:1 form:1 second:1 republic:1 nazi:2 occupied:1 general:1 government:1 regierungsbezirk:1 zichenau:1 october:1 june:1 operation:1 barbarossa:1 occupy:1 soviet:1 ally:1 whole:1 restore:1 create:1 one:1 administrative:1 big:1 also:1 świdermajer:1 characteristic:1 architecture:1 area:1 |@bigram pomeranian_voivodeship:1 piast_duke:1 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 duchy_warsaw:1 operation_barbarossa:1 |
1,723 | Boat | Severn class lifeboat in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. This is the largest class of UK lifeboat at 17 metres long A boat ambulance in Venice Italy. A boat is a watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water, and provide lift over it. Usually this water will be inland (lakes) or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed to be operated from a ship in an offshore environment. In naval terms, a boat is something small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). Some boats too large for the naval definition include the Great Lakes freighter, riverboat, narrowboat and ferryboat. Submarines can also be called boats, despite their underwater capabilities and size. This may be because the first submarines could be carried by a ship and were not capable of making independent offshore passages. Boats may be used by the military or other government interests, or for research or commercial purposes; but regardless of size, a vessel in private, non-commercial usage is almost certainly a boat. In the Royal Navy, a boat is any submersible, whilst a ship is anything above water, even a rowing boat. History A boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE Boats have served as short distance transportation since early times. Denemark 2000, page 208 Circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, suggests that boats have been used since very ancient times. The earliest boats have been predicted to be logboats, or possibly boats made from hide or tree bark. The oldest boats to be found by archaeological excavation are logboats from around 7,000-9,000 years ago, though a 7,000 year-old seagoing boat made from reeds and tar has been found in Kuwait. Being more capacious than carts and wagons, and suitable for both land and grass, boats were used between 4000BCE-3000BCE in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean. Boats played an important part in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia. McGrail 2004, page 251 Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered in various Indus Valley sites. The accounts of historians Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo suggest that boats were being used for commerce and traveling. McGrail 2004, pages 50-51 Uses Boats are used: by the government: military of a country (called a Navy), coast guard, or police by commercial shipping and Merchant Marine to transport goods by leisure yachtsmen (sailboats or motor yachts) by criminals called pirates, pirates that operate with government sanction are called privateers Types A tug boat, used for towing or pushing other, larger, vessels. Boats can be categorised into three types: unpowered or human-powered boats sailing boats motorboats Unpowered boats include rafts and floats meant for one-way downstream travel. Human-powered boats include canoes, kayaks, gondolas and boats propelled by poles like a punt. Sailing boats are boats which are propelled solely by means of sails. Motorboats are boats which are propelled by mechanical means, such as engines. Parts and terminology Aluminum flat-bottomed boats ashore for storage. Several key components make up the main structure of most boats. The hull is the main structural component of the boat which provides buoyancy for the boat. The roughly horizontal, but chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck. In a ship there are often several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one, if any at all. Above the deck are the superstructures. The underside of a deck is the deck head. An enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin. Several structures make up a cabin: the similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coach-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads. The keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a backbone). The front (or forward end) of a boat is called the bow. Boats of earlier times often featured a figurehead protruding from the front of the bows. The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern. The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port. Building materials Derelict|A ship's lifeboat, built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, United States. Until the mid 19th century most boats were of all natural materials; primarily wood although reed, bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Eqypt, the birch bark canoe, the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log. By the mid 19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French. They called it Ferciment. This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered (troweled) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world, and have faded in and out of popularity to the present. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built of all steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, even the fishing fleets. Private recreational boats in steel are uncommon. In the mid 20th century aluminum gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that will not corrode in salt water, and an aluminum boat built to similar load carrying standards could be built lighter than steel. A wooden boat operating near shore. Around the mid 1960s, boats made out of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fiberglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. The United States Coast Guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for Fiber Reinforced Plastic) boats. Fiberglass boats are extremely strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fiberglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull of the boat. Whether hand laid or built in a mold, FRP boats usually have an outer coating of gelcoat which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight. FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cored FRP is most often found in decking which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired. Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fiber, kevlar(tm) or other similar materials, but it may also indicate other methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one yacht surveyor's eyewitness accounts Are They Fiberglass Boats Anymore? by David Pascoe, Marine Surveyor , less structurally sound materials. Cold molding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fiberglass. In cold molding very thin strips of wood are laid over a form or mold in layers. This layer is then coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold layers together while the resin sets. Layers are built up thus to create the required thickness of hull. People have even made their own boats or watercraft out of materials such as foam or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered in a layer of fiberglass and resin. Propulsion The most common means are: The Wanli Emperor enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers in this Ming Dynasty Chinese painting. human power (rowing, paddling, setting pole etc.) wind power (sailing) Motor powered screws Inboard internal combustion (gasoline, diesel, heavy fuel oil) steam (coal, fuel oil) nuclear (for submarines and large naval ships) Inboard/Outboard gasoline diesel Outboard gasoline electric paddle wheel Water Jet (Personal water craft, Jetboat) Air Fans (Hovercraft, Air boat) Track-driven propulsion An early uncommon means of boat propulsion was referred to as the water caterpillar which is similar in construction to paddles on a conveyor belt and preceded the development of tracked vehicles such as military tanks and earth moving equipment. A series of paddles on chains moved across the bottom of the boat to propel it across the water. The Caterpillar Is Now Being Applied to Ships, Popular Science monthly, December 1918, page 68, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68 The first water caterpillar was developed by Desblancs in 1782 and propelled by a steam engine. In the United States the first water caterpillar was patented in 1839 by William Leavenworth of New York. Buoyancy A boat stays afloat because its weight is equal to that of the water it displaces. The material of the boat itself may be heavier than water (per volume), but it forms only the outer layer. Inside it is air, which is negligible in weight. But it does add to the volume. The central term here is density, which is mass per volume. The mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole has to be divided by the volume below the waterline. If the boat floats, then that is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). To the water it is as if there is water there because the average density is the same. If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will have to increase too, to keep the mass/weight balance equal, so the boat sinks a little to compensate. See also Cabin cruiser Glossary of nautical terms Lifeboat (rescue) Naval architecture Raft Ship Notes References Denemark, Robert Allen; el al. (2000). World System History: The Social Science of Long-Term Change. Routledge. ISBN 0415232767. McGrail, Sean (2004). Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199271860. External links How To Sail Boats Sailboats database: sailboat data sheets all over the world University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections -- Freshwater and Marine Image Bank -- Vessels - images of boats and vessels be-x-old:Лодка | Boat |@lemmatized severn:1 class:2 lifeboat:4 poole:1 harbour:1 dorset:1 england:1 large:5 uk:1 metre:1 long:3 boat:78 ambulance:1 venice:1 italy:1 watercraft:2 modest:1 size:3 design:3 float:3 plane:1 water:15 provide:3 lift:1 usually:3 inland:1 lake:2 protected:1 coastal:1 area:1 however:2 whaleboat:1 operate:3 ship:10 offshore:2 environment:1 naval:4 term:4 something:1 small:1 enough:1 carry:3 aboard:1 another:2 vessel:5 definition:1 include:4 great:2 freighter:1 riverboat:1 narrowboat:1 ferryboat:1 submarine:3 also:6 call:8 despite:1 underwater:1 capability:1 may:5 first:3 could:2 capable:1 make:10 independent:1 passage:1 use:8 military:3 government:3 interest:1 research:1 commercial:3 purpose:1 regardless:1 private:2 non:1 usage:1 almost:1 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1,724 | Blythe_Danner | Blythe Katharine Danner (born February 3, 1943) is an American Emmy- and Tony Award-winning actress. She is the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow. Biography Early life Danner was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Katharine and Harry Earl Danner, a bank executive. Blythe Danner Biography (1944?-) She has two brothers: opera singer/actor Harry Danner and violin maker William Moennig (half-brother). Danner, of part Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry, attended George School, a private Quaker secondary school in Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, and Bard College, where she graduated in 1965. Library Career Danner first appeared on stage with the Theater Company of Boston and the Trinity Square Repertory Company (now Trinity Repertory Company) in Providence, Rhode Island. She first gained national attention at age 25 by winning the Theatre World Award for her performance in the Lincoln Center Rep's production of The Miser. In 1970, she appeared in her first film role, in a television production of Dr. Cook's Garden. Danner portrayed Martha Jefferson in the movie version of 1776 (1972). In Brighton Beach Memoirs (1986) she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish woman, and in the 1982 TV movie Inside the Third Reich, she played the wife of Albert Speer. Her earliest starring film roles were opposite Alan Alda in To Kill a Clown (1972) Danner also appeared in the episode of M*A*S*H entitled The More I See You, playing the love interest of Alda's character Hawkeye. and in the title role of Lovin' Molly (1974), directed by Sidney Lumet. She has appeared in two films based on the novels of Pat Conroy, The Great Santini (1979) and The Prince of Tides (1991), as well as two television movies adapted from books by Anne Tyler, Saint Maybe and Back When We Were Grownups, both for the Hallmark Hall of Fame. Danner is more recently known for her roles opposite Robert De Niro in the 2000 comedy hit Meet the Parents and its 2004 sequel, Meet the Fockers (with Barbra Streisand and Dustin Hoffman). From 2004 to 2006 she starred in the TV series Huff. From 2001 to 2006, she regularly appeared on Will & Grace as Will's mother Marilyn. In 2005, she was nominated for three Emmy Awards: for her work on Will & Grace, Huff and Back When We Were Grownups. Emmy host Ellen DeGeneres poked fun at Blythe Danner during the award ceremony, saying that Danner should not be nervous because she was almost certain to win at least one Emmy, which she did, for Huff. In July 2006, she won a second consecutive Emmy award for Huff. For 25 years, she has been a regular performer at the Williamstown Summer Theater Festival, where she also serves on the Board of Directors. In 2006, Danner was awarded an inaugural Katharine Hepburn Medal, alongside fellow honoree Lauren Bacall, which recognizes "women whose lives, work and contributions embody the intelligence, drive and independence of the four-time-Oscar-winning actress," by Bryn Mawr College's Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center. Bryn Mawr College - Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center Environmental activism In addition to her acting work, Blythe Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as recycling and conservation for over 30 years. She has been active with INFORM, Inc., is on the Board of Environmental Activists and the Board of Directors of the Environmental Media Association, and won the 2002 EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award. She was instrumental in implementing curbside recycling in Santa Monica and in retaining the New York City recycling program despite threatened budget cuts in 1991, has driven an electric car since the first General Motors EV1 was available, and has installed solar panels at her house. In 2002 Danner, her husband Bruce Paltrow, and her daughter Gwyneth Paltrow worked together on a series of public service announcements encouraging use of alternative energy sources and alternative fuel vehicles. Health care activism After the passing of her husband Bruce Paltrow to oral cancer, she became involved with the Oral Cancer Foundation, Oral Cancer Foundation 2007 a national 501(c)3 non profit charity. In 2005 she filmed a public service announcement that played on TV stations around the country about the risks associated with oral cancer, and through that shared the personal pain associated with the loss of her husband publicly to further awareness of the disease and the need for early detection. She continues to donate her time to the foundation, and has appeared on morning talk shows, and has done interviews in high profile magazines such as People to further public awareness of the disease and its risk factors. Through The Bruce Paltrow Oral Cancer Fund, administered by the Oral Cancer Foundation, she continues to raise awareness and funding for oral cancer issues, particularly those involving communities in which disparities in health care exist. Personal life Danner is the widow of producer Bruce Paltrow, who died from complications of pneumonia while losing his battle with oral cancer in 2002, and the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow. Danner first co-starred with her daughter in 1992 in the TV movie Cruel Doubt and then again in the 2003 film Sylvia, playing mother to Gwyneth Paltrow's titular character. She is also the aunt of actresses Hillary Danner and Katherine Moennig and is sister-in-law (through brother Harry) of opera director Dorothy Danner. Additionally she is mother-in-law to Coldplay frontman Chris Martin who married Gwyneth in 2003 and is grandmother to their two children; Apple Blythe Alison Martin and Moses Bruce Anthony Martin. Although she has worked frequently on TV and on stage, Danner put her film career on hold for a number of years to raise her children. Danner often said the proudest night of her life was when Gwyneth won an Academy Award for Best Actress (for Shakespeare in Love) and Danner was the first person Paltrow thanked, tearfully, followed by her father and grandfather. Award Emmy Awards Supporting Actress - Drama Series 2005 Huff2006 Huff Tony Awards Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play 1970 Butterflies Are Free Filmography To Kill a Clown (1972) 1776 (1972) Lovin' Molly (1974) Hearts of the West (1975) Futureworld (1976) The Great Santini (1979) Man, Woman and Child (1983) Starring... the Actors (1984) (documentary) Brighton Beach Memoirs (1986) Another Woman (1988) Mr. and Mrs. Bridge (1990) Alice (1990) The Prince of Tides (1991) Husbands and Wives (1992) Napoleon (1995) (voice) Homage (1995) To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995) The Myth of Fingerprints (1997) Mad City (1997) Eye of the Storm (1998) The Proposition (1998) No Looking Back (1998) The X-Files (1998) Forces of Nature (1999) The Love Letter (1999) Things I Forgot to Remember (1999) Meet the Parents (2000) The Invisible Circus (2001) The Quality of Light (2003) Three Days of Rain (2003) Sylvia (2003) Howl's Moving Castle (2004) (voice in English dubbed version) Meet the Fockers (2004) Stolen (2006) (documentary) The Last Kiss (2006) The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2 (2008) Side by Each (2008) Waiting for Forever (2009) The Lightkeepers (2009) Television Work George M! (1970) Dr. Cook's Garden (1971) Adam's Rib (1973) (canceled after 13 episodes) Columbo, Season Two, Etude in Black (1973)F. Scott Fitzgerald and The Last of the Belles (1974)Sidekicks (1974)M*A*S*H (1976)Eccentricities of a Nightingale (1976)A Love Affair: The Eleanor and Lou Gehrig Story (1978)Are You in the House Alone? (1978)Too Far to Go (1979)You Can't Take It with You (1979)Inside the Third Reich (1982) (miniseries)In Defense of Kids (1983)Helen Keller: The Miracle Continues (1984)Guilty Conscience (1985)Tattingers (1988 - 1989)Money, Power, Murder (1989)Judgment (1990)Never Forget (1991)Getting Up and Going Home (1992)Cruel Doubt (1992) (miniseries)Lincoln (1992) (miniseries) (voice only)Tracey Ullman Takes On New York (1993)Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (1994) (miniseries)Leave of Absence (1994)The West (1996) (miniseries) (voice only)Thomas Jefferson (documentary) (voice only)A Call to Remember (1997)From the Earth to the Moon (1998) (narrator in episode 12)Saint Maybe (1998)Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery (1998) (voice only)Mark Twain (2001) (documentary) (voice only)Will & Grace (recurring cast member from 2001 - 2006)We Were the Mulvaneys (2002)Presidio Med (2002 - 2003)Huff (2004 - 2006)Pretty/Handsome (2008) (unsold pilot)Medium episode "A Taste of Her Own Medicine" (2 March 2009) Theater WorkThe Glass Menagerie (1965) (Boston)The Service of Joseph Axminster (1965 - 1966) (Boston)The Way Out of the Way In (1965 - 1966) (Boston)The Knack (1965 - 1966) (Boston)The Infantry (1966) (Off-Broadway)A Midsummer Night's Dream (1967) (Providence, Rhode Island)Three Sisters (1967) (Providence)Mata Hari (1967) (Washington DC, closed out of town before Broadway opening)Summertree (1968) (Off-Broadway)Cyrano de Bergerac (April 25 - June 8, 1968) (Broadway)Up Eden (1968) (Off-Broadway)Lovers (July 25 - November 30, 1968) (Broadway) (standby for Fionnuala Flanagan)Someone's Comin' Hungry (1969) (Off-Broadway)The Miser (May 8 - June 21, 1969) (Broadway)Butterflies Are Free (October 21, 1969 - July 2, 1972) (Broadway)Major Barbara (1971) (Los Angeles)Twelfth Night (March 2 - April 8, 1972) (Broadway)The Seagull (1974) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)Ring Round the Moon (1975) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)The New York Idea (1977) (Brooklyn Academy of Music)Children of the Sun (1979) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)Betrayal (January 5 - May 31, 1980) (Broadway)The Philadelphia Story (November 14, 1980 - January 4, 1981) (Broadway)Blithe Spirit (March 31 - June 28, 1987) (Broadway)A Streetcar Named Desire (March 20 - May 22, 1988) (Broadway)Much Ado About Nothing (1988) (New York Shakespeare Festival)Love Letters (1989) (Off-Broadway)Picnic (1991) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)The Seagull (1994) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)Sylvia (1995) (Off-Broadway)Moonlight (1995 - 1996) (Off-Broadway)The Deep Blue Sea (March 26 - May 10, 1998) (Broadway)Ancestral Voices (1999) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)Tonight (2000) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)Follies (April 5 - July 14, 2001) (Broadway)Little Murders (2001) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)Carousel (2002) (concert performance) (Carnegie Hall)The Chekhov Cycle (2002) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)All About Eve (2003) (staged reading) (Los Angeles) References External links Stage biography from Playbill'' website 2003 article from the Environmental Media Association Interviews Blythe Danner interview: Leading Ladies Working in the Theatre video from American Theatre Wing, December 2006 Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1998 Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1988 | Blythe_Danner |@lemmatized blythe:6 katharine:5 danner:23 born:1 february:1 american:4 emmy:6 tony:2 award:11 win:7 actress:8 mother:5 gwyneth:6 paltrow:11 director:6 jake:2 biography:3 early:3 life:4 bear:1 philadelphia:2 pennsylvania:3 daughter:3 harry:3 earl:1 bank:1 executive:1 two:5 brother:3 opera:2 singer:1 actor:2 violin:1 maker:1 william:1 moennig:2 half:1 part:1 dutch:1 ancestry:1 attend:1 george:2 school:2 private:1 quaker:1 secondary:1 newtown:1 buck:1 county:1 bard:1 college:3 graduate:1 library:1 career:2 first:6 appear:6 stage:3 theater:3 company:3 boston:5 trinity:2 square:1 repertory:2 providence:3 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1,725 | Abercarn | Abercarn is a small town Gwyddon Road, Abercarn:: OS grid ST2194 :: Geograph British Isles - photograph every grid square! community in Caerphilly county borough, Wales, 10 miles (16 km) north-west of Newport on the A467 between Cwmcarn and Newbridge, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire. History The district was traditionally associated with the coal mining collieries, ironworks and tinplate works of the South Wales coalfield and South Wales Valleys, although all have now closed; Post Office: Abercarn Royal Mail Sorting Office:: OS grid ST2194 :: Geograph British Isles - photograph every grid square! the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire. Jamesville, Abercarn:: OS grid ST2193 :: Geograph British Isles - photograph every grid square! Local government The area was part of the ancient Monmouthshire parish of Mynyddislwyn until the late 19th century. In 1892 a local board of health and local government district of Abercarn was formed. Formed as Newbridge local board and local government district on March 17, 1892, renamed Abercarn on July 4 of the same year. County Census Report 1670, Monmouthshire This became Abercarn urban district in 1894, governed by an urban district council of twelve members. Under the Local Government Act 1972 the urban district was abolished in 1974, becoming part of the borough of Islwyn, Gwent. Further local government organisation in 1996 placed the area in the county borough of Caerphilly. The former urban district corresponds to the three communities of Abercarn, Crumlin and Newbridge. Sport Abercarn is home to Abercarn Rugby Club which is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union. See also Welsh Coal Mines - details of all the local pits. Abercarn Based Photographer -gallery of recent images. References | Abercarn |@lemmatized abercarn:11 small:1 town:2 gwyddon:1 road:1 os:3 grid:6 geograph:3 british:3 isle:3 photograph:3 every:3 square:3 community:2 caerphilly:2 county:3 borough:3 wale:3 mile:1 km:1 north:1 west:1 newport:1 cwmcarn:1 newbridge:3 within:1 historic:1 boundary:1 monmouthshire:4 history:1 district:7 traditionally:1 associate:1 coal:2 mining:1 colliery:1 ironwork:1 tinplate:1 work:1 south:3 coalfield:1 valley:2 although:1 close:1 post:1 office:2 royal:1 mail:1 sort:1 lie:1 middle:1 portion:1 ebbw:1 situate:1 eastern:1 flank:1 great:1 mine:2 region:1 glamorgan:1 jamesville:1 local:8 government:5 area:2 part:2 ancient:1 parish:1 mynyddislwyn:1 late:1 century:1 board:2 health:1 form:2 march:1 rename:1 july:1 year:1 census:1 report:1 become:2 urban:4 govern:1 council:1 twelve:1 member:2 act:1 abolish:1 islwyn:1 gwent:1 organisation:1 place:1 former:1 corresponds:1 three:1 crumlin:1 sport:1 home:1 rugby:2 club:1 welsh:2 union:1 see:1 also:1 detail:1 pit:1 base:1 photographer:1 gallery:1 recent:1 image:1 reference:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 rugby_union:1 |
1,726 | Anton_Drexler | Anton Drexler (13 June 1884–24 February 1942) was a German Nazi political leader of the 1920s. Biography Born in Munich, Drexler was a machine-fitter before becoming a railway locksmith in Berlin in 1902. He joined the Fatherland Party during World War I. He was a poet and a member of the völkisch agitators who, together with journalist Karl Harrer, founded the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich with Gottfried Feder and Dietrich Eckart in 1919. He was also a brewer but did not have much involvement with the Drexler Breweries, one of Bavaria's most popular breweries at the time. At a meeting of the Party in Munich in September 1919, the main speaker was Gottfried Feder. When he had finished speaking, a member of the audience whose name is lost to history stood up and suggested that Bavaria should break away from Prussia and form a separate nation with Austria. Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (1927), Mein Kampf. sprang up from the audience to rebut the argument. Drexler approached Hitler and thrust a booklet into his hand. It was entitled My Political Awakening and, according to Hitler's writing in Mein Kampf, it reflected much of what he had himself decided upon. Later the same day he received a postcard telling him that he had been accepted for membership of what was at that time the German Workers' Party. After some internal debate, he says, he decided to join. At Hitler's behest, Drexler changed the name of the Party to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) early in 1920. By 1921, Hitler was rapidly becoming the undisputed leader of the Party. In the summer of that year he travelled to Berlin to address a meeting of German Nationalists from northern Germany. While he was away the other members of the Party Committee, led by Drexler, circulated as a pamphlet an indictment of Hitler, which accused him of seeking personal power without regard to other considerations. Hitler's Secret Conversations 1941-44, p. 287. Hitler brought a libel suit and Drexler was forced to repudiate at a public meeting. He was thereafter moved to the purely symbolic position of honorary president, and left the Party in 1923. Drexler was also a member of a völkisch political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the Thule Society. His membership in the NSDAP ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the Beer Hall Putsch, in which Drexler had not taken part. In 1924 he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for another party, in which he served as vice-president until 1928. He had no part in the NSDAP's refounding in 1925, and rejoined only after Hitler had come to power in 1933. He received the party's "Blood Order" in 1934 and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never again allowed any real power. He was largely forgotten by the time of his death. In Popular Culture In Harry Turtledove's Timeline-191 series of alternate history novels, the character "Anthony Dresser" appears to be based on Drexler. Footnotes | Anton_Drexler |@lemmatized anton:1 drexler:10 june:1 february:1 german:5 nazi:1 political:3 leader:2 biography:1 bear:1 munich:4 machine:1 fitter:1 become:2 railway:1 locksmith:1 berlin:2 join:2 fatherland:1 party:11 world:1 war:1 poet:1 member:5 völkisch:2 agitator:1 together:1 journalist:1 karl:1 harrer:1 found:1 worker:3 dap:1 gottfried:2 feder:2 dietrich:1 eckart:1 also:2 brewer:1 much:2 involvement:1 brewery:2 one:1 bavaria:2 popular:2 time:3 meeting:3 september:1 main:1 speaker:1 finish:1 speaking:1 audience:2 whose:1 name:2 lose:1 history:2 stand:1 suggest:1 break:1 away:2 prussia:1 form:1 separate:1 nation:1 austria:1 adolf:2 hitler:10 mein:2 kampf:2 spring:1 rebut:1 argument:1 approach:1 thrust:1 booklet:1 hand:1 entitle:1 awakening:1 accord:1 writing:1 reflect:1 decide:2 upon:1 later:1 day:1 receive:2 postcard:1 tell:1 accept:1 membership:2 internal:1 debate:1 say:1 behest:1 change:1 national:1 socialist:1 nationalsozialistische:1 deutsche:1 arbeiterpartei:1 nsdap:3 early:1 rapidly:1 undisputed:1 summer:1 year:1 travel:1 address:1 nationalist:1 northern:1 germany:1 committee:1 lead:1 circulate:1 pamphlet:1 indictment:1 accuse:1 seek:1 personal:1 power:3 without:1 regard:1 consideration:1 secret:1 conversation:1 p:1 bring:1 libel:1 suit:1 force:1 repudiate:1 public:1 thereafter:1 move:1 purely:1 symbolic:1 position:1 honorary:1 president:2 leave:1 club:1 affluent:1 society:2 know:1 thule:1 end:1 temporarily:1 outlaw:1 follow:1 beer:1 hall:1 putsch:1 take:1 part:2 elect:1 bavarian:1 state:1 parliament:1 another:1 serve:1 vice:1 refounding:1 rejoin:1 come:1 blood:1 order:1 still:1 occasionally:1 use:1 propaganda:1 tool:1 never:1 allow:1 real:1 largely:1 forget:1 death:1 culture:1 harry:1 turtledove:1 timeline:1 series:1 alternate:1 novel:1 character:1 anthony:1 dresser:1 appear:1 base:1 footnote:1 |@bigram adolf_hitler:2 hitler_mein:1 mein_kampf:2 deutsche_arbeiterpartei:1 libel_suit:1 hall_putsch:1 vice_president:1 harry_turtledove:1 |
1,727 | John_Cicero,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | Johann Cicero and his consort Margarete John Cicero (; 2 August 1455 Ansbach – 9 January 1499 Arneburg) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1486-1499). After his death he received the cognomen Cicero, after the Roman orator Cicero, but the elector's eloquence and interest in the arts is doubtful. Herbert Eulenberg. The Hohenzollerns. Translated by M.M. Bozman. The Century Co. New York, 1929. John Cicero was the son of Albert Achilles and Margaret of Baden, and was of the House of Hohenzollern. He was born in Ansbach in Franconia and died at Castle Arneburg. Family and children On 25 August 1476 in Berlin he married Margaret of Thuringia, daughter of William III and Anne of Luxembourg. John Cicero's children were: Wolfgang, born and died 1482. Joachim Nestor (21 February 1484–11 July 1535), Elector of Brandenburg. Elisabeth, born and died 1486. Albert (1490, Berlin–24 September 1545, Mainz), Cardinal since 1518, Archbishop of Magdeburg in 1513-14, Archbishop of Mainz in 1514-45. Anna (27 August 1487, Berlin–3 May 1514, Kiel), married 10 April 1502 to King Frederick I of Denmark. Ursula (17 October 1488–18 September 1510, Güstrow), married 16 February 1507 to Duke Heinrich V of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. References | John_Cicero,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized johann:1 cicero:6 consort:1 margarete:1 john:3 august:3 ansbach:2 january:1 arneburg:2 prince:1 elector:3 margraviate:1 brandenburg:2 death:1 receive:1 cognomen:1 roman:1 orator:1 eloquence:1 interest:1 art:1 doubtful:1 herbert:1 eulenberg:1 hohenzollern:2 translate:1 bozman:1 century:1 co:1 new:1 york:1 son:1 albert:2 achilles:1 margaret:2 baden:1 house:1 bear:3 franconia:1 die:1 castle:1 family:1 child:2 berlin:3 marry:3 thuringia:1 daughter:1 william:1 iii:1 anne:1 luxembourg:1 wolfgang:1 died:2 joachim:1 nestor:1 february:2 july:1 elisabeth:1 september:2 mainz:2 cardinal:1 since:1 archbishop:2 magdeburg:1 anna:1 may:1 kiel:1 april:1 king:1 frederick:1 denmark:1 ursula:1 october:1 güstrow:1 duke:1 heinrich:1 v:1 mecklenburg:1 schwerin:1 reference:1 |@bigram elector_margraviate:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 joachim_nestor:1 elector_brandenburg:1 archbishop_mainz:1 mecklenburg_schwerin:1 |
1,728 | Galeon | Galeon is a web browser for GNOME based on Mozilla’s Gecko layout engine. Galeon’s self-declared mission was to deliver “the web and only the web.” At the time of Galeon’s creation, the most popular web browsers, including Netscape, Mozilla, and Internet Explorer, were large multi-functional programs. This made them slow to start and often impractical due to their high memory usage and processor requirements. Galeon was the first mainstream graphical web browser which specifically focused on the reduction of peripheral functionality. Galeon is also notable for introducing “Smart Bookmarks,” bookmarks that take an argument and can be used as toolbar buttons with a text field used to enter the value for the argument. Galeon’s initial development team split in 2002 due to disagreements about the target audience. This split led to the creation of Epiphany, a fork of Galeon. On October 22, 2005, the Galeon developers announced plans to stop development of Galeon in its current form, saying “the current approach is unsustainable” in the resources required for maintenance. Instead, they hope to develop a set of extensions for Epiphany to provide similar functionality. See also External links Galeon homepage Galeon History homepage The future of Galeon, regarding plans for Epiphany extensions | Galeon |@lemmatized galeon:12 web:5 browser:3 gnome:1 base:1 mozilla:2 gecko:1 layout:1 engine:1 self:1 declare:1 mission:1 deliver:1 time:1 creation:2 popular:1 include:1 netscape:1 internet:1 explorer:1 large:1 multi:1 functional:1 program:1 make:1 slow:1 start:1 often:1 impractical:1 due:2 high:1 memory:1 usage:1 processor:1 requirement:1 first:1 mainstream:1 graphical:1 specifically:1 focus:1 reduction:1 peripheral:1 functionality:2 also:2 notable:1 introduce:1 smart:1 bookmark:1 bookmarks:1 take:1 argument:2 use:2 toolbar:1 button:1 text:1 field:1 enter:1 value:1 initial:1 development:2 team:1 split:2 disagreement:1 target:1 audience:1 lead:1 epiphany:3 fork:1 october:1 developer:1 announce:1 plan:2 stop:1 current:2 form:1 say:1 approach:1 unsustainable:1 resource:1 require:1 maintenance:1 instead:1 hope:1 develop:1 set:1 extension:2 provide:1 similar:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:2 history:1 future:1 regard:1 |@bigram web_browser:3 internet_explorer:1 external_link:1 |
1,729 | Ashoka | Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोकः, IAST: , , 304 BC – 232 BC) was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from 273 BC to 232 BC. Often cited as one of India's as well as the world's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as the brahmagiri in Karnataka and peninsular part of southern India (i.e. Tamil Nadu / Kerala). He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which no one in his dynasty had conquered starting from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar, India). Ranajit Pal, however, points out that the first reference to Magadha is in the Edict of Ashoka near the North-west and that early Magadha was Magan in Baluchistan (western). The total absence of any relics of the Mauryas and Nandas in the Patna area shows that this was probably not Ashoka's capital. See Ranajit Pal, "Non-Jonesian Indology and Alexander", New delhi - 2002. He embraced Buddhism from the prevalent Vedic tradition after witnessing the mass deaths of the war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka in human history is often referred to as the emperor of all ages. Ashoka was a devotee of ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India Ashoka is referred to as Samrath Chakravartin Ashoka- the Emperor of Emperors Ashoka. His name "" means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit (a= no/without, soka= sorrow or worry). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Devanāgarī: देवानांप्रिय)/ or "The Beloved Of The Gods", and Priyadarśin (Devanāgarī: प्रियदर्शी)/ or "He who regards everyone amiably". Another title of his is Dhamma (prakrit: धम्मः), "Lawful, Religious, Righteous". Renowned British author and social critic H. G. Wells in his bestselling two-volume work, The Outline of History (1920), wrote of emperor Ashoka: Along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd century ("Narrative of Asoka") and ("Divine narrative"), and in the Sinhalese text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). After two thousand years, the influence of Ashoka is seen in Asia and especially the Indian subcontinent. An emblem excavated from his empire is today the national Emblem of India. In the history of Buddhism Ashoka is situated just next to Gautama Buddha. Biography Early life Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and his Queen 'Dharma' (although she was a Brahmin or Shubhadrangi, she was undervalued as she wasn't of royal blood). Ashoka had several elder siblings (all step brothers from other wives of Bindusara). He had just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka (a much loved brother from the same mother). Because of his exemplary intellect and warrior skills, he was said to have been the favorite of his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya. As the legend goes, when Chandragupta Maurya left his empire for a Jain living, he threw his sword away. Ashoka found the sword and kept it, in spite of his grandfather's warning. Ashoka, in his adolescence, was rude and naughty. He was a fearsome hunter. He was a kshatriya and was given all royal military trainings and other Vedic knowledge. According to a legend, he killed a Lion with just a wooden rod. Ashoka was known for his sword fighting. He was very adventurous and this made him a terrific fighter. Ashoka was a frightening warrior and a heartless general. Because of this quality he was sent to destroy the riot of Avanti. Many historians assert that he might have killed his own brothers who came against his way to power. Rise to Power Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favored by Bindusara to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in Taxila, a city in the north-west province of Sindh region, for which Prince Susima was the Governor. Taxila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a conflict. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist) Ashoka's success made his stepbrothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into Kalinga and stayed there incognito. There he met a fisher woman named Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love. Recently found inscriptions indicate that she would later become either his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka out of exile after two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. It was quite unacceptable to Bindusara that one of his sons should marry a Buddhist, so he did not allow Ashoka to stay in Pataliputra but instead sent him back to Ujjain and made him the governor of Ujjain. The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meanwhile, Emperor Bindusara died. As the news of the unborn heir to the throne spread, Prince Susima planned the execution of the unborn child; however, the assassin who came to kill Devi and her child killed his mother instead. As the folklore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked Pataliputra (modern day Patna), and beheaded all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. At that stage of his life, many called him Chanda Ashoka (Sanskrit word chanda means cruel, Chandi-devi being associated with Kali) meaning fierce, rude, passionate and heartless Ashoka . In this phase of life he was known for his unquenched thirst for wars and campaigns launched to conquer the lands of other rulers made him called as Chandashok(the terrible Ashok). Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years expanding it from the present-day boundaries and regions of Burma-Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan in the west; from the Pamir Knots in the north to the almost peninsular part of southern India (i.e. Tamilnadu / Kerala). Conquest of Kalinga While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga (India) on the east coast of India in the present-day state of Orissa. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya dharma. The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tact of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Ashoka's later edicts state that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army. Thousands of men and women were deported. Buddhist Conversion As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous monologue, "What have I done? Is this a victory, what's a defeat then! This is a victory or a defeat! This is justice or injustice! It's gallantry or a rout? Is it a valor to kill innocent children and women? I do it for enwide the empire or for prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom or splendor? Someone has lost her husband, someone father, someone child, someone an unborn infant... what's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are these vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil? What have I done! What have I done" The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and he used his position to propagate the relatively new religion to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. He made Vibhajyavada Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC. He propagated the Vibhajyavada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence (ahimsa). Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them leave for the outside a day of the year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout India. After this transformation, Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Sanskrit), meaning Ashoka, the follower of Dharma. Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans and other religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends, humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behaviour to which no religious or social group could object. Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars but among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and his successor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well as Diodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenic world but never in awe of it. His edicts, which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt. The fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty. The source of much of our knowledge of Ashoka is the many inscriptions he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. Emperor Ashoka is known as Piyadasi (in Pali) or Priyadarshi (in Sanskrit) meaning "good looking" or "favored by the gods with good blessing." All his inscriptions have the imperial touch and show compassionate loving. He addressed his people as his "children". These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to Dharma (duty or proper behavior), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighboring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolizes both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered. Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". At the time of Emperor Ashoka (270-232 BC), according to his Edicts. Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a convert to Buddhist, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remain: Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for human and nonhuman animals, in their territories: The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII ). Death and legacy Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. They were naturally not handling state affairs after him. In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realizes that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death. The reign of Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have had he not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrit. In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata, was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom. When India gained independence from the British Empire it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the Dharmachakra (The Wheel of Righteous Duty) that crowned his many columns on the flag of the newly independent state. In 1992, Ashoka was ranked #53 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. Buddhist Kingship One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of ruler ship embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner. Historical sources Western sources - Ashoka the great was almost forgotten by the historians of that age but James Prinsep translated the brahmi and kharoshti edicts. Another important historian who contributed in the revelation of historical sources was British archaeologist sir John Hubert Marshall who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath besides Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple; thus, his contribution is recognizable in realms of historical sources. Sir Mortimer Wheeler who was a British archaeologist also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila. Eastern sources - Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall. Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BC. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history.It give more information about Ashoka's proselytism ,Moral precepts , Religious precepts , Social and animal welfare . Ashokavadana - The Ashokavadana is a 2nd century CE text related to the legend of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language, of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Orissa) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361).As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of the Maurya emperor Ashoka. Dipavamsa -The Dipavamsa, or "Deepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believe to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3-4th century, King Dhatusena (4th century CE) had orderd that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda (son to Ashoka )festival held annually in Anuradhapura. The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution.Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources the Ashokan edicts make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of dhamma (Sanskrit: dharma). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age such as the Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, or Ajivikas. Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherents of the traditional Buddhist perspective tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths. Important years in the life of Ashoka Birth - 304 BCE Marriage with Maharani devi - 286 BCE Mahindra's birth - 284 BCE Sanghamitta's birth - 281 BCE Reign - 272/273 BCE to his Nirvana / Death (232 BCE) Rajyabhisheka - 270 BCE Tending to Buddhism - 266 BCE Building Chaityas - 266/263 BCE Mahindra and Sanghamitta Become Buddhist - 264 BCE Kalinga Vijaya - 262/263 BCE Converted to buddhism - 263 BCE Dharmayatra - 263-250 BCE Third Buddhist council - 250-253 BCE Mahindra's Srilanka Yatra - 252 BCE Buddhist Proselytism - 250 to his Death / Nirvana Edicts - 243/242 BCE Death / Nirvana of Sanghamitta - 240 BCE Rani Tishyaraksha becomes Pattarani - 236 BCE Prince Kunal becomes Upraja - 233 bc Ashoka's Death / Nirvana - 232 BCE (Note - There are some historians according to whom Ashoka embranced buddhism in 266 BCE but became a true follower of buddhism after Conquest of Kalinga 262 BCE or 263 BCE) Contributions Global Spread of Buddhism === == [[File:sanghamitta.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sanghamitta(Emperor Ashoka's daughter) arriving in Sri Lanka to spread buddhism with the Holy Bodhi Tree]] Ashoka, now a Buddhist emperor, believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built 84,000 stupas, Sangharama, viharas, Chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitta and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (ancient name Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afganistan; Maharaskshit sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey; Massim Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand), Thailand and Vietnam; Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha); Maharakhhit Sthavira and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India. Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. Ashoka inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka never tried to harm or to destroy non-Buddhist religions, and indeed gave donations to non-Buddhists. Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organize the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. == As an Administrator Ashoka's military power was so strong that he was able to crush the neighbors like Cholas, Pandya, Keralputra, the post Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi but he never harmed them. Rather, according to his edicts we know that he provided humanitarian help including doctors, hospitals, inns, wells, medical herbs and engineers to his neighboring countries. In his neighboring countries Ashoka helped humans as well as animals. Ashoka also planted trees in his empire and his neighboring countries. Ashoka was perhaps the first emperor in human history to ban slavery, hunting, fishing and deforestation. Ashoka also banned the death sentence and asked the same for the neighboring countries. Available at: Asoka: Rock and Pillar Edicts. Then Again: David Koeller. Retrieved on: 2009-02-21 Ashoka commanded his people to serve the orders of their elders (parents) and religious monks (shramana and Brahmin). Ashoka also recommended his people study all religions and respect all religions. According to Ashoka, to harm another's religion is a harm to someone's owns religion. Ashoka asserted his people to live with Dharmmacharana. Ashoka asked people to live with harmony, peace, love and tolerance. Ashoka called his people as his children, and they could call him when they need him. He also asked people to save money and not to spend for immoral causes. Ashoka also believed in dharmacharana(dhammacharana) and dharmavijaya(dhammavijaya). According to many European and Asian historians the age of Ashoka was the age of light and delightment. He was the first emperor in human history who has taught the lesson of unity, peace, equality and love. Ashoka's aim was not to expand the territories but the welfare of all of his subjects (sarvajansukhay). In his vast empire there was no evidence of recognizable mutiny or civil war. Ashoka was the true devotee of nonviolence, peace and love. This made him different from other emperors. Ashoka also helped Buddhism as well as religions like Jainism, Hinduism, Hellenic polytheism and Ajivikas. Ashoka was against any discrimination among humans. He helped students, the poor, orphans and the elderly with social, political and economic help. According to Ashoka, hatred gives birth to hatred and a feeling of love gives birth to love and mercy. According to him the happiness of people is the happiness of the ruler. His opinion was that the sword is not as powerful as love. Ashoka was also Kind to prisoners, and respected animal life and tree life. Ashoka allowed females to be educated. He also permitted females to enter religious institutions. He allowed female Buddhist monastic such as Bhikkhuni. He combined in himself the complexity a king and a simplicity of a buddhist monk. Because of these reasons he is known as the emperor of all ages and thus became a milestone in the History of the world. Ashoka Chakra The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashok the Great) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra or Dhammachakka in Pali, the Wheel of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra means wheel). The wheel has 24 spokes. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. The Ashoka chakra was built by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means cycle or self repeating process. The process it signifies is the cycle of time as how the world changes with time. The horse means accuracy and speed while the bull means hardwork. A few days before India became independent on August 1947, the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India's first Vice President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows: A widely held unofficial interpretation is that the saffron stands for purity and spirituality, white for peace and truth, green for fertility and prosperity and the wheel for justice/righteousness. The twenty four spokes in this chakra wheel represent twenty four virtues: Love Courage Patience Peacefulness Kindness Goodness Faithfulness Gentleness Self-control Selflessness Self sacrifice Truthfulness Righteousness Justice Mercy Graciousness Humility Empathy Sympathy Supreme knowledge Supreme wisdom Supreme moral Love for all beings Hope, trust, or faith in the goodness of God or nature. Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha) The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16 century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil. Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra) The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four "Indian lions" standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Aśoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Aśoka Column is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India. The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion capital is also known as the national symbol of India. The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks". The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital, which consists of a canopy representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short cylindrical abacus with four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a horse, a lion). The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolize different steps of Lord Buddha's life. The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb. The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince. The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life. The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha. Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolize Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India. Constructions credited to Ashoka the great Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India Barabar Caves, Bihar, India Nalanda University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar,India Taxila University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan Bhir Mound, (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India Butkara Stupa ,Swat, Pakistan Quotations Attributed to Ashoka the Great All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, which I desire for all men. You do not understand to what extent I desire this, and if some of you do understand, you do not understand the full extent of my desire. Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living beings is good, moderation in spending and moderation in saving is good. To do good is difficult. One who does good first does something hard to do. I have done many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons and their descendants up to the end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much good. But whoever amongst them neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to do evil. All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. King Piyadasi does not consider glory and fame to be of great account unless they are achieved through having my subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both now and in the future. Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. There is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma, (no acquaintance like) acquaintance with Dhamma, (no distribution like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no kinship like) kinship through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper behavior towards servants and employees, respect for mother and father, generosity to friends, companions, relations, Brahmans and ascetics, and not killing living beings. King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts and honors of various kinds.But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values this—that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions. Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they can give shade to animals and men, and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight //krosas//, I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor achievements. Such things to make the people happy have been done by former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, that the people might practice the Dhamma. It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who have been tried and sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe fasts. These quotations are taken directly from the Edicts of Ashoka. Available at: Asoka: Rock and Pillar Edicts. Then Again: David Koeller. Retrieved on: 2009-02-21 About Ashoka the Great Among the emperors and historical personalities, Samrath / Emperor Ashoka is the surely only being who had decided not to battle with enemy when he won the battle. - Jawaharlal Nehru in The Discovery of India (page no. 86). There is the only one period in Indian history which is a period of freedom, greatness and glory. That is the period of the Mauryan empire (Ashoka's empire). - B. R. Ambedkar in Annihilation of Caste (page no. 70-71). Ashoka is perhaps the only emperor who hated wars because of the blood shed and cruelty. He wanted to win the souls of people with love not the bodies with sword and terror. - V. G. Gokhale. In some cases Ashoka may be compared with Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Timur, Peter I of Russia, Napoleon I. But Ashoka was not extra ambitious like Alexander the Great. Ashoka was an ideal administrator like Julius Caesar, but unlike Caesar, he didn't want to be known as a dictator. Ashoka was a strong general but unlike Napoleon I Ashoka never was unsatisfied. Ashoka wanted to be loved by his subjects. He never terrorized his subjects like Genghis Khan, Timur and Peter I of Russia. Nobility of soul, purity of mind, honesty of nature, clarity of dignity and love for all let Ashoka sit with Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ. - Madhav Kondvilkar in Devancha Priya Raja Priyadarshi Samrath Ashok (page no. 19). Now a days wars, conflicts and blood shed have become very familiar, but about two thousand years ago Ashoka comprehended the evils of war and conflicts. Ashoka turned his all power to establish harmony and peace, in this way he has put a fine example to be followed before all mankind. In this way he has shown that in peacetime man would be a progressed being. - Dr. Binda Paranjape in Ashokache Shilalekha (page no.29). A hundred years after my death there will be an emperor named Ashoka in Pataliputra. He will rule one of the four continents and adorn Jambudvipa (old name to India) with my relics, building eighty four thousand stupas for the welfare of people. He will have them honored by gods and men. His fame will be widespread. His meritorious gift was just this: Jaya threw a handful of dust into the Tathaagata's bowl. Prediction of Buddha for Ashoka according to the Ashokavadana. "He (Ashoka) insisted on the recognition of the sanctity of all human life". Dr. Munshi. Asoka, one of the great monarchs of history, whose dominions extended from Afghanistan to Madras... is the only military monarch on record who abandoned warfare after victory. He had invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country along the east coast of Madras, perhaps with some intention of completing the conquest of the tip of the Indian peninsula. The expedition was successful, but he was disgusted by what be saw of the cruelties and horrors of war. He declared, in certain inscriptions that still exist, that he would no longer seek conquest by war, but by religion, and the rest of his life was devoted to the spreading of Buddhism throughout the world. He seems to have ruled his vast empire in peace and with great ability. He was no mere religious fanatic. For eight and twenty years Asoka worked sanely for the real needs of men. Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Asoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan his name is still honored. China, Tibet, and even India, though it has left his doctrine, preserve the tradition of his greatness. More living men cherish his memory today than have ever heard the names of Constantine or Charlemagne. - H.G. Wells in The Outline of History (Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind) published in (1920) chapter no. 25.4 (Buddhism and Asoka) page no 365-366. A large number of international scholars agree that Emperor Aśoka of India in the third century B.C. was one of the greatest conquerors who later achieved the most difficult conquest of all — the conquest of himself — through self-conviction and his perception of human suffering. After embracing the Dhamma of the Buddha as his guide and refuge, he transformed the goal of his regime from military conquest to conquest by Dhamma. By providing royal patronage for the propagation of Buddhism both within and outside his vast dominion, he helped promote the metamorphosis of Buddhism from one among many sects of Indian ascetic spirituality into a world religion that was eventually to penetrate almost all of southern and eastern Asia. - Anuradha Seneviratna in King Asoka and Buddhism Historical & Literary Studies (editors preface ) (page. no. xi). We have no way of knowing how effective Asoka’s reforms were or how long they lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout the ancient Buddhist world were encouraged to look to his style of government as an ideal to be followed. King Asoka has to be credited with first attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. Today, with widespread disillusionment in prevailing ideologies and the search for a political philosophy that goes beyond greed, hatred, and delusion, Asoka’s edicts may make a meaningful contribution to development of a more spiritually based political system. - Ven. S. Dhammika in The Edicts of Ashoka. Many people ask: How can any nation be defended if all of its people adopt nonviolence? It is rather difficult to answer this hypothetical question. However, an emperor ruled over India with nonviolence and compassion in the third century B.C. Ashoka was the emperor - emperor of peace and social justice. He did not rule by force or by accumulating goods and means of comfort for himself or by pomp and show. He ruled by sacrificing material comforts and by treating all his subjects equal and with justice. His example can guide us, rulers and administrators, politicians and civil servants, religious leaders and laymen, to establish peace, justice and harmony in present-day world. - Sh. Duli Chandra Jain and Ms. Sunita Jain in Ashoka - Emperor Or Monk. Ashoka was a man dedicated to peace, and the only emperor in history to forsake warfare after victory in the Kalinga war, devoting the balance of his lifetime serving not only his people, but mankind, with magnanimity and benevolence seldom seen in history. Thus he was able to build the Golden Period of Indian history." - Dr. Kirthisinghe. Ashoka Today In art and film Asoka is a 2001 epic Bollywood historical drama. It is a largely fictional version of the life of the Indian emperor Ashoka. The film was directed by Santosh Sivan and stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki, a princess of Kalinga.The film ends with Asoka renouncing the sword and embracing Buddhism. The final narrative describes how Asoka not only built a large empire, but spread Buddhism and the winds of peace through it. Bollywood's versatile film director and producer Rajkumar Santoshi intends to produce an epic on Emperor Ashoka starring Ajay Devgan as Ashoka the Great with triple roles and Bipasha Basu as Kaurwaki. According to Rajkumar Santoshi this upcoming film will be different from Santosh Sivan's film on the same Emperor. According to Rajkumar Santoshi film ASHOKA THE GREAT is basically based on the three different phases and two generations of Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Bollywood's superstar Amitabh Bachchan will cast the role of Emperor Ashoka. This forthcoming film (yet untitled) is to be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi, an Indian film director and script writer. According to Dwivedi it is the story of relationship between king Ashoka and his son Kunal. Kunal, Ashoka’s son will be played by actor and fashion model Arjun Rampal and model and Bollywood actress Amrita Rao will play his wife. Jaya Bachchan or Tabbu might play Ashoka’s wife in the film. The film is also based on the later years of Emperor Ashoka's life. The film will be shot in India, Afghanistan,and Pakistan. Dwivedi asserts that this untitled film is a legend based on a collection of Buddhist texts called the Avadanas which deals with the purification of the soul and mind. In Literature Asoka and the Decline of the Maurya by Romila Thapar. Early India and Pakistan: to Ashoka (1970) by Brigadier Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler. Asoka the Great by Monisha Mukundan. Asokan Sites and Artefacts, a Source-book with Bibliography. Harry Falk, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2006 ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0. The Legend of King Asoka (1948) by John S. Strong. Ashoka the Great (1995) by D. C. Ahir. Ashoka text and glossary (1924) by Alfred C. Woolner . Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India by Vincent A. Smith. Discovery of the Exact Site of Asoka's Classic Capital of Pataliputra (1892) by L. A. Waddell. Asoka Maurya (1966) by B. G. Gokhale. The Legend of King Asoka (1989) by John S. Strong. Asoka (1923) by D.R. Bhandarkar. Ashoka, The Great by B. K. Chaturvedi. Asoka by Mookerji Radhakumud. King Aśoka and Buddhism Historical And Literaray Studies by Anuradha Seneviratna. To Uphold the World: The Message of Ashoka and Kautilya for the 21st Century (2008) by Bruce Rich. Asoka and His Inscriptions by Beni Madhab Barua. Asoka's Edicts (1956) by A. C. Sen. In popular culture One of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature, Jaishankar Prasad, composed Ashoka ki chinta (in English: Worry of Ashoka), a famous Hindi verse. The poem portrays Ashoka’s heart during the war of kalinga. One of Japanese rock musician Miyavi's most recognizable tattoos (on his upper right arm), is claimed to mean, Asoka. Transcript of the question panel held at Anime Matsuri on April 10, 2009 MIYAVI Q&A. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17 In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Asoka as a model for administrators to strive for. In the game Civilization IV he's a playable charachter. Gallery See also Arthashastra Ashoka's Major Rock Edict Ashokavadana Bindusara Maurya Buddhism Chandragupta Maurya Chanakya Chakravarti Dasaratha Maurya Edicts of Ashoka Hinduism Jaugada Kalinga War Lion Capital of Ashoka Magadha Maurya Empire Sisupalgarh History of India History of Hinduism History of Buddhism History of Maldives List of Indian monarchs List of people known as The Great Sources Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania: Anima Books, 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4 Thapar, Romila. Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas (Delhi : Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, 1998 printing, c1961) ISBN 0-19-564445-X Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, [1967] c1952) ISBN 0-89684-167-7 Bongard-Levin, G. M. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5 Govind Gokhale, Balkrishna. Asoka Maurya (Irvington Pub June 1966) ISBN 0-8290-1735-6 Chand Chauhan, Gian. Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650 (Munshiram Manoharlal January 2004) ISBN 81-215-1028-7 Keay, John. India: A History (Grove Press; 1 Grove Pr edition May 10, 2001) ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 Falk, Harry. Asokan Sites and Artefacts - A Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz : Philipp von Zabern, [2006]) ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0 Notes External links http://www.bharatadesam.com/people/asoka.php Ashoka honored as Interfaith Hero on ReadTheSpirit.com King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies Detailed biography, including key dates in Ashoka's Life The life of Asoka Maurya http://www.csuchico.edu/~cheinz/syllabi/asst001/spring98/Ashoka.htm http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/ashoka/ http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/budhist/asoka.htm http://www.indiaparenting.com/stories/greatindians/gi014.shtml http://www.boloji.com/history/001.htm http://www.indiavisitinformation.com/indian-personality/Emperor-Ashoka.shtml http://jainsamaj.org/literature/ashoka-270204.htm | Ashoka |@lemmatized ashoka:211 devanāgarī:3 अश:1 क:1 iast:1 bc:15 indian:19 emperor:46 maurya:18 dynasty:9 rule:15 almost:5 subcontinent:4 often:4 cite:1 one:22 india:49 well:15 world:14 great:22 reign:12 present:8 day:16 number:5 military:5 conquest:12 empire:24 stretch:1 pakistan:8 afghanistan:5 west:4 bangladesh:2 state:12 assam:2 east:4 far:3 south:4 brahmagiri:1 karnataka:1 peninsular:2 part:4 southern:3 e:3 tamil:1 nadu:1 kerala:2 conquer:3 kingdom:9 name:18 kalinga:24 start:2 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1,730 | Hate_crime | Hate crimes (also known as bias-motivated crimes) occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, or political affiliation. Stotzer, R.: Comparison of Hate Crime Rates Across Protected and Unprotected Groups, Williams Institute, 2007-06. Retrieved on 2007-08-09. A "hate crime" can take two forms: "hate crime" generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by hatred of one or more of the listed conditions. The second kind is hate speech, which is speech defined as crime. While hate crimes are rarely debated, the hate speech concept is controversial, as criminalizing speech can be seen as impugning freedom of speech. Incidents may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, or offensive graffiti or letters. Hate crime, Home Office History Concern about hate crimes has become increasingly prominent among policymakers in many nations and at all levels of government in recent years, but the phenomenon is not new. Examples from the past include Roman persecution of Christians, the Ottoman genocide of Armenians, and the Nazi "final solution" for the Jews, and more recently, the ethnic cleansing in Bosnia and genocide in Rwanda. Hate crimes have shaped and sometimes defined world history. In the United States, racial and religious biases have inspired most hate crimes. As Europeans began to colonize the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries, Native Americans increasingly became the targets of bias-motivated intimidation and violence. During the past two centuries, some of the more typical examples of hate crimes in the US include lynchings of African Americans, cross burnings to drive black families from predominantly white neighborhoods, assaults on white people travelling predominantly black neighborhoods, assaults on gay, lesbian and transgender people, and the painting of swastikas on Jewish synagogues, as well as attacks against European Americans, such as the Murder of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom and the Wichita Massacre. A Policymaker's Guide to Hate Crimes Hate crime victims In the United States, anti-black bias was the most frequently reported hate crime motivation. (African-Americans constitute the second-largest minority group; Hispanics are the largest). Table 1 - Hate Crime Statistics 2005 Of the nearly 8,000 hate crimes reported to the FBI in 1995, almost 3,000 of them were motivated by bias against blacks. FBI - Uniform Crime Reports - Hate Crime Statistics 1995 Other frequently reported bias motivations were anti-white, anti-Jewish, anti-gay, and anti-Hispanic. Psychological effects From a psychological standpoint, hate crimes may produce devastating consequences. A manual issued by the Attorney-General of the Province of Ontario in Canada lists the following consequences http://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/french/crim/cpm/2005/HateCrimeDiscrimination.pdf : effects on people - psychological and affective disturbances; repercussion on the victim's identity and self-esteem; both reinforced by the degree of violence of a hate crime, usually stronger than that of a common one. effect on the targeted group - generalized terror in the group from which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of vulnerability over the other members, who could be the next victims. effect on other vulnerable groups - ominous effects over minoritarian groups or over groups that identify themselves with the targeted one, especially when the referred hate is based on an ideology or doctrine that preaches simultaneously against several groups. effect on society as a whole - the stimulation of divisions in society, which would be an abomination against concepts like harmony and equality in a multicultural society. Hate crime laws Hate crime laws generally fall into one of several categories: (1) laws defining specific bias-motivated acts as distinct crimes; (2) criminal penalty-enhancement laws; (3) laws creating a distinct civil cause of action for hate crimes; and (4) laws requiring administrative agencies to collect hate crime statistics. Microsoft Word - Everyday Fears FINAL for web.doc Sometimes (as in Bosnia and Herzegovina), the laws focus on war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity with the prohibition against discriminatory action limited to public officials. Eurasia Andorra Discriminatory acts constituting harassment or infringement of a person's dignity on the basis of origin, citizenship, race, religion, or sex (Penal Code Article 313). Courts have cited bias-based motivation in delivering sentences, but there is no explicit penalty enhancement provision in the Criminal Code. The government does not track hate crime statistics, although they are relatively rare. Armenia Armenia has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes with ethnic, racial, or religious motives (Criminal Code Article 63). Austria Austria has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes with racist or xenophobic motivation (Penal Code section 33(5)). Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, or religious hatred (Criminal Code Article 61). Murder and infliction of serious bodily injury motivated by racial, religious, national, or ethnic intolerance are distinct crimes (Article 111). Belarus Belarus has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, and religious hatred and discord. Criminal Code of the Republic of Belarus, § 64 (1), para. 9 (translated from the Russian), June 9, 1999. Belgium Belgium's Act of 25 February 2003 ("aimed at combating discrimination and modifying the Act of 15 February 1993 which establishes the Centre for Equal Opportunities and the Fight against Racism") establishes a penalty-enhancement for crimes involving discrimination on the basis of sex, supposed race, color, descent, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, civil status, birth, fortune, age, religious or philosophical beliefs, current or future state of health and handicap or physical features. The Act also "provides for a civil remedy to address discrimination." The Act, along with the Act of 20 January 2003 ("on strengthening legislation against racism"), requires the Centre to collect and publish statistical data on racism and discriminatory crimes. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina (enacted 2003) "contains provisions prohibiting discrimination by public officials on grounds, inter alia, of race, skin colour, national or ethnic background, religion and language and prohibiting the restriction by public officials of the language rights of the citizens in their relations with the authorities (Article 145/1 and 145/2)." Office of the High Representative, Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina, January 2003. Bulgaria Bulgarian criminal law prohibits certain crimes motivated by racism and xenophobia, but a 1999 report by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance found that it does not appear that those provisions "have ever resulted in convictions before the courts in Bulgaria." ECRI, Second Report on Bulgaria, adopted on June 18, 1999, and made public on March 21, 2000. Croatia Croatian law allows for consideration of any extenuating or aggravating circumstances in sentencing, but no explicit provision is made for bias-based motivations. Czech Republic "The Czech Criminal Code defines racist motivation as a specific aggravating circumstance that judges are required to take into account in sentencing, as well as defining specific racist acts as crimes. Section 196 punishes 'violence against a group of inhabitants and against individuals on the basis of race, nationality, political conviction or religion.'" Denmark Although Danish law does not include explicit hate crime provisions, "section 80(1) of the Criminal Code instructs courts to take into account the gravity of the offence and the offenders motive when meting out penalty, and therefore to attach importance to the racist motive of crimes in determining sentence." ECRI, Second Report on Denmark, adopted on June 16, 2000, and made public on April 3, 2001, para. 9. In recent years judges have used this provision to increase sentences on the basis of racist motives. Chahrokh, Klug, and Bilger, Migrants, Minorities, and Legislation. Since 1992, the Danish Civil Security Service (PET) has released statistics on crimes with apparent racist motivation. England and Wales In England and Wales criminal actions are considered hate crimes if they are perceived by the victim or any other person as being motivated by prejudice and hatred. Hate crimes may be physical attack, verbal attack, threats or insults and will be considered a hate crime if they are motivated by the victims race, colour, ethnic origin, nationality or national origins, religion, gender or gender identity, sexual orientation or disability. Finland Finnish Penal Code 515/2003 (enacted January 31, 2003) makes "committing a crime against a person, because of his national, racial, ethnical or equivalent group" an aggravating circumstance in sentencing. EUMC, Racism and xenophobia in the E.U., p. 51. In addition, ethnic agitation () is criminalized and carries a fine or a prison sentence of not more than two years. The prosecution need not prove that an actual danger to an ethnic group is caused but only that malicious message is emissioned. A more aggravated hate crime, warmongering (), carries a prison sentence of one to ten years. However, in case of warmongering, the prosecution must prove an overt act that evidently increases the risk that Finland is involved in a war or becomes a target for a military operation. The act in question may consist of illegal violence directed against foreign country or her citizens, systematic dissemination of false information on Finnish foreign policy or defence public influence on the public opinion towards a pro-war viewpoint or public suggestion that a foreign country or Finland should engage in an aggressive act. Penal Code (39/1889) as of 1006/2004. §§ 6:5.1.4 (ethnic hatred as an aggravating factor), 11:8 (ethnic agitation) and 12:2 (warmongering). The points cited remain in force on the day of retrieval, checked from the Finnish version: Rikoslaki. The Government proposal HE 55/2007 will move the § 11:8 to §11:10 without changing the content, if the proposal is passed by the Parliament of Finland. Retrieved 11-23-2007 France In 2003, France enacted penalty-enhancement hate crime laws for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's actual or perceived ethnicity, nation, race, religion, or sexual orientation. The penalties for murder were raised from 30 years (for non-hate crimes) to life imprisonment (for hate crimes), and the penalties for violent attacks leading to permanent disability were raised from 10 years (for non-hate crimes) to 15 years (for hate crimes). Georgia "There is no general provision in Georgian law for racist motivation to be considered an aggravating circumstance in prosecutions of ordinary offenses. Certain crimes involving racist motivation are, however, defined as specific offenses in the Georgian Criminal Code of 1999, including murder motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 109); infliction of serious injuries motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 117); and torture motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 126). ECRI reported no knowledge of cases in which this law has been enforced. There is no systematic monitoring or data collection on discrimination in Georgia." Germany The German Criminal Code permits the motives and aims of the criminal, including racist motives, to be taken into account in sentencing. §130 of the German penal code prohibits 1) Incitement of violence, incitement of arbitrary discrimination as well as 2) Violating people's human dignity by swearing at, denegrading or slandering groups of people defined by nationality, race, religion or ethnicity Greece Article Law 927/1979 "Section 1,1 penalises incitement to discrimination, hatred or violence towards individuals or groups because of their racial, national or religious origin, through public written or oral expressions; Section 1,2 prohibits the establishment of, and membership in, organisations which organise propaganda and activities aimed at racial discrimination; Section 2 punishes public expression of offensive ideas; Section 3 penalises the act of refusing, in the exercise of one’s occupation, to sell a commodity or to supply a service on racial grounds." ECRI, Second Report on Greece, adopted on 1999-12-10, and made public on 2000-06-27. Public prosecutors may press charges even if the victim does not file a complaint. However, as of 2003, no convictions had been attained under the law. Sitaropoulos, N.: Executive Summary on Race Equality Directive, State of Play in Greece, section 5, 2003-10-12. Retrieved on 2007-08-02. Hungary Violent action, cruelty, and coercion by threat made on the basis of the victim's actual or perceived national, ethnic, or religious status are punishable under article 174/B of the Hungarian Criminal Code. Iceland Section 233 of the Icelandic Penal Code states "Anyone who in a ridiculing, slanderous, insulting, threatening or any other manner publicly assaults a person or a group of people on the basis of their nationality, skin colour, race, religion or sexual orientation, shall be fined or jailed for up to 2 years." (The word "assault" in this context does not refer to physical violence, only to expressions of hatred.) Icelandic Penal Code (in Icelandic) Iran Iranian constitution's article 19 states: All people of Iran, whatever the ethnic group or tribe to which they belong, enjoy equal rights; color, race, language, and the like, do not bestow any privilege. Iranian constitution's article 20 states: All citizens of the country, both men and women, equally enjoy the protection of the law and enjoy all human, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, in conformity with Islamic criteria. Iranian constitution's article 14 prohibits the maltreatment of the non-islamic recognized minorities: In accordance with the sacred verse "God does not forbid you to deal kindly and justly with those who have not fought against you because of your religion and who have not expelled you from your homes" [60:8], the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran and all Muslims are duty-bound to treat non-Muslims in conformity with ethical norms and the principles of Islamic justice and equity, and to respect their human rights. This principle applies to all who refrain from engaging in conspiracy or activity against Islam and the Islamic Republic of Iran. http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/ir00000_.html In spite of this, it is well known throughout the international community that Iran has and continues to have state-sponsored torture and executions of homosexuals, as sexual orientation is not recognized as a protected class within the state and homosexuality is treated as a violation of Islamic law. Search the Iran Human Rights Memorial, Omid - Boroumand Foundation for Human Rights in Iran WikiNews: Execution of two gay teens in Iran spurs controversy SkyNews: Day 58: Obama Backs Global Gay Rights The Washington Post: Pictures From An Execution Come Into Focus The Independent: Brutal land where homosexuality is punishable by death Ireland "The Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred Act 1989 makes it an offense to incite hatred against any group of persons on account of their race, color, nationality, religion, ethnic or national origins, or membership of the Traveller community, an indigenous minority group." Ireland does not systematically collect hate crime data. Italy Italian criminal law, at Section 3 of Law No. 205/1993, contains a penalty-enhancement provision for all crimes motived by racial, ethnic, national, or religious bias. Kazakhstan In Kazakhstan, there are constitutional provisions prohibiting propaganda promoting racial or ethnic superiority. Kyrgyzstan In Kyrgyzstan, "the Constitution of the State party prohibits any kind of discrimination on grounds of origin, sex, race, nationality, language, faith, political or religious convictions or any other personal or social trait or circumstance, and that the prohibition against racial discrimination is also included in other legislation, such as the Civil, Penal and Labour Codes." CERD, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties under Article 9 of the Convention; Concluding Observations: Kyrgyzstan, 1999. Retrieved on 2007-08-02. Article 299 of the Criminal Code defines incitement to national, racist, or religious hatred as a specific offense. This article has been used in political trials of suspected members of the banned organization Hizb-ut-Tahrir. Human Rights in the OSCE Region: Europe, Central Asia and North America, Report 2004 (Events of 2003), International Helsinki Federation, 2004-06-23. Retrieved on 2007-08-02. Scotland In Scottish Common law the courts can take any aggravating factor into account when sentencing someone found guilty of an offence. There is specific legislation dealing with the offences of incitement of racial hatred, racially-aggravated harassment and offences aggravated by religious prejudice. A Scottish Executive working party examined the issue of hate crime and ways of combating crime motivated by social prejudice, reporting in 2004. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Justice/criminal/17543/8978 Its main recommendations were not implemented, but in their manifestos for the Scottish Parliament election, 2007 several political parties included commitments to legislate in this area, including the Scottish National Party who now form the Scottish Government. The Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Bill was introduced on 19 May 2008 by Patrick Harvie MSP Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Bill , having been prepared with support from the Scottish Government. Spain Article 22(4) of the Spanish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's ideology, beliefs, religion, ethnicity, race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, illness, or disability. Sweden Article 29 of the Swedish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's race, color, nationality, ethnicity, religion, or "other circumstance" of the victim. Eurasian countries with no hate crime laws Albania, Cyprus, Estonia, San Marino, and Slovenia have no hate crime laws. North America Canada Since 1966 the Canadian Criminal Code has included a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes "motivated by bias, prejudice or hate based on racial group, national or ethnic origin, language, colour, religion, sex, age, mental or physical disability, sexual orientation, or any other similar factor." Canadian Criminal Code, Subparagraph 718.2(a)(i) The Code also "punishes anyone who 'advocates or promotes genocide,' with genocide defined to require that acts be committed 'with the intent to destroy in whole or in part any identifiable group.' 'Identifiable group,' in turn, is defined to mean 'any section of the public distinguished by skin color, racial group, religion, ethnic origin or sexual orientation.' Section 319, adopting the same definition of 'identifiable group,' punishes the incitement or expression of hatred against such a group." Civil remedies are also available in Canada for discriminatory acts. United States Defined in the 1999 National Crime Victim Survey, "A hate crime is a criminal offense. In the United States federal prosecution is possible for hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, color, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity. Measures to add perceived gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability to the list have been proposed, and is in discussion now. Forty-five states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of hate crimes. Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action in addition to the criminal penalty for similar acts. Twenty-seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics State Hate Crime Laws, Anti-Defamation League, June 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-04. According to the FBI Hate Crime Statistics report for 2006, hate crimes increased nearly 8 percent nationwide, with a total of 7,722 incidents and 9,080 offenses reported by participating law enforcement agencies. Of the 5,449 crimes against persons, 46 percent were classified as intimidation and 31.9 percent as simple assaults. 81 percent of the 3,593 crimes against property were acts of vandalism or destruction. 58.6 percent of the 7,330 known offenders were white and 20.6 black. More than half, 52 percent, of the 9,652 victims identified were targeted because of racial group. Statistics, 2006Hate Crime Statistics, 2006, Federal Bureau of Investigation South America Brazil In Brazil, hate crime laws focus on racism, racial injury and other special bias-motivated crimes such as: murder by death squads http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Leis/L8072.htm (Law 8072/1990, Article 1st, I) and genocide on the grounds of nationality, ethnicity, race or religion http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Leis/L2889.htm (Law 2889/1956, Article 1st) . Murder by death squads and genocide are legally classified as "hideous crimes" Law 8072/1990 (aforementioned link), Article 1st, I and single paragraph. (crimes hediondos in Portuguese). The crimes of racism and racial injury, although similar, are enforced slightly differently http://www.boletimjuridico.com.br/doutrina/texto.asp?id=662 . Article 140, 3rd paragraph, of the Penal Code establishes a harsher penalty, min. 1 max 3 years, for injuries motivated by “elements referring to race, color, ethnicity, religion, origin or the condition of being an aged or disabled person” http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Decreto-Lei/Del2848compilado.htm . On the other side, Law 7716/1989 covers “crimes resulting from discrimination or prejudice on the grounds of race, color, ethnicity, religion or national origin” http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Leis/L7716.htm . In addition, Brazilian Constitution defines as a “fundamental goal of the Republic” (Article 3rd, clause IV) “to promote the wealth of all, with no prejudice as to origin, race, sex, color, age and any other forms of discrimination”. http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituiçao_Compilado.htm . Arguments for hate crime laws Justifications for harsher punishments for hate crimes focus on the notion that hate crimes cause greater individual and societal harm. It is said that, when the core of a person’s identity is attacked, the degradation and dehumanization is especially severe, and additional emotional and physiological problems are likely to result. Society then, in turn, can suffer from the disempowerment of a group of people. Furthermore, it is asserted that the chances for retaliatory crimes are greater when a hate crime has been committed. The riots in Los Angeles, California, that followed the beating of Rodney King, a Black motorist, by a group of White police officers are cited as support for this argument. The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that penalty-enhancement hate crime statutes do not conflict with free speech rights because they do not punish an individual for exercising freedom of expression; rather, they allow courts to consider motive when sentencing a criminal for conduct which is not protected by the First Amendment. Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 508 U.S. 476 (1993). When it enacted the Hate Crimes Act of 2000, the New York State Legislature found that: Hate crimes do more than threaten the safety and welfare of all citizens. They inflict on victims incalculable physical and emotional damage and tear at the very fabric of free society. Crimes motivated by invidious hatred toward particular groups not only harm individual victims but send a powerful message of intolerance and discrimination to all members of the group to which the victim belongs. Hate crimes can and do intimidate and disrupt entire communities and vitiate the civility that is essential to healthy democratic processes. In a democratic society, citizens cannot be required to approve of the beliefs and practices of others, but must never commit criminal acts on account of them. Current law does not adequately recognize the harm to public order and individual safety that hate crimes cause. Therefore, our laws must be strengthened to provide clear recognition of the gravity of hate crimes and the compelling importance of preventing their recurrence. Accordingly, the legislature finds and declares that hate crimes should be prosecuted and punished with appropriate severity." Hate Crimes Act - Ch 107, 2000 Arguments in opposition to hate crime laws The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that hate crime statutes which criminalize bias-motivated speech or symbolic speech conflict with free speech rights because they isolated certain words based on their content or viewpoint . R. A. V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377 (1992). Some have argued hate crime laws bring the law into disrepute and further divide society, as groups apply to have their critics silenced. AEI - Short Publications Some have argued that if it is true that all violent crimes are the result of the perpetrator's contempt for the victim, then all crimes are hate crimes. Thus, if there is no alternate rationale for prosecuting some people more harshly for the same crime based on who the victim is, then different defendants are treated unequally under the law, which violates the United States Constitution. Constitutional Challenges to Hate Crimes Statutes See also Hate speech Fighting Discrimination References External links Hate Crime Survey, annual Human Rights First report on the prevalence of hate crimes in the OSCE region. Hate Crime Statistics, annual FBI/U.S. Department of Justice report on the prevalence of hate crimes in the United States. Required by the Hate Crime Statistics Act. A Policymaker's Guide to Hate Crimes, a publication by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, part of the U.S. Department of Justice. Many parts of this article have been adapted from this document. Tolerance.org, a web project sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center Peabody, Michael "Thought & Crime," Liberty Magazine, March/April 2008, review of recently proposed hate crime legislation and criminal intent issues. , a video focusing on the hate crimes incited by KABC 790 AM shock jock Doug McIntyre against a Los Angeles charter school, Academia Semillas del Pueblo, in 2006. | Hate_crime |@lemmatized hate:75 crime:110 also:6 know:3 bias:16 motivate:22 occur:1 perpetrator:2 target:5 victim:20 perceived:4 membership:3 certain:4 social:4 group:31 usually:2 define:9 racial:22 religion:18 sexual:10 orientation:10 disability:6 ethnicity:8 nationality:10 age:5 gender:7 identity:5 political:6 affiliation:1 stotzer:1 r:2 comparison:1 rate:1 across:1 protect:2 unprotected:1 williams:1 institute:1 retrieve:6 take:5 two:4 form:3 generally:2 refer:3 criminal:27 act:22 see:3 hatred:13 one:7 listed:1 condition:2 second:5 kind:2 speech:10 rarely:1 debate:1 concept:2 controversial:1 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1,731 | East_Caribbean_dollar | The East Caribbean dollar (sign: $; code: XCD) is the currency of eight of the nine members of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. It has existed since 1965 and is normally abbreviated with the dollar sign $ or, alternatively, EC$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. The EC$ is subdivided into 100 cents. It has been pegged to the United States dollar at US$1 = EC$2.7 since 1976. States using the EC$ Six of the states using the EC$ are independent states: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The other two are British overseas territories: Anguilla and Montserrat. These states are all members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union. The only OECS member not using the East Caribbean dollar as their de facto currency is the British Virgin Islands, which uses the U.S. dollar instead, perhaps because of the proximity of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The combined population is close to 600,000 (2005 and 2006 census and estimates), which is comparable to Montenegro or the city of Washington, D.C.. Queen Elizabeth II appears on the banknotes and the obverse of the coins: she is the head of state of all the states and territories using the EC$, except Dominica which is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations so recognises the Queen as Head of the Commonwealth. History The East Caribbean dollar is a descendant of the Spanish dollars that were referred to as pieces of eight. In the nineteenth century Spanish dollars were rated against the British gold sovereign at four shillings and two pence (4s 2d), or at $4.80 to the sovereign. This exchange rate was still active between the East Caribbean dollar and the pound sterling right up until as recently as 1976. The EC$ replaced the British West Indian dollar (BWI$), used by the defunct West Indies Federation, at par in 1965. Between 1965 and 1983, the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority issued the EC$, with banknotes from 1965 and coins from 1981. In 1972 Barbados left the currency union. The EC$ is now issued by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, based in the city of Basseterre, in Saint Kitts and Nevis. The bank was established by an agreement (the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Agreement) signed at Port of Spain on July 5 1983. Coins Until 1981, the coins of the BWI$ circulated. In 1981, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 25 cents and 1 dollar. The round, aluminium bronze dollar coin was replaced in 1989 with a decagonal, cupro-nickel type. Higher denominations exist, but these were issued only as medal-coins. 2002 Series Value Technical parameters Description Date of first minting Diameter Mass Composition Edge Obverse Reverse 1 cent 18.42 mm 1.03 g Aluminium Plain Elizabeth II Value, year of minting, "East Caribbean States" 2002 2 cents 21.46 mm 1.42 g 5 cents 23.11 mm 1.74 g 10 cents 18.06 mm 2.59 g Cupronickel Ribbed Value, year of minting, "East Caribbean States", ship 25 cents 23.98 mm 6.48 g 1 dollar 26.5 mm 7.98 g Alternate smooth and ribbed 1 and 2 cent coin of 2002 series. Others from the previous series. Banknotes In 1965, the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority issued banknotes in denominations of 1, 5, 20 and 100 dollars. The first issues in the name of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank in 1985 were of the same denominations, with the addition of 10 dollar notes. The last 1 dollar notes were issued in 1989 and 50 dollar notes were introduced in 1993. See also Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean Currency Union Euro Amero Khaleeji ACU Eco CARICOM SUCRE (currency) References Notes External links Banknotes Coins be-x-old:Усходнекарыбскі даляр | East_Caribbean_dollar |@lemmatized east:6 caribbean:14 dollar:18 sign:3 code:1 xcd:1 currency:10 eight:2 nine:1 member:4 organisation:1 eastern:7 state:10 exist:2 since:2 normally:1 abbreviate:1 alternatively:1 ec:9 distinguish:1 denominated:1 subdivide:1 cent:8 peg:1 united:1 u:3 use:6 six:1 independent:1 antigua:1 barbuda:1 dominica:2 grenada:1 saint:4 kitts:2 nevis:2 lucia:1 vincent:1 grenadine:1 two:2 british:4 overseas:1 territory:2 anguilla:1 montserrat:1 union:3 oecs:1 de:1 facto:1 virgin:2 island:2 instead:1 perhaps:1 proximity:1 combined:1 population:1 close:1 census:1 estimate:1 comparable:1 montenegro:1 city:2 washington:1 c:1 queen:2 elizabeth:2 ii:2 appear:1 banknote:4 obverse:2 coin:9 head:2 except:1 commonwealth:2 nation:1 recognise:1 history:1 descendant:1 spanish:2 refer:1 piece:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 rat:1 gold:1 sovereign:2 four:1 shilling:1 penny:1 exchange:1 rate:1 still:1 active:1 pound:1 sterling:1 right:1 recently:1 replace:2 west:2 indian:1 bwi:2 defunct:1 indie:1 federation:1 par:1 authority:2 issue:6 barbados:1 leave:1 central:4 bank:5 base:1 basseterre:1 establish:1 agreement:2 port:1 spain:1 july:1 circulate:1 new:1 series:4 introduce:2 denomination:4 round:1 aluminium:2 bronze:1 decagonal:1 cupro:1 nickel:1 type:1 high:1 medal:1 value:3 technical:1 parameter:1 description:1 date:1 first:2 mint:1 diameter:1 mass:1 composition:1 edge:1 reverse:1 mm:6 g:6 plain:1 year:2 minting:2 cupronickel:1 rib:2 ship:1 alternate:1 smooth:1 others:1 previous:1 name:1 addition:1 note:3 last:1 see:1 also:1 euro:1 amero:1 khaleeji:1 acu:1 eco:1 caricom:1 sucre:1 reference:1 notes:1 external:1 link:1 banknotes:1 x:1 old:1 усходнекарыбскі:1 даляр:1 |@bigram antigua_barbuda:1 dominica_grenada:1 saint_kitts:2 kitts_nevis:2 saint_lucia:1 lucia_saint:1 vincent_grenadine:1 de_facto:1 queen_elizabeth:1 obverse_coin:1 nineteenth_century:1 pound_sterling:1 west_indie:1 cupro_nickel:1 external_link:1 banknotes_coin:1 |
1,732 | Emperor_Yūryaku | (c. 418 - Seventh Day of the Eight Month of 479 (Kibi) All dates are given in the traditional lunisolar calendar used in Japan until 1873. ) was the 21st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 27-28; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 113-115. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Yūryaku is considered to have ruled the country during the mid-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. According to the Kojiki he is said to have ruled from the Thirteenth Day of the Eleventh Month of 456 (Heishin) until his death on the Seventh Day of the Eight Month of 479 (Kibi). According to Kojiki and Nihonshoki, Yūryaku was named Prince Ohatsuse Wakatake (大泊瀬 幼武) at birth. Swords unearthed from some kofuns indicate his name was Waka Takeru (Ōkimi). Yuryaku is just a name posthumously assigned to him by a much later era. He was the fifth and youngest son of Emperor Ingyō. After his elder brother Emperor Ankō was murdered, he won the struggle against his other brothers and became the new emperor. His title at his own lifetime was certainly not tennō, but presumably Ōkimi and/or Sumeramikoto (治天下大王 - amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi, or sumera no mikoto, Great King who rules all under heaven) and/or king of Yamato (ヤマト大王/大君 - yamato ōkimi, Great King of Yamato). He had three wives (including his consort Kusahahatahi). His successor, Prince Shiraka (Emperor Seinei), was his son by his wife Kazuraki no Karahime. Yūryaku is believed to be referred to as Bu (武, In Japanese, it is read as Take or Takeru) in contemporary Chinese records. These records state that Bu began his rule before 477, was recognized as the ruler of Japan by the Liu Song, Southern Qi, and Liang dynasties, and continued his rule through 502. Bu sent messengers to the Song dynasty in 477 and 478. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 333-372. Yūryaku is remembered as a patron of sericulture. Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969). The Manyōshū, p. 317. Poetry This Japanese sovereign's predilection for poetry is amongst the more well-documented aspects of his character and reign. Poems attributed to this 5th century monarch are included in the Manyōshū, and a number of his verses are preserved in the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki. Nots References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969). The Manyōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08620-2 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Yūryaku |@lemmatized c:2 seventh:2 day:3 eight:2 month:3 kibi:2 date:2 give:1 traditional:2 lunisolar:1 calendar:1 use:1 japan:8 emperor:8 accord:3 order:1 succession:1 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 assign:2 life:1 reign:2 yūryaku:4 consider:1 rule:5 country:1 mid:1 century:2 paucity:1 information:1 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 kojiki:3 say:1 thirteenth:1 eleventh:1 heishin:1 death:1 nihonshoki:2 name:3 prince:2 ohatsuse:1 wakatake:1 大泊瀬:1 幼武:1 birth:1 sword:1 unearth:1 kofuns:1 indicate:1 waka:1 takeru:2 ōkimi:4 yuryaku:1 posthumously:1 much:1 later:1 era:1 fifth:1 young:1 son:2 ingyō:1 elder:1 brother:2 ankō:1 murder:1 win:1 struggle:1 become:1 new:3 title:1 lifetime:1 certainly:1 tennō:1 presumably:1 sumeramikoto:1 治天下大王:1 amenoshita:1 shiroshimesu:1 sumera:1 mikoto:1 great:3 king:3 heaven:1 yamato:3 ヤマト大王:1 大君:1 three:1 wife:2 include:2 consort:1 kusahahatahi:1 successor:1 shiraka:1 seinei:1 kazuraki:1 karahime:1 believe:1 refer:1 bu:3 武:1 japanese:2 read:1 take:1 contemporary:1 chinese:1 record:2 state:1 begin:1 recognize:1 ruler:1 liu:1 song:2 southern:1 qi:1 liang:1 dynasty:2 continue:1 send:1 messenger:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 remember:1 patron:1 sericulture:1 nippon:3 gakujutsu:3 shinkokai:3 manyōshū:3 p:1 poetry:2 sovereign:2 predilection:1 amongst:1 well:1 document:1 aspect:1 character:1 poem:1 attribute:1 monarch:1 number:1 verse:1 preserve:1 nots:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 early:1 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:5 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:3 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:3 california:1 press:3 one:1 thousand:1 poems:1 york:2 columbia:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram lunisolar_calendar:1 succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:2 liang_dynasty:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 nippon_gakujutsu:3 gakujutsu_shinkokai:3 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
1,733 | Howard_Hawks | Howard Winchester Hawks (May 30, 1896 – December 26, 1977) was an influential American film director, producer and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era. He is popular for his films from a wide range of genres such as Scarface (1932), Bringing Up Baby (1938), His Girl Friday (1940), Sergeant York (1941), The Big Sleep (1946), Red River (1948), Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) and Rio Bravo (1959). Early life Born in Goshen, Indiana, Hawks was the first-born child of Frank W. Hawks and the former Helen Howard. After the birth of his brother, Kenneth Neil Hawks, on August 12, 1899, the family moved to Neenah, Wisconsin. Shortly afterward they moved again, to Southern California. Hawks attended high school in Glendora, and then moved to New Hampshire to attend Phillips Exeter Academy from 1912-1914. After graduation, Hawks moved on to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he majored in mechanical engineering. During the summers of 1916 and 1917, Hawks worked on some early movies, interning for the Famous Players-Lasky Studio. After graduation he joined the United States Army Air Service during World War I. After the war, he worked at a number of jobs: race-car driver, aviator, designer in an aircraft factory. Film career By 1924 he had returned to Hollywood and entered the movie industry. He chummed with barn stormers and pioneer aviators at Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, getting to know men like Moye Stephens. Hawks wrote his first screenplay, Tiger Love, in 1924 and he directed his first film, The Road to Glory, in 1925. Hawks reworked the scripts of most of films he directed without taking official credit for his work. Howard Hawks directed a total of eight silent films, including Fazil in 1928. He made the transition to sound without difficulty. During the 1930s he freelanced and was not contracted to a studio. For Howard Hughes he directed Scarface (1932); for RKO, Bringing Up Baby (1938) and for Columbia, Only Angels Have Wings (1939) and His Girl Friday (1940). His film, Sergeant York (1941), starring Gary Cooper, was the highest-grossing film of its year and won two Academy Awards (Best Actor and Best Editing). In 1944, Hawks filmed the first of two films starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, To Have and Have Not, which was the first film pairing of the couple. He followed that with The Big Sleep (1946). In 1948, he filmed Red River, with John Wayne and Montgomery Clift. In 1951, he directed (but declined credit for) The Thing from Another World. "And let's get the record straight. The movie was directed by Howard Hawks. Verifiably directed by Howard Hawks. He let his editor, Christian Nyby, take credit. But the kind of feeling between the male characters—the camaderie, the group of men that has to fight off the evil—it's all pure Hawksian." In 1953, he filmed Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, which featured Marilyn Monroe singing "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend." 1959's Rio Bravo, starring John Wayne, Dean Martin and Walter Brennan, was remade twice by Hawks - in 1967 (El Dorado) and again in 1970 (Rio Lobo). Both starred John Wayne. Personal life Hawks and Lauren Bacall, 1943 Hawks was married three times, to Athole Shearer (a sister of movie actress Norma Shearer), Nancy Gross (later and better known as Slim Keith, she was the mother of his daughter, Kitty Hawks, a noted interior designer), and Dee Hartford (an actress whose real name was Donna Higgins). His brothers were director/writer Kenneth Neil Hawks and film producer William Bettingger Hawks. Hawks was known to make anti-semitic comments, including in front of Jewish actress Lauren Bacall, who kept her Jewish identity a secret from Hawks and who did not call him on his hateful comments, which she now regrets. The New Republic Style Hawks was versatile as a director, filming comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, and Westerns. Hawks' own functional definition of what constitutes a "good movie" is revealing of his no-nonsense style: "Three great scenes, no bad ones." Hawks also defined a good director as "someone who doesn't annoy you". While Hawks was not sympathetic to feminism, he popularized the Hawksian woman archetype, which could be considered a prototype of the modern post-feminist movement. Legacy His directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films were cited a major influence on many noted filmmakers, including Robert Altman, John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino. Although his work was not initially taken seriously by British critics of the Sight and Sound circle, he was venerated by French critics associated with Cahiers du Cinema, who intellectualised his work in a way Hawks himself was moderately amused by, and he was also admired by more independent British writers such as Robin Wood and, to a lesser extent, Raymond Durgnat. Critic Leonard Maltin labeled Hawks "the greatest American director who is not a household name," noting that, while his work may not be as well known as Ford, Welles, or DeMille, he is no less a talented filmmaker. Awards He was nominated for Best Director in 1942 for Sergeant York, but he received his only Oscar in 1975 as an Honorary Award from the Academy. Scarface (1932), was rated "culturally significant" by the United States Library of Congress. Bringing up Baby (1938), listed number ninety-seven on American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies, His Girl Friday (1940), and listed #19 on American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1708 Vine Street. Filmography References Further reading Hawks: The Grey Fox of Hollywood, Todd MacCarthy (Grove Press, 1997) Howard Hawks: American Artist, Jim Hillier, Peter Wollen (British Film Institute, 1997) Hawks on Hawks, Joseph McBride (University of California Press, 1982) Focus on Howard Hawks, Joseph McBride (ed), Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1972 Howard Hawks, Robin Wood, Secker & Warburg, 1968 Howard Hawks, Robin Wood, British Film Institute, 1981, revised with addition of chapter "Retrospect". Howard Hawks, A Jungian Study, Clark Branson, Garland-Clarke Editions, 1987 Red River, Suzanne Liandrat-Guigues, bfi Publishing, 2000 Rio Bravo, Robin Wood, bfi Publishing, 2003 Howard Hawks (New Edition), Robin Wood, (Wayne State University Press, 2006) External links Bibliography of books and articles about Hawks via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Senses of Cinema profile | Howard_Hawks |@lemmatized howard:13 winchester:1 hawk:36 may:2 december:1 influential:1 american:5 film:22 director:6 producer:2 screenwriter:1 classic:1 hollywood:4 era:1 popular:1 wide:1 range:1 genre:1 scarface:3 bring:3 baby:3 girl:4 friday:3 sergeant:3 york:4 big:2 sleep:2 red:3 river:3 gentleman:2 prefer:2 blonde:2 rio:4 bravo:3 early:2 life:2 bear:1 goshen:1 indiana:1 first:5 born:1 child:1 frank:1 w:1 former:1 helen:1 birth:1 brother:2 kenneth:2 neil:2 august:1 family:1 move:4 neenah:1 wisconsin:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 southern:1 california:2 attend:2 high:2 school:1 glendora:1 new:4 hampshire:1 phillips:1 exeter:1 academy:3 graduation:2 cornell:1 university:3 ithaca:1 major:2 mechanical:1 engineering:1 summer:1 work:6 movie:6 intern:1 famous:1 player:1 lasky:1 studio:2 join:1 united:2 state:3 army:1 air:1 service:1 world:2 war:2 number:2 job:1 race:1 car:1 driver:1 aviator:2 designer:2 aircraft:1 factory:1 career:1 return:1 enter:1 industry:2 chummed:1 barn:1 stormers:1 pioneer:1 rogers:1 airport:1 los:1 angeles:1 get:2 know:4 men:2 like:1 moye:1 stephen:1 hawks:2 write:1 screenplay:1 tiger:1 love:1 direct:7 road:1 glory:1 rework:1 script:1 without:2 take:3 official:1 credit:3 total:1 eight:1 silent:1 include:3 fazil:1 make:2 transition:1 sound:2 difficulty:1 freelance:1 contract:1 hughes:1 rko:1 columbia:1 angel:1 wing:1 star:5 gary:1 cooper:1 grossing:1 year:3 win:1 two:2 award:3 best:4 actor:1 edit:1 humphrey:1 bogart:1 lauren:3 bacall:3 pairing:1 couple:1 follow:1 john:4 wayne:4 montgomery:1 clift:1 decline:1 thing:1 another:1 let:2 record:1 straight:1 verifiably:1 editor:1 christian:1 nyby:1 kind:1 feeling:1 male:1 character:1 camaderie:1 group:1 fight:1 evil:1 pure:1 hawksian:2 feature:1 marilyn:1 monroe:1 sing:1 diamond:1 friend:1 dean:1 martin:1 walter:1 brennan:1 remake:1 twice:1 el:1 dorado:1 lobo:1 personal:1 marry:1 three:2 time:1 athole:1 shearer:2 sister:1 actress:3 norma:1 nancy:1 gross:1 later:1 good:3 slim:1 keith:1 mother:1 daughter:1 kitty:1 noted:2 interior:1 dee:1 hartford:1 whose:1 real:1 name:2 donna:1 higgins:1 writer:2 william:1 bettingger:1 anti:1 semitic:1 comment:2 front:1 jewish:2 keep:1 identity:1 secret:1 call:1 hateful:1 regret:1 republic:1 style:3 versatile:1 comedy:1 drama:1 gangster:1 science:1 fiction:1 noir:1 western:1 functional:1 definition:1 constitute:1 reveal:1 nonsense:1 great:2 scene:1 bad:1 one:1 also:2 define:1 someone:1 annoy:1 sympathetic:1 feminism:1 popularize:1 woman:1 archetype:1 could:1 consider:1 prototype:1 modern:1 post:1 feminist:1 movement:1 legacy:1 directorial:1 use:1 natural:1 conversational:1 dialogue:1 cite:1 influence:1 many:1 filmmaker:2 robert:1 altman:1 carpenter:1 quentin:1 tarantino:1 although:1 initially:1 seriously:1 british:4 critic:3 sight:1 circle:1 venerate:1 french:1 associate:1 cahiers:1 du:1 cinema:2 intellectualised:1 way:1 moderately:1 amuse:1 admire:1 independent:1 robin:5 wood:5 less:2 extent:1 raymond:1 durgnat:1 leonard:1 maltin:1 label:1 household:1 noting:1 well:1 ford:1 welles:1 demille:1 talented:1 nominate:1 receive:1 oscar:1 honorary:1 rat:1 culturally:1 significant:1 library:1 congress:1 list:2 ninety:1 seven:1 institute:4 afi:2 laugh:1 contribution:1 motion:1 picture:1 walk:1 fame:1 vine:1 street:1 filmography:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 grey:1 fox:1 todd:1 maccarthy:1 grove:1 press:3 artist:1 jim:1 hillier:1 peter:1 wollen:1 joseph:2 mcbride:2 focus:1 ed:1 prentice:1 hall:1 inc:1 secker:1 warburg:1 revise:1 addition:1 chapter:1 retrospect:1 jungian:1 study:1 clark:1 branson:1 garland:1 clarke:1 edition:2 suzanne:1 liandrat:1 guigues:1 bfi:2 publishing:2 external:1 link:1 bibliography:1 book:1 article:1 via:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 medium:1 resource:1 center:1 sens:1 profile:1 |@bigram gentleman_prefer:2 prefer_blonde:2 rio_bravo:3 goshen_indiana:1 shortly_afterward:1 phillips_exeter:1 los_angeles:1 howard_hawk:10 howard_hughes:1 grossing_film:1 humphrey_bogart:1 lauren_bacall:3 marilyn_monroe:1 walter_brennan:1 el_dorado:1 kitty_hawk:1 anti_semitic:1 science_fiction:1 robert_altman:1 quentin_tarantino:1 cahiers_du:1 motion_picture:1 walk_fame:1 joseph_mcbride:2 prentice_hall:1 secker_warburg:1 external_link:1 via_uc:1 uc_berkeley:1 sens_cinema:1 |
1,734 | Nuclear_chain_reaction | A possible nuclear fission chain reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron, and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing three new neutrons and a large amount of binding energy. 2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-238, and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron leaves the system without being absorbed. However, one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two neutrons and more binding energy. 3. Both of those neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and releases a few neutrons, which can then continue the reaction. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions, thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions. The specific nuclear reaction may be the fission of heavy isotopes (e.g. 235U) or the fusion of light isotopes (e.g. 2H and 3H). The nuclear chain reaction is unique since it releases several million times more energy per reaction than any chemical reaction. History The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was first realized by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936). esp@cenet document view The total quantitative chain chemical reactions theory was created by Soviet physicist N.N.Semyonov in 1934. The idea of the chain reactions, developed by Semyonov, is the basis of various high technologies using the incineration of gas mixtures. The idea was also used for the description of the nuclear reaction. http://www.marka-art.ru/catalogs/StampSeries.jsp?&id=29264&lang=en . In 1936, Szilárd attempted to create a chain reaction using beryllium and indium, but was unsuccessful. In 1939, Szilárd and Enrico Fermi discovered neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that a chain reaction was indeed possible. H. L. Anderson, E. Fermi, and Leo Szilárd, "Neutron production and absorption in uranium," The Physical Review, vol. 56, pages 284-286 (1 August 1939). Available on-line at: http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box5/a64g01.html . This discovery prompted the letter from Albert Einstein to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning of the possibility that Nazi Germany might be attempting to build an atomic bomb. http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/ae43a.htm, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Begin/Einstein.shtml Enrico Fermi created the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, called Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1), in a racquets court below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago on December 2, 1942. Fermi's experiments at the University of Chicago were part of Arthur H. Compton's Metallurgical Laboratory facility, which was part of the Manhattan Project. In 1956, Paul Kuroda of the University of Arkansas postulated that a natural fission reactor may have once existed. Since nuclear chain reactions only require natural materials (such as water and uranium), it is possible to have these chain reactions occur where there is the right combination of materials within the Earth's crust. Kuroda's prediction was verified with the discovery of natural self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions at Oklo in Gabon, Africa in September 1972. Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors - Fact Sheet Fission chain reaction Fission chain reactions occur because of interactions between neutrons and fissile isotopes (such as 235U). The chain reaction requires both the release of neutrons from fissile isotopes undergoing nuclear fission and the subsequent absorption of some of these neutrons in fissile isotopes. When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, a few neutrons (the exact number depends on several factors) are ejected from the reaction. These free neutrons will then interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more fissions. Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining. Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur, and that control is maintained through the use of several redundant layers of safety measures. Moreover, the materials in a nuclear reactor core and the uranium enrichment level make a nuclear explosion impossible, even if all safety measures failed. On the other hand, nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction can lead to an explosive energy release. Nuclear fission fuel Nuclear fission weapons must use an extremely high quality, highly-enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for a nuclear fission reactor is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO2). It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo an explosive nuclear chain reaction. Chernobyl was a steam explosion, not a nuclear explosion. Furthermore, all power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity, which completely eliminates the possibility of the accident that occurred at Chernobyl (which was due to a positive void coefficient). Fission Reaction Products When a heavy atom undergoes nuclear fission it breaks into two or more fission fragments. Also, several free neutrons, gamma rays, and neutrinos are emitted, and a large amount of energy is released. The sum of the masses of the fission fragments and ejected neutrons is actually less than the mass of original atom and incident neutron. The mass difference is accounted for in the release of energy according to the equation E=mc²: Due to the extremely large value of the speed of light, c, a small decrease in mass causes a tremendous release in energy. While typical chemical reactions release energies on the order of a few eVs (e.g. the binding energy of the electron to hydrogen is 13.6 eV), nuclear fission reactions typically release energies on the order of hundreds of millions of eVs. Two typical fission reactions are shown below with average values of energy released and number of neutrons ejected: Note that these equations are for fissions caused by slow-moving (thermal) neutrons. The average energy released and number of neutrons ejected is a function of the incident neutron speed. Also, note that these equations exclude energy from neutrinos since these subatomic particles are extremely non-reactive and, therefore, rarely deposit their energy in the system. Timescales of nuclear chain reactions Prompt neutron lifetime The prompt neutron lifetime, l, is the average time between the emission of neutrons and either their absorption in the system or their escape from the system. The term lifetime is used because the emission of a neutron is often considered its "birth," and the subsequent absorption is considered its "death." For thermal (slow-neutron) fission reactors, the typical prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10-4 seconds, and for fast fission reactors, the prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10-7 seconds. These extremely short lifetimes mean that in 1 second, 10,000 to 10,000,000 neutron lifetimes can pass. Mean generation time The mean generation time, Λ, is the average time from a neutron emission to a capture that results in fission. The mean generation time is different from the prompt neutron lifetime because the mean generation time only includes neutron absorptions that lead to fission reactions (not other absorption reactions). The two times are related by the following formula: In this formula, k is the effective neutron multiplication factor, described below. Effective neutron multiplication factor The effective neutron multiplication factor, k, is the average number of neutrons from one fission that cause another fission. The remaining neutrons either are absorbed in non-fission reactions or leave the system without being absorbed. The value of k determines how a nuclear chain reaction proceeds: k < 1 (sub-critical mass): The system cannot sustain a critical reaction, and any beginning of a chain reaction dies out over time. For every fission that is induced in the system, an average total of 1/(1 − k) fissions occur. k = 1 (critical mass): Every fission causes an average of one more fission, leading to a fission (and power) level that is constant. Nuclear power plants operate with k = 1. k > 1 (super-critical mass): For every fission in the material, it is likely that there will be "k" fissions after the next mean generation time. The result is that the number of fission reactions increases exponentially, according to the equation , where t is the elapsed time. Nuclear weapons are designed to operate under this state. There are two subdivisions of supercriticality: prompt and delayed. In an infinite medium, the multiplication factor is given by the four factor formula. Prompt and delayed supercriticality Not all neutrons are emitted as a direct product of fission, some are instead due to the radioactive decay of some of the fission fragments. The neutrons that occur directly from fission are called "prompt neutrons," and the ones that are a result of radioactive decay of fission fragments are called "delayed neutrons." The fraction of neutrons that are delayed is called β, and this fraction is typically less than 1% of all the neutrons in the chain reaction. The delayed neutrons allow a nuclear reactor to respond several hundred times more slowly than just prompt neutrons would alone. Without delayed neutrons, changes in reaction rates in nuclear reactors would occur at speeds that are too fast for humans to control. The region of supercriticality between k = 1 and k = 1/(1-β) is known as delayed supercriticality. It is in this region that all nuclear power reactors operate. The region of supercriticality for k > 1/(1-β) is known as prompt supercriticality, which is the region in which nuclear weapons operate. The change in k needed to go from critical to prompt critical is defined as a dollar. Neutron multiplication in nuclear weapons Nuclear fission weapons require a mass of fissile fuel that is prompt supercritical. For a given mass of fissile material the value of k can be increased by increasing the density. Since the probability per distance traveled for a neutron to collide with a nucleus is proportional to the material density, increasing the density of a fissile material can increase k. This concept is utilized in the implosion method for nuclear weapons. In these devices, the nuclear chain reaction begins after increasing the density of the fissile material with a conventional explosive. In the gun-type fission weapon two subcritical pieces of fuel are rapidly brought together. The value of k for a combination of two masses is always greater than that of its components. The magnitude of the difference depends on distance, as well as the physical orientation. The value of k can also be increased by using a neutron reflector surrounding the fissile material Once the mass of fuel is prompt supercritical, the power increases exponentially. However, the exponential power increase cannot continue for long since k decreases when the amount of fission material that is left decreases (i.e. it is consumed by fissions). Also, the geometry and density are expected to change during detonation since the remaining fission material is torn apart from the explosion. Predetonation Detonation of a nuclear weapon involves bringing fissile material into its optimal supercritical state very rapidly. During part of this process, the assembly is supercritical, but not yet in an optimal state for a chain reaction. Free neutrons, in particular from spontaneous fissions, can cause the device to undergo a preliminary chain reaction that destroys the fissile material before it is ready to produce a large explosion, which is known as predetonation. To keep the probability of predetonation low, the duration of the non-optimal assembly period is minimized and fissile and other materials are used which have low spontaneous fission rates. In fact, the combination of materials has to be such that it is unlikely that there is even a single spontaneous fission during the period of supercritical assembly. In particular, the gun method cannot be used with plutonium (see nuclear weapon design). Fusion chain reaction In a more generalized sense, a nuclear fusion reaction can be considered a nuclear chain reaction: it occurs under extreme pressure and temperature conditions, which are maintained by the energy released in the fusion process. See also Chain reaction Critical mass Four factor formula Criticality accident Nuclear physics Nuclear reaction Nuclear weapon design Nuclear criticality safety Nuclear reactor physics References External links Nuclear Chain Reaction Animation Annotated bibliography on nuclear chain reactions from the Alsos Digital Library | Nuclear_chain_reaction |@lemmatized possible:3 nuclear:51 fission:49 chain:29 reaction:55 uranium:8 atom:8 absorb:6 neutron:51 two:8 new:2 fragment:5 release:14 three:1 large:4 amount:3 bind:2 energy:15 one:7 continue:3 another:2 leave:3 system:7 without:3 however:2 collide:3 binding:1 occur:9 cause:7 average:8 thus:2 lead:4 self:4 propagate:1 number:7 specific:1 may:3 heavy:2 isotope:5 e:7 g:4 fusion:4 light:2 unique:1 since:6 several:5 million:2 time:12 per:2 chemical:4 history:2 concept:2 first:2 realize:1 hungarian:1 scientist:1 leó:1 szilárd:5 file:2 patent:2 idea:3 simple:1 reactor:11 following:2 year:1 l:3 improvement:1 relate:2 transmutation:1 element:1 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human:1 region:4 know:3 need:1 go:1 define:1 dollar:1 supercritical:5 density:5 probability:2 distance:2 travel:1 nucleus:1 proportional:1 utilize:1 implosion:1 method:2 device:2 conventional:1 gun:2 type:1 subcritical:1 piece:1 rapidly:2 bring:2 together:1 always:1 great:1 component:1 magnitude:1 well:1 orientation:1 reflector:1 exponential:1 long:1 consume:1 expect:1 detonation:2 torn:1 apart:1 predetonation:3 involve:1 optimal:3 process:2 assembly:3 yet:1 particular:2 spontaneous:3 preliminary:1 destroy:1 ready:1 keep:1 duration:1 period:2 minimize:1 unlikely:1 single:1 plutonium:1 see:2 generalized:1 sense:1 extreme:1 pressure:1 temperature:1 condition:1 criticality:2 physic:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 animation:1 annotate:1 bibliography:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 |@bigram nuclear_fission:9 leó_szilárd:1 nuclear_reactor:6 http_www:4 jsp_id:1 enrico_fermi:2 albert_einstein:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 atomic_bomb:1 atomicarchive_com:1 self_sustaining:3 metallurgical_laboratory:1 fission_reactor:4 earth_crust:1 fissile_isotope:3 uranium_enrichment:1 nuclear_weapon:8 gamma_ray:1 slow_moving:1 thermal_neutron:1 subatomic_particle:1 radioactive_decay:2 fissile_material:7 torn_apart:1 spontaneous_fission:3 external_link:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 |
1,735 | Nitrate | An electrostatic potential map of the nitrate ion. Areas colored red are lower in energy than areas coloured yellow. The oxygen atoms carry the majority of the negative charge. The structure and bonding of the nitrate ion. The N−O bonds are intermediate in length and strength. In inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of nitric acid with an ion composed of one nitrogen and three oxygen atoms (NO3−). In organic chemistry the esters of nitric acid and various alcohols are called nitrates. Chemical properties The nitrate ion is a polyatomic ion with the empirical formula NO3− and a molecular mass of 62.0049. It is the conjugate base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identical oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a formal charge of negative one, where each oxygen carries a −2/3 charge while the nitrogen carries a +1 charge, and is commonly used as an example of resonance. Like the isoelectronic carbonate ion, the nitrate ion can be represented by resonance structures: Canonical forms of the nitrate ion resonating Almost all inorganic nitrate salts are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. In organic chemistry a nitrate (not to be confused with nitro) is a functional group with general chemical formula RONO2 where R stands for any organic residue. They are the esters of nitric acid and alcohols formed by nitroxylation. Examples are methyl nitrate formed by reaction of methanol and nitric acid, the nitrate of tartaric acid, and the inappropriately named nitroglycerin. Related materials Nitrates should not be confused with nitrites, (NO2−) the salts of nitrous acid. Organic compounds containing the nitro functional group (which has the same formula and structure as the nitrate ion save that one of the O− atoms is replaced by the R group) are known as nitro compounds. Human toxicity Nitrate toxicosis in humans occurs through enterohepatic metabolism of nitrates to ammonia, with nitrite being an intermediate . Nitrites oxidize the iron atoms in hemoglobin from Ferrous Iron (2+) to Ferric Iron (3+), rendering it unable to carry oxygen . This condition is called methemoglobinemia and can lead to a lack of oxygen in organ tissue. Methemoglobinemia can be treated with methylene blue, which reduces ferric iron (3+) in affected blood cells back to Ferrous Iron (2+). Infants in particular are especially vulnerable to methemoglobinemia due to nitrate metabolizing triglycerides present at higher concentrations than at other stages of development. Methemoglobinemia in infants is colloquially know as "blue baby syndrome". Initial exposure is most often caused by high levels of nitrates in drinking water. However nitrate exposure may also occur if eating for instance vegetables containing high levels of nitrate. Lettuce may contain under growth conditions such as little sunlight, undersupply of the essential micronutrients Molybdenum (Mo) and Iron (Fe) high concentrations of nitrate due to reduced assimilation of nitrate in the plant. High nitrate fertilization also contributes to elevated levels of nitrate in the plant . Marschner H 1999 Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Academic Press, London. 889 Marine toxicity In freshwater or estuarine systems close to land, nitrate can reach high levels that can potentially cause the death of fish. While nitrate is much less toxic than ammonia or nitrite, Romano, N.; Zeng, C. (2007). "Acute toxicity of sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate and potassium chloride and their effects on the hemolymph composition and gill structure of early juvenile blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus, Linneaus 1758) (Decapoda, Brachyura, Portunidae)." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26: 1955–1962. levels over 30 ppm of nitrate can inhibit growth, impair the immune system and cause stress in some aquatic species. Nitrates in the Aquarium However, in light of inherent problems with past protocols on acute nitrate toxicity experiments, the extent of nitrate toxicity has been the subject of recent debate. In most cases of excess nitrate concentrations in aquatic systems, the primary source is surface runoff from agricultural or landscaped areas which have received excess nitrate fertilizer. These levels of nitrate can also lead to algae blooms, and when nutrients become limiting (such as potassium, phosphate or nitrate) then eutrophication can occur. As well as leading to water anoxia, these blooms may cause other changes to ecosystem function, favouring some groups of organisms over others. Consequently, as nitrates form a component of total dissolved solids, they are widely used as an indicator of water quality. Nitrates are also a by-product of septic systems. Specifically, they are a naturally occurring chemical that is left after the break down or decomposition of animal or human waste. Water quality may also be affected through ground water resources that have a high number of septic systems in a watershed. Septics leach down into ground water resources or aquifers and supply near by bodies of water. Lakes that rely on ground water are often affected by nitrification through this process. See also Ammonium f-ratio Nitrification Peroxynitrate Nitrate overview: External links ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine - Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity References <div class="references-small"><div> | Nitrate |@lemmatized electrostatic:1 potential:1 map:1 nitrate:40 ion:10 area:3 color:1 red:1 lower:1 energy:1 colour:1 yellow:1 oxygen:6 atom:6 carry:5 majority:1 negative:2 charge:4 structure:4 bonding:1 n:2 bond:1 intermediate:2 length:1 strength:1 inorganic:2 chemistry:4 salt:3 nitric:5 acid:7 compose:1 one:4 nitrogen:3 three:2 organic:4 ester:2 various:1 alcohol:2 call:2 chemical:3 property:1 polyatomic:1 empirical:1 formula:3 molecular:1 mass:1 conjugate:1 base:1 consist:1 central:1 surround:1 identical:1 trigonal:1 planar:1 arrangement:1 formal:1 commonly:1 use:2 example:2 resonance:2 like:1 isoelectronic:1 carbonate:1 represent:1 canonical:1 form:4 resonate:1 almost:1 soluble:1 water:9 standard:1 temperature:1 pressure:1 confuse:2 nitro:3 functional:2 group:4 general:1 r:2 stand:1 residue:1 nitroxylation:1 methyl:1 reaction:1 methanol:1 tartaric:1 inappropriately:1 name:1 nitroglycerin:1 related:1 material:1 nitrite:5 nitrous:1 compound:2 contain:3 save:1 replace:1 know:2 human:3 toxicity:6 toxicosis:1 occur:4 enterohepatic:1 metabolism:1 ammonia:2 oxidize:1 iron:6 hemoglobin:1 ferrous:2 ferric:2 render:1 unable:1 condition:2 methemoglobinemia:4 lead:3 lack:1 organ:1 tissue:1 treat:1 methylene:1 blue:3 reduce:1 affected:1 blood:1 cell:1 back:1 infant:2 particular:1 especially:1 vulnerable:1 due:2 metabolize:1 triglyceride:1 present:1 high:8 concentration:3 stage:1 development:1 colloquially:1 baby:1 syndrome:1 initial:1 exposure:2 often:2 cause:4 level:6 drinking:1 however:2 may:4 also:6 eating:1 instance:1 vegetable:1 lettuce:1 growth:2 little:1 sunlight:1 undersupply:1 essential:1 micronutrient:1 molybdenum:1 mo:1 fe:1 reduced:1 assimilation:1 plant:3 fertilization:1 contribute:1 elevated:1 marschner:1 h:1 mineral:1 nutrition:1 academic:1 press:1 london:1 marine:1 freshwater:1 estuarine:1 system:5 close:1 land:1 reach:1 potentially:1 death:1 fish:1 much:1 less:1 toxic:1 romano:1 zeng:1 c:1 acute:2 sodium:1 potassium:3 chloride:1 effect:1 hemolymph:1 composition:1 gill:1 early:1 juvenile:1 swimmer:1 crab:1 portunus:1 pelagicus:1 linneaus:1 decapoda:1 brachyura:1 portunidae:1 environmental:2 toxicology:1 ppm:1 inhibit:1 impair:1 immune:1 stress:1 aquatic:2 specie:1 aquarium:1 light:1 inherent:1 problem:1 past:1 protocol:1 experiment:1 extent:1 subject:1 recent:1 debate:1 case:2 excess:2 primary:1 source:1 surface:1 runoff:1 agricultural:1 landscape:1 receive:1 fertilizer:1 algae:1 bloom:2 nutrient:1 become:1 limit:1 phosphate:1 eutrophication:1 well:1 anoxia:1 change:1 ecosystem:1 function:1 favour:1 organism:1 others:1 consequently:1 component:1 total:1 dissolved:1 solid:1 widely:1 indicator:1 quality:2 product:1 septic:2 specifically:1 naturally:1 leave:1 break:1 decomposition:1 animal:1 waste:1 affect:2 ground:3 resource:2 number:1 watershed:1 septics:1 leach:1 aquifer:1 supply:1 near:1 body:1 lake:1 rely:1 nitrification:2 process:1 see:1 ammonium:1 f:1 ratio:1 peroxynitrate:1 overview:1 external:1 link:1 atsdr:1 study:1 medicine:1 reference:2 div:2 class:1 small:1 |@bigram inorganic_chemistry:1 nitric_acid:5 organic_chemistry:2 polyatomic_ion:1 tartaric_acid:1 nitrous_acid:1 organic_compound:1 nitro_compound:1 ferrous_iron:2 acute_toxicity:1 sodium_nitrate:1 nitrate_potassium:2 potassium_nitrate:1 potassium_chloride:1 nitrate_fertilizer:1 algae_bloom:1 external_link:1 |
1,736 | Analysis_of_variance | In statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models, and their associated procedures, in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different explanatory variables. In its simplest form ANOVA gives a statistical test of whether the means of several groups are all equal, and therefore generalizes Student's two-sample t-test to more than two groups. Overview There are three conceptual classes of such models: Fixed-effects models assumes that the data came from normal populations which may differ only in their means. (Model 1) Random effects models assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy. (Model 2) Mixed-effect models describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present. (Model 3) In practice, there are several types of ANOVA depending on the number of treatments and the way they are applied to the subjects in the experiment: One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more independent groups. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a T-test (Gossett, 1908). When there are only two means to compare, the T-test and the F-test are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and is given by . One-way ANOVA for repeated measures is used when the subjects are subjected to repeated measures; this means that the same subjects are used for each treatment. Note that this method can be subject to carryover effects. Factorial ANOVA is used when the experimenter wants to study the effects of two or more treatment variables. The most commonly used type of factorial ANOVA is the 2×2 (read as "two by two", as you would a matrix) design, where there are two independent variables and each variable has two levels or distinct values. Factorial ANOVA can also be multi-level such as 3×3, etc. or higher order such as 2×2×2, etc. but analyses with higher numbers of factors are rarely done by hand because the calculations are lengthy. However, since the introduction of data analytic software, the utilization of higher order designs and analyses has become quite common. When one wishes to test two or more independent groups subjecting the subjects to repeated measures, one may perform a factorial mixed-design ANOVA, in which one factor is a between-subjects variable and the other is within-subjects variable. This is a type of mixed-effect model. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one dependent variable. Models Fixed-effects models The fixed-effects model of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies several treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see if the response variable values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. Random-effects models Random effects models are used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various treatments (also known as factor levels) are sampled from a larger population. Because the treatments themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments differ from ANOVA model 1. Most random-effects or mixed-effects models are not concerned with making inferences concerning the particular sampled factors. For example, consider a large manufacturing plant in which many machines produce the same product. The statistician studying this plant would have very little interest in comparing the three particular machines to each other. Rather, inferences that can be made for all machines are of interest, such as their variability and the overall mean. Assumptions Independence of cases - this is a requirement of the design. Normality - the distributions of the residuals are normal. Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called homoscedasticity — the variance of data in groups should be the same. Levene's test for homogeneity of variances is typically used to confirm homoscedasticity. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov or the Shapiro-Wilk test may be used to confirm normality. Some authors claim that the F-test is unreliable if there are deviations from normality (Lindman, 1974) while others claim that the F-test is robust (Ferguson & Takane, 2005, pp.261-2). The Kruskal-Wallis test is a nonparametric alternative which does not rely on an assumption of normality. These together form the common assumption that the errors are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, or: Logic of ANOVA Partitioning of the sum of squares The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares (abbreviated ) into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. The number of degrees of freedom (abbreviated ) can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the chi-square distribution which describes the associated sums of squares. See also Lack-of-fit sum of squares. The F-test The F-test is used for comparisons of the components of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic where: , I = number of treatments and , nT = total number of cases to the F-distribution with I-1,nT-I degrees of freedom. Using the F-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the quotient of two mean sums of squares which have a chi-square distribution. ANOVA on ranks As first suggested by Conover and Iman in 1981, in many cases when the data do not meet the assumptions of ANOVA, one can replace each original data value by its rank from 1 for the smallest to N for the largest, then run a standard ANOVA calculation on the rank-transformed data. "Where no equivalent nonparametric methods have yet been developed such as for the two-way design, rank transformation results in tests which are more robust to non-normality, and resistant to outliers and non-constant variance, than is ANOVA without the transformation." (Helsel & Hirsch, 2002, Page 177). However Seaman et al. (1994) noticed that the rank transformation of Conover and Iman (1981) is not appropriate for testing interactions among effects in a factorial design as it can cause an increase in Type I error (alpha error). Furthermore, if both main factors are significant there is little power to detect interactions. A variant of rank-transformation is 'quantile normalization' in which a further transformation is applied to the ranks such that the resulting values have some defined distribution (often a normal distribution with a specified mean and variance). Further analyses of quantile-normalized data may then assume that distribution to compute significance values. Conover, W. J. & Iman, R. L. (1981). Rank transformations as a bridge between parametric and nonparametric statistics. American Statistician, 35, 124-129. Helsel, D. R., & Hirsch, R. M. (2002). Statistical Methods in Water Resources: Techniques of Water Resourses Investigations, Book 4, chapter A3. U.S. Geological Survey. 522 pages. Seaman, J. W., Walls, S. C., Wide, S. E., & Jaeger, R. G. (1994). Caveat emptor: Rank transform methods and interactions. Trends Ecol. Evol., 9, 261-263. Effect size measures Several standardised measures of effect are used within the context of ANOVA to describe the degree of relationship between a predictor or set of predictors and the dependent variable. Partial η2 ( Partial eta-squared ): Partial eta-squared describes the percentage of variance explained in the dependent variable by a predictor controlling for other predictors. Eta squared is generally considered to be a biased estimator of treatment effect, usually overestimating the value of the treatment effect by a significant amount. It is, however, an easily calculated estimator the proportion of the variance in a population explained by the treatment. The following rules of thumb have emerged: small = 0.01; medium = 0.06; large = 0.14 These rules were taken from: Kittler, J. E., Menard, W., & Phillips, K., A. (2007). Weight concerns in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. Eating Behaviors, 8, 115-120. Since this ranking of effect size has been repeated from Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates with no change or comment over the years their validity is questionable outside of psychological/behavioral studies and questionable even then without a full understanding of the limitations ascribed by Cohen. The use of specific partial eta-square values for large medium or small as a "rule of thumb" should be avoided. Omega Squared Omega squared provides a relatively unbiased estimate of the variance explained in the population by a predictor variable. It takes random error into account more so than eta squared, which is incredibly biased to be too large. The calculations for omega squared differ depending on the experimental design. For a fixed experimental design (in which the categories are explicitly set), omega squared is calculated as follows: Cohen's f This measure of effect size is frequently encountered when performing power analysis calculations. Conceptually it represents the square root of variance explained over variance not explained. Follow up tests A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed up with one or more different follow-up tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are planned (a priori) or post hoc. Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are performed after looking at the data. Post hoc tests such as Tukey's test most commonly compare every group mean with every other group mean and typically incorporate some method of controlling of Type I errors. Comparisons, which are most commonly planned, can be either simple or compound. Simple comparisons compare one group mean with one other group mean. Compound comparisons typically compare two sets of groups means where one set has at two or more groups (e.g., compare average group means of group A, B and C with group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Power analysis Power analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and alpha level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis. Examples Group A is given vodka, Group B is given gin, and Group C is given a placebo. All groups are then tested with a memory task. A one-way ANOVA can be used to assess the effect of the various treatments (that is, the vodka, gin, and placebo). Group A is given vodka and tested on a memory task. The same group is allowed a rest period of five days and then the experiment is repeated with gin. The procedure is repeated using a placebo. A one-way ANOVA with repeated measures can be used to assess the effect of the vodka versus the impact of the placebo. In an experiment testing the effects of expectations, subjects are randomly assigned to four groups: expect vodka—receive vodka expect vodka—receive placebo expect placebo—receive vodka expect placebo—receive placebo (the last group is used as the control group) Each group is then tested on a memory task. The advantage of this design is that multiple variables can be tested at the same time instead of running two different experiments. Also, the experiment can determine whether one variable affects the other variable (known as interaction effects). A factorial ANOVA (2×2) can be used to assess the effect of expecting vodka or the placebo and the actual reception of either. History Ronald Fisher first used variance in his 1918 paper The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/9.pdf . His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921 [Studies in Crop Variation. I. An examination of the yield of dressed grain from Broadbalk Journal of Agricultural Science, 11, 107-135 http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/15.pdf] . Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book Statistical Methods for Research Workers. See also AMOVA ANCOVA ANORVA Duncan's new multiple range test Explained variance and unexplained variance Important publications in analysis of variance Kruskal-Wallis test Friedman test MANOVA Measurement uncertainty Multiple comparisons Squared deviations t-test Notes References Ferguson, George A., Takane, Yoshio. (2005). "Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education", Sixth Edition. Montréal, Quebec: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. King, Bruce M., Minium, Edward W. (2003). Statistical Reasoning in Psychology and Education, Fourth Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-21187-7 Lindman, H. R. (1974). Analysis of variance in complex experimental designs. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co. External links SOCR ANOVA Activity and interactive applet. A tutorial on ANOVA devised for Oxford University psychology students Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, section 7.4.3: "Are the means equal?" | Analysis_of_variance |@lemmatized statistic:4 analysis:14 variance:21 anova:29 collection:1 statistical:9 model:20 associated:2 procedure:2 observed:1 partition:2 component:3 due:1 different:6 explanatory:1 variable:17 simple:3 form:2 give:6 test:38 whether:3 mean:14 several:4 group:28 equal:2 therefore:1 generalizes:1 student:2 two:16 sample:4 overview:1 three:4 conceptual:1 class:1 fix:5 effect:29 assume:4 data:10 come:1 normal:3 population:7 may:4 differ:3 random:7 describe:5 hierarchy:2 whose:1 difference:3 constrain:1 mixed:4 situation:2 present:1 practice:1 type:6 depend:2 number:5 treatment:16 way:9 apply:4 subject:11 experiment:6 one:17 use:21 among:3 independent:4 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1,737 | Angle | Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. Measuring angles The angle θ is the quotient of s and r. In order to measure an angle θ, a circular arc centered at the vertex of the angle is drawn, e.g. with a pair of compasses. The length of the arc s is then divided by the radius of the circle r, and possibly multiplied by a scaling constant k (which depends on the units of measurement that are chosen): The value of θ thus defined is independent of the size of the circle: if the length of the radius is changed then the arc length changes in the same proportion, so the ratio s/r is unaltered. In many geometrical situations, angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full circle are effectively equivalent (it makes no difference how many times a line is rotated through a full circle because it always ends up in the same place). However, this is not always the case. For example, when tracing a curve such as a spiral using polar coordinates, an extra full turn gives rise to a quite different point on the curve. Units Angles are considered dimensionless, since they are defined as the ratio of lengths. There are, however, several units used to measure angles, depending on the choice of the constant k in the formula above. Of these units, treated in more detail below, the degree and the radian are by far the most common. With the notable exception of the radian, most units of angular measurement are defined such that one full circle (i.e. one revolution) is equal to n units, for some whole number n. For example, in the case of degrees, A full circle of n units is obtained by setting in the formula above. (Proof. The formula above can be rewritten as One full circle, for which units, corresponds to an arc equal in length to the circle's circumference, which is 2πr, so . Substituting n for θ and 2πr for s in the formula, results in ) The degree, denoted by a small superscript circle (°) is 1/360 of a full circle, so one full circle is 360°. One advantage of this old sexagesimal subunit is that many angles common in simple geometry are measured as a whole number of degrees. Fractions of a degree may be written in normal decimal notation (e.g. 3.5° for three and a half degrees), but the following sexagesimal subunits of the "degree-minute-second" system are also in use, especially for geographical coordinates and in astronomy and ballistics: The minute of arc (or MOA, arcminute, or just minute) is 1/60 of a degree. It is denoted by a single prime ( ′ ). For example, 3° 30′ is equal to 3 + 30/60 degrees, or 3.5 degrees. A mixed format with decimal fractions is also sometimes used, e.g. 3° 5.72′ = 3 + 5.72/60 degrees. A nautical mile was historically defined as a minute of arc along a great circle of the Earth. The second of arc (or arcsecond, or just second) is 1/60 of a minute of arc and 1/3600 of a degree. It is denoted by a double prime ( ″ ). For example, 3° 7′ 30″ is equal to 3 + 7/60 + 30/3600 degrees, or 3.125 degrees. θ = s/r rad = 1 rad. The radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius (k = 1 in the formula given earlier). One full circle is 2π radians, and one radian is 180/π degrees, or about 57.2958 degrees. The radian is abbreviated rad, though this symbol is often omitted in mathematical texts, where radians are assumed unless specified otherwise. The radian is used in virtually all mathematical work beyond simple practical geometry, due, for example, to the pleasing and "natural" properties that the trigonometric functions display when their arguments are in radians. The radian is the (derived) unit of angular measurement in the system. The mil is approximately equal to a milliradian. There are several definitions. The full circle (or revolution, rotation, full turn or cycle) is one complete revolution. The revolution and rotation are abbreviated rev and rot, respectively, but just r in rpm (revolutions per minute). 1 full circle = 360° = 2π rad = 400 gon = 4 right angles. The right angle is 1/4 of a full circle. It is the unit used in Euclid's Elements. 1 right angle = 90° = π/2 rad = 100 gon. The angle of the equilateral triangle is 1/6 of a full circle. It was the unit used by the Babylonians, and is especially easy to construct with ruler and compasses. The degree, minute of arc and second of arc are sexagesimal subunits of the Babylonian unit. 1 Babylonian unit = 60° = π/3 rad ≈ 1.047197551 rad. The grad, also called grade, gradian, or gon is 1/400 of a full circle, so one full circle is 400 grads and a right angle is 100 grads. It is a decimal subunit of the right angle. A kilometer was historically defined as a centi-gon of arc along a great circle of the Earth, so the kilometer is the decimal analog to the sexagesimal nautical mile. The gon is used mostly in triangulation. The point, used in navigation, is 1/32 of a full circle. It is a binary subunit of the full circle. Naming all 32 points on a compass rose is called "boxing the compass". 1 point = 1/8 of a right angle = 11.25° = 12.5 gon. The astronomical hour angle is 1/24 of a full circle. Since this system is amenable to measuring objects that cycle once per day (such as the relative position of stars), the sexagesimal subunits are called minute of time and second of time. Note that these are distinct from, and 15 times larger than, minutes and seconds of arc. 1 hour = 15° = π/12 rad = 1/6 right angle ≈ 16.667 gon. The binary degree, also known as the binary radian (or brad), is 1/256 of a full circle. The binary degree is used in computing so that an angle can be efficiently represented in a single byte (albeit to limited precision unless the angle happens to be an exact multiple of 1/256 of a circle). The grade of a slope, or gradient, is not truly an angle measure (unless it is explicitly given in degrees, as is occasionally the case). Instead it is equal to the tangent of the angle, or sometimes the sine. Gradients are often expressed as a percentage. For the usual small values encountered (less than 5%), the grade of a slope is approximately the measure of an angle in radians. Positive and negative angles A convention universally adopted in mathematical writing is that angles given a sign are positive angles if measured anticlockwise, and negative angles if measured clockwise, from a given line. If no line is specified, it can be assumed to be the x-axis in the Cartesian plane. In many geometrical situations a negative angle of −θ is effectively equivalent to a positive angle of "one full rotation less θ". For example, a clockwise rotation of 45° (that is, an angle of −45°) is often effectively equivalent to an anticlockwise rotation of 360° − 45° (that is, an angle of 315°). In three dimensional geometry, "clockwise" and "anticlockwise" have no absolute meaning, so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined relative to some reference, which is typically a vector passing through the angle's vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie. In navigation, bearings are measured from north, increasing clockwise, so a bearing of 45 degrees is north-east. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so north-west is 315 degrees. Approximations 1° is approximately the width of a little finger at arm's length. 10° is approximately the width of a closed fist at arm's length. 20° is approximately the width of a handspan at arm's length. These measurements clearly depend on the individual subject, and the above should be treated as rough approximations only. Identifying angles In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters (α, β, γ, θ, φ, ...) to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle. (To avoid confusion with its other meaning, the symbol is typically not used for this purpose.) Lower case roman letters (a, b, c, ...) are also used. See the figures in this article for examples. In geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB and AC (i.e. the lines from point A to point B and point A to point C) is denoted ∠BAC or BÂC. Sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex ("angle A"). Potentially, an angle denoted, say, ∠BAC might refer to any of four angles: the clockwise angle from B to C, the anticlockwise angle from B to C, the clockwise angle from C to B, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B, where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign (see Positive and negative angles). However, in many geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180° degrees is meant, and no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from B to C, and ∠CAB to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from C to B. Types of angles Right angle.Reflex angle.The complementary angles a and b (<var>b<var> is the complement of a, and <var>a<var> is the complement of b).Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight (c) angles. Here, a and b are supplementary angles. An angle of 90° (/2 radians, or one-quarter of the full circle) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal. Angles smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) are called acute angles ("acute" meaning "sharp"). Angles larger than a right angle and smaller than two right angles (between 90° and 180°) are called obtuse angles ("obtuse" meaning "blunt"). Angles equal to two right angles (180°) are called straight angles. Angles larger than two right angles but less than a full circle (between 180° and 360°) are called reflex angles. Angles that have the same measure (i.e. the same magnitude) are sometimes said to be congruent, though the diagrams that represent them need not be congruent, so others (including Euclid) prefer to say that they are equal in size, or just "equal". Two angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles. These angles are equal in size. Angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points are called adjacent angles. Two angles that sum to one right angle (90°) are called complementary angles. The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle. Two angles that sum to a straight angle (180°) are called supplementary angles. The difference between an angle and a straight angle is termed the supplement of the angle. Two angles that sum to one full circle (360°) are called explementary angles or conjugate angles. An angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an interior angle if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon. A concave simple polygon has at least one interior angle that exceeds 180°. In Euclidean geometry, the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to π radians, or 180°; the measures of the interior angles of a simple quadrilateral add up to 2π radians, or 360°. In general, the measures of the interior angles of a simple polygon with n sides add up to [(n − 2) × π] radians, or [(n − 2) × 180]°. The angle supplementary to the interior angle is called the exterior angle. It measures the amount of "turn" one has to make at this vertex to trace out the polygon. If the corresponding interior angle exceeds 180°, the exterior angle should be considered negative. Even in a non-simple polygon it may be possible to define the exterior angle, but one will have to pick an orientation of the plane (or surface) to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure. In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the exterior angles of a simple polygon will be 360°, one full turn. Some authors use the name exterior angle of a simple polygon to simply mean the explementary (not supplementary!) of the interior angle. Exterior Angle, MathWorld This conflicts with the above usage. The angle between two planes (such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is called a dihedral angle. It may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes. The angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is normal to the plane. If a straight transversal line intersects two parallel lines, corresponding (alternate) angles at the two points of intersection are equal in size; adjacent angles are supplementary (that is, their measures add to π radians, or 180°). A formal definition Using trigonometric functions A Euclidean angle is completely determined by the corresponding right triangle. In particular, if is a Euclidean angle, it is true that and for two numbers x and y. So an angle in the Euclidean plane can be legitimately given by two numbers x and y. To the ratio y/x there correspond two angles in the geometric range 0 < θ < 2π, since Using rotations Suppose we have two unit vectors and in the euclidean plane . Then there exists one positive isometry (a rotation), and one only, from to that maps onto . Let r be such a rotation. Then the relation defined by is an equivalence relation and we call angle of the rotation r the equivalence class , where denotes the unit circle of . The angle between two vectors will simply be the angle of the rotation that maps one onto the other. We have no numerical way of determining an angle yet. To do this, we choose the vector , then for any point M on at distance from (on the circle), let . If we call the rotation that transforms into , then is a bijection, which means we can identify any angle with a number between 0 and . Angles between curves The angle between the two curves is defined as the angle between the tangents A and B at P The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr. μφί, on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or cissoidal (Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. κοίλη, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave. The dot product and generalisation In the Euclidean plane, the angle θ between two vectors u and v is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula This allows one to define angles in any real inner product space, replacing the Euclidean dot product · by the Hilbert space inner product . Angles in Riemannian geometry In Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents. Where U and V are tangent vectors and gij are the components of the metric tensor G, Angles in geography and astronomy In geography, the location of any point on the Earth can be identified using a geographic coordinate system. This system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the centre of the Earth, using the equator and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as references. In astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several astronomical coordinate systems, where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the angular separation of two stars by imagining two lines through the centre of the Earth, each intersecting one of the stars. The angle between those lines can be measured, and is the angular separation between the two stars. Astronomers also measure the apparent size of objects as an angular diameter. For example, the full moon has an angular diameter of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth. One could say, "The Moon subtends an angle of half a degree." The small-angle formula can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio. See also Complementary angles Supplementary angles Central angle Inscribed angle Solid angle for a concept of angle in three dimensions. Astrological aspect Protractor Clock angle problem Great circle distance References . . External links Angle Bisectors in a Quadrilateral at cut-the-knot Constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors at cut-the-knot Convert angles in sexagesimal degree format to decimal degrees, and vice-versa Angle Estimation – for basic astronomy. Angle definition pages with interactive applets. Various angle constructions with compass and straightedge GonioLab DD – Convert between DecDeg and DegMinSec and vice-versa (requires Java Web Start) be-x-old:Кут | Angle |@lemmatized euclid:4 define:15 plane:12 angle:161 inclination:1 two:27 line:18 meet:1 lie:3 straight:9 respect:1 accord:2 proclus:1 must:2 either:1 quality:1 quantity:1 relationship:1 first:1 concept:3 use:24 eudemus:1 regard:2 deviation:1 second:7 carpus:1 antioch:1 interval:1 space:3 intersecting:3 adopt:3 third:1 although:1 definition:4 right:19 acute:5 obtuse:4 certainly:1 quantitative:1 measure:21 θ:10 quotient:1 r:7 order:1 circular:1 arc:13 center:1 vertex:6 draw:1 e:6 g:4 pair:1 compass:5 length:10 divide:1 radius:3 circle:33 possibly:1 multiply:1 scaling:1 constant:2 k:3 depend:3 unit:15 measurement:5 choose:2 value:2 thus:1 independent:1 size:7 change:2 proportion:1 ratio:4 unaltered:1 many:5 geometrical:3 situation:3 differ:1 exact:2 multiple:2 full:26 effectively:3 equivalent:3 make:2 difference:3 time:4 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1,738 | French_Guiana | French Guiana (, officially ) is an overseas department (French: département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France, located on the northern coast of South America. Like the other DOMs, French Guiana is also an overseas region of France, one of the 26 regions of France, and is an integral part of the French Republic. Like metropolitan France, its currency is the euro. The prefecture is Cayenne. It is the largest colony left in the world that is not an island. History French Guiana was originally inhabited by a number of indigenous American people. It was settled by the French during the 17th century. Its infamous Île du Diable (Devil's Island) was the site of penal settlements from 1852 until 1951. A border dispute with Brazil arose in the late nineteenth century over a vast area of jungle, leading to the short-lived pro-French independent state of Counani in the disputed territory and some fighting between settlers, before the dispute was resolved largely in favour of Brazil by the arbitration of the Swiss government. In 1946, French Guiana became an overseas department of France. The 1970s saw the settlement of Hmong refugees from Laos. A movement for increased autonomy from France gained some momentum in the 1970s and 1980s. Economy French Guiana is heavily dependent on France for subsidies, trade, and goods. The main industries are fishing (accounting for three-quarters of foreign exports), gold mining and timber. In addition, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou accounts for 25% of the GDP and employs about 1700 people. There is very little manufacturing. Agriculture is largely undeveloped and is mainly confined to the area near the coast — sugar and bananas are two of the main cash crops grown. Tourism, especially eco-tourism, is growing. Unemployment is a major problem, running at about 20% to 30%. In 2006 the GDP per capita of French Guiana at market exchange rates, not at PPP, was €13,800 (US$17,380), which was 48% of Metropolitan France's average GDP per capita that year. Demographics French Guiana's population of 221,500 (January 2008 est.), most of whom live along the coast, is very ethnically diverse. At the 1999 census, 54.4% of the inhabitants of French Guiana were born in French Guiana, 11.8% were born in Metropolitan France, 5.2% were born in the French Caribbean départements (Guadeloupe and Martinique), and 28.6% were born in foreign countries (primarily Brazil, Suriname, and Haiti). Estimates of the percentages of French Guiana ethnic composition vary, a situation compounded by the large numbers of immigrants (about 20,000). Guianese Creoles (people of primarily African heritage mixed with some French ancestry) are the largest ethnic group, though estimates vary as to the exact percentage, depending upon whether the large Haitian community is included as well. Generally the Creole population is judged at about 60% to 70% of the total population with Haitians (comprising roughly one-third of Creoles) and 30% to 50% without. Roughly 14% are Europeans, the vast majority of whom are French. The main Asian communities are the Hmong from Laos (1.5%) and Chinese (3.2%, primarily from Hong Kong and Zhejiang province). There are also smaller groups from various Caribbean islands, mainly Saint Lucia as well as Dominica. Other Asian groups include East Indians, Lebanese and Vietnamese. The main groups living in the interior are the Maroons (also called "Bush Negroes") are racially black African, and Amerindians. The Maroons, descendants of escaped African slaves, live primarily along the Maroni River. The main Maroon groups are the Paramacca, Aucan (both of whom also live in Suriname) and the Boni (Aluku). The main Amerindian groups (forming about 3%-4% of the population) are the Arawak, Carib, Emerillon, Galibi (now called the Kaliña), Palikour, Wayampi and Wayana. As of late 1990s there was evidence of uncontacted group of Wayampi. Most of the white European population are French whose ancestors are settlers dispatched there from the mainland, but a sizable percentage are of Dutch, British, Spanish and Portuguese ancestry. The most practised religion in this region is Roman Catholicism; the Maroons and some Amerindian people maintain their own religions. The Hmong people are also mainly Catholic owing to the influence of Catholic missionaries who helped bring them to French Guiana. The Bahá'í Religion is also present. Historical population 1790estimate 1839estimate 1857estimate 1891estimate 1946census 1954census 1961census 1967census 1974census 1982census 1990census 1999census 2006census 2007estimate 2008estimate 14,520 20,940 25,561 33,500 25,499 27,863 33,505 44,392 55,125 73,022 114,678 157,213 205,954 213,500 221,500 <small>Official figures from past censuses and INSEE estimates. Politics French Guiana, as part of France, is part of the European Union, the largest part in an area outside Europe, with one of the longest EU external boundaries. Along with the Spanish enclaves in Africa of Ceuta and Melilla, it is one of only three European Union territories outside Europe that is not an island. As an integral part of France, its head of state is the President of the French Republic, and its head of Government is the Prime Minister of France. The French Government and its agencies have responsability for a wide range of issues that are reserved to the National Executive, such as Defense and external relations. The President of France appoints a Prefect (resident at the Prefecture building in Cayenne) as his representative to head the local government of French Guiana. There are two legislative bodies: the 19-member General Council and the 34-member Regional Council, both elected. French Guiana sends two deputies to the French National Assembly, one representing the commune (municipality) of Cayenne and the commune of Macouria, and the other representing the rest of French Guiana. This latter constituency is the largest in the French Republic by land area. French Guiana also sends one senator to the French Senate. French Guiana has traditionally been conservative, though the socialist party has been increasingly successful in recent years. Though many would like to see more autonomy for the region, support for complete independence is very low. A chronic issue affecting French Guiana is the influx of illegal immigrants and clandestine gold prospectors from Brazil and Suriname. The border between the department and Suriname is formed by the Maroni River, which flows through rain forest and is difficult for the Gendarmerie and the French Foreign Legion to patrol. The border line with Suriname is disputed. Transport French Guiana's main international airport is Cayenne-Rochambeau Airport, located in the commune of Matoury, a southern suburb of Cayenne. There are three flights a day to Paris (Orly Airport), served by Air France, Air Caraïbes and CorsairFly. The flight time from Cayenne to Paris is 8 hours and 25 minutes, and from Paris to Cayenne it is 9 hours and 10 minutes. There are also flights to Fort-de-France, Pointe-à-Pitre, Port-au-Prince, Miami, Macapá, Belém, and Fortaleza. French Guiana's main seaport is the port of Dégrad des Cannes, located on the estuary of the Mahury River, in the commune of Remire-Montjoly, a south-eastern suburb of Cayenne. Almost all of French Guiana's imports and exports pass through the port of Dégrad des Cannes. Built in 1969, it replaced the old harbour of Cayenne which was congested and couldn't cope with modern traffic. An asphalted road from Régina to Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock (a town by the Brazilian border) was opened in 2004, completing the road from Cayenne to the Brazilian border. It is now possible to drive on a fully paved road from Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni on the Surinamese border to Saint-Georges de l'Oyapock on the Brazilian border. Following an international treaty between France and Brazil signed in July 2005, a bridge over the Oyapock River (marking the border with Brazil) is currently being built and is due to open in 2010. This bridge will be the first land crossing ever opened between France and Brazil, and indeed between French Guiana and the rest of the world (there exists no other bridge crossing the Oyapock River, and no bridge crossing the Maroni River marking the border with Suriname - there is a ferry crossing to Albina, Suriname.). When the bridge is opened, it will be possible to drive uninterrupted from Cayenne to Macapá, the capital of the state of Amapá in Brazil. Notable natives and residents Henri Charrière, escaped French convict, imprisoned in and around French Guiana from 1933 to 1941 Léon Damas, Francophone poet widely notated for his influence on the literary movement known as la négritude Jean-Claude Darcheville, football striker who joined Rangers from FC Girondins de Bordeaux in the summer of 2007 Marc-Antoine Fortuné, football striker who joined AS Nancy in the winter of 2006 and is currently on loan at West Bromwich Albion Bernard Lama, former French international football player Florent Malouda, French international football player who plays for Chelsea Football Club Malia Metella, French swimmer, SC European Championships 2004: 1st 100m free Cyrille Regis, former West Bromwich Albion and England player Henri Salvador, famous singer, one of the inspiration sources for the Bossa nova movement Christiane Taubira, politician of Parti Radical de Gauche (France) See also Notes References France's Overseas Frontier : Départements et territoires d'outre-mer Robert Aldrich and John Connell. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-03036-6 Dry guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead René Belbenoit, 1938, Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0-425-02950-6 Hell on Trial René Belbenoit, 1940, Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton & Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 194 p. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971 Papillon Henri Charrière Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0-246-63987-3 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0-06-093479-4 (sbk) Space in the Tropics: From Convicts to Rockets in French Guiana Peter Redfield. ISBN 0-520-21985-6 External links Conseil régional de Guyane Official website Préfecture de Guyane Official website Consular Information Sheet from the United States Department of State Ethnologue French Guiana page Silvolab Guyanae - scientific interest group in French Guiana Article on separatism in French Guiana About.com French Guiana travel site Status of Forests in French Guiana Officials reports, thesis, scientific papers about French Guiana (en|fr) The IRD's database AUBLET2 stores information about botanical specimens collected in the Guianas, mainly in French Guiana Training legionnaires to fight in French Guiana be-x-old:Француская Ґвіяна | French_Guiana |@lemmatized french:51 guiana:34 officially:1 overseas:4 department:4 département:1 outre:2 mer:2 dom:1 france:19 locate:3 northern:1 coast:3 south:2 america:1 like:3 doms:1 also:9 region:4 one:7 integral:2 part:5 republic:3 metropolitan:3 currency:1 euro:1 prefecture:2 cayenne:11 large:6 colony:1 leave:1 world:2 island:4 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1,739 | Pythagoras | Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pūthagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; born between 580 and 572 BC, died between 500 and 490 BC) was an Ionian Greek mathematician and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist; however some have questioned the scope of his contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy. Herodotus referred to him as "the most able philosopher among the Greeks". His name led him to be associated with Pythian Apollo; Aristippus explained his name by saying, "He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the Pythian (Pyth-)," and Iamblichus tells the story that the Pythia prophesied that his pregnant mother would give birth to a man supremely beautiful, wise, and beneficial to humankind. He is best known for the Pythagorean theorem, which bears his name. Known as "the father of numbers", Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in the late 6th century BC. Because legend and obfuscation cloud his work even more than with the other pre-Socratics, one can say little with confidence about his life and teachings. We do know that Pythagoras and his students believed that everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality and, through mathematics, everything could be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles. According to Iamblichus of Chalcis, Pythagoras once said that "number is the ruler of forms and ideas and the cause of gods and daemons." He was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom, Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, 5.3.8-9 = Heraclides Ponticus fr. 88 Wehrli, Diogenes Laertius 1.12, 8.8, Iamblichus VP 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by C.J. De Vogel, Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism (1966), pp. 97-102, and C. Riedweg, Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence (2005), p. 92. and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato. Unfortunately, very little is known about Pythagoras because none of his writings have survived. Many of the accomplishments credited to Pythagoras may actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues and successors. Life Pythagoras was born on Samos, a Greek island in the eastern Aegean, off the coast of Asia Minor. He was born to Pythais (his mother, a native of Samos) and Mnesarchus (his father, a Phoenician merchant from Tyre). As a young man, he left his native city for Croton, Calabria, in Southern Italy, to escape the tyrannical government of Polycrates. According to Iamblichus, Thales, impressed with his abilities, advised Pythagoras to head to Memphis in Egypt and study with the priests there who were renowned for their wisdom. He was also discipled in the temples of Tyre and Byblos in Phoenicia. It may have been in Egypt where he learned some geometric principles which eventually inspired his formulation of the theorem that is now called by his name. This possible inspiration is presented as an extraordinaire problem in the Berlin Papyrus. Upon his migration from Samos to Croton, Calabria, Italy, Pythagoras established a secret religious society very similar to (and possibly influenced by) the earlier Orphic cult. Bust of Pythagoras, Vatican Pythagoras undertook a reform of the cultural life of Croton, urging the citizens to follow virtue and form an elite circle of followers around himself called Pythagoreans. Very strict rules of conduct governed this cultural center. He opened his school to both male and female students uniformly. Those who joined the inner circle of Pythagoras's society called themselves the Mathematikoi. They lived at the school, owned no personal possessions and were required to assume a mainly vegetarian diet (meat that could be sacrificed was allowed to be eaten). Other students who lived in neighboring areas were also permitted to attend Pythagoras's school. Known as Akousmatikoi, these students were permitted to eat meat and own personal belongings. Richard Blackmore, in his book The Lay Monastery (1714), saw in the religious observances of the Pythagoreans, "the first instance recorded in history of a monastic life." According to Iamblichus, the Pythagoreans followed a structured life of religious teaching, common meals, exercise, reading and philosophical study. Music featured as an essential organizing factor of this life: the disciples would sing hymns to Apollo together regularly; they used the lyre to cure illness of the soul or body; poetry recitations occurred before and after sleep to aid the memory. Flavius Josephus, in his polemical Against Apion, in defence of Judaism against Greek philosophy, mentions that according to Hermippus of Smyrna, Pythagoras was familiar with Jewish beliefs, incorporating some of them in his own philosophy. Towards the end of his life he fled to Metapontum because of a plot against him and his followers by a noble of Croton named Cylon. He died in Metapontum around 90 years old from unknown causes. Bertrand Russell, in A History of Western Philosophy, contended that the influence of Pythagoras on Plato and others was so great that he should be considered the most influential of all western philosophers. Pythagoreans Pythagoras, the man in the center with the book, teaching music, in The School of Athens by Raphael The organization was in some ways a school, in some ways a brotherhood, and in some ways a monastery. It was based upon the religious teachings of Pythagoras and was very secretive. At first, the school was highly concerned with the morality of society. Members were required to live ethically, love one another, share political beliefs, practice pacifism, and devote themselves to the mathematics of nature. Pythagoras's followers were commonly called "Pythagoreans". They are generally accepted as philosophical mathematicians who had an influence on the beginning of axiomatic geometry, which after two hundred years of development was written down by Euclid in The Elements. The Pythagoreans observed a rule of silence called echemythia, the breaking of which was punishable by death. This was because the Pythagoreans believed that a man's words were usually careless and misrepresented him and that when someone was "in doubt as to what he should say, he should always remain silent". Another rule that they had was to help a man "in raising a burden, but do not assist him in laying it down, for it is a great sin to encourage indolence", and they said "departing from your house, turn not back, for the furies will be your attendants"; this axiom reminded them that it was better to learn none of the truth about mathematics, God, and the universe at all than to learn a little without learning all. (The Secret Teachings of All Ages by Manly P. Hall). In his biography of Pythagoras (written seven centuries after Pythagoras's time), Porphyry stated that this silence was "of no ordinary kind." The Pythagoreans were divided into an inner circle called the mathematikoi ("mathematicians") and an outer circle called the akousmatikoi ("listeners"). Porphyry wrote "the mathematikoi learned the more detailed and exactly elaborated version of this knowledge, the akousmatikoi (were) those who had heard only the summary headings of his (Pythagoras's) writings, without the more exact exposition." According to Iamblichus, the akousmatikoi were the exoteric disciples who listened to lectures that Pythagoras gave out loud from behind a veil. The akousmatikoi were not allowed to see Pythagoras and they were not taught the inner secrets of the cult. Instead they were taught laws of behavior and morality in the form of cryptic, brief sayings that had hidden meanings. The akousmatikoi recognized the mathematikoi as real Pythagoreans, but not vice versa. After the murder of a number of the mathematikoi by the cohorts of Cylon, a resentful disciple, the two groups split from each other entirely, with Pythagoras's wife Theano and their two daughters leading the mathematikoi. Theano, daughter of the Orphic initiate Brontinus, was a mathematician in her own right. She is credited with having written treatises on mathematics, physics, medicine, and child psychology, although nothing of her writing survives. Her most important work is said to have been a treatise on the philosophical principle of the golden mean. In a time when women were usually considered property and relegated to the role of housekeeper or spouse, Pythagoras allowed women to function on equal terms in his society. The Pythagorean society is associated with prohibitions such as not to step over a crossbar, and not to eat beans. These rules seem like primitive superstition, similar to "walking under a ladder brings bad luck". The abusive epithet mystikos logos ("mystical speech") was hurled at Pythagoras even in ancient times to discredit him. The prohibition on beans could be linked to favism, which is relatively widespread around the Mediterranean. The key here is that akousmata means "rules", so that the superstitious taboos primarily applied to the akousmatikoi, and many of the rules were probably invented after Pythagoras's death and independent from the mathematikoi (arguably the real preservers of the Pythagorean tradition). The mathematikoi placed greater emphasis on inner understanding than did the akousmatikoi, even to the extent of dispensing with certain rules and ritual practices. For the mathematikoi, being a Pythagorean was a question of innate quality and inner understanding. There was also another way of dealing with the akousmata — by allegorizing them. We have a few examples of this, one being Aristotle's explanations of them: "'step not over a balance', i.e. be not covetous; 'poke not the fire with a sword', i.e. do not vex with sharp words a man swollen with anger, 'eat not heart', i.e. do not vex yourself with grief," etc. We have evidence for Pythagoreans allegorizing in this way at least as far back as the early fifth century BC. This suggests that the strange sayings were riddles for the initiated. The Pythagoreans are known for their theory of the transmigration of souls, and also for their theory that numbers constitute the true nature of things. They performed purification rites and followed and developed various rules of living which they believed would enable their soul to achieve a higher rank among the gods. Much of their mysticism concerning the soul seem inseparable from the Orphic tradition. The Orphics advocated various purificatory rites and practices as well as incubatory rites of descent into the underworld. Pythagoras is also closely linked with Pherecydes of Syros, the man ancient commentators tend to credit as the first Greek to teach a transmigration of souls. Ancient commentators agree that Pherekydes was Pythagoras's most intimate teacher. Pherekydes expounded his teaching on the soul in terms of a pentemychos ("five-nooks", or "five hidden cavities") — the most likely origin of the Pythagorean use of the pentagram, used by them as a symbol of recognition among members and as a symbol of inner health (ugieia). Musical theories and investigations Pythagoras was very interested in music, and so were his followers. The Pythagoreans were musicians as well as mathematicians. Pythagoras wanted to improve the music of his day, which he believed was not harmonious enough and was too hectic. According to legend, the way Pythagoras discovered that musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations was when one day he passed blacksmiths at work, and thought that the sounds emanating from their anvils being hit were beautiful and harmonious and decided that whatever scientific law caused this to happen must be mathematical and could be applied to music. He went to the blacksmiths to learn how this had happened by looking at their tools, he discovered that it was because the anvils were "simple ratios of each other, one was half the size of the first, another was 2/3 the size, and so on." (See Pythagorean tuning.) The Pythagoreans elaborated on a theory of numbers, the exact meaning of which is still debated among scholars. Pythagoras believed in something called the "harmony of the spheres." He believed that the planets and stars moved according to mathematical equations, which corresponded to musical notes and thus produced a symphony. Christoph Riedweg, Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching and Influence, Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005 . Influence The Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (a and b) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c). Since the fourth century AD, Pythagoras has commonly been given credit for discovering the Pythagorean theorem, a theorem in geometry that states that in a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle), c, is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, b and a—that is, a² + b² = c². While the theorem that now bears his name was known and previously utilized by the Babylonians and Indians, he, or his students, are often said to have constructed the first proof. It must, however, be stressed that the way in which the Babylonians handled Pythagorean numbers, implies that they knew that the principle was generally applicable, and knew some kind of proof, which has not yet been found in the (still largely unpublished) cuneiform sources. There are about 100,000 unpublished cuneiform sources in the British Museum alone. Babylonian knowledge of proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is discussed by J. Høyrup, 'The Pythagorean "Rule" and "Theorem" - Mirror of the Relation between Babylonian and Greek Mathematics,' in: J. Renger (red.): Babylon. Focus mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamkeit, Mythos in der Moderne (1999). Because of the secretive nature of his school and the custom of its students to attribute everything to their teacher, there is no evidence that Pythagoras himself worked on or proved this theorem. For that matter, there is no evidence that he worked on any mathematical or meta-mathematical problems. Some attribute it as a carefully constructed myth by followers of Plato over two centuries after the death of Pythagoras, mainly to bolster the case for Platonic meta-physics, which resonate well with the ideas they attributed to Pythagoras. This attribution has stuck, down the centuries up to modern times. From Christoph Riedweg , Pythagoras, His Life, Teaching and Influence, Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005: "Had Pythagoras and his teachings not been since the early Academy overwritten with Plato’s philosophy, and had this ‘palimpsest’ not in the course of the Roman Empire achieved unchallenged authority among Platonists, it would be scarcely conceivable that scholars from the Middle Ages and modernity down to the present would have found the Presocratic charismatic from Samos so fascinating. In fact, as a rule it was the image of Pythagoras elaborated by Neopythagoreans and Neoplatonists that determined the idea of what was Pythagorean over the centuries." The earliest known mention of Pythagoras's name in connection with the theorem occurred five centuries after his death, in the writings of Cicero and Plutarch. Today, Pythagoras is revered as a prophet by the Ahl al-Tawhid or Druze faith along with his fellow Greek, Plato. But Pythagoras also had his critics, such as Heraclitus who said that "much learning does not teach wisdom; otherwise it would have taught Hesiod and Pythagoras, and again Xenophanes and Hecataeus". Diog. L. ix. 1 (Fr. 40 in Vorsokratiker, i3, p. 86. 1-3) Religion and science Pythagoras’ religious and scientific views were, in his opinion, inseparably interconnected. Religiously, Pythagoras was a believer of metempsychosis. He believed in transmigration, or the reincarnation of the soul again and again into the bodies of humans, animals, or vegetables until it became moral. His ideas of reincarnation were influenced by ancient Greek religion. He was one of the first to propose that the thought processes and the soul were located in the brain and not the heart. He himself claimed to have lived four lives that he could remember in detail, and heard the cry of his dead friend in the bark of a dog. One of Pythagoras' beliefs was that the essence of being is number. Thus, being relies on stability of all things that create the universe. Things like health relied on a stable proportion of elements; too much or too little of one thing causes an imbalance that makes a being unhealthy. Pythagoras viewed thinking as the calculating with the idea numbers. When combined with the Folk theories, the philosophy evolves into a belief that Knowledge of the essence of being can be found in the form of numbers. If this is taken a step further, one can say that because mathematics is an unseen essence, the essence of being is an unseen characteristic that can be encountered by the study of mathematics. Literary works No texts by Pythagoras survive, although forgeries under his name — a few of which remain extant — did circulate in antiquity. Critical ancient sources like Aristotle and Aristoxenus cast doubt on these writings. Ancient Pythagoreans usually quoted their master's doctrines with the phrase autos ephe ("he himself said") — emphasizing the essentially oral nature of his teaching. Pythagoras appears as a character in the last book of Ovid's Metamorphoses, where Ovid has him expound upon his philosophical viewpoints. Pythagoras has been quoted as saying, "No man is free who cannot command himself." Lore There is another side to Pythagoras, as he became the subject of elaborate legends surrounding his historic persona. Aristotle described Pythagoras as a wonder-worker and somewhat of a supernatural figure, attributing to him such aspects as a golden thigh, which was a sign of divinity. According to Aristotle and others' accounts, some ancients believed that he had the ability to travel through space and time, and to communicate with animals and plants. Huffman, Carl. Pythagoras (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) An extract from Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable's entry entitled "Golden Thigh":Pythagoras is said to have had a golden thigh, which he showed to Abaris, the Hyperborean priest, and exhibited in the Olympic games. Brewer, E. Cobham, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable Another legend, also taken from Brewer's Dictionary, describes his writing on the moon: Pythagoras asserted he could write on the moon. His plan of operation was to write on a looking-glass in blood, and place it opposite the moon, when the inscription would appear photographed or reflected on the moon's disc. Brewer, E. Cobham, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable Other accomplishments The number is irrational. One of Pythagoras's major accomplishments was the discovery that music was based on proportional intervals of the numbers one through four. He believed that the number system, and therefore the universe system, was based on the sum of these numbers: ten. Pythagoreans swore by the Tetrachtys of the Decad, or ten, rather than by the gods. Odd numbers were masculine and even were feminine. He discovered the theory of mathematical proportions, constructed from three to five geometrical solids. One member of his order, Hippasos, also discovered irrational numbers, but the idea was unthinkable to Pythagoras, and according to legend, Hippasos was executed. Pythagoras (or the Pythagoreans) also discovered square numbers. They found that if one took, for example, four small stones and arranged them into a square, each side of the square was not only equivalent to the other, but that when the two sides were multiplied together, they equaled the sum total of stones in the square arrangement, hence the name "Square Root" Alioto, Anthony. A History of Western Science- 2nd ed. New York:Prentice Hall, 1992. p. 39-42 . He was one of the first to think that the earth was round, that all planets have an axis, and that all the planets travel around one central point. He originally identified that point as Earth, but later renounced it for the idea that the planets revolve around a central “fire” that he never identified as the sun. He also believed that the moon was another planet that he called a “counter-Earth” – furthering his belief in the Limited-Unlimited. Groups influenced by Pythagoras Influence on Plato Pythagoras or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, allegedly exercised an important influence on the work of Plato. According to R. M. Hare, his influence consists of three points: a) the platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. b) there is evidence that Plato possibly took from Pythagoras the idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". c) Plato and Pythagoras shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world". It is probable that both have been influenced by Orphism. R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103-189, here 117-9. Plato's harmonics were clearly influenced by the work of Archytas, a genuine Pythagorean of the third generation, who made important contributions to geometry, reflected in Book VIII of Euclid's Elements. Roman influence In the legends of ancient Rome, Numa Pompilius, the second King of Rome, is said to have studied under Pythagoras. This is unlikely, since the commonly accepted dates for the two lives do not overlap. Influence on esoteric groups Pythagoras started a secret society called the Pythagorean brotherhood devoted to the study of mathematics. This had a great effect on future esoteric traditions, such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, both of which were occult groups dedicated to the study of mathematics and both of which claimed to have evolved out of the Pythagorean brotherhood. The mystical and occult qualities of Pythagorean mathematics are discussed in a chapter of Manly P. Hall's The Secret Teachings of All Ages entitled "Pythagorean Mathematics". Pythagorean theory was tremendously influential on later numerology, which was extremely popular throughout the Middle East in the ancient world. The 8th-century Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan grounded his work in an elaborate numerology greatly influenced by Pythagorean theory. See also Apollonius of Tyana Hippasus Pythagoreanism Pythagorean comma Pythagorean cup Pythagorean theorem Sacred geometry Heliopolis-Pythagoras connection Lute of Pythagoras Pythagoras tree Harmony of the spheres References Sources No primary sources about Pythagoras have survived. This article describes the classical interpretation of Pythagoras, which is based on a small set of texts by later writers. As most of the surviving information was written down centuries after Pythagoras lived, their accuracy is uncertain. It is suggested that the mathematical significance of the early Pythagoreans (pre-450 BC) has been exaggerated (with the exception of their theory of harmonics), and that the Pythagoreans were an Orphic-like cult with an emphasis on numerology who only later evolved into serious mathematicians as geometry became popular across Greece. Classical secondary sources Only a few relevant source texts deal with Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, most are available in different translations. Other texts usually build solely on information in these works. Diogenes Laertius, Vitae philosophorum VIII (Lives of Eminent Philosophers), c. 200 AD, which in turn reference the lost work Successions of Philosophers by Alexander Polyhistor) — Pythagoras, Translation by C.D. Yonge Porphyry, Vita Pythagorae (Life of Pythagoras), c. 270 AD Iamblichus, De Vita Pythagorica (On the Pythagorean Life), c. 300 AD Apuleius also writes about Pythagoras in Apologia, including a story of him being taught by Babylonian disciples of Zoroaster, c. 150 AD Hierocles of Alexandria, Golden Verses of Pythagoras, Concord Grove Pr., 1983 c.430 AD Modern secondary sources Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Harvard University Press, June 1, 1972. ISBN 0-674-53918-4 Burnyeat, M. F. "The Truth about Pythagoras". London Review of Books, 22 February 2007. Guthrie, W. K. A History of Greek Philosophy: Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, Cambridge University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-521-29420-7 Kingsley, Peter. Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and the Pythagorean Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1995. Hermann, Arnold. To Think Like God: Pythagoras and Parmenides—the Origins of Philosophy. Parmenides Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1-930972-00-1 O'Meara, Dominic J. Pythagoras Revived. Oxford University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-823913-0 (paperback), ISBN 0-19-824485-1 (hardcover) External links Pythagoreanism Web Site References for Pythagoras Pythagoras, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Pythagoras of Samos, The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Fragments and Commentary, Arthur Fairbanks Hanover Historical Texts Project, Hanover College Department of History Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Department of Mathematics, Texas A&M University Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism, The Catholic Encyclopedia Pythagoreanism Web Article Occult conception of Pythagoreanism Pythagoras of Samos Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Tetraktys Golden Verses of Pythagoras Pythagoras on Vegetarianism Quotes from primary source historical literature on Pythagoras' view on Vegetarianism, Justice and Kindness Wandering Souls: The Doctrine of Transmigration in Pythagorean Philosophy, by Dr. James Luchte 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1,740 | Kendall_Square_Research | KSR1 logo Kendall Square Research (KSR) was a supercomputer company headquartered originally in Kendall Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1986, near MIT. It was co-founded by Steven Frank and Henry Burkhardt III, who had previously helped found Data General and Encore Computer and was one of the original team that designed the PDP-8. KSR produced two models of supercomputer, the KSR1 and KSR2. Technology The KSR systems ran a specially customized version of the OSF/1 operating system, a Unix variant. The architecture was shared memory implemented as an all cache memory COMA. Being all cache, memory dynamically migrated and replicated in a coherent manner based on access pattern of individual processors. The processors were arranged in a hierarchy of rings, and the operating system mediated process migration and device access. Instruction decode was hardwired, and pipelining was used. Each KSR1 processor was a custom 64-bit RISC CPU clocked at 20 MHz and capable of peak output of 20 MIPS and 40 MFLOPS. Up to 1088 of these processors could be arranged in a single system, with a minimum of eight. The KSR2 doubled the clock rate to 40 MHz and supported over 5000 processors. The KSR-1 chipset was fabricated by Sharp Corporation while the KSR-2 chipset was built by Hewlett-Packard. Software Besides the traditional scientific applications, KSR, in conjunction with Oracle Corporation, addressed the massively parallel database market for commercial applications. The KSR-1 and -2 supported Micro Focus COBOL and C/C++ programming languages, as well as the Oracle PRDBMS and the MATISSE OODBMS from ADB, Inc. Their own product, the KSR Query Decomposer, complemented the functionality of the Oracle product for SQL uses. The TUXEDO transaction monitor for OLTP was also provided. The KAP program (Kuck & Associate Preprocessor) provided for pre-processing for source code analysis and parallelization. The runtime environment was termed PRESTO, and was a POSIX compliant multithreading manager. Hardware The KSR-1 processor was implemented as a four-chip set in 1.2 micrometer CMOS. These chips were: the Cell Execution Unit, the floating point unit, the arithmetic logic unit, and the external I/O unit (XIO). The CEU handled instruction fetch (two per clock), and all operations involving memory, such as loads and stores. 40 bit addresses were used, going to full 64-bit addresses later. The integer unit had 32, 64-bit-wide registers. The floating point unit is discussed below. The XIO had the capability of 30 MB/s throughput to I/O devices. It included 64 control and data registers. KSR instructions were of 6 types: memory reference (load and store), execute, control flow, memory control, I/O, and inserted. Execute instructions included arithmetic, logical, and type conversion. They were usually triadic register in format. Control flow refers to branches and jumps. Branch instructions were two cycles. The programmer (or compiler) could implicitly control the "quashing" behavior of the subsequent two instructions that would be initiated during the branch. The choices were: always retain the results, retain results if branch test is true, or retain results if branch test is false. Memory control provided synchronization primitives. I/O instructions were provided. Inserted instructions were forced into a flow by a coprocessor. Inserted load and store were used for DMA transfers. Inserted memory instructions were used to maintain cache coherency. New coprocessors could be interfaced with the inserted instruction mechanism. IEEE standard floating point arithmetic was supported. Sixty-four 64-bit wide registers were included. In the KSR design, all of the memory was treated as cache. A Harvard style, separate bus for instructions and memory was used. Each node board contained 256 kB of I-cache and D-cache, essentially primary cache. At each node was 32 MB of memory for main cache. The system level architecture was shared virtual memory, which was physically distributed in the machine. The programmer or application only saw one contiguous address space, which was spanned by a 40-bit address. Traffic between nodes traveled at up to 4 gigabytes per second. The 32 megabytes per node, in aggregate, formed the physical memory of the machine. Specialized input/output processors could be used in the system, providing scalable I/O. A 1088 node KSR1 could have 510 I/O channels with an aggregate in excess of 15 GB/s. Interfaces such as Ethernet, FDDI, and HIPPI were supported. History As the company scaled up quickly to enter production, they moved in the late 1980s to Waltham, Massachusetts, 170 Tracer Lane in Waltham, Massachusetts. KSR refocused its efforts from the scientific to the commercial marketplace, with emphasis on parallel relational databases and OLTP operations. It then got out of the hardware business, but continued to market some of its data warehousing and analysis software products. The first KSR1 system was installed in 1991. A few of the KSR1 models were sold, but as the KSR2 was being rolled out, the company collapsed amid accounting irregularities involving the overstatement of revenue. One customer of the KSR2, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, a United States Department of Energy facility, purchased an enormous number of spare parts, and kept their machines running for years after the demise of KSR. KSR, along with many of its competitors (see below) went bankrupt during the collapse of the supercomputer market in the early-1990s. KSR went out of business in February 1994 when their stock was delisted from the stock exchange. Competition KSR's competitors included Thinking Machines and Meiko Scientific, in addition to various old-line (and still surviving) companies like IBM, Intel, and Sun Microsystems. 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1,741 | Genetic_programming | In artificial intelligence, genetic programming (GP) is an evolutionary algorithm-based methodology inspired by biological evolution to find computer programs that perform a user-defined task. It is a specialization of genetic algorithms (GA) where each individual is a computer program. Therefore it is a machine learning technique used to optimize a population of computer programs according to a fitness landscape determined by a program's ability to perform a given computational task. History The roots of GP begin with the evolutionary algorithms first utilized by Nils Aall Barricelli in 1954 as applied to evolutionary simulations. But evolutionary algorithms became widely recognized as optimization methods as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s and early 1970s - his group was able to solve complex engineering problems through evolution strategies (1971 PhD thesis and resulting 1973 book). Also highly influential was the work of John Holland in the early 1970s, and particularly his 1975 book. Among the earliest practitioners of the GP methodology was Lawrence J. Fogel(1964), who applied evolutionary algorithms to the problem of discovering finite-state automata. Later GP-related work grew out of the Learning classifier system community, which developed sets of sparse rules describing optimal policies for Markov decision processes. The first statement of "tree-based" Genetic Programming (that is, procedural languages organized in tree-based structures and operated on by suitably defined GA-operators) was given by Nichael L. Cramer (1985), Nichael Cramer's HomePage . This work was later greatly expanded by John R. Koza, a main proponent of GP who has pioneered the application of genetic programming in various complex optimization and search problems genetic-programming.com-Home-Page . GP is computationally very intensive and so in the 1990s it was mainly used to solve relatively simple problems. But more recently, thanks to improvements in GP technology and to the exponential growth in CPU power, GP produced many novel and outstanding results in areas such as quantum computing, electronic design, game playing, sorting, searching and many more. humancompetitive These results include the replication or development of several post-year-2000 inventions. GP has also been applied to evolvable hardware as well as computer programs. There are several GP patents listed in the web site jkpubs2001 . Developing a theory for GP has been very difficult and so in the 1990s GP was considered a sort of outcast among search techniques. But after a series of breakthroughs in the early 2000s, the theory of GP has had a formidable and rapid development. So much so that it has been possible to build exact probabilistic models of GP (schema theories and Markov chain models). Chromosome representation A function represented as a tree structure GP evolves computer programs, traditionally represented in memory as tree structures. Trees can be easily evaluated in a recursive manner. Every tree node has an operator function and every terminal node has an operand, making mathematical expressions easy to evolve and evaluate. Thus traditionally GP favors the use of programming languages that naturally embody tree structures (for example, Lisp; other functional programming languages are also suitable). Non-tree representations have been suggested and successfully implemented, such as linear genetic programming which suits the more traditional imperative languages [see, for example, Banzhaf et al. (1998)]. The commercial GP software Discipulus, Genetic Programming is a powerful regression and classification tool with significant advantages over neural networks, decision trees, support vector machines and robust regression. It is fast, powerful and has a proven track record of results uses AIM, automatic induction of binary machine code (Peter Nordin, 1997, Banzhaf et al., 1998, Section 11.6.2-11.6.3) to achieve better performance. aigp3.dvi MicroGP Research: MicroGP uses a representation similar to linear GP to generate programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given assembly language. Genetic operators The main operators used in evolutionary algorithms such as GP are crossover and mutation. Crossover Crossover is applied on an individual by simply switching one of its nodes with another node from another individual in the population. With a tree-based representation, replacing a node means replacing the whole branch. This adds greater effectiveness to the crossover operator. The expressions resulting from crossover are very much different from their initial parents. The following code suggests a simple implementation of individual deformation using crossover: individual.Children[randomChildIndex] = otherIndividual.Children[randomChildIndex]; Mutation Mutation affects an individual in the population. It can replace a whole node in the selected individual, or it can replace just the node's information. To maintain integrity, operations must be fail-safe or the type of information the node holds must be taken into account. For example, mutation must be aware of binary operation nodes, or the operator must be able to handle missing values. A simple piece of code: individual. Information = randomInformation; or individual = generateNewIndividual; there is an small mistake in this figure there we use LNR traversing so in the node (cos) the y child must be in the right side. Meta-Genetic Programming Meta-Genetic Programming is the proposed meta learning technique of evolving a genetic programming system using genetic programming itself. It suggests that chromosomes, crossover, and mutation were themselves evolved, therefore like their real life counterparts should be allowed to change on their own rather than being determined by a human programmer. Meta-GP was proposed by Jürgen Schmidhuber in 1987 1987 THESIS ON LEARNING HOW TO LEARN, METALEARNING, META GENETIC PROGRAMMING, CREDIT-CONSERVING MACHINE LEARNING ECONOMY ; it is a recursive but terminating algorithm, allowing it to avoid infinite recursion. Critics of this idea often say this approach is overly broad in scope. However, it might be possible to constrain the fitness criterion onto a general class of results, and so obtain an evolved GP that would more efficiently produce results for sub-classes. This might take the form of a Meta evolved GP for producing human walking algorithms which is then used to evolve human running, jumping, etc. The fitness criterion applied to the Meta GP would simply be one of efficiency. For general problem classes there may be no way to show that Meta GP will reliably produce results more efficiently than a created algorithm other than exhaustion. The same holds for standard GP and other search algorithms. See also Bio-inspired computing Gene expression programming Genetic representation Grammatical evolution Genetic algorithms Fitness approximation References and notes Bibliography Banzhaf, W., Nordin, P., Keller, R.E., Francone, F.D. (1998), Genetic Programming: An Introduction: On the Automatic Evolution of Computer Programs and Its Applications, Morgan Kaufmann Barricelli, Nils Aall (1954), Esempi numerici di processi di evoluzione, Methodos, pp. 45-68. Crosby, Jack L. (1973), Computer Simulation in Genetics, John Wiley & Sons, London. Cramer, Nichael Lynn (1985), "A representation for the Adaptive Generation of Simple Sequential Programs" in Proceedings of an International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and the Applications, Grefenstette, John J. (ed.), Carnegie Mellon University Fogel, David B. (2000) Evolutionary Computation: Towards a New Philosophy of Machine Intelligence IEEE Press, New York. Fogel, David B. (editor) (1998) Evolutionary Computation: The Fossil Record, IEEE Press, New York. Forsyth, Richard (1981), BEAGLE A Darwinian Approach to Pattern Recognition Kybernetes, Vol. 10, pp. 159-166. Fraser, Alex S. (1957), Simulation of Genetic Systems by Automatic Digital Computers. I. Introduction. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences vol. 10 484-491. Fraser, Alex and Donald Burnell (1970), Computer Models in Genetics, McGraw-Hill, New York. Holland, John H (1975), Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor Koza, J.R. (1990), Genetic Programming: A Paradigm for Genetically Breeding Populations of Computer Programs to Solve Problems, Stanford University Computer Science Department technical report STAN-CS-90-1314. A thorough report, possibly used as a draft to his 1992 book. Koza, J.R. (1992), Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection, MIT Press Koza, J.R. (1994), Genetic Programming II: Automatic Discovery of Reusable Programs, MIT Press Koza, J.R., Bennett, F.H., Andre, D., and Keane, M.A. (1999), Genetic Programming III: Darwinian Invention and Problem Solving, Morgan Kaufmann Koza, J.R., Keane, M.A., Streeter, M.J., Mydlowec, W., Yu, J., Lanza, G. (2003), Genetic Programming IV: Routine Human-Competitive Machine Intelligence, Kluwer Academic Publishers Langdon, W. B., Poli, R. (2002), Foundations of Genetic Programming, Springer-Verlag Nordin, J.P., (1997) Evolutionary Program Induction of Binary Machine Code and its Application. Krehl Verlag, Muenster, Germany. Rechenberg, I. (1971): Evolutionsstrategie - Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis). Reprinted by Fromman-Holzboog (1973). Schmidhuber, J. (1987). Evolutionary principles in self-referential learning. (On learning how to learn: The meta-meta-... hook.) Diploma thesis, Institut f. Informatik, Tech. Univ. Munich. Smith, S.F. (1980), A Learning System Based on Genetic Adaptive Algorithms, PhD dissertation (University of Pittsburgh) Smith, Jeff S. (2002), Evolving a Better Solution, Developers Network Journal, March 2002 issue Shu-Heng Chen et al. (2008), Genetic Programming: An Emerging Engineering Tool,International Journal of Knowledge-based Intelligent Engineering System, 12(1): 1-2, 2008. 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1,742 | European_Parliament | The European Parliament (Europarl or EP) is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU). Together with the Council of the European Union (the Council), it forms the bicameral legislative branch of the Union's institutions and has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world. The Parliament and Council form the highest legislative body within the Union. However their powers as such are limited to the competencies conferred upon the European Community by member states. Hence the institution has little control over policy areas held by the states and within the other two of the three pillars of the European Union. The Parliament is composed of 785 MEPs (Member of the European Parliament), who serve the second largest democratic electorate in the world (after India) and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world (342 million eligible voters in 2004). It has been directly elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. Although the European Parliament has legislative power that such bodies as those above do not possess, it does not have legislative initiative, as most national EU parliaments do However, it does have de facto capacity for legislative initiative (see Powers and functions below). While it is the "first institution" of the European Union (mentioned first in the treaties, having ceremonial precedence over all authority at European level), the Council has greater powers over legislation than the Parliament where codecision procedure (equal rights of amendment and rejection) does not apply. It has, however, had control over the EU budget (minus agriculture) since the 1970s and has a veto over the appointment of the European Commission. The European Parliament has two meeting places, namely the Louise Weiss building in Strasbourg, France, which serves for twelve four-day plenary sessions per year and is the official seat, and the Espace Léopold () complex in Brussels, Belgium, the larger of the two, which serves for committee meetings, political groups and complementary plenary sessions. The cost of having all MEPs and their staff moving several times a year from one place to another is of concern to some. The Secretariat of the European Parliament, the Parliament's administrative body, is based in Luxembourg. The President of the European Parliament (its speaker) is currently Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP), elected in January 2007. He presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the European People's Party-European Democrats (EPP-ED) and the Party of European Socialists (PES). The last Union-wide elections were the 2004 Parliamentary Elections, however Romania and Bulgaria joined in 2007 and elected their members in that year (see European Parliament election, 2007); the next union-wide parliamentary elections are in 2009 (see European Parliament election, 2009). History The Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the "Common Assembly" of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It was a consultative assembly of 78 parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states (see dual mandate), having no legislative powers. This change since its foundation was highlighted by Professor David Farrell of the University of Manchester; Its development since its foundation is testament to the evolution of the Union's structures without one clear "master plan". Some such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post said of the Union, "nobody would have deliberately designed a government as complex and as redundant as the EU". Even the Parliament's two seats, which have switched several times, is a result of various agreements or lack of agreements. Consultative assembly The body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration, it was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europe's Assembly to perform the task. A separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the leaders desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term "representatives of the people" and allowed for direct election. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the draft treaty to establish a European Political Community. In this the "Ad Hoc" Assembly was established on 13 September 1952 Ad Hoc Assembly, Information and Official Documents of the Constitutional Committee, October 1952 to April 1953 from the Archive of European Integration. Retrieved 2008-10-29. with extra members but after the failure of the proposed European Defence Community the project was dropped. Despite this the European Economic Community and Euratom were established in 1958 by the Treaties of Rome. The Common Assembly was shared by all three communities (which had separate executives) and it renamed itself the "European Parliamentary Assembly". The three communities merged in 1967 and the body was renamed to the current "European Parliament" in 1962. In 1970 the Parliament was granted power over areas the Community's budget, which were expanded to the whole budget in 1975. Under the Rome Treaties, the Parliament should have become elected. However the Council was required to agree a uniform voting system before hand, which it failed to do. The Parliament threatened to take the Council to the European Court of Justice leading to a compromise whereby the Council would agree to elections, but the issue of voting systems would be put off till a later date. Elected Parliament In 1979, its members were directly elected for the first time. This set it apart from similar institutions such as those of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe or Pan-African Parliament which are appointed. After that first election, the parliament held its first session on 11 July 1979, electing Simone Veil MEP as its President. Veil was also the first female President of the Parliament since it was formed as the Common Assembly. As an elected body, the Parliament began to draft proposals addressing the functioning of the Union. For example in 1984, inspired by its previous work on the Political Community, it drafted the "draft Treaty establishing the European Union" (also known as the 'Spinelli Plan' after its rapporteur Altiero Spinelli MEP). Although it was not adopted, many ideas were later implemented by other treaties. Further more the Parliament began holding votes on proposed Commission Presidents from the 1980s, before it was given any formal right to veto. Since the election the membership of the European Parliament has simply expanded whenever new nations have joined (the membership was also adjusted upwards in 1994 after German reunification). Following this the Treaty of Nice imposed a cap on the number of members to be elected, 732. Like the other institutions, the Parliament's seat was not yet fixed. The provisional arrangements placed Parliament in Strasbourg, while the Commission and Council had their seats in Brussels. In 1985 the Parliament, wishing to be closer to these institutions, built a second chamber in Brussels and moved some of its work there despite protests from some states. A final agreement was eventually reached by the European Council in 1992. It stated the Parliament would retain its formal seat in Strasbourg, where twelve sessions a year would be held, but with all other parliamentary activity in Brussels. This two seat arrangement was contested by Parliament but was later enshrined in the Treaty of Amsterdam. To this day the institution's locations are a source of contention. Recent history The Parliament had been gaining more powers from successive treaties, namely through the extension of codecision procedure, and in 1999, the Parliament forced the resignation of the Santer Commission. The Parliament had refused to approve the Community budget over allegations of fraud and mis-management in the Commission. The two main parties took on a government-opposition dynamic for the first time during the crisis which ended in the Commission resigning en masse, the first of any forced resignation, in the face of an impending censure from the Parliament. In 2004, following the largest trans-national election in history, despite the European Council choosing a President from the largest political group (the EPP), the Parliament again exerted pressure on the Commission. During the Parliament's hearings of the proposed Commissioners MEPs raised doubts about some nominees with the Civil liberties committee rejecting Rocco Buttiglione from the post of Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security over his views on homosexuality. That was the first time the Parliament had ever voted against an incoming Commissioner and despite Barroso's insistence upon Buttiglione the Parliament forced Buttiglione to be withdrawn. A number of other Commissioners also had to be withdrawn or reassigned before Parliament allowed the Barroso Commission to take office. In addition to the extension of codecision, the Parliament's democratic mandate has given it greater control over legislation against the other institutions. In voting on the Bolkestein directive in 2006, the Parliament voted by a large majority for over 400 amendments that changed the fundamental principle of the law. The Financial Times described it in the following terms: In 2007, for the first time, Justice Commissioner Franco Frattini included Parliament in talks on the second Schengen Information System even though MEPs only needed to be consulted on parts of the package. After that experiment, Frattini indicated he would like to include Parliament in all justice and criminal matters, informally pre-empting the new powers they could gain as part of the Treaty of Lisbon. Powers and functions The Parliament and Council are essentially two chambers in the bicameral legislative branch of the European Union, with legislative power being officially distributed equally between both chambers. However there are some differences from national legislatures; for example, neither the Parliament nor the Council have the power of legislative initiative (except for the fact that the Council has the power in some intergovernmental matters). In Community matters, this is a power uniquely reserved for the European Commission (the executive). Meaning that while Parliament can amend and reject legislation, to make a proposal for legislation, it needs the Commission to draft a bill before anything can become law. However, the value of such a power is questioned, noting that only 15% of such initiatives in national parliaments become law due to the lack of executive support. Yet it has been argued by President Hans-Gert Pöttering that as the Parliament does have the right to ask the Commission to draft such legislation, and as the Commission is following Parliament's proposals more and more Parliament does have a de facto right of legislative initiative. The Parliament also has a great deal of indirect influence, through non-binding resolutions and committee hearings, as a "pan-European soapbox" with the ear of thousands of Brussels-based journalists. There is also an indirect effect on foreign policy; the Parliament must approve all development grants, including those overseas. For example, the support for post-war Iraq reconstruction, or incentives for the cessation of Iranian nuclear development, must be supported by the Parliament. Parliamentary support was also required for the transatlantic passenger data-sharing deal with the United States. Legislative procedure With each new treaty, the powers of the Parliament have expanded. Its powers have been primarily defined through the Union's legislative procedures. The method which has slowly become the dominant procedure (about three-quarters of policy areas) is the Codecision procedure, where powers are essentially equal between Parliament and Council. Codecision provides an equal footing between the two bodies. Under the procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council. They then send amendments to the Council which can either adopt the text with those amendments or send back a "common position". That proposal may either be approved or further amendments may be tabled by the Parliament. If the Council does not approve these, then a "Conciliation Committee" is formed. The Committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a common position. Once a position is agreed, it has to be approved by Parliament, again by an absolute majority. This is also aided by Parliament's mandate as the only directly democratic institution, which has given it leeway to have greater control over legislation than other institutions, for example over its changes to the Bolkestein directive in 2006. Other procedures include: Cooperation, meaning the Council can overrule the Parliament if it is unanimous; Consultation, which require just consultation of the Parliament; and Assent procedure, where the Parliament has a veto. The Commission and Council, or just Commission, can also act completely independently of the Parliament, but the use of these procedures are very limited. The procedure also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used. The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve. They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person/group and is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding, declarations. There is a further document which does not follow normal procedures, this is a "written declaration" which is similar to an early day motion used in the Westminster system. It is a document proposed by up to five MEPs on a matter within the EU's activities used to launch a debate on that subject. Having been posted outside the entrance to the hemicycle, members can sign the declaration and if a majority do so it is forwarded to the President and announced to the plenary before being forwarded to the other institutions and formally noted in the minutes. Budget The legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority, powers gained through the Budgetary Treaties of the 1970s. The EU's budget is divided into compulsory and non-compulsory spending. Compulsory spending is that resulting from EU treaties (including agriculture) and international agreements; the rest is non-compulsory. While the Council has the last word on compulsory spending, the Parliament has the last word on non-compulsory spending. The institutions draw up budget estimates and the Commission consolidates them into a draft budget. Both the Council and the Parliament can amend the budget with the Parliament adopting or rejecting the budget at its second reading. The signature of the Parliament's president is required before the budget becomes law. The Parliament is also responsible for discharging the implementation of previous budgets, on the basis of the annual report of the European Court of Auditors. It has refused to approve the budget only twice, in 1984 and in 1998. On the latter occasion it led to the resignation of the Santer Commission. Control of the executive Unlike most EU states, which usually operate parliamentary systems, there is a separation of powers between the executive and legislative which makes the European Parliament more akin to the United States Congress than an EU state legislature. The President of the European Commission is proposed by the Council (in practice by the European Council) and that proposal has to be approved by the Parliament (by a simple majority), essentially giving the Parliament a veto, but not a right to propose, the head of the executive. Following the approval of the Commission President, the members of the Commission are proposed by the President in accord with the member-states. Each Commissioner comes before a relevant parliamentary committee hearing covering the proposed portfolio. They are then, as a body, approved or rejected by the Parliament. In practice, the Parliament has never voted against a President or his Commission, but it did seem likely when the Barroso Commission was put forward. The resulting pressure forced the proposal to be withdrawn and changed to be more acceptable to parliament. That pressure was seen as an important sign by some of the evolving nature of the Parliament and its ability to make the Commission accountable, rather than being a rubber stamp for candidates. Furthermore, in voting on the Commission, MEPs also voted along party lines, rather than national lines, despite frequent pressure from national governments on their MEPs. This cohesion and willingness to use the Parliament's power ensured greater attention from national leaders, other institutions and the public—who previously gave the lowest ever turnout for the Parliament's elections. The Parliament also has the power to censure the Commission if they have a two-thirds majority which will force the resignation of the entire Commission from office. As with approval, this power has never been used but it was threatened to the Santer Commission, who subsequently resigned of their own accord. There are a few other controls, such as: the requirement of Commission to submit reports to the Parliament and answer questions from MEPs; the requirement of the President-in-office of the European Council to present their programme at the start of their presidency; the right of MEPs to make proposals for legislation and policy to the Commission and Council; and the right to question members of those institutions (e.g. "Commission Question Time" every Tuesday). At present, MEPs may ask a question on any topic whatsoever, but in July 2008 MEPs voted to limit questions to those within the EU's mandate and ban offensive or personal questions. Supervisory powers The Parliament also has other powers of general supervision, mainly granted by the Maastricht Treaty. The Parliament has the power to set up a Committee of Inquiry, for example over mad cow disease or CIA detention flights—the former led to the creation of the European veterinary agency. The Parliament can call other institutions to answer questions and if necessary to take them to court if they break EU law or treaties. Further more it has powers over the appointment of the members of the Court of Auditors and the president and executive board of the European Central Bank. The ECB president is also obliged to present an annual report to the parliament. The European Ombudsman is elected by the Parliament, who deals with public complaints against all institutions. Petitions can also be brought forward by any EU citizen on a matter within the EU's sphere of activities. The Committee on Petitions hears cases, some 1500 each year, sometimes presented by the citizen themselves at the Parliament. While the Parliament attempts to resolve the issue as a mediator they do resort to legal proceedings if it is necessary to resolve the citizens dispute. Members The parliamentarians are known in English as Members of the European Parliament (MEPs). They are elected every 5 years by universal adult suffrage and sit according to political allegiance; about a third are women. Prior to 1979 they were appointed by their national parliaments. As states are allocated seats according to population, the total number of MEPs should be 732; however, since 1 January 2007 there are 785 MEPs. This is due to the accession of Romania and Bulgaria, as the allocation of seats does not take into account members that join mid-term. Under the existing rules the number of members would be reduced to 736 following the 2009 election however the rules are due to be changed under the Treaty of Lisbon. Instead, there would be 751 members (however, as the President cannot vote while in the chair there would only be 750 voting members at any one time). In addition, the maximum number of seats allocated to a state would be lowered to ninety-six, from the current ninety-nine, and the minimum number of seats would be raised to six, from the current five. These seats are distributed according to "degressive proportionality", meaning that the larger the state, the more citizens that are represented per MEP. It is intended that the new system, including revising the seating well in advance of elections, can avoid political horse trading when the numbers have to be revised. At present, members receive the same salary as members of their national parliament. However as of 2009 a new members statute will come into force which gives all members an equal monthly pay of 7,000 euro each, subject to a community tax and can also be taxed nationally. MEPs would retire at 63 and receive the whole of their pension from the Parliament. Travelling expenses would also be given based on actual cost rather than a flat rate as is the case now. In addition to their pay, members are granted a number of privileges and immunities. To ensure their free movement to and from the Parliament, they are accorded by their own states the facilities accorded to senior officials travelling abroad and by other state governments the facilities of visiting foreign representatives. When in their own state they have all the immunities accorded to national parliamentarians, and in other states they have immunity from detention and legal proceedings. However immunity cannot be claimed when a member is found committing a criminal offence and the Parliament also has the right to strip a member of their immunity. Political groups MEPs in Parliament are organised into seven different parliamentary groups, including over thirty non-attached members known as non-inscrits. The two largest groups are the European People's Party-European Democrats (EPP-ED) and the Party of European Socialists (PES). These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats together. No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament. As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European groups parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in the United States than EU states. Groups are often based around a single European political party such as the socialist group. However they can, like the liberal group, include more than one European party as well as national parties and independents. For a group to be recognised, it needs 20 MEPs from six different countries (this will rise to 25 MEPs from seven different countries from June 2009). Once recognised groups receive financial subsidies from the parliament and guaranteed seats on Committees, creating an incentive for the formation of groups. However some controversy occurred with the establishment of the Identity, Tradition, Sovereignty (ITS) due to its ideology; the members of the group are far-right, so there were concerns about public funds going towards such a group. There were attempts to change the rules to block the formation of ITS, however that never came to fruition. They were, however, blocked from gaining leading positions on committees—a right that is meant to be afforded to all parties. When this group engaged in infighting, causing the withdrawal of some members, its size fell below the recognisable limit causing its collapse. Grand coalition Given that the Parliament does not form the government in the traditional sense of a Parliamentary system, its politics have developed along more consensual lines rather than majority rule of competing parties and coalitions. Indeed for much of its life it has been dominated by a grand coalition of the People's Party and Socialist Party. The two major parties tend to co-operate to find a compromise between their two groups leading to proposals endorsed by huge majorities. However there have been some occasions where real party politics have emerged, for example over the resignation of the Santer Commission; When the initial allegations against the Commission emerged, they were directed primarily against Édith Cresson and Manuel Marín, both socialist members. When the parliament was considering refusing to discharge the Community budget, President Jacques Santer stated that a no vote would be tantamount to a vote of no confidence. PES supported the Commission and saw the issue as an attempt by the EPP to discredit their party ahead of the 1999 elections. PES leader, Pauline Green MEP, attempted a vote of confidence and the EPP put forward counter motions. During this period the two parties took on similar roles to a government-opposition dynamic, with PES supporting the executive and EPP renouncing its previous coalition support and voting it down. Politicisation such as this has been increasing, in 2007 Simon Hix of the London School of Economics noted that; During the fifth term, 1999 to 2004, there was a break in the grand coalition resulting in a centre-right coalition between the Liberal and People's parties. This was reflected in the Presidency of the Parliament with the terms being shared between the EPP and the ELDR, rather than the EPP and PES. In the following term the liberal group grew to hold 88 seats, the largest number of seats held by any third party in Parliament. Elections Elections have taken place, directly in every member-state, every five years since 1979. As of 2004 there have been six. Occasionally, when a member joins mid-term, a by-election will be held to elect their members. This has happened four times, the last time was when Romania and Bulgaria joined in 2007 (see below). Elections take place across several days according to local custom and, aside from having to be proportional, the electoral system is chosen by the member-state. This includes allocation of sub-national constituencies; while most members have a national list, some, like the UK and France, divide their allocation between regions. Seats are allocated to member-states according to their population, with no state having more than 99, but no fewer than 5, in order to maintain proportionality. The most recent Union-wide elections to the European Parliament were the European elections of 2004, held in June of that year. They were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 400 million citizens were eligible to vote. The proportion of MEPs elected in 2004 who were female was 30.2%; in 1979 it was just 16.5%. The next Union-wide elections will be in 2009. There are a number of proposals to "dress up" the next elections to attract greater public attention to them. These include most notably the idea of linking them more closely to the Commission presidency. This would be by having political parties running with candidates for the job, so the largest party would essentially be forming the government, as in the parliamentary system of government. This was attempted in 2004, however only the European Green Party, which was the first true pan-European party to be established with a common campaign, proposed a candidate for the post of President: Daniel Cohn-Bendit. Meanwhile, the closest any other party had come was when the People's Party mentioned four or five people they'd like to be President. It is hoped such changes would add legitimacy and counter the falling turnout which has dropped consistently every year since the first election, and from 1999 it has been below 50%. In 2007 both Bulgaria and Romania elected their MEPs in by-elections, having joined at the beginning of 2007. The Bulgarian and Romanian elections saw two of the lowest turnouts for European elections, just 28.6% and 28.3% respectively. Proceedings Each year the activities of the Parliament cycle between committee weeks where reports are discussed in committees and interparliamentary delegations meet, political group weeks for members to discuss work within their political groups and session weeks where members spend 3½ days in Strasbourg for part-sessions. In addition six 2-day part-sessions are organised in Brussels throughout the year. Four weeks are allocated as constituency week to allow members to do exclusively constituency work. Finally there are no meetings planned during the summer weeks. The Parliament has the power to meet without being convened by another authority. Its meetings are partly controlled by the treaties but are otherwise up to Parliament according to its own "Rules of Procedure" (the regulations governing the parliament). During sessions, members may speak after being called on by the President, with a time limit of one minute. Members of the Council or Commission may also attend and speak in debates. Partly due to the need for translation, and the politics of consensus in the chamber, debates tend to be calmer and more polite than, say, the Westminster system. Voting is conducted primarily by a show of hands, that may be checked on request by electronic voting. Votes of MEPs are not recorded in either case however, that only occurs when there is a roll-call ballot. That is when each MEP in turn is called by name, in alphabetical order, to state their support or opposition: it is only used for certain important votes or when a political group of approximately one fifth of all MEPs requests it, but the number of roll-call votes has increased with time. Votes can also be a completely secret ballot (for example when the President is elected). Hix &al (see further reading below), §1.4 ("The dataset: roll-call votes in the European Parliament"), p.29–30. All recorded votes, along with minutes and legislation, are recorded in the Official Journal of the European Union and can be accessed online. Members are arranged in a hemicycle according to their political groups who are ordered mainly by left to right, but some smaller groups are placed towards the outer ring of the Parliament. All desks are equipped with microphones, headphones for translation and electronic voting equipment. The leaders of the groups sit on the front benches at the centre, and in the very centre is a podium for guest speakers. The remaining half of the circular chamber is primarily composed of the raised area where the President and staff sit. Further benches are provided between the sides of this area and the MEPs, these are taken up by the Council on the far left and the Commission on the far right. Both the Brussels and Strasbourg hemicycle roughly follow this layout with only minor differences. With access to the chamber limited, entrance is controlled by ushers who aid MEPs in the chamber (for example in delivering documents). The ushers also act as a form of police in enforcing the President, for example in ejecting an MEP who is disrupting the session (although this is rare). The first head of protocol in the Parliament was French, so many of the duties in the Parliament are based on the French model first developed following the French Revolution. The 180 ushers are highly visible in the Parliament, dressed in black tails and wearing a silver chain, and are recruited in the same manner as the European civil service. The President is allocated a personal usher. President and organisation The President, currently Hans-Gert Pöttering MEP of the EPP, is essentially the speaker of the Parliament. He or she presides over the plenary when it is in session and the President's signature is required for all acts adopted by co-decision, including the EU budget. The President is also responsible for representing the Parliament externally, including in legal matters, and for the application of the rules of procedure. He or she is elected for two-and-a-half-year terms, meaning two elections per parliamentary term. In most countries, the protocol of the head of state comes before all others, however in the EU the Parliament is listed as the first institution, and hence the protocol of its President comes before any other European, or national, protocol. The gifts given to numerous visiting dignitaries depends upon the President. President Josep Borrell MEP of Spain gave his counterparts a crystal cup created by an artist from Barcelona which had engraved upon it parts of the Charter of Fundamental Rights among other things. A number of notable figures have been President of the Parliament and its predecessors. The first President was Paul-Henri Spaak MEP, one of the founding fathers of the Union. Other founding fathers include Alcide de Gasperi MEP and Robert Schuman MEP. The two female Presidents were Simone Veil MEP in 1979 (first President of the elected Parliament) and Nicole Fontaine MEP in 1999, both Frenchwomen. During the election of a President, the plenary is presided over by the oldest member of the Parliament. In 2004 and 2007 this was Giovanni Berlinguer MEP. While the oldest member is in the chair, they hold all the powers of the President, but the only business that may be addressed is the election of the President. Below the President, there are 14 Vice-Presidents who chair debates when the President is not in the chamber. There are a number of other bodies and posts responsible for the running of parliament besides these speakers. The two main bodies are the Bureau, which is responsible for budgetary and administration issues, and the Conference of Presidents which is a governing body composed of the presidents of each of the parliament's political groups. Looking after the financial and administrative interests of members are six Quaestors. Committees and delegations The Parliament has 20 Standing Committees consisting of 28 to 86 MEPs each (reflecting the political makeup of the whole Parliament) including a chair, a bureau and secretariat. They meet twice a month in public to draw up, amend to adopt legislative proposals and reports to be presented to the plenary. The rapporteurs for a committee are supposed to present the view of the committee, although notably this has not always been the case. In the events leading to the resignation of the Santer Commission, the rapporteur went against the Budgetary Control Committee's narrow vote to discharge the budget, and urged the Parliament to reject it. Committees can also set up sub-committees (e.g. the Subcommittee on Human Rights) and temporary committees to deal with a specific topic (e.g. on extraordinary rendition). The chairs of the Committees co-ordinate their work through the "Conference of Committee Chairmen". When co-decision was introduced it increased the Parliaments powers in a number of areas, but most notably those covered by the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety. Previously this committee was considered by MEPs as a "Cinderella committee", however as it gained a new importance, it became more professional and rigorous attracting more and more attention to its work. The nature of the committees differ from their national counterparts as, although smaller in comparison to those of the United States Congress, the European Parliament's committees are unusually large by European standards with between eight and twelve dedicated members of staff and three to four support staff. Considerable administration, archives and research resources are also at the disposal of the whole Parliament when needed. Delegations of the Parliament are formed in a similar manner and are responsible for relations with Parliaments outside the EU. There are 34 delegations made up of around 15 MEPs, chairpersons of the delegations also cooperate in a conference like the committee chairs do. They include "Interparliamentary delegations" (maintain relations with Parliament outside the EU), "joint parliamentary committees" (maintaining relations with parliaments of states which are candidates or associates of the EU), the delegation to the ACP EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly and the delegation to the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly. MEPs also participate in other international activities such as the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly, the Transatlantic Legislators' Dialogue and through election observation in third countries. Translation and interpreting Speakers in the European Parliament are entitled to speak in any of the EU's 23 official languages, ranging from English and French to Maltese and Swedish. Simultaneous interpreting is offered in all plenary sessions, and all final texts of legislation are translated. With twenty-three languages, the European Parliament is the most multilingual parliament in the world and the biggest employer of interpreters in the world (employing 350 full time and 400 free-lancers when there is higher demand). Citizens may also address the Parliament in Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician. Usually a language is translated from a foreign tongue into a translator's native tongue. Due to the large number of languages, some being minor ones, since 1995 translation is sometimes done the opposite way, out of a translator's native tongue (the "retour" system). In addition, a speech in a minor language may be translated via a third language for lack of interpreters ("relay" interpreting) —for example, when translating Estonian into Maltese. Interpreters need to be proficient in two other Union languages besides their native language. Due to the complexity of the issues, translation is not word for word. Instead, interpreters have to convey the political meaning of a speech, regardless of their own views. This requires detailed understanding of the politics and terms of the Parliament, involving a great deal of preparation beforehand (e.g. reading the documents in question). Difficulty can often arise when MEPs use colourful language, jokes and word play or speak too fast. While some see speaking their native language as an important part of their identity, and can speak more fluently in debates, the translation and the cost of it has been criticised by some. A 2006 report by Alexander Stubb MEP highlighted that by only using English, French and German costs could be reduced from €118,000 per day (for 21 languages then—Romanian and Bulgarian having not yet been included) to €8,900 per day. Although many see the ideal single language as being English due to its widespread usage, there is a campaign to make French the single tongue for all legal texts, due to the view that it is more clear and precise for legal purposes. Although this would not directly affect translation in the plenary, it would shift the balance towards French when discussing draft legislation. Seat The Parliament is based in three different cities with numerous buildings. A protocol attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam requires that 12 plenary sessions be held in Strasbourg (none in August but two in September), which is the Parliament's official seat, while extra part sessions as well as committee meetings are held in Brussels. Luxembourg hosts the Secretariat of the European Parliament. The European Parliament is the only assembly in the world with more than one meeting place and also one of the few that cannot decide its own location. The Strasbourg seat is seen as a symbol of reconciliation between France and Germany, the Strasbourg region having been fought over by the two countries in the past. However it is questioned over the cost of having two seats for the parliament. While Strasbourg is the official seat, and sits alongside the Council of Europe (with which the "mutual cooperation" is being continuously "fostered"), Brussels is home to nearly all other major EU institutions, with the majority of Parliament's work already being carried out there. Therefore despite Strasbourg being the main seat, it is the one most questioned, although some do believe Strasbourg should be the single capital. Critics have described the two-seat arrangement as a "travelling circus", and there is a strong movement to establish Brussels as the sole seat. This is due to the fact that the other political institutions (the Commission, Council and European Council) are located there, and hence Brussels is treated as the 'capital' of the EU. This movement has received strong backing through numerous figures, including the Commission First-Vice President who stated that "something that was once a very positive symbol of the EU reuniting France and Germany has now become a negative symbol—of wasting money, bureaucracy and the insanity of the Brussels institutions". The Green party has also noted the environmental cost in a study led by Jean Lambert MEP and Caroline Lucas MEP; in addition to the extra 200 million euro spent on the extra seat, there are over 20,268 tonnes of additional carbon dioxide, undermining any environmental stance of the institution and the Union. The campaign is further backed by a million-strong online petition started by Cecilia Malmström MEP. In 2006 there were allegations of irregularity in the charges made by the city of Strasbourg on buildings the Parliament rented which harmed the city's image further. A poll of MEPs also found 89% of the respondents (39%) wanting a single seat, and 81% preferring Brussels. Another, more academic, survey found 68% support. However, as Parliament's seat is fixed by the treaties, it can only be changed by the Council unanimously, meaning it could be vetoed by a single country: notably, France. French President Nicolas Sarkozy has stated that its seat is "non-negotiable", having no intention of surrendering the French based seat. Future of the Parliament The Treaty of Lisbon, currently in stalled ratification, largely retains the reforms outlined in the rejected Constitutional Treaty. Overall, powers would be increased. For example, nearly all policy areas would fall under co-decision procedure (now called the "ordinary legislative procedure") meaning that the Parliament would have practically equal powers to those of the Council (now officially the Council of Ministers). In the remaining minority of areas in which the powers remain unequal, the Council must consult the Parliament and/or seek its approval on the legislation. The Parliament also gains greater powers over the entirety of the EU budget, not just non-compulsory expenditure, through the ordinary legislative procedure. In terms of the composition of the Parliament there would be little change, however the minimum number of seats would be increased from 5 to 6 and the maximum number would be reduced from 99 to 96. There would also be basic rules on the distribution of seats in the Parliament, rather than them being negotiated at each enlargement. Decisions about the composition of the Parliament are currently made by the Council, this would remain so but the decision would be made based on a proposal from the Parliament itself. The European Council would be bound to take into account the latest elections when proposing the Commission President, something that they willingly did after the 2004 election. As currently, the Parliament's consent is needed for the President to take office, however the Treaty of Lisbon now uses the word "elect" rather than "approve" to refer to this procedure. This is an area however in which the Council of Ministers plays no part. It will remain to be seen whether calling it an election will spur political groups to use their power and mandate to propose their own candidate rather than accept that of the European Council, similar to the situation in constitutional monarchies where the head of state has the power to choose the head of government but is de facto limited into accepting the candidate of the victorious party in parliament. There have been suggestions that the parliament's political groups may propose their own candidates before the 2009 election. No major party proposed a candidate in 2004 with the fractious nature of the European-level parties being, in part, why a single candidate has not been proposed. However there are plans to strengthen the political parties before the elections and the European Green Party, the first to have a common campaign, did manage to put forward a candidate. In 2007, Franco Frattini indicated he would like to act as though the treaty was already in force, in respects to the Parliament's powers over justice and criminal matters, in order to inject more democracy and ensure the Parliament had over sight on forthcoming legislation Frattini did not wish to delay until 2009. In addition to the institutional reforms brought by the Treaty of Lisbon, in 2007 the President set up the Special working group on parliamentary reform to improve the efficiency and image of the Parliament. Some ideas include livening up the plenary sessions and a State of the Union debate. One of the group's key reform ideas, extra debates on topical issues, was rejected by MEPs causing liberal leader Graham Watson MEP to withdraw from the reform group. However MEPs did back a proposal for greater use of the European symbols, following their rejection in the Treaty of Lisbon. It was suggested the Parliament take the avant-garde in using the symbols as it had done in adopting the flag in 1983, which was three years before the Communities as a whole. An interim report was presented in September 2007 and proposed cutting down time allocated for guest speakers and non-legislative documents. In 2006, 92 "own initiative" reports (commenting rather than legislating) were tables and 22% of debating time was spent debating such reports, while only 18% was spent on legislative bills. The group is due to produce a final report in July 2008, and put the recommendations into practice by the 2009 elections however Watson has stated that he doubts the left-right coalition in Parliament can pass the proposals due to opposition from more conservative members. Other members such as the co-chair of ID, Jens-Peter Bonde MEP, had wanted more radical proposals. Bonde did however vote for the report, stating that "it is psychologically important to show that we want to become a more political parliament." See also References Further reading (draft version on-line) External links Official web site europarltv: official webtv of the European Parliament Live streaming debate Previous recorded debates Session information Legislative Observatory Official Register of MEPs Rules of Procedure Offices in Member states EP Fact Sheets Eurela Election News Supranational party system BBC Parliament guide Robert Schuman, the history and purpose of the European Community and the supranational method. 360º tour of European Parliament Brussels | European_Parliament |@lemmatized european:72 parliament:163 europarl:1 ep:2 directly:8 elect:18 parliamentary:18 institution:26 union:22 eu:25 together:2 council:41 form:9 bicameral:2 legislative:20 branch:3 describe:3 one:14 powerful:1 legislature:3 world:7 high:2 body:11 within:6 however:30 power:36 limit:6 competency:1 confer:1 upon:6 community:15 member:50 state:35 hence:5 little:2 control:9 policy:5 area:9 hold:15 two:25 three:8 pillar:1 compose:4 meps:34 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1,743 | Freemasonry | The Masonic Square and Compasses.(Found with or without the letter G) Freemasonry is a fraternal organisation that arose from obscure origins in the late 16th to early 17th century. Freemasonry now exists in various forms all over the world, with a membership estimated at around 5 million, including just under two million in the United States and around 480,000 in England, Scotland and Ireland. Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 52. UGLE. The various forms all share moral and metaphysical ideals, which include, in most cases, a constitutional declaration of belief in a Supreme Being. The fraternity is administratively organised into Grand Lodges (or sometimes Orients), each of which governs its own jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or constituent) Lodges. Grand Lodges recognise each other through a process of landmarks and regularity. There are also appendant bodies, which are organisations related to the main branch of Freemasonry, but with their own independent administration. Freemasonry uses the metaphors of operative stonemasons' tools and implements, against the allegorical backdrop of the building of King Solomon's Temple, to convey what has been described by both Masons and critics as "a system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols." Masonic Service Association - Short Talk Bulletin as reprinted on the website of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana. History The origins and early development of Freemasonry are a matter of some debate and conjecture. A poem known as the "Regius Manuscript" has been dated to approximately 1390 and is the oldest known Masonic text. There is evidence to suggest that there were Masonic lodges in existence in Scotland as early as the late sixteenth century (for example the Lodge at Kilwinning, Scotland, has records that date to the late 1500s, and is mentioned in the Second Schaw Statutes (1599) which specified that "ye warden of ye lug of Kilwynning [...] tak tryall of ye airt of memorie and science yrof, of everie fellowe of craft and everie prenteiss according to ayr of yr vocations"). Second Schaw Statutes, 1599. There are clear references to the existence of lodges in England by the mid-seventeenth century. Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of England was founded The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of England (GLE), was founded on 24 June 1717, when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner. This rapidly expanded into a regulatory body, which most English Lodges joined. However, a few lodges resented some of the modernisations that GLE endorsed, such as the creation of the Third Degree, and formed a rival Grand Lodge on 17 July 1751, which they called the "Antient Grand Lodge of England". The two competing Grand Lodges vied for supremacy – the "Moderns" (GLE) and the "Antients" (or "Ancients") – until they united 25 November 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE). The Grand Lodges of Ireland and Scotland were formed in 1725 and 1736 respectively. Freemasonry was exported to the British Colonies in North America by the 1730s – with both the "Antients" and the "Moderns" (as well as the Grand Lodges of Ireland and Scotland) chartering offspring ("daughter") Lodges, and organising various Provincial Grand Lodges. After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand Lodges formed themselves within each State. Some thought was briefly given to organising an over-arching "Grand Lodge of the United States", with George Washington (who was a member of a Virginian lodge) as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various State Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body. Although there are no real differences in the Freemasonry practiced by lodges chartered by the Antients or the Moderns, the remnants of this division can still be seen in the names of most Lodges, F.& A.M. being Free and Accepted Masons and A.F.& A.M. being Antient Free and Accepted Masons. The oldest jurisdiction on the continent of Europe, the Grand Orient de France (GOdF), was founded in 1728. However, most English-speaking jurisdictions cut formal relations with the GOdF around 1877 – when the GOdF removed the requirement that its members have a belief in a Deity (thereby accepting atheists). The Grande Loge Nationale Française (GLNF) is currently the only French Grand Lodge that is in regular amity with the UGLE and its many concordant jurisdictions worldwide. Due to the above history, Freemasonry is often said to consist of two branches not in mutual regular amity: the UGLE and concordant tradition of jurisdictions (mostly termed Grand Lodges) in amity, and the GOdF, European Continental, tradition of jurisdictions (often termed Grand Orients) in amity. In most Latin countries, the GOdF-style of European Continental Freemasonry predominates, although in most of these Latin countries there are also Grand Lodges that are in regular amity with the UGLE and the worldwide community of Grand Lodges that share regular "fraternal relations" with the UGLE. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow more closely to the UGLE style, although minor variations exist. Organisational structure Freemasons Hall, London, home of the United Grand Lodge of England. Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state, or geographical area (termed a jurisdiction). See Preamble. There is no single overarching governing body that presides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition. Example letter to request recognition. Regularity Regularity is a constitutional mechanism whereby Grand Lodges or Grand Orients give one another mutual recognition. This recognition allows formal interaction at the Grand Lodge level, and gives individual Freemasons the opportunity to attend Lodge meetings in other recognised jurisdictions. Conversely, regularity proscribes interaction with Lodges that are irregular. A Mason who visits an irregular Lodge may have his membership suspended for a time, or he may be expelled. For this reason, all Grand Lodges maintain lists of other jurisdictions and lodges they consider regular. Grand Lodges and Grand Orients that afford mutual recognition and allow intervisitation are said to be in amity. As far as the UGLE is concerned, regularity is predicated upon a number of landmarks, set down in the UGLE Constitution and the Constitutions of those Grand Lodges with which they are in amity. Even within this definition there are some variations with the quantity and content of the Landmarks from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Other Masonic groups organise differently. Each of the two major branches of Freemasonry considers the Lodges within its branch to be "regular" and those in the other branch to be "irregular". As the UGLE branch is significantly larger, however, the various Grand Lodges and Grand Orients in amity with UGLE are commonly referred to as being "regular" (or "Mainstream") Masonry, while those Grand Lodges and Grand Orients in amity with GOdF are commonly referred to "liberal" or "irregular" Masonry. (The issue is complicated by the fact that the usage of "Lodge" versus "Orient" alone is not an indicator of which branch a body belongs to, and thus not an indication of regularity). The term "irregular" is also universally applied to various self created bodies that call themselves "Masonic" but are not recognised by either of the main branches. Masonic Lodge A Masonic Lodge Room A Lodge (often termed a Private Lodge or Constituent Lodge in Masonic constitutions) is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. Every new Lodge must have a Warrant or Charter issued by a Grand Lodge, authorising it to meet and work. Except for the very few "time immemorial" Lodges pre-dating the formation of a Grand Lodge, masons who meet as a Lodge without displaying this document (for example, in prisoner-of-war camps) are deemed "Clandestine" and irregular. A Lodge must hold regular meetings at a fixed place and published dates. It will elect, initiate and promote its members and officers; it will build up and manage its property and assets, including its minutes and records; and it may own, occupy or share its premises. Like any organisation, it will have formal business to manage its meetings and proceedings, annual general meetings and committees, charity funds, correspondence and reports, membership and subscriptions, accounts and tax returns, special events and catering, and so forth. The balance of activities is individual to each Lodge, and under their common constitutions and forms of procedure, Lodges evolve very distinctive traditions. A man can only be initiated, or made a Mason, in a Lodge, of which he may often remain a subscribing member for life. A Master Mason can generally visit any Lodge meeting under any jurisdiction in amity with his own, and as well as the formal meeting, a Lodge may well offer hospitality. A visitor should first check the regularity of that Lodge, and must be able to satisfy that Lodge of his own regularity; and he may be refused admission if adjudged likely to disrupt the harmony of the Lodge. If he wishes to visit the same Lodge repeatedly, he may be expected to join it and pay a subscription. Most Lodges consist of Freemasons living or working within a given town or neighbourhood. Other Lodges are composed of Masons with a particular shared interest, profession or background. Shared schools, universities, military units, Masonic appointments or degrees, arts, professions and hobbies have all been the qualifications for such Lodges. In some Lodges, the foundation and name may now be only of historic interest, as over time the membership evolves beyond that envisaged by its "founding brethren"; in others, the membership remains exclusive. There are also specialist Lodges of Research, with membership drawn from Master Masons only, with interests in Masonic Research (of history, philosophy, etc.). Lodges of Research are fully warranted but, generally, do not initiate new candidates. Lodges of Instruction in UGLE may be warranted by any ordinary Lodge for the learning and rehearsal of Masonic Ritual. Freemasons correctly meet as a Lodge, not in a Lodge, the word "Lodge" referring more to the people assembled than the place of assembly. However, in common usage, Masonic premises are often referred to as "Lodges". Masonic buildings are also sometimes called "Temples" ("of Philosophy and the Arts"). In many countries, Masonic Centre or Hall has replaced Temple to avoid arousing prejudice and suspicion. Several different Lodges, as well as other Masonic or non-Masonic organisations, often use the same premises at different times. According to Masonic tradition, medieval European stonemasons would meet, eat and shelter outside working hours in a Lodge on the southern side of a building site, where the sun warms the stones during the day. The social Festive Board (or Social Board) part of the meeting is thus sometimes called the South. Early Lodges often met in a tavern or any other convenient fixed place with a private room. Lodge Officers Every Masonic Lodge elects certain officers to execute the necessary functions of the lodge's work. The Worshipful Master (essentially the lodge President) is always an elected officer. Most jurisdictions will also elect the Senior and Junior Wardens (Vice Presidents), the Secretary and the Treasurer. All lodges will have a Tyler, or Tiler, (who guards the door to the lodge room while the lodge is in session), sometimes elected and sometimes appointed by the Master. In addition to these elected officers, lodges will have various appointed officers – such as Deacons, Stewards, and a Chaplain (appointed to lead a non-denominational prayer at the convocation of meetings or activities – often, but not necessarily, a clergyman). The specific offices and their functions vary between jurisdictions. Many offices are replicated at the Provincial and Grand Lodge levels with the addition of the word 'Grand' somewhere in the title. For example, where every lodge has a 'Junior Warden', Grand Lodges have a 'Grand Junior Warden' (or sometimes 'Junior Grand Warden'). Additionally, there are a number of offices that exist only at the Grand Lodge level. Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. pp. 97-104. Prince Hall Freemasonry Prince Hall Freemasonry derives from historical events in the early United States that led to a tradition of separate, predominantly African-American Freemasonry in North America. In 1775, an African-American named Prince Hall was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge then in , along with fourteen other African-Americans, all of whom were free-born. When the Military Lodge left North America, those fifteen men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees, nor to do other Masonic work. In 1784, these individuals applied for, and obtained, a Lodge Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge of England (GLE) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the UGLE was formed in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls – due largely to the War of 1812. Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 – and became a de facto "Grand Lodge" (this Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa). As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state. Widespread segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for African-Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions – and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities. Prince Hall Masonry has always been regular in all respects except constitutional separation, and this separation has diminished in recent years. At present, Prince Hall Grand Lodges are recognised by some UGLE Concordant Grand Lodges and not by others, but they appear to be working toward full recognition, with UGLE granting at least some degree of recognition. There are a growing number of both Prince Hall Lodges and non-Prince Hall Lodges that have ethnically diverse membership. Other degrees, orders and bodies There is no degree in Freemasonry higher than that of Master Mason, the Third Degree. There are, however, a number of organisations that require being a Master Mason as a prerequisite for membership. These bodies have no authority over the Craft. These orders or degrees may be described as additional or appendant, and often provide a further perspective on some of the allegorical, moral and philosophical content of Freemasonry. Appendant bodies are administered separately from Craft Grand Lodges but are styled Masonic since every member must be a Mason. However, Craft Masonic jurisdictions vary in their relationships with such bodies, if a relationship exists at all. The Articles of Union of the "Modern" and "Antient" craft Grand Lodges (into UGLE in 1813) limited recognition to certain degrees, such as the Royal Arch and the "chivalric degrees", but there were and are many other degrees that have been worked since before the Union. Some bodies are not universally considered to be appendant bodies, but rather separate organisations that happen to require prior Masonic affiliation for membership. Some of these organisations have additional requirements, such as religious adherence (e.g., requiring members to profess Trinitarian Christian beliefs) or membership of other bodies. Quite apart from these, there are organisations that are often thought of as being related to Freemasonry, but which have no formal or informal connections with Freemasonry. These include such organisations as the Orange Order, which originated in Ireland, the Knights of Pythias, or the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Q&A: Other organisations on the UGLE webpage. Principles and activities While Freemasonry has often been called a "secret society", Freemasons themselves argue that it is more correct to say that it is an esoteric society, in that certain aspects are private. The most common phrasing being that Freemasonry has, in the 21st century, become less a secret society and more of a "society with secrets". The private aspects of modern Freemasonry are the modes of recognition amongst members and particular elements within the ritual. Despite the organisation's great diversity, Freemasonry's central preoccupations remain charitable work within a local or wider community, moral uprightness (in most cases requiring a belief in a Supreme Being) as well as the development and maintenance of fraternal friendship – as James Anderson's Constitutions originally urged – amongst brethren. Ritual, symbolism, and morality Masons conduct their meetings using a ritualised format. There is no single Masonic ritual, and each Jurisdiction is free to set (or not set) its own ritual. However, there are similarities that exist among Jurisdictions. For example, all Masonic ritual makes use of the architectural symbolism of the tools of the medieval operative stonemason. Freemasons, as speculative masons (meaning philosophical building rather than actual building), use this symbolism to teach moral and ethical lessons of the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief, and Truth" – or as related in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". The Square and Compasses carved into stone Two of the principal symbolic tools always found in a Lodge are the square and compasses. Some Lodges and rituals explain these tools as lessons in conduct: for example, that Masons should "square their actions by the square of virtue" and to learn to "circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind". However, as Freemasonry is non-dogmatic, there is no general interpretation for these tools (or any Masonic emblem) that is used by Freemasonry as a whole. These moral lessons are communicated in performance of allegorical ritual. A candidate progresses through degrees gaining knowledge and understanding of himself, his relationship with others and his relationship with the Supreme Being (as per his own interpretation). While the philosophical aspects of Freemasonry tend to be discussed in Lodges of Instruction or Research, and sometimes informal groups, Freemasons, and others, frequently publish – to varying degrees of competence – studies that are available to the public. Any mason may speculate on the symbols and purpose of Freemasonry, and indeed all masons are required to some extent to speculate on masonic meaning as a condition of advancing through the degrees. There is no one accepted meaning and no one person "speaks" for the whole of Freemasonry. Hodapp, Christopher; Freemasons for Dummies p. 15. Some lodges make use of Tracing boards. These are painted or printed illustrations depicting the various symbolic emblems of Freemasonry. They can be used as teaching aids during the lectures that follow each of the three Degrees, when an experienced member explains the various concepts of Freemasonry to new members. They can also be used by experienced members as self-reminders of the concepts they learned as they went through their initiations. The Supreme Being and the Volume of Sacred Law Candidates for regular Freemasonry are required to declare a belief in a Supreme Being. However, the candidate is not asked to expand on, or explain, his interpretation of Supreme Being. The discussion of politics and religion is forbidden within a Masonic Lodge, in part so a Mason will not be placed in the situation of having to justify his personal interpretation. Becoming a Mason - To become one, ask one: What is Freemasonry? accessed 10 June 2007. Thus, reference to the Supreme Being will mean the Christian Trinity to a Christian Mason, Allah to a Muslim Mason, Para Brahman to a Hindu Mason, etc. And while most Freemasons would take the view that the term Supreme Being equates to God, others may hold a more complex or philosophical interpretation of the term. In the ritual, the Supreme Being is referred to as the Great Architect of the Universe, which alludes to the use of architectural symbolism within Freemasonry. A Volume of the Sacred Law is always displayed in an open Lodge in those jurisdictions which require a belief in the Supreme Being. In English-speaking countries, this is frequently the King James Version of the Bible or another standard translation; there is no such thing as an exclusive "Masonic Bible". In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used instead. Furthermore, a candidate is given his choice of religious text for his Obligation, according to his beliefs. UGLE alludes to similarities to legal practice in the UK, and to a common source with other oath taking processes. In Lodges with a membership of mixed religions it is common to find more than one sacred text displayed. Degrees The three degrees of Craft or Blue Lodge Freemasonry are those of: Entered Apprentice – the degree of an Initiate, which makes one a Freemason; Fellow Craft – an intermediate degree, involved with learning; Master Mason – the "third degree", a necessity for participation in most aspects of Masonry. The degrees represent stages of personal development. No Freemason is told that there is only one meaning to the allegories; as a Freemason works through the degrees and studies their lessons, he interprets them for himself, his personal interpretation being bounded only by the Constitution within which he works. A common symbolic structure and universal archetypes provide a means for each Freemason to come to his own answers to life's important philosophical questions. As previously stated, there is no degree of Craft Freemasonry higher than that of Master Mason. Although some Masonic bodies and orders have further degrees named with higher numbers, these degrees may be considered to be supplements to the Master Mason degree rather than promotions from it. An example is the Scottish Rite, conferring degrees numbered from 4° up to 33°. It is essential to be a Master Mason in order to qualify for these further degrees. They are administered on a parallel system to Craft or Blue Lodge Freemasonry; within each organisation there is a system of offices, which confer rank within that degree or order alone. In some jurisdictions, especially those in continental Europe, Freemasons working through the degrees may be asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present these papers in open Lodge. There is an enormous bibliography of Masonic papers, magazines and publications ranging from fanciful abstractions which construct spiritual and moral lessons of varying value, through practical handbooks on organisation, management and ritual performance, to serious historical and philosophical papers entitled to academic respect. Signs, grips and words Freemasons use signs (gestures), grips or tokens (handshakes) and words to gain admission to meetings and identify legitimate visitors. From the early 18th century onwards, many exposés have been written claiming to reveal these signs, grips and passwords to the uninitiated. A classic response was deliberately to transpose certain words in the ritual, so as to catch out anyone relying on the exposé. However, since each Grand Lodge is free to create its own rituals, the signs, grips and passwords can and do differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Furthermore, Grand Lodges can and do change their rituals periodically, updating the language used, adding or omitting sections. John J. Robinson, A Pilgrim's Path, M. Evans and Co., Inc. New York, p.129 Therefore, any exposé can only be valid for a particular jurisdiction at a particular time, and is always difficult for an outsider to verify. Today, an unknown visitor may be required to produce a certificate, dues card or other documentation of membership in addition to demonstrating knowledge of the signs, grips and passwords. Obligations Obligations are those elements of ritual in which a candidate swears to abide by the rules of the fraternity and to keep the secrets of Freemasonry, which are the various signs, tokens and words associated with recognition in each degree, as well as to perform certain duties and to avoid doing those things which are prohibited by his Obligation. In regular jurisdictions these obligations are sworn on the aforementioned Volume of the Sacred Law and in the witness of the Supreme Being and often with assurance that it is of the candidate's own free will. Details of the obligations vary; some versions are published while others are privately printed in books of coded text. Still other jurisdictions rely on oral transmission of ritual, and thus have no ritual books at all. Moreover, not all printed rituals are authentic – Leo Taxil's exposure, for example, is a proven hoax, while Duncan's Masonic Monitor (created, in part, by merging elements of several rituals then in use) was never adopted by any regular jurisdiction. The obligations are historically known amongst various sources critical of Freemasonry for their so-called "bloody penalties", "One is made to swear secrecy to the point that bloody penalties of death are involved." Testimony of Duane Washum, Past Worshipful Master, ephesians5-11 an allusion to the apparent physical penalties associated with each degree. This leads to some descriptions of the Obligations as "Oaths". The corresponding text, with regard to the penalties, does not appear in authoritative, endorsed sources, following a decision "that all references to physical penalties be omitted from the obligations taken by Candidates in the three Degrees and by a Master Elect at his Installation but retained elsewhere in the respective ceremonies". The penalties are interpreted symbolically, and are not applied in actuality by a Lodge or by any other body of Masonry. The descriptive nature of the penalties alludes to how the candidate should feel about himself should he knowingly violate his obligation. Modern actual penalties may include suspension, expulsion or reprimand. Whilst no single obligation is representative of Freemasonry as a whole, a number of common themes appear when considering a range of potential texts. Content which may appear in at least one of the three obligations includes: the candidate promises to act in a manner befitting a member of civilised society, promises to obey the law of his Supreme Being, promises to obey the law of his sovereign state, promises to attend his lodge if he is able, promises not to wrong, cheat nor defraud the Lodge or the brethren, and promises aid or charity to a member of the human family, brethren and their families in times of need if it can be done without causing financial harm to himself or his dependents. Landmarks The Landmarks of Masonry are defined as ancient and unchangeable principles; standards by which the regularity of Lodges and Grand Lodges are judged. Each Grand Lodge is self-governing and no single authority exists over the whole of Freemasonry. The interpretation of these principles therefore can and does vary, leading to controversies of recognition. The concept of Masonic Landmarks appears in Masonic regulations as early as 1723, and seems to be adopted from the regulations of operative masonic guilds. In 1858, Albert G. Mackey attempted to set down 25 Landmarks. (Transcribed by Eugene Goldman, 10 September 1998.) In 1863, George Oliver published a Freemason's Treasury in which he listed 40 Landmarks. A number of American Grand Lodges have attempted the task of enumerating the Landmarks; numbers differing from West Virginia (7) and New Jersey (10) to Nevada (39) and Kentucky (54). Charitable effort The fraternity is widely involved in charity and community service activities. In contemporary times, money is collected only from the membership, and is to be devoted to charitable purposes. Freemasonry worldwide disburses substantial charitable amounts to non-Masonic charities, locally, nationally and internationally. http://www.ugle.org.uk/charity/intro.htm http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/masonic_charity.html In earlier centuries, however, charitable funds were collected more on the basis of a Provident or Friendly Society, and there were elaborate regulations to determine a petitioner's eligibility for consideration for charity, according to strictly Masonic criteria. Some examples of Masonic charities include: Homes that provide sheltered housing or nursing care. Education with both educational grants or schools such as the Royal Masonic School (UK) which are open to all and not limited to the families of Freemasons. Medical assistance. Masonic Child Identification Programs (CHIP). In addition to these, there are thousands of philanthropic organisations around the world created by Freemasons. The Masonic Service Association, Masonic Service Association. the Masonic Medical Research Laboratory, Welcome to the Masonic Medical Research Laboratory. and the Shriners Hospitals for Children Shriners - Welcome. are especially notable charitable endeavours that Masons have founded and continue to support both intellectually and monetarily. Membership requirements Freemasonry initiation. 18th century A candidate for Freemasonry must petition a lodge in his community, obtaining an introduction by asking an existing member, who then becomes the candidate's proposer. In some jurisdictions, it is required that the petitioner ask three times, although this is becoming less prevalent. In other jurisdictions, more open advertising is utilised to inform potential candidates where to go for more information. Regardless of how a potential candidate receives his introduction to a Lodge, he must be freely elected by secret ballot in open Lodge. Members approving his candidacy often vote with "white balls" in the voting box. A certain number of adverse votes by "black balls" will exclude a candidate. The number of adverse votes necessary to reject a candidate varies between Lodges and jurisdictions, but sometimes a single adverse vote will be enough. General requirements Generally, to be a regular Freemason, a candidate must: Be a man who comes of his own free will. Believe in a Supreme Being (the form of which is left to open interpretation by the candidate). Be at least the minimum age (from 18–25 years old depending on the jurisdiction). Be of good morals, and of good reputation. Be of sound mind and body (Lodges had in the past denied membership to a man because of a physical disability; however, now, if a potential candidate says a disability will not cause problems, it will not be held against him). Be free-born (or "born free", i.e. not born a slave or bondsman). Robinson also states that the presence of the requirement meant that Freemasonry was organisationally much older than the 1717 founding of the Premier Grand Lodge of England. As with the previous, this is entirely an historical holdover, and can be interpreted in the same manner as it is in the context of being entitled to write a will. Some jurisdictions have removed this requirement. Be capable of furnishing character references, as well as one or two references from current Masons, depending on jurisdiction. Deviation from one or more of these requirements is generally the barometer of Masonic regularity or irregularity. However, an accepted deviation in some regular jurisdictions is to allow a Lewis (the son of a Mason) to be initiated earlier than the normal minimum age for that jurisdiction, although no earlier than the age of 18. Some Grand Lodges in the United States have an additional residence requirement, candidates being expected to have lived within the jurisdiction for a certain period of time, typically six months. Membership and religion Freemasonry explicitly and openly states that it is neither a religion nor a substitute for one. "There is no separate Masonic God", nor a separate proper name for a deity in any branch of Freemasonry. Regular Freemasonry requires that its candidates believe in a Supreme Being, but the interpretation of the term is subject to the conscience of the candidate. This means that men from a wide range of faiths, including (but not limited to) Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism, Hinduism, etc. can and have become Masons. Since the early 19th century, in the irregular Continental European tradition (meaning irregular to those Grand Lodges in amity with the United Grand Lodge of England), a very broad interpretation has been given to a (non-dogmatic) Supreme Being; in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – or views of The Ultimate Cosmic Oneness – along with Western atheistic idealism and agnosticism. Freemasonry in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, on the other hand, accepts only Christians. In addition, some appendant bodies (or portions thereof) may have religious requirements. These have no bearing, however, on what occurs at the lodge level. Women and Freemasonry Since the adoption of Anderson's constitution in 1723, it has been accepted as fact by regular Masons that only men can be made Masons. Most Grand Lodges do not admit women because they believe it would violate the ancient Landmarks. While a few women, such as Elizabeth Aldworth, were initiated into British speculative lodges prior to 1723, The Hon. Miss St. Leger and Freemasonry, by Edward Conder, Ars Quatuor Coronatorum vol viii (1895) pp. 16-23, 53-6. vol. xviii (1905) p. 46, and reprinted on the website of the Grand Lodge of BC&Y. officially regular Freemasonry remains exclusive to men. While women cannot join regular lodges, there are (mainly within the borders of the United States) many female orders associated with regular Freemasonry and its appendant bodies, such as the Order of the Eastern Star, the Order of the Amaranth, the White Shrine of Jerusalem, the Social Order of Beauceant and the Daughters of the Nile. These have their own rituals and traditions, but are founded on the Masonic model. In the French context, women in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had been admitted into what were known as "adoption lodges" in which they could participate in ritual life. However, men clearly saw this type of adoption Freemasonry as distinct from their exclusively male variety. From the late nineteenth century onward, mixed gender lodges have met in France. In addition, there are many non-mainstream Masonic bodies that do admit both men and women or are exclusively for women. Co-Freemasonry admits both men and women, co-masonry.org Official site. but it is held to be irregular because it admits women. The systematic admission of women into International Co-Freemasonry began in France in 1882. In more recent times, women have created and maintained separate Lodges, working the same rituals as the all male regular lodges. These Female Masons have founded lodges around the world, and these Lodges continue to gain membership. Opposition to and criticism of Freemasonry Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) has been defined as "opposition to Freemasonry". Anti-Masonry - Oxford English Dictionary (Compact Edition), Oxford University Press, 1979, p.369 Webster's dictionary However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. They include religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists. There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the eighteenth century. These often lack context, may be outdated for various reasons, or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax. Lists many books which perpetuate Masonic ritual hoaxes. These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, usually religious in nature (mainly Roman Catholic and evangelical Christian), or political in nature (usually Socialist or Communist dictatorial objections, The New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967) Soviet Russia outlawed Masonry in 1922. Freemasonry does not exist today in the Soviet Union, China, or other Communist states. Postwar revivals of Freemasonry in Czechoslovakia and Hungary were suppressed in 1950. , but also arising in the historical Anti-Masonic Party in the United States), or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the "Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave rise to the term "Anti-Masonry", which is still in use today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves. infoplease.com definition of "anti-mason". Religious opposition Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or supposed heterodoxy within the Fraternity itself, and has long been the target of conspiracy theories, which see it as an occult and evil power. Christianity and Freemasonry Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian denominations have had high profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the Roman Catholic Church. The objections raised by the Roman Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conflict with Church doctrine. A number of Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry. The first was Pope Clement XII's In Eminenti, 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Leo XIII's Ab Apostolici, 15 October 1890. The 1917 Code of Canon Law explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication. Canon 2335, 1917 Code of Canon Law from The 1917 Code of Canon Law also forbade books friendly to Freemasonry. In 1983, the Church issued a new Code of Canon Law. Unlike its predecessor, it did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns. It states in part: "A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an interdict." This omission caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II. However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued Quaesitum est, which states: "... the Church’s negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion." Thus, from a Catholic perspective, there is still a ban on Catholics joining Masonic Lodges. For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE deny the Church's claims and state that they explicitly adhere to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion." In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism. Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues. However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was controversial among Freemasons in general, representing his personal opinion only, and furthermore an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the USA alone. Indeed his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry. Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the Church of England have been Freemasons, such as Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher. In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and practicing Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, appears to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, whilst being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth. Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often repeated statement that those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE explicitly adhere to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity', and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry". In recent years, however, this has begun to change. Many Masonic websites and publications address these criticisms specifically. Islam and Freemasonry Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to both Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism, though other criticisms are made such as linking Freemasonry to Dajjal. Some Muslim anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem after destroying the Al-Aqsa Mosque. In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, and other similar groups "work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions …" http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp Hamas Covenant 1988 Many countries with a significant Muslim population do not allow Masonic establishments within their jurisdictions. However, countries such as Turkey, Morocco and Egypt have established Grand Lodges, Leyiktez, Celil. "Freemasonry in the Islamic World". Accessed 2 October 2007. while in countries such as Malaysia DGLME.org - The District Grand Lodge of the Middle East and Lebanon Districts Online | Grand Lodge F. & A. M. State of New York. there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge. There was a time when there existed a number of lodges in Iraq as early as 1906, The History of the R.A.O.B. in Iraq 1919 to 1953 and later on when the country was under British Mandate just after the First World War. However the position changed in July 1958 following the Revolution, with the abolition of the Monarchy and Iraq being declared a republic, under General Qasim. The licences permitting lodges to meet were rescinded and later laws were introduced banning any further meetings. This position was later reinforced under Saddam Hussein, the death penalty was "prescribed" for those who "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations." With the fall of the Hussein government following the US Invasion of Iraq, the ban on Freemasonry was lifted and in 2007, Land Air and Sea Lodge, No. 1, was granted a charter by the Grand Lodge of New York. Political opposition Regular Freemasonry has in its core ritual a formal obligation: to be quiet and peaceable citizens, true to the lawful government of the country in which they live, and not to countenance disloyalty or rebellion. A Freemason makes a further obligation, before being made Master of his Lodge, to pay a proper respect to the civil magistrates. The words may be varied across Grand Lodges, but the sense in the obligation taken is always there. Nevertheless, much of the political opposition to Freemasonry is based upon the idea that Masonry will foment (or sometimes prevent) rebellion. In 1799 English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the French Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act, 1799 banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation. The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on the Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each Private Lodge's Secretary placed with the local "Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his Lodge once a year. This continued until 1967 when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament. Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the disappearance of William Morgan in 1826. Reports of the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Jackson was a prominent Mason) helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement, culminating in the formation of a short lived Anti-Masonic Party which fielded candidates for the Presidential elections of 1828 and 1832. In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the Propaganda Due Lodge (aka P2). This Lodge was Chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a Lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under Licio Gelli’s leadership, in the late 1970s, the P2 Lodge became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly; as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter in 1976. By 1982 the scandal became public knowledge and Gelli was formally expelled from Freemasonry. Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically, Freemasonry has attracted criticism – and suppression – from both the politically extreme right (e.g. Nazi Germany) and the extreme left (e.g. the former Communist states in Eastern Europe). The Fraternity has encountered both applause for supposedly founding, and opposition for supposedly thwarting, liberal democracy (such as the United States of America). Even in modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes viewed with distrust. Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 86. In the , Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, have since 1999 been required to disclose their membership. Bright, Martin (2005-06-12). MPs told to declare links to Masons, The Guardian While there has been no evidence of wrongdoing, it is felt that any potential loyalties Masons might have, based on their vows to support fellow Masons, should be transparent to the public. Cusick, James (1996-12-27). Police want judges and MPs to reveal Masonic links too, The Independent Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France; membership is rising, but reporting in the popular media is often negative. In some countries anti-Masonry is often related to anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism. For example, In 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations." Professor Andrew Prescott, of the University of Sheffield, writes: "Since at least the time of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, anti-semitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order." Prescott, pp. 13-14, 30, 33. The Holocaust The preserved records of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons. RSHA Amt VII (Written Records) was overseen by Professor Franz Six and was responsible for "ideological" tasks, by which was meant the creation of anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number is not accurately known, it is estimated that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime. Masonic concentration camp inmates were graded as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle. Forget-me-not The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne, in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany. In 1938 the forget-me-not badge – made by the same factory as the Masonic badge – was chosen for the annual Nazi Party Winterhilfswerk, a Nazi charitable organisation which collected money so that other state funds could be freed up and used for rearmament. This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership. Also in: After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was again used as a Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948. The badge is now worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all those that have suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi era. See also Freemasonry and the Latter Day Saint movement Hiram Abiff Humanum Genus – Pope Leo XIII's condemnation of Freemasonry List of Freemasons Masonic Knights Templar Pigpen cipher Shriners Notes External links Freemasonry article from the 1911 (11th Ed.) Encyclopedia Britannica. Web of Hiram at the University of Bradford. A database of donated Masonic material. Masonic Books Online of the St. Louis Scottish Rite. Masonic Books Online of the Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster. Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln The Mysteries of Free Masonry, by William Morgan, from Project Gutenberg , The United Grand Lodge of England's Library and Museum of Freemasonry, London The Centre for Research into Freemasonry at the University of Sheffield, UK A Page About Freemasonry the world's oldest Masonic website. 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1,744 | One-time_pad | Excerpt from a one-time pad. In cryptography, the one-time pad (OTP) is an encryption algorithm in which the plaintext is combined with a secret random key or pad as long as the plaintext and used only once. A modular addition is typically used to combine plaintext elements with pad elements. (For binary data, the operation XOR amounts to the same thing.) It was invented in 1917 and patented a couple of years later. If the key is truly random, never reused in whole or part, and kept secret, the one-time pad provides perfect secrecy. It has also been proven that any cipher with the perfect secrecy property must use keys with effectively the same requirements as OTP keys. The key normally consists of a random stream of numbers, each of which indicates the number of places in the alphabet (or number stream, if the plaintext message is in numerical form) which the corresponding letter or number in the plaintext message should be shifted. For messages in the Latin alphabet, for example, the key will consist of a random string of numbers between 0 and 25; for binary messages the key will consist of a random string of 0s and 1s; and so on. The "pad" part of the name comes from early implementations where the key material was distributed as a pad of paper, so the top sheet could be easily torn off and destroyed after use. For easy concealment, the pad was sometimes reduced to such a small size that a powerful magnifying glass was required to use it. Photos accessible on the Internet show captured KGB pads that fit in the palm of one's hand, or in a walnut shell. To increase security, one-time-pads were sometimes printed onto sheets of highly flammable nitrocellulose. The one-time pad is derived from the Vernam cipher, named after Gilbert Vernam, one of its inventors. Vernam's system was a cipher that combined a message with a key read from a paper tape loop. In its original form, Vernam's system was not unbreakable because the key could be reused. One-time use came a little later when Joseph Mauborgne recognized that if the key tape was totally random, cryptanalytic difficulty would be increased. There is some ambiguity to the term due to the fact that some authors use the term "Vernam cipher" synonymously for the "one-time-pad", while others refer to any additive stream cipher as a "Vernam cipher", including those based on a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG). Perfect secrecy The Vernam-Mauborgne one-time pad was recognized early on as difficult to break, but its special status was only established by Claude Shannon some 25 years later. He proved, using information theory considerations, that the one-time pad has a property he termed perfect secrecy; that is, the ciphertext C gives absolutely no additional information about the plaintext. Thus, the a priori probability of a plaintext message M is the same as the a posteriori probability of a plaintext message M given the corresponding ciphertext. Mathematically, this is expressed as , where is the entropy of the plaintext and is the conditional entropy of the plaintext given the ciphertext C. Perfect secrecy is a strong notion of cryptanalytic difficulty. Despite Shannon's proof of its security, the one-time pad has serious drawbacks in practice: it requires perfectly random one-time pads secure generation and exchange of the one-time pad material, which must be at least as long as the message. (The security of the one-time pad is only as secure as the security of the one-time pad key-exchange). careful treatment to make sure that it continues to remain secret from any adversary, and is disposed of correctly preventing any reuse in whole or part — hence "one time". See data remanence for a discussion of difficulties in completely erasing computer media. Because the pad must be passed and kept secure, and the pad has to be at least as long as the message, there is often no point in using one-time padding, as you can simply send the plain text instead of the pad (as both are the same size and have to be sent securely). However, once a very long pad has been securely sent (e.g., a computer disk full of random data), it can be used for numerous future messages, until the sum of their sizes equals the size of the pad. Implementation difficulties have led to one-time pad systems being broken, and are so serious that they have prevented the one-time pad from being adopted as a widespread tool in information security. In particular, one-time use is absolutely necessary. If a one-time pad is used just twice, simple mathematical operations can reduce it to a running key cipher. If both plaintexts are in a natural language (e.g. English or Russian or Gaelic) then, even though both are secret, each stands a very high chance of being recovered by heuristic cryptanalysis, with possibly a few ambiguities. Of course the longer message can only be broken for the portion that overlaps the shorter message, plus perhaps a little more by completing a word or phrase. The most famous exploit of this vulnerability is the VENONA project. The one time pad does not provide a mechanism to ensure message integrity and, in theory, a man-in-the-middle attacker who knows the exact message being sent can straightforwardly replace all or part of that message with text of their choosing which is the same length. Standard techniques to prevent this, such as the use of a message authentication code, can be used along with a one-time pad system, but they lack the perfect security the OTP itself has. History The history of the one-time pad is marked by four separate but closely related discoveries. The first one-time pad system was electrical. In 1917, Gilbert Vernam (of AT&T) invented and later patented in 1919 () a cipher based on Teletype machine technology. Each character in a message was electrically combined with a character on a paper tape key. Joseph Mauborgne (then Captain (U.S. Army) and later chief of the Signal Corps) recognized that the character sequence on the key tape could be completely random and that, if so, cryptanalysis would be more difficult. Together they invented the first one-time tape system. The second development was the paper pad system. Diplomats had long used codes and ciphers for confidentiality and to minimize telegraph costs. For the codes, words and phrases were converted to groups of numbers (typically 4 or 5 digits) using a dictionary-like codebook. For added security, secret numbers could be combined with (usually modular addition) each code group before transmission, with the secret numbers being changed periodically (this was called superencryption). In the early 1920s, three German cryptographers (Werner Kunze, Rudolf Schauffler and Erich Langlotz) who were involved in breaking such systems, realized that they could never be broken if a separate randomly chosen additive number was used for every code group. They had duplicate paper pads printed up with lines of random number groups. Each page had a serial number and eight lines. Each line had six 5-digit numbers. A page would be used as a work sheet to encode a message and then destroyed. The serial number of the page would be sent with the encoded message. The recipient would reverse the procedure and then destroy his copy of the page. The German foreign office put this system into operation by 1923. A separate notion was the use of a one-time pad of letters to encode plaintext directly as in the example below. Leo Marks describes inventing such a system for the British Special Operations Executive during World War II, though he suspected at the time that it was already known in the highly compartmentalized world of cryptography, as for instance at Bletchley Park. The final discovery was by Claude Shannon in the 1940s who recognized and proved the theoretical significance of the one-time pad system. Shannon delivered his results in a classified report in 1945, and published them openly in 1949. At the same time, Vladimir Kotelnikov had independently proven absolute security of the one-time pad; his results were delivered in 1941 in a report that apparently remains classified. PACS numbers: 01.10.Fv, 03.67.Dd, 89.70.+c and openly in Russian Квантовая криптография и теоремы В.А. Котельникова об одноразовых ключах и об отсчетах. УФН Example Suppose Alice wishes to send the message 'HELLO' to Bob. Assume two pads of paper containing identical random sequences of letters were somehow previously produced and securely issued to both. Alice chooses the appropriate unused page from the pad. The way to do this is normally arranged for in advance, as for instance 'use the 12th sheet on Labor Day', or 'use the next available sheet for the next message'. The material on the selected sheet is the key for this message. Each letter from the pad will be combined in a predetermined way with one letter of the message. It is common, but not required, to assign each letter a numerical value: e.g. "A" is 0, "B" is 1, and so on. In this example, the technique is to combine the key and the message using modular addition. The numerical values of corresponding message and key letters are added together, modulo 26. If key material begins with: X M C K L and the message is "HELLO", then the coding would be done as follows: 7 (H) 4 (E) 11 (L) 11 (L) 14 (O) message + 23 (X) 12 (M) 2 (C) 10 (K) 11 (L) key = 30 16 13 21 25 message + key = 4 (E) 16 (Q) 13 (N) 21 (V) 25 (Z) message + key (mod 26) >> ciphertext If a number is larger than 25, then the remainder after subtraction of 26 is taken in modular arithmetic fashion. This simply means that if your computations "go past" Z, you start again at A. The ciphertext to be sent to Bob is thus "EQNVZ." Bob uses the matching key page and the same process, but in reverse, to obtain the plaintext. Here the key is subtracted from the ciphertext, again using modular arithmetic: 4 (E) 16 (Q) 13 (N) 21 (V) 25 (Z) ciphertext - 23 (X) 12 (M) 2 (C) 10 (K) 11 (L) key = -19 4 11 11 14 ciphertext - key = 7 (H) 4 (E) 11 (L) 11 (L) 14 (O) ciphertext - key (mod 26) >> message Similar to the above, if a number is negative then 26 is added to make the number positive. Thus Bob recovers Alice's plaintext, the message "HELLO". Both Alice and Bob destroy the key sheet immediately after use, thus preventing reuse and an attack against the cipher. The KGB often issued its agents one-time pads printed on tiny sheets of "flash paper"—paper chemically converted to nitrocellulose, which burns almost instantly and leaves no ash. Spycraft: The Secret History of the CIA's Spytechs, from Communism to Al-Qaeda p 452 The classical one-time pad of espionage used actual pads of minuscule, easily-concealed paper, a sharp pencil, and some mental arithmetic. The method can be implemented now as a software program, using data files as input (plaintext), output (ciphertext) and key material (the required random sequence). The XOR operation is often used to combine the plaintext and the key elements, and is especially attractive on computers since it is usually a native machine instruction and is therefore very fast. However, ensuring that the key material is actually random, is used only once, never becomes known to the opposition, and is completely destroyed after use is hard to do. The auxiliary parts of a software one-time pad implementation present real challenges: secure handling/transmission of plaintext, truly random keys, and one-time-only use of the key. Security One-time pads are "information-theoretically secure" in that the encrypted message (i.e., the ciphertext) provides no information about the original message to a cryptanalyst (except the length of the message). This is a very strong notion of security first developed during WWII by Claude Shannon and proved, mathematically, to be true of the one-time pad by Shannon about the same time. His result was published in the Bell Labs Technical Journal in 1949. Properly used one-time pads are secure in this sense even against adversaries with infinite computational power. To continue the example from above, suppose Eve intercepts Alice's ciphertext: "EQNVZ." If Eve had infinite computing power, she would quickly find that the key "XMCKL" would produce the plaintext "HELLO", but she would also find that the key "TQURI" would produce the plaintext "LATER", an equally plausible message: 4 (E) 16 (Q) 13 (N) 21 (V) 25 (Z) ciphertext − 19 (T) 16 (Q) 20 (U) 17 (R) 8 (I) possible key = −15 0 −7 4 17 ciphertext-key = 11 (L) 0 (A) 19 (T) 4 (E) 17 (R) ciphertext-key (mod 26) In fact, it is possible to "decrypt" out of the ciphertext any message whatsoever with the same number of characters, simply by using a different key, and there is no information in the ciphertext which will allow Eve to choose among the various possible readings of the ciphertext. Conventional symmetric encryption algorithms use complex patterns of substitution and transpositions. For the best of these currently in use, it is not known whether there can be a cryptanalytic procedure which can reverse (or, usefully, partially reverse) these transformations without knowing the key used during encryption. Asymmetric encryption algorithms depend on mathematical problems that are thought to be difficult to solve, such as integer factorization and discrete logarithms. However there is no proof that these problems are hard and a mathematical breakthrough could make existing systems vulnerable to attack. Applicability of one-time pads Any digital data storage device can be used to transport one-time pad data. The theoretical perfect security of the one-time-pad applies only in a theoretically perfect setting; no real-world implementation of any cryptosystem can provide perfect security because practical considerations introduce potential vulnerabilities. These practical considerations of security and convenience have meant that the one-time-pad is, in practice, little-used. One-time pads solve few current practical problems in cryptography. High quality ciphers that have undergone rigorous public review are widely available and their security is not considered a major worry at present. Such ciphers are almost always easier to employ than one-time pads; the amount of key material which must be properly generated and securely distributed is far smaller, and public key cryptography overcomes this problem. High quality random numbers can be hard to generate. The random number generation functions in most programming language libraries are not suitable for cryptographic use. Even those generators that are suitable for normal cryptographic use, including /dev/random and many hardware random number generators, make some use of cryptographic functions whose security is unproven. Distributing very long one-time pad keys is inconvenient and usually poses a significant security risk. The pad is essentially the encryption key, but unlike keys for modern ciphers, it must be extremely long and is much too difficult for humans to remember. Storage media such as thumb drives, DVD-Rs or personal digital audio players can be used to carry a very large one-time-pad from place to place in a (somewhat) non-suspicious way, but even so the need to transport the pad physically is a burden compared to the key negotiation protocols of a modern public-key cryptosystem, and such media cannot reliably be erased securely by any means short of physical destruction (eg, incineration). A 4.7 GB DVD-R full of one-time-pad data, if shredded into particles 1 mm² in size, leaves over 100 kilobits of (admittedly hard to recover, but not impossibly so) data on each particle. In addition, the risk of compromise during transit (for example, a pickpocket swiping, copying and replacing the 'pad') is likely much greater in practice than the likelihood of compromise for a cipher such as AES. Finally, the effort needed to manage one-time pad key material scales very badly for large networks of communicants. The number of pads required goes up as the square of the number of users exchanging messages freely amongst each other. For communication between only two persons, or a star network topology, this is somewhat less of a problem. The key material must be securely disposed of after use, to ensure the key material is never reused and to protect the messages sent. Because the key material must be transported from one endpoint to another, and persist until the message is sent or received, it can be more vulnerable to forensic recovery than the transient plaintext it protects. See also: data remanence. As traditionally used, one-time pads provide no message authentication, the lack of which can pose a security threat in real-world systems. The straightforward XORing with the keystream creates a potential vulnerability in message integrity especially simple to exploit - for example, an attacker who knows that the message contains "Meet Jane and me tomorrow at 3:30 pm" at a particular point can replace that content by any other content of the exact same length, such as "3:30 meeting is cancelled, stay home", without having access to the one-time pad. Universal hashing provides a way to authenticate messages up to an arbitrary security bound (i.e. for any p>0, a large enough hash ensures that even a computationally unbounded attacker's likelihood of successful forgery is less than p), but this uses additional random data from the pad, and removes the possibility of implementing the system without a computer. Nonetheless, the one-time-pad retains some limited practical interest: The one-time-pad is the only cryptosystem with theoretically perfect secrecy. The one-time-pad is one of the most practical methods of encryption where one or both parties must do all work by hand, without the aid of a computer; this made it important in the pre-computer era, and it could conceivably still be useful in situations where possession of a computer is illegal or incriminating or where trustworthy computer operating systems are not available. Making and using a one-time pad has educational value. No special equipment is required and it serves as a good introduction to several cryptographic ideas. One-time pads are practical in situations where two parties in a secure environment must be able to depart from one another and communicate from two separate secure environments with perfect secrecy. Uses In some hypothetical espionage situations, the one-time pad might be useful because it can be computed by hand with only pencil and paper. Indeed, nearly all other high quality ciphers are entirely impractical without computers. Spies can receive their pads in person from their "handlers." In the modern world, however, computers (such as those embedded in personal electronic devices such as mobile phones) are so ubiquitous that possessing a computer suitable for performing conventional encryption (for example, a phone which can run concealed cryptographic software) will usually not attract suspicion. One-time pads have been used in special circumstances since the early 1900s. The Weimar Republic Diplomatic Service began using the method in about 1920. The breaking of poor Soviet cryptography by the British, with messages made public for political reasons in two instances in the 1920s, appear to have induced the U.S.S.R. to adopt one-time pads for some purposes by around 1930. KGB spies are also known to have used pencil and paper one-time pads more recently. Examples include Colonel Rudolf Abel, who was arrested and convicted in New York City in the 1950s, and the 'Krogers' (ie, Morris and Lona Cohen), who were arrested and convicted of espionage in the United Kingdom in the early 1960s. Both were found with physical one-time pads in their possession. A number of nations have used one-time pad systems for their sensitive traffic. Leo Marks reports that the British Special Operations Executive used one-time pads in World War II to encode traffic between its offices. One-time pads for use with its overseas agents were introduced late in the war. Other one-time tape cipher machines include the British machines Rockex and Noreen. The World War II voice scrambler SIGSALY was also a form of one-time system. It added analog noise to the signal at one end and removed it at the other end. The noise was distributed to the channel ends in the form of large shellac records of which only two were made. There were both starting synchronization and longer-term phase drift problems which arose and were solved before the system could be used. The NSA describes one-time tape systems like SIGTOT and 5-UCO as being used for intelligence traffic until the introduction of the electronic cipher based KW-26 in 1957. The hotline between Moscow and Washington D.C., established in 1963 after the Cuban missile crisis, used teleprinters protected by a commercial one-time tape system. Each country prepared the keying tapes used to encode its messages and delivered them via their embassy in the other country. A unique advantage of the OTP in this case was that neither country had to reveal more sensitive encryption methods to the other. During the 1983 Invasion of Grenada, U.S. forces found a supply of pairs of one-time pad books in a Cuban warehouse . The British Army's BATCO tactical communication code is a pencil-and-paper one-time-pad system. Key material is provided on paper sheets that are kept in a special plastic wallet with a sliding pointer that indicates the last key used. New sheets are provided daily (though a small series of "training BATCO" is usually recycled on exercise) and the old ones destroyed. BATCO is used on battlefield voice nets; the most sensitive portions of a message (typically grid references) are encoded and the ciphertext is read out letter by letter. A related notion is the one-time code—a signal, used only once, eg "Alpha" for "mission completed" and "Bravo" for "mission failed" cannot be "decrypted" in any reasonable sense of the word. Understanding the message will require additional information, often 'depth' of repetition, or some traffic analysis. However, such strategies (though often used by real operatives, and baseball coaches) are not a cryptographic one-time pad in any significant sense. Exploits While one-time pads provide perfect secrecy if generated and used properly, small mistakes can lead to successful cryptanalysis: In 1944–1945, the U.S. Army's Signals Intelligence Service was able to solve a one-time pad system used by the German Foreign Office for its high-level traffic, codenamed GEE (Erskine, 2001). GEE was insecure because the pads were not completely random — the machine used to generate the pads produced predictable output. In 1945 the U.S. discovered that Canberra-Moscow messages were being encrypted first using a code-book and then using a one-time pad. However the one-time pad used was the same one used by Moscow for Washington, DC-Moscow messages. Combined with the fact that some of the Canberra-Moscow messages included known British government documents, this allowed some of the encrypted messages to be broken. One-time pads were employed by Soviet espionage agencies for covert communications with agents and agent controllers. Analysis has shown that these pads were generated by typists using actual typewriters. This method is of course not "truly" random, as it makes certain convenient key sequences more likely than others, yet it proved to be generally effective. Without copies of the key material used, only some defect in the generation method or reuse of keys offered much hope of cryptanalysis. Beginning in the late 1940s, U.S. and U.K. intelligence agencies were able to break some of the Soviet one-time pad traffic to Moscow during WWII as a result of errors made in generating and distributing the key material. One suggestion is that Moscow Centre personnel were somewhat rushed by the presence of German troops just outside Moscow in late 1941 and early 1942, and they produced more than one copy of same key material during that period. This decades-long effort was finally codenamed VENONA (BRIDE had been an earlier name); it produced a considerable amount of information, including more than a little about some of the Soviet atom spies. Even so, only a small percentage of the intercepted messages were either fully or partially decrypted (a few thousand out of several hundred thousand). Burglaries are said to have been carried out by the FBI during WWII against Soviet offices in the U.S. which yielded copies of some key material. There are some claims that the material copied was helpful cryptanalytically. True randomness requirements In discussing the one-time pad, two notions of security have to be kept distinct. The first is the perfect secrecy of the one-time pad system as proved by Shannon (Shannon security). The second is the security offered by state-of-the-art ciphers (e.g. AES) designed with principles learned in the long history of code breaking and subjected to extensive testing in a standardization process, either in public or by a top notch security service (empirical security). The former is mathematically proven, subject to the practical availability of random numbers. The latter is unproven but relied upon by most governments to protect their most vital secrets (insofar as publicly known thus far). Methods that may offer practical security, but do not have Shannon security If the key material is generated by a deterministic program, then it is not random and the encryption system no longer has perfect secrecy. Such a system is called a stream cipher. These generally use a short key which is used to seed a long pseudorandom stream, which is then combined with the message using some such mechanism as those used in one-time pads (eg, XOR). Stream ciphers can be secure in practice, but they cannot achieve perfect secrecy like the one-time pad does. The Fish ciphers used by the German military in WWII turned out to be insecure stream ciphers, not practical automated one-time pads as their designers had intended. Bletchley Park broke one of them, the Lorenz cipher machine, regularly. However, if a modern so-called cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator is used, it can form the basis for an empirically secure stream cipher. There are many well-vetted designs in the public domain, ranging from the simplicity of RC4 to using a block cipher like AES in counter mode. There would appear to be little reason to invent new stream ciphers, yet it has long been thought that NSA and its comparable agencies devote considerable effort to stream ciphers for their government customers. Methods that offer neither practical security nor Shannon security The similarity between stream ciphers and one-time pads often leads the cryptographically unwary to invent insecure stream ciphers under the mistaken impression that they have developed a practical version of the one-time pad. An especially insecure approach is to use any of the random number generators that are distributed in many (perhaps most) computer programming language runtime support packages or as operating system system calls. These typically produce sequences that pass some (or even many) statistical tests, but are nonetheless breakable by cryptoanalytic techniques. For some time the ANSI C standard restricted the C language random number routine output to a single precision integer, for most implementations that would be 16-bits, giving at most 32768 different values before repeating (assuming a cyclical algorithm, as is common, but not mandatory). This is entirely insecure and is easily breakable by exhaustive test (for perspective, a 1 GHz computer which takes 10,000 clock cycles to check an offset within the RNG's cycle would take under a third of a second to check every possible offset). Standard computer random number generators are not suitable for cryptographic purposes, specifically including the one-time pad. In particular, the relatively newly developed and widely admired Mersenne twister algorithm, while sufficiently "random" for most research or simulation uses, better than almost any other such generator, and quite fast as well, should not be used to generate one-time pad key material. The algorithm is deterministic and was not designed for cryptographic security. Some programs use a user-supplied key to uniquely scatter the output of a pseudorandom number generator in a way that requires knowledge of the key and any initialization vectors used, to predict the final output. As well, publicly known values such as the terminal digits of marathon race times, closing stock prices from any source however obscure, daily temperatures or atmospheric pressures, etc, though seemingly random, are predictable—after the fact. Indeed, even truly random sequences which have been published cannot be used as they are now predictable if identified. An example is the RAND Corporation's 1950s publication of a million random digits; it has passed every statistical test for randomness thus far and is thought to be actually random. But, having been published, it is fully predictable. So are the digits of pi, e, phi, and other irrational or transcendental numbers; the sequences may be statistically random (an open question, actually), but are fully predictable nonetheless. Achieving Shannon security To achieve Shannon security, a source of perfectly unpredictable random data is needed. Typically these random bits are produced by a hardware random number generator. One theoretical basis for the physical existence of unpredictability is quantum mechanics. Its assertions of unpredictability are subject to experimental test. See: Bell test experiments. Another basis is the theory of unstable dynamical systems and Chaos theory. These theories suggest that even in the deterministic world of Newtonian mechanics, real-world systems evolve in ways that cannot be predicted in practice because one would need to know the initial conditions to an accuracy that grows exponentially over time. For use in a one-time pad, data should exhibit perfect randomness. Most practical sources exhibit some imperfection or bias. The quality of randomness is measured by entropy. A perfectly random bit has an entropy of one bit. An idea due to Von Neumann is to use an algorithm to combine multiple, imperfectly random bits, each with entropy less than one, to create a single bit with entropy equal to one. This process is called entropy distillation or entropy extraction. Von Neumann proposed the following method, called "Von Neumann whitening": Input bitsOutput00No output.01Output "0" bit.10Output "1" bit.11No output. This will produce uniformly random output bits if the input bits are statistically independent and all drawn from the same distribution. However, that is not a realistic assumption since most physical randomness sources may have some correlation in the output, and the distribution may change with the device temperature, etc. In 2003, Boaz Barak, Ronen Shaltiel, and Eran Tromer stated some reasonable security criteria for entropy distillation and constructed an algorithm for doing it. In many Unix-like systems, the kernel's random number generator, /dev/random, uses environmental noise to generate random data and is better than many such system call designs. It attempts to estimate the amount of entropy it collects and blocks if the entropy pool is exhausted. It is intended to be, and is widely thought to actually be, better than most such generators, and if so is rather closer to satisfactorily random. But this process will be slow on systems which have few usable noise sources. It can, however, be fed additional entropy by reading from an attached noise generating device. Many Unix-like systems also provide /dev/urandom which uses a deterministic algorithm to generate the data whenever environmental noise is unavailable. Improved designs, such as the Yarrow algorithm are available. One-time pad key material generated in this way (ie, from deterministic random number generators) lacks the information-theoretic security of a one-time pad. Yarrow offers at least as much strength as a block cipher based on Triple DES. If a computer used for one-time pad generation is compromised, by a computer virus or other malware or by an adversary gaining physical access, the software can be modified to leak the pad data or generate apparently random data that is in fact predictable. See random number generator attack. One way to reduce this risk is to generate pads on a machine that is never connected to any computer network and preferably not used for any other purpose. Collecting key material on new, blank media (e.g. floppy disks or CD-Rs) eliminates another route for malware infection. If paper pads are to be produced, the printer is best dedicated as well. One approach might be to use an older laptop for OTP generation, purged and rebuilt with a fresh, traceable copy of an open source operating system, such as Linux or BSD. The smaller size would allow it to be easily locked up in a safe when not in use. Making one-time pads by hand A full English-language Scrabble tile set. See Scrabble letter distributions for other languages. One-time pads were originally made without the use of a computer and this is still possible today. The process can be tedious, but if done correctly and the pad used only once, the result is unbreakable. There are two components needed to make a one-time pad: a way to generate letters at random and a way to record two copies of the result. The traditional way to do the latter was to use a typewriter and carbon paper. The carbon paper and typewriter ribbon would then be destroyed since it may be possible for the pad data to be recovered from them. As typewriters have become scarce, it is also acceptable to hand write the letters neatly in groups of five on two part carbonless copy paper sheets, which can be purchased at office supply stores. Each sheet should be given a serial number or some other unique marking. The simplest way to generate random letters is to obtain 26 identical objects with each letter of the alphabet marked on one object. Tiles from the game Scrabble can be used (as long as only one of each letter is selected). Kits for making name charm bracelets are another possibility. One can also write the letters on 26 otherwise identical coins with a marking pen. The objects are placed in a box or cup and shaken vigorously, then one object is withdrawn and its letter is recorded. The object is returned to the box and the process is repeated. See also One-time password (OTP) Hardware random number generator Numbers station Information theoretic security Steganography Session key Unicity distance Notes Further reading Robert Wallace and H. Keith Melton, with Henry R. Schlesinger, Spycraft: The Secret History of the CIA's Spytechs, from Communism to al-Qaeda, New York, Dutton, 2008. ISBN 0525949801 References Erskine, Ralph, "Enigma's Security: What the Germans Really Knew", in "Action this Day", edited by Ralph Erskine and Michael Smith, pp 370–386, 2001. External links Detailed description of One-time Pad with examples and images on Cipher Machines and Cryptology Marcus Ranum's One-Time Pad FAQ The FreeS/WAN glossary entry with a discussion of OTP weaknesses | One-time_pad |@lemmatized excerpt:1 one:117 time:99 pad:112 cryptography:5 otp:7 encryption:9 algorithm:10 plaintext:19 combine:11 secret:9 random:49 key:67 long:14 use:93 modular:5 addition:4 typically:5 element:3 binary:2 data:17 operation:6 xor:3 amount:4 thing:1 invent:6 patent:2 couple:1 year:2 later:6 truly:4 never:5 reuse:6 whole:2 part:6 keep:3 provide:10 perfect:16 secrecy:11 also:9 proven:2 cipher:31 property:2 must:9 effectively:1 requirement:2 normally:2 consist:3 stream:12 number:39 indicate:2 place:4 alphabet:3 message:53 numerical:3 form:5 corresponding:2 letter:17 shift:1 latin:1 example:11 string:2 name:4 come:2 early:7 implementation:5 material:21 distribute:6 paper:17 top:2 sheet:12 could:8 easily:4 tear:1 destroy:7 easy:2 concealment:1 sometimes:2 reduce:3 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1,745 | Amsterdam | Amsterdam (; Dutch ) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The city, which had a population of around 1 million (with suburbs) on 1 January 2008, comprises the northern part of the Randstad, the 6th-largest metropolitan area in Europe, with a population of around 6.7 million. Its name is derived from Amstel dam, Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Vol 1, p896-898. indicative of the city's origin: a dam in the river Amstel where the Dam Square is today. Settled as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age, a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading center for finance and diamonds. Capitals of Capital -A History of International Financial Centres - 1780–2005, Youssef Cassis, ISBN 978-0521845359 In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded and many new neighbourhoods and suburbs were formed. The city is the financial and cultural After Athens in 1985 and Florence in 1986, Amsterdam was in 1986 chosen as the European Capital of Culture, confirming its eminent position in Europe and the Netherlands. See here for an overview of the European cities and capitals of culture over the years. capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and 7 of the world's top 500 companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city Forbes Global 2000 Largest Companies - Dutch rankings. . The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, part of Euronext, is located in the city centre. Amsterdam's main attractions, including its historic canals, the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, Anne Frank House, its red-light district and its many cannabis coffee shops, draw 4.2 million tourists annually. Amsterdam - Economische Zaken History The earliest recorded use of the name "Amsterdam" is from a certificate dated 27 October 1275, when the inhabitants, who had built a bridge with a dam across the Amstel, were exempted from paying a bridge toll by Count Floris V. The certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme (people living near Amestelledamme). By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam. A local romance account has the city being founded by two fishermen, who landed on the shores of the Amstel in a small boat with their dog. Amsterdam's founding is relatively recent compared with much older Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean that there was already a settlement then. The reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat, used as fuel. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306. From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely because of trade with the Hanseatic League. In 1345, an alleged Eucharistic miracle in the Kalverstraat rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage until the alteration to the Protestant faith. The Stille Omgang—a silent procession in civil attire—is today a remnant of the rich pilgrimage history. In the 16th century, the Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain and his successors. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the religious persecution of Protestantism by the Spanish Inquisition. The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence. Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent, the Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance. Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, Huguenots from France, prosperous merchants and printers from Flanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European free press. Case in point: After his trial and sentencing in Rome in 1633, Galileo chose Lodewijk Elzevir in Amsterdam to publish one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. See Wade Rowland (2003), Galileo's Mistake, A new look at the epic confrontation between Galileo and the Church, New York: Arcade Publishing, ISBN 1559706848, p. 260. The 17th century is considered Amsterdam's Golden Age, during which it became the wealthiest city in the world. E. Haverkamp-Bergmann, Rembrandt; The Night Watch (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 57 Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the VOC (Dutch East India Company) and the WIC (Dutch West India Company). These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was Europe's most important point for the shipment of goods and was the leading financial centre of the world. Amsterdam in the 17th Century, The University of North Carolina at Pembroke In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the VOC became the world's first stock exchange by trading in its own shares. Amsterdam lost over 10% of its population to plague in 1623–5, and again in 1635–6, and once more in 1655, and one more time in 1664. Nevertheless, the population of Amsterdam rose in the 17th century (largely through immigration) from 50,000 to 200,000. Geography, climate, population, economy, society. J.P.Sommerville. Amsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early-19th centuries. The wars of the Dutch Republic with England and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the French Empire. However, the later establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point. New developments, by people such as city planner Samuel Sarphati, drew their inspiration from Paris. The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a train station, and the Concertgebouw were built, while during this time, the Industrial Revolution reached the city. The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine, and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in The Mirror of the Sea. Shortly before World War I, the city began expanding, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the Aardappeloproer (Potato rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses in order to get supplies, mainly food. Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. The Germans installed a Nazi civilian government in Amsterdam that cooperated with the persecution of Jews. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to the high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to concentration camps. Perhaps the most-famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank, who died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. Only 5,000 Dutch Jews survived the war. At the end of World War II, communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw sugar beets, and Tulip bulbs—cooked to a pulp—were consumed to stay alive. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and all the wood was taken from the apartments of deported Jews. After the war, approximately 120,000 Dutch were prosecuted for their collaboration with the Nazis. Many new suburbs, such as Osdorp, Slotervaart, Slotermeer, and Geuzenveld, were built in the years after World War II. These suburbs contained many public parks and wide, open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other incidents of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing, politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings and new roads as the automobile became available to most common people. A metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of Bijlmer and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect the central station and city centre with other parts of the city. The incorporated large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's formerly Jewish neighbourhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat, were widened and saw almost all of their houses demolished. During the destruction's peak, the Nieuwmarktrellen (Nieuwmarkt riots) broke out, where people expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city. As a result, the demolition was stopped, and the highway was never built, with only the metro being finished. Only a few streets remained widened. The destroyed buildings were replaced by new ones corresponding to the historical street plan of the neighbourhood. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organisations, such as Stadsherstel Amsterdam, were founded with the aim of restoring the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing. The entire city centre has reattained its former splendor and, as a whole, is now a protected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and plans exist to make the Grachtengordel (Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) a Unesco World Heritage site. Geography and climate Being part of the province North-Holland, Amsterdam is located in the northwest of the Netherlands next to the provinces Utrecht and Flevoland. The river Amstel terminates in the city center into a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the IJ. Amsterdam is situated 2 meters above sea level. The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders. To the southwest of the city lies a man-made forest called het Amsterdamse Bos. Amsterdam is connected to the North Sea through the long North Sea Canal. Amsterdam is intensely urbanized, as is the urban area surrounding the city. Comprising 219.4 square kilometers of land, the city proper has a population density of 4457 inhabitants and 2275 houses per square kilometer. Parks and nature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area. Amsterdam enjoys a temperate climate, strongly influenced by its proximity to the North Sea to the west with prevailing north-western winds and gales. Winter temperatures are mild, seldom below 0°C. Amsterdam, as well as most of Noord-Holland province sits in USDA Hardiness zone 9, the northernmost such occurrence in continental Europe. Frosts merely occur during spells of eastern or northeastern winds from the inner European continent, i.e., from Scandinavia, Russia, and even Siberia. Still then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by major bodies of water, as well as having a significant heat island effect, nights rarely drop below -5°C, while it easily could be -12°C in Hilversum, 25 kilometres southeast. Summers are moderately warm but rarely hot. The average high in August is 22°C, and 30°C or higher is only measured on average on 3 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat zone 2. Days with measurable precipitation are common, on average 175 days a year. Nevertheless, Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is less than 760 mm. Most of this precipitation is protracted drizzle or light rain, making cloudy and damp days common during the cooler months, October through March. Only the occasional European windstorm brings significant water at once, requiring all of it to be pumped out to higher grounds or to the seas around the city. Cityscape and architecture Amsterdam fans out south from the Amsterdam Centraal railway station. The Damrak is the main street and leads into the street Rokin. The oldest area of the town is known as de Wallen (the quays, this does not refer to the old city walls, the Dutch word for wall being 'muur'). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red light district. To the south of de Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein. The 17th century girdle of concentric canals, known as the Grachtengordel, embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the formerly working class areas of Jordaan and de Pijp. The Museumplein with the city's major museums, the Vondelpark, a 19th century park named after the Dutch writer Joost van den Vondel, and the Plantage neighborhood, with the zoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel. Several parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders. This can be recognized by the suffix -meer which means lake, as in Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer, and Watergraafsmeer. Canals The Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning. In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at the IJ bay. Known as the Grachtengordel, three of the canals are mostly for residential development: Those are the Herengracht (Gentleman's Canal), Keizersgracht (Emperor's Canal), and Prinsengracht (Prince's Canal’). The fourth and outermost canal, the Singelgracht (not to be confused with the older Singel), served purposes of defense and water management. The defensive purpose was established by moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonry superstructures. Furthermore, the plan envisaged: (1) Interconnecting canals along radii; (2) creating a set of parallel canals in the Jordaan quarter, primarily for transportation purposes; (3) converting the defensive purpose of the Singel to a residential and commercial purpose; (4) constructing more than one hundred bridges. Construction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the lay–out, like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it—and not from the centre outwards as a popular myth has it. The canal constructions in the southern sector were accomplished by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings commenced slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel river and the IJ bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theaters, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning. Over the years, several canals have been filled in becoming streets or squares, such as the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal and the Spui. Expansion of Amsterdam After the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century, a number of plans were devised to expand Amsterdam, the first of which was initiated by Samuel Sarphati. He devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London of that time. The plan consisted of the construction of new houses, public buildings and streets just outside the grachtengordel. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like the Paleis voor Volksvlijt. Following Sarphati, Van Niftrik and Kalff designed an entire ring of 19th century neighbourhoods surrounding the city’s centre. Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class. By the beginning of the 20th century, Amsterdam became overpopulated and experienced a shortage of living space. In response to this, two plans were designed which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before: Plan Zuid, designed by the architect Berlage, and West. These plans involved the development of new neighborhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes. After World War II large new neighborhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city from its shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern day conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks situated among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by automobile. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the Bijlmer. Architecture Amsterdam has a rich architectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk (Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306. The oldest wooden building is het Houten Huys at the Begijnhof. It was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few rare examples of gothic architecture in Amsterdam. In the sixteenth century, wooden buildings were broken down and replaced by brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed according to the architectural style of the Renaissance. Buildings from this period are very recognizable, since they have a façade which ends at the top in the shape of a stairway. This is, however, the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser. One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyer is the Westerkerk. In the seventeenth century baroque architecture became very popular, as it did elsewhere in Europe. This was roughly during the same period as Amsterdam’s Golden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam were Jacob van Campen, as well as Philip Vingboons and Daniel Stalpaert. Philip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam is the Royal Palace on Dam Square. Throughout the eighteenth century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced by French culture.This is reflected in the architecture from that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles . Most gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neo-gothic style. At the end of the nineteenth century, the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became popular and a lot of new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam rapidly expanded during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city’s center were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called the Amsterdamse School. Whole districts were built in Amsterdamse School, such as the Rivierenbuurt. A notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School, is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors. The old city’s center is the epicenter of all the architectural styles before the end of the nineteenth century. Jugendstil and Art Deco are mostly found outside the city’s center in the neighbourhoods built in the early twentieth century, although there are some striking examples of these styles present in the city’s center. Most historic buildings in the city’s center and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchant’s houses lining the canals. Government The administration of the municipality of Amsterdam is divided into 15 boroughs or stadsdelen; the central one, Centrum, being circled by Westerpark, Bos en Lommer, De Baarsjes, Oud-West, Oud-Zuid, Oost/Watergraafsmeer, Zeeburg and Amsterdam-Noord, with the six outer boroughs creating a further encirclement. Stadsdeel Amsterdam-Noord: Who governs Amsterdam-Noord? Definitions "Amsterdam" is usually understood to refer to the municipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the village of Durgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam. Statistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam, not to be confused with Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam, a synonym of Groot Amsterdam), Greater Amsterdam (Groot Amsterdam, a COROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (Stadsgewest Amsterdam). These definitions are not synonymous with the terms urban area and metropolitan area, which are commonly used in English speaking countries for the purpose of defining large conurbations. The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely the City region Amsterdam. This region is similar to Greater Amsterdam, but includes the municipalities Zaanstad and Wormerland. It excludes Graft-De Rijp. The smallest of these areas is the municipality, with a population of 742,981 in 2006. The metropolitan agglomeration had a population of 1,021,870 in 2006. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities , and had a population of 1,211,503 in 2006. Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of Zaanstad. The largest area by population, the urban region Amsterdam, has a population of 1,468,122. It includes Zaanstad, Wormerveer, Muiden and Abcoude, but excludes Graft De Rijp, Uithoorn and Aalsmeer. Amsterdam is also part of the conglomerate metropolitan area Randstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants. City government As with all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a mayor, aldermen, and the municipal council. However, unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into fifteen stadsdelen (boroughs), a system that was implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The stadsdelen are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. Fourteen of these have their own council, chosen by a popular election. The fifteenth, Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam, has very few residents, and is governed by the central municipal council. Local decisions are made at borough level, and only affairs pertaining to the whole city, such as major infrastructure projects, are handled by the central city council. The borough system is currently being revised, and the number of boroughs will most probably be reduced to seven in the following years. National government The present version of the Dutch constitution mentions "Amsterdam" and "capital" only in one place, chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in "the capital Amsterdam" ("de hoofdstad Amsterdam"). Previous versions of the constitution spoke of "the city of Amsterdam" ("de stad Amsterdam"), without mention of capital. In any case, the seat of the government, parliament and supreme court of the Netherlands is (and always has been, with the exception of a brief period between 1808 and 1810) located at The Hague. Foreign embassies too are in The Hague. Although capital of the country, Amsterdam is not the capital of the province in which it is located, North Holland, whose capital is located at Haarlem. Symbols The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam's patron saint was Saint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the cityshields of neighbours Amstelveen and Ouder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also as civil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is the Imperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans, Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the king's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian's imperial crown when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown of Emperor Rudolph II, a crown that also would become the Imperial Crown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when city and province became part of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. Last came the city's official motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig ("Valiant, Determined, Compassionate"), bestowed on the city in 1947 by Queen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during World War II. Economy Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is currently one of the best European cities in which to locate an international business. It is ranked fifth in this category and is only surpassed by London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona. Many large Dutch corporations and banks have their headquarters in Amsterdam, including ABN AMRO, Akzo Nobel, Heineken International, ING Group, Ahold, TomTom, Delta Lloyd Group and Philips. KPMG International's global headquarters is located in nearby Amstelveen. Though many small offices are still located on the old canals, companies are increasingly relocating outside the city centre. The Zuidas (English: South Axis) has become the new financial and legal hub. The five largest law firms of the Netherlands, a number of Dutch subsidiaries of large consulting firms like Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, and the World Trade Center Amsterdam are also located in Zuidas. There are three other smaller financial districts in Amsterdam. The first is the area surrounding Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, where several newspapers like De Telegraaf have their offices. Also, the municipal public transport company (Gemeentelijk Vervoersbedrijf) and the Dutch tax offices (Belastingdienst) are located there. The second financial district is the area surrounding Amsterdam Arena. The third is the area surrounding Amsterdam Amstel railway station. The tallest building in Amsterdam, the Rembrandt Tower, is situated there, as is the headquarters of Philips. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), nowadays part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. Tourism Amsterdam is the 5th busiest tourist destination in Europe, receiving more than 4.2 million international visitors annually. The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. 41,743 beds were located in 19,400 rooms in 351 hotels as of 2007. Two thirds of these hotels are located in the city's center. Hotels with 4 or 5 stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 78% in 2006, up from 70% in 2005. The majority of tourists (74%), originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total. Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated "Rembrandt 400", to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities due to these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city, range from 12,000 to 65,000. Retail Shops in Amsterdam range from large department stores such as De Bijenkorf founded in 1870 and Maison de Bonneterie a Parisian style store founded in 1889, to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets Pieter Cornelisz Hooftstraat and Cornelis Schuytstraat, which are located in the vicinity of the Vondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval Kalverstraat in the heart of the city. Another shopping area is the Negen Straatjes: nine narrow streets within the Grachtengordel, the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops. The city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the Albert Cuypmarkt, Westermarkt, Ten Katemarkt, and Dappermarkt. Fashion Fashion brands like G-star, Gsus, BlueBlood, 10 feet and Warmenhoven & Venderbos, and fashion designers like Mart Visser, Viktor & Rolf, Marlies Dekkers and Frans Molenaar are based in Amsterdam. Modelling agencies Elite Models, Touche models and Tony Jones have opened branches in Amsterdam. Supermodels Yfke Sturm, Doutzen Kroes and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has its garment center in the World Fashion Center. Buildings which were formerly housing brothels in the red light district, have been converted to ateliers for young, up-and-coming fashion designers. Demography In the 16th and 17th century non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly Huguenots, Flemings, Sephardi Jews and Westphalians. Huguenots came after 1685's Edict of Fontainebleau, while the Flemish Protestants came during the Eighty Years' War. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons – their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. Before World War II, 10% of the Amsterdam population was Jewish. The first mass immigration in the 20th century were by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy and Spain emigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in the Bijlmer area. Other immigrants, including asylum seekers and illegal immigrants, came from Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. In the seventies and eighties, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like Almere and Purmerend, prompted by the third planological bill of the Dutch government. This bill promoted suburbanization and arranged for new developments in so called "groeikernen", literally "cores of growth". Young professionals and artists moved into neighbourhoods de Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer. Today, non-Western immigrants make up approximately one in three residents of Amsterdam and more than 50% of the children in Amsterdam have a non-western background. Half of young big-city dwellers have non-western background Most foreign babies born in big cities Amsterdam's largest religious group are the Christians followed by Islam, mainly Sunni Islam. In 1578 the previously Roman Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule, late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities. In line with Protestant procedure of that time, all churches were "reformed" to the Protestant worship. Calvinism became the dominant religion, and although Catholicism was not forbidden and priests allowed to serve, the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited. This led to the establishment of schuilkerken, covert churches, behind seemingly ordinary canal side house fronts. One example is the current debate centre de Rode Hoed. A large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, Huguenots from France, and Protestants from the Southern Netherlands. This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking religious churches. In 1603, the first notification was made of Jewish religious service. In 1639, the first Jewish synagogue was consecrated. As they became established in the city, other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof. Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of the Church of Scotland. The Huguenots accounted for nearly 20% of Amsterdam's inhabitants in 1700. Being Calvinists, they soon integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognizable today as they offer occasional services in French. In the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx of Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, which continued into the 19th century. Jews often fled the pogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazi who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years War. They not only founded their own synagogues, but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary. Amsterdam's nickname of Mokum, the Yiddish word for the Hebrew makom ("town"), stems from this immigration. Despite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part of the old medieval heart of the city. The main street of this Jewish neighborhood was the Jodenbreestraat. The neighborhood comprised the Waterlooplein and the Nieuwmarkt. Buildings in this neighborhood fell into disrepair after World War II and a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the new subway. This led to riots, and as a result, a small part of the old neighbourhood was saved. Catholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the bishopric hierarchy in 1853. One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches, Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which led to a refusal of Protestant King William III to open 'that monastery'. In 1924, the Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, and numerous Catholic prelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums. Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time. Only in the twentieth century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalized, but despite its far larger population size, the Catholic clergy chose to place its bishopric seat of the city in the nearby provincial town of Haarlem. The most recent religious changes in Amsterdam are due to large-scale immigration from former colonies. Immigrants from Suriname have introduced Evangelical Protestantism and Lutheranism, from the Hernhutter variety, Hinduism, from South Asia and several distinct branches of Islam from various parts of the world. Turks, Kurds, and Moroccans have introduced other Islamic sects. Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam. The large community of Ghanaian and Nigerian immigrants have established African churches, often in parking garages in the Bijlmer area, where many have settled. In addition, a broad array of other religious movements have established congregations, including Buddhism, Confucianism and Hinduism. Although the saying "Leven en laten leven" or "Live and let live" summarises the Dutch and especially the Amsterdam open and tolerant society, the increased influx of many races, religions, and cultures after the second world war, has on a number of occasions, strained social relations. With 176 different nationalities, Amsterdam is home to a wider variety of nationalities than any other city in the world. Quest, issue of march 2009 Transportation Amsterdam is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks, which pervade the city. In 2006, there were about 465,000 bicycles in Amsterdam. Theft is widespread - in 2005, about 54,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam. Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups due to their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the large number of bike paths, the flat terrain, and the arguable inconvenience of driving an automobile. A wide variety of bicycles are used, such as road bicycles, mountain bikes, racing bikes and even recumbent bikes, but the vast majority of bicycles are second-hand, older-model, heavy bikes with no gears and back-pedal brakes. Bicycle traffic, and traffic in general, is relatively safe - in 2007, Amsterdam had a total of 18 traffic deaths, compared with 26 people murdered. In the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or are one-way. The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as Autodelen and Meerijden.nu. Public transport in Amsterdam mainly consists of bus and tram lines, operated by Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf, Connexxion and Arriva. Currently, there are 16 different tramlines and a freight tram operation is being developed. There are currently four metro lines, with a fifth line, the North/South line, under construction. Three free ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the IJ to Amsterdam-Noord, and two-fare charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also water taxis, a water bus, a boat sharing operation, electric rental boats (Boaty) and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways. Approximately 35% of all people travelling in Amsterdam uses public transport. The A10 Ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutch national network of freeways. Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the eighteen city roads, numbered S101 through to S118. These city roads are regional roads without grade separation, and sometimes without a central reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100 Centrumring is a smaller ringroad circumnavigating the city's centre. Amsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind of Kilometre Zero, of the highway system of the Netherlands, with freeways numbered one through eight planned to originate from the city. The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roads A1, A2, and A4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. The A3 road to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to conserve the Groene Hart. Road A8, leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974. Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as the A7 and A6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam. Amsterdam is served by nine stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways). Five are intercity stops: Sloterdijk, Zuid, Amstel, Bijlmer ArenA and Amsterdam Centraal. The stations for local services are: Lelylaan, RAI, Holendrecht and Muiderpoort. Amsterdam Centraal is also an international train station. From the station there are regular services to destinations such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Switzerland. Among these trains are international trains of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen and the Thalys, CityNightLine, and InterCityExpress. Eurolines has coaches from Amsterdam to destinations all over Europe. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Central Station. It is the biggest airport in the Netherlands, the fifth largest in Europe, and the twelfth largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles about 46 million passengers a year and is the home base of three airlines, KLM, transavia.com and Martinair. Schiphol was, in 2006, the third busiest airport in the world measured by international passengers. Education Amsterdam has two universities: the University of Amsterdam (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit or "VU" - often referred to, in English, as "The Free"). Other institutions for higher education include an art school – Gerrit Rietveld Academie, the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten. Amsterdam's International Institute of Social History is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's Hortus Botanicus, founded in the early 1600s, is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world, with many old and rare specimens, among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America. Some Amsterdam's elementary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various Montessori schools. The biggest Montessori High School in Amsterdam is the Montessori Lyceum Amsterdam. This school counts almost 1700 pupils. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam. In addition to schools based on distinct beliefs, there are public schools. Amsterdam is noted for having three independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), the Vossius Gymnasium, Barlaeus Gymnasium, and St. Ignatius Gymnasium, where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. Housing Rental properties make up an unusually large share (73%) of the city's housing supply, with semi-private housing associations owning three-quarters of these properties. . Rent controls have caused serious problems in the housing market. The city government has been successful in its efforts to increase the percentage of owner-occupied dwellings. This figure has risen by 125% over the last 15 years. Squat properties are common throughout Amsterdam. Any property left unused for more than one year may be subject to squatting. The property is usually obtained by forcible entry. A number of these squats have become well known, such as OT301, Vrankrijk, and the Binnenpret, and several are now businesses, such as health clubs and licensed restaurants. Culture and entertainment During the later part of the 16th century Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of Rhetoric) organized contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama. In 1638, Amsterdam opened its first theatre. Ballet performances were given in this theatre as early as 1642. In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. Opera could be seen in Amsterdam from 1677, first only Italian and French operas, but in the 18th century, German operas. In the 19th century, popular culture was centred around the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainly vaudeville and music-hall). The metronome, one of the most important advances in European classical music, was invented here in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. At the end of this century, the Rijksmuseum and Gemeentelijk Museum were built. In 1888, the Concertgebouworkest was established. With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television. Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of SBS 6 is located in Amsterdam. Museums The most important museums of Amsterdam are located on het Museumplein (Museum Square), located at the southern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former World Exposition. The northern part of the square is bordered by the very large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular, pond. This is transformed in winter time into an ice rink. The western part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is situated across this street from the square. To the east of the square are situated a number of large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. A parking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. Het Museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northern part of the square which is covered with gravel. The current appearance of the square was realized in 1999, when the square was remodeled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again, because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance. The Rijksmuseum possesses the largest and most important collection of classical Dutch art. It opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects. The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpiece the Nightwatch is one of top pieces of art of the museum. It also houses paintings from artists like Van der Helst, Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuijp, Van Ruysdael and Paulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art. This ranges from Delftware to giant dollhouses from the 17th century. The architect of the gothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. At present, the museum is being expanded, renovated, and a new main entrance for the museum created. Only one wing of the Rijksmuseum is currently open to the public, with a selection of master pieces on display. The full museum will re-open in 2012 or 2013. Van Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while, so there is a museum dedicated to his early work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum. Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, like the Aardappeleters (The Potato Eaters) and Zonnenbloemen, are present in the collection. The Van Gogh museum is the most visited museum in Amsterdam. Next to the Van Gogh museum stands the Stedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's largest museum concerning modern art. The museum opened its doors at around the same time the Museum Square was created. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like Piet Mondriaan, Karel Appel, and Kasimir Malewitsj. This museum is also currently being renovated and expanded. The main entrance will be relocated from the Paulus Potterstraat to the Museum Square itself. It will be open again to public in 2009. The current exhibition of this museum is housed in a former post office near the central station. Amsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city. They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum, the Anne Frank House, and the Rembrandthuis, to the very large, like the Tropenmuseum, Amsterdams Historisch Museum, and Joods Historisch Museum. Performing arts Pop Music The Heineken Music Hall is a concert hall located near the Amsterdam ArenA. Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues, Paradiso and the Melkweg are located near the Leidse Plein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging from indie rock to hip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Another more subculturally-focused music venue is OCCII. Classical music Amsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is the Concertgebouw, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. 800 concerts a year are performed there for approximately 850,000 patrons. The opera house of Amsterdam is situated adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera. This word is derived from the Dutch words stadhuis (city hall) and opera. This huge modern complex, officially opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighborhood at Waterlooplein next to the river Amstel. The Stopera is the homebase of De Nederlandse Opera, Het Nationale Ballet and the Holland Symfonia. Het Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a new concert hall, which is situated in the IJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostly modern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is the Bimhuis, a concert hall for Jazz music. Theater The main theatre building of Amsterdam is the Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam at the Leidseplein. It is the home base of the Toneelgroep Amsterdam. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal programm of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. The Stadsschouwburg is currently being renovated and expanded. The third theater space, to be operated jointly with next door Melkweg, will open in late 2009 or early 2010. Comedy The Netherlands has a tradition of cabaret which combines music, storytelling, commentary and comedy. Cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like Wim Kan and Wim Sonnevelt were pioneers of this form of art in the Netherlands. In 1993, the contemporary comedy scene was established with the founding of Comedytrain and Boom Chicago in Amsterdam. Comedytrain was a collective of Dutch stand up comedians, who began performing in what is now the Comedy Cafe, and later set up their own stage Toomler. Many big names in Dutch stand up comedy can be traced back to this organization. Boom Chicago began in that same year with a theater in the Korte Leidsedwarsstraat. After four years in what is now the Sugar Factory, they moved to their current location at the Leidseplein Theater in 1998. They are known for their live English-language sketches and improvisation comedy. Other leading comedy locations include Comedy Cafe, Comedy Theater on the Nes. Nightlife Amsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. The two main nightlife areas are the Leidseplein and the Rembrandtplein. Amsterdam has many cafes. They range from large and modern to small and cozy. The typical bruine kroeg (brown cafe) breathe a more old fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientelle. Most cafes have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine. Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable. Some of the best restaurants in the Netherlands are located in Amsterdam. Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques. Most of these 'clubs' are situated near the Leidseplein and Rembrandtplein. The Paradiso, Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centers, which turn into discothèques on some nights. Examples of discothèques near the Rembrandtplein are the Escape and Club Home. Also noteworthy are Panama, Hotel Arena (East) and The Powerzone. The Reguliersdwarsstraat is the main street for nightlife for gays, lesbians and bisexuals. Hollywood films are primarily featured at cinemas owned by Pathe. Tuschinski is a heritage art deco building with a beautiful lobby and six screens. Theater One is an architectural treasure with comfortable seats, two balconies and recently restored ceilings. The Pathe cinema is modern and is located at De Munt. Pathe Arena is located a short metro ride from the center and is Amsterdam's most technically advanced and modern cinema. Pathe City is scheduled to reopen in October 2009. Art films can be found at Tuschinski, and the independent The Movies, Cinecenter, Kriterion, Ketelhuis, Uitkijk, and the Filmmuseum. Festivals In the 2008 there were 140 festivals in Amsterdam. Famous festivals in Amsterdam include Koninginnedag (Queen's Day), Amsterdam Gay Pride and the Uitmarkt. On Koninginnedag, hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to join the residents of the city to celebrate. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the freemarket or visiting one of the many music concerts. It is held each year on the 30th of April. During Gay Pride, there is a long parade of boats with floating down Amsterdam's canals, and curious events taking place throughout the city. It is held each year on the first Saturday in August. Finally the Uitmarkt is a cultural event which lasts for three days. It consists of many podia with a lot of different artist on them, such as musicians and poets. It is held in late August. Sports Amsterdam is the hometown of the Eredivisie football club Ajax Amsterdam. The stadium Amsterdam ArenA is the home of Ajax. It is located in the south-east of the city next to the new Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA railway station. Before it moved to its current location in 1996, Ajax played their regular matches in De Meer Stadion. In 1928, Amsterdam hosted the Games of the IXth Olympiad. The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events, such as the Amsterdam Marathon. The ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers play in the Jaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch ice hockey premier league. Speed skating championships have been held on the lane of this ice rink. The baseball team the Amsterdam Pirates competes in the Dutch Major League. There are three field hockey teams, Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen. The basketball team MyGuide Amsterdam competes in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid, near the Olympic Stadium. Over Sporthallen Zuid: Referenties Since 1999 the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and -women at the Amsterdam Sports Awards. Boxer Raymond Joval and field hockey midfielder Carole Thate were the first to receive the awards in 1999. Miscellaneous Red light district De Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area for legalized prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and most well known red-light district. It consists of a network of roads and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by female sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights. The area also has a number of sex shops, sex theatres, peep shows, an erotic museum, a cannabis museum, and a number of coffee shops offering various cannabis products. While 26 percent of the tourists come to the district to have a "look", the number of brothels is decreasing sufficiently for the Chamber of Commerce to sound the alarm. References External links Government Amsterdam.nl - Official government site I amsterdam - Portal for international visitors The Amsterdam Site - Official tourism board site Other Tourism in Amsterdam (www.binnenstadamsterdam.nl) Amsterdam City & Events Guide be-x-old:Амстэрдам | Amsterdam |@lemmatized amsterdam:236 dutch:42 capital:13 large:48 city:101 netherlands:19 locate:26 province:6 north:13 holland:6 west:8 country:6 population:15 around:10 million:6 suburb:8 january:1 comprise:3 northern:5 part:22 randstad:2 metropolitan:5 area:29 europe:13 name:5 derive:2 amstel:11 dam:6 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 eleventh:1 edition:1 vol:1 indicative:1 origin:1 river:4 square:24 today:5 settle:4 small:13 fishing:1 village:2 late:8 century:43 become:21 one:33 important:6 port:2 world:30 golden:4 age:4 result:4 innovative:1 development:6 trade:3 time:9 leading:1 center:13 finance:1 diamond:2 history:7 international:12 financial:7 centre:19 youssef:1 cassis:1 isbn:2 expand:8 many:30 new:30 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1,746 | Book_of_Zephaniah | The superscription of the Book of Zephaniah attributes its authorship to “Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Josiah son of Amon of Judah” (1:1, NRSV). All that is known of Zephaniah comes from the text. The superscription of the book is lengthier than most and contains two features. The name Cushi, Zephaniah’s father, means ‘Ethiopian’. In a society where genealogy was considered extremely important because of God's covenant with Abraham and his descendants, the author may have felt compelled to establish his Hebrew lineage. In fact, this lineage is traced back to Hezekiah, who was king of Judah. The author of Zephaniah does not shrink from condemning the Cushites or Ethiopians. Chapter 2:12 contains a succinct but unequivocal message: “You also, O Ethiopians, / Shall be killed by my sword.” Zephaniah’s familial connection with King Hezekiah may have also legitimized his harsh indictment of the royal city in 3:1-7. As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah. Some scholars believe that much of the material does not date from the days of King Josiah (ca. 640-609 BCE), but is actually post-monarchic. Three general possibilities are that a person, possibly named Zephaniah, prophesied the words of the book of Zephaniah; the general message of a Josianic prophet is conveyed through the book of Zephaniah; or the name could have been employed, either during the monarchic or post-monarchic period, as a ‘speaking voice’, possibly for rhetorical purposes. Although it is possible that a post-monarchic author assumed the persona of a monarchic prophet to add credibility to his message, there is no evidence to support such a claim. The prophetic book of the Bible attributed to Zephaniah occurs ninth among the twelve minor prophets, preceded by Habakkuk and followed by Haggai. Zephaniah (or Tzfanya, Sophonias, צפניה, Ẓəfanya, Ṣəp̄anyāh) means 'the Lord conceals', 'the Lord protects' or, possibly, 'God of darkness'. When it was written If the superscription of the book of Zephaniah is a reliable indicator of the time that the bulk of the book was composed, then Zephaniah was a contemporary of the prophet Jeremiah (or Jeremias). King Josiah ruled over Judah from approximately 640-609 BCE. Some scholars believe that the picture of Jerusalem which Zephaniah gives indicates that he was active prior to the religious reforms of King Josiah which are described in 2 Kings 23. These reforms took place in 622 BCE. Scholars also cite the reference to “the officials and the king’s sons . . .” in 1:8 as evidence that the kingdom was still ruled by a regent for Josiah. The portrait of foreign nations in chapter 2 also indicates the late seventh century. Zephaniah was probably the first prophet following the prophecies of Isaiah and the violent reign of Manasseh. Both Zephaniah and Jeremiah urged King Josiah to enact religious reforms, which he eventually did. Other scholars have presented evidence pointing to a post-monarchic date (as late as 200 BCE) based on language and theme, although the book might still have been based on an earlier composition. Why it was written There are two possible reasons for the creation of the book of Zephaniah. Either way, the primary purpose of the book’s composition was to alter the behaviour (particularly religious behaviour) of the author’s contemporary Jerusalemites. If the book of Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, the author of the book of Zephaniah attempts to accomplish this change in behaviour through the threat of future calamity for “those who have turned back from following the Lord, / who have not sought the Lord or inquired of him” (1:6). The author conceives of a date in the future – the ‘great day of the Lord’ – when the Lord will judge all the people of the earth. This coming judgment will affect all of the nations, including the author’s own nation of Judah where God is understood to reside. The threats made against Jerusalem, however, are much more specific than the oracles concerning foreign nations. This strengthened the belief that the Israelites, who understood themselves to be God’s chosen people, were even more culpable than other peoples for not living up to God’s statutes because they were to be a ‘light unto the nations’. The book concludes by extending a promise of deliverance to the remnant of Israel which remains. The fulfilment of this prophecy is commonly understood to have taken place when Judah was captured by the nation of Babylon and many of its inhabitants were exiled in an event known as the Babylonian captivity. If the book gained most of its present form in post-monarchic period, then the author likely intended to draw upon an understanding of the Babylonian captivity as a punishment from the Lord, urging his own contemporaries not to repeat the mistakes of the past. It is not known whether the religious syncretism (what syncretism?), alluded to in chapter one, was a significant issue in post-exilic Judah. Themes The book of Zephaniah consists of three chapters in the Hebrew Masoretic Text. In English versions, the book is divided into four chapters. The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows: + Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV Verse Reference Heading 1:1 (Superscription) 1:2-13 The Coming Judgment on Judah 1:14-18 The Great Day of the Lord 2:1-15 Judgment on Israel's Enemies 3:1-7 The Wickedness of Jerusalem 3:8-13 Punishment and Conversion of the Nations 3:14-20 Song of Joy It is important to note that there are a number of different sub-divisions in use for the text with no clear consensus. Despite its relatively short length, the book of Zephaniah incorporates a number of common prophetic themes. Zephaniah includes one of the most vivid descriptions in the prophetic literature of God’s wrath. Yet, it is also unequivocal in its proclamation of a restoration for those who survive the ‘Great Day of the Lord'. The book of Zephaniah incorporates a good deal of phrases and terminology which are found in other books of the Bible. This suggests that the author of Zephaniah was familiar with and drew upon earlier Israelite religious tradition and also that later biblical writers regarded the book of Zephaniah as an authoritative (or at least respectable) work in the prophetic corpus. The book of Zephaniah draws upon several themes from the book of Book of Genesis and reverses them. The opening verses of the book of Zephaniah are reminiscent both of the creation and of Noah’s flood. Chapter 1:2-3 declare that “I will sweep away everything / from the face of the earth says the Lord. / I will sweep away humans and animals; I will sweep away the birds of the air / and the fish of the sea.” The order of the creatures to be destroyed in Zephaniah is the opposite of the order in which they are created in Genesis 1:20-27. It is also worth noting that in both Noah’s flood and Zephaniah’s Day of the Lord, a ‘remnant’ survives God’s wrath. It is also not surprising that the book of Zephaniah bears marked similarities to the book of Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic history. Similarities might be expected to each of these works because the Deuteronomistic history covers an overlapping period of time and because the issues which are dealt with in the book of Zephaniah go straight to the heart of the covenant which is reaffirmed in the book of Deuteronomy before Israel enters into the Promised Land of Canaan. The first 3-4 of the Ten Commandments (or Ten Words, Decalogue) contained in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:1-22 directly concern Israel’s relationship with Yahweh. It is this integral component of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel which is threatened by the practices which to which the author of the book of Zephaniah refers in 1:4-6. In this manner, Zephaniah invokes one of the most common themes, not only in prophetic literature, but in the whole of the Hebrew Scriptures. Zephaniah also draws upon the emerging idea that Yahweh is quite different from the regional or tribal gods of the surrounding nations. Rather, Yahweh is beginning to be understood as the only God and the God who rules over all nations. It was an apparently unique belief in the ancient Middle East that a god could send a foreign nation to execute that god’s judgment (as the Israelites believed Yahweh did with Babylon). In the book of Zephaniah, all nations are portrayed as being subject to Yahweh’s divine judgment. The book of Zephaniah also interacts with the prophetic tradition – both borrowing from and contributing to the corpus in terms of language and images. References Berlin, Adele. Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible Volume 25A. Toronto: Doubleday, 1994. Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. Faulhaber, M. "Sophonias (Zephaniah)." Catholic Encyclopedia. Transcribed by Thomas M. Barrett. 2003. Hirsch, Emil G. & Ira Maurice Price. "Zephaniah." JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2002. LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Sweeney, Marvin A. Zephaniah: A Commentary. Ed. Paul D. Hanson. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2003. External links Zephaniah at JewishEncyclopedia.com Translations of the book of Zephaniah: Jewish translations: Tzefaniah - Zephaniah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Zephaniah at CrossWalk.com (various versions) Zephaniah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) Zephaniah at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) | Book_of_Zephaniah |@lemmatized superscription:4 book:35 zephaniah:47 attribute:2 authorship:1 son:6 cushi:2 gedaliah:1 amariah:1 hezekiah:3 day:6 king:10 josiah:6 amon:1 judah:7 nrsv:2 know:3 come:3 text:3 lengthy:1 contain:3 two:2 feature:1 name:4 father:1 mean:2 ethiopian:2 society:1 genealogy:1 consider:1 extremely:1 important:2 god:12 covenant:3 abraham:1 descendant:1 author:10 may:2 felt:1 compel:1 establish:1 hebrew:3 lineage:2 fact:1 trace:1 back:2 shrink:1 condemn:1 cushites:1 chapter:7 succinct:1 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1,747 | Nuremberg_trials | The Süddeutsche Zeitung announces "The Verdict in Nuremberg." Depicted are (left, from top): Goering, Hess, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick; (second column) Funk, Streicher, Schacht; (third column) Doenitz, Raeder, Schirach; (right, from top) Sauckel, Jodl, Papen, Seyss-Inquart, Speer, Neurath, Fritzsche, Bormann. Image from Topography of Terror Museum, Berlin. The Nuremberg trials were a series of trials, or tribunals, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany after its defeat in World War II. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1946, at the Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 22 of the most important captured leaders of Nazi Germany. It was held from 21 November 1945, to 1 October 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on those trials. Origin Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in their dock. The main target of the prosecution was Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the Third Reich after Hitler's death. British War Cabinet documents, released on 2 January 2006, have shown that as early as December 1944, the Cabinet had discussed their policy for the punishment of the leading Nazis if captured. British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill had then advocated a policy of summary execution in some circumstances with the use of an Act of Attainder to circumvent legal obstacles, and was only dissuaded from this by talks with U.S. leaders later in the war. In late 1943, during the Tripartite Dinner Meeting at the Tehran Conference, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, proposed executing 50,000–100,000 German staff officers. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, aghast, sarcastically joked that perhaps 49,000 would do. Churchill denounced the idea of "the cold blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country." However, he also stated that war criminals must pay for their crimes and that in accordance with the Moscow Document which he himself had written, they should be tried at the places where the crimes were committed. Churchill was vigorously opposed to executions "for political purposes." John Crossland Churchill: execute Hitler without trial in The Sunday Times, 1 January, 2006 Tehran Conference: Tripartite Dinner Meeting November 29, 1943 Soviet Embassy, 8:30 PM U.S. Treasury Secretary, Henry Morgenthau, Jr., suggested a plan for the total denazification of Germany; this was known as the Morgenthau Plan. The plan advocated the forced de-industrialization of Germany. Roosevelt initially supported this plan, and managed to convince Churchill to support it in a less drastic form. Later, details were leaked to the public, generating widespread protest. Roosevelt, seeing strong public disapproval, abandoned the plan, but did not proceed to adopt support for another position on the matter. The demise of the Morgenthau Plan created the need for an alternative method of dealing with the Nazi leadership. The plan for the "Trial of European War Criminals" was drafted by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and the War Department. Roosevelt died in April 1945. The new president, Harry S. Truman, gave strong approval for a judicial process. After a series of negotiations between the U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, and France, details of the trial were worked out. The trials were set to commence on 20 November 1945, in the city of Nuremberg. Creation of the courts Sir David Maxwell Fyfe (at podium, left) and an unknown prosecutor On January 14, 1942, representatives from the nine occupied countries met in London to draft the Inter-Allied Resolution on German War Crimes. At the meetings in Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945), the three major wartime powers, the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. The legal basis for the trial was established by the London Charter, issued on 8 August 1945, which restricted the trial to "punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis countries." Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was that defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany, political authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control Council, which having sovereign power over Germany could choose to punish violations of international law and the laws of war. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939. Allied war crimes The war crimes tribunal tried and punished personnel only from Axis countries. Accusations arose claiming victor's justice, since no war crimes by the Allies were heard. It is, however, usual that the armed forces of a civilized country Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity contained in the Avalon Project archive at Yale Law School. "but by 1939, these rules laid down in the [Hague] Convention [of 1907] were recognized by all civilized nations, and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war" issue their forces with detailed guidance on what is and is not permitted under their military code. These are drafted to include any international treaty obligations and the customary laws of war. For example, at the trial of Otto Skorzeny, his defence was in part based on the Field Manual published by the War Department of the United States Army, on 1 October 1940, and the American Soldiers' Handbook. Trial of Otto Skorzeny and Others, General Military Government Court of the U.S. Zone of Germany, 18 August to 9 September 1947. If a member of the armed forces breaks their own military code then they can expect to face a court martial. When members of the Allied armed forces broke their military codes, they could be and were tried, as, for example, at the Biscari Massacre trials. However, General Chuck Yeager writes in his autobiography that some air corps missions were probably war crimes, (specifically, the 'shoot anything that moves' missions in the German countryside) but he, and other pilots, went on the missions in order to avoid court martial for disobeying orders. He also said he hoped the allies won the war, otherwise they might be tried for war crimes. The unconditional surrender of the Axis powers was unusual and led directly to the formation of the international tribunals. Usually, international wars end conditionally and the treatment of suspected war criminals makes up part of the peace treaty. In most cases those who are not prisoners of war are tried under their own judicial system if they are suspected of committing war crimes – as happened to some Finns at the end of the concurrent Finnish-Soviet Continuation War. In restricting the international tribunal to trying suspected Axis war crimes, the Allies were acting within normal international law. Location The Soviet Union had wanted the trials to take place in Berlin, but Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons: The Palace of Justice was spacious and largely undamaged (one of the few that had remained largely intact through extensive Allied bombing of Germany). A large prison was also part of the complex. Nuremberg was considered the ceremonial birthplace of the Nazi Party, and hosted annual propaganda rallies. It was thus a fitting place to mark the party's symbolic demise. It was also agreed that France would become the permanent seat of the IMT and that the first trial (several were planned) would take place in Nuremberg. The Nuremberg judges, seated left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Participants Each of the four countries provided one judge and an alternate, as well as the prosecutors. Judges Major-General Iona Nikitchenko (Soviet main) Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Volchkov (Soviet alternate) Rt. Hon. Col. Sir Geoffrey Lawrence (British main and president) Sir Norman Birkett (British alternate) Francis Biddle (U.S. main) John Parker (U.S alternate) Professor Henri Donnedieu de Vabres (French main) Robert Falco (French alternate) The chief prosecutors Robert H. Jackson (United States) Sir Hartley Shawcross (United Kingdom) Lieutenant-General R. A. Rudenko( Soviet Union) François de Menthon (France) Auguste Champetier de Ribes (France) Assisting Jackson was the lawyer Telford Taylor and a young US Army translator named Richard Sonnenfeldt. Assisting Shawcross were Major Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe and Sir John Wheeler-Bennett. Mervyn Griffith-Jones, later to become famous as the chief prosecutor in the Lady Chatterley's Lover obscenity trial, was also on Shawcross's team. Shawcross also recruited a young barrister, Anthony Marreco, who was the son of a friend of his, to help the British team with the heavy workload. Robert Falco was an experienced judge who had tried many in court in France. Democrat James B. Donovan was assistant trial counsel. Defense Counsel Each defendant was provided with his own defense counsel; the majority of defense attorneys were German lawyers. The main trial Göring and Hess during trials The International Military Tribunal was opened on 18 October 1945, in the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. The first session was presided over by the Soviet judge, Nikitchenko. The prosecution entered indictments against 24 major war criminals and six criminal organizations - the leadership of the Nazi party, the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the High Command of the German armed forces (OKW). The indictments were for: Participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace Planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace War crimes Crimes against humanity The 24 accused were: "I" indicted "G" indicted and found guilty "O" Charged Name CountPenalty Notes 1 2 3 4 Martin BormannIOGGDeathSuccessor to Hess as Nazi Party Secretary. Sentenced to death in absentia. Remains found in 1972 and dated to 1945. Karl DönitzIGGO10 yearsLeader of the Kriegsmarine from 1943, succeeded Raeder. Initiator of the U-boat campaign. Became President of Germany following Hitler's death. In evidence presented at the trial of Karl Dönitz on his orders to the U-boat fleet to breach the London Rules, Admiral Chester Nimitz stated that unrestricted submarine warfare was carried on in the Pacific Ocean by the United States from the first day that nation entered the war. Dönitz was found guilty of breaching the 1936 Second London Naval Treaty, but his sentence was not assessed on the ground of his breaches of the international law of submarine warfare. President of the Reich for 23 days after Adolf Hitler's suicide.Judgement : Doenitz the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School Hans FrankIOGGDeathReich Law Leader 1933-1945 and Governor-General of the General Government in occupied Poland 1939-1945. Expressed repentance. Wilhelm FrickIGGGDeathHitler's Minister of the Interior 1933-1943 and Reich Protector of Bohemia-Moravia 1943-1945. Authored the Nuremberg Race Laws. Hans FritzscheIIIO Acquitted Popular radio commentator, and head of the news division of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry. Tried in place of Joseph Goebbels. Walther FunkIGGGLife ImprisonmentHitler's Minister of Economics. Succeeded Schacht as head of the Reichsbank. Released due to ill health on 16 May 1957. Hermann GöringGGGGDeathReichsmarschall, Commander of the Luftwaffe 1935-1945, Chief of the 4-Year Plan 1936-1945, and several departments of the . Second only to Hitler in the Nazi hierarchy during the last years of the war. Committed suicide the night before his execution. Rudolf HessGGIILife ImprisonmentHitler's deputy, flew to Scotland in 1941 in attempt to broker peace with Great Britain. After trial, committed to Spandau Prison; died in 1987. Alfred JodlGGGGDeathWehrmacht Generaloberst, Keitel's subordinate and Chief of the O.K.W.'s Operations Division 1938-1945. Subsequently exonerated by German court in 1953, though the exoneration was later overturned, largely as a result of pressure by American officials. Ernst KaltenbrunnerIOGGDeathHighest surviving -leader. Chief of RSHA 1943-45, the central Nazi intelligence organ. Also commanded many of the Einsatzgruppen and several concentration camps. Wilhelm KeitelGGGGDeathHead of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) 1938-1945. Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und HalbachIII----Major Nazi industrialist. C.E.O of Krupp A.G 1912-45. Medically unfit for trial {died January 16, 1950}. The prosecutors attempted to substitute his son Alfried (who ran Krupp for his father during most of the war) in the indictment, but the judges rejected this as being too close to trial. Alfried was tried in a separate Nuremberg trial for his use of slave labor, thus escaping the worst notoriety and possibly death. <div style="clear: left">Robert LeyIIII----Head of DAF, The German Labour Front. Suicide on 25 October 1945, before the trial began Baron Konstantin von NeurathGGGG15 yearsMinister of Foreign Affairs 1932-1938, succeeded by Ribbentrop. Later, Protector of Bohemia and Moravia 1939-43. Resigned in 1943 due to dispute with Hitler. Released (ill health) 6 November 1954. Franz von PapenIIOOAcquitted Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and Vice-Chancellor under Hitler in 1933-1934. Ambassador to Austria 1934-38 and ambassador to Turkey 1939-1944. Although acquitted at Nuremberg, von Papen was reclassified as a war criminal in 1947 by a German de-Nazification court, and sentenced to eight years' hard labour. He was acquitted following appeal after serving two years. Erich RaederGGGOLife ImprisonmentCommander In Chief of the Kriegsmarine from 1928 until his retirement in 1943, succeeded by Dönitz. Released (ill health) 26 September 1955. Joachim von RibbentropGGGGDeathAmbassador-Plenipotentiary 1935-1936. Ambassador to the United Kingdom 1936-1938. Nazi Minister of Foreign Affairs 1938-1945, <div style="clear: left">Alfred RosenbergGGGGDeathRacial theory ideologist. Later, Minister of the Eastern Occupied Territories 1941-1945. Fritz SauckelIIGGDeathGauleiter of Thuringia 1927-1945. Plenipotentiary of the Nazi slave labor program 1942-1945. Dr. Hjalmar SchachtIIOO Acquitted Prominent banker and economist. Pre-war president of the Reichsbank 1923-1930 & 1933-1938 and Economics Minister 1934-1937. Admitted to violating the Treaty of Versailles. Baldur von SchirachIOOG20 yearsHead of the Hitlerjugend from 1933 to 1940, Gauleiter of Vienna 1940-1943. Expressed repentance. Arthur Seyss-InquartIGGGDeathInstrumental in the Anschluss and briefly Austrian Chancellor 1938. Deputy to Frank in Poland 1939-1940. Later, Reich Commissioner of the occupied Netherlands 1940-1945. Expressed repentance. Albert SpeerIIGG20 YearsHitler's favorite architect and close friend, and Minister of Armaments from 1942. In this capacity, he was ultimately responsible for the use of slave laborers from the occupied territories in armaments production. Expressed repentance. Julius StreicherIOOGDeathGauleiter of Franconia 1922-1940. Publisher of the weekly newspaper, Der Stürmer. "I" indicted "G" indicted and found guilty "O" Charged Throughout the trials, specifically between January and July 1946, the defendants and a number of witnesses were interviewed by American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn. His notes detailing the demeanour and personality of the defendants survive. The death sentences were carried out 16 October 1946 by hanging using the standard drop method instead of long drop. The executioner was John C. Woods. The bodies were brought to Dachau and burned (the final use of the crematories there) with the ashes then scattered into a river. The French judges suggested the use of a firing squad for the military condemned, as is standard for military courts-martial, but this was opposed by Biddle and the Soviet judges. These argued that the military officers had violated their military ethos and were not worthy of the firing squad, which was considered to be more dignified. The prisoners sentenced to incarceration were transferred to Spandau Prison in 1947. Of the twelve defendants sentenced to death by hanging, two were not hanged: Hermann Göring committed suicide the night before the execution and Martin Bormann was not present when convicted. The remaining ten defendants sentenced to death were hanged. The definition of what constitutes a war crime is described by the Nuremberg Principles, a set of guidelines document which was created as a result of the trial. The medical experiments conducted by German doctors and prosecuted in the so-called Doctors' Trial led to the creation of the Nuremberg Code to control future trials involving human subjects, a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. Of the organizations the following were found not to be criminal: Reichsregierung Oberkommando Generalstab der Wehrmacht Sturmabteilung Subsidiary and related trials Assessment In 1945 the idea of an International Military Tribunal was unprecedented. Creating a forum to legitimately try enemy prisoners under a fair legal system had never been attempted and many questioned whether World War II was the time to try it. The governments of the Allies and France believed that a trial, following an established legal system, was a better option than military execution without due process. Consequently, the IMT was formed to try Nazi war criminals. Although the IMT had its flaws, it at least provided the Nazi defendants with a modicum of justice by virtue of the simple fact that they were allowed a trial. The Allies overcame the urge to indiscriminately execute every prisoner they took, and instead decided to subject them to the rule of law. Legacy The creation of the IMT was followed by trials of lesser Nazi officials, trials of Nazi doctors, who performed horrifying experiments on people in prison camps. It served as the model for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East which tried Japanese officials for crimes against peace and against humanity. It also served as the model for the Eichmann trial and for present-day courts at The Hague, for trying crimes committed during the Balkan wars of the early 1990s, and at Arusha, for trying the people responsible for the genocide in Rwanda. The Nuremberg trials had a great influence on the development of international criminal law. The Conclusions of the Nuremberg trials served as models for: The Genocide Convention, 1948. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. The Nuremberg Principles, 1950. The Convention on the Abolition of the Statute of Limitations on War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1968. The Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War, 1949; its supplementary protocols, 1977. The International Law Commission, acting on the request of the United Nations General Assembly, produced in 1950 the report Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgement of the Tribunal (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, vol. II ). See Nuremberg Principles. The influence of the tribunal can also be seen in the proposals for a permanent international criminal court, and the drafting of international criminal codes, later prepared by the International Law Commission. Establishment of a permanent International Criminal Court The Nuremberg trials initiated a movement for the prompt establishment of a permanent international criminal court, eventually leading over fifty years later to the adoption of the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Criticism Critics See, e.g., Zolo(Victors' Justice (2009) by Danilo Zolo, Professor of Philosophy and Sociology of Law at the University of Florence. See also Institute for Historical Review, Not Guilty at Nuremberg: The German Defense Case, as well as David Irving, Nuremberg, The Last Battle of the Nuremberg trials argued that the charges against the defendants were only defined as "crimes" after they were committed and that therefore the trial was invalid as a form of "victors' justice". See, e.g., statement of Professor Nicholls of St. Antony's College, Oxford, that "[t]he Nuremberg trials have not had a very good press. The are often depicted as a form of victors' justice in which people were tried for crimes which did not exist in law when they committed them, such as conspiring to start a war."Prof. Anthony Nicholls, University of Oxford As Biddiss "Victors' Justice: The Nuremberg Tribunal," by Michael Biddiss, History Today, Vol. 45, May 1995 noted "...the Nuremberg Trial continues to haunt us....It is a question also of the weaknesses and strengths of the proceedings themselves. The undoubted flaws rightly continue to trouble the thoughtful." See, e.g., BBC Article for BBC by Prof. Richard Overy("[T]hat the war crimes trials ... were expressions of a legally dubious 'victors' justice' was [a point raised by] ...senior [Allied] legal experts who doubted the legality of the whole process....There was no precedent. No other civilian government had ever been put on trial by the authorities of other states....What the Allied powers had in mind was a tribunal that would make the waging of aggressive war, the violation of sovereignty and the perpetration of what came to be known in 1945 as 'crimes against humanity' internationally recognized offences. Unfortunately, these had not previously been defined as crimes in international law, which left the Allies in the legally dubious position of having to execute retrospective justice - to punish actions that were not regarded as crimes at the time they were committed.") See Paper of Jonathan Graubart, San Diego State University, Political Science Department, published online Graubart Article, referring to the ex post facto nature of the charges. Chief Justice of the United States Harlan Fiske Stone called the Nuremberg trials a fraud. "(Chief US prosecutor) Jackson is away conducting his high-grade lynching party in Nuremberg," he wrote. "I don't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old-fashioned ideas." 'Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law', Alpheus T. Mason, (New York: Viking, 1956) Associate Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas charged that the Allies were guilty of "substituting power for principle" at Nuremberg. "I thought at the time and still think that the Nuremberg trials were unprincipled," he wrote. "Law was created ex post facto to suit the passion and clamor of the time." 'Dönitz at Nuremberg: A Reappraisal', H. K. Thompson, Jr. and Henry Strutz, (Torrance, Calif.: 1983) The validity of the court has been questioned for a variety of reasons: The defendants were not allowed to appeal or affect the selection of judges. A. L. Goodhart, Professor at Oxford, opposed the view that, because the judges were appointed by the victors, the Tribunal was not impartial and could not be regarded as a court in the true sense. He wrote: A. L. Goodhart, "The Legality of the Nuremberg Trials", Juridical Review, April, 1946. "Attractive as this argument may sound in theory, it ignores the fact that it runs counter to the administration of law in every country. If it were true then no spy could be given a legal trial, because his case is always heard by judges representing the enemy country. Yet no one has ever argued that in such cases it was necessary to call on neutral judges. The prisoner has the right to demand that his judges shall be fair, but not that they shall be neutral. As Lord Writ has pointed out, the same principle is applicable to ordinary criminal law because 'a burglar cannot complain that he is being tried by a jury of honest citizens.'" The main Soviet judge, Nikitchenko, had taken part in Stalin's show trials of 1936-1938, Conquest, Robert The Great Terror A Reassessment London: Oxford University Press, 1990 page 92. . One of the charges, brought against Keitel, Jodl, and Ribbentrop included conspiracy to commit aggression against Poland in 1939. The Secret Protocols of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 23 August 1939, proposed the partition of Poland between the Germans and the Soviets (which was subsequently executed in September 1939); however, Soviet leaders were not tried for being part of the same conspiracy. Bauer, Eddy The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II Volume 22 New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation 1972 page 3071. Instead, the Tribunal falsely proclaimed the Secret Protocols of the Non-Aggression Pact to be a forgery. Moreover, Allied Powers Britain and Soviet Union were not tried for preparing and conducting the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran and the Winter War, respectively. In 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging, for the first time, another government (the Sublime Porte) of committing "a crime against humanity". However it was not until the phrase was further developed in the London Charter that it had a specific meaning. As the London Charter definition of what constituted a crime against humanity was unknown when many of the crimes were committed, it could be argued to be a retrospective law, in violation of the principles of prohibition of ex post facto laws and the general principle of penal law nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali. The court agreed to relieve the Soviet leadership from attending these trials as war criminals in order to hide their crimes against war civilians, crimes that were committed by their army that included "carving up Poland in 1939 and attacking Finland three months later." This "exclusion request" was initiated by the Russians and subsequently approved by the court's administration. BBC News. 1945: Nuremberg trial of Nazis begins. November 20, 1945. The trials were conducted under their own rules of evidence; the indictments were created ex post facto and were not based on any nation's law; the tu quoque defense was removed; and some claim the entire spirit of the assembly was "victor's justice". The Charter of the International Military Tribunal permitted the use of normally inadmissible "evidence." Article 19 specified that "The Tribunal shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence... and shall admit any evidence which it deems to have probative value". Article 21 of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal (IMT) Charter stipulated: "The Tribunal shall not require proof of facts of common knowledge but shall take judicial notice thereof. It shall also take judicial notice of official governmental documents and reports of the United [Allied] Nations, including acts and documents of the committees set up in the various allied countries for the investigation of war crimes, and the records and findings of military and other Tribunals of any of the United [Allied] Nations" The chief Soviet prosecutor submitted false documentation in an attempt to indict defendants for the murder of thousands of Polish officers in the Katyn forest near Smolensk. However, the other Allied prosecutors refused to support the indictment and German lawyers promised to mount an embarrassing defense. No one was charged nor found guilty at Nuremberg for the Katyn Forest massacre. In 1990, the Soviet government acknowledged that the Katyn massacre was carried out, not by the Germans, but by the Soviet secret police. BBC News story : Russia to release massacre files, 16 December 2004 online Freda Utley, in her 1949 book "The High Cost of Vengeance" charged the court with amongst other things double standards. She pointed to the Allied use of civilian forced labor, and deliberate starvation of civilians Richard Dominic Wiggers, The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II U.S. military personnel and their wives were under strict orders to destroy or otherwise render inedible their own leftover surplus so as to ensure it could not be eaten by German civilians. Eugene Davidson "The Death and Life of Germany" p.85 University of Missouri Press, 1999 ISBN 0826212492 in the occupied territories. She also noted that General Rudenko, the chief Soviet prosecutor, after the trials became commandant of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. (After the fall of East Germany the bodies of 12,500 Soviet era victims were uncovered at the camp, mainly "children, adolescents and elderly people." "Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp" The New York Times, September 24, 1992 ) However, as described above, the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers was unusual and led directly to the formation of the international tribunals. In most cases those who are not prisoners of war are tried under their own judicial system if they are suspected of committing war crimes; in restricting the international tribunal to trying suspected Axis war crimes, the Allies were acting within normal international law. Moreover, the Tribunal itself strongly disputed that the London Charter was ex post facto law, pointing to existing international agreements signed by Germany that made aggressive war and certain wartime actions unlawful, such as the Kellogg-Briand Pact, the Covenant of the League of Nations, and the Hague Conventions. Additionally, many commentators felt the Nuremberg Trials represented a step forward in extending fairness to the vanquished by requiring that actual criminal misdeeds be proved before punishment could ensue; including some of the defendants and their legal team: Perhaps the most telling responses to the critics of Jackson and Nuremberg were those of the defendants at trial. Hans Frank, the defendant who had served as the Nazi Governor General of occupied Poland, stated, “I regard this trial as a God-willed court to examine and put an end to the terrible era of suffering under Adolf Hitler.” With the same theme, but a different emphasis, defendant Albert Speer, Hitler’s war production minister, said, “This trial is necessary. There is a shared responsibility for such horrible crimes even in an authoritarian state.” Dr. Theodore Klefish, a member of the German defense team, wrote: "It is obvious that the trial and judgment of such proceedings require of the tribunal the utmost impartiality, loyalty and sense of justice. The Nuremberg tribunal has met all these requirements with consideration and dignity. Nobody dares to doubt that it was guided by the search for truth and justice from the first to the last day of this tremendous trial." Robert Jackson and International Human Rights, Professor Henry T. King, Robert H. Jackson Center, 1 May 2003 Legitimacy One criticism that was made of the IMT was that some treaties were not binding on the Axis powers because they were not signatories. This was addressed in the judgment relating to war crimes and crimes against humanity Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in the Avalon Project archive at Yale Law School contains an expansion of customary law "the Convention Hague 1907 expressly stated that it was an attempt 'to revise the general laws and customs of war,' which it thus recognised to be then existing, but by 1939 these rules laid down in the Convention were recognised by all civilised nations, and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war which are referred to in Article 6 (b) of the [London] Charter." The implication under international law is that if enough countries have signed up to a treaty, and that treaty has been in effect for a reasonable period of time, then it can be interpreted as binding on all nations not just those who signed the original treaty. This is a highly controversial aspect of international law, one that is still actively debated in international legal journals. But the customary law of war exists, and has existed, since time immemorial; the use of treaty to codify what is allowed and what is prohibited is merely its modern expression; just as the common law in the English-speaking nations has forbidden murder, under pain of death, since its inception, without a word on the statute-books proscribing murder in many of the common law countries up to the present day. The idea that there are certain expectations of those practicing the profession of arms among the civilized nations has been ingrained in many cultures—including those of Europe, East Asia (c.f. bushido, the warrior code of Japan), the Middle East (c.f. Saladin, the Arabian/Islamic exemplar of knightly virtue, respected and honored across the battle-lines by the Crusaders), and other civilizations. In particular, the culture of Europe gave rise to the concept of chivalry, the code of honor regulating the conduct of knights, men-at-arms, and in later days, in more modern forms, soldiers. Traditionally, in Europe and elsewhere, the obligation of the warrior is to levy war upon all those who bear arms against him, his brothers-in-arms, his commander, and his nation, using whatever means at his disposal are necessary and honorable for the task, and not using those which are dishonorable or perfidious, but in so doing, to save and to defend the innocent, the weak, and the helpless; to bring succor to the wounded, comfort to the dying; to spare from the rigors of war those who do not present a threat, not bearing arms against him; to give quarter, and to treat with humanity and military dignity the enemy soldier who has yielded, or is incapacitated; and, above all, to protect women and children from the sword. The idea that a warrior owes a duty not just to his nation, or his army, but also to his common humanity is a concept as old as civilization itself is. Over the millennia, civilization has remembered with respect those warriors who were courageous in battle and merciful to those they defeated, regardless of whose banner under which they fought, For example, Erwin Rommel, the extraordinary German commander of armor and infantry during the Second World War, known for both his brilliance and mastery of the military art, as well as his scrupulous respect for the law and custom of war, is today honored, respected, and remembered by both his nation and his former foes, whilst many other German generals from that same war, regardless of their military genius, are remembered by civilization primarily for their crimes. while history regards with infamy those warriors, regardless of their military success, who willingly discarded the very honor and respect that they may have earned in battle through their atrocities committed upon civilians or cruelties visited upon vanquished foes. No warrior has been regarded as a man of courage for slaughtering of the weak or innocent, for his pillages or sacks, or for brutalities and barbarities he visited upon his foes; therein lies no honor or glory, only senseless cruelty. This indicates that just as the law against murder in the common-law nations is established not by statute, but by history, custom, the human condition, and by being immanent in Nature, so too is the law of war, and so too has it always been, whether its violation is explicitly prohibited by treaty or not. Further reading See also Command responsibility Eichmann in Jerusalem Einsatzgruppen Trial International Military Tribunal for the Far East Judgment at Nuremberg (1961 film) List of Axis war criminals List of war crimes Nazi eugenics Nuremberg Defense Nuremberg Diary, an account of observations and discussions with the defendants by an American psychologist Superior Orders Tanya Savicheva Notes External links Official records of the Nuremberg trials (The Blue series) in 42 volumes from the records of the Library of congress The Nuremberg Trials Original reports and pictures from The Times Official page of the Nuremberg City Museum Nuremberg defence doesn't make the grade-The Age newspaper Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection Cornell Law Library Nuremberg Trials Project: A digital document collection Harvard Law School Library The Avalon Project Charter of the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg trials) The Subsequent Nuremberg Trials Nizkor Holocaust Web Project United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Online Exhibit Special focus on The trials - USHMM Famous World Trials - Nuremberg Trials Nuremberg Trials Gallery The Nuremberg Trials: The Defendants and Verdicts Nuremberg War Crimes - Trials Nuremberg Trials 1945-1949 "American Experience: The Nuremberg Trials" PBS Obituary of Anthony Marreco Crimes, Trials and Laws Nuremberg Trials Nuremberg defendants A Tree Fell in the Forest: The Nuremberg Judgments 60 Years On, JURIST Bringing a Nazi to justice: how I cross-examined 'fat boy' Göring, guardian.co.uk CBC Radio: A Conversation with Geoffrey Robertson, Author of the Tyrannicide Brief (Feb 18/07) (RealAudio) JAG Corps Attorneys Attorney Shawcross reads an account of a massacre - 27 July 1946 (BBC) (Windows Media and Real Audio) Warning: graphic descriptions of atrocities The Nuremberg Judgments, Chapter 6 from The High Cost of Vengeance, by Freda Utley, Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, (1948). 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1,748 | Frequency | Sinusoidal waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies than those above. The horizontal axis represents time. Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency. Definitions and units For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a number of cycles, or periods, per unit time. In physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by a Greek letter ν (nu). In SI units, the unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. For example, 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second, 2 Hz is twice per second, and so on. This unit was originally called a cycle per second (cps), which is still sometimes used. Heart rate and musical tempo are measured in beats per minute (BPM). Frequency of rotation is often expressed as a number of revolutions per minute (rpm). BPM and rpm values must be divided by 60 to obtain the corresponding value in Hz: thus, 60 BPM translates into 1 Hz. The period is usually denoted as T, and is the reciprocal of the frequency f: The unit for period is the second. Measurement By timing To calculate the frequency of an event, the number of occurrences of the event within a fixed time interval are counted, and then divided by the length of the time interval. In experimental work (for example, calculating the frequency of an oscillating pendulum) it is generally more accurate to measure the time taken for a fixed number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a fixed time. The latter method introduces — if N is the number of counted occurrences — a random error between zero and one count, so on average half a count, causing a biased underestimation of f by ½ f / (N + ½) in its expected value. In the first method, which does not suffer this particular error, frequency is still calculated by dividing the number of occurrences by the time interval; however it is the number of occurrences that is fixed, not the time interval. By stroboscope effect, or frequency beats In case when the frequency is so high that counting is difficult or impossible with the available means, another method is used, based on a source (such as a laser, a tuning fork, or a waveform generator) of a known reference frequency f0, that must be tunable or very close to the measured frequency f. Both the observed frequency and the reference frequency are simultaneously produced, and frequency beats are observed at a much lower frequency Δf, which can be measured by counting. This is sometimes referred to as a stroboscope effect. The unknown frequency is then found from . Frequency of waves Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of wavelength, simply, frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength λ (lambda). The frequency f is equal to the phase speed v of the wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave: In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c , where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes: When waves from a monochromatic source travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains exactly the same — only their wavelength and speed change. Examples Physics of light Radiant energy is energy which is propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves. Most people think of natural sunlight or electrical light, when considering this form of energy. The type of light which we perceive through our optical sensors (eyes) is classified as white light, and is composed of a range of colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) over a range of wavelengths, or frequencies. Visible (white) light is only a small fraction of the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. At the short end of that wavelength scale is ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun, which cannot be seen. At the longer end of that spectrum is infrared (IR) light, which is used for night vision and other heat-seeking devices. At even shorter wavelengths than UV are X-rays and Gamma-rays. At longer wavelengths than IR are microwaves,radio waves, electromagnetic waves in megahertz and kHz range, as well as natural waves with frequencies in the millihertz and microhertz range. A 2 millihertz wave has a wavelength approximately equal to the distance from the earth to the sun. A microhertz wave would extend 0.0317 light years. A nanohertz wave would extend 31.6881 light years. Complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with the visible portion highlighted Electromagnetic radiation is classified according to the frequency (or wavelength) of the light wave. This includes (in order of increasing frequency): natural electromagnetic waves, radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared (IR) radiation, visible light, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. Of these, natural electromagnetic waves have the longest wavelengths and gamma rays have the shortest. A small window of frequencies, called visible spectrum or light, is sensed by the eye of various organisms, with variations of the limits of this narrow spectrum. Physics of sound Sound is vibration transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas; particularly, sound means those vibrations composed of frequencies capable of being detected by ears. For humans, hearing is limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), with the upper limit generally decreasing with age. Other species have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication. The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through vacuum. Longitudinal and transverse waves Sinusoidal waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies than those above. The horizontal axis represents time. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves in solids, are waves of alternating shear stress. Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium. Sound wave properties Sound waves are characterized by the generic properties of waves, which are frequency, wavelength, period, amplitude, intensity, speed, and direction (sometimes speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector, or wavelength and direction are combined as a wave vector). Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have an additional property of polarization. Sound characteristics can depend on the type of sound waves (longitudinal versus transverse) as well as on the physical properties of the transmission medium. Whenever the pitch of the soundwave is affected by some kind of change, the distance between the sound wave maxima also changes, resulting in a change of frequency. When the loudness of a soundwave changes, so does the amount of compression in airwave that is travelling through it, which in turn can be defined as amplitude. In music and acoustics, the frequency of the standard pitch A above middle C on a piano is usually defined as 440 Hz, that is, 440 cycles per second () and known as concert pitch, to which an orchestra tunes. Other examples In Europe, Africa, Australia, Southern South America, most of Asia, and Russia, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical outlets is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), whereas in North America and Northern South America, the frequency of the alternating current is 60 Hz (between the tones B♭ and B — that is, a minor third above the European frequency). The frequency of the 'hum' in an audio recording can show where the recording was made — in countries utilizing the European, or the American grid frequency. Period versus frequency As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as ocean surface waves, tend to be described by wave period rather than frequency. Short and fast waves, like audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency instead of period. These commonly used conversions are listed below: Frequency 1 mHz (10-3) 1 Hz (100) 1 kHz (103) 1 MHz (106) 1 GHz (109) 1 THz (1012) Period (time) 1 ks (103) 1 s (100) 1 ms (10-3) 1 µs (10-6) 1 ns (10-9) 1 ps (10-12) Other types of frequency Angular frequency ω is defined as the rate of change in the orientation angle (during rotation), or in the phase of a sinusoidal waveform (e.g. in oscillations and waves): . Angular frequency is measured in radians per second (rad/s). Spatial frequency is analogous to temporal frequency, but the time axis is replaced by one or more spatial displacement axes. Wavenumber is the spatial analogue of angular frequency. In case of more than one spacial dimension, wavenumber is a vector quantity. See also Frequency converter Frequency range or frequency band Letter frequencies Natural frequency Negative frequency Periodicity Pitch (music) Rate (mathematics) Wavelength References External links National Research Council of Canada: Femtosecond comb; The measurement of optical frequencies Conversion: frequency to wavelength and back Conversion: period, cycle duration, periodic time to frequency Keyboard frequencies = naming of notes - The English and American system versus the German system Teaching resource for 14-16yrs on sound including frequency A simple tutorial on how to build a frequency meter Frequency - diracdelta.co.uk - javascript calculation. | Frequency |@lemmatized sinusoidal:3 wave:46 various:3 frequency:67 bottom:2 high:4 horizontal:2 axis:3 represent:2 time:14 number:9 occurrence:7 repeating:2 event:5 per:9 unit:7 also:5 refer:2 temporal:2 period:11 duration:2 one:6 cycle:5 reciprocal:2 definition:1 cyclical:1 process:1 rotation:3 oscillation:3 define:4 physic:3 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1,749 | John_Grierson | John Grierson (26 April 1898 – 19 February 1972) is often considered the father of British and Canadian documentary film. Early life Grierson was born in Deanston, near Doune, Scotland. His father was the local Protestant preacher, his mother a suffragette and ardent Labour Party activist. From an early age, both parents steeped their son in liberal politics, humanistic ideals, and Calvinist moral and religious philosophies, particularly the notion that education was essential to individual freedom and that hard and meaningful work was the way to prove oneself worthy in the sight of God. After service on minesweepers in the Royal Navy during World War I, Grierson entered the University of Glasgow, where he spent a good part of his academic career enmeshed in impassioned political discussion and leftist political activism. In 1924, after graduating from the university in moral philosophy, he received a Rockefeller Research Fellowship to study in the United States at the University of Chicago, and later at Columbia and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research focus was the psychology of propaganda--the impact of the press, film, and other mass media on forming public opinion. Grierson was particularly interested in the popular appeal and influence of the "yellow" (tabloid) press, and the influence and role of these journals on the education of new American citizens from abroad. Social Critic In 1926, Grierson further argued in his essay First Principles of Documentary that Robert Flaherty's film Moana had "documentary value". Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's views align with the Soviet propagandist Dziga Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as "bourgeois excess", though with considerably more subtlety. Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments. Like a number of other social critics of the time, Grierson was profoundly concerned about what he perceived to be clear threats to democracy. In the US, he encountered a marked tendency toward political reaction, anti-democratic sentiments, and political apathy. He read and agreed with the journalist and political philosopher Walter Lippmann's book Public Opinion which blamed the erosion of democracy in part on the fact that the political and social complexities of contemporary society made it difficult if not impossible for the public to comprehend and respond to issues vital to the maintenance of democratic society. In Grierson's view, a way to counter these problems was to involve citizens in their government with the kind of engaging excitement generated by the popular press, which simplified and dramatized public affair. It was during this time that Grierson developed a conviction that motion pictures could play a central role in promoting this process. (It has been suggested some of Grierson's notions regarding the social and political uses of film were influenced by reading Lenin's's writing about film as education and propaganda.) Grierson's emerging view of film was as a form of social and political communication--a mechanism for social reform, education, and perhaps spiritual uplift. His view of Hollywood movie-making was considerably less sanguine: "In an age when the faiths, the loyalties, and the purposes have been more than usually undermined, mental fatigue--or is it spiritual fatigue?--represents a large factor in everyday experience. Our cinema magnate does no more than exploit the occasion. He also, more or less frankly, is a dope pedlar." Film critic Grierson's emerging and outspoken film philosophies caught the attention of New York film critics at the time. He was asked to write criticism for the New York Sun. At the Sun, Grierson wrote articles on film aesthetics and audience reception, and developed broad contacts in the film world. In the course of this writing stint, Grierson coined the term "documentary" in writing about Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926) (New York Sun, 8 February 1926: "Of course Moana, being a visual account of events in the daily life of a Polynesian youth and his family, has documentary value."). During this time, Grierson was also involved in scrutinizing the film industries of other countries. He was involved in arranging to bring Sergei Eisenstein's groundbreaking film The Battleship Potemkin (1925) to US audience for the first time. Eisenstein's editing techniques and film theories, particularly the use of montage, would have a significant influence on Grierson's own work. Filmmaker Grierson returned to Great Britain in the late 1920s armed with the sense that film could be enlisted to deal with the problems of the Great Depression, and to build national morale and national consensus. Filmmaking for Grierson was an exalted calling; the Filmmaker a patriot. In all of this there was more than a little elitism, a stance reflected in Grierson's many dicta of the time: "The elect have their duty." "I look on cinema as a pulpit, and use it as a propagandist." In the US Grierson had met pioneering documentary filmmaker Robert Flaherty. Grierson respected Flaherty immensely for his contributions to documentary form and his attempts to use the camera to bring alive the lives of everyday people and everyday events. Less commendable in Grierson's view was Flaherty's focus on exotic and faraway cultures. ("In the profounder kind of way", wrote Grierson of Flaherty, "we live and prosper each of us by denouncing the other"). In Grierson's view, the focus of film should be on the everyday drama of ordinary people. As Grierson wrote in his diaries: "Beware the ends of the earth and the exotic: the drama is on your doorstep wherever the slums; are, wherever there is malnutrition, wherever there is exploitation and cruelty." "'You keep your savages in the far place Bob; we are going after the savages of Birmingham,' I think I said to him pretty early on. And we did.") On his return to England, Grierson joined the Empire Marketing Board (EMB), a governmental agency which had been established several years earlier to promote British world trade and British unity throughout the empire. One of the major functions of the EMB was publicity, which the Board accomplished through exhibits, posters, and publications. In 1930 Grierson convinced government funding agencies to establish a film unit within the EMB and to assign him the directorship of the unit. It was within the context of this State funded organization that the "documentary" as we know it today really got its start. In late 1929 Grierson and his cameraman, Basil Emmott, completed his first film, Drifters, which he wrote, produced and directed. The film, which follows the heroic work of North Sea herring fishermen, was a radical departure from anything being made by the British film industry or Hollywood. A large part of its innovation lie in the fierce boldness in bringing the camera to rugged locations such as a small boat in the middle of a gale, and leave relatively less of the action staged. The choice of topic was chosen less from Grierson's curiosity than the fact that he discovered the Financial Secretary had made the herring industry his hobbyhorse. It premiered in London on a double-bill with Eisenstein's then controversial film The Battleship Potemkin, and received high praise from both its sponsors and the press. After this success, Grierson moved away from film direction into more production and administration within the EMB. He became a tireless organizer and recruiter for the EMB, enlisting a stable of energetic young filmmakers into the film unit between 1930 and 1933. Those enlisted included filmmakers Basil Wright, Edgar Anstey, Stuart Legg, Paul Rotha, Arthur Elton, Humphrey Jennings, Harry Watt, and Alberto Cavalcanti. This group formed the core of what was to become known as the British Documentary Film Movement. In 1933 the EMB Film Unit was disbanded, a casualty of Depression era economics. Grierson's boss at the EMB moved to the General Post Office (GPO) as its first public relations officer with the stipulation that he could bring the EMB film unit with him. Grierson's crew were charged with demonstrating the ways in which the Post Office facilitated modern communication and brought the nation together, a task aimed as much at GPO workers as the general public. During Grierson's administration, the GPO Film Unit produced a series of groundbreaking films, including Night Mail (dir. Basil Wright and Harry Watt, 1936), and Coal Face (dir. Alberto Cavalcanti, 1936). Grierson eventually grew restless with having to work within the bureaucratic and budgetary confines of government sponsorship. In response, he sought out private industry sponsorship for film production. He was finally successful in getting the British gas industry to underwrite an annual film program. Perhaps the most significant works produced during this time were Housing Problems (dir. Arthur Elton, Edgar Anstey, John Taylor, and Grierson's sister Ruby Grierson, 1935) and Song of Ceylon (dir. Basil Wright, 1935) In 1938, Grierson was invited by the Canadian government to study the country's film production. He proposed the government create a national coordinating body for the production of films. In 1939, Canada created the National Film Commission, which would later become the National Film Board of Canada. Grierson was the first Commissioner of the Board. When Canada entered World War II in 1939, the NFB focused on the production of propaganda films, many of which Grierson directed. After the war, it focused on producing documentaries that reflected the lives of Canadians. The NFB is recognized around the world for producing quality films, many of which have won Academy Awards. In 1945 Grierson was dismissed from his post as Commissioner of the NFB after allegations of communist sympathy regarding several of the films the Board had produced during the war. Following his dismissal, and the dismissal of three of his coworkers Grierson returned to Scotland. From 1957 to 1967 Grierson hosted a successful weekly television program on Scottish television, This Wonderful World, which showed excerpts from outstanding documentaries. In 1957 he received a special Canadian Film Award. Grierson Documentary Film Awards The Grierson Documentary Film Awards were established in 1972 to commemorate John Grierson and is currently supervised by The Grierson Trust. The aim of the award is to show outstanding films that demonstrate integrity, originality and technical excellence, together with social or cultural significance. Grierson Awards are presented annually in nine categories: Best Documentary on a Contemporary Issue Best Documentary on the Arts Best Historical Documentary Best Documentary on Science or the Natural World The Frontier Post Award for Most Entertaining Documentary Best Drama Documentary Best International Cinema Documentary Best Newcomer Trustees' Award Filmography Filmography as director: Drifters (1929; first screened at the British premiere of Battleship Potemkin) Granton Trawler (1934) Filmography as producer/creative contributor: O'er Hll and Dale (dir. Basil Wright 1932) UP-STREAM: A Story of the Scottish Salmon Fisheries (dir. Arthur Elton 1932) Cargo from Jamaica (dir. Basil Wright 1933) Industrial Britain (dir. Robert Flaherty 1933) Cable Ship (dir. (Alexander Shaw and Stuart Legg 1933) Coming of the Dial (dir. Stuart Legg 1933) Liner Cruising South (dir. Basil Wright 1933) Man of Aran (dir. Robert Flaherty 1934) New Operator (dir. Stuart Legg 1934) Pett and Pott: A Fairy Story of the Suburbs (dir. Alberto Cavalcanti 1934) Post Haste (dir. Humphrey Jennings 1934) Spring Comes to England dir. Donald Taylor 1934) Six-thirty Collection (dir. Harry Watt and Edgar Anstey 1934) Song of Ceylon (dir. Basil Wright 1934) BBC: The Voice of Britain (dir. Stuart Legg 1935) A Colour Box (dir. Len Lye 1935) Housing Problems (dir. Edgar Anstey, Arthur Elton 1935) Introducing the Dial (dir. Stuart Legg 1935) Coal Face (dir. Alberto Cavalcanti 1935) B.B.C. Droitwich (dir. Harry Watt 1935) Night Mail ( dir. (Basil Wright, and Harry Watt 1936) Saving of Bill Blewitt (dir. Basil Wright 1936) Line To The Tschierva Hut (dir. Alberto Cavalcanti 1937) Children At School (dir. Basil Wright 1937) We Live In Two Worlds (dir. Alberto Cavalcanti 1937) Daily Round (dir. Richard Massingham, Karl Urbahn 1937) Trade Tattoo (dir. Len Lye 1937) The Face of Scotland (dir. Basil Wright 1938) Sport in Scotland (dir. Stanley L. Russell 1938) The Londoners (dir. John Taylor (director) 1939) Judgement Deferred (dir. John Baxter 1951) Brandy for the Parson (dir. John Eldridge 1952) The Brave Don't Cry (dir. Philip Leacock 1952) Miss Robin Hood (dir. John Guillermin 1952) Time Gentlemen Please! (dir. Lewis Gilbert 1952) You're Only Young Twice (dir. Terry Bishop 1952) Man of Africa (dir. Cyril Frankel 1953) Background (dir. Daniel Birt 1953) Laxdale Hall (dir. John Eldridge 1953) The Oracle (dir. C.M. Pennington-Richards 1953) Child's Play (dir. Margaret Thomson 1954) Devil on Horseback (dir. Cyril Frankel 1954) Rivers at Work (dir. Lew Davidson 1958) This Wonderful World (dir. various 1957-67) Seawards the Great Ships (dir. Hilary Harris 1960) The Heart of Scotland (dir. Laurence Henson 1961) The Creative Process (dir. Donald McWilliams 1961) Health of a City (dir. Derek Williams 1965) I Remember, I Remember (dir. James Sutherland 1968) Bibliographies Grierson Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) Gary Evans, John Grierson & the National Film Board -- The Politics of Wartime Propaganda; University of Toronto Press, 1984 Joyce Nelson, The Colonized Eye: Rethinking the Grierson Legend; Between the Lines, 1988. Documentaries About Grierson In a short film John Grierson at the NFT (1959) he recalls the British documentary film movement. This is included in the Land of Promise Region 2 DVD set (BFI 2008). Grierson. Produced and directed by Roger Blais. Montreal, Que.: National Film Board of Canada, c. 1973. 59 min. Sources Canada's Awards Database Credits from: British Film Institute Catalog (Film Index International) External links The John Grierson Archive at The University of Stirling Bfi Screenonline entry. John Grierson in South Africa: Afrikaaner nationalism and the National Film Board John Grierson's NFB biography The Grierson Trust Online essay about Grierson and Flaherty from the University of Glasgow (no link) See also Edgar Anstey Arthur Elton Robert Flaherty Humphrey Jennings Stuart Legg Paul Rotha Basil Wright | John_Grierson |@lemmatized john:13 grierson:60 april:1 february:2 often:1 consider:1 father:2 british:9 canadian:4 documentary:25 film:49 early:3 life:5 bear:1 deanston:1 near:1 doune:1 scotland:5 local:1 protestant:1 preacher:1 mother:1 suffragette:1 ardent:1 labour:1 party:1 activist:1 age:2 parent:1 steep:1 son:1 liberal:1 politics:2 humanistic:1 ideal:1 calvinist:1 moral:2 religious:1 philosophy:3 particularly:3 notion:2 education:4 essential:1 individual:1 freedom:1 hard:1 meaningful:1 work:6 way:4 prove:1 oneself:1 worthy:1 sight:1 god:1 service:1 minesweeper:1 royal:1 navy:1 world:10 war:4 enter:2 university:7 glasgow:2 spend:1 good:2 part:3 academic:1 career:1 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1,750 | Broadway_(Manhattan) | A view of Broadway in 1909 Broadway, as the name implies, is a wide avenue in New York City, which runs the full length of Manhattan and continues into the Bronx. It is the oldest north-south main thoroughfare in the city, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement. The name Broadway is an English translation of the Dutch name, Brede weg. A stretch of Broadway is famous as the pinnacle of the American theater industry. History In 1885 the Broadway commercial district was overrun with telephone, telegraph, and electrical lines. This view was north from Cortlandt and Maiden Lane. Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush land of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants. Shorto, Russell. "The Streets Where History Lives", The New York Times, February 9, 2004. Accessed April 4, 2008. "And what about a marker for the Wickquasgeck Trail, the Indian path that ran the length of the island, which the Dutch made into their main highway and the English renamed Broadway?" This trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island. Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail soon became the main road through the island from New Amsterdam at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642 ("the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily"). The Dutch named the road "Heerestraat". In the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town commons north of Wall Street, where Eastern Post Road continued through the East Side and Bloomingdale Road the west side of the island. In the late 19th century the widened and paved part of Bloomingdale Road north of Columbus Circle was called "The Boulevard" but at the end of the century the whole old road (the Bloomingdale Road and what was previously called Broadway) was renamed Broadway. Route Broadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, from Bowling Green at the south, to Inwood at the northern tip of the island. South of Columbus Circle, it is a one-way southbound street. Vehicular traffic is currently banned at Times Square between 47th and 42nd Streets, and at Herald Square between 35th and 33rd Streets as part of a pilot program; the right-of-way is intact and reserved for cyclists and pedestrians. From the northern shore of Manhattan, it crosses Spuyten Duyvil Creek via the Broadway Bridge and continues through Marble Hill (a discontinuous portion of the borough of Manhattan) and the Bronx into Westchester County. U.S. 9 continues to be known as Broadway through its junction with NY 117. Diagonally crossing the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 of Manhattan streets, its intersections with avenues have been marked by "squares" (some merely triangular slivers of open space) and induced some interesting architecture, such as the famous Flatiron Building. A view up Broadway from Bowling Green, with the Chrysler Building visible in the background The section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to City Hall Park is the historical location for the city's ticker-tape parades, and is sometimes called the "Canyon of Heroes" during such events. West of Broadway as far as Canal Street was the city's fashionable residential area until circa 1825; landfill has more than tripled the area and the Hudson shore now lies far to the west, beyond TriBeCa and Battery Park City. Broadway marks the east boundary of Greenwich Village, passing Astor Place. It is a short walk from there to New York University near Washington Square Park, which is at the foot of Fifth Avenue. A bend in front of Grace Church allegedly avoids an earlier tavern; from 10th Street it begins its long diagonal course across Manhattan, headed almost due North. At Union Square, Broadway crosses 14th Street and continues its diagonal uptown course from the Square's northwest corner. At Madison Square, Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street. At Herald Square, Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue (the Avenue of the Americas). Macy's Department Store is located on the western corner of Herald Square; it is one of the largest department stores in the world. Broadway and 38th Street One famous stretch near Times Square, where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many Broadway theatres, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly musicals. This area of Manhattan is often called the Theater District or the Great White Way, a nickname originating in the headline "Found on the Great White Way" in the February 3 1902 edition of the New York Evening Telegram. The journalistic sobriquet was inspired by the millions of lights on theater marquees and billboard advertisements that illuminate the area. After becoming New York's de facto Red Light District in the 1960s and 1970s (as can be seen in the films Taxi Driver and Midnight Cowboy), since the late 1980s Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center, in effect being Disneyfied following the company's purchase and renovation of the New Amsterdam Theatre on 42nd Street in 1993. Until June 2007, The New York Times, from which the Square gets its name, was published at offices at 239 West 43rd Street; the paper stopped printing papers there on June 15, 1997. Dunlap, David W. "Copy!’", The New York Times, June 10, 2007. Accessed October 10, 2008. "The sound is muffled by wall-to-wall carpet tiles and fabric-lined cubicles. But it’s still there, embedded in the concrete and steel sinews of the old factory at 229 West 43rd Street, where The New York Times was written and edited yesterday for the last time." At the southwest corner of Central Park, Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue at West 59th Street; on the site of the former New York Coliseum convention center is the new shopping center at the foot of the Time Warner Center, headquarters of Time Warner. North of Columbus Circle, Broadway retains planted center islands as a vestige of the central mall of "The Boulevard" that became the spine of the Upper West Side. At the intersection of Columbus Avenue and West 65th Street, Broadway passes by the Juilliard School and Lincoln Center, both well-known performing arts landmarks, as well as a temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormon or LDS Church), known as the Manhattan New York Temple. At the intersection with 72nd street, the triangle of tiny Verdi Square is surrounded by several notable apartment buildings, including The Ansonia. At its intersection with 78th Street, Broadway shifts direction, to continue directly uptown aligned approximately with the Commissioners' grid. Past the bend are The Apthorp and the First Baptist Church in the City of New York (1891), built for a Baptist congregation in New York since 1762. At 99th Street Broadway passes between the controversial skyscrapers of The Ariel East and West. At 107th Street Broadway intersects with West End Avenue to form Straus Park with its Titanic Memorial by Augustus Lukeman. Broadway at Dyckman Street in Inwood. Further north, Broadway follows the old Bloomingdale Road as the main spine of the Upper West Side, passing the campus of Columbia University at 116th Street in Morningside Heights. Still in Morningside Heights, Broadway passes the handsome, park-like campus of Barnard College. Next, the beautiful gothic quadrangel of Union Theological Seminary and the brick buildings of the Jewish Theological Seminary with their beautifully-landscapped interior courtyards face one another across Broadway. On the next block is the Manhattan School of Music. Broadway then runs past the proposed uptown campus of Columbia University, and the main campus of CUNY—City College, the beautiful gothic buildings of the original City College campus are out of sight, a block to the east. Also to the east are the handsome brownstones of Hamilton Heights. Broadway achieves a verdant, park-like effect, particularly in the spring, when it runs between the uptown Trinity Church Cemetery and the former Trinity Chapel, now the Church of the Intercession, New York near 155th Street. The springtime plantings in the median, maintained by Trinity Church, are spectacular. NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in Washington Heights. At this point, Broadway becomes part of US 9. The intersection with Saint Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan), at 167th Street forms Mitchell Square Park. Broadway crosses the Harlem River on the Broadway Bridge to Marble Hill and then enters The Bronx, where it is the eastern border of Riverdale and the western border of Van Cortlandt Park. After leaving New York City, it is the main north-south street of western Yonkers, New York. Public transit From south to north, Broadway at one point or another runs over or under the IRT Lexington Avenue Line (), the BMT Broadway Line (), the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line (), and the IND Eighth Avenue Line (): The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to City Hall. The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to Times Square–42nd Street. The IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 168th Street, and from 218th Street to its terminal in the Bronx at Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street. The northern portion of the IND Eighth Avenue Line runs under Broadway from 168th Street to Inwood–207th Street. Early street railways on Broadway included the Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad's Broadway and University Place Line (1864?) between Union Square (14th Street) and Times Square (42nd Street), the Ninth Avenue Railroad's Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues Line (1884) between 65th Street and 71st Street, the Forty-second Street, Manhattanville and St. Nicholas Avenue Railway's Broadway Branch Line (1885?) between Times Square and 125th Street, and the Kingsbridge Railway's Kingsbridge Line north of 169th Street. The Broadway Surface Railroad's Broadway Line, a cable car line, opened on lower Broadway (below Times Square) in 1893, and soon became the core of the Metropolitan Street Railway, with two cable branches: the Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line and Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line. These streetcar lines were replaced with bus routes in the 1930s and 1940s. Before Broadway became one-way, the main bus routes along it were the New York City Omnibus Company's (NYCO) 6 (Broadway below Times Square), 7 (Broadway and Columbus Avenue), and 11 (Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues), and the Surface Transportation Corporation's M100 (Kingsbridge) and M104 (Broadway Branch). Additionally, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company's (FACCo) 4 and 5 used Broadway from 135th Street north to Washington Heights, and their 5 and 6 used Broadway between 57th Street and 72nd Street. With the implementation of one-way traffic, the northbound 6 and 7 were moved to Sixth Avenue. As of 2007, Broadway is now served by the M1 (used Lafayette Street until that became one-way), M4 (ex-FACCo 4), M5 (ex-FACCo 5), M6 (ex-NYCO 6), M7 (ex-NYCO 7), M100, and M104. Other routes that use part of Broadway include the M10, M20, M27, M60, Bx7, and Bx20. Great White Way Plaza Broadway Great White Way is a nickname for a section of Broadway in the Midtown section of the New York City borough of Manhattan, specifically the portion that encompasses the Theatre District, between 42nd and 53rd Streets. Nearly a mile of Broadway was illuminated in 1880 by Brush arc lamps, making it among the first electrically lighted streets in the United States. The headline "Found on the Great White Way" appeared in the February 3, 1902, edition of the New York Evening Telegram. The journalistic sobriquet was inspired by the millions of lights on theater marquees and billboard advertisements that illuminate the area, especially around Times Square. Modern traffic flow Broadway was once a two-way street for its entire length. The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle (59th Street), came about in several stages. First, on June 6, 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway. None of Broadway became one-way, but the increased southbound traffic between Columbus Circle (Eighth Avenue) and Times Square (Seventh Avenue) caused the city to restripe that section of Broadway for four southbound and two northbound lanes. Ingraham, Joseph C. 7th and 8th Aves. Shift to One-Way, The New York Times, June 7, 1954, page 1. Broadway became one-way from Columbus Circle south to Herald Square (34th Street) on March 10, 1957, in conjunction with Sixth Avenue becoming one-way from Herald Square north to 59th Street and Seventh Avenue becoming one-way from 59th Street south to Times Square (where it crosses Broadway). New York Times, New One-Way Plan Cuts Delay by 30% In Midtown Traffic, March 12, 1957, page 1. On June 3, 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place and Church Street carrying northbound traffic. New York Times, Shifts in Traffic Marked by Jams, June 5, 1962, page 1 Another change was made on November 10, 1963, when Broadway became one-way southbound from Herald Square to Madison Square (23rd Street) and Union Square (14th Street) to Canal Street, and two routes - Sixth Avenue south of Herald Square and Centre Street, Lafayette Street, and Fourth Avenue south of Union Square - became one-way northbound. New York Times, City to Extend One-Way Traffic To 3 Manhattan Routes Sunday, November 5, 1963, page 1. Finally, at the same time as Madison Avenue became one-way northbound and Fifth Avenue became one-way southbound, Broadway was made one-way southbound between Madison Square (where Fifth Avenue crosses) and Union Square on January 14, 1966, completing its conversion south of Columbus Circle. Ingraham, Joseph C. 5th and Madison Will Go One-Way Early Next Year, The New York Times, May 12, 1965, page 1. Fowle, Farnsworth. Barnes Suggests Express Bus Runs, The New York Times, January 17, 1966, page 1. In August 2008 two traffic lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas. NY Daily News City to make two Broadway lanes In May 2009, the portions of Broadway through Duffy Square, Times Square, and Herald Square will be de-mapped through the end of 2009 as part of a traffic experiment. Notes See also Grand Central Hotel The Morgan Stanley Building - 1585 Broadway Singer Building Transportation in New York City Trinity Church, New York Winter Garden Theatre Woolworth Building White Way External links Great White Way Historical citations from word researcher Barry Popik. New York Songlines: Broadway; a virtual walking tour of the street. | Broadway_(Manhattan) |@lemmatized view:3 broadway:80 name:5 implies:1 wide:1 avenue:38 new:32 york:27 city:18 run:12 full:1 length:5 manhattan:15 continue:6 bronx:4 old:4 north:12 south:13 main:7 thoroughfare:1 date:1 first:5 amsterdam:5 settlement:1 english:2 translation:1 dutch:5 brede:1 weg:1 stretch:2 famous:3 pinnacle:1 american:2 theater:4 industry:1 history:2 commercial:2 district:4 overrun:1 telephone:1 telegraph:1 electrical:1 line:18 cortlandt:3 maiden:1 lane:4 originally:2 wickquasgeck:3 trail:4 carve:1 brush:2 land:1 native:1 inhabitant:1 shorto:1 russell:1 street:61 live:1 time:27 february:3 access:2 april:1 marker:1 indian:2 path:1 island:6 make:5 highway:1 rename:2 snake:1 swamp:1 rock:1 along:2 upon:1 arrival:1 soon:2 become:17 road:9 southern:1 tip:2 explorer:1 entrepreneur:1 david:2 de:3 vries:1 give:1 mention:1 journal:1 year:2 pass:6 daily:2 heerestraat:1 century:3 end:4 town:1 common:1 wall:3 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1,751 | Pseudorandomness | A pseudo random process is a process that appears random but is not. Pseudo random sequences typically exhibit statistical randomness while being generated by an entirely deterministic causal process. Such a process is easier to produce than a genuine random one, and has the benefit that it can be used again and again to produce exactly the same numbers, useful for testing and fixing software. To generate truly random numbers requires precise, accurate, and repeatable system measurements of absolutely non-deterministic processes. The open source operating system Linux uses, for example, various system timings(like user keystrokes, I/O, or least-significant digit voltage measurements) to produce a pool of random numbers. It attempts to constantly replenish the pool, depending on the level of importance, and so will issue a random number. This system is an example, and similar to those of dedicated hardware random number generators. History The generation of random numbers has many uses (mostly in statistics, for random sampling, and simulation). Before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels, etc.) or use existing random number tables. The first attempt to provide researchers with a ready supply of random digits was in 1927, when the Cambridge University Press published a table of 41,600 digits developed by Leonard H.C. Tippet. In 1947, the RAND Corporation generated numbers by the electronic simulation of a roulette wheel; the results were eventually published in 1955 as A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates. John von Neumann was a pioneer in computer-based random number generators. In 1951, Derrick Henry Lehmer invented the linear congruential generator, used in most pseudorandom number generators today. With the spread of the use of computers, algorithmic pseudorandom number generators replaced random number tables, and "true" random number generators (Hardware random number generators) are only used in a few cases. Almost random A pseudo-random variable is a variable which is created by a deterministic procedure (often a computer program or subroutine) which (generally) takes random bits as input. The pseudo-random string will typically be longer than the original random string, but less random (less entropic, in the information theory sense). This can be useful for randomized algorithms. Pseudorandom number generators are widely used in such applications as computer modeling (e.g., Markov chains), statistics, experimental design, etc. Some of them are sufficiently random to be useful in these applications. Many are not, and considerable sophistication is required to correctly determine the difference for any particular purpose. Incautious use of readily available random number generators has caused considerable, and long sustained, damage to the worth of large numbers of research projects for many years. The RANDU generator routine available on many large mainframe computers for decades had considerable, widely unappreciated, faults. Pseudorandomness in computational complexity In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage. Oded Goldreich. Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective. Cambridge University Press. 2008. This notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography. Formally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for every f in F, the statistical distance between the distributions f(X), where X is sampled from D, and f(Y), where Y is sampled from the uniform distribution on S, is at most ε. In typical applications, the class F describes a model of computation with bounded resources and one is interested in designing distributions D with certain properties that are pseudorandom against F. The distribution D is often specified as the output of a pseudorandom generator. Cryptography See also: Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator For such applications as cryptography, the use of pseudorandom number generators (whether hardware or software or some combination) is insecure. When random values are required in cryptography, the goal is to make a message as hard to crack as possible, by eliminating or obscuring the parameters used to encrypt the message (the key) from the message itself or from the context in which it is carried. Pseudorandom sequences are deterministic and reproducible; all that is required to discover and reproduce a pseudorandom sequence is the algorithm used to generate it and the initial seed. So the entire sequence of numbers is only as powerful as the randomly chosen parts - sometimes the algorithm and the seed, but usually only the seed. There are many examples in cryptographic history of cyphers, otherwise excellent, in which random choices were not random enough and security was lost in direct consequence. The World War II Japanese PURPLE cypher machine used for diplomatic communications is a good example. It was consistently broken throughout WWII, mostly because the "key values" used were insufficiently random. They had patterns, and those patterns made any intercepted traffic readily decryptable. Had keys (i. e., the initial settings of the stepping switches in the machine) been made unpredictably (ie, randomly), that traffic would have been much harder to break, and perhaps even secure in practice. Users and designers of cryptography are strongly cautioned to treat their randomness needs with the utmost care. Absolutely nothing has changed with the era of computerized cryptography, except that patterns in pseudorandom data are easier to discover than ever before. Randomness is, if anything, more important than ever. Monte Carlo method simulations A Monte Carlo method Simulation is defined as any method that utilizes sequences of random numbers to perform the simulation. Other simulations include quantum chromodynamics, radiation cancer therapy, traffic flow, stellar evolution and VLSI design. All these simulations require the use of random numbers and therefore pseudorandom number generators, which makes creating random-like numbers very important. An easy example of how a computer would do a Monte Carlo method Simulation is the calculation of . If a square enclosed a circle and a point were randomly chosen inside the square the point would either lie inside the circle or outside it. If the process were repeated many times, you can see that the ratio of the random points that lie inside the circle to outside it is proportional to ratio of the circle area to the square area. From this we can estimate π. See also Disperser Expander graph Extractor Random variable PN Sequences Pseudo-random binary sequence Pseudorandom number generator List of random number generators External links HotBits: Genuine random numbers, generated by radioactive decay Random number history Using and Creating Cryptographic-Quality Random Numbers In RFC 1750, the use of pseudo-random number sequences in cryptography is discussed at length. In Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd edition), 1997. Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89684-2 Chapter 8 in Oded Goldreich's Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective (2008). 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1,752 | Gini_coefficient | Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient(The area of the whole triangle is defined as 1, not 0.5) The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion, commonly used as a measure of inequality of income distribution or inequality of wealth distribution. It is defined as a ratio with values between 0 and 1: A low Gini coefficient indicates more equal income or wealth distribution, while a high Gini coefficient indicates more unequal distribution. 0 corresponds to perfect equality (everyone having exactly the same income) and 1 corresponds to perfect inequality (where one person has all the income, while everyone else has zero income). The Gini coefficient requires that no one have a negative net income or wealth. Worldwide, Gini coefficients range from approximately 0.230 in Sweden to 0.707 in Namibia although not every country has been assessed. The Gini index is the Gini coefficient expressed as a percentage. Thus Sweden's Gini index is 23.0%. The Gini coefficient was developed by the Italian statistician Corrado Gini and published in his 1912 paper "Variability and Mutability" (). The concept is also useful in studies of biodiversity, where cumulative proportion of species is plotted against cumulative proportion of individuals . Calculation The Gini index is defined as a ratio of the areas on the Lorenz curve diagram. If the area between the line of perfect equality and Lorenz curve is A, and the area under the Lorenz curve is B, then the Gini index is A/(A+B). Since A+B = 0.5, the Gini index, G = A/(0.5) = 2A = 1-2B. If the Lorenz curve is represented by the function Y = L(X), the value of B can be found with integration and: In some cases, this equation can be applied to calculate the Gini coefficient without direct reference to the Lorenz curve. For example: For a population uniform on the values yi, i = 1 to n, indexed in non-decreasing order ( yi ≤ yi+1): This may be simplified to: For a discrete probability function f(y), where yi, i = 1 to n, are the points with nonzero probabilities and which are indexed in increasing order ( yi < yi+1): where and For a cumulative distribution function F(y) that is piecewise differentiable, has a mean μ, and is zero for all negative values of y: Since the Gini coefficient is half the relative mean difference, it can also be calculated using formulas for the relative mean difference. For a random sample S consisting of values yi, i = 1 to n, that are indexed in non-decreasing order ( yi ≤ yi+1), the statistic: is a consistent estimator of the population Gini coefficient, but is not, in general, unbiased. Like, G, G(S) has a simpler form: . There does not exist a sample statistic that is in general an unbiased estimator of the population Gini coefficient, like the relative mean difference. Sometimes the entire Lorenz curve is not known, and only values at certain intervals are given. In that case, the Gini coefficient can be approximated by using various techniques for interpolating the missing values of the Lorenz curve. If ( X k , Yk ) are the known points on the Lorenz curve, with the X k indexed in increasing order ( X k - 1 < X k ), so that: Xk is the cumulated proportion of the population variable, for k = 0,...,n, with X0 = 0, Xn = 1. Yk is the cumulated proportion of the income variable, for k = 0,...,n, with Y0 = 0, Yn = 1. If the Lorenz curve is approximated on each interval as a line between consecutive points, then the area B can be approximated with trapezoids and: is the resulting approximation for G. More accurate results can be obtained using other methods to approximate the area B, such as approximating the Lorenz curve with a quadratic function across pairs of intervals, or building an appropriately smooth approximation to the underlying distribution function that matches the known data. If the population mean and boundary values for each interval are also known, these can also often be used to improve the accuracy of the approximation. The Gini coefficient calculated from a sample is a statistic and its standard error, or confidence intervals for the population Gini coefficient, should be reported. These can be calculated using bootstrap techniques but those proposed have been mathematically complicated and computationally onerous even in an era of fast computers. Ogwang (2000) made the process more efficient by setting up a “trick regression model” in which the incomes in the sample are ranked with the lowest income being allocated rank 1. The model then expresses the rank (dependent variable) as the sum of a constant A and a normal error term whose variance is inversely proportional to yk; Ogwang showed that G can be expressed as a function of the weighted least squares estimate of the constant A and that this can be used to speed up the calculation of the jackknife estimate for the standard error. Giles (2004) argued that the standard error of the estimate of A can be used to derive that of the estimate of G directly without using a jackknife at all. This method only requires the use of ordinary least squares regression after ordering the sample data. The results compare favorably with the estimates from the jackknife with agreement improving with increasing sample size. The paper describing this method can be found here: http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf However it has since been argued that this is dependent on the model’s assumptions about the error distributions (Ogwang 2004) and the independence of error terms (Reza & Gastwirth 2006) and that these assumptions are often not valid for real data sets. It may therefore be better to stick with jackknife methods such as those proposed by Yitzhaki (1991) and Karagiannis and Kovacevic (2000). The debate continues. The gini coefficient can be calculated if you know the mean of a distribution, the number of people (or percentiles), and the income of each person (or percentile). Princeton development economist Angus Deaton (1997, 139) has simplified the Gini calculation to one easy formula: where u is mean income of the population, Pi is the income rank P of person i, with income X, such that the richest person receives a rank of 1 and the poorest a rank of N. This effectively gives higher weight to poorer people in the income distribution, which allows the Gini to meet the Transfer Principle. Income Gini indices in the world A complete listing is in list of countries by income equality; the article economic inequality discusses the social and policy aspects of income and asset inequality. Gini coefficient, income distribution by country. {| width=100% |Gini coefficient, income distribution by country. While most developed European nations and Canada tend to have Gini indices between 24 and 36, the United States' and Mexico's Gini indices are both above 40, indicating that the United States and Mexico have greater inequality. Using the Gini can help quantify differences in welfare and compensation policies and philosophies. However it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries (see criticisms section). The Gini index for the entire world has been estimated by various parties to be between 56 and 66. United Nations Development Programme Gini indices, income distribution over time for selected countries Correlation with per-capita GDP Poor countries (those with low per-capita GDP) generally have higher Gini indices, spread between 40 and 65, with extremes at 25 and 71, while rich countries generally have lower Gini indices (under 40). The lowest Gini coefficients (under 30) can be found in continental Europe. Overall, there is a clear negative correlation between Gini coefficient and GDP per capita; although the U.S.A, Hong Kong and Singapore are all rich and have high Gini coefficients. In many of the former socialist countries and in-development capitalist countries (e.g., Brazil), the sizeable underground economy may hide income for many. In such a case, earning/wealth statistics over-represent certain income ranges (i.e., in lower-income regions), and may alter the Gini coefficient either up or down. US income Gini indices over time Gini indices for the United States at various times, according to the US Census Bureau: 1929: 45.0 (estimated) 1947: 37.6 (estimated) 1967: 39.7 (first year reported) 1968: 38.6 (lowest index reported) 1970: 39.4 1980: 40.3 1990: 42.8 2000: 46.2 2005: 46.9 2006: 47.0 (highest index reported) 2007: 46.3 Note that the calculation of the index for the United States was changed in 1992, resulting in an upwards shift of about 2. EU gini index In 2005 the Gini index for the EU was estimated at 31. http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&radioindic=158&idDomain=3 . This is surprisingly low, since the EU has virtually no interstate income redistribution power (the EU budget is only ~1% of the total GDP, there are no EU taxes, there is no EU social policy, and no EU treasury); moreover, a number of poorer new member states joined in 2004. Advantages of Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality The Gini coefficient's main advantage is that it is a measure of inequality by means of a ratio analysis, rather than a variable unrepresentative of most of the population, such as per capita income or gross domestic product. It can be used to compare income distributions across different population sectors as well as countries, for example the Gini coefficient for urban areas differs from that of rural areas in many countries (though the United States' urban and rural Gini coefficients are nearly identical). It is sufficiently simple that it can be compared across countries and be easily interpreted. GDP statistics are often criticized as they do not represent changes for the whole population; the Gini coefficient demonstrates how income has changed for poor and rich. If the Gini coefficient is rising as well as GDP, poverty may not be improving for the majority of the population. The Gini coefficient can be used to indicate how the distribution of income has changed within a country over a period of time, thus it is possible to see if inequality is increasing or decreasing. The Gini coefficient satisfies four important principles: Anonymity: it does not matter who the high and low earners are. Scale independence: the Gini coefficient does not consider the size of the economy, the way it is measured, or whether it is a rich or poor country on average. Population independence: it does not matter how large the population of the country is. Transfer principle: if income (less than the difference), is transferred from a rich person to a poor person the resulting distribution is more equal. Disadvantages of Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality The Gini coefficient of different sets of people cannot be averaged to obtain the Gini coefficient of all the people in the sets: if a Gini coefficient were to be calculated for each person it would always be zero. For a large, economically diverse country, a much higher coefficient will be calculated for the country as a whole than will be calculated for each of its regions. (The coefficient is usually applied to measurable nominal income rather than local purchasing power, tending to increase the calculated coefficient across larger areas.) For this reason, the scores calculated for individual countries within the EU are difficult to compare with the score of the entire US: the overall value for the EU should be used in that case, 31.3 , which is still much lower than the United States', 45. Using decomposable inequality measures (e.g. the Theil index converted by into a inequality coefficient) averts such problems. The Lorenz curve may understate the actual amount of inequality if richer households are able to use income more efficiently than lower income households or vice versa. From another point of view, measured inequality may be the result of more or less efficient use of household incomes. Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can still have very different income distributions. This is because the Lorenz curves can have different shapes and yet still yield the same Gini coefficient. It measures current income rather than lifetime income. A society in which everyone earned the same over a lifetime would appear unequal because of people at different stages in their life; a society in which students study rather than save can never have a coefficient of 0. However, Gini coefficient can also be calculated for any kind of distribution, e.g. for wealth. Friedman, David D. Problems in using the Gini coefficient Gini coefficients do include income gained from wealth; however, the Gini coefficient is used to measure net income more than net worth, which can be misinterpreted. For example, Sweden has a low Gini coefficient for income distribution and a higher Gini coefficient for wealth (the wealth inequality is low by international standards, but still significant: 5% of Swedish household shareholders hold 77% of the share value owned by households) (Data from the Statistics Sweden.) . In other words, the Gini income coefficient should not be interpreted as measuring effective egalitarianism. Too often only the Gini coefficient is quoted without describing the proportions of the quantiles used for measurement. As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements. For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will usually yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) taken from the same distribution. This is an often encountered problem with measurements. Care should be taken in using the Gini coefficient as a measure of egalitarianism, as it is properly a measure of income dispersion. Two equally egalitarian countries with different immigration policies may have different Gini coefficients. The Gini coefficient is generally measured at a point in time, hence it potentially misses a lot of dynamic information about individual's lifetime income. Other factors, such as age distribution within a population and mobility within income classes are ignored. It is possible for a given economy to have a higher Gini coefficient at any one point in time than another economy, while the Gini coefficient calculated over individuals' lifetime income is actually lower (or even more higher) than the "more equal" (at a given point in time) economy's. N. Blomquist, "A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970", Review of Income and Wealth, Volume 27 Issue 3, Pages 243 - 264, Essentially, what matters is not just inequality in any particular year, but the composition of the distribution over time. Countries can have the same Gini coefficient but have completely different levels of wealth. Similarly, the Gini coefficient as measured over time does not measure growth in incomes. General problems of measurement Comparing income distributions among countries may be difficult because benefits systems may differ. For example, some countries give benefits in the form of money while others give food stamps, which might not be counted by some economists and researchers as income in the Lorenz curve and therefore not taken into account in the Gini coefficient. The USA counts income before benefits, while France counts it after benefits, making the USA appear more unequal vis-a-vis France than it is. In another example, USSR appeared to have relatively high income inequality: by some estimates, in the late 70's, Gini coefficient of its urban population was as high as 0.38 "Politics, work, and daily life in the USSR", James R. Millar, 1987, p.193 , which is higher than many Western countries today. This apparent inequality ignored the fact that many benefits received by Soviet citizens were nonmonetary and were afforded regardless of income: some of these benefits include free child care for children as young as 2 months, free elementary, secondary and higher education, free medical care, free or heavily subsidized housing. In this example, an accurate comparison between the 1970s USSR and Western countries would require one to assign monetary values to such benefits (a difficult task in the absence of free markets). Similar problems arise whenever a comparison between pure free-market economies and partially socialist economies is attempted. Benefits may take various and unexpected forms: for example, major oil producers such as Venezuela and Iran provide indirect benefits to its citizens by subsidizing the cost of gasoline. The measure will give different results when applied to individuals instead of households. When different populations are not measured with consistent definitions, comparison is not meaningful. As for all statistics, there may be systematic and random errors in the data. The meaning of the Gini coefficient decreases as the data become less accurate. Also, countries may collect data differently, making it difficult to compare statistics between countries. As one result of this criticism, in addition to or in competition with the Gini coefficient entropy measures are frequently used (e.g. the Theil Index and the index of Atkinson). These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent agents in the market with a maximum entropy random distribution, which would occur if these agents acted like non-intelligent particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics. Credit risk The Gini coefficient is also commonly used for the measurement of the discriminatory power of rating systems in credit risk management. Since Gini coefficient addresses wealth inequality it may be important to understand what a transformative asset is. Transformative assets increase the Gini coefficient as they provide a family or individual with a wealth advantage over most persons. The discriminatory power refers to a credit risk model's ability to differentiate between defaulting and non-defaulting clients. The above formula may be used for the final model and also at individual model factor level, to quantify the discriminatory power of individual factors. This is as a result of too many non defaulting clients falling into the lower points scale e.g. factor has a 10 point scale and 30% of non defaulting clients are being assigned the lowest points available e.g. 0 or negative points. This indicates that the factor is behaving in a counter-intuitive manner and would require further investigation at the model development stage. References: The Analytics of risk model validation See also Atkinson index Human Poverty Index Income inequality metrics List of countries by income equality List of countries by Human Development Index Pareto distribution Robin Hood index ROC analysis Social welfare provision Spreadsheet computations Suits index Theil index Wealth condensation Welfare economics References Further reading Gini, Corrado (1912). "Variabilità e mutabilità" Reprinted in Memorie di metodologica statistica (Ed. Pizetti E, Salvemini, T). Rome: Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi (1955). The Chinese version of this paper appears in External links Deutsche Bundesbank: Do banks diversify loan portfolios?, 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risc evaluation of loan portefolios) Forbes Article, In praise of inequality Gini index calculated for all countries (from internet archive) Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient, an application of the Gini coefficient to software The World Bank: Measuring Inequality Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures, online computation of examples: 1A, 1B United States Census Bureau List of Gini Coefficients by State for Families and Households Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974 - 2006 World Income Inequality Database Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries Software: A Matlab Inequality Package, including code for computing Gini, Atkinson, Theil indexes and for plotting the Lorenz Curve. Many examples are available. Free Online Calculator computes the Gini Coefficient, plots the Lorenz curve, and computes many other measures of concentration for any dataset Free Calculator: Online and downloadable scripts (Python and Lua) for Atkinson, Gini, and Hoover inequalities Users of the R data analysis software can install the "ineq" package which allows for computation of a variety of inequality indices including Gini, Atkinson, Theil. be-x-old:Каэфіцыент Джыні | Gini_coefficient |@lemmatized graphical:1 representation:1 gini:92 coefficient:73 area:10 whole:3 triangle:1 define:3 measure:22 statistical:2 dispersion:2 commonly:2 use:26 inequality:30 income:58 distribution:27 wealth:13 ratio:3 value:11 low:18 indicate:5 equal:3 high:15 unequal:3 corresponds:2 perfect:3 equality:4 everyone:3 exactly:1 one:6 person:8 else:1 zero:3 require:4 negative:4 net:3 worldwide:1 range:2 approximately:1 sweden:5 namibia:1 although:2 every:1 country:31 assess:1 index:36 express:3 percentage:1 thus:2 develop:1 italian:1 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1,753 | Military_ordinariate | A military ordinariate is an ecclesiastical jurisdiction responsible for the pastoral care of Christians serving in the armed forces of a nation. Most military ordinariates are exempt diocesan equivalents of the Roman Catholic Church, both Latin and Eastern Rites, directly subject to the Pope. Each is headed by a prelate, usually a titular bishop or a diocesan bishop of the nation concerned who delegates the daily functions to a lower cleric. In many cases, a military ordinariate has a rank of an apostolic vicariate. In nations with wider military reach, the military ordinariate has the rank of a diocese, but unlike a regular diocese it does not have authority over the faithful in a territorial jurisdiction. Only ordinariates serving the armed forces of Brazil, Italy, and the United States have been granted the status of an archdiocese, led by an archbishop overseeing a corps of several bishops serving around the world. Some nations have military ordinariates of the Anglican Communion, Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodoxy. List of Catholic military ordinariates (April 2006) Africa Kenya: Military Ordinariate of Kenya (since 1964) South Africa: Military Ordinariate of South Africa (since 1951; exempt) vested in the Archishop of Pratoria Uganda: Military Ordinariate of Uganda (since 1964) vested in a Metropolitan Americas Argentina: Military Ordinariate of Argentina 'Army bishopric' (since 1957; vicariate till 1986) Bolivia: Obispado Castrense de Bolivia 'Army bishopric' (since 1961) Brazil: Ordinariado Militar do Brasil (since 1950) Canada: Military Ordinariate of Canada (since 1951) Chile: Obispado Castrense de Chile 'Army bishopric' (since 1910) Colombia: Obispado Castrense de Colombia 'Army bishopric' (since 1949) Dominican Republic : since 1958; exempt Ecuador: Obispado Castrense del Ecuador (since 1983) El Salvador: Obispado Castrense en El Salvador Apostolic Administration; exempt Paraguay: Obispado Castrense del Paraguay (since 1961) Peru: Obispado Castrense del Perú (since 1943) United States: Archdiocese for the Military Services with three Auxiliary Bishops (Vicariate in 1917; Archbishop since 1985) Venezuela: Ordinariato Militar de Venezuela 'Military Ordinariate of Venezuela' (exempt; since 1995) European ordinariates Austria: Latin rite Katholische Militärseelsorge 'Catholic Military Pastoral' since 1959; exempt Belgium: Latin Evêché des forces armées/Bisdom bij de Krijgsmacht 'bishopric with the armed forces' (since 1957; vested in the Archbishop of Mechelen and Primate of Belgium) Croatia: Latin Vojni ordinarijat u Republici Hrvatskoj (since 1997; exempt) France: Latin Diocèse aux Armées Françaises 'Diocese of the French Armies' (since 1952) Germany: Latin Katholisches Militärbischofsamt 'Catholic Military Bishopric' (since 1933) Hungary : Latin Tábori Püspökség (exemp bishop; since 1994) Italy: Latin Archbishop Military Ordinariate of Italy (since 1925), no auxiliary bishop Lithuania : Latin (since 2000) Netherlands : Latin Apostolic administrator, exempt (since 1957) Poland : Latin Ordynariat Polowy Wojska Polskiego (since 1991) Portugal : Latin Ordinariato Castrense de Portugal 'Army bishopric' (since 1966; exempt, formerly had an auxiliary bishop) Romania: Military Ordinariate of Romania Slovakia : Latin Vojenský ordinariát (since 2003; exempt) Spain: Latin Arzobispado Castrense de España (since 1950; no auxiliary bishop) United Kingdom: Latin Bishopric of the Forces (since 1953, cathedral based in Aldershot, Hants) Asia & Pacific Australia: Catholic Diocese of the Australian Defence Force (since 1969) Indonesia : Military Ordinariate of Indonesia (since 1949) New Zealand (since 1976; exempt) vested in the Metropolitan of Wellington Philippines: Military Ordinariate of the Philippines (since 1950) South Korea: Military Ordinariate of Korea (since 1983) Sources and references Military Ordinariates in the world by Giga-Catholic Information Catholic Hierarchy.org | Military_ordinariate |@lemmatized military:22 ordinariate:14 ecclesiastical:1 jurisdiction:2 responsible:1 pastoral:2 care:1 christian:1 serve:3 armed:3 force:6 nation:4 ordinariates:6 exempt:11 diocesan:2 equivalent:1 roman:1 catholic:7 church:1 latin:15 eastern:2 rite:2 directly:1 subject:1 pope:1 head:1 prelate:1 usually:1 titular:1 bishop:8 concern:1 delegate:1 daily:1 function:1 low:1 cleric:1 many:1 case:1 rank:2 apostolic:3 vicariate:3 wide:1 reach:1 diocese:4 unlike:1 regular:1 authority:1 faithful:1 territorial:1 brazil:2 italy:3 united:1 state:2 grant:1 status:1 archdiocese:2 lead:1 archbishop:4 oversee:1 corp:1 several:1 around:1 world:2 anglican:1 communion:1 lutheranism:1 orthodoxy:1 list:1 april:1 africa:3 kenya:2 since:34 south:3 vest:4 archishop:1 pratoria:1 uganda:2 metropolitan:2 america:1 argentina:2 army:6 bishopric:8 till:1 bolivia:2 obispado:7 castrense:9 de:8 ordinariado:1 militar:2 brasil:1 canada:2 chile:2 colombia:2 dominican:1 republic:1 ecuador:2 del:3 el:2 salvador:2 en:1 administration:1 paraguay:2 peru:1 perú:1 unite:2 service:1 three:1 auxiliary:4 venezuela:3 ordinariato:2 european:1 austria:1 katholische:1 militärseelsorge:1 belgium:2 evêché:1 armées:2 bisdom:1 bij:1 krijgsmacht:1 mechelen:1 primate:1 croatia:1 vojni:1 ordinarijat:1 u:1 republici:1 hrvatskoj:1 france:1 diocèse:1 aux:1 françaises:1 french:1 germany:1 katholisches:1 militärbischofsamt:1 hungary:1 tábori:1 püspökség:1 exemp:1 lithuania:1 netherlands:1 administrator:1 poland:1 ordynariat:1 polowy:1 wojska:1 polskiego:1 portugal:2 formerly:1 romania:2 slovakia:1 vojenský:1 ordinariát:1 spain:1 arzobispado:1 españa:1 kingdom:1 cathedral:1 base:1 aldershot:1 hants:1 asia:1 pacific:1 australia:1 australian:1 defence:1 indonesia:2 new:1 zealand:1 wellington:1 philippine:2 korea:2 source:1 reference:1 giga:1 information:1 hierarchy:1 org:1 |@bigram military_ordinariate:14 pastoral_care:1 diocesan_bishop:1 anglican_communion:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 obispado_castrense:7 dominican_republic:1 el_salvador:2 romania_slovakia:1 aldershot_hants:1 giga_catholic:1 |
1,754 | Japanese_cuisine | Kaiseki cuisine Japanese cuisine has developed over the centuries as a result of many political and social changes. The cuisine eventually changed with the advent of the Medieval age which ushered in a shedding of elitism with the age of Shogun rule. In the early modern era massive changes took place that introduced non-Japanese cultures, most notably Western culture, to Japan. The modern term "Japanese cuisine" (nihon ryōri, 日本料理 or washoku, 和食) means traditional-style Japanese food, similar to what already existed before the end of national seclusion in 1868. In a broader sense of the word, it could also include foods whose ingredients or cooking methods were subsequently introduced from abroad, but which have been developed by Japanese who made them their own. Japanese cuisine is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food (旬, shun), "A Day in the Life: Seasonal Foods", The Japan Forum Newsletter No.14 September 1999. quality of ingredients and presentation. National cuisine History Ancient era - Heian period Following the Jōmon period, Japanese society shifted from semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural society. This was the period in which rice cultivation began, having been introduced by China. National Science Museum of Japan "Road of rice plant" Short-grain rice has been the only type of rice grown in Japan, which contrasts with the long-grain rice grown in other Asian regions. Rice was commonly boiled plain and called gohan or meshi, and, as cooked rice has since always been the preferred staple of the meal, the terms are used as synonyms for the word "meal." Peasants often mixed millet with rice, especially in mountainous regions where rice did not proliferate. Kiple, 1176. During the Kofun period, Chinese culture was introduced into Japan from the Korean Peninsula. As such, Buddhism became a large influence on Japanese culture. After the 6th century, Japan directly pursued the imitation of Chinese culture under the Tang dynasty. Ishige, 46-48. It was this influence that marked the taboos on the consumption of meat in Japan. In 675 A.D., Emperor Temmu decreed a prohibition on the consumption of cattle, horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens during the 4th-9th months of the year; to break the law would mean a death sentence. Monkey was eaten prior to this time, but was eaten more in a ritualistic style for medicinal purposes. Chickens were often domesticated as pets, while cattle and horses were rare and treated as such. A cow or horse would be ritually sacrificed on the first day of rice paddy cultivation, a ritual introduced from China. Emperor Temmu's decree, however, did not ban the consumption of deer or wild boar, which were important to the Japanese diet at that time. Ishige, 53-54. The 8th century saw many additional decrees made by emperors and empresses on the ban of killing of any animals. In 752 A.D., Empress Kōken decreed a ban even on fishing, but made a promise that adequate rice would be given to fishermen whose livelihood would have otherwise been destroyed. In 927 A.D., regulations were enacted that stated that any government official or member of nobility that ate meat was deemed unclean for three days and could not participate in Shinto observances at the imperial court. Ishige, 55-56. Chopsticks on a chopstick rest It was also the influence of Chinese culture that brought the chopsticks to Japan early in this period. Chopsticks at this time were used by nobility at banquets; they were not used as everyday utensils however, as hands were still commonly used with which to eat. Metal spoons were also used during the 8th-9th century, but only by the nobility. Ishige, 67-69. Dining tables were also introduced to Japan at this time. Commoners used a legless table called a oshiki, while nobility used a lacquered table with legs called a zen. Each person used his own table. Lavish banquets for the nobility would have multiple tables for each individual based upon the number of dishes presented. Ishige, 71. Upon the decline of the Tang dynasty in the 9th century, Japan made a move toward its individuality in culture and cuisine. The abandonment of the spoon as a dining utensil is one of the marked differences, and commoners were now eating with chopsticks as well. Trade continued with China and Korea, but influence en mass from outside of Japan would not be seen again until the 19th century. The 10th and 11th centuries marked a level of refinement of cooking and etiquette found in the culture of the Heian nobility. Court chefs would prepare many of the vegetables sent as tax from the countryside. Court banquets were common and lavish; garb for nobility during these events remained in the Chinese style which differentiated them from the plain clothes of commoners. Ishige, 50-51. The dishes consumed post 9th century included grilled fish and meat (yakimono), simmered food (nimono), steamed foods (mushimono), soups made from chopped vegetables, fish or meat (atsumono), jellied fish (nikogori) simmered with seasonings, sliced raw fish served in a vinegar sauce (namasu), vegetables, seaweed or fish in a strong dressing (aemono), and pickled vegetables (tsukemono) that were cured in salt to cause lactic fermentation. Oil and fat were avoided almost universally in cooking. Sesame oil was used, but rarely, as it was of great expense to produce. Ishige, 71-72. Documents from the Heian nobility note that fish and wild fowl were common on the table along with vegetables. Their banquet settings consisted of a bowl of rice and soup, along with chopsticks, a spoon, and three seasonings which were salt, vinegar and hishio, which was a fermentation of soybeans, rice, wheat, sake and salt. A fourth plate was present for mixing the seasonings to desired flavor for dipping the food. The four types of food present at a banquet consisted of dried foods (himono), fresh foods (namamono), fermented or dressed food (kubotsuki), and desserts (kashi). Dried fish and fowl were thinly sliced (e.g. salted salmon, pheasant, steamed and dried abalone, dried and grilled octopus), while fresh fish, shellfish and fowl were sliced raw in vinegar sauce or grilled (e.g. carp, sea bream, salmon, trout, pheasant). Kubotsuki consisted of small balls of fermented sea squirt, fish or giblets along with jellyfish and aemono. Desserts would have included Chinese cakes, and a variety of fruits and nuts including pine nuts, dried chestnuts, acorns, jujube, pomegranate, peach, apricot, persimmon and citrus. The meal would be ended with sake. Ishige, 73-74. Kamakura period The Kamakura period marked a large political change in Japan. Prior to the Kamakura period, the samurai were guards of the landed estates of the nobility. The nobility, having lost control of the Japanese countryside, fell under the militaristic rule of the peasant class samurai, with a military government being set up in 1192 in Kamakura giving way to the period. Once the position of power had been exchanged, the role of the court banquets changed. The court cuisine which had prior to this time emphasized flavor and nutritional aspects changed to a highly ceremonial and official role. Ishige, 51. Minamoto Yoritomo, the first shogun, punished other samurai who followed the prior showy banquet style of the nobility. The shogun banquet, called ōban, was attended by military leaders from the provinces. The ōban originally referred to a luncheon on festival days attended by soldiers and guards during the Heian period and as such was attached to the warrior class. The menu usually consisted of dried abalone, jellyfish aemono, pickled ume called umeboshi, salt and vinegar for seasoning and rice. Later in the period, the honzen ryōri banquet became popularized. Ishige, 74-75. The cuisine of the samurai came distinctly from their peasant roots. The meals prepared emphasized simplicity while being substantial. Specifically the cuisine avoided refinement, ceremony and luxury and a shedding of all further Chinese influence. One specific example is the change from wearing traditional Chinese garb to a distinct clothing style that combined the simplistic clothing of the common people. This style evolved into the kimono by the end of the Middle Ages. Ishige, 51-52. The Buddhist vegetarian philosophy strengthened during the Kamakura period as it began to spread to the peasants. Those who were involved in the trade of slaughtering animals for food and/or leather came under discrimination. Those practicing this trade were considered in opposition to the Buddhist philosophy of not taking life, while under the Shinto philosophy they were considered defiled. This discrimination eventually intensified to the creation of a separate caste, the burakumin. Ishige, 58. Modern era Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods (shushoku, 主食), typically rice or noodles, with a soup, and okazu (おかず) - dishes made from fish, meat, vegetable, tofu and the like, designed to add flavor to the staple food. These are typically flavored with dashi, miso, and soy sauce and are usually low in fat and high in salt. A standard Japanese meal generally consists of several different okazu accompanying a bowl of cooked white Japanese rice (gohan, 御飯), a bowl of soup and some tsukemono (pickles). The most standard meal comprises three okazu and is termed ichijū-sansai (一汁三菜; "one soup, three sides"). Different cooking techniques are applied to each of the three okazu; they may be raw (sashimi), grilled, simmered (sometimes called boiled), steamed, deep-fried, vinegared, or dressed. This Japanese view of a meal is reflected in the organization of Japanese cookbooks, organized into chapters according to cooking techniques as opposed to particular ingredients (e.g. meat, seafood). There may also be chapters devoted to soups, sushi, rice, noodles, and sweets. As Japan is an island nation its people eat much seafood. Meat-eating has been rare until fairly recently due to restrictions placed upon it by Buddhism. However, strictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi stock, usually made with katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes). An exception is shōjin ryōri (精進料理), vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks. However, the advertised shōjin ryōri usually available at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements. Noodles are an essential part of Japanese cuisine usually as an alternative to a rice-based meal. Soba (thin, grayish-brown noodles containing buckwheat flour) and udon (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles and are served hot or cold with soy-dashi flavorings. Chinese-style wheat noodles served in a meat stock broth known as ramen have become extremely popular over the last century. Common staple foods found on a national level (Shushoku) There are many staple foods that are considered part of Japan's national cuisine today. Below are listed some of the most common. Tamago kake gohan (left), tsukemono and miso-shiru (miso soup). Rice (gohan, 御飯) The rice most often served in Japan is of the short-grain Japonica variety. In a traditional Japanese setting (e.g., served in a conic bowl) it is known as gohan (御飯) or meshi (飯, generally only referred to as such by males). In western-influenced dishes, where rice is often served on a plate (such as curries), it is called raisu (ライス, after the English word "rice"). Other rice dishes include okayu, donburi (どんぶり, "bowl") and sushi. Noodles (men-rui, 麺類) Noodles often take the place of rice in a meal. They are featured in many soup dishes, or served chilled with a sauce for dipping. Bread (pan, パン) Bread (the word "pan" is derived from the Portuguese pão) is not native to Japan and is not considered traditional Japanese food, but since its introduction in the 19th century it has become common. Common foods and dishes found on a national level There are many dishes that are considered part of Japan's national cuisine today. Below are listed some of the most common. Common Japanese savory main and side dishes (okazu, おかず) found on a national level Grilled and pan-fried dishes (yakimono (焼き物)), stewed/simmered dishes (nimono (煮物)), stir-fried dishes (itamemono (炒め物)), steamed dishes (mushimono (蒸し物)), deep-fried dishes (agemono (揚げ物)), sashimi, soups (suimono (吸い物) and shirumono (汁物)), pickled, salted, and dressed foods (tsukemono (漬け物), aemono (和え物), sunomono (酢の物)), chinmi Common Japanese Sweets and snacks (okashi (おかし), oyatsu (おやつ)) found on a national level Japanese-style sweets (wagashi, 和菓子), old-fashioned Japanese-style sweets (dagashi, 駄菓子), Western-style sweets (yōgashi, 洋菓子), sweets bread (kashi pan, 菓子パン) Teas and other drinks found on a national level Flavorings used on a national level Imported and adapted foods Japan has incorporated imported food from across the world (mostly from Asia, Europe and to a lesser extent the Americas), and have historically adapted many to make them their own. Foods imported from Portugal in the 16th Century Other adapted cuisines in Japan Fusion dishes Yōshoku Japan today abounds with home-grown, loosely western-style food. Many of these were invented in the wake of the 1868 Meiji restoration and the end of national seclusion, when the sudden influx of foreign (in particular, western) culture led to many restaurants serving western food, known as yōshoku (洋食), a shortened form of seiyōshoku (西洋食) lit. Western cuisine, opening up in cities. Restaurants that serve these foods are called yōshokuya (洋食屋), lit. Western cuisine restaurants. Many yōshoku items from that time have been adapted to a degree that they are now considered Japanese and are an integral part of any Japanese family menu. Many are served alongside rice and miso soup, and eaten with chopsticks. Yet, due to their origins these are still categorized as yōshoku as opposed to the more traditional washoku (和食), lit. Japanese cuisine. Common yōshoku dishes Regional cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialities known as Kyōdo Ryōri (郷土料理) in Japanese, many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes using local ingredients. While "local" ingredients are now available nationwide, and some originally regional dishes such as okonomiyaki and Edo-style sushi have spread throughout Japan and is no longer considered as such, many regional specialties survive to this day, with some new ones still being created. Regionalism is also apparent in many dishes which are served throughout Japan such as zoni soup. For example, the dashi-based broth for serving udon noodles is heavy on dark soy sauce, similar to soba broth in eastern Japan, while in western Japan the broth relies more on the complex dashi-flavoring, with a hint of light soy sauce. Ingredients See Also: List of Japanese ingredients, :Category:Japanese ingredients The following is a list of ingredients found in Japanese cuisine: Rice Beans Eggs Flour Fruits Fu (wheat gluten) Meats Mushrooms Noodles Soy products Vegetables Many types of Seafood are part of Japanese cuisine. Only the most common are in the list below. Includes freshwater varieties: Seafood Finned fish Sea mammals Shellfish Crab (Kani) Roe Processed seafood Seaweed Traditional table settings The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hakozen, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to western style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century. Traditionally, the rice bowl is placed on the left and the soup bowl on the right. Behind these, each okazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard three okazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three okazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three okazu. Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or hashioki Dining etiquette It is customary to say itadakimasu (lit. "I receive") before starting to eat a meal, and gochisōsama deshita, ごちそうさまでした (lit. "It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving. Hot towel Before eating, most dining places will provide either a hot towel or a plastic-wrapped wet napkin. This is for cleaning of the hands prior to eating and not after. It is rude to use them to wash the face or any part of the body other than the hands. Bowls The rice or the soup is eaten by picking the relevant bowl up with the left hand and using chopsticks with the right, or vice-versa if you are left handed. Traditionally, everyone holds chopsticks in their right hand and the bowl in their left Indeed, Japanese children are taught left and right by "left is the hand you hold the bowl in, right is the hand you hold chopsticks with". – this avoids running into each others' arm when sitting close together – and this is safest in formal situations, but left-handed eating is more acceptable today. Bowls of soup, noodle soup, donburi or ochazuke may be lifted to the mouth but not white rice. Soy sauce Soy sauce is not usually poured over most foods at the table; a dipping dish is usually provided. Soy sauce is, however, meant to be poured directly onto tofu and grated daikon dishes. In particular, soy sauce should never be poured onto rice or soup. Noodles are slurped. Chopsticks Chopsticks are never left sticking vertically into rice, as this resembles incense sticks (which are usually placed vertically in sand) during offerings to the dead. Using chopsticks to spear food or to point is also frowned upon. It is also very bad manners to bite on your chopsticks. Communal dish When taking food from a communal dish, unless they are family or very close friends, turn the chopsticks around to grab the food; it is considered more sanitary. Better, have a separate set of chopsticks for the communal dish. Sharing If sharing with someone else, move it directly from one plate to another. Never pass food from one pair of chopsticks to another, as this recalls passing bones during a funeral. Eat what is given It is customary to eat rice to the last grain. Being a picky eater is frowned upon, and it is not customary to ask for special requests or substitutions at restaurants. It is considered ungrateful to make these requests especially in circumstances where you are being hosted, as in a business dinner environment. Good manners dictate that you respect the selections of the host. Drinking Even in informal situations, drinking alcohol starts with a toast (kanpai, 乾杯) when everyone is ready. It is not customary to pour oneself a drink; but rather, people are expected to keep each other's drinks topped up. When someone moves to pour your drink you should hold your glass with both hands and thank them. Dishes for special occasions In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include: Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in spring, while the term Hagi/Ohagi is used in the fall season. Chimaki (steamed sweet rice cake): Tango no Sekku and Gion Festival. Hamo (a kind of fish) and somen: Gion Festival. Osechi: New Year. Sekihan, literally "red rice", is served for any celebratory occasion. It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red color. Soba: New Year's Eve. This is called toshi koshi soba (:ja:年越しそば) (literally "year crossing soba"). Chirashizushi, Ushiojiru (clear soup of clams) and amazake: Hinamatsuri. In some regions every 1st and 15th day of the month people eat a mixture of rice and azuki (azuki meshi (小豆飯), see Sekihan). Sake and shōchū Sake is a rice wine that typically contains 12~20% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. At traditional meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes. Side dishes for sake are particularly called sakana or otsumami. Shōchū is a distilled spirit, most commonly distilled from barley, sweet potato, or rice. Foreign food A McDonald's in Narita, Japan Foods from other countries vary in their authenticity. Many Italian dishes are changed, however Japanese chefs have preserved many Italian seafood oriented dishes that are forgotten in other countries. These include pasta with prawns, lobster (an Italian specialty known in Italy as pasta all'aragosta), crab (another Italian specialty, in Japan is served with a different species of crab) and pasta with sea urchin sauce (the sea urchin pasta being a specialty of the Puglia region of Italy). Japanese rice is usually used instead of indigenous rice (in dishes from Thailand, India, Italy, etc.) or including it in dishes when originally it would not be eaten with it (in dishes like hamburger, steak, omelettes, etc.). In Tokyo, it is quite easy to find restaurants serving authentic foreign cuisine. However, in most of the country, in many ways, the variety of imported food is limited; for example, it is rare to find pasta that is not of the spaghetti or macaroni varieties in supermarkets or restaurants; bread is very rarely of any variety but white; and varieties of imported cereal are also very limited, usually either frosted or chocolate flavored. "Italian restaurants" also tend to only have pizza and pasta on their menus. Interestingly for Italian visitors, the cheaper Italian places in Japan tend to serve the American version of Italian foods, which often vary wildly from the versions found in Italy or in other countries. Hamburger chains include locations such as McDonald's, First Kitchen, Lotteria and MOS Burger. Many chains developed uniquely Japanese versions of American fast food such as teriyaki burger, kinpira rice burger, green-tea milkshakes and fried shrimp burgers. Curry, which was originally imported from India into Japan by the British in the Meiji era was first adopted by the Imperial Japanese Army, eventually leading to its presence in Japanese cuisine. Japanese versions of Curry powder and sauces can be found in many foods, among them curry udon, curry bread, and curry tonkatsu. Cuisine outside of Japan Cold soba noodles with dipping sauce. Many countries have imported portions of Japanese cuisine. Some may adhere to the traditional preparations of the cuisines, but in some cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace. In Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular in the major cities, particularly in Vancouver. There are abundant Japanese restaurants, take-out shops. Izakaya restaurants have gained a surge of popularity. Japanese cuisine is an integral part of food culture in Hawaii as well as the United States. Popular items are sushi, sashimi and teriyaki. Kamaboko, known locally as fish cake, is a staple of saimin, a noodle soup invented in and extremely popular in the state. Sushi, long regarded as quite exotic in the west until the 1970s, has become a popular health food in parts of North America, Western Europe and Asia. In Mexico, certain Japanese restaurants have created what is known as "Sushi Mexicano", in which spicy sauces and ingredients accompany the dish, or are integrated in Sushi rolls. The habanero and serrano chiles have become nearly standard and are referred to as chiles toreados, as they are fried, diced and tossed over a dish upon request. Kamaboko is popular street food in South Korea, where it is known as eomuk (어묵) or odeng (오뎅). It is usually boiled on a skewer in broth and often sold in street restaurant carts where they can be eaten with alcoholic beverage, especially soju. Taiwan has adapted many Japanese food items. Taiwanese versions of tempura, only barely resembling the original, is known as 天婦羅 or 甜不辣 (tianbula) and is a famous staple in night markets in northern Taiwan. Taiwanese versions of oden is known locally as Oren (黑輪) or 關東煮 Kwantung stew, after the Kansai name for the dish. Skewered versions of oden is also a common convenience store item in Shanghai where it is known as aódiǎn (熬点). Ramen, of Chinese origin, has been exported back to China in recent years where it is known as ri shi la mian (日式拉麵, "Japanese lamian"). Popular Japanese ramen chains serve ramen alongside distinctly Japanese dishes such as tempura and yakitori, something which would be seen as odd in Japan. Ramen has also gained popularity in some western cities in part due to the success of the Wagamama chain, although they are quite different from Japanese ramen. Instant ramen, invented in 1958, has now spread throughout the world, most of them barely resembling Japanese ramen. See also Iron Chef Japanese culture Japanese New Year List of Japanese cooking utensils List of Japanese ingredients List of Japanese dishes List of Japanese condiments Cuisine of Okinawa References Bibliography Hara, Reiko (2006) International Cuisine: Japan ISBN 0340905778. Ishige, Naomichi. The History and Culture of Japanese Food, New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN 0710306571 Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild ed., The Cambridge World History of Food. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521402166 External links "Just Hungry", Pondering Japanese food, the food life of an expatriate, healthy eating, and more. Eating the Japanese way Recommendation of Japanese Restaurants Outside Japan, The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan. 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1,755 | Christmas_in_Poland | In Poland, Christmas Eve is a day first of fasting, then of feasting. The feast begins with the appearance of the first star; there is no meat in the feast, and it is followed by the exchange of gifts. The following day is often spent visiting friends. In Polish tradition, people combine religion and family closeness at Christmas time. Although gift giving plays a major role in the rituals, emphasis is placed more on making special foods and decorations. Special tasks carried out during Advent are the baking of the Christmas piernik (gingerbread), and the making of Christmas decorations. Pierniki are made in a variety of shapes, including hearts, animals and St. Nicholas figures. Traditional decorations include the pajaki, which are handmade stars and decorated eggshells. Lit Christmas trees are placed in most public areas, outside churches and in homes. Traditionally the trees are decorated with shiny apples, walnuts, wrapped chocolate shapes, hand blown glass baubles, and many homemade ornaments and candles. On the top of the tree is a star or a glittering top piece. In many homes, sparklers are hung on the branches of the trees for ambiance. Sometimes the trees are left standing until February 2, the feast day of St. Mary of the Candle of Lightning. During Advent, the "Gwiazdory" or star carriers, wander through the towns and villages and this continues until Epiphany. Some of the Gwiazdory sing carols; others recite verses or put on "Szopki" (puppet shows), or "herody" (nativity scenes). The last two customs are developments from traditional manger scenes or "Jaselka" (crib). One tradition unique to Poland is the sharing of the "opłatek", a thin wafer into which is pressed a holy picture. People once carried these opłatki from house to house wishing their neighbors a Merry Christmas. Nowadays, the bread is mostly shared with members of the family and immediate neighbors. As each person shares pieces of the wafer with another person, they are supposed to forgive any hurts that have occurred over the past year and to wish the other person all the happiness in the coming year. On Christmas Eve, so important is the first star of the night that it has been given the affectionate name of "little star" or Gwiazdka, in remembrance of the Star of Bethlehem. On that night, all watch the sky anxiously, hoping to be the first to cry out, "The star!" The moment the star appears, people start eating. Families unite for the most carefully planned meal of the year, Wigilia, the Christmas supper. The Wigilia derives its name from the Latin word vigilare, which means "to watch" or keep vigil. According to tradition, bits of hay are spread beneath the tablecloth as a reminder that Christ was born in a manger. An even number of people must be seated around the table or, tradition states, someone may die in the coming year. Wigilia is a family feast. In some places an empty place setting is symbolically left at the table for the Baby Jesus or for a wanderer who may be in need, or if a deceased relative should come and would like to share in the meal. The meal begins with the breaking of the opłatek. Everyone at the table breaks off a piece and eats it as a symbol of their unity with Christ. They then share a piece with each family member giving good wishes for the following year. There should be twelve dishes, as a symbol of the Twelve Apostles, or an odd number of dishes for good luck (usually five, seven, or nine). Poppy seed cake, beet soup, prune dumplings, carp, herring and noodles with poppy seed are universal Polish Christmas foods. Traditionally, there is no meat eaten on Christmas Eve. Often there is compote of dry fruits. The remainder of the evening is given to stories and songs around the Christmas tree. In some areas of the country, children are taught that "The Little Star" brings the gifts. As presents are wrapped, carolers may walk from house to house, receiving treats along the way. See also Bóg się rodzi Kraków szopka Wigilia the Christmas Eve vigil supper Christmas worldwide External links Christmas in Poland - Polish Tradition Polish Christmas. 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1,756 | Outline_of_biology | Biology is the study of living organisms. It is concerned with the characteristics, classification, and behaviors of organisms, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from biophysics to ecology. All concepts in biology are subject to the same laws that other branches of science obey, such as the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of energy. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biology: Essence of biology Main article: Biology Anatomy Bio- Biologist Human anatomy Life Organism Subdisciplines of biology Acarology -- Anatomy -- Arachnology -- Biochemistry -- Bioinformatics -- Biomechanics -- Bionomics -- Biophysics -- Biotechnology -- Botany -- Cell biology -- Ecology -- Entomology -- Evolution -- Genetics -- Gerontology -- Herpetology -- Histology -- Ichnology -- Ichthyology -- Immunology -- Limnology -- Marine biology -- Microbiology -- Molecular biology -- Mycology -- Myrmecology -- Neurobiology -- Ornithology -- Paleontology -- Palynology -- Parasitology -- Photobiology -- Phycology -- Physiology -- Plant physiology -- Biological psychology-- Radiobiology -- Sociobiology -- Structural biology -- Taxonomy -- Virology -- Zoology History of biology Main article: History of biology Ancient Greek medicine Islamic medicine Byzantine medicine Medieval medicine History of anatomy History of plant systematics History of evolutionary thought History of natural history History of genetics History of model organisms Modern evolutionary synthesis History of biochemistry History of molecular biology History of biotechnology History of molecular evolution General biology concepts Ecology & evolution Life: origin of life -- Miller-Urey experiment Ecology: Autecology: autotroph -- heterotroph -- acclimatization -- endotherm -- ectotherm -- hibernation -- homeostasis -- behavior -- circadian rhythm Population ecology: population -- competition -- mating -- biological dispersal -- endemism -- niche -- growth curve -- carrying capacity Community ecology: community -- keystone species -- mimicry -- symbiosis -- pollination -- mutualism -- commensalism -- parasitism -- predation -- invasive species -- environmental heterogeneity -- edge effect Ecosystems: biodiversity -- biome -- habitat -- plankton -- thermocline -- carbon cycle -- water cycle -- nitrogen cycle -- food web -- trophic level -- saprobe -- decomposition Evolutionary biology (evolution) Microevolution: species -- speciation -- adaptation -- selection -- natural selection -- directional selection -- sexual selection -- genetic drift -- sexual reproduction -- asexual reproduction -- colony -- allele frequency -- neutral theory of molecular evolution -- population genetics -- Hardy-Weinberg principle Macroevolution: adaptive radiation -- convergent evolution -- extinction -- mass extinction -- fossil -- taphonomy -- geologic time -- plate tectonics -- continental drift -- vicariance -- Gondwana -- Pangaea -- endosymbiosis Systematics: taxon -- taxonomy -- scientific classification -- phylogeny -- evolutionary tree -- cladistics -- synapomorphy -- homology -- molecular clock Organismal biology Groups of living organisms viruses : DNA viruses -- RNA viruses -- retroviruses Single-cell organisms: prokaryotes : microbe -- bacteria -- archaea eukaryotes: fungi -- algae -- protozoa -- protista Multicellular organisms: plantae -- plants -- bryophytes -- pteridophytes -- seed plants animalia -- animals -- metazoa -- insects -- molluscs -- vertebrates fungi -- lichen -- mycorrhizae Developmental biology : gamete -- spermatid -- ovum -- zygote -- embryo -- cellular differentiation -- morphogenesis --homeobox Animal development: stem cell -- blastula -- gastrula -- egg (biology) -- fetus -- placenta Plant development: seed -- cotyledon -- meristem -- apical meristem -- vascular cambium -- cork cambium Morphology, Anatomy, & Physiology: Techniques: electrophysiology -- electron microscopy tissues -- organ -- senescence Plant systems: root -- shoot -- stem -- leaf -- flower vascular tissue -- Casparian strip -- turgor pressure -- xylem -- phloem -- transpiration -- wood alternation of generations -- gametophyte -- antheridium -- archegonium -- sporophyte -- spore -- sporangium tropism -- taxis Animal systems: skin cell skeleton -- bone -- cartilage -- joint -- muscle -- tendon -- actin -- myosin -- reflex circulatory system -- respiration -- lung -- heart -- artery -- vein -- capillary -- blood -- blood cell digestive system -- stomach -- intestine -- liver -- nutrition -- primary nutritional groups metabolism -- kidney -- excretion nervous system: limbic system -- vestibular system -- neuron -- axon -- dendrite -- brain -- eye -- vision -- audition -- proprioception -- olfaction -- memory nerve signaling: action potential -- signal transduction -- synapse -- receptor endocrine system -- hormone reproductive system -- testes -- ovary -- pregnancy Medicine: Diseases: cancer -- diabetes -- obesity -- hereditary disease -- communicable disease immune system: antibody -- host -- vaccine -- immune cell -- AIDS -- T-cell -- leucocyte Drugs: antibiotic -- barbiturate -- SSRI Techniques: MRI -- Computed axial tomography -- blood count Cell & molecular biology Cell biology: the cell Main outline: Topic outline of cell biology Techniques: cell culture -- microscope -- SEM -- TEM cell components: organelles: Golgi apparatus -- nucleus -- cytoplasm -- vacuole -- vesicle -- lysosome -- peroxisome -- mitochondrion -- plastid -- chloroplast membranes: plasma membrane -- endomembrane system -- endoplasmic reticulum -- mitochondrial membrane -- chloroplast membrane Other subcellular features: cell wall -- pseudopod -- cytoskeleton -- mitotic spindle -- flagellum -- cilium cell processes: diffusion -- osmosis -- isotonic -- active transport -- phagocytosis energy pathways: fermentation -- glycolysis -- cellular respiration -- citric acid cycle -- photosynthesis -- Calvin cycle protein biosynthesis -- ribosomes cellular reproduction: cytokinesis -- centromere -- meiosis nuclear reproduction: mitosis -- interphase -- prophase -- metaphase -- anaphase -- telophase programmed cell death -- apoptosis -- cell senescence Biochemistry : Biomolecules: Small: amino acids -- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) -- fats -- lipids -- oil -- phospholipid -- prion -- sugar -- vitamins -- neurotransmitter -- wax Medium-sized: pigments: chlorophyll -- carotenoid -- xanthophyll -- melanin Biopolymers/macromolecules proteins: primary structure -- secondary structure -- tertiary structure -- conformation -- native state -- protein folding -- enzyme -- receptor -- transmembrane receptor -- ion channel -- membrane transporter-- collagen -- silk DNA -- RNA polysaccharide: cellulose -- carbohydrate -- chitin -- glycogen -- starch Biochemical mechanisms: proteolysis -- cooperativity Techniques: electrophoresis -- His tag --affinity chromatography -- x-ray diffraction -- Proteomics -- mass spectrometry Molecular biology: genetic structure: DNA -- DNA replication -- nucleosome -- genetic code -- codon -- transcription factor -- transcription -- translation -- RNA -- histone -- telomere gene expression -- heterochromatin -- promoter -- enhancer -- operon mutation -- point mutation -- crossover -- recombination --plasmid -- transposon molecular genetics: DNA fingerprinting -- genetic fingerprint -- microsatellite -- gene knockout-- imprinting -- RNA interference Genomics: computational biology -- bioinformatics Molecular Techniques: gel electrophoresis -- transformation -- PCR -- PCR mutagenesis -- primer -- chromosome walking -- RFLP -- restriction enzyme -- sequencing -- shotgun sequencing -- cloning -- culture -- DNA microarray Genetics (classical genetics) : heredity -- Mendelian inheritance -- gene -- locus -- trait -- allele -- polymorphism -- homozygote -- heterozygote -- hybrid -- hybridization -- dihybrid cross -- Punnett square genotype-phenotype distinction -- genotype -- phenotype -- dominant gene -- recessive gene genetic interactions -- Mendel's law of segregation -- genetic mosaic -- maternal effect -- penetrance -- complementation -- suppression -- epistasis -- genetic linkage chromosomal effects: chromosome -- haploid -- diploid -- polyploidy -- dosage effect -- inbreeding Model organisms: Drosophila -- Arabidopsis -- Caenorhabditis elegans -- mouse -- Saccharomyces cerevisiae -- Escherichia coli -- Lambda phage -- Xenopus Techniques: genetic screen -- paternity test -- linkage map -- genetic map Influential biologists Main articles: Biologist and List of biologists Charles Robert Darwin -- Alfred Russel Wallace -- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck -- Sir Charles Lyell -- Alfred Wegener -- Alexander Fleming -- Andrew Huxley -- Robert Koch -- Ernst Haeckel -- Theodor Bilharz -- Marcello Malpighi -- Antoni van Leeuwenhoek -- Konrad Lorenz -- Thomas Malthus -- Edward Jenner -- Carolus Linnaeus -- Sewall Wright -- Louis Pasteur -- Gregor Mendel -- Barbara McClintock -- James D. Watson -- Francis Crick -- Kary Mullis -- Rosalind Franklin -- Stephen Jay Gould -- Lynn Margulis -- Carl Woese -- Jane Goodall -- E. O. Wilson Biology lists Main article: List of biology topics Topic outline of cell biology See also Invasion biology terminology External links The Dolan DNA Learning Center: The source for timely information about your life OSU's Phylocode The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. MIT video lecture series on biology A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT. Biology and Bioethics. Biology online wiki dictionary. Biology Video Sharing Community. Journal links PLos Biology A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science International Journal of Biological Sciences A biological journal publishes peer-reviewed scientific papers of significance Perspectives in Biology and Medicine See also | Outline_of_biology |@lemmatized biology:34 study:1 living:1 organism:8 concern:1 characteristic:1 classification:2 behavior:2 specie:4 come:1 existence:1 interaction:2 environment:1 encompass:1 broad:1 spectrum:1 academic:1 field:1 often:1 view:1 independent:1 discipline:1 however:1 together:1 address:1 phenomena:1 relate:1 live:2 biological:5 phenomenon:1 wide:1 range:1 scale:1 biophysics:2 ecology:6 concept:2 subject:1 law:3 branch:1 science:3 obey:1 thermodynamics:1 conservation:1 energy:2 following:1 outline:4 provide:1 overview:1 topical:1 guide:1 essence:1 main:5 article:4 anatomy:5 bio:1 biologist:4 human:1 life:5 subdisciplines:1 acarology:1 arachnology:1 biochemistry:3 bioinformatics:2 biomechanics:1 bionomics:1 biotechnology:2 botany:1 cell:18 entomology:1 evolution:6 genetics:6 gerontology:1 herpetology:1 histology:1 ichnology:1 ichthyology:1 immunology:1 limnology:1 marine:1 microbiology:1 molecular:9 mycology:1 myrmecology:1 neurobiology:1 ornithology:1 paleontology:1 palynology:1 parasitology:1 photobiology:1 phycology:1 physiology:3 plant:6 psychology:1 radiobiology:1 sociobiology:1 structural:1 taxonomy:2 virology:1 zoology:1 history:13 ancient:1 greek:1 medicine:6 islamic:1 byzantine:1 medieval:1 systematics:2 evolutionary:4 thought:1 natural:2 model:2 modern:1 synthesis:1 general:1 origin:1 miller:1 urey:1 experiment:1 autecology:1 autotroph:1 heterotroph:1 acclimatization:1 endotherm:1 ectotherm:1 hibernation:1 homeostasis:1 circadian:1 rhythm:1 population:3 competition:1 mating:1 dispersal:1 endemism:1 niche:1 growth:1 curve:1 carry:1 capacity:1 community:3 keystone:1 mimicry:1 symbiosis:1 pollination:1 mutualism:1 commensalism:1 parasitism:1 predation:1 invasive:1 environmental:1 heterogeneity:1 edge:1 effect:4 ecosystem:1 biodiversity:2 biome:1 habitat:1 plankton:1 thermocline:1 carbon:1 cycle:5 water:1 nitrogen:1 food:1 web:1 trophic:1 level:1 saprobe:1 decomposition:1 microevolution:1 speciation:1 adaptation:1 selection:4 directional:1 sexual:2 genetic:9 drift:2 reproduction:4 asexual:1 colony:1 allele:2 frequency:1 neutral:1 theory:1 hardy:1 weinberg:1 principle:1 macroevolution:1 adaptive:1 radiation:1 convergent:1 extinction:2 mass:2 fossil:1 taphonomy:1 geologic:1 time:1 plate:1 tectonics:1 continental:1 vicariance:1 gondwana:1 pangaea:1 endosymbiosis:1 taxon:1 scientific:2 phylogeny:2 tree:2 cladistics:1 synapomorphy:1 homology:1 clock:1 organismal:1 group:2 organisms:1 virus:3 dna:7 rna:4 retroviruses:1 single:1 prokaryote:1 microbe:1 bacteria:1 archaea:1 eukaryote:1 fungi:2 algae:1 protozoa:1 protista:1 multicellular:1 plantae:1 bryophyte:1 pteridophyte:1 seed:2 animalia:1 animal:3 metazoa:1 insect:1 mollusc:1 vertebrates:1 lichen:1 mycorrhizae:1 developmental:1 gamete:1 spermatid:1 ovum:1 zygote:1 embryo:1 cellular:3 differentiation:1 morphogenesis:1 homeobox:1 development:2 stem:2 blastula:1 gastrula:1 egg:1 fetus:1 placenta:1 cotyledon:1 meristem:2 apical:1 vascular:2 cambium:2 cork:1 morphology:1 technique:6 electrophysiology:1 electron:1 microscopy:1 tissue:2 organ:1 senescence:2 system:11 root:1 shoot:1 leaf:1 flower:1 casparian:1 strip:1 turgor:1 pressure:1 xylem:1 phloem:1 transpiration:1 wood:1 alternation:1 generation:1 gametophyte:1 antheridium:1 archegonium:1 sporophyte:1 spore:1 sporangium:1 tropism:1 taxis:1 skin:1 skeleton:1 bone:1 cartilage:1 joint:1 muscle:1 tendon:1 actin:1 myosin:1 reflex:1 circulatory:1 respiration:2 lung:1 heart:1 artery:1 vein:1 capillary:1 blood:3 digestive:1 stomach:1 intestine:1 liver:1 nutrition:1 primary:2 nutritional:1 metabolism:1 kidney:1 excretion:1 nervous:1 limbic:1 vestibular:1 neuron:1 axon:1 dendrite:1 brain:1 eye:1 vision:1 audition:1 proprioception:1 olfaction:1 memory:1 nerve:1 signaling:1 action:1 potential:1 signal:1 transduction:1 synapse:1 receptor:3 endocrine:1 hormone:1 reproductive:1 testis:1 ovary:1 pregnancy:1 disease:3 cancer:1 diabetes:1 obesity:1 hereditary:1 communicable:1 immune:2 antibody:1 host:1 vaccine:1 aid:1 leucocyte:1 drug:1 antibiotic:1 barbiturate:1 ssri:1 mri:1 compute:1 axial:1 tomography:1 count:1 topic:3 culture:2 microscope:1 sem:1 tem:1 component:1 organelle:1 golgi:1 apparatus:1 nucleus:1 cytoplasm:1 vacuole:1 vesicle:1 lysosome:1 peroxisome:1 mitochondrion:1 plastid:1 chloroplast:2 membrane:5 plasma:1 endomembrane:1 endoplasmic:1 reticulum:1 mitochondrial:1 subcellular:1 feature:1 wall:1 pseudopod:1 cytoskeleton:1 mitotic:1 spindle:1 flagellum:1 cilium:1 process:1 diffusion:1 osmosis:1 isotonic:1 active:1 transport:1 phagocytosis:1 pathway:1 fermentation:1 glycolysis:1 citric:1 acid:2 photosynthesis:1 calvin:1 protein:3 biosynthesis:1 ribosomes:1 cytokinesis:1 centromere:1 meiosis:1 nuclear:1 mitosis:1 interphase:1 prophase:1 metaphase:1 anaphase:1 telophase:1 program:1 death:1 apoptosis:1 biomolecules:1 small:1 amino:1 adenosine:1 triphosphate:1 atp:1 fat:1 lipid:1 oil:1 phospholipid:1 prion:1 sugar:1 vitamin:1 neurotransmitter:1 wax:1 medium:1 size:1 pigment:1 chlorophyll:1 carotenoid:1 xanthophyll:1 melanin:1 biopolymers:1 macromolecule:1 structure:4 secondary:1 tertiary:1 conformation:1 native:1 state:1 folding:1 enzyme:2 transmembrane:1 ion:1 channel:1 transporter:1 collagen:1 silk:1 polysaccharide:1 cellulose:1 carbohydrate:1 chitin:1 glycogen:1 starch:1 biochemical:1 mechanism:1 proteolysis:1 cooperativity:1 electrophoresis:2 tag:1 affinity:1 chromatography:1 x:1 ray:1 diffraction:1 proteomics:1 spectrometry:1 replication:1 nucleosome:1 code:1 codon:1 transcription:2 factor:1 translation:1 histone:1 telomere:1 gene:5 expression:1 heterochromatin:1 promoter:1 enhancer:1 operon:1 mutation:2 point:1 crossover:1 recombination:1 plasmid:1 transposon:1 fingerprinting:1 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1,757 | Denver | Denver (pronounced /ˈdɛnvɚ/) is the capital and the most populous city of the state of Colorado, in the United States. Denver is a consolidated city-county located in the South Platte River Valley on the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is located immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, approximately east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile, or 5,280 feet (1,609 m) above sea level. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich passes through Union Station, making it the reference point for the Mountain Time Zone. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of the City and County of Denver was 598,707 in 2008, making it the 27th most populous U.S. city. http://www.census.gov/popest/counties/tables/CO-EST2008-01-08.csv The 10-county Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2008 population of 2,506,626 and ranked as the 21st most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2008/CBSA-EST2008-01.csv and the 12-county Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2008 population of 3,049,562 and ranked as the 16th most populous U.S. metropolitan area. http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2008/CBSA-EST2008-02.csv It is also the second largest city in the Mountain West after Phoenix. The city has the 10th largest central business district in the United States. Press Kit Detail History Former Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver visited his namesake city in 1875 and in 1882. Denver City was founded on November 1858 as a mining town during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush in western Kansas Territory. That summer, a group of gold prospectors from Lawrence, Kansas, arrived and established Montana City on the banks of the South Platte River. This was the first settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and was abandoned in favor of Auraria (named after the gold-mining town of Auraria, Georgia) and St. Charles City by the summer of 1859. The Montana City site is now Grant-Frontier Park and includes mining equipment and a log cabin replica. On November 22, 1858, General William Larimer, a land speculator from eastern Kansas, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the hill overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria. Larimer named the town site Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped that the town's name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County, but ironically Governor Denver had already resigned from office. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park in downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new emigrants. Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28, 1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861, and Denver City was incorporated on November 7, 1861. Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1865, Denver City became the Territorial Capital. With its new-found importance, Denver City shortened its name to just Denver. On August 1, 1876, Denver became the State Capital when Colorado was admitted to the Union. Between 1880-1895 the city experienced a huge rise in city corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side-by-side with elected officials and the police to control the elections, gambling, and the bunko gangs. In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor. United Way History. The United Way. Retrieved: September 26, 2006. By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second largest city west of Omaha, but by 1900 it had dropped to third place behind San Francisco and Los Angeles. US Population History from 1850. Demographia. Retrieved: July 20, 2006 In 1901 the Colorado General Assembly voted to split Arapahoe County into three parts: a new consolidated City and County of Denver, a new Adams County, and the remainder of the Arapahoe County to be renamed South Arapahoe County. A ruling by the Colorado Supreme Court, subsequent legislation, and a referendum delayed the creation of the City and County of Denver until November 15, 1902. Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, during the years of 1908, and again in 2008, taking the opportunity to promote the city's status on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage. Early in the 20th century, Denver, like many other cities, was home to a pioneering brass age automobile company; Colburn was copied from the contemporary Renault. Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877-1925 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1950), p.87. Denver was selected in 1970 to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972 Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games, so the games were moved to Innsbruck, Austria. The notoriety of becoming the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by then State Representative Richard Lamm, who was subsequently elected to three terms (1974-86) as Colorado governor. Denver has also been known historically as the Queen City of the Plains because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the plains regions along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range. Several US Navy ships have been named USS Denver in honor of the city. Geography Satellite image of the Denver Metropolitan area Denver is located in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 154.9 square miles (401.3 km²), of which 1.6 square miles (4.1 km²), or 1.03%, is water. The City and County of Denver is surrounded by only three other counties: Adams County to the north and east, Arapahoe County to the south and east, and Jefferson County to the west. Climate Denver has a semi-arid climate with four distinct seasons. While Denver is located on the Great Plains, the weather of the city and surrounding area is heavily influenced by the proximity of the Rocky Mountains to the west. The climate is considered a high-desert climate. While generally mild compared to the mountains to the west and the plains further east, it can be very unpredictable. Before the city's settlement, the Denver landscape was made up of primarily prairie and desert lands. Because Denver and most of its suburbs sit in a "bowl", the city is often protected from harsh cold and strong winds. Measurable amounts of snow have fallen in the Denver area as late as June and as early as September. Denver/Boulder, CO Normals and Means 1971-2000. National Weather Service. Retrieved July 20, 2006. Denver/Boulder, CO Temperature Normals and Extremes for July (1872-2005). National Weather Service. Retrieved July 20, 2006. Platte River near Commons Park The average temperature in Denver is 50.1 °F (10.1 °C), and the average yearly precipitation is 15.81 inches (402 mm). The season's first snowfall generally occurs around October 19, and the last snowfall is about April 27, averaging 54.9 inches (156 cm) of seasonal accumulation. The National Weather Service records an annual average of sunshine during 69 percent of all possible daylight hours. Sunshine - average percent of possible NOAA National Climatic Data Center, retrieved on July 20 2006 Denver's winters can vary from mild to cold, and although large amounts of snow can fall on the mountains just west of the city, the effects of orographic lift dry out the air passing over the Front Range, shielding the city from precipitation for much of the season. Additionally, warm chinook winds occasionally occur as air passing over the mountains heats as it descends, quickly melting snow accumulations and making Denver's winters milder than areas without this effect. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Denver was recorded on January 9, 1875 at -39 °F (-39.5 °C), and the last time Denver recorded a temperature below -20 °F (-29 °C) was during February 2007, when the low temperature was -22 °F (-30 °C). Spring brings with it significant changes as Denver can be affected by air masses on all sides. Arctic air from the north can often combine with Pacific storm fronts bringing snow to the city. In fact, March is Denver's snowiest month, averaging 11.7 inches (29.7 cm) of snow. Additionally, warm air from the Gulf of Mexico can bring the first thunderstorms of the season, and continental warm air can bring summer-like warm and dry conditions. Starting in mid-July, the monsoon brings tropical moisture into the city and with it come frequent short (and occasionally severe) late-afternoon thunderstorms. However, despite this tropical moisture, humidity levels during the day generally remain low. The average high during the summer is 88 °F (31 °C) and the average low is 59 °F (15 °C). The hottest temperature ever recorded in Denver is 105°F (40 °C) (National Weather Service). In the autumn, the tropical monsoon flow dies down and as Arctic air begins to approach, it can combine with moisture from the Pacific Northwest to bring significant snowfall to the city – November is Denver's second snowiest month, and Denver's greatest recorded snowfall from a single storm, 45.7 inches (116 cm), fell in late autumn from December 1 to December 6, 1913. Denver's Winter/Cold Season Statistics. National Weather Service. Retrieved on July 20, 2006. </center> Denver's 79 official neighborhoods shown on this map Neighborhoods The City and County of Denver has defined 79 official neighborhoods that the city and community groups use for planning and administration. Although the city's delineation of the neighborhood boundaries is somewhat arbitrary, it corresponds roughly to the definitions used by residents. These "neighborhoods" should not be confused with cities or suburbs, which are separate entities within the metro area. These neighborhoods' character vary significantly from each other and include everything from large skyscrapers to turn of the twentieth century houses to modern, suburban style developments. Generally, the neighborhoods closest to the city center are denser, older and contain more brick building material. Many neighborhoods away from the city center were developed after World War II, and are built with more modern materials and style. Some of the neighborhoods even farther from the city center, or recently redeveloped parcels anywhere in the city have either very suburban characteristics or are new urbanist developments that attempt to recreate the feel of older neighborhoods. Most neighborhoods contain parks or other features that are the focal point for the neighborhood. Denver also has a number of neighborhoods not reflected in the administrative boundaries. Sometimes, these neighborhoods reflect the way people in an area identify themselves; sometimes, they reflect how others, such as real estate developers, have defined those areas. Well-known neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Capitol Hill, Highland, Washington Park, Lowry; Uptown, part of the North Capitol Hill neighborhood; Curtis Park, part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration; and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center. Parks and recreation When Denver was founded in 1858, the city was little more than a dusty collection of buildings on a long, grassy plain with a few contorted cottonwood and willow trees on riverbanks. As of 2006, Denver has over 200 parks, from small mini-parks all over the city to the giant 314 acre (1.3 km²) City Park. Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation. Chess players on the 16th Street Mall.Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and legendary Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904-12 and 1916-18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks. Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others. Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns. All of this greenery was fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch. Etter, Carolyn and Don. City of Parks: The Preservation of Denver's Park and Parkway System. The Denver Public Library © 2005. In addition to the parks within Denver itself, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1910s. Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained around 14,000 acres (56 km²) of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre. Denver also owns the hill on which the Winter Park Resort ski area is operated in Grand County, west of Denver. City parks are important places for both Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change. Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Stapleton neighborhood redevelopment. All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green. Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists. The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte from Chatfield Reservoir into Adams County in the north. The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001. Demographics The United States Census Bureau estimates that, in 2008, the population of the City and County of Denver was 598,707, making it the 26th most populous U.S. city. The Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2006 population of 2,464,866 and ranked as the 21st most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area, and the larger Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2006 population of 2,927,911 and ranked as the 17th most populous U.S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city within a radius centered in the city and of magnitude. Denverites is a term used for residents of Denver (city or county). According to census estimates, the City and County of Denver contains approximately 566,974 people (2006) and 239,235 households (2000). The population density is 3,698/sq mi (1,428/km²). There are 268,540 housing units (2005) at an average density of 1,751/sq mi (676/km²). However, the average density throughout most Denver neighborhoods tends to be higher. Without the 80249 zip code (47.3 sq mi, 8,407 residents) near the airport, the average density increases to around 5,470/sq mi. According to the 2005-2007 American Community Survey, the city's population was 74.5% White (50.5% non-Hispanic-White alone), 10.8% Black or African American, 1.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.7% Asian, 0.2% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 11.6% from some other race and 2.4% from two or more races. 34.2% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . 69.9% of the city's population spoke only English at home and 23.9% spoke Spanish. 37.7% of Denver's population had a Bachelor's degree or higher. There are 250,906 households, out of which 23.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% are married couples living together, 10.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% are non-families. 39.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 3.14. In the city, the population is spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 102.1 males. The median income for a household in the city is $41,767, and the median income for a family is $48,195. Denver County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau Males have a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females. The per capita income for the city is $24,101. 14.3% of the population and 10.6% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 20.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Government Denver City and County Building (circa 1941), looking west. Vietnam War Memorial Obelisk with Denver City and County Building in background. Denver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council and an auditor. The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council-members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. They can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. However, the council can override the mayor's veto with a nine out of thirteen member vote, and the city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually based on financial reasons. How Denver City Government Works. The City and County of Denver. Retrieved on September 27, 2007. All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms. While Denver elections are non-partisan, Democrats have long held a majority sway on Denver politics with most officials elected citywide having Democratic Party affiliation. In federal elections, Denverites also tend to vote for Democratic candidates, voting for the Democratic Presidential nominee in every election since 1960 (excluding 1980 and 1972). The office of Denver's Mayor has been occupied by a Democrat since the municipal general election of 1963, including the current mayor, John Hickenlooper. Denver is represented at the federal level by congresswoman Diana DeGette, a Democrat representing Colorado's 1st congressional district, which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County. Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver, Colorado for two periods, the first from 1923–1931 and the second from 1935–1947. Stapleton was responsible for many civic improvements during his term, notably during his second stint as mayor when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal. During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed. His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amidst heavy criticism. It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor. Today, the airport no longer stands, but has been replaced by a neighborhood also named Stapleton. Stapleton Street continues to bear his name. After Stapleton left office, it was discovered that he was tied to the Ku Klux Klan, which enjoyed considerable influence in return for its electoral support. This association continues to overshadow contributions to Denver's economic and cultural institutions. During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the epicenters of the Chicano Movement. The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969. Colorado State Capitol looking east In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb. Denver's homeless population is considerably lower than many other major cities, but residents of the city streets have suffered during Denver's winters. Although mild and dry much of the time, Denver's winters can have brief periods of cold temperatures and varying amounts of snow. As a result, the city has set a national precedent on homeless services, with the creations of a ten-year plan to end homelessness (a plan now becoming popular in other cities as well), a task force and commission to end homelessness, and an expansion of human and civil services through the Denver area. In 2005, Denver became the first major city in the U.S. to make the private use of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older. The city voted 53.49-46.51 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure. This initiative does not usurp state law, which currently treats marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket with fines of up to $100 and no jail time. O'Driscoll, Patrick.Denver votes to legalize marijuana possession. USATODAY.com. November 3, 2005. Retrieved on July 21, 2006. The electorate of Colorado voted on and rejected a similar state-wide initiative in November 2006. Denver passed an initiative in the fourth quarter of 2007 requiring the mayor to appoint an 11 member review panel to monitor the city's compliance with the 2005 ordinance. Current Denver mayor John Hickenlooper is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino. Denver hosted the 2008 Democratic National Convention, which was coincidentally the centennial of the city's first hosting of the landmark 1908 convention. It also hosted the G7 (now G8) summit between June 20 and June 22 in 1997. Economy Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the major transportation systems of the country. Because Denver is the largest city within , it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States. Denver is also approximately halfway between the large cities of the Midwest like Chicago and St. Louis and the cities of the West Coast, another benefit for distribution. Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. Several well known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver. William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers. Its factory is now in Arvada. Also Samsonite Corp., the world’s largest luggage manufacturer, began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006. The Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, founded in Denver in 1911, is now a part of telecommunications giant Qwest. The Gates Corporation, the world’s largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919. Russell Stover Candies Inc. made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969. The Wright & McGill Company has been making its Eagle Claw brand of fishing gear in NE Denver since 1925. The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver’s old Stapleton International Airport in 1950. Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994. Scott’s Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954. Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958. Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver. The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver. Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972. CH2M HILL Inc., an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980. The Ball Corp. sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield. Ball has several operations in greater Denver. Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005. Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver. Large Denver-area employers that have headquarters elsewhere include Lockheed Martin Corp., United Airlines, Kroger Co. and Xcel Energy, Inc. Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence, with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area. In fact, the Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area has more federal workers than any other metropolitan area except for the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Along with the plethora of federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects, and more jobs are brought to the city by virtue of its being the capital of the state of Colorado. The Denver area is home to the former nuclear weapons plant Rocky Flats, the Denver Federal Center, the Denver Mint and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion for the Colorado Convention Center was completed, roughly doubling its size. The hope was that the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention. Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the economic success of the city. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera Dynasty. Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers, see List of tallest buildings in Denver. When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986 the Denver economy dropped with it, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including current mayor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the highest office vacancy rate in the nation (30%). Denver: The Rocky Mountain Metropolis History. The City and County of Denver. Retrieved on July 21, 2006. Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as EnCana, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, Noble Energy, and Anadarko. The Wells Fargo Center, often called the Cash Register Building. Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC -7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia in the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a 'one-bounce' real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. Qwest Communications, Dish Network Corporation, Starz-Encore, DIRECTV, and Comcast are just a few of the telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s. Denver currently has one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 3.8 percent as of October 2007. The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment with the construction of new skyscrapers. Denver has also enjoyed success as a pioneer in the fast casual restaurant industry, with many of these restaurants founded and based in Denver. Both Chipotle Mexican Grill and Quizno's were founded and are currently headquartered in Denver. Additionally, Qdoba Mexican Grill and Noodles & Company both originated in Denver, but have moved their headquarters to nearby suburbs. Media The Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet. Denver is the #18 market in the country for television, according to the Nielsen DMA's. Some stations, such as KWGN and KRMA, are broadcast regionally to areas that do not have their own network affiliations. KWGN 2, the CW affiliate, is owned and operated by Tribune Media of Chicago. KWGN is the direct sister station to WGN Chicago. KCNC 4 is the CBS owned and operated station. KRMA 6 serves as a holding company (Rocky Mountain PBS) and broadcasts signals to a variety of affiliates, including Pueblo (KTSC-TV), Grand Junction (KRMJ) and other stations in New Mexico, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Kansas. Channel 6 generally serves those who cannot receive an over-the-air signal (such as a Superstation). KBDI 12 is another Denver PBS affiliate, making the Denver market one of only a few markets with 2 PBS stations. KMGH 7 is the ABC affiliate, owned and operated by McGraw-Hill. KUSA 9 is the NBC affiliate, owned and operated by Gannett Communications. KDVR 31 is the Fox affiliate, owned and operated by Local TV LLC. KTVD 20 was formerly the UPN affiliate, but when the CW was launched, KWGN won the affiliation and subsequently the MyNetworkTV affiliation was given to KTVD. KCEC 50 is the Univision affiliate. Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles. Denver radio is the #21 market in the United States, according to the Fall 2008 Arbitron ranking. For a list of radio stations, see Radio Stations in Colorado After a continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, the Denver Post and Rocky Mountain News, the papers merged operations in 2001 under a Joint Operating Agreement which formed the Denver Newspaper Agency until February 2009 when E. W. Scripps, the owner of the Rocky Mountain News closed the paper. There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including Westword, Denver Daily News, The Onion, and Out Front Colorado. Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as 5280, which takes its name from the city's 5280 feet (1609 m) high elevation, and Denver Magazine, which highlights the finer things Denver has to offer. Transportation City streets Colfax Avenue at Broadway, where the downtown street grid and the "normal" city grid meet. Colfax Avenue carries US Highway 40 through Denver. Most of Denver has a straightforward street grid oriented to the four cardinal directions. Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as "00", which are Broadway (the east–west median, running north–south) and Ellsworth Avenue (the north–south median, running east–west). Colfax Avenue, the major east-west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500) north of the median. Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and a few others), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named. There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek. Most of the streets downtown and in LoDo run northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast. This system has an unplanned benefit for snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N-S/E-W grid, only the N-S streets would receive sunlight. With the grid oriented to the diagonal directions, the NW-SE streets receive sunlight to melt snow in the morning and the NE-SW streets receive it in the afternoon. This idea was from Henry Brown the founder of the Brown Palace Hotel. There is now a plaque across the street from the Brown Palace Hotel which honors this idea. The NW-SE streets are numbered, while the NE-SW streets are named. The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place. The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts. There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid. There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid, such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard. Larimer Street, named after William Larimer, Jr., the founder of Denver, which is located in the heart of LoDo, is the oldest street in Denver. All roads in the downtown grid system are streets. (16th Street, Stout Street) Roads outside of that system that travel east/west are given the suffix "avenue" and those that head north and south are given the "street" suffix. (Example, Colfax Avenue, Lincoln Street,). Boulevards are higher capacity streets and will travel any direction (more commonly North and South). Smaller roads are sometimes referred to as places, drives or courts. Most streets outside of the area between Broadway and Colorado Boulevard are organized alphabetically from the city's center. Confusion may arise where the two grid systems meet, especially given downtown Denver's one way streets. The system can be easily navigated with the help of directional signs. The mountains to the west also offer a great compass-point for those attempting to drive in the Mile High City. Many Denver streets have bicycle lanes, and there are also an abundance of off-road bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte. This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle friendly city. Freeways and Highways Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70. The intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as "the mousetrap", because when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap. Interstate 25 runs north-south from New Mexico through Denver to Wyoming Interstate 225 traverses neighboring Aurora. I-225 was designed to link Aurora with I-25 in the southeastern corner of Denver, and I-70 to the north of Aurora, with construction starting May 1964 and ending May 21, 1976. Interstate 70 runs east-west from Utah to Maryland. Interstate 76 begins from I-70 just west of the city in Arvada. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at I-80. US 6 follows the alignment of 6th Avenue west of I-25, and connects downtown Denver to the west-central suburbs of Golden and Lakewood. US 36 connects Denver to Boulder and Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park. It runs east into Ohio, after crossing four other states. Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as "the 470's". These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US-36). SH 470 was originally intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall. As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed. C-470? E-470? I-470? W-470? I give up! A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006. The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage. The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue. The project spanned almost along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road. Metro Denver highway conditions can be accessed on the Colorado Department of Transportation website Traffic Conditions. Mass transportation Denver RTD Light Rail car at Colfax & Auraria Denver Union Station Mass transportation throughout the Denver-Aurora metropolitan area is managed and coordinated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD). RTD currently operates more than 1,000 buses serving over 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions in eight counties around the Denver-Aurora and Boulder Metropolitan Areas. Additionally, RTD operates six light rail lines, the C, D, E, F, G,and H with a total of 34.9 miles (56 km) of track, serving 36 stations. FasTracks is a light rail expansion project which was approved by voters in 2004, which would serve neighboring communities. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points. At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak Southwest Chief. Additionally, there is the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which takes passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort. Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks. Airports Inside the main terminal of Denver International Airport Denver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for a large region surrounding Denver. DIA is located east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol. DIA is the tenth busiest airport in the world and ranks fourth in the United States, with 51,245,334 passengers passing through it in 2008. It covers more than 53 square miles (137 km²), making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan. Denver serves as a major hub for United Airlines and the headquarters for Frontier Airlines. Outside view of the main terminal, DIA Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area. Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is south-southeast, and Front Range Airport (KFTG) is located east of the state capitol. In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational. Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA. Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally being closed in 1994. It is currently being used for residential purposes. Buckley Air Force Base, a former Air National Guard base is currently the only military facility in the Denver-Metro area. Education The Ritchie Center at University of Denver Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in Denver. It currently educates about 73,000 students in 73 elementary schools, 15 K-8 schools, 17 middle schools, 14 high schools, and 19 charter schools Denver Public Schools . The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859 on the corner of 12th Street between Market and Larimer Streets. The district boundaries are coëxtensive with the city limits. Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. The city has Roman Catholic and Jewish institutions, as well as a health sciences school. In addition to those schools within the city, there are a number of schools located throughout the surrounding metro area. The private University of Denver and Johnson & Wales University, Catholic (Jesuit) Regis University and the three public schools that constitute the Auraria Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State College of Denver, and Community College of Denver, are likely the best known higher education institutions located in the city itself. Culture and contemporary life Colorado Convention Center Denver Performing Arts Complex Apollo Hall opened quickly after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers. In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first Opera House. After the turn of the century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House. Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture. In 1988, voters in the Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a .01 sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area. The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allows the SCFD to operate until 2018. Denver is home to many nationally recognized museums, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by world-renowned architect Daniel Libeskind, the second largest Performing arts center in the nation after Lincoln Center in New York City and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs. That is part of the reason why Denver was recently recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles. Denver-Boulder No.1 again with singles. The Denver Business Journal. July 25, 2006. Retrieved on July 29, 2006. Denver's neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper. The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and plans to build a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum by 2010. The Santa Fe Arts District on Santa Fe Drive While Denver may not be as recognized for historical musical prominence as some other American cities, it still manages to have a very active pop, jazz, jam, folk, and classical music scene, which has nurtured several artists and genres to regional, national, and even international attention. Of particular note is Denver's importance in the folk scene of the 1960s and 1970s. Well-known folk artists such as Bob Dylan, Judy Collins and John Denver lived in Denver at various points during this time, and performed at local clubs. More recent Denver-based artists include The Fray, The Flobots, and Cephalic Carnage. Because of its proximity to the mountains, and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor oriented city. Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; either skiing in the winter or hiking, climbing, kayaking and camping in the summer. Additionally, Denver and the surrounding cities of the Front Range are home to a large number of local and national breweries. Many restaurants in the region have on-site breweries, and some of the larger brewers, including Coors and the New Belgium Brewing Company, offer tours. Overall, Denver ranks 1st in the nation in terms of beer production per capita, and second overall in terms of number of breweries. The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall. Colorado has a history steeped in ranching and livestock production. Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers from all around the high prairie would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale. As a celebration of that history, each year for more than a century, Denver hosts the National Western Stock Show. The "stock show" as the locals say, is the largest event of its kind among agricultural, western American lifestyle and cultural events in the world, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees. The National Western Stock Show is held every January at the National Western Complex, which is located on the northeast edge of downtown. The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian residents. Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity. The Denver area has 2 Chinese newspapers, the Chinese American Post and the Colorado Chinese News. Of other cultural events, Denver hosts two of the largest Hispanic celebrations in the nation known to locals as Cinco de Mayo, occurring in May, and El Grito de la Independencia, occurring in September. Denver is also the setting for the The Bill Engvall Show, and the setting for the 18th season of MTV's The Real World. It was also the setting for the prime time drama Dynasty from 1981 to 1989. From 1998 to 2002, the city's Alameda East Veterinary Hospital was home to the Animal Planet series Emergency Vets, which spun off three one-off documentary specials and the current Animal Planet series E-Vet Interns. Sports Denver is home to many sports teams and belongs to a select group of U.S. cities with teams from four major sports. Denver is also one of only 3 cities in the nation that has a team representing all 8 of the major sports leagues in the US, joining Chicago and New York. Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, but subsequently withdrew giving it the dubious distinction of being the only city to back out after winning a bid to host the Olympics. The Denver Broncos of the NFL have been able to draw crowds of nearly 70,000 since their AFL origins in the early 1960s and continue to draw fans today to their current home Invesco Field at Mile High. The team has advanced to the Super Bowl six times and won back-to-back in 1998 and '99. In the 1980s and 1990s, one of the top priorities of former Mayor Federico Peña was bringing major league baseball to the city, an effort which culminated in the creation of the Colorado Rockies as an expansion franchise in 1993 and the opening of Coors Field in 1995. The Rockies advanced to the playoffs in 1995, but were eliminated in the first round. In 2007, their late-season winning streak saw them advance to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, advance to and win the NL Championship Series and bring the World Series to Denver for the first time. Denver is also home to the Colorado Avalanche, a National Hockey League team that relocated from Quebec City in 1995. They have won two Stanley Cups (1996 and 2001) while in Denver and play at Pepsi Center, which also hosts the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association, the Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League and the Colorado Crush of the Arena Football League. The Major League Soccer team Colorado Rapids play in Dick's Sporting Goods Park, an 18,000 seat stadium opened for the 2007 MLS season is located in Commerce City, a suburb of Denver. Dick's Sporting Goods Park In 2006 Denver established a professional outdoor lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws. They play in Invesco Field and are sanctioned by Major League Lacrosse. In 2006, The Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship. +Current sporting venues in Denver, Colorado Coors Field Pepsi Center Adjacent counties and municipalities North: Adams County, Commerce CityWest: Jefferson County, Wheat Ridge, Lakeside, Mountain View, Edgewater, Lakewood, ArvadaDenverEnclave: Arapahoe County, GlendaleAdams CountyEast: AuroraArapahoe CountySouth: Arapahoe County, Bow Mar, Littleton, Sheridan, Englewood, Cherry Hills Village, Greenwood Village, Aurora, Highlands Ranch See also State of Colorado Colorado cities and towns Colorado municipalities Denver City Council List of people from Denver Sister cities of Denver, Colorado Wikimedia Commons: Denver, Colorado Colorado colleges and universities Art Institute of Colorado Colorado Christian University Colorado School of Mines Colorado State University Colorado Technical University Community College of Denver DeVry University Johnson & Wales University Metropolitan State College of Denver Regis University Rocky Mountain Arsenal Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine Teikyo Loretto Heights University University of Colorado at Boulder University of Colorado Denver University of Denver University of Northern Colorado Westwood College of Technology Colorado counties Colorado geography Front Range South Platte River Colorado history Pike's Peak Gold Rush Territory of Jefferson Territory of Colorado Colorado metropolitan areas Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Statistical Area Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area North Central Colorado Urban Area Front Range Urban Corridor Colorado school districts Denver Public Schools Colorado state parks Cherry Creek State Park 1908 Democratic National Convention 2008 Democratic National Convention References External links City and County of Denver website CDOT map of the City and County of Denver Denver Police Department Denver Public Library Denver Public Schools City Mayors' profile of John Hickenlooper, Mayor of Denver Colorado County Evolution by Don Stanwyck Colorado Historical Society Denver Metro Chamber of Commerce Overview of Downtown Denver growth and development Regional Transportation District website WikiTravel site for Denver | Denver |@lemmatized denver:269 pronounced:1 ˈdɛnvɚ:1 capital:4 populous:8 city:145 state:29 colorado:54 united:13 consolidated:3 county:43 locate:11 south:23 platte:14 river:12 valley:1 high:17 plain:8 east:17 front:10 range:9 rocky:16 mountain:28 downtown:15 district:9 immediately:1 confluence:4 cherry:6 creek:6 approximately:3 foothill:2 nickname:1 mile:8 official:7 elevation:3 exactly:1 one:12 foot:2 sea:1 level:3 meridian:2 west:22 greenwich:1 pass:5 union:7 station:15 make:18 reference:2 point:7 time:12 zone:2 census:8 bureau:4 estimate:3 population:17 u:20 http:3 www:3 gov:3 popest:3 table:3 co:5 csv:3 aurora:15 metropolitan:20 statistical:8 area:47 estimated:4 rank:6 metro:11 cbsa:2 boulder:9 combine:5 also:33 second:7 large:24 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1,758 | Geography_of_Niue | Avatele, Niue Niue is a small island in the South Pacific Ocean, to the east of Tonga. The island has an area of 260 square kilometres, and a coastline of 64 km. Niue claims an exclusive economic zone of 200 nm, and a territorial sea of 12 nm. Niue is one of world's largest coral islands. Climate Niue's climate is tropical, modified by southeast trade winds. Typhoons pose a natural hazard. Terrain The island's terrain cosists of steep coastal cliffs made from limestone, and a central plateau. The lowest point is the Pacific Ocean, at sea level, and the highest is an unnamed point near Mutalau settlement, at 68 m. Natural resources The island's natural resources are fish and arable land. The land use, as of 1993, is described in the following table: +Land use Use Percentage of Area arable land 19 permanent crops 8 permanent pastures 4 forests and woodland 19 other 50 Environmental issues A current environmental issue for the island is increasing attention to conservationist practices to counter loss of soil fertility from traditional slash and burn agriculture. Niue is a party to the following international agreements regarding the environment: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification. Niue has signed, but not ratified the Law of the Sea agreement. | Geography_of_Niue |@lemmatized avatele:1 niue:7 small:1 island:6 south:1 pacific:2 ocean:2 east:1 tonga:1 area:2 square:1 kilometre:1 coastline:1 km:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nm:2 territorial:1 sea:3 one:1 world:1 large:1 coral:1 climate:4 tropical:1 modify:1 southeast:1 trade:1 wind:1 typhoon:1 pose:1 natural:3 hazard:1 terrain:2 cosists:1 steep:1 coastal:1 cliff:1 make:1 limestone:1 central:1 plateau:1 low:1 point:2 level:1 high:1 unnamed:1 near:1 mutalau:1 settlement:1 resource:2 fish:1 arable:2 land:4 use:3 describe:1 following:2 table:1 percentage:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 environmental:2 issue:2 current:1 increase:1 attention:1 conservationist:1 practice:1 counter:1 loss:1 soil:1 fertility:1 traditional:1 slash:1 burn:1 agriculture:1 party:1 international:1 agreement:2 regard:1 environment:1 biodiversity:1 change:2 kyoto:1 protocol:1 desertification:1 sign:1 ratify:1 law:1 |@bigram niue_niue:1 pacific_ocean:2 square_kilometre:1 coastline_km:1 arable_land:2 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 slash_burn:1 biodiversity_climate:1 kyoto_protocol:1 |
1,759 | Mozambique | Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique ( or República de Moçambique, ), is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest. It was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonized by Portugal in 1505. By 1510, the Portuguese had virtual control of all of the former Swahili sultanates on the east African coast. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east. Mozambique became independent in 1975, to which it became the People's Republic of Mozambique shortly after. The country is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the Commonwealth of Nations and an observer of the Francophonie. Mozambique (Moçambique) was named by the Portuguese after Msumbiji, the Swahili name of Mozambique Island and port-town. Mozambique's life expectancy and infant mortality rates are both among the worst ranked in the world. Its Human Development Index is one of the lowest on earth. History Early migrations Between the first and fourth centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. They established agricultural communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them iron making technology which they used to make weapons for the conquest of their neighbors. Cities in Mozambique during its Middle Ages were not sturdily built, so many medieval cities in the country, such as the medieval trade port Sofala, have little remains. Nevertheless several Swahili trade ports dotted the coast of the country before the arrival of Arabs and the Portuguese Mozambique by Philip Briggs and Danny Edmunds which had been trading with Madagascar and the Far East. Swahili and Portuguese rule When Portuguese explorers reached East Africa in 1498, Swahili Mozambique by Philip Briggs and Danny Edmunds commercial settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east. The Island of Mozambique is a small coral island at the mouth of Mossuril Bay on the Nacala coast of northern Mozambique, first explored by Europeans in the late 1400s. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society in the Indian Ocean world. The Portuguese gained control of the Island of Mozambique and the port city of Sofala in the early 16th century, and by the 1530s small groups of Portuguese traders and prospectors penetrated the interior regions seeking gold, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River and tried to gain exclusive control over the gold trade. The Portuguese attempted to legitimate and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of prazos (land grants) tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. While prazos were originally developed to be held by Portuguese, through intermarriage they became African Portuguese or African Indian centres defended by large African slave armies known as Chikunda. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery. Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab traders, and the Portuguese. Many Mozambican slaves were supplied by tribal chiefs who raided warring tribes and sold their captives to the prazeiros. Arming Slaves, Arming slaves: from classical times to the modern age, Christopher Leslie Brown, Philip D. Morgan, Gilder Lehrman: Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition. Edition: Yale University Press, 2006 ISBN 0300109008, 9780300109009 Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. The Portuguese were able to wrest much of the coastal trade from Arabs between 1500 and 1700, but, with the Arab seizure of Portugal's key foothold at Fort Jesus on Mombasa Island (now in Kenya) in 1698, the pendulum began to swing in the other direction. As a result, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonisation of Brazil. During the 18th and 19th centuries the Mazrui and Omani Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south. Many prazos had declined by the mid-19th century, but several of them survived. During the 19th century other European powers, particularly the British (British South Africa Company) and the French (Madagascar), became increasingly involved in the trade and politics of the region arround the Portuguese East African territories. By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like the Mozambique Company, the Zambezia Company and the Niassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by the British, which established railroad lines to neighbouring countries. Although slavery had been legally abolished in Mozambique, at the end of the 19th century the Chartered companies enacted a forced labor policy and supplied cheap – often forced – African labor to the mines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. The Zambezia Company, the most profitable chartered company, took over a number of smaller prazeiro holdings, and established military outposts to protect its property. The chartered companies built roads and ports to bring their goods to market including a railroad linking present day Zimbabwe with the Mozambican port of Beira. The Cambridge history of Africa, The Cambridge history of Africa, John Donnelly Fage, A. D. Roberts, Roland Anthony Oliver, Edition: Cambridge University Press, 1986, ISBN 0521225051, 9780521225052 The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825-1975, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825-1975: A Study in Economic Imperialism, W. G. Clarence-Smith, Edition: Manchester University Press ND, 1985, ISBN 071901719X, 9780719017193 Because of their unsatisfactory performance and because of the shift, under the Estado Novo regime of Oliveira Salazar, towards a stronger Portuguese control of Portuguese empire's economy, the companies' concessions were not renewed when they ran out. This was what happened in 1942 with the Mozambique Company, which however continued to operate in the agricultural and commercial sectors as a corporation, and had already happened in 1929 with the termination of the Niassa Company's concession. In 1951, the Portuguese overseas colonies in Africa were rebranded as Overseas Provinces of Portugal. Agência Geral do Ultramar, "Na sequência do Decreto-Lei nº 38.300 de 15 de Junho de 1951, que transformou o Ministério das Colónias em Ministério do Ultramar e o Conselho do Império Colonial em Conselho Ultramarino, foram também alterados alguns nomes, pela Portaria n.º 13.593 de 5 de Julho de 1951, ganhando a designação de Agência Geral do Ultramar e Boletim Geral do Ultramar. A Agência Geral do Ultramar continuou como organismo dependente do Ministério do Ultramar, na reorganização conferida pelo Decreto-Lei n.º 41.169 de 29 de Junho de 1959, e estava vocacionado para fomentar o conhecimento recíproco das províncias ultramarinas e da metrópole, a divulgar no estrangeiro informações relativas àquelas, a orientar e desenvolver o turismo nas províncias e a exercer na metrópole procuradoria de interesses ultramarinos, prevendo já os serviços administrativos, os de informação e relações exteriores, os de turismo, e os técnicos." As communist and anti-colonial ideologies spread out across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of Mozambican independence. Regardless it was exaggerated anti-Portuguese/anti-"Colonial" propaganda, Independence redux in postsocialist Mozambique, Alice Dinerman a dominant tendency in the territory, or a mix of both, these movements claimed that since policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of Mozambique's Portuguese population, little attention was paid to Mozambique's tribal integration and the development of its native communities. According to the official guerrilla statements, this affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans. Statistically, Mozambique's Portuguese whites were indeed wealthier and more skilled than the black indigenous majority, but the late 1950s, the 1960s and principally the early 1970s, were being testimony of a gradual change based in new socioeconomic developments and equalitarian policies for all. The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), initiated a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule in September 1964. This conflict, along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies of Angola and Portuguese Guinea, became part of the so-called Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). From a military standpoint, the Portuguese regular army maintained control of the population centres while the guerrilla forces sought to undermine their influence in rural and tribal areas in the north and west. As part of their response to FRELIMO the Portuguese government began to pay more attention to creating favourable conditions for social development and economic growth CD do Diário de Notícias - Parte 08 . After 10 years of sporadic warfare and Portugal's return to democracy through a leftist military coup in Lisbon which replaced Portugal's Estado Novo regime for a military junta (the Carnation Revolution of April 1974), FRELIMO took control of the territory. Within a year, most of the 250,000 Portuguese in Mozambique had left – some expelled by the government of the newly-independent territory, some fleeing in fear – and Mozambique became independent from Portugal on June 25, 1975. Carnation revolution, By Mia Couto, Le Monde diplomatique, April 2004 Conflict and civil war The new government, under president Samora Machel, gave shelter and support to South African (African National Congress) and Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe African National Union) liberation movements while the governments of first Rhodesia and later South Africa (at that time still operating the Apartheid laws) fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Starting shortly after the independence, the country was plagued from 1977 to 1992 by a long and violent civil war opposing FRELIMO to RENAMO - the Mozambican Civil War. Hence, civil war, sabotage from the neighbouring white-ruled state of Rhodesia and the Apartheid regime of South Africa, unwise Marxist policies, failed central planning and the resulting economic collapse, characterized the first decades of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals and Mozambicans of Portuguese heritage, Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, July 07, 1975). a collapsed infrastructure, and government nationalisation of privately owned industries. During most of the civil war, the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighbouring states, and several million more were internally displaced. A Mozambique Formally at Peace Is Bled by Hunger and Brutality , The New York Times, October 13, 1992 On October 19, 1986 Samora Machel was on his way back from an international meeting in Zambia in the presidential Tupolev Tu-134 aircraft when the plane crashed in the Lebombo Mountains, near Mbuzini. There were nine survivors but President Machel and twenty-four others died, including ministers and officials of the Mozambique government. The United Nations' Soviet Union delegation issued a minority report contending that their expertise and experience had been undermined by the South Africans. Representatives of the Soviet Union advanced the theory that the plane had been intentionally diverted by a false navigational beacon signal, using a technology provided by military intelligence operatives of the South African government. Machel's successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords, first brokered by the CCM, the Christian Council of Mozambique (Council of Protestant Churches) and then taken over by Community of Sant'Egidio. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique. By mid-1995 more than 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighbouring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated four million internally displaced persons returned to their areas of origin. Foreign relations While allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of Mozambique's foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners. During the 1970s and the early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa as well as superpower competition and the Cold War. Mozambique's decision to enforce UN sanctions against Rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led Ian Smith's government to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country. Although the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980 removed this threat, the government of South Africa continued to finance the destabilization of Mozambique. Mozambique also belonged to the Front Line States. The 1984 Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African governments. This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination of apartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993. While relations with neighbouring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong. In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some Western countries, notably the Scandinavians. The Soviet Union and its allies, however, became Mozambique's primary economic, military, and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage. This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Western aid by the Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland quickly replaced Soviet support. Finland http://www.tpk.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=71407&intSubArtID=28199 and the Netherlands are becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance. Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process. Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, continue to be important, as Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy. Mozambique is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African bloc in the United Nations and other international organisations. Mozambique also belongs to the African Union (formerly the Organisation of African Unity) and the Southern African Development Community. In 1994, the government became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizable Muslim population. Similarly, in early 1996 Mozambique joined its Anglophone neighbours in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is the only nation to join the Commonwealth that was never part of the British Empire. In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first President of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and maintains close ties with other Lusophone states. Provinces, districts, and postos Mozambique is divided into ten provinces (provincias) and one capital city (cidade capital) with provincial status. The provinces are subdivided into 129 districts (distritos). The districts are further divided in 405 "Postos Administrativos" (Administrative Posts) and then into Localidades (Localities), the lowest geographical level of the central state administration. Since 1998, 33 "Municípios" (Municipalities) have been created in Mozambique. Cabo Delgado Gaza Inhambane Manica Maputo (city) Maputo Nampula Niassa Sofala Tete Zambezia Map of Mozambique with the province highlighted Geography and climate At 309,475 square miles (801,590 km²), Mozambique is the world's 35th-largest country (after Pakistan). It is comparable in size to Turkey. Mozambique is located on the southeast coast of Africa. It is bound by Swaziland to the south, South Africa to the southwest, Zimbabwe to the west, Zambia and Malawi to the northwest, Tanzania to the north and the Indian Ocean to the east. The country is divided into two topographical regions by the Zambezi River. To the north of the Zambezi River, the narrow coastline moves inland to hills and low plateaus, and further west to rugged highlands, which include the Niassa highlands, Namuli or Shire highlands, Angonia highlands, Tete highlands and the Makonde plateau. To the south of the Zambezi River, the lowlands are broader with the Mashonaland plateau and Lebomo mountains located in the deep south. Mount Murresse and tea plantations near Gurúè, Zambezia Province, northern Mozambique. The country is drained by five principal rivers and several smaller ones with the largest and most important the Zambezi. The country has three lakes, Lake Niassa or Malawi, Lake Chiuta and Lake Shirwa, all in the north. The major cities are Maputo, Beira, Nampula, Tete, Quelimane, Chimoio, Pemba, Inhambane, Xai-Xai and Lichinga. Mozambique has a tropical climate with two seasons, a wet season from October to March and a dry season from April to September. Climatic conditions, however, vary depending on altitude. Rainfall is heavy along the coast and decreases in the north and south. Annual precipitation varies from 500 to 900 mm (20 to 35 inches) depending on the region with an average of 590 mm (23 inches). Cyclones are also common during the wet season. Average temperature ranges in Maputo are from 13 to 24 degrees Celsius (55 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit) in July to 22 to 31 degrees Celsius (72 to 88 degrees Fahrenheit) in February. Politics Mozambique is a multi-party democracy under the 1990 constitution. The executive branch comprises a president, prime minister, and Council of Ministers. There is a National Assembly and municipal assemblies. The judiciary comprises a Supreme Court and provincial, district, and municipal courts. Suffrage is universal at eighteen. In the 1994 elections, Joaquim Chissano was elected President with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) deputies, 112 Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) deputies, and nine representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD). Since its formation in 1994, the National Assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive. By 1999, more than one-half (53%) of the legislation passed originated in the Assembly. After some delays, in 1998 the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level. The principal opposition party, RENAMO, boycotted the local elections, citing flaws in the registration process. Independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies. Turnout was very low. In the aftermath of the 1998 local elections, the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition's procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in 1999. Working through the National Assembly, the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in December 1998. Financed largely by international donors, a very successful voter registration was conducted from July to September 1999, providing voter registration cards to 85% of the potential electorate (more than seven million voters). The second general elections were held December 3–5, 1999, with high voter turnout. International and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organised and went smoothly. Both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that, had they not occurred, might have changed the outcome. In the end, however, international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people. President Chissano won the presidency with a margin of 4% points over the RENAMO-Electoral Union coalition candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, and began his five-year term in January, 2000. FRELIMO increased its majority in the National Assembly with 133 out of 250 seats. RENAMO-UE coalition won 116 seats, one went independent, and no third parties are represented. The opposition coalition did not accept the National Election Commission's results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the Supreme Court. One month after the voting, the court dismissed the opposition's challenge and validated the election results. The opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote. The second local elections, involving thirty-three municipalities with some 2.4 million registered voters, took place in November 2003. This was the first time that FRELIMO, RENAMO-UE, and independent parties competed without significant boycotts. The 24% turnout was well above the 15% turnout in the first municipal elections. FRELIMO won twenty-eight mayoral positions and the majority in twenty-nine municipal assemblies, while RENAMO won five mayoral positions and the majority in four municipal assemblies. The voting was conducted in an orderly fashion without violent incidents. However, the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation, as well as calls for greater transparency. Mozambique's president, Armando Guebuza. In May 2004, the government approved a new general elections law that contained innovations based on the experience of the 2003 municipal elections. Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on December 1–2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005. RENAMO and some other opposition parties made claims of election fraud and denounced the result. These claims were supported by international observers (among others by the European Union Election Observation Mission to Mozambique and the Carter Centre) to the elections who criticised the fact that the National Electoral Commission (CNE) did not conduct fair and transparent elections. They listed a whole range of shortcomings by the electoral authorities that benefited the ruling party FRELIMO. However, according to EU observers, the elections shortcomings have probably not affected the final result in the presidential election. On the other hand, the observers have declared that the outcome of the parliamentary election and thus the distribution of seats in the National Assembly does not reflect the will of the Mozambican people and is clearly to the disadvantage of RENAMO. Economy Women in Mozambique with maize. The official currency is the New Metical (as of 2009, 1 USD is roughly equivalent to 27 Meticals), which replaced old Meticals at the rate of a thousand to one. The old currency will be redeemed by the Bank of Mozambique until the end of 2012. The US dollar, South African rand, and recently the euro are also widely accepted and used in business transactions. The minimum legal salary is around US$60 per month. Mozambique is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The SADC free trade protocol is aimed at making the Southern African region more competitive by eliminating tariffs and other trade barriers. The World Bank in 2007 talked of Mozambique’s ‘blistering pace of economic growth’. A joint donor-government study in early 2007 said ‘Mozambique is generally considered an aid success story.’ The IMF in early 2007 said ‘Mozambique is a success story in Sub-Saharan Africa.’ Yet, despite this apparent success, both the World Bank and UNICEF used the word ‘paradox’ to describe rising chronic child malnutrition in the face of GDP growth. Between 1994 and 2006, average annual GDP growth was approximately 8%, however, the country remains one of the poorest and most underdeveloped in the world. In a 2006 survey, three-quarters of Mozambicans said that in the past five years their economic position had remained the same or become worse. Is Poverty Decreasing in Mozambique?, Joseph Hanlon, Senior Lecturer, Open University, England - Paper to be presented at the Inaugural Conference of the Instituto de Estudos Sociais e Económicos (IESE) in Maputo, 19 September 2007. Rebounding growth The resettlement of civil war refugees and successful economic reform have led to a high growth rate: the country has enjoyed a remarkable recovery, achieving an average annual rate of economic growth of 8% between 1996 and 2006. http://www.iceida.is/english/main-activities/mozambique/ The devastating floods of early 2000 slowed GDP growth to 2.1%. A full recovery was achieved with growth of 14.8% in 2001. In 2003, the growth rate was 7%. The government projects the economy to continue to expand between 7%-10% a year for the next five years, although rapid expansion in the future hinges on several major foreign investment projects, continued economic reform, and the revival of the agriculture, transportation, and tourism sectors. More than 75% of the population engages in small-scale agriculture, which still suffers from inadequate infrastructure, commercial networks, and investment. However, 88% of Mozambique's arable land is still uncultivated. In addition, the profitable exploitation of valuable titanium reserves has the potential to uplift this poverty-stricken region of Africa. As a natural resource, it could play a significant role in solving unemployment and poverty. Inflation A view of the Cahora Bassa reservoir. The government's tight control of spending and the money supply, combined with financial sector reform, successfully reduced inflation from 70% in 1994 to less than 5% in 1998–99. Economic disruptions stemming from the devastating floods of 2000 caused inflation to jump to 12.7% that year, and it was 13% in 2003. Mozambique's currency, the Metical (MZM), devaluated by 50% to the dollar in 2001, although in late 2001 it began to stabilize. Since then, it has held steady at about 24,000 MZM to 1 U.S. dollar. New Metical replaced old Meticals at a rate of a thousand to one on January 1 2007, bringing the exchange rate to 25 (new) MZN to 1 USD. Economic reforms More than 1,200 state-owned enterprises (mostly small) have been privatised. Preparations for privatisation and/or sector liberalisation are underway for the remaining parastatal enterprises, including telecommunications, energy, ports, and railways. The government frequently selects a strategic foreign investor when privatising a parastatal. Additionally, customs duties have been reduced, and customs management has been streamlined and reformed. The government introduced a value-added tax in 1999 as part of its efforts to increase domestic revenues. Plans for 2003–04 include Commercial Code reform; comprehensive judicial reform; financial sector strengthening; continued civil service reform; and improved government budget, audit, and inspection capability. Further political instability resulting from the floods left thousands homeless, displaced within their own country. Improving trade imbalance An old 1000 metical note, prior to redenomination on 1 July 2006 Imports remain almost 40% greater than exports, but this is a significant improvement over the 4:1 ratio of the immediate post-war years. In 2003, imports were $1.24 billion and exports were $910 million. Support programs provided by foreign donors and private financing of foreign direct investment mega-projects and their associated raw materials have largely compensated for balance-of-payments shortfalls. The medium-term outlook for exports is encouraging, since a number of foreign investment projects should lead to substantial export growth and a better trade balance. MOZAL, a large aluminium smelter that commenced production in mid-2000, has greatly expanded the nation's trade volume. Traditional Mozambican exports include cashews, shrimp, fish, copra, sugar, cotton, tea, and citrus fruits. Most of these industries are being rehabilitated. As well, Mozambique is less dependent on imports for basic food and manufactured goods because of steady increases in local production. Demographics Makua children in Mozambique The north-central provinces of Zambezia and Nampula are the most populous, with about 45% of the population. The estimated four million Macua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country; the Sena and Shona (mostly Ndau) are prominent in the Zambezi valley, and the Shangaan (Tsonga) dominate in southern Mozambique. Other groups include Makonde, Yao, Swahili, Tonga, Chopi, and Nguni (including Zulu). Bantu people comprise 99.66% of the population, with the rest including White Africans (largely of Portuguese ancestry), Euro-Africans (mestiço people of mixed Bantu and Portuguese heritage), and Indians. "Mozambique". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 22 May 2007. Roughly 20,000 people of Indian descent reside in Mozambique. During Portuguese colonial rule, a large minority of people of Portuguese descent lived permanently in almost all areas of the country, Mozambique (01/09), U.S. Department of State and Mozambicans with Portuguese blood at the time of independence numbered about 360,000. Many of these left the region after independence from Portugal in 1975. The remaining minorities in Mozambique claim heritage from Pakistan, Portuguese India, and Arab countries. There are various estimates for the size of Mozambique's Chinese community, ranging from 1,500 to 12,000 . Despite the influence of Islamic coastal traders and European colonisers, the people of Mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on small-scale agriculture. Mozambique's most well-known art forms are wood sculpture, for which the Makonde in northern Mozambique are particularly renowned, and dance. The middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the Portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage. Languages Portuguese is the official and most widely spoken language of the nation, because Bantus speak several of their different languages (most widely used of these are Swahili, Makhuwa, Sena, Ndau, and Shangaan — these have many Portuguese-origin words), but 40% of all people speak it — 33.5%, mostly Bantus, as their second language and only 6.5%, mostly white Mozambicans and mestiços, speak it as their first language. Arabs, Chinese, and Indians speak their own languages (Indians from Portuguese India speak any of the Portuguese Creoles of their origin) aside from Portuguese as their second language. Most educated Mozambicans can also speak English, which is used in schools and business as second or third language. Education Students in front of their school in Nampulo, Mozambique After independence from Portugal in 1975, school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases. Again after the Mozambican Civil War (1977-1992), with post-war net enrollments reaching all-time highs due to stability and youth population growth, the quality of education suffered. All Mozambicans are required by law to attend school through the primary level. After grade 7, students must take standardised national exams to enter secondary school, which runs from 8th to 10th grade. Space in Mozambican universities is extremely limited; thus most students who complete pre-university school do not immediately proceed onto university studies. Many go to work as teachers or are unemployed. There are also institutes specialising in agricultural, technical, or pedagogical studies which students may attend after grade 10 in lieu of a pre-university school, which give more vocational training. A lot of children in Mozambique do not go to primary school because they have to work for their families' subsistence farms for a living. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Mozambican students continued to be admitted every year at Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes, and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese Government and the Mozambican Government; in general these students belong to the Mozambican elites. In 2007, one million children still did not go to school, most of them from poor rural families, and almost half of all teachers in Mozambique were still unqualified. Girls’ enrolment increased from 3 million in 2002 to 4.1 million in 2006 while the completion rate increased from 31,000 to 90,000, which testified a very poor completion rate. Key facts, Department for International Development (DFID), a part of the UK Government (24 May 2007) Religion A Muslim worshiper awaits by the door of a Mozambique mosque The Roman Catholic Church has established twelve dioceses (Beira, Chimoio, Gurué, Inhambane, Lichinga, Maputo, Nacala, Nampula, Pemba, Quelimane, Tete, and Xai-Xai - archdioceses are Beira, Maputo and Nampula). Statistics for the dioceses range from a low 7.44% Catholics in the population in the diocese of Chimoio, to 87.50% in Quelimane diocese (2006 official Catholic figures). Muslims are particularly present in the north of the country. They are organised in several "tariqa" or brotherhoods (of the Qadiriya or Shadhuliyyah branch). Two national organisations also exist - the Conselho Islamico de Moçambique (reformists) and the Congresso Islamico de Mocambique (pro-sufi). There are also important Indo-Pakistani associations as well as some Shia and particularly Ismaili communities. Among the main Protestant churches are Igreja União Baptista de Moçambique, the Assembleias de Deus, the Seventh-day Adventists, the Anglican Church of Southern Africa, the Igreja do Evangelho Completo de Deus, the Igreja Metodista Unida, the Igreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique, the Igreja de Cristo and the Assembleia Evangélica de Deus. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is also present as well as the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Brazilian Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus and Igreja Crista Maranata. According to the 1997 census, the Roman Catholic community makes up 23.8 percent of the population of Mozambique. Muslims comprise 17.8 percent of the population, and people of the Protestant community make up 17.5% of the country's population. 17.8% of the people have other beliefs, and 23.1% have no religious beliefs. See also List of Mozambique-related topics Communications in Mozambique Liga dos Escuteiros de Moçambique List of conservation areas of Mozambique Military of Mozambique Public holidays in Mozambique Transport in Mozambique Portuguese East Africa References Bibliography Gengenbach, Heidi. Binding Memories: Women as Makers and Tellers of Histry in Magude, Mozambique. Columbia University Press, 2004. Entire Text Online: http://www.gutenberg-e.org/geh01/main.html Abrahamsson, Hans Mozambique: The Troubled Transition, from Socialist Construction to Free Market Capitalism London: Zed Books, 1995 Cahen, Michel Les bandits: un historien au Mozambique_, Paris: Gulbenkian, 1994 Pitcher, Anne Transforming Mozambique: The politics of privatisation, 1975–2000 Cambridge, 2002 Newitt, Malyn A History of Mozambique Indiana University Press Varia, "Religion in Mozambique", LFM: Social sciences & Missions No. 17, December 2005 Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, "Chapter Seven: "The Struggle for Mozambique: The Founding of FRELIMO in Tanzania," pp. 206–225, ISBN 978-0980253412; Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Africa and America in The Sixties: A Decade That Changed The Nation and The Destiny of A Continent, First Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0980253429 External links Government Republic of Mozambique Official Government Portal Health Ministry Science and Technology Portal National Petroleum Institute Instituto Nacional de Estatística National Statistical Office Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Country Profile from BBC News Mozambique from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Politics Mozambique Political Process Bulletin Tourism be-x-old:Мазамбік | Mozambique |@lemmatized mozambique:99 officially:1 republic:3 república:1 de:27 moçambique:6 country:28 southeastern:1 africa:26 border:1 indian:10 ocean:5 east:10 tanzania:5 north:9 malawi:5 zambia:5 northwest:2 zimbabwe:7 west:5 swaziland:3 south:21 southwest:2 explore:2 vasco:2 da:5 gama:2 colonize:1 portugal:10 portuguese:56 virtual:1 control:9 former:2 swahili:7 sultanate:1 african:23 coast:6 trading:3 post:6 fort:3 become:15 regular:3 port:9 call:5 new:12 route:2 independent:7 people:12 shortly:2 member:8 community:11 language:10 commonwealth:3 nation:9 observer:7 francophonie:1 name:2 msumbiji:1 island:6 town:1 life:1 expectancy:1 infant:1 mortality:1 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1,760 | Dragon | The dragon is a legendary creature with serpentine or otherwise reptilian traits that features in the myths of many cultures. The two most familiar interpretations of dragons are European dragons, derived from various European folk traditions, and the unrelated Oriental dragons, derived from the Chinese dragon (lóng,龍,龙). The word "dragon" derives from Greek δράκων (drakōn), "a serpent of huge size, a python, a dragon" and that from δρακεῖν (drakein) aorist infinitive active of the verb δέρκομαι (derkomai) "I see clearly". Drakon, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus Description Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a huge lizard, or a snake with two pairs of lizard-type legs, and able to emit fire from their mouths. The European dragon has bat-type wings growing from its back. A dragon-like creature with no front legs is known as a wyvern. Following discovery of how pterosaurs walked on the ground, some dragons have been portrayed without front legs and using the wings as front legs pterosaur-fashion when on the ground, as in the movie Reign of Fire. Overview Like most mythological creatures, dragons are perceived in different ways by different cultures. Dragons are sometimes said to breathe and spit fire, poison, and/or ice. They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and possessing typically feathered or scaly bodies. They are sometimes portrayed as having large yellow or red eyes, a feature that is the origin of the word for dragon in many cultures. They are sometimes portrayed with a row of dorsal spines, keeled scales, or leathery bat-like wings. Winged dragons are usually portrayed only in European dragons while Oriental versions of the dragon resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a variable number of legs: none, two, four, or more when it comes to early European literature. Also, some dragons in Greek literature were known to have millions of legs at a time. Modern depictions of dragons tend to be larger than their original representations, which were often smaller than humans, but grew in the myths and tales of man over the years. Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, different cultures have varying stories about monsters that have been grouped together under the dragon label. Dragons are often held to have major spiritual significance in various religions and cultures around the world. In many Asian cultures dragons were, and in some cultures still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of nature, religion and the universe. They are associated with wisdom—often said to be wiser than humans—and longevity. They are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are often associated with wells, rain, and rivers. In some cultures, they are also said to be capable of human speech. The term dragoon, for infantry that moved around on horseback yet still fought as foot soldiers, is derived from their early firearm, the "dragon", a wide-bore musket that spat flame when it fired, and was thus named for the mythical creature. Greek; etymology In Ancient Greece the first mention of a "dragon" is derived from the Iliad where Agamemnon is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and a three-headed dragon emblem on his breast plate. p.79, Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric ; however, the Greek word used (δράκων drakōn, genitive δράκοντοϛ drakontos) could also mean "snake". δράκων drakōn is a form of the aorist participle active of Greek δέρκομαι derkomai = "I see", and originally likely meant "that which sees", or "that which flashes or gleams" (perhaps referring to reflective scales). This is the origin of the word "dragon". (See also Hesiod's Theogony, 322.) In 217 A.D., Philostratus discussed dragons (δράκων, drakōn) in India in The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (II,17 and III,6-8). The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that “In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine’s, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks’ teeth.” European European dragons exist in folklore and mythology among the overlapping cultures of Europe. Despite having wings, the dragon is generally depicted as having an underground lair or cave, making it an ancient creature of the earth element. Chinese Chinese dragons (), and Oriental dragons generally, can take on human form and are usually seen as benevolent, whereas European dragons are usually malevolent though there are exceptions (one exception being Y Ddraig Goch, the Red Dragon of Wales). Malevolent dragons also occur in the mythology of Persia (see Azhi Dahaka) and Russia, among other places. Dragons are particularly popular in China and the five-clawed dragon was a symbol of the Chinese emperors, with the phoenix or fenghuang the symbol of the Chinese empress. Dragon costumes manipulated by several people are a common sight at Chinese festivals. Chinese dragons can also develop wings over a life span of 3,500 years. Japanese Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China, Korea and India. Like these other Asian dragons, most Japanese ones are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248) Gould, Charles. 1896.Mythical Monsters". W. H. Allen & Co. , the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". Vedic In the early Vedic religion, Vritra (Sanskrit: वृत्र (Devanāgarī) or (IAST)) "the enveloper", was an Asura and also a "naga" (serpent) or possibly dragon-like creature, the personification of drought and enemy of Indra. Vritra was also known in the Vedas as Ahi ("snake"), and he is said to have had three heads. Persian Aži Dahāka is the source of the modern Persian word azhdahā or ezhdehā اژدها (Middle Persian azdahāg) meaning "dragon", often used of a dragon depicted upon a banner of war. The Persians believed that the baby of a dragon will be the same color as the mother's eyes. In Middle Persian he is called Dahāg or Bēvar-Asp, the latter meaning "[he who has] 10,000 horses." Several other dragons and dragon-like creatures, all of them malevolent, are mentioned in Zoroastrian scripture. (See Zahhāk). Semitic In Jewish religious texts, the first mention of a dragon-like creature is in the Biblical works of Job (26:13), and Isaiah (27:1) where it is called Nachash Bare'ach, or a "Pole Serpent". p.233, Kaplan This is identified in the Midrash Rabba to Genesis 1:21 as Leviathan from the word Taninim (תנינים)and God created the great sea-monsters. p.51,Freedman In modern Hebrew the word Taninim is used for Crocodiles - however, this is a 20th Century usage unconnected with the original Biblical meaning. In Jewish astronomy this is also identified with the North Pole, the star Thuban which, around 4,500 years ago, was the star in the Draco constellation's "tail". However this can also have been either the celestial pole or the ecliptic pole. The ancient observers noted that Draco was at the top of the celestial pole, giving the appearance that stars were "hanging" from it, and in Hebrew it is referred to as Teli, from talah (תלה) - to hang. p.1670, Jastrow ref to Genesis 38:14, Y.Sot.I 16d (bot.) Hebrew writers from Arabic-speaking locations identified the Teli as Al Jaz'har, which is a Persian word for a "knot" or a "node" because of the intersection of the inclination of the orbit of a planet from the elliptic that forms two such nodes. In modern astronomy these are called the ascending node and the descending node, but in medieval astronomy they were referred to as "dragon's head" and "dragon's tail". p.235, Kaplan Rahab (see Psalm 89:9-10 and Isaiah 51:9-10) also has "dragon-like" characteristics. Modern depictions In the early 20th Century sculpture of the Norwegian artist Gustav Vigeland, inspired by Medieval art, dragons are a frequent theme - as symbol of sin but also as a nature force, fighting against man. There are numerous examples of dragons in modern literature, especially the fantasy genre. In the 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien, the major antagonist is a dragon named Smaug. Smaug hoards a great treasure but is ultimately shot down with an arrow by an archer who was told about a soft patch in Smaug's underbelly armor. Dragonriders of Pern is an extensive fantasy/science fiction series of novels and short stories primarily written by Anne McCaffrey. Since 2004, McCaffrey's son Todd McCaffrey has also published Pern novels, both in collaboration with Anne and on his own. The Pernese use intelligent firebreathing dragons who have a telepathic bond with their riders, formed by mental impressions the dragons receive at the time they hatch from their eggs. The possibility that dragons and humans intershare genetic traits within certains lines of family was investigated in the novel Who Is Charlie Keeper? Some modern pseudo-biological accounts of dragons give them the generic name Draco, although the generic name Draco is used in real-world biology for a genus of small gliding agamid lizard. Speculation on the origin of dragons Carl Sagan hypothesized in his 1977 book The Dragons of Eden that the myth of dragons arose from the innate fear of reptiles that we share with other mammals, a remnant of the time when mammals lived with dinosaurs. Others, such as Creationists and some cryptozoologists, believe that the dragon may have had a real counterpart from which the various legends arose — typically dinosaurs or other archosaurs are mentioned as a possibility. Author Loren Coleman argues that monitor lizards were the basis of some dragon tales and that the breath of the dragon is the fantastic imagery of the steam from the warm Montane Valley monitor lizards emerging from a body of water into the cold air of some Asian locations. Dinosaur and mammalian fossils were occasionally mistaken for the bones of dragons and other mythological creatures — for example, a discovery in 300 B.C. in Wucheng, Sichuan, China, was labeled as such by Chang Qu. Great Moments in Science - Dinosaurs And Cave People Adrienne Mayor has written on the subject of fossils as the inspiration for myths in her book The First Fossil Hunters, and in an entry in the Encyclopedia of Geology she wrote: Fossil remains generated a variety of geomyths speculating on the creatures’ identity and cause of their destruction. Many ancient cultures, from China and India to Greece, America, and Australia, told tales of dragons, monsters, and giant heroes to account for fossils of animals they had never seen alive. Adrienne Mayor in Enclopedia of Geology, ed Richard Selley, Robin Cocks, and Ian Palmer. Forthcoming, Elsevier, fall 2004 Dragons in world mythology Asian dragons Chinese dragon Lóng (or Loong. Lung2 in Wade-Giles romanization.) The Chinese dragon, is a mythical Chinese creature that also appears in other Asian cultures, and is sometimes called the Oriental (or Eastern) dragon. Depicted as a long, snake-like creature with four claws, it has long been a potent symbol of auspicious power in Chinese folklore and art. Indian dragon Nāga A serpentine dragon common to all cultures influenced by Hinduism. They are often hooded like a cobra and may have several heads depending on their rank. They usually have no arms or legs but those with limbs resemble the Chinese dragon. Indonesian/Malay dragon Naga or Nogo Derived from the Indian nāga, belief in the Indo-Malay dragon spread throughout the entire Malay Peninsula along with Hinduism. The word naga is still the common Malay term for dragons in general. Like its Indian counterpart, the naga is considered divine in nature, benevolent, and often associated with sacred mountains, forests, or certain parts of the sea Japanese dragon Ryū Similar to Chinese dragons, with three claws instead of four. They are usually benevolent, associated with water, and may grant wishes. Khmer Dragon Neak The Khmer dragon, or neak is derived from the Indian nāga. Like its Indian counterpart, the neak is often depicted with cobra like characteristics such as a hood. The number of heads can be as high as nine, the higher the number the higher the rank. Odd-headed dragons are symbolic of male energy while even headed dragons symbolize female energy. Traditionally, a neak is distinguished from the often serpentine Makar and Tao, the former possessing crocodilian traits and the latter possessing feline traits. A dragon princess is the heroine of the creation myth of Cambodia. Korean dragon Yong (Mireu) A sky dragon, essentially the same as the Chinese lóng. Like the lóng, yong and the other Korean dragons are associated with water and weather. In pure Korean, it is also known as 'mireu'. Imoogi A hornless ocean dragon, sometimes equated with a sea serpent. Imoogi literally means, "Great Lizard". The legend of the Imoogi says that the sun god gave the Imoogi their power through a human girl, which would be transformed into the Imoogi on her 17th birthday. Legend also said that a dragon-shaped mark would be found on the shoulder of the girl, revealing that she was the Imoogi in human form. Gyo A mountain dragon. In fact, the Chinese character for this word is also used for the imoogi. Philippine Dragon Bakunawa The Bakunawa appears as a gigantic serpent that lives in the sea. Ancient natives believed that the Bakunawa caused the moon or the sun to disappear during an eclipse. It is said that during certain times of the year, the Bakunawa arises from the ocean and proceeds to swallow the moon whole. To keep the Bakunawa from completely eating the moon, the natives would go out of their houses with pots and pans in hand and make a noise barrage in order to scare the Bakunawa into spitting out the moon back into the sky. Some say that the Bakunawa is known to kill people by imagining their death and remote in eye contact. Vietnamese dragon Rồng or Long (Ly dynasty, Daiviet X) These dragons' bodies curve lithely, in sine shape, with 12 sections, symbolising 12 months in the year. They are able to change the weather, and are responsible for crops. On the dragon's back are little, uninterrupted, regular fins. The head has a long mane, beard, prominent eyes, crest on nose, but no horns. The jaw is large and opened, with a long, thin tongue; they always keep a châu (gem/jewel) in their mouths (a symbol of humanity, nobility and knowledge). European dragons Catalan dragon drac Catalan dragons are serpent-like creatures with two legs (rarely four) and, sometimes, a pair of wings. Their faces can resemble that of other animals, like lions or cattle. They have a burning breath. Their breath is also poisonous, the reason by which dracs are able to rot everything with their stench. A víbria is a female dragon. French dragons Dragon The French representation of dragons spans much of European history, and has even given its name to the dragoons, a type of cavalry. Sardinian dragon scultone The dragon named "scultone" or "ascultone" was a legend in Sardinia, Italy, for many a millennium. It had the power to kill human beings with its gaze. It was a sort of basilisk, lived in the bush and was immortal. Scandinavian & Germanic dragons Lindworm (early Vandal) Lindworms are serpent-like dragons with either two or no legs. In Nordic and Germanic heraldry, the lindworm looks the same as a wyvern. The dragon Fafnir was a lindworm. English dragons Wyvern Wyverns are common in medieval heraldry. Their usual blazon is statant. Wyverns are normally shown as dragons with two legs and two wings. Welsh dragons Y Ddraig Goch In Welsh mythology, after a long battle (which the Welsh King Vortigern witnesses) a red dragon defeats a white dragon; Merlin explains to Vortigern that the red dragon symbolizes the Welsh, and the white dragon symbolizes the Saxons — thus foretelling the ultimate defeat of the English by the Welsh. The draig goch appears on the Welsh national flag. Celtic Dragons (Irish and Scottish) Bheithir In Celtic Mythology Ben Vair in Scotland takes its name from the dragon that used to live in a great hollow in the face of a mountain known as Corrie Lia. The dragon was tricked into walking along a pontoon bridge with hidden spikes. Hungarian dragons (Sárkányok) zomok A great snake living in a swamp, which regularly kills pigs or sheep. A group of shepherds can easily kill them. sárkánykígyó A giant winged snake, which is in fact a full-grown zomok. It often serves as flying mount of the garabonciás (a kind of magician). The sárkánykígyó rules over storms and bad weather. sárkány A dragon in human form. Most of them are giants with multiple heads. Their strength is held in their heads. They become gradually weaker as they lose their heads. In contemporary Hungarian the word sárkány is used to mean all kinds of dragons. Slavic dragons zmey, zmiy, żmij, змей, or zmaj, or drak, or smok Smok Wawelski from Sebastian Münster's Cosmographie Universalis, 1544 Similar to the conventional European dragon, but multi-headed. They breathe fire and/or leave fiery wakes as they fly. In Slavic and related tradition, dragons symbolize evil. Specific dragons are often given Turkic names (see Zilant, below), symbolizing the long-standing conflict between the Slavs and Turks. However, in Serbian and Bulgarian folklore, dragons are defenders of the crops in their home regions, fighting against a destructive demon Ala, whom they shoot with lightning. (A book in Serbian about mythical creatures of Serbian traditions) (An extract from the book Змеят в българския фолклор (The Dragon in Bulgarian Folklore), in Bulgarian) Armenian dragon Vishap Related to European dragonsSiberian dragon Yilbegan Related to European Turkic and Slavic dragons Romanian dragons Balaur Balaur are very similar to the Slavic zmey: very large, with fins and multiple heads. Chuvash dragons Vere CelenChuvash dragons represent the pre-Islamic mythology of the same region. Asturian and Leonese dragons Cuélebre In Asturias and León mythology the Cuélebres are giant winged serpents, which live in caves where they guard treasures and kidnapped xanas. They can live for centuries and, when they grow really old, they use their wings to fly. Their breath is poisonous and they often kill cattle to eat. Leonese language term Cuelebre comes from Latin colŭbra, i.e., snake. Albanian Dragon Dragua In the Albanian mythology the Draguas have four legs and two bat wings. They have a single horn in their head and they have big ears. They live in the forests and cannot be seen unless they want to be. A Dragua can live up to 100 years and cannot be killed by humans. After the Ottoman invasion, the Draguas became protectors of the highlanders. Portuguese dragons Coca In Portuguese mythology coca is a female dragon that fights with Saint George. She loses her strength when Saint George cuts off one of her ears. Greek dragons Drakōn - δράκων Cadmus fighting the dragon is a legendary story from the Greek lore dating to before ca. 560–550 B.C. Tatar dragons Zilant Really closer to a wyvern or cockatrice, the Zilant is the symbol of Kazan. Zilant itself is a Russian rendering of Tatar yılan, i.e., snake. Turkish dragons Ejderha or Evren The Turkish dragon secretes flames from its tail, and there is no mention in any legends of its having wings, or even legs. In fact, most Turkish (and later Islamic) sources describe dragons as gigantic snakes. Lithuanian Dragons Drakonas This dragon is more of a hydra with multiple heads, though sometimes it does appear with one head. Cartography There is a widespread belief that earlier cartographers used the Latin phrase hic sunt dracones, i.e., "Here be dragons", to denote dangerous or unexplored territories, in imitation of the infrequent medieval practice of putting sea serpents and other mythological creatures in blank areas of maps. However the only known use of this phrase is in the Latin form "HC SVNT DRACONES" on the Lenox Globe (ca. 1503-07) " ] . See also Chinese dragon European dragon Japanese dragon Saint George and the Dragon Komodo Dragon References Sources Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003 ISBN 8120819896 Freedman, Rabbi Dr. H. (translation), Simon M., editor, Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume one, The Soncino Press, London, 1983 Further reading Knight, Peter. "Sacred Dorset - On the Path of the Dragon", 1998. External links Chinese Dragons in the news The Evolution of the Dragon, by G. 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1,761 | Hampshire | + Hampshire Image:EnglandHampshire.svg Geography StatusCeremonial & (smaller) Non-metropolitan countyRegion:South East England Area- Total- Admin. council- Admin. areaRanked 9th3,769 km² (1,455 mi²) Ranked 8th3,679 km² (1,420 mi²)Admin HQ:Winchester (formerly Southampton)ISO 3166-2:GB-HAMONS code:24NUTS 3:UKJ33 Demographics Population- Total ()- Density- Admin. council- Admin. pop.Ranked / km²Ranked Ethnicity:96.7% White1.3% S. Asian 0.8% Mixed 1.2% Other PoliticsHampshire County Councilhttp://www.hants.gov.uk/hcc/Executive Members of Parliament James Arbuthnot (C) John Denham (L) Sandra Gidley (LD) Mike Hancock (LD) Mark Hoban (C) Gerald Howarth (C) Chris Huhne (LD) Julian Lewis (C) Michael Mates (C) Sarah McCarthy-Fry (L)/(Co-op) Maria Miller (C) Mark Oaten (LD) Desmond Swayne (C) Peter Viggers (C) Alan Whitehead (L) David Willetts (C) Kevin Remmele (C) DistrictsImage:Hampshire Ceremonial Numbered.png Gosport Fareham Winchester Havant East Hampshire Hart Rushmoor Basingstoke and Deane Test Valley Eastleigh New Forest Southampton (Unitary) Portsmouth (Unitary) Hampshire ( or ), sometimes historically Southamptonshire , Hamptonshire , (abbr. Hants), or the County of Southampton, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911. "Hampshire". is a county on the south coast of England. The county borders (clockwise from West), Dorset, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Surrey and West Sussex. The county has an area of 1,455 square miles (3,769 km²) and at its widest points is approximately 55 miles (90 km) east–west and 40 miles (65 km) north–south. The county town is Winchester situated at . The 2001 census gave the population of the administrative county as 1.24 million; the ceremonial county also includes the cities of Portsmouth and Southampton, which are administratively independent, and has a total population of 1.6 million. Christchurch and Bournemouth, within the historic borders of the county, were made part of the non-metropolitan county of Dorset in 1974. Hampshire is a popular holiday area, with tourist attractions including its many seaside resorts, the maritime area in Portsmouth, and the motor museum at Beaulieu. The New Forest National Park lies within the borders, as does a large area of the South Downs, which has now become a National Park. Hampshire has a long maritime history and two of England's largest ports, Portsmouth and Southampton, lie on its coast. The county is famed as home of writers Jane Austen and Charles Dickens and the birthplace of engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Wildlife Hampshire has wildlife typical of the island of Great Britain. One distinguishing feature is that Hampshire has a large free roaming herd of Red Deer, including more than 6500 stags during busy seasons. The stag population is protected by the government and hunting is prohibited. Physical geography Hampshire's geology falls into two categories. In the south, along the coast is the "Hampshire Basin", an area of relatively non-resistant Eocene and Oligocene clays and gravels which are protected from sea erosion by the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset, and the Isle of Wight. These low, flat lands support heathland and woodland habitats, a large area of which form part of the New Forest. The New Forest has a mosaic of heathland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous woodland habitats that host diverse wildlife. The forest is protected as a national park, limiting development and agricultural use to protect the landscape and wildlife. Large areas of the New Forest are open common lands kept as a grassland plagioclimax by grazing animals, including domesticated cattle, pigs and horses, and several wild deer species. Erosion of the weak rock and sea level change flooding the low land has carved several large estuaries and rias, notably the 12 mile (19 km) long Southampton Water and the large convoluted Portsmouth Harbour. The Isle of Wight lies off the coast of Hampshire where the non-resistant rock has been eroded away forming the Solent. In the north and centre of the county the substrate is the Southern England Chalk Formation of Salisbury Plain and the South Downs. These are high hills with steep slopes where they border the clays to the south. The hills dip steeply forming a scarp onto the Thames valley to the north, and dip gently to the south. The highest point in the county is Pilot Hill, which reaches the height of 286 m (938 ft). The downland supports a calcareous grassland habitat, important for wild flowers and insects. A large area of the downs is now protected from further agricultural damage by the East Hampshire Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Itchen and Test are trout rivers that flow from the chalk through wooded valleys into Southampton Water. Nestled in a valley on the downs is Selborne, and the countryside surrounding the village was the location of Gilbert White's pioneering observations on natural history. Hampshire's county flower is the Dog Rose. BBC News, May 5 2004. UK counties choose floral emblems. Hampshire has a milder climate than most areas of the British Isles, being in the far south with the climate stabilising effect of the sea, but protected against the more extreme weather of the Atlantic coast. Hampshire has a higher average annual temperature than the UK average at 9.8 °C to 12 °C, Met Office, 2000. Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom. average rainfall at 741–1060 mm per year, Met Office, 2000. Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom. and higher than average sunshine at over 1541 hours per year. Met Office, 2000. Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom. History The chalk downland of the South Downs and southern edges of Salisbury Plain were settled in the neolithic, and these settlers built hill forts such as Winklebury and may have farmed the valleys of Hampshire. Hampshire was part of an area named Gwent or Y Went by the Celts, which also covered areas of Somerset and Wiltshire. In the Roman invasion of Britain, Hampshire was one of the first areas to fall to the invading forces. The county was occupied by Jutish tribes until Saxon times. Hampshire was one of the first Saxon shires, recorded in 755 as Hamtunscir, but for two centuries represented the western end of Saxon England, as advances into Dorset and Somerset were fought off by the Britons. After the Saxons advanced west Hampshire became the centre of the Kingdom of Wessex, and many Saxon kings are buried at Winchester. A statue in Winchester celebrates the powerful King Alfred, who stabilised the region in the 9th century. After the Norman Conquest the county was favoured by Norman kings who established the New Forest as a hunting forest. The county was recorded in the Domesday Book divided into 44 hundreds. From the 12th century the ports grew in importance, fuelled by trade with the continent, wool and cloth manufacture in the county, and the fishing industry, and a shipbuilding industry was established. Over several centuries a series of castles and forts were constructed along the coast of the Solent to defend the harbours at Southampton and Portsmouth. These include the Roman Portchester Castle which overlooks Portsmouth Harbour, and a series of forts built by Henry VIII including Hurst Castle, situated on a sand spit at the mouth of the Solent, Calshot Castle on another spit at the mouth of Southampton Water, and Netley Castle. Southampton and Portsmouth remained important harbours when rivals, such as Poole and Bristol declined, as they are amongst the few locations that combine shelter with deep water. Southampton has been host to many famous ships, including the Mayflower and the Titanic, the latter being staffed largely by natives of Southampton. Hampshire played a large role in World War II due to its large Royal Navy harbour at Portsmouth, the army camp at Aldershot and the military Netley Hospital on Southampton Water, as well as its proximity to the army training ranges on Salisbury Plain and the Isle of Purbeck. Supermarine, the designers of the Spitfire and other military aircraft, were based in Southampton, which led to severe bombing of the city. Aldershot remains one of the British Army's main permanent camps. Farnborough is a major centre for the Aviation industry. Southampton from Netley Hospital. The county has in the past been called "Southamptonshire" and appears as such on some Victorian maps. The name of the administrative county was changed from 'County of Southampton' to 'County of Hampshire' on 1 April 1959. The short form of the name, often used in postal addresses, is Hants. This abbreviated form is derived from the Old English Hantum plus Scir (meaning a district governed from the settlement now known as Southampton) and the Anglo-Saxons called it Hamtunschire. At the time of the Domesday Book (1086) this was compressed to Hantescire. The Isle of Wight has traditionally been treated as part of Hampshire for some purposes, but has been administratively independent for over a century, obtaining a county council of its own in 1890. The Isle of Wight became a full ceremonial county in 1974. Apart from a shared police force and health authority there are now no formal administrative links between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, though many organisations still combine Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch also fall within the traditional county of Hampshire, but were ceded to Dorset in the local government reorganisation of 1974. United States Hampshire was the departure point of some of those later to settle in the east coast of what is now the United States, in the 17th Century, giving its name in particular to New Hampshire. Governance With the exceptions of the unitary authorities of Portsmouth and Southampton, Hampshire is governed by a county council based in Winchester, with several non-metropolitan districts beneath it, and for the majority of the county, parish councils or town councils at the local level. The districts of Hampshire are: Basingstoke and Deane City of Winchester East Hampshire Eastleigh Fareham Gosport Hart Havant New Forest Portsmouth (Unitary) Rushmoor Southampton (Unitary) Test Valley The county also contains a national park, covering the New Forest, and therefore governance of this area is carried out by the National Park Authority as well as the New Forest District Council. Economy The Beaulieu River. Hampshire is a relatively affluent county, with a Gross domestic product (GDP) of £32.3 billion in 2005 (£22.4 billion when excluding Southampton and Portsmouth). Hampshire County Council, 2008. Summary figures - State of the economy. In 2006, Hampshire had a GDP per capita of £19,300, comparable with the UK as a whole and slightly below the South East England figure of £19,600. Hampshire County Council, 2008. Economic performance - State of the economy. Portsmouth and Winchester have the highest job densities in the county, and therefore there is a high level of commuting into the cities. Southampton has the highest number of total jobs and commuting both into and out of the city is high. The county has a lower level of unemployment than the national average, at 1.9% when the national rate was 3.3%, and as of March 2005 has fallen to 1.1%. 39% are employed by large firms, compared with a national average of 42%. Hampshire has a considerably higher than national average employment in high-tech industries, but average levels in knowledge based industry. 25.21% of the population work in the public sector. Hampshire County Council, 2004. Profile of Hampshire. Many rural areas of Hampshire have traditionally been reliant on agriculture, though the county was less agricultural than most surrounding counties, and was mostly concentrated on dairy farming. The significance of agriculture as an employer and wealth creator has declined since the first half of the 20th century and agriculture currently employs 1.32% of the population. The New Forest area is a National Park, and tourism is a significant economic segment in this area, with 7.5 million visitors in 1992. New Forest District Council, n.d. "Tourism questions and answers." The South Downs and the cities of Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester also attract tourists to the county. Southampton Boat Show is one of the biggest annual events held in the county, and attracts visitors from throughout the country. In 2003 the county had a total of 31 million day visits, and 4.2 million longer stays. Hampshire County Council, United Kingdom Tourism Survey & GB Leisure Day Visits Survey, 2004. "Tourism Facts and Figures." The cities of Southampton and Portsmouth are both significant ports, with Southampton handling a large proportion of the national container freight and Portsmouth housing a large Royal Navy base. The docks have traditionally been large employers in these cities, though again mechanisation has forced diversification of the economy. Demographics Southampton Docks. At the Census 2001 Office for National Statistics & Hampshire County Council, 2003. Census 2001 data the ceremonial county recorded a population of 1,644,249, of which 1,240,103 were in the administrative county, 217,445 were in the unitary authority of Southampton, and 186,701 were in Portsmouth. The population of the administrative county grew 5.6% from the 1991 census, Southampton grew 6.2% while Portsmouth remained unchanged, compared with 2.6% for England and Wales as a whole. Eastleigh and Winchester grew fastest at 9% each. The age structure of the population is similar to the national average. 96.73% of residents were indigenous, falling to 92.37% in Southampton. The significant ethnic minorities are Asian at 1.34% and mixed race at 0.84%. 0.75% of residents were migrants from outside the UK. 73.86% stated their religion as Christianity and 16.86% were not religious. Significant minority religions were Islam (0.76%) and Hinduism (0.33%). Education The school system in Hampshire (including Southampton and Portsmouth) is comprehensive. Geographically inside the Hampshire LEA are twenty four independent schools, Southampton has three and Portsmouth has four. Few Hampshire schools have sixth forms, which varies by district council. There are four universities, namely the University of Southampton, Southampton Solent University, the University of Portsmouth and the University of Winchester (which also has a small campus in Basingstoke). Politics Hampshire is divided into eighteen parliamentary constituencies. Ten of these are represented by Conservative Members of Parliament (MPs), four by the Liberal Democrats and three by Labour. Labour represent the large cities, including both Southampton constituencies (Test and Itchen) and Portsmouth North. The Conservatives represent the most rural constituencies, New Forest West, New Forest East, Hampshire North West, Hampshire North East, Hampshire East and the constituencies of Aldershot, Basingstoke, Havant, Gosport and Fareham, which are centred on towns. The Liberal Democrats represent Winchester, Portsmouth South and Eastleigh, all centred around towns, and the largely rural constituency of Romsey. There is a new parliamentary constituency to be contested at the next general election as part of the new boundary changes: the Meon Valley constituency is notionally a Conservative seat, based on the 2005 polling results in the areas it will cover. The Isle of Wight returns its own Member to the House of Commons and, in this way, it is often said that Hampshire returns nineteen Members of Parliament despite Hampshire and the Isle of Wight having been separated administratively and ceremonially for some time. At the 2005 local elections for Hampshire County Council the Conservative Party had a 43.69% share of the votes, the Liberal Democrats had 36.01% and Labour 16.08%. Therefore 46 Conservatives, 28 Liberal Democrats and four Labour councillors sit on the County Council. Hampshire County Council, 2005. Local election results. Southampton City Council, which is entirely independent, has 18 Liberal Democrat, 15 Labour and 15 Conservative councillors. Southampton City Council, 2005. Local election results. Portsmouth City Council, also independent, has 20 Liberal Democrat, 18 Conservative, seven Labour and one independent councillor. Portsmouth City Council, 2005. List of councillors. Hampshire also has its own County Youth Council (HCYC) and is an independent youth-run organisation. It meets once a month around Hampshire and aims to give the young people of Hampshire a voice. It also has numerous district and borough youth councils including Basingstoke's "Basingstoke & Deane Youth Council". Cities, towns, and villages New apartment blocks in the rapidly changing Basingstoke. Hampshire's county town is Winchester, a historic city that was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Wessex and of England until the Norman conquest of England. The port cities of Southampton and Portsmouth were split off as independent unitary authorities in 1997, although they are still included in Hampshire for ceremonial purposes. Fareham, Gosport and Havant have grown into a conurbation that stretches along the coast between the two main cities. The three cities are all university cities, Southampton being home to the University of Southampton and Southampton Solent University (formerly Southampton Institute), Portsmouth to the University of Portsmouth, and Winchester to the University of Winchester (formerly known as University College Winchester; King Alfred's College).The northeast of the county houses the Blackwater Valley conurbation which includes the towns of Farnborough, Aldershot, Blackwater and Yateley and borders both Berkshire and Surrey. Hampshire lies outside the green belt area of restricted development around London, but has good railway and motorway links to the capital, and in common with the rest of the south-east has seen the growth of dormitory towns since the 1960s. Basingstoke, in the north of the county, has grown from a country town into a business and finance centre. Aldershot, Portsmouth, and Farnborough have strong military associations with the Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. The county also includes several market towns: Alton, Andover, Bishop's Waltham, Lymington, New Milton, Petersfield, Ringwood, Romsey, and Whitchurch. Towns by population size: (2001 census) Southampton - 234,224 Portsmouth - 187,056 Basingstoke - 90,171 (town), 152,573 (borough) Gosport - 69,348, 77,000 (borough) Waterlooville - 63,558 Aldershot - 58,120 Farnborough - 57,147 Fareham/Portchester - 56,010 (town), 109,619 (borough) Eastleigh - 52,894 (town), 116,177 (borough) Andover - 52,000 Havant - 45,435 (town), 115,300 (borough) Winchester - 41,420 Fleet - 32,726 For the complete list of settlements see List of places in Hampshire. Culture, arts and sport Winchester Cathedral. Due to Hampshire's long association with pigs and boars, natives of the county have been known as Hampshire hogs since the 18th century. Hampshire County Council, 2003. "Press Release: Hampshire's Hog has a home." Hampshire has literary connections, being the birthplace of authors including Jane Austen and Charles Dickens, and the residence of others, such as Charles Kingsley. Austen lived most of her life in Hampshire, where her father was rector of Steventon, Hampshire, and wrote all of her novels in the county. Hampshire also has many visual art connections, claiming the painter John Everett Millais as a native, and the cities and countryside have been the subject of paintings by L. S. Lowry and J. M. W. Turner. Hampshire is also the birthplace of explorer Lawrence Oates, and entertainers Peter Sellers, Benny Hill, Carl Barat and Craig David. Hampshire's relatively safe waters have allowed the county to develop as one of the busiest sailing areas in the country, with many yacht clubs and several manufacturers on the Solent. The game of cricket was largely developed in south-east England, with one of the first teams forming at Hambledon in 1750. Hampshire County Cricket Club today is a successful first-class team, captained by Dimitri Mascarenhas. Hampshire has several association football teams, including Premier League side Portsmouth F.C. and the now Coca Cola League One side Southampton F.C., which have traditionally been fierce rivals. Portsmouth won the FA Cup in 1939 and 2008 and Football League title twice, in 1949 and 1950, but have spent much of the last 50 years outside the top division and at one stage spent two seasons in the Fourth Division (the lowest division in senior football). Southampton, meanwhile, won the FA Cup in 1976, reached the final in 2003 and spent 27 unbroken years in England's top division (1978-2005). Aldershot F.C. became members of the Football League in 1932 but never progressed beyond the Third Division and on 25 March 1992 were declared bankrupt and forced to resign from the league. A new football club, Aldershot Town, was formed almost immediately, and who were promoted from the Blue Square Premier Division (highest division outside the Football League) into Football League Two of the Football League in April 2008. Thruxton Circuit is Hampshire's premier motor racing course with the National Motor Museum being located in the New Forest adjacent to Beaulieu Palace House. The Farnborough Airshow is a popular international event, held biennially. Transport Southampton Airport, with an accompanying main line railway station, is an international airport situated in the Borough of Eastleigh, close to Swaythling in the city of Southampton. Cross-channel and cross-Solent ferries link the county to the Isle of Wight and European continent. The South Western Main Line railway from London to Weymouth runs through Winchester and Southampton, and the Wessex Main Line from Bristol to Portsmouth also runs through the county as does the Portsmouth Direct Line. The M3 motorway connects the county to London. The construction of the Twyford Down cutting near Winchester caused major controversy by cutting through a series of ancient trackways (the Dongas) and other features of archaeological significance. The M27 motorway serves a bypass for the major conurbations and as a link to other settlements on the south coast. Other important roads include the A3, A31 and A36.The roads in the county are known for their heavy traffic, especially around Southampton and Portsmouth and the M27 and A27. The county has a high level of car ownership, with only 15.7% having no access to a private car compared with 26.8% for England and Wales. The county has a lower than average use of trains (3.2% compared with 4.1% for commuting) and buses (3.2% to 7.4%) but a higher than average use of bicycles (3.5% to 2.7%) and cars (63.5% to 55.3%). Hampshire County Council, 2005. Facts and Figures website. Hampshire formerly had several canals, but most of these have been abandoned and their routes built over. Both the Chichester Canal and Basingstoke Canal have been extensivly restored, and are now navigable for most their routes, but the Salisbury and Southampton Canal, Andover Canal and Portsmouth and Arundel Canal have all disappeared. See also Business in Hampshire List of churches in Hampshire List of Parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire List of places in Hampshire New Hampshire, the US State named after the County. Places of interest in Hampshire Recreational walks in Hampshire Notes References Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. "Hampshire" Draper, Jo. 1990. Hampshire. Wimborne: Dovecote Press. ISBN 0-946159-82-3 Pigot & Co's Atlas of the Counties of England, 1840. London: J Pigot & Co. External links Hampshire County Council Walks Around Hampshire BBC Hampshire Photographs of Hampshire Hampshire Visitor Attractions 93 Vintage Photographs of Portsmouth from the Air Information and photographs of Hampshire Historic Farnborough Hampshire Local Community Website Polish Community in Hampshire Winchester City Council | Hampshire |@lemmatized hampshire:92 image:1 englandhampshire:1 svg:1 geography:2 statusceremonial:1 small:2 non:5 metropolitan:3 countyregion:1 south:17 east:12 england:13 area:21 total:5 admin:5 council:28 arearanked:1 rank:2 hq:1 winchester:21 formerly:4 southampton:49 iso:1 gb:2 hamons:1 code:1 demographic:2 population:10 density:2 pop:1 ethnicity:1 asian:2 mixed:2 politicshampshire:1 county:68 councilhttp:1 www:1 hants:3 gov:1 uk:5 hcc:1 executive:1 member:5 parliament:3 james:1 arbuthnot:1 c:15 john:2 denham:1 l:4 sandra:1 gidley:1 ld:4 mike:1 hancock:1 mark:2 hoban:1 gerald:1 howarth:1 chris:1 huhne:1 julian:1 lewis:1 michael:1 mate:1 sarah:1 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1,762 | Augustine_of_Canterbury | Augustine of Canterbury (c. first third of the 6th century – 26 May 604) was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 598. He is considered the "Apostle to the English" and a founder of the English Church. Delaney Dictionary of Saints pp. 67–68 Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to convert the pagan King Æthelberht of the Kingdom of Kent to Christianity. Kent was probably chosen because it was near the Christian kingdoms in Gaul and because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent the missionaries had considered turning back but Gregory urged them on and, in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and also allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated bishop of the English and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native Celtic bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman Catholic bishops were established at London and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. Augustine died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint. Background to the mission After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from the province of Britannia in 410, the natives of the island of Great Britain were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the withdrawal Britannia had been converted to Christianity and had even produced its own heretic in Pelagius. Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters. Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North pp. 80–81 Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360. Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North pp. 82–86 After the legions left, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island, but western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 3–9 and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics. Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore. Mayr-Harting The Coming of Christianity pp. 78–93 Yorke Conversion of Britain pp. 115–118 discusses the issue of the "Celtic Church" and what exactly it was. Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of St Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning "church". Yorke Conversion of Britain p. 121 There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 102 Mayr-Harting The Coming of Christianity pp. 32–33 The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilization in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures. Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 23 It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 104–105 Jones "Gregorian Mission" Speculum The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 105–106 and perhaps earlier than 560. Kirby Earliest English Kings pp. 24–25 Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage she had brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent. Nelson "Bertha (b. c.565, d. in or after 601)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman times Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 33–36 —possibly the current St Martin's Church, Canterbury. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife's influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries. The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen. Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum pp. 9–10 Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an eighth-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. Mayr-Harting The Coming of Christianity pp. 57–59 More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved. The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards. Mayr-Harting "Augustine [St Augustine] (d. 604)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Aside from Æthelberht's granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was proving to be the dominant power in south-eastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht's kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 6–7 There is some evidence, including Gregory's letter's to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well. Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 27 In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the abbey of St Anthony in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters, of which some copies survive in Rome. He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia, as well as their grandmother Brunhild, seeking aid for the mission. Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine. Besides hospitality, the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 4–5 By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission who visibly had the support of his wife's relatives and people. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 6 Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings. Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 9 Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine's knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well-educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Anthony as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior. Fletcher The Barbarian Conversion pp. 116–117 Arrival and first efforts Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks. Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return. Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere. Blair An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England pp. 116–117 In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent. They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival: Fletcher The Barbarian Conversion pp. 116–117 Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin's for services. Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht's conversion, Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 11 but it probably took place in 597. In the early medieval period, large scale conversions required the ruler's conversion first, and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent. Also, by 601, Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha, calling the king his son and referring to his baptism. A late medieval tradition, recorded by the 15th-century chronicler Thomas Elmham, gives the date of the king's conversion as Whit Sunday, or 2 June 597; there is no reason to doubt this date, although there is no other evidence for it. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 8–9 Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted. Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 28 His baptism likely took place at Canterbury. Higham Convert Kings p. 56 Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury. It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop. Bede, writing about a century later, states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles after the conversion of Æthelberht. Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory, however, refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England. A letter of Gregory's from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop, and one ten months later says that Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory's command by bishops of the Germanies. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 5 The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests that he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues that the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place. Markus "Chronology of the Gregorian Mission" Journal of Ecclesiastical History pp. 24–29 Map of the general outlines of some of the British kingdoms about 600 Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine's Abbey, on land donated by the king. Blair Church in Anglo-Saxon Society pp. 61–62 This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy, and that by founding it Augustine introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England, but there is no evidence that the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation. Lawrence Medieval Monasticism p. 55 In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place. However, there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived, remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire. Mayr-Harting The Coming of Christianity pp. 32–33 Little literary traces remain of them, however. Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North p. 79 One other effect of the king's conversion by Augustine's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased. Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 29 After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success along with questions about the mission. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 106 Bede records the letter and Gregory's replies in chapter 27 of his Ecclesiastical History: Augustine asked for Gregory's advice on a number of issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and the consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass. Bede A History of the English Church pp. 71–83 Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books. The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. The move from Canterbury to London never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason, Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 9–11 but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht's domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht's nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604. Fletcher The Barbarian Conversion p. 453 The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede's version of events, however. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 11–14 Additional work St Æthelberht of Kent imagined in a 19th century statue from Rochester Cathedral In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester. Hayward "St Justus" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 267–268 Lapidge "St Mellitus" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 305–306 Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, "recovered" a church which had been built by Roman Christians in Canterbury. It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 50 Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him, Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 70–72 apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organization survived in the Britain than was actually the case. Yorke Conversion of Britain p. 118 According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine's part. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 110–111 In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting. These guests retired early to confer with their people, who, according to Bede, advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting. When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops, Bede History of the English Church and People pp. 100–103 they refused to recognise him as archbishop. Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 8–9 There were, however, deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement. At issue were the tonsure, the observance of Easter, and practical and deep-rooted differences in approach to asceticism, missionary endeavours, and how the church itself was organised. Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church, damaging his relations with their bishops. Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 72–73 Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons. Yorke Conversion of Britain p. 119 Further success Easier to implement were Rome's mandates concerning pagan temples and celebrations. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use, Thomson Western Church p. 8 and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr's life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus. Blair Church in Anglo-Saxon Society p. 24 Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries' conduct. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 107–108 The King's School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world's oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century. Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission. Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 94–95 Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy which was in use at Rome. Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 173–174 Death and legacy Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office. Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons p. 43 Although at the time of Augustine's death, 26 May 604, the mission barely extended beyond Kent, his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles. Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales, no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders. Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders, and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in the British Isles. Collins Early Medieval Europe p. 185 Much of his success came about because of Augustine's close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself. Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity p. 249 Augustine's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church. Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 265–266 Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 8 Augustine's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine's, Canterbury, Blair Church in Anglo-Saxon Society pp. 61–62 but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church, which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration. After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted. A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life protrays Augustine in a different light than Bede's account. Goscelin's account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches. Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons pp. 17–20 Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine's life, often quite fanciful. Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 19 These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey, Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 20 the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine, Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 24 and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances. Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons pp. 22–31 During the English Reformation, Augustine's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost. Smith "St Augustine in History and Tradition" Folklore pp. 23–28 Today, a Celtic cross marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where Augustine is said to have landed, Green, Michael A. St. Augustine of Canterbury. Janus Publishing Company, 1997, p. 38. although historian Alan Kay told the BBC in 2005 that Augustine actually landed somewhere between Stonar and Sandwich. According to Kay, Ebbsfleet was not on the coast in the 6th century. The story that Augustine landed there was started in 1884, he said, by a Victorian aristocrat who needed a publicity stunt to draw people to his newly opened tea rooms. "The mystery of history", BBC, February 7, 2005. 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1,763 | Ã%86lfheah_of_Canterbury | Ælfheah (954 – 19 April 1012; , "elf-high"), officially remembered by the name Alphege within the Church, and sometimes called Alfege, was an Anglo-Saxon Bishop of Winchester, later Archbishop of Canterbury. He became an anchorite before being elected abbot of Bath Abbey. His perceived piety and sanctity led to his promotion to the episcopate, and eventually to his becoming archbishop. Ælfheah furthered the cult of St Dunstan and also encouraged learning. He was captured by Viking raiders in 1011 and killed by them the following year, after refusing to allow himself to be ransomed. Ælfheah was canonized as a saint in 1078. Saint Thomas Becket, a later Archbishop of Canterbury, prayed to him just before his own slaying in Canterbury Cathedral. Life Ælfheah became a monk early in life. He first entered the monastery of Deerhurst, but then moved to Bath, where he became an anchorite. He was noted for his piety and austerity, and rose to become abbot of Bath Abbey. Knowles, et al. Heads of Religious Houses, England and Wales pp. 28, 241 Probably due to the influence of Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury (959–988), Ælfheah was elected Bishop of Winchester in 984, Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 223 Barlow English Church 1000–1066 p. 109 footnote 5 and was consecrated on 19 October that year. While bishop he was largely responsible for the construction of a large organ in the cathedral, audible from over a mile away and said to require more than 24 men to operate it. He also built and enlarged the city's churches, Hindley A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 304–305 and promoted the cult of St Swithun and Swithun's predecessor, Æthelwold of Winchester. Following a Viking raid in 994, a peace treaty was agreed with one of the raiders, Olaf Tryggvason. Besides receiving danegeld, Olaf converted to Christianity Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 378 and undertook never to raid or fight the English again. Williams Æthelred the Unready p. 47 Ælfheah may have played a part in the treaty negotiations, and it is certain that he confirmed Olaf in his new faith. Leyser "Ælfheah (d. 1012) (subscription required)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography In 1006 Ælfheah succeeded Aelfric as Archbishop of Canterbury, Walsh A New Dictionary of Saints p. 28 Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 214 taking St Swithun's head with him as a relic for the new location. He went to Rome in 1007 to receive his pallium—symbol of his ties to the Apostolic See—from Pope John XVIII, but was robbed during his journey. Barlow English Church 1000–1066 pp. 298–299 footnote 7 Schoenig "Bonds of Wool" America: The National Catholic Weekly p. 19 While at Canterbury he promoted the cult of St Dunstan, ordering the writing of the second Life of Dunstan, which Adelard composed between 1006 and 1011. Barlow English Church 1000–1066 p. 62 He also introduced new practices into the liturgy, and was instrumental in the Witenagemot's recognition of Wulfsige of Sherborne as a saint in about 1012. Barlow English Church 1000–1066 p. 223 Ælfheah sent Ælfric of Eynsham to Cerne Abbey to take charge of its monastic school. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 458 He was present at the council of May 1008 at which Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, preached his Sermo Lupi ad Anglos (The Sermon of the Wolf to the English), castigating the English for their moral failings and blaming the latter for the tribulations afflicting the country. Fletcher Bloodfeud p. 94 In 1011 the Danes again raided England, and from 8–29 September they laid siege to Canterbury. Aided by the treachery of Ælfmaer, whose life Ælfheah had once saved, the raiders succeeded in sacking the city. Williams Æthelred the Unready pp. 106–107 Ælfheah was taken prisoner and held captive for seven months. Hindley A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons p. 301 Godwine (Bishop of Rochester), Leofrun (abbess of St Mildrith's), and the king's reeve, Ælfweard were captured also, but the abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Ælfmaer, managed to escape. Canterbury Cathedral was plundered and burned by the Danes following Ælfheah's capture. Barlow English Church 1000–1066 pp. 209–210 Death Ælfheah refused to allow a ransom to be paid for his freedom, and as a result was killed on 19 April 1012 at Greenwich (then in Kent, now London), reputedly on the site of St Alfege's Church. The account of Ælfheah's death appears in the E version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Ælfheah was the first Archbishop of Canterbury to die a violent death. Fletcher Bloodfeud p. 78 A contemporary report tells that Thorkell the Tall attempted to save Ælfheah from the mob about to kill him by offering them everything he owned except for his ship, in exchange for Ælfheah's life; Thorkell's presence is not mentioned in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle, however. Williams Æthelred the Unready pp. 109–110 Some sources record that the final blow, with the back of an axe, was delivered as an act of kindness by a Christian convert known as "Thrum." Ælfheah was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, but in 1023 his body was removed by King Canute to Canterbury, with great ceremony. Hindley A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 309–310 Thorkell the Tall was appalled at the brutality of his fellow raiders, and switched sides to the English king Ethelred the Unready following Ælfheah's death. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 383 Veneration Pope Gregory VII canonized St Ælfheah in 1078, with a feast day of 19 April. Delaney Dictionary of Saints pp. 29–30 Lanfranc, the first post-conquest Norman archbishop, was dubious about some of the saints venerated at Canterbury. He was persuaded of Ælfheah's sanctity, Williams English and the Norman Conquest p. 137 but Ælfheah and Augustine of Canterbury were the only pre-conquest Anglo-Saxon archbishops kept on Canterbury's calendar of saints. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 672 Ælfheah's shrine, which had become neglected, was rebuilt and expanded under Anselm of Canterbury in the early twelfth century. Brooke Popular Religion in the Middle Ages p. 40 After the 1174 fire in Canterbury Cathedral, Ælfheah's remains together with those of Saint Dunstan were placed around the High Altar, at which Thomas Becket is said to have commended his life into Ælfheah's care shortly before his martyrdom. An incised paving slab to the north of the present High Altar marks the spot where the medieval shrine is believed to have stood. A Life of St. Alphege in prose and verse was written by a Canterbury monk named Osbern, at Lanfranc's request. The prose version has survived, but the Life is very much a hagiography: many of the stories it contains have obvious Biblical parallels, making them suspect as a historical record. Notes Citations References Accessed 7 November 2007 Accessed 30 April 2009 Further reading External links Prosopography of Anglo Saxon England: Ælfheah | Ã%86lfheah_of_Canterbury |@lemmatized ælfheah:26 april:4 elf:1 high:3 officially:1 remember:1 name:2 alphege:2 within:1 church:8 sometimes:1 call:1 alfege:2 anglo:12 saxon:12 bishop:4 winchester:3 later:1 archbishop:8 canterbury:16 become:6 anchorite:2 elect:2 abbot:3 bath:3 abbey:4 perceived:1 piety:2 sanctity:2 lead:1 promotion:1 episcopate:1 eventually:1 cult:3 st:10 dunstan:5 also:4 encourage:1 learning:1 capture:3 viking:2 raider:4 kill:3 following:1 year:2 refuse:2 allow:2 ransom:2 canonize:2 saint:8 thomas:2 becket:2 late:1 pray:1 slaying:1 cathedral:5 life:8 monk:2 early:2 first:3 enter:1 monastery:1 deerhurst:1 move:1 note:2 austerity:1 rise:1 knowles:1 et:3 al:3 head:2 religious:1 house:1 england:7 wale:1 pp:8 probably:1 due:1 influence:1 fryde:2 handbook:2 british:2 chronology:2 p:17 barlow:5 english:10 footnote:2 consecrate:1 october:1 largely:1 responsible:1 construction:1 large:1 organ:1 audible:1 mile:1 away:1 say:2 require:2 men:1 operate:1 build:1 enlarge:1 city:2 hindley:3 brief:3 history:3 promote:2 swithun:3 predecessor:1 æthelwold:1 follow:3 raid:3 peace:1 treaty:2 agree:1 one:1 olaf:3 tryggvason:1 besides:1 receive:2 danegeld:1 convert:2 christianity:1 stenton:4 undertake:1 never:1 fight:1 williams:4 æthelred:3 unready:4 may:2 play:1 part:1 negotiation:1 certain:1 confirm:1 new:4 faith:1 leyser:1 subscription:1 oxford:1 dictionary:3 national:2 biography:1 succeed:2 aelfric:1 walsh:1 take:3 relic:1 location:1 go:1 rome:1 pallium:1 symbol:1 tie:1 apostolic:1 see:1 pope:2 john:1 xviii:1 rob:1 journey:1 schoenig:1 bond:1 wool:1 america:1 catholic:1 weekly:1 order:1 writing:1 second:1 adelard:1 compose:1 introduce:1 practice:1 liturgy:1 instrumental:1 witenagemot:1 recognition:1 wulfsige:1 sherborne:1 send:1 ælfric:1 eynsham:1 cerne:1 charge:1 monastic:1 school:1 present:2 council:1 wulfstan:1 ii:1 york:1 preach:1 sermo:1 lupi:1 ad:1 anglos:1 sermon:1 wolf:1 castigate:1 moral:1 failing:1 blame:1 latter:1 tribulation:1 afflict:1 country:1 fletcher:2 bloodfeud:2 dane:2 september:1 lay:1 siege:1 aid:1 treachery:1 ælfmaer:2 whose:1 save:2 sack:1 prisoner:1 hold:1 captive:1 seven:1 month:1 godwine:1 rochester:1 leofrun:1 abbess:1 mildrith:1 king:3 reeve:1 ælfweard:1 augustine:2 manage:1 escape:1 plunder:1 burn:1 death:4 pay:1 freedom:1 result:1 greenwich:1 kent:1 london:1 reputedly:1 site:1 account:1 appear:1 e:1 version:2 chronicle:2 die:1 violent:1 contemporary:1 report:1 tell:1 thorkell:3 tall:2 attempt:1 mob:1 offer:1 everything:1 except:1 ship:1 exchange:1 presence:1 mention:1 however:1 source:1 record:2 final:1 blow:1 back:1 axe:1 deliver:1 act:1 kindness:1 christian:1 know:1 thrum:1 bury:1 paul:1 body:1 remove:1 canute:1 great:1 ceremony:1 appal:1 brutality:1 fellow:1 switch:1 side:1 ethelred:1 veneration:1 gregory:1 vii:1 feast:1 day:1 delaney:1 lanfranc:2 post:1 conquest:3 norman:2 dubious:1 venerate:1 persuade:1 pre:1 archbishops:1 keep:1 calendar:1 shrine:2 neglected:1 rebuild:1 expand:1 anselm:1 twelfth:1 century:1 brooke:1 popular:1 religion:1 middle:1 age:1 fire:1 remain:1 together:1 place:1 around:1 altar:2 commend:1 care:1 shortly:1 martyrdom:1 incised:1 paving:1 slab:1 north:1 mark:1 spot:1 medieval:1 believe:1 stand:1 prose:2 verse:1 write:1 osbern:1 request:1 survive:1 much:1 hagiography:1 many:1 story:1 contain:1 obvious:1 biblical:1 parallel:1 make:1 suspect:1 historical:1 citation:1 reference:1 access:2 november:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 prosopography:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:12 archbishop_canterbury:5 canonize_saint:1 thomas_becket:2 et_al:3 dunstan_archbishop:1 hindley_brief:3 olaf_tryggvason:1 stenton_anglo:4 moral_failing:1 saxon_chronicle:2 ethelred_unready:1 pope_gregory:1 gregory_vii:1 norman_conquest:1 augustine_canterbury:1 anselm_canterbury:1 external_link:1 |
1,764 | Gabon | Gabon (; ) is a country in west central Africa sharing borders with the Gulf of Guinea to the west, Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, and Cameroon to the north, with the Republic of the Congo curving around the east and south. Its size is almost 270,000 km² with an estimated population of 1,500,000. The capital and largest city is Libreville. Since its independence from France on August 17, 1960, the Republic has been ruled by two presidents. In the early 1990s, Gabon introduced a multi-party system and a new democratic constitution that allowed for a more transparent electoral process and reformed many governmental institutions. The small population together with abundant natural resources and foreign private investment have helped make Gabon one of the most prosperous countries in the region, with the highest HDI in Sub-Saharan Africa. History The earliest inhabitants of the area were Pygmy peoples. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes as they migrated. In the 15th century, the first Europeans arrived. The nation's present name originates from "Gabão", Portuguese for "cabin", which is roughly the shape of the estuary of the Komo River by Libreville. French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza led his first mission to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875. He founded the town of Franceville, and was later colonial governor. Several Bantu groups lived in the area that is now Gabon when France officially occupied it in 1885. In 1910, Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1959. These territories became independent on August 17, 1960. The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was Léon M’ba, with Omar Bongo Ondimba as his vice president. French interests were decisive in selecting the future leadership in Gabon after Independence; French logging interests poured funds into the successful election campaign of M'ba, an 'evolue' from the coastal region. After M'ba's accession to power, the press was suppressed, political demonstrations banned, freedom of expression curtailed, other political parties gradually excluded from power and the Constitution changed along French lines to vest power in the Presidency, a post that M'ba assumed himself. However, when M'ba dissolved the National Assembly in January 1964 to institute one-party rule, an army coup sought to oust him from power and restore parliamentary democracy. The extent to which M'ba's dictatorial regime was synonymous with "French Interests" then became blatantly apparent when French paratroopers flew in within 24 hours to restore M'ba to power. After a few days of fighting, the coup was over and the opposition imprisoned, despite widespread protests and riots. The French government was unperturbed by international condemnation of the intervention; and paratroops still remain in the Camp de Gaulle on the outskirt's of Gabon's capital. When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president, and has been the head of state ever since, winning each contested election with a substantial majority. Government President Omar Bongo Ondimba in 2004 In March 1991, a new constitution was enacted. Among its provisions are a bill of rights, the creation of a body to guarantee those rights (National Council of Democracy) and a governmental advisory board which deals with economic and social issues. Multi-party legislative elections were held in 1990-91 even though opposition parties had not yet been formally declared legal. President El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba, in power since 1967, "Bongo set to rise to senior world leader", Chicago Sun-Times, February 19, 2008. Accessed February 19, 2008. was re-elected to his third consecutive seven-year term on November 27 2005. According to figures provided by Gabon's Interior Ministry, he received a 79.1% majority of votes. Voting age in Gabon is 21 years of age. CIA - The World Factbook - Gabon In 2003, the President amended the Constitution of Gabon to remove any restrictions on the number of terms a president is allowed to serve. The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, conduct referendums, and appoint or dismiss the prime minister as well as cabinet members. In provisional results, the ruling Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG) won 84 out of 120 parliamentary seats. As with previous Gabonese elections, the opposition parties have contested the results. There were calls for a boycott and accusations of electoral fraud and bribery. There were also incidences of violence and protest, particularly in the first round of voting held two weeks prior. However, several international observers including the Economic Community of Central African States have reported that the election "met international standards" for democratic voting. Gabon has a small, professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and national police. Gabonese forces are oriented to the defense of the country and have not been trained for an offensive role. A 1,800-member guard provides security for the president. In September, 2007, René Ndémezo'o Obiang, the government's spokesperson, announced that Gabon's cabinet council had decided to formally abolish the death penalty, which had not been applied in the country in over a decade. Provinces and departments Provinces of Gabon Gabon is divided into nine provinces and further divided into 37 departments. The provinces are: Estuaire Haut-Ogooué Moyen-Ogooué Ngounié Nyanga Ogooué-Ivindo Ogooué-Lolo Ogooué-Maritime Woleu-Ntem Economy Gabon is more prosperous than most nearby countries, with a per capita income of four times the average for Sub-Saharan Africa. This is in large part due to offshore oil production. Critics note that the income was not invested in modernizing or diversifying the economy and Gabon remains heavily reliant on its natural resources. Gabon was a full member of OPEC from 1975 to 1995. It is an exporter of manganese, iron, and wood. Uranium mines near Franceville were shut down in 2001 with the arrival of new competition on the global market and there is work in progress to re-open them. Plans to exploit rich iron deposits north-east of Makokou are foreseen to begin in 2012. During the 1990s, devaluation of the CFA franc left Gabon struggling to pay its overseas debt; France and the IMF have provided further loans and aid in exchange for the implementation of changes to the economy. Gabon's principal trading partners are the United States, China, and Russia for exports while importing mainly from France. On December 5, 2007 JPMorgan acted as Joint-Bookrunner on the Gabonese Republic’s (BB-/BB-) debut international US$1 billion 10-year bond issue. The issue was very well received despite the challenging market environment. Gabon a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Demographics Population, in thousands, of Gabon from 1961 to 2003 The population of Gabon is nearly 1.5 million (1,442,334). Almost all Gabonese are of Bantu origin, though Gabon has at least forty ethnic groups with separate languages and cultures. The Fang are generally thought to be the largest, although recent census data seem to favor the Bandjabi (or Nzebi). Others include the Myene, Bakota, Eshira, Bapounou, and Okande. Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in Africa. French, the official language, may be regarded as a unifying force. It is estimated that 80% http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_French#_note-2007_report of the country's population are able to speak French, and that one-third of Libreville residents are native speakers of the language. Le Gabon More than 10,000 French people live in Gabon, and France is the predominant foreign cultural and commercial influence. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between 1900 and 1940. It has one of the lowest population densities of any country in Africa, and labor shortages form a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. Most inhabitants are Christians, with estimates of the Christian population ranging from 55 to 77%, mostly members of the Roman Catholic Church. Other religious groups include animists, Muslims, and practitioners of indigenous African religions. Gabon's literacy rate is 63.2%. Culture Chancery building, Libreville. Gabonese mask. Gabonese music is little-known in comparison with regional giants like the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Cameroon. The country boasts an array of folk styles, as well as pop stars like Patience Dabany and Annie Flore Batchiellilys, a Gabonese singer and renowned live performer. Also known are guitarists like Georges Oyendze, La Rose Mbadou and Sylvain Avara, and the singer Oliver N'Goma. Imported rock and hip hop from the US and UK are popular in Gabon, as are rumba, makossa and soukous. Gabonese folk instruments include the obala, the ngombi, balafon and traditional drums. A country with a primarily oral tradition up until the spread of literacy in the 21st century, Gabon is rich in folklore and mythology. "Raconteurs" are currently working to keep traditions alive such as the mvett among the Fangs and the ingwala among the Nzebis. Gabon also features internationally celebrated masks, such as the n'goltang (Fang) and the relicary figures of the Kota. Each group has its own set of masks used for various reasons. They are mostly used in traditional ceremonies such as marriage, birth and funerals. Traditionalists mainly work with rare local woods and other precious materials. See also List of Gabon-related topics hi References Further reading External links Government Le Gabon : official site of the Gabonese Republic Assemblée Nationale du Gabon official site Gabonese Embassy in London government information and links Le Sénat de la République Gabonaise official site UNPR Louis Gaston Mayila : Official Site political opposition party UNPR Chief of State and Cabinet Members General Country Profile from BBC News Gabon from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Gabon news headline links from Gaboneco.com Gabon news headline links from AllAfrica.com Cultural The official site of the Arts, Traditions and Culture of Gabon - Discover the first Virtual Museum of the arts and traditions Gabonese literature at a glance Gabon Solidarité Internationale Baka Pygmies of Cameroon and Gabon Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Gabon be-x-old:Габон | Gabon |@lemmatized gabon:44 country:10 west:2 central:2 africa:7 share:1 border:1 gulf:1 guinea:2 equatorial:2 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1,765 | Economy_of_Mauritius | The economy of Mauritius refers to the economic activity of the island nation of Mauritius. Overview Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low-income, agriculturally based economy to a middle-income diversified economy with growing industrial, financial, and tourist sectors. For most of the period, annual growth has been in the order of 5% to 6%. This remarkable achievement has been reflected in more equitable income distribution, increased life expectancy, lowered infant mortality, and a much-improved infrastructure. Sugarcane is grown on about 90% of the cultivated land area and accounts for 25% of export earnings. The government's development strategy centers on expanding local financial institutions and building a domestic information telecommunications industry. Mauritius has attracted more than 9,000 offshore entities, many aimed at commerce in India and South Africa, and investment in the banking sector alone has reached over $1 billion. Mauritius, with its strong textile sector, has been well poised to take advantage of the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Mauritius ranks first in respect of FDI inflows to India amongst all the countries with cumulative inflows amounting to US $ 10.98 billion. Top sectors attracting FDI inflows from Mauritius (from January 2000 to December, 2005) are electrical equipment, telecommunications, fuels, cement & gypsy products and services sector (financial & non-financial). Infrastructure:India -Mauritius To Work For Greater FDI Inflow - News.Indlaw.com Financial services Mauritius provides an environment for banks, insurance and reinsurance companies, captive insurance managers, trading companies, ship owners or managers, fund managers and professionals to conduct their international business. The economic success achieved in the 1980s engendered the rapid growth of the financial services sector in Mauritius. The following types of offshore activities can be conducted in Mauritius: Offshore Banking Offshore Insurance Offshore Funds Management International Financial Services Operational Headquarters International Consultancy Services Shipping and Ship Management Aircraft Financing and Leasing International Licensing and Franchising International Data Processing and Information Technology Services Offshore Pension Funds International Trading International Assets Management International Assets Management International Employment Services Board of Investment The Mauritius Board of Investment is an agency of the Government of Mauritius whose aim is to promote and facilitate investment in Mauritius. The Board of Investment targets the international business community and is responsible for attracting international investment and talents in the country. Macroeconomic statistics Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA highest 10%: NA Distribution of family income - Gini index: 37 (1987 estimate) Agriculture - products: sugarcane, tea, corn, potatoes, bananas, pulses; cattle, goats; fish Industrial production growth rate: 8% (2000 estimate) Electricity - production: 1,836 GWh (2002) Electricity - consumption: 1,707 GWh (2002) Oil - consumption: 21,000 bbl/day (2003 estimate) 21,000 bbl/day (2001 estimate) Current account balance: $151 million (2005 estimate) $284.1 million (2004 estimate) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $1.676 billion (2004 estimate) $1.605 billion (2005 estimate) Exchange rates: Mauritian rupees per US dollar - 29.31 (01 Feb 2008), 32.86 (2006), 29.14 (2005), 27.499 (2004), 27.902 (2003), 29.962 (2002), 29.129 (2001) See also Mauritius Bank of Mauritius (central bank) Mineral industry of Mauritius Notes and references External links Ministry Of Finance and Economic Development Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry Central Statistics Office - Official gatherer and provider of statistics for Mauritius | Economy_of_Mauritius |@lemmatized economy:3 mauritius:19 refers:1 economic:3 activity:2 island:1 nation:1 overview:1 since:1 independence:1 develop:1 low:2 income:5 agriculturally:1 base:1 middle:1 diversified:1 grow:2 industrial:2 financial:7 tourist:1 sector:6 period:1 annual:1 growth:4 order:1 remarkable:1 achievement:1 reflect:1 equitable:1 distribution:2 increase:1 life:1 expectancy:1 lower:1 infant:1 mortality:1 much:1 improved:1 infrastructure:2 sugarcane:2 cultivated:1 land:1 area:1 account:2 export:1 earnings:1 government:2 development:2 strategy:1 center:1 expand:1 local:1 institution:1 build:1 domestic:1 information:2 telecommunication:2 industry:3 attract:3 offshore:6 entity:1 many:1 aim:2 commerce:2 india:3 south:1 africa:2 investment:6 banking:2 alone:1 reach:1 billion:4 strong:1 textile:1 well:1 poise:1 take:1 advantage:1 opportunity:1 act:1 agoa:1 rank:1 first:1 respect:1 fdi:3 inflow:4 amongst:1 country:2 cumulative:1 amount:1 u:2 top:1 january:1 december:1 electrical:1 equipment:1 fuel:1 cement:1 gypsy:1 product:2 service:7 non:1 work:1 great:1 news:1 indlaw:1 com:1 provide:1 environment:1 bank:3 insurance:3 reinsurance:1 company:2 captive:1 manager:3 trading:2 ship:2 owner:1 fund:3 professional:1 conduct:2 international:11 business:2 success:1 achieve:1 engender:1 rapid:1 following:1 type:1 management:4 operational:1 headquarters:1 consultancy:1 shipping:1 aircraft:1 financing:1 lease:1 licensing:1 franchise:1 data:1 processing:1 technology:1 pension:1 asset:2 employment:1 board:3 agency:1 whose:1 promote:1 facilitate:1 target:1 community:1 responsible:1 talent:1 macroeconomic:1 statistic:3 household:1 consumption:3 percentage:1 share:1 na:2 high:1 family:1 gini:1 index:1 estimate:8 agriculture:1 tea:1 corn:1 potato:1 banana:1 pulse:1 cattle:1 goat:1 fish:1 production:2 rate:2 electricity:2 gwh:2 oil:1 bbl:2 day:2 current:1 balance:1 million:2 reserve:1 foreign:1 exchange:2 gold:1 mauritian:1 rupee:1 per:1 dollar:1 feb:1 see:1 also:1 central:2 mineral:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 finance:1 chamber:1 office:1 official:1 gatherer:1 provider:1 |@bigram life_expectancy:1 infant_mortality:1 export_earnings:1 act_agoa:1 fdi_inflow:3 insurance_reinsurance:1 offshore_banking:1 pension_fund:1 household_income:1 income_gini:1 gini_index:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 consumption_bbl:1 bbl_day:2 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
1,766 | Exxon | Exxon logo Exxon is a brand of fuel sold by ExxonMobil, and from 1972 to 1999 was the corporate name of the company previously known as Standard Oil of New Jersey or Jersey Standard. History Exxon branded gas station in California, operated by Valero Exxon formally replaced the Esso, Enco, and Humble brands on January 1, 1973, in the USA. The name Esso was a trademark of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and attracted protests from other Standard Oil spinoffs because of its similarity to the name of the parent company, Standard Oil. As a result, the company was restricted from using Esso in the USA except in those states awarded to it in the 1911 Standard Oil antitrust settlement. In states where the Esso brand was blackballed, the company marketed its gasoline under the Humble or Enco brands. The Humble brand was used at Texas stations for decades as those operations were under the direction of Jersey Standard affiliate, Humble Oil, and in the mid-to-late 1950s expanded to other Southwestern states including New Mexico, Arizona, and Oklahoma. In 1960, Jersey Standard gained full control of Humble Oil and Refining Company and, through a reorganization of the company and the death of Janrick K. Ragnar, restructured Humble into Jersey's domestic marketing and refining division to sell and market gasoline nationwide under the Esso, Enco, and Humble brands. The Enco brand was introduced by Humble in 1960 at stations in Ohio but was soon blackballed after Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio) protested that Enco (Humble's acronym for "ENergy COmpany") sounded and looked too much like Esso: an oval logo with blue border and red letters, with the two middle letters the only difference. At that point the stations in Ohio would be rebranded Humble until the name change to Exxon in 1972. After the Enco brand was discontinued in Ohio, it was moved to other non-Esso states. In 1961, Humble stations in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona were rebranded as Enco, and the Enco brand appeared on gasoline and lubricant products at Humble stations in Texas that same year. Service stations there changed to Enco in 1962. By that time, Jersey had expanded the Enco brand to stations in the Midwest and Northwest that had been operated by various subsidiaries such as Carter, Pate, and Oklahoma, among others. In 1963, Humble was approached by Tidewater Oil Company, a major gasoline marketer along the eastern and western seaboards, to purchase the firm's refining and marketing operations on the west coast--a move that would have given Humble a large number of existing stations and a refinery in California, which was then the fastest-growing gasoline market. However, the Justice Department objected to Humble's plan to purchase Tidewater's west coast operations, which were later sold to Phillips Petroleum in 1966. Meanwhile, Humble gradually built up new and rebranded service stations in California and other western states under the Enco brand and purchased a large number of stations from Signal Oil Company in 1967, followed by the opening of a new refinery in Benicia, California, in 1969. In 1966, the Justice Department ordered Humble to "cease and desist" from using the Esso brand at stations in several Southeastern states following protests from Standard Oil of Kentucky (a Standard Oil of California subsidiary by that time and in the process of rebranding the Kyso Standard stations to Socal Standard stations selling Chevron products). By 1967, stations in each of those states were rebranded as Enco. Despite the success of the "Put A Tiger In Your Tank" advertising campaign introduced by Humble in 1964 to promote its Enco/Esso Extra gasolines, the similar logotypes, use of the Humble name in all Esso/Enco ads and the uniformity in design and products of Humble stations nationwide, the company still had difficulties promoting itself as a nationwide gasoline marketer competing against truly national brands such as Texaco--then a 50-state marketer and the only company selling products under one brand name in each state. Humble officials realized by the late 1960s that the time had come to swallow its pride and develop a new brand name that could be used nationwide. At first, consideration was given to simply rebranding all stations as "Enco" but that was shelved when it was learned that "Enco" is a Japanese term for "stalled car." In order to create a unified brand, the company changed its corporate name from Jersey Standard to Exxon, rebranding all its U.S. stations under the latter title in the summer and fall of 1972 after successful test marketing of the Exxon brand and logo in late 1971 and early 1972 at rebranded Enco/Esso stations in certain U.S. cities. The company initially planned to change its name to Exon, staying with the four letter format of Esso and Enco, but at some point in the planning process, it was noticed that the governor of Nebraska was named James Exon. Renaming the company after a sitting governor seemed ill-advised and the second "x" was added to the new name and logo. The unrestricted international use of the popular brand Esso prompted the company to continue using Esso outside the United States. Esso is the only widely used Standard Oil brand left in existence. Other Standard Oil descendants, such as Chevron, do maintain a few stations with the Standard Oil brand in specific states in order to retain their trademarks and prevent others from using them. Logo Lit Exxon sign logo The rectangular Exxon logo with the blue strip at the bottom and red lettering with the two "X's" interlinked together was designed by noted industrial stylist Raymond Loewy. The interlinked "X's" are incorporated in the modern-day ExxonMobil corporate logo, but the original Exxon sign continues for marketing efforts and station signage. See also ExxonMobil Exxon Valdez Esso Notes External links Exxon Official website Exxon wins delay again; convinces Supreme Court to review Exxon Valdez damages Exxon Company Profile on Portfolio.com | Exxon |@lemmatized exxon:15 logo:8 brand:21 fuel:1 sell:4 exxonmobil:3 corporate:3 name:11 company:17 previously:1 know:1 standard:17 oil:15 new:8 jersey:8 history:1 gas:1 station:21 california:5 operate:2 valero:1 formally:1 replace:1 esso:16 enco:18 humble:21 january:1 usa:2 trademark:2 attracted:1 protest:3 spinoffs:1 similarity:1 parent:1 result:1 restrict:1 use:9 except:1 state:11 award:1 antitrust:1 settlement:1 blackball:2 market:4 gasoline:7 texas:2 decade:1 operation:3 direction:1 affiliate:1 mid:1 late:3 expand:2 southwestern:1 include:1 mexico:2 arizona:2 oklahoma:3 gain:1 full:1 control:1 refining:3 reorganization:1 death:1 janrick:1 k:1 ragnar:1 restructure:1 domestic:1 marketing:3 division:1 nationwide:4 introduce:2 ohio:4 soon:1 sohio:1 acronym:1 energy:1 sound:1 look:1 much:1 like:1 oval:1 blue:2 border:1 red:2 letter:3 two:2 middle:1 difference:1 point:2 would:2 rebranded:5 change:4 discontinue:1 move:2 non:1 appear:1 lubricant:1 product:4 year:1 service:2 time:3 midwest:1 northwest:1 various:1 subsidiary:2 carter:1 pate:1 among:1 others:2 approach:1 tidewater:2 major:1 marketer:3 along:1 eastern:1 western:2 seaboard:1 purchase:3 firm:1 west:2 coast:2 give:2 large:2 number:2 exist:1 refinery:2 fast:1 grow:1 however:1 justice:2 department:2 object:1 plan:2 later:1 phillips:1 petroleum:1 meanwhile:1 gradually:1 build:1 signal:1 follow:2 opening:1 benicia:1 order:3 cease:1 desist:1 several:1 southeastern:1 kentucky:1 process:2 rebranding:3 kyso:1 socal:1 chevron:2 despite:1 success:1 put:1 tiger:1 tank:1 advertising:1 campaign:1 promote:2 extra:1 similar:1 logotype:1 ad:1 uniformity:1 design:2 still:1 difficulty:1 compete:1 truly:1 national:1 texaco:1 selling:1 one:1 official:2 realize:1 come:1 swallow:1 pride:1 develop:1 could:1 first:1 consideration:1 simply:1 shelve:1 learn:1 japanese:1 term:1 stall:1 car:1 create:1 unified:1 u:2 latter:1 title:1 summer:1 fall:1 successful:1 test:1 early:1 certain:1 city:1 initially:1 exon:2 stay:1 four:1 format:1 planning:1 notice:1 governor:2 nebraska:1 james:1 rename:1 sit:1 seem:1 ill:1 advise:1 second:1 x:3 add:1 unrestricted:1 international:1 popular:1 prompt:1 continue:2 outside:1 united:1 widely:1 leave:1 existence:1 descendant:1 maintain:1 specific:1 retain:1 prevent:1 lit:1 sign:2 rectangular:1 strip:1 bottom:1 lettering:1 interlink:1 together:1 noted:1 industrial:1 stylist:1 raymond:1 loewy:1 interlinked:1 incorporate:1 modern:1 day:1 original:1 effort:1 signage:1 see:1 also:1 valdez:2 note:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 win:1 delay:1 convinces:1 supreme:1 court:1 review:1 damage:1 profile:1 portfolio:1 com:1 |@bigram enco_brand:6 cease_desist:1 exxon_valdez:2 external_link:1 supreme_court:1 |
1,767 | Graviton | In physics, the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravity in the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton must be massless (because the gravitational force has unlimited range) and must have a spin of 2 (because gravity is a second-rank tensor field). Gravitons are postulated because of the great success of the quantum field theory (in particular, the Standard Model) at modeling the behavior of all other forces of nature with similar particles: electromagnetism with the photon, the strong interaction with the gluons, and the weak interaction with the W and Z bosons. In this framework, the gravitational interaction is mediated by gravitons, instead of being described in terms of curved spacetime as in general relativity. In the classical limit, both approaches give identical results, which are required to conform to Newton's law of gravitation. However, attempts to extend the Standard Model with gravitons have run into serious theoretical difficulties at high energies (processes with energies close to or above the Planck scale) because of infinities arising due to quantum effects (in technical terms, gravitation is nonrenormalizable). Some proposed theories of quantum gravity Roger Penrose(1975)"The Non-Linear Graviton" (in particular, string theory) attempt to address this issue. In string theory, gravitons (as well as the other particles) are states of strings rather than point particles, and then the infinities do not appear, while the low-energy behavior can still be approximated by a quantum field theory of point particles. In that case, the description in terms of gravitons serves as a low-energy effective theory. Gravitons and models of quantum gravity When describing graviton interactions, the classical theory (i.e. the tree diagrams) and semiclassical corrections (one-loop diagrams) behave normally, but Feynman diagrams with two (or more) loops lead to ultraviolet divergences; that is, infinite results that cannot be removed because the quantized general relativity is not renormalizable, unlike quantum electrodynamics. In popular terms, the discreteness of quantum theory is not compatible with the smoothness of Einstein's general relativity. These problems, together with some conceptual puzzles, led many physicists to believe that a theory more complete than just general relativity must regulate the behavior near the Planck scale. Superstring theory finally emerged as the most promising solution; it is the only known theory with finite corrections to graviton scattering at all orders. String theory predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined interactions which represents one of its most important triumphs. A graviton in perturbative string theory is a closed string in a very particular low-energy vibrational state. The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the correlation functions in conformal field theory, as dictated by the AdS/CFT correspondence, or from Matrix theory. An interesting feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to branes and could move freely between them. If we live on a brane (as hypothesized by some theorists) this "leakage" of gravitons from the brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravity is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for dark matter. See brane cosmology for more details. Experimental observation Unambiguous detection of individual gravitons, though not prohibited by any fundamental law, is impossible with any physically reasonable detector. The reason is simply the extremely low cross section for the interaction of gravitons with matter. For example, a detector the mass of Jupiter with 100% efficiency, placed in close orbit around a neutron star, would only be expected to observe one graviton every 10 years, even under the most favorable conditions. It would be impossible to discriminate these events from the background of neutrinos, and it would be impossible to shield the neutrinos without the shielding material collapsing into a black hole. However, experiments to detect gravitational waves, which may be viewed as coherent states of many gravitons, are already underway (e.g. LIGO and VIRGO). Although these experiments cannot detect individual gravitons, they might provide information about certain properties of the graviton. For example, if gravitational waves were observed to propagate slower than c (the speed of light in a vacuum), that would imply that the graviton has mass. Comparison with other forces Unlike the force carriers of the other forces, gravitation plays a special role in general relativity in defining the spacetime in which events take place. Because it does not depend on a particular space-time background, general relativity is said to be background independent. In contrast, the Standard Model is not background independent. A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences. Whether this theory should be background independent or not is an open question. The answer to this question will determine if gravity plays a special role in the universe. 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1,768 | Boris_Pasternak | Boris Leonidovich Pasternak () ( — May 30, 1960) was a Nobel Prize-winning Russian poet and writer. In the West he is best known for his epic novel Doctor Zhivago, a tragedy whose events span the last period of Tsarist Russia and the early days of the Soviet Union. It was first translated and published in Italy in 1957. In Russia, however, Boris Pasternak is most celebrated as a poet. My Sister Life, written in 1917, is arguably the most influential collection of poetry published in the Russian language in the 20th century. "Boris Pasternak [is] considered by many the greatest Russian poet of the 20th century, who helped give birth to the dissident movement with the publication of his 'Doctor Zhivago'." Yevtushenko; The story of a superstar poet. Judith Colp. The Washington Times. Part E; LIFE; Pg. E1. January 3, 1991. Early life Pasternak was born in Moscow on February 10, (Gregorian), 1890 (Julian January 29) into a Jewish family http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Pasternak.html Boris Leonidovich Pasternak . His father was a prominent painter, Leonid Pasternak, professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, and his mother was Rosa (Raitza) Kaufman, a concert pianist. Pasternak was brought up in a highly cosmopolitan atmosphere, and visitors to his home included pianist and composer Sergei Rachmaninoff, poet Rainer Maria Rilke, and writer Leo Tolstoy. Inspired by his neighbour Alexander Scriabin, Pasternak resolved to become a composer and entered the Moscow Conservatory. In 1910 he abruptly left the conservatory for the University of Marburg, where he studied under Neo-Kantian philosophers Hermann Cohen and Nicolai Hartmann. Although invited to become a scholar, he decided against making philosophy a profession and returned to Moscow in 1914. His first poetry collection, influenced by Alexander Blok and the Russian Futurists, was published later the same year. Pasternak's early verse cleverly dissimulates his preoccupation with Kant's ideas. Its fabric includes striking alliterations, wild rhythmic combinations, day-to-day vocabulary, and hidden allusions to his favourite poets like Rilke, Lermontov and German Romantic poets. During World War I, he taught and worked at a chemical factory in Vsevolodovo-Vilve near Perm, which undoubtedly provided him with material for Dr. Zhivago many years later. Unlike many of his relatives and friends, Pasternak did not leave Russia after the revolution. Instead, he was fascinated with the new ideas and possibilities that revolution brought to life. My Sister Life Pasternak spent the summer of 1917 living in the steppe country near Saratov, where he fell in love. This passion resulted in the collection My Sister Life, which he wrote over a period of three months, but was too embarrassed to publish for four years because of its novel style. When it finally was published in 1921, the book revolutionised Russian poetry. It made Pasternak the model for younger poets, and decisively changed the poetry of Osip Mandelshtam, Marina Tsvetayeva and others. Following My Sister Life, Pasternak produced some hermetic pieces of uneven quality, including his masterpiece - the lyric cycle entitled Rupture (1921). Authors such as Vladimir Mayakovsky, Andrey Bely, and Vladimir Nabokov applauded Pasternak's poems as works of pure, unbridled inspiration. In the late 1920s, he also participated in the much celebrated tripartite correspondence with Rilke and Tsvetayeva. By the end of the 1920s, Pasternak increasingly felt that his colourful modernist style was at odds with the doctrine of Socialist Realism approved by the Communist party. He attempted to make his poetry more comprehensible to the masses by reworking his earlier pieces and starting two lengthy poems on the Russian Revolution. He also turned to prose and wrote several autobiographical stories, notably The Childhood of Lovers and Safe Conduct. Second Birth Boris Pasternak (in the foreground) and Korney Chukovsky at the first Congress of the Soviet Union of Writers in 1934. By 1932, Pasternak had strikingly reshaped his style to make it acceptable to the Soviet public and printed the new collection of poems aptly entitled The Second Birth. Although its Caucasian pieces were as brilliant as the earlier efforts, the book alienated the core of Pasternak's refined audience abroad. He simplified his style even further for his next collection of patriotic verse, Early Trains (1943), which prompted Nabokov to describe Pasternak as a "weeping Bolshevik" and "Emily Dickinson in trousers." During the great purges of the later 1930s, Pasternak became progressively disillusioned with Communist ideals. Reluctant to publish his own poetry, he turned to translating Shakespeare (Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear), Goethe (Faust), Rilke (Requiem für eine Freundin), Paul Verlaine, and Georgian poets. Pasternak's translations of Shakespeare have proved popular with the Russian public because of their colloquial, modernised dialogues, but critics accused him of "pasternakizing" the English playwright. Although he was widely panned for excessive subjectivism, Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off an arrest list during the purges, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller." Another version of Stalin's remark, possibly on a separate occasion, is "Leave that Holy Fool alone!" His cousin, Polish poet Leon Pasternak, was not so lucky. As a result of his political activities in Poland — writing satirical verses for socialist revolutionary periodicals - he was imprisoned in 1934 in the Bereza Kartuska detention camp. Doctor Zhivago Several years before the start of the Second World War, Pasternak and his wife settled in Peredelkino, a village for writers several miles from Moscow. He was filled with a love of life that gave his poetry a hopeful tone. This is reflected in the name of his autobiographical hero Zhivago, derived from the Russian word for live. Another famous character, Lara, is said to have been modeled on his mistress, Olga Ivinskaya. As the book was frowned upon by the Soviet authorities, Doctor Zhivago was smuggled abroad by his friend Isaiah Berlin and published in an Italian translation by the Italian publishing house Feltrinelli in 1957. The novel became an instant sensation, and was subsequently translated and published in many non-Soviet bloc countries. In 1958 and 1959, the American edition spent 26 weeks at the top of The New York Times''' bestseller list. Although none of his Soviet critics had the chance to read the proscribed novel, some of them publicly demanded, "kick the pig out of our kitchen-garden," i.e., expel Pasternak from the USSR. This led to a jocular Russian saying used to poke fun at illiterate criticism, "I did not read Pasternak, but I condemn him". Doctor Zhivago was eventually published in the USSR in 1988. Contents of Novy Mir magazines The screen adaptation, directed by David Lean, was of epic proportions, being toured in the roadshow tradition, and starred Omar Sharif and Julie Christie. Concentrating on the romantic aspects of the tale, it quickly became a worldwide blockbuster, but wasn't released in Russia until near the time of the fall of the Soviet Union. The Russian TV version of 2006, directed by Alexander Proshkin, is excellent and far more faithful to Pasternak than the Hollywood version. Nobel Prize Pasternak house in Peredelkino, where the poet died. Pasternak was named the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958. It has emerged that British intelligence and the CIA secretly facilitated the accolade to embarrass the Kremlin. How the CIA won Zhivago a Nobel On October 25, two days after hearing that he had won, Pasternak sent the following telegram to the Swedish Academy: Immensely thankful, touched, proud, astonished, abashed. However, four days later came another telegram: Considering the meaning this award has been given in the society to which I belong, I must refuse it. Please do not take offense at my voluntary rejection. The Swedish Academy announced: This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place. (Via ) Pasternak had declined under intense pressure from Soviet authorities. Despite turning down the award, Soviet officials soured on Pasternak, and he was threatened at the very least with expulsion. However, it appears that the Prime Minister of India, Pandit Nehru, may also have spoken with Khrushchev about this, and Pasternak was not exiled or imprisoned. Despite this, a famous Bill Mauldin cartoon at the time showed Pasternak and another prisoner in Siberia, splitting trees in the snow. In the caption, Pasternak says, "I won the Nobel Prize for literature. What was your crime?" The cartoon won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1959. Bill Mauldin Beyond Willie and Joe (Library of Congress) The Nobel medal was finally presented to Pasternak's son, Yevgeny, at a ceremony in Stockholm during the Nobel week of December 1989, Boris Pasternak: The Nobel Prize. Son's memoirs. (Pravda, December 18, 2003) where he said: "My father played no role in the publication of a Russian edition, nor had he any idea of the CIA’s interest. My father never expected to receive the prize. Sadly it brought him a lot of sorrow and suffering." At the ceremony, the Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich played a Bach serenade to honor his deceased countryman. Death and legacy Grave of Boris Pasternak in Perdelkino in October 1983. Pasternak's post-Zhivago poetry probes the universal questions of love, immortality, and reconciliation with God. Hostage of Eternity: Boris Pasternak (Hoover Institution) Conference set on Doctor Zhivago writer (Stanford Report, April 28, 2004) Pasternak died of lung cancer on May 30, 1960. Despite only a small notice appearing in the Literary Gazette'', thousands of people traveled from Moscow to his funeral in Peredelkino. "Volunteers carried his open coffin to his burial place and those who were present (including the poet Andrey Voznesensky) recited from memory the banned poem 'Hamlet'." Legacy The poet and bard Alexander Galich wrote a politically charged song dedicated to his memory. A minor planet 3508 Pasternak, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1980 is named after him. Russian-American singer and songwriter Regina Spektor recites a verse from a poem written in 1912 by Pasternak in her song "Apres Moi" from her album "Begin to Hope". Pasternak is the Russian word for parsnip. Several of Pasternak's relatives moved to Lithuania during the early 1920s and there are 4 direct descendants left there. Pasternak cousin's family is buried in Antakalnis cemetery, in Vilnius. References External links 1958 Nobel Prize in Literature Homegrown Doctor Zhivago to Debut on Russian Television Pasternak's elegy to Tsvetaeva and short bio PBS biography of Pasternak Read Pasternak's interview with The Paris Review Boris Pasternak Poem Pasternak: biography, photos, poems, prose, critical essays Boris Pasternak: poems, biography, photo | Boris_Pasternak |@lemmatized boris:10 leonidovich:2 pasternak:53 may:3 nobel:9 prize:9 win:5 russian:15 poet:13 writer:5 west:1 best:1 know:1 epic:2 novel:4 doctor:7 zhivago:11 tragedy:1 whose:1 event:1 span:1 last:1 period:2 tsarist:1 russia:4 early:7 day:5 soviet:10 union:3 first:3 translate:3 publish:9 italy:1 however:4 celebrated:1 sister:4 life:8 write:6 arguably:1 influential:1 collection:5 poetry:8 language:1 century:2 consider:2 many:4 great:2 help:1 give:3 birth:3 dissident:1 movement:1 publication:2 yevtushenko:1 story:2 superstar:1 judith:1 colp:1 washington:1 time:4 part:1 e:2 pg:1 january:2 bear:1 moscow:6 february:1 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1,769 | Aron_Nimzowitsch | Aron Nimzowitsch (; born Aron Niemzowitsch http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/pics/cn3506_nimzowitsch_document.jpg and also known as Aaron Nimzovich) (7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935) was a Latvian-born Danish unofficial chess grandmaster and a very influential chess writer. He was the foremost figure amongst the hypermoderns. Life Born in Riga in Livonia, then part of the Russian empire, the Jewish German-speaking Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy family, where he learned chess from his father, who was a merchant. In 1904, he traveled to Berlin to study philosophy, but set aside his studies soon and began a career as a professional chess player that same year. He won his first international tournament at Munich 1906. http://home19.inet.tele.dk/kastanie/ Then, he tied for 1st with Alexander Alekhine at St. Petersburg 1913/14 (the 8th All-Russian Masters' Tournament). During the 1917 Russian Revolution, Nimzowitsch was in the Baltic war zone. He escaped being drafted into one of the armies by feigning madness, insisting that a fly was on his head. He then escaped to Berlin, and gave his first name as Arnold, possibly to avoid anti-Semitic persecution. Grandmasters I Have Known - Aaron Nimzovich, by Hans Kmoch, The Chess Cafe Nimzowitsch eventually moved to Copenhagen in 1922 (some sources say 1920), which coincided with his rise to the world chess elite. In Copenhagen, he won twice Nordic Chess Championship in 1924 and 1934. He obtained Danish citizenship and lived in Denmark, until his death from cancer in 1935. He is buried in Bispebjerg Cemetery in Copenhagen. Chess career The height of Nimzowitsch's career was the late 1920s and early 1930s. Chessmetrics places him as the third best player in the world, behind Alexander Alekhine and Jose Capablanca, from 1927 to 1931. Chessmetrics Summary for 1925-1935, Chessmetrics web site, accessed 7-May-2007 His most notable successes were first-place finishes at Copenhagen 1923, Marienbad 1925, Dresden 1926, Hannover 1926, and the Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament, and second place behind Alekhine at the San Remo 1930 chess tournament. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play, though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine, but the match was only two games long and was in 1914, 13 years before Alekhine became world champion. Nimzowitsch never won against Capablanca, but fared better against Alekhine. He even beat Alekhine with the black pieces at the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament. One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games is his celebrated Immortal Zugzwang Game against Sämisch at Copenhagen 1923. Another game on this theme is his win over Paul Johner at Dresden 1926. When in form, Nimzowitsch was very dangerous with the black pieces, scoring many fine wins over top players. Legacy Nimzowitsch is considered one of the most important players and writers in chess history. His works influenced numerous other players, including Savielly (Ksawery) Tartakower, Milan Vidmar, Richard Réti, Akiba Rubinstein, Bent Larsen, and Tigran Petrosian, and his influence is still felt today. He wrote three books on chess strategy: Mein System (My System), 1925, Die Praxis meines System (The Practice of My System), 1929, commonly known as Chess Praxis, and Die Blockade (The Blockade), 1925. The last of these has just been reissued in a volume containing both the German original and the English translation published by Hardinge Simpole. However, much that is in it is covered again in Mein System. It is said that 99 out of 100 chess masters have read Mein System; consequently, most consider it to be Nimzowitsch's greatest contribution to chess. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas, while his second most influential work, Chess Praxis, elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games, even when these games are more entertaining than instructive. Nimzowitsch's chess theories flew in the face of convention. While there were those like Alekhine, Emanuel Lasker, and even Capablanca who did not live by Tarrasch's rigid teachings, the acceptance of Tarrasch's ideas, all simplifications of the more profound work of Wilhelm Steinitz, was nearly universal. That the center had to be controlled by pawns and that development had to happen in support of this control — the core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy — were things every beginner thought to be irrefutable laws of nature, like gravity. Nimzowitsch shattered these assumptions. He discovered such concepts as overprotection (the least important of his ideas from a modern standpoint though still interesting and sometimes applicable), control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockade, and prophylaxis — playing to prevent the opponent's plans. He was also a leading advocate and exponent of the fianchetto development of the bishops. Nimzowitsch also formalised strategies using open files, outposts and invasion of the seventh rank, all of which are widely accepted today. Others had utilized such ideas in previous years, but he was the first to knit them together into a cohesive whole. Grandmaster (GM) Raymond Keene writes that Nimzowitsch "was one of the world's leading Grandmasters for a period extending over a quarter of a century, and for some of that time he was the obvious challenger for the world championship. ... [He was also] a great and profound chess thinker, second only to Steinitz, and his works-Die Blockade, My System and Chess Praxis-established his reputation as one of the father figures of modern chess." Raymond Keene, Aron Nimzowitsch: A Reappraisal, David McKay, 1974, p. 1. ISBN 0-679-13040-3. GM Robert Byrne called him "perhaps the most brilliant theoretician and teacher in the history of the game." Anthony Saidy and Norman Lessing, The World of Chess, Random House, 1974, p. 161. ISBN 0-394-48777-X. GM Jan Hein Donner called Nimzowitsch "a man who was too much of an artist to be able to prove he was right and who was regarded as something of a madman in his time. He would be understood only long after his death." J. H. Donner, The King: Chess Pieces, New in Chess, 2006, p. 46. ISBN 90-5691-171-6. Many chess openings and variations are named after Nimzowitsch, the most famous being the Nimzo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played Nimzowitsch Defence (1.e4 Nc6). Nimzowitsch biographer Grandmaster Raymond Keene and others have referred to 1.Nf3 followed by 2.b3 as the Nimzowitsch-Larsen Attack. Keene wrote a book about the opening with that title. All of these openings exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces instead of pawns. Nimzowitsch was also vital in the development of two important systems in the French Defence, the Winawer Variation (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Bb4) and the Advance Variation (1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. e5). He also pioneered two provocative variations of the Sicilian Defence, both regarded as dubious today: the Nimzowitsch Variation, 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6, which invites 3.e5 Nd5, similarly to Alekhine's Defence, and 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 d5?! Personality There are many entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitsch—some more savory than others. For example, he once missed the first prize of a great rapid transit tournament in Berlin by losing to Sämisch; immediately upon learning this, Nimzowitsch got up on a table and shouted "Gegen diesen Idioten muss ich verlieren!" ("That I should lose to this idiot!"). Nimzowitsch was annoyed by his opponents' smoking. A popular, but probably apocryphal, story is that once when an opponent laid a cigar on the table, he complained to the tournament arbiters, "he is threatening to smoke, and as an old player you must know that the threat is stronger than the execution". Edward Winter, A Nimzowitsch Story. Retrieved on 2009-03-02. Nimzowitsch had lengthy and somewhat bitter dogmatic conflicts with Tarrasch over whose ideas constituted 'proper' chess. Nimzowitsch's vanity and faith in his ideas of overprotection provoked Hans Kmoch to write a parody about him in February 1928 in the Wiener Schachzeitung. This consisted of a mock game against the fictional player "Systemsson", supposedly played and annotated by Nimzowitsch himself. The annotations gleefully exaggerate the idea of overprotection, as well as asserting the true genius of the wondrous idea. Kmoch was in fact a great admirer of Nimzowitsch, and the subject of the parody himself was amused at the effort. The full text of the parody is reprinted at Chesscafe.com and in Keene's biography on Nimzowitsch (Chapter "A parody by Hans Kmoch"). Kmoch also wrote an article about his nine years with Nimzowitch: Hans Kmoch, Grandmasters I Have Known. ChessCafe.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-02. Nimzovich suffered from the delusion that he was unappreciated and that the reason was malice. All it took to make him blossom, as I later learned, was a little praise. His paranoia was most evident when he dined in company. He always thought he was served much smaller portions than everyone else. He didn't care about the actual amount but only about the imagined affront. I once suggested that he and I order what the other actually wanted and, when the food was served, exchange plates. After we had done so, he shook his head in disbelief, still thinking that he had received the smaller portion. Nimzovitsch's colleague Tartakower observed of him, "He pretends to be crazy in order to drive us all crazy." Notable chess games Friedrich Saemisch vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Copenhagen 1923, Queen's Indian Defence (E18), 0-1 The "Immortal Zugzwang Game" sees Saemisch get tied up in knots. Paul Johner vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Dresden 1926, NimzoIndian Defence, Rubinstein Variation (E47), 0-1 One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games sees White fall deep into passivity and get squeezed. Milan Vidmar vs Aron Nimzowitsch, New York 1927, Bogo-Indian Defence (E11), 0-1 A crafty blending of strategy and tactics. Richard Reti vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Berlin 1928, NimzoIndian Defence (E38), 0-1 Two of the top hypermoderns cross swords to showcase their latest ideas. Efim Bogoljubov vs Aron Nimzowitsch, San Remo 1930, NimzoIndian Defence, Bogoljubov Variation (E23), 0-1 Another encounter of hypermodern heavyweights sees Nimzowitsch with two knights in the endgame, and he handles them perfectly. Further reading Twelve Great Chess Players and Their Best Games by Irving Chernev; Dover; August 1995. ISBN 0-486-28674-6 Aron Nimzowitsch: Master of Planning by Raymond Keene; G. Bell and Sons. Ltd, 1974. References External links Nimzowitch related articles Kmoch, Hans (2004). Grandmasters I Have Known: Aaron Nimzovich (PDF). 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1,770 | Bishkek | Bishkek (Kyrgyz and Russian: Бишкек) is the capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative center of Chuy Province which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the province but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. The name is thought to derive from a Kyrgyz word for a churn used to make fermented mare's milk (kumis), the Kyrgyz national drink. Founded in 1878 as the Russian fortress of Pishpek (Пишпек), between 1926 and 1991 it was known as Frunze (Фрунзе), after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze. Bishkek, at , is situated at about 800 m altitude just off the northern fringe of the Ala-Too range, an extension of the Tien Shan mountain range, which rises up to 4,800 m and provides a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring Kazakhstan. The Chui River drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan-Siberia Railway by a spur. Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards and, especially outside the city center, thousands of smaller privately built houses. It is laid out on a grid pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees which provide shade in the hot summers. History Originally a caravan rest stop (possibly founded by the Sogdians) on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tien Shan range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the Uzbek khan of Kokhand with a mud fort. In 1862, the fort was conquered and razed when Tsarist Russia annexed the area. The site became a Russian garrison and was redeveloped and named Pishpek from 1877 onward by the Russian government, which encouraged the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile black soil farms to develop. In 1926, the city became the capital of the newly established Kirghiz ASSR and was renamed Frunze after Mikhail Frunze, Lenin's close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during 1905 and 1917 revolutions and during the Russian civil war of the early 1920s. The House of Government, Bishkek The early 1990s were tumultuous. In June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe riots in southern Kyrgyzstan which threatened to spread to the capital. The city was renamed Bishkek in early 1991 and Kyrgyzstan achieved independence later that year during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Before independence, Bishkek was a "Russified" city, the majority of its population being ethnic Russians. In 2004, Russians made up approximately 20% of the city's population. Residential Real Estate Market in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan: Current Conditions and Prospects Today, Bishkek is a rapidly modernizing city, with many restaurants and cafes and lots of second-hand European and Japanese cars and minibuses crowding its streets. At the same time Bishkek still preserves its former Soviet feel, with Soviet-period buildings and gardens prevailing over newer structures. Bishkek is also the country's financial center, with all of the country's 21 commercial banks featuring offices in the city. During the Soviet era the city was home to a large number of industrial plants, but most have been shut down or operate today on a much reduced scale. One of today's Bishkek's largest employment centers is Dordoy Bazaar, which is one the major entrepots for Chinese goods imported into CIS countries. In 2002, the United States obtained the right to use the nearby Manas International Airport as an air base for its military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Russia subsequently (2003) established an air base of its own (Kant Air Base) near Kant some 20 km east of Bishkek. It is based at a facility that used to be home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, Hosni Mubarak, later became president of Egypt. Transportation Public transit A typical Bishkek passenger van passes by the East Bus Terminal There is public transportation available, including buses, electric trolley buses, and public vans (known in Russian as marshrutka). Taxi cabs can be found at every intersection. There is no subway in Bishkek, but the city is considering designing and building a light rail system (Бишкекское лёгкое метро). Commuter and long-distance buses There are two main bus stations in Bishkek. The smaller old Eastern Bus Station is primarily the terminal for minibuses to various destinations within or just beyond the eastern suburbs, such as Kant, Tokmok, Kemin, Issyk Ata, or the Korday border crossing. Long-distance regular bus and minibus services to all parts of the country, as well as to Almaty (the largest city in neighboring Kazakhstan) and Kashgar, China, run mostly from the newer grand Western Bus Station; only a smaller minority of them runs from the Eastern Station. The Dordoy Bazaar on the north-eastern outskirts of the city also contains makeshift terminals for frequent minibuses to suburban towns in all directions (from Sokuluk in the west to Tokmak in the east) and to some buses taking traders to Kazakhstan and Siberia. Train The electronic board in the main hall of Bishkek-2, the main train station, shows Bishkek and Moscow time As of 2007, the Bishkek railway station sees only a few trains a day. It offers a popular three-day train service from Bishkek to Moscow. There are also long-distance trains that leave for Siberia (Novosibirsk and Novokuznetsk), via Almaty, over the Turksib route, and to Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) in the Urals, via Astana. These services are remarkably slow (over 48 hours to Yekaterinburg), due to long stops at the border and the indirect route (the trains first have to go west for more than a hundred kilometers before they enter the main Turksib line and can continue to the east or north). E.g., as of the fall of 2008, train No. 305 Bishkek-Yekaterinburg was scheduled to take 11 hours to reach the Shu junction - the distance of 269 km by rail, and less than half of that by road. Schedule for train No. 305, Bishkek-Yekaterinburg Air The city is served by Manas International Airport located approximately northwest of the city centre. Sights Ala Too Square, Bishkek's main square A small square in Bishkek, near the main square Orientation Though the city is relatively young, the surrounding area has sites of interest dating from prehistory, the Greco-Buddhist period, the period of Nestorian influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period. The central part of the city is primarily built on a rectangular grid plan. The city's main street is the east-west Chui Avenue (Prospekt Chui), named after the region's main river. In the Soviet era, it was called Lenin Ave. Along it, or within a block or two from it, many of the most important government buildings, universities, the Academy of Sciences compound, etc., are to be found. The westernmost section of the avenue is known as Deng Xiaoping Ave. The main north-south axis is Yusup Abdrakhmanov Street, still (2007) commonly referred to by its old name, Sovietskaya St. Its northern and southern sections are called, respectively, Yelebesov St and Baityk Batyr St. Several major shopping centers are located along it, and in the north it provides access to Dordoy Bazaar. Erkindik ('freedom') Boulevard runs north-south, from the main railroad station (Bishkek II) south of Chui Ave to the museum quarter and sculpture park just north of chui Ave, and further north toward the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In the past, it was called Dzerzhinsky Blvd. (named after Communist revolutionary, Felix Dzerzhinsky) and its northern continuation is still called Dzerzhinksy Street. An important east-west street is Jibek Jolu ('Silk Road'). It runs parallel to Chui Ave. about a mile north of it, and is part of the main east-west road of Chui Province. Both the Eastern and Western bus terminals are located along Jibek Jolu. City center The National Historical Museum State Historical Museum, located in Ala-Too Square, the main city square State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of Kyrgyz traditional handicrafts Frunze House Museum Statue of Ivan Panfilov stands in the park near the White House. An equestrian statue of Mikhail Frunze still stands in a large park (Boulevard Erkindik) across from the train station. The train station itself was built in 1946 by German prisoners of war and has survived since then without further renovation or repairs; most of those who built it perished and were buried in unmarked pits near the station. The main government building, the White House, is a huge, seven story marble block and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the Kirghiz SSR At Ala-Too Square, there is an Independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched. Osh bazaar, west of downtown, is a large, picturesque produce market Outer neighborhoods The Dordoy Market, just inside the bypass highway on the north-eastern edge of the city, is one of Asia's great retail and wholesale markets. Outside of the city The Ala-Too mountain range, 40 km away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; the Ala Archa National Park is only 30-45 min drive away Sister cities Sister cities of Bishkek include Colorado Springs, Colorado (since 1994) Meriden, Connecticut (since 2005) Ankara, Turkey Izmir, Turkey Toronto, Ontario (since 2008) Government Local government is administered by the Bishkek Mayor's Office. Askarbek Salymbekov was mayor until his resignation in August 2005, following which his deputy Arstanbek Nogoev took over the mayorship. Nogoev was in turn removed from his position in October 2007 through a decree of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and replaced by businessman and former first deputy prime minister Daniyar Usenov. In July 2008 former head of the Kyrgyz Railways Nariman Tuleev was appointed mayor. References External links The Spektator - Society, culture and travel articles on Kyrgyzstan as well as a guide to Bishkek | Bishkek |@lemmatized bishkek:30 kyrgyz:5 russian:9 бишкек:1 capital:3 large:6 city:29 kyrgyzstan:6 also:4 administrative:1 center:6 chuy:1 province:4 surround:3 even:1 though:2 part:4 rather:1 level:1 unit:1 name:5 think:1 derive:1 word:1 churn:1 use:3 make:2 fermented:1 mare:1 milk:1 kumis:1 national:3 drink:1 found:2 fortress:1 pishpek:2 пишпек:1 know:3 frunze:6 фрунзе:1 bolshevik:1 military:3 leader:1 mikhail:3 situate:1 altitude:1 northern:3 fringe:1 ala:6 range:4 extension:1 tien:2 mountain:2 rise:1 provide:4 spectacular:2 backdrop:2 north:11 fertile:2 gently:1 undulating:1 steppe:1 extend:1 far:2 neighboring:1 kazakhstan:3 chui:7 river:2 drain:1 area:3 connect:1 turkestan:1 siberia:3 railway:2 spur:1 wide:1 boulevard:3 marble:2 face:1 public:4 building:4 combine:1 numerous:1 soviet:8 style:1 apartment:1 block:3 interior:1 courtyard:1 especially:1 outside:2 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1,771 | Generation_X | Generation X, commonly abbreviated to Gen X, is a term used to refer to a generational cohort of children born directly after the baby boom generation during the 1960's and 1970's http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/generation%20x and usually prior to the 1980's (see Generation Y or The Millenial generation) The term Generation X has been used in demography, the social sciences, and marketing, though it is most often used in popular culture. Origin of the term In the U.S. Generation X was originally referred to as the "baby bust" generation because of the drop in the birth rate following the baby boom. Gen-X: The Ignored Generation? - TIME In the UK the term was first used in a 1964 study of British youth by Jane Deverson. Deverson was asked by Woman's Own magazine to interview teenagers of the time. The study revealed a generation of teenagers who "sleep together before they are married, don't believe in God, dislike the Queen, and don't respect parents," which was deemed unsuitable for the magazine because it was a new phenomenon. Deverson, in an attempt to save her research, worked with Hollywood correspondent Charles Hamblett to create a book about the study. Hamblett decided to name it Generation X. Asthana, Anushka & Thorpe, Vanessa. "Whatever happened to the original Generation X?". The Observer. January 23, 2005. However, this did not refer to the cohort that would become known as Generation X but later instead referred to the Baby Boomers. It wasn't until Canadian author Douglas Coupland's 1991 novel, Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, about young adults (who were then in their late twenties, born in the late 1950s to 1960s) in the late 1980s, that the term more accurately described the cohort that would eventually be labeled Generation X (even though technically the characters in the novel were late baby boomers). Coupland's book also helped to popularize the term. Demographic justifications In the 1991 book Generations, William Strauss and Neil Howe call this generation the "13th Generation" and define the birth years as 1961 to 1981 (the lowest birth rate year for this generation was 1971). Using their methods, it is the 13th generation to know the flag of the United States (counting back to the peers of Benjamin Franklin). Strauss, William & Howe, Neil. Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069. Perennial, 1992 (Reprint). ISBN 0-688-11912-3 p. 324 The label was also chosen because they consider it a "Reactive" or "Nomad" generation, composed of those who were children during a spiritual awakening. Older generations generally have negative perceptions of Reactive generations -- whose members tend to be pragmatic and perceptive, savvy but amoral, more focused on money than on art Strauss & Howe, ibid, p. 365 -- and the use of 13 is also intended to associate this perception with the negative connotations of that number. The authors highlight this negative perception by noting the large number of "devil-child" movies (e.g. Rosemary's Baby Strauss & Howe, ibid, p. 30, ) released soon after the first members were born, compared with more positive movies such as Baby Boom that were released when the first members of the next generation were being raised. Strauss & Howe, ibid, p. 337, Generation X in the United States Individuals considered to be within Generation X were born, and grew up during the later years of, and in the decade following the Cold War. They are most often linked to the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. Hoover Institution - Uncommon Knowledge with Peter Robinson - GEN X FILES Coming of age after the Vietnam War had ended, their political experiences were shaped by the end of the cold war and the fall of the Berlin wall. This generation saw the inception of the home computer, the rise of videogames, and the Internet as a tool for social and commercial purposes. Dot.com businesses, MTV, Grunge music, Hip hop culture, AIDS and Security moms are associated with this generation. The US Census Bureau cites Generation X as statistically holding the highest education levels when looking at age group (bloc): US Census Bureau, in their 2009 Statistical Abstract. (Also see Education Statistics Canada, 2001 Census.) In economics, a study (done by Pew Charitable Trusts, the American Enterprise Institute, the Brookings Institute, the Heritage Foundation and the Urban Institute) challenged the notion that each generation will be better off than the one that preceded it. http://www.economicmobility.org/assets/pdfs/Economic_Mobility_in_America_Full.pdf The study, 'Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well?" focuses on the income of males 30-39 in 2004 (those born April, 1964 – March, 1974) and is based on Census/BLS CPS March supplement data. Economic Mobility Project The study which was released on May 25, 2007, emphasized that in real dollars, this generation made less (by 12%) than their fathers had at that same age in 1974, thus reversing a historical trend. The study also suggests that per year increases in the portion of father/son family household income generated by fathers/sons have slowed (from an average of 0.9% to 0.3%), barely keeping pace with inflation, though increases in overall father/son family household income are progressively higher each year because more women are entering the workplace, contributing to family household income. Standing in the shadow of dad's salary - May. 25, 2007 Generation X Culture In the early 1990s, when Generation X came into their own, cultural and musical movements such as Grunge and hip hop came into popularity. To this day, Generation X's influence is very strong. See also Gray ceiling MTV Generation Millennial Generation Baby Boomers Generation Jones Grunge Latchkey kid Generation Y Notes | Generation_X |@lemmatized generation:39 x:17 commonly:1 abbreviate:1 gen:3 term:6 use:6 refer:4 generational:1 cohort:3 child:3 bear:5 directly:1 baby:8 boom:3 http:2 www:2 merriam:1 webster:1 com:2 dictionary:1 usually:1 prior:1 see:3 millenial:1 demography:1 social:2 science:1 marketing:1 though:3 often:2 popular:1 culture:4 origin:1 u:3 originally:1 bust:1 drop:1 birth:3 rate:2 follow:2 ignored:1 time:2 uk:1 first:3 study:7 british:1 youth:1 jane:1 deverson:3 ask:1 woman:2 magazine:2 interview:1 teenager:2 reveal:1 sleep:1 together:1 marry:1 believe:1 god:1 dislike:1 queen:1 respect:1 parent:1 deem:1 unsuitable:1 new:1 phenomenon:1 attempt:1 save:1 research:1 work:1 hollywood:1 correspondent:1 charles:1 hamblett:2 create:1 book:3 decide:1 name:1 asthana:1 anushka:1 thorpe:1 vanessa:1 whatever:1 happen:1 original:1 observer:1 january:1 however:1 would:2 become:1 know:2 later:1 instead:1 boomer:3 canadian:1 author:2 douglas:1 coupland:2 novel:2 tale:1 accelerated:1 young:1 adult:1 late:5 twenty:1 accurately:1 describe:1 eventually:1 label:2 even:1 technically:1 character:1 also:6 help:1 popularize:1 demographic:1 justification:1 william:2 strauss:5 neil:2 howe:5 call:1 define:1 year:5 low:1 method:1 flag:1 united:2 state:2 count:1 back:1 peer:1 benjamin:1 franklin:1 history:1 america:1 future:1 perennial:1 reprint:1 isbn:1 p:4 choose:1 consider:2 reactive:2 nomad:1 compose:1 spiritual:1 awakening:1 old:1 generally:1 negative:3 perception:3 whose:1 member:3 tend:1 pragmatic:1 perceptive:1 savvy:1 amoral:1 focused:1 money:1 art:1 ibid:3 intend:1 associate:2 connotation:1 number:2 highlight:1 note:2 large:1 devil:1 movie:2 e:1 g:1 rosemary:1 release:3 soon:1 compare:1 positive:1 next:1 raise:1 individual:1 within:1 grow:1 decade:1 cold:2 war:3 link:1 presidency:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 george:1 h:1 w:1 bush:1 hoover:1 institution:1 uncommon:1 knowledge:1 peter:1 robinson:1 file:1 come:3 age:3 vietnam:1 end:2 political:1 experience:1 shape:1 fall:1 berlin:1 wall:1 saw:1 inception:1 home:1 computer:1 rise:1 videogames:1 internet:1 tool:1 commercial:1 purpose:1 dot:1 business:1 mtv:2 grunge:3 music:1 hip:2 hop:2 aid:1 security:1 mom:1 census:4 bureau:2 cite:1 statistically:1 hold:1 high:2 education:2 level:1 look:1 group:1 bloc:1 statistical:1 abstract:1 statistic:1 canada:1 economics:1 pew:1 charitable:1 trust:1 american:2 enterprise:1 institute:3 brookings:1 heritage:1 foundation:1 urban:1 challenge:1 notion:1 good:1 one:1 precede:1 economicmobility:1 org:1 asset:1 pdfs:1 pdf:1 economic:2 mobility:2 dream:1 alive:1 well:1 focus:1 income:4 male:1 april:1 march:2 base:1 bls:1 cps:1 supplement:1 data:1 project:1 may:2 emphasize:1 real:1 dollar:1 make:1 less:1 father:4 thus:1 reverse:1 historical:1 trend:1 suggest:1 per:1 increase:2 portion:1 son:3 family:3 household:3 generate:1 slow:1 average:1 barely:1 keep:1 pace:1 inflation:1 overall:1 progressively:1 enter:1 workplace:1 contribute:1 stand:1 shadow:1 dad:1 salary:1 early:1 cultural:1 musical:1 movement:1 popularity:1 day:1 influence:1 strong:1 gray:1 ceiling:1 millennial:1 jones:1 latchkey:1 kid:1 |@bigram http_www:2 merriam_webster:1 baby_boomer:3 strauss_neil:1 benjamin_franklin:1 spiritual_awakening:1 negative_connotation:1 rosemary_baby:1 ronald_reagan:1 w_bush:1 hip_hop:2 census_bureau:2 charitable_trust:1 brookings_institute:1 pdfs_pdf:1 household_income:3 boomer_generation:1 |
1,772 | Brísingamen | Heimdall returns Brisingamen to Freyja In Norse mythology, Brísingamen (from Old Norse brisinga "flaming, glowing" and men "jewellry, ornament") Onsell, Birgitta. 'Världens vackraste smycke.' in Jordens moder i Norden. Stockholm: Carlssons, 1994. p. 111-2. is the necklace of the goddess Freyja. The Poetic Edda, Henry A. Bellows, transl. Princeton University Press, 1936. p. 158. Attestations Beowulf Brísingamen is referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as Brosinga mene. The brief mention in Beowulf is as follows (trans. by Howell Chickering, 1977): ...since Hama bore offto the shining city the Brosings' necklace, Gem-figured filigree. He gained the hatred Of Eormanric the Goth, chose eternal reward. This seems to confuse two different stories as the Beowulf poet is clearly referring to the Dietrich Cycle. The Þiðrekssaga tells that the warrior Heime (Hama in Old English) takes sides against Eormanric, king of the Goths, and has to flee his kingdom after robbing him; later in life, Hama enters a monastery and gives them all his stolen treasure. However, this saga makes no mention of the great necklace. Possibly the Beowulf poet was confused, or invented the addition of the necklace to give him an excuse to drag in a mention of Eormanric. In any case, the necklace given to Beowulf in the story is not the Brísingamen itself; it's only being compared to it. Poetic Edda In the poem Þrymskviða of the Poetic Edda, Thrymr, the King of the Jötuns, steals Thor's Mjolnir. Freyja lends Loki her falcon cloak to search for it; but upon returning, Loki tells Freyja that Thrymr has hidden the hammer and demanded to marry her in return. Freyja is so wrathful that all the Æsir’s halls beneath her are shaken and the necklace Brísingamen breaks off from her neck. Later Thor borrows Brísingamen when he dresses up as Freyja to go to the wedding at Jötunheim. This myth is also recorded in a Swedish folksong called the Thor song (18th Century), where Freyja is called Miss Frojenborg, "den väna solen" (the fair sun). The Thor song (Swedish) Prose Edda Húsdrápa, a skaldic poem partially preserved in the Prose Edda, relates the story of the theft of Brísingamen by Loki. One day when Freyja wakes up and finds Brísingamen missing, she enlists the help of Heimdall to help her search for it. Eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be Loki who has transformed himself into a seal. Heimdall turns into a seal as well and fights Loki. After a lengthy battle at Singasteinn, Heimdall wins and returns Brísingamen to Freyja. Snorri Sturluson quoted this old poem in Skáldskaparmál, saying that because of this legend Heimdall is called "Seeker of Freyja's Necklace" (Skáldskaparmál, section 8) and Loki is called "Thief of Brísingamen" (Skáldskaparmál, section 16). A similar story appears in the later Sörla þáttr, where Heimdall does not appear. Sörla þáttr Sörla þáttr is a short story in the later and extended version of the Saga of Olaf Tryggvason The Younger Edda. Rasmus B. Anderson transl. (1897) Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co. (1901). in the manuscript of the Flateyjarbók, which was written and compiled by two Christian priests, Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, in late 14th century. Rasmus B. Anderson, Introduction to the The Flatey Book. Norræna Society, London (1908). "The priest Jon Thordson wrote the story of Erik Vidforle and both the Olaf Sagas; but the priest Magnus Thorhalson wrote what follows and also what goes before, and revised the whole, thus dedicating the work: "May God Almighty and the Virgin Mary bless both the one that wrote and the one that dictated!" In the end of the story, the arrival of Christianity dissolves the old curse that traditionally was to endure until Ragnarök. "Freyja was a human in Asia and was the favorite concubine of Odin, King of Asialand. When this woman wanted to buy a golden necklace (no name given) forged by four dwarves (named Dvalinn, Alfrik, Berling, and Grer), she offered them gold and silver but they replied that they would only sell it to her if she would lie a night by each of them. She came home afterward with the necklace and kept silent as if nothing happened. But a man called Loki somehow knew it, and came to tell Odin. King Odin commanded Loki to steal the necklace, so Loki turned into a fly to sneak into Freyja's bower and stole it. When Freyja found her necklace missing, she came to ask king Odin. In exchange for it, Odin ordered her to make two kings, each served by twenty kings, fight forever unless some christened men so brave would dare to enter the battle and slay them. She said yes, and got that necklace back. Under the spell, king Högni and king Heðinn battled for one hundred and forty-three years, as soon as they fell down they had to stand up again and fight on. But in the end, the Christian lord Olaf Tryggvason, who has a great fate and luck, arrived with his christened men, and whoever slain by a Christian would stay dead. Thus the pagan curse was finally dissolved by the arrival of Christianity. After that, the noble man, king Olaf, went back to his realm." This short story is also known as "The Saga of Högni and Hedinn". English translation can be found at Northvegr: Three Northern Love Stories and Other Tales. The battle of Högni and Heðinn is recorded in several medieval sources, including the skaldic poem Ragnarsdrápa, Skáldskaparmál (section 49), and Gesta Danorum: king Högni's daughter, Hildr, is kidnapped by king Heðinn. When Högni comes to fight Heðinn on an island, Hildr comes to offer her father a necklace on behalf of Heðinn for peace; but the two kings still battle, and Hildr resurrects the fallen to make them fight until Ragnarök. Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist. (Trans.) The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson (1916) Transcribed by Alfta Lothursdottir and available online via the Northvegr Foundation here: None of these earlier sources mentions Freyja or king Olaf Tryggvason, the historical figure who christianized Norway and Iceland in the 10th Century. Archaeological record The pendant, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm. C. 1000, a pagan priestess (Völva) was buried with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland. In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher. There was also a silver pendant which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck. This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's favourite necklace Brísingamen. The pendant may represent Freyja herself. Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9 p.58 Modern influence Alan Garner wrote a children's fantasy novel called The Weirdstone of Brisingamen about an enchanted teardrop bracelet. References | Brísingamen |@lemmatized heimdall:6 return:4 brisingamen:2 freyja:16 norse:2 mythology:1 brísingamen:10 old:4 brisinga:1 flaming:1 glow:1 men:3 jewellry:1 ornament:1 onsell:1 birgitta:1 världens:1 vackraste:1 smycke:1 jordens:1 moder:1 norden:1 stockholm:2 carlssons:1 p:3 necklace:16 goddess:1 poetic:3 edda:7 henry:1 bellow:1 transl:2 princeton:1 university:1 press:1 attestation:1 beowulf:6 refer:2 anglo:1 saxon:1 epic:1 brosinga:1 mene:1 brief:1 mention:4 follow:2 trans:2 howell:1 chickering:1 since:1 hama:3 bore:1 offto:1 shin:1 city:1 brosings:1 gem:1 figure:2 filigree:1 gain:1 hatred:1 eormanric:3 goth:2 choose:1 eternal:1 reward:1 seem:1 confuse:2 two:4 different:1 story:9 poet:2 clearly:1 dietrich:1 cycle:1 þiðrekssaga:1 tell:3 warrior:1 heime:1 english:2 take:1 side:1 king:14 flee:1 kingdom:1 rob:1 later:3 life:1 enters:1 monastery:1 give:4 steal:3 treasure:1 however:1 saga:4 make:3 great:3 possibly:1 invent:1 addition:2 excuse:1 drag:1 case:1 compare:1 poem:4 þrymskviða:1 thrymr:2 jötuns:1 thor:4 mjolnir:1 lend:1 loki:9 falcon:1 cloak:1 search:2 upon:1 hide:1 hammer:1 demand:1 marry:1 wrathful:1 æsir:1 hall:1 beneath:1 shake:1 break:1 neck:2 borrows:1 dress:1 go:3 wedding:1 jötunheim:1 myth:1 also:4 record:3 swedish:3 folksong:1 call:6 song:2 century:3 miss:2 frojenborg:1 den:1 väna:1 solen:1 fair:1 sun:1 prose:3 húsdrápa:1 skaldic:2 partially:1 preserve:1 relate:1 theft:1 one:4 day:1 wake:1 find:4 enlist:1 help:2 eventually:1 thief:2 turn:3 transform:1 seal:2 well:1 fight:5 lengthy:1 battle:5 singasteinn:1 win:1 snorri:2 sturluson:1 quote:1 skáldskaparmál:4 say:2 legend:1 seeker:1 section:3 similar:1 appear:2 late:2 sörla:3 þáttr:3 short:2 extended:1 version:1 olaf:5 tryggvason:3 young:1 rasmus:2 b:2 anderson:2 chicago:1 scott:1 foresman:1 co:1 manuscript:1 flateyjarbók:1 write:5 compile:1 christian:3 priest:3 jon:2 thordson:2 magnus:2 thorhalson:2 introduction:1 flatey:1 book:1 norræna:1 society:1 london:1 erik:1 vidforle:1 revise:1 whole:1 thus:2 dedicate:1 work:1 may:2 god:1 almighty:1 virgin:1 mary:1 bless:1 dictate:1 end:2 arrival:2 christianity:2 dissolve:2 curse:2 traditionally:1 endure:1 ragnarök:2 human:1 asia:1 favorite:1 concubine:1 odin:5 asialand:1 woman:3 want:1 buy:1 golden:1 name:2 forge:1 four:1 dwarf:1 dvalinn:1 alfrik:1 berling:1 grer:1 offer:2 gold:1 silver:2 reply:1 would:4 sell:1 lie:1 night:1 come:5 home:1 afterward:1 keep:1 silent:1 nothing:1 happen:1 man:2 somehow:1 know:2 command:1 fly:1 sneak:1 bower:1 stole:1 missing:1 ask:1 exchange:1 order:1 serve:1 twenty:1 forever:1 unless:1 christen:2 brave:1 dare:1 enter:1 slay:2 yes:1 get:1 back:2 spell:1 högni:5 heðinn:5 hundred:1 forty:1 three:2 year:1 soon:1 fell:1 stand:1 lord:1 fate:1 luck:1 arrive:1 whoever:1 stay:1 dead:1 pagan:2 finally:1 noble:1 realm:1 hedinn:1 translation:1 northvegr:2 northern:1 love:1 tale:1 several:1 medieval:1 source:2 include:2 ragnarsdrápa:1 gesta:1 danorum:1 daughter:1 hildr:3 kidnap:1 island:1 father:1 behalf:1 peace:1 still:1 resurrect:1 fallen:1 brodeur:1 arthur:1 gilchrist:1 sturlson:1 transcribe:1 alfta:1 lothursdottir:1 available:1 online:1 via:1 foundation:1 none:1 early:1 historical:1 christianize:1 norway:1 iceland:1 archaeological:1 pendant:3 museum:1 national:1 antiquity:1 c:1 priestess:1 völva:1 bury:2 considerable:1 splendour:1 hagebyhöga:1 östergötland:1 wand:1 receive:1 rich:1 horse:1 wagon:1 arabian:1 bronze:1 pitcher:1 represent:2 broad:1 around:1 kind:1 wear:1 prominent:1 iron:1 age:1 interpret:1 favourite:1 harrison:1 svensson:1 k:1 vikingaliv:1 fälth:1 hässler:1 värnamo:1 isbn:1 modern:1 influence:1 alan:1 garner:1 child:1 fantasy:1 novel:1 weirdstone:1 enchanted:1 teardrop:1 bracelet:1 reference:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:1 goddess_freyja:1 poetic_edda:3 anglo_saxon:1 necklace_brísingamen:2 prose_edda:3 skaldic_poem:2 brísingamen_freyja:1 snorri_sturluson:1 sörla_þáttr:3 saga_olaf:1 olaf_tryggvason:3 rasmus_b:2 virgin_mary:1 gold_silver:1 gesta_danorum:1 brodeur_arthur:1 arthur_gilchrist:1 edda_snorri:1 snorri_sturlson:1 alan_garner:1 weirdstone_brisingamen:1 |
1,773 | Color_space | A comparison of the chromaticities enclosed by some color spaces. A color model is an abstract mathematical model describing the way colors can be represented as tuples of numbers, typically as three or four values or color components (e.g. RGB and CMYK are color models). However, a color model with no associated mapping function to an absolute color space is a more or less arbitrary color system with no connection to any globally-understood system of color interpretation. Adding a certain mapping function between the color model and a certain reference color space results in a definite "footprint" within the reference color space. This "footprint" is known as a gamut, and, in combination with the color model, defines a new color space. For example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color spaces, both based on the RGB model. In the most generic sense of the definition above, color spaces can be defined without the use of a color model. These spaces, such as Pantone, are in effect a given set of names or numbers which are defined by the existence of a corresponding set of physical color swatches. This article focuses on the mathematical model concept. Understanding the concept A comparison of RGB and CMYK color models. This image demonstrates the difference between how colors will look on a computer monitor (RGB) compared to how they will reproduce in a CMYK print process. A wide range of colors can be created by the primary colors of pigment (cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y), and black (K)). Those colors then define a specific color space. To create a three-dimensional representation of a color space, we can assign the amount of magenta color to the representation's X axis, the amount of cyan to its Y axis, and the amount of yellow to its Z axis. The resulting 3-D space provides a unique position for every possible color that can be created by combining those three pigments. However, this is not the only possible color space. For instance, when colors are displayed on a computer monitor, they are usually defined in the RGB (red, green and blue) color space. This is another way of making nearly the same colors (limited by the reproduction medium, such as the phosphor (CRT) or filters and backlight (LCD)), and red, green and blue can be considered as the X, Y and Z axes. Another way of making the same colors is to use their Hue (X axis), their Saturation (Y axis), and their brightness Value (Z axis). This is called the HSV color space. Many color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional (X,Y,Z) values in this manner, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, and some cannot be represented in this way at all. Notes When formally defining a color space, the usual reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces, which were specifically designed to encompass all colors the average human can see. Since "color space" is a more specific term for a certain combination of a color model plus a color mapping function, the term "color space" tends to be used to also identify color models, since identifying a color space automatically identifies the associated color model. Informally, the two terms are often used interchangeably, though this is strictly incorrect. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB model, there is no such thing as the RGB color space. Since any color space defines colors as a function of the absolute reference frame, color spaces, along with device profiling, allow reproducible representations of color, in both analogue and digital representations. Conversion Color space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. This typically occurs in the context of converting an image that is represented in one color space to another color space, the goal being to make the translated image look as similar as possible to the original. Density The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used. By far the most common general-used incarnation is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is thus limited to a gamut of 256×256×256 ≈ 16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total, resulting in the same range with a larger number of distinct colors. This is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces (where most of the more common colors are located relatively close together), or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the same color model, but implemented in different bit depths. Partial list of color spaces CIE 1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception (earlier efforts were by James Clerk Maxwell, König & Dieterici, and Abney at Imperial College) William David Wright, 50 years of the 1931 CIE Standard Observer. Die Farbe, 29:4/6 (1981). and it is the basis for almost all other color spaces. Derivatives of the CIE XYZ space include CIELUV, CIEUVW, and CIELAB. Generic color models Additive color mixing Subtractive color mixing RGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. Light is added together to create form from out of the darkness. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue. RGBA is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency. Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB, Adobe RGB and Adobe Wide Gamut RGB. CMYK uses subtractive color mixing used in the printing process, because it describes what kind of inks need to be applied so the light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a given color. One starts with a white substrate(canvas, page, etc), and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image. CMYK stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black. There are many CMYK color spaces for different sets of inks, substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance). YIQ was formerly used in NTSC (North America, Japan and elsewhere) television broadcasts for historical reasons. This system stores a luminance value with two chrominance values, corresponding approximately to the amounts of blue and red in the color. It is similar to the YUV scheme used in most video capture systems and in PAL (Australia, Europe, except France, which uses SECAM) television, except that the YIQ color space is rotated 33° with respect to the YUV color space. The YDbDr scheme used by SECAM television is rotated in another way. YPbPr is a scaled version of YUV. It is most commonly seen in its digital form, YCbCr, used widely in video and image compression schemes such as MPEG and JPEG. xvYCC is a new international digital video color space standard published by the IEC (IEC 61966-2-4). It is based on the ITU BT.601 and BT.709 standards but extends the gamut beyond the R/G/B primaries specified in those standards. HSV (hue, saturation, value), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness) is often used by artists because it is often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color components. HSV is a transformation of an RGB colorspace, and its components and colorimetry are relative to the RGB colorspace from which it was derived. HSL (hue, saturation, lightness/luminance), also known as HLS or HSI (hue, saturation, intensity) is quite similar to HSV, with "lightness" replacing "brightness". The difference is that the brightness of a pure color is equal to the brightness of white, while the lightness of a pure color is equal to the lightness of a medium gray. Commercial color spaces Munsell color system Natural Color System (NCS) Special-purpose color spaces The RG Chromaticity space is used in Computer vision applications, and shows the color of light (red, yellow, green etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright). Obsolete color spaces Early color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a 3-component process provided only a marginal increase in fidelity when compared to the jump from monochrome to 2-component color. RG for early Technicolor film RGK for early color printing See also Color theory List of colors References External links Color FAQ, Charles Poynton FAQ about color physics, Stephen Westland Color Science, Dan Bruton Color Spaces, Rolf G. Kūhni (October 2003) Colour spaces - perceptual, historical and applicational background, Marko Tkalčič (2003) | Color_space |@lemmatized comparison:2 chromaticity:2 enclose:1 color:101 space:47 model:19 abstract:1 mathematical:2 describe:3 way:6 represent:4 tuples:1 number:4 typically:2 three:4 four:1 value:8 component:7 e:1 g:3 rgb:18 cmyk:6 however:2 associated:2 mapping:3 function:5 absolute:3 less:1 arbitrary:1 system:7 connection:1 globally:1 understood:1 interpretation:1 add:2 certain:3 reference:5 result:3 definite:1 footprint:2 within:1 know:3 gamut:5 combination:2 define:7 new:2 example:2 adobe:3 srgb:2 two:4 different:4 base:7 generic:2 sense:1 definition:1 without:1 use:18 pantone:1 effect:1 give:3 set:3 name:1 existence:1 corresponding:1 physical:1 swatch:1 article:1 focus:1 concept:2 understand:1 image:5 demonstrate:1 difference:2 look:2 computer:3 monitor:2 compare:2 reproduce:1 print:1 process:3 wide:3 range:2 create:5 primary:2 pigment:2 cyan:3 c:1 magenta:3 yellow:4 black:2 k:1 specific:3 dimensional:2 representation:5 assign:1 amount:4 x:4 axis:6 z:4 provide:2 unique:1 position:1 every:1 possible:3 combine:1 instance:1 display:1 usually:1 red:5 green:4 blue:5 another:5 make:3 nearly:1 limit:2 reproduction:1 medium:2 phosphor:1 crt:1 filter:1 backlight:1 lcd:1 consider:1 ax:1 hue:6 saturation:6 brightness:5 call:1 hsv:4 many:2 manner:1 dimension:1 cannot:1 note:1 formally:1 usual:1 standard:5 cielab:2 ciexyz:1 specifically:1 design:1 encompass:1 average:1 human:2 see:3 since:3 term:5 plus:1 tend:1 also:4 identify:3 automatically:1 informally:1 often:3 interchangeably:1 though:1 strictly:1 incorrect:1 although:1 several:1 thing:1 frame:1 along:1 device:1 profiling:1 allow:1 reproducible:1 analogue:1 digital:4 conversion:2 translation:1 one:4 basis:2 occur:1 context:1 convert:1 goal:1 translated:1 similar:3 original:1 density:1 implement:2 depend:1 capability:1 far:1 common:3 general:1 incarnation:1 bit:6 implementation:2 discrete:1 level:1 per:2 channel:2 thus:2 million:1 total:1 large:2 distinct:1 especially:1 important:1 work:1 locate:1 relatively:1 close:1 together:2 filtering:1 algorithm:1 consecutively:1 principle:1 applies:1 depth:1 partial:1 list:2 cie:3 xyz:2 first:1 attempt:1 produce:3 measurement:1 perception:1 early:4 effort:1 james:1 clerk:1 maxwell:1 könig:1 dieterici:1 abney:1 imperial:1 college:1 william:1 david:1 wright:1 year:1 observer:1 die:1 farbe:1 almost:1 derivative:1 include:2 cieluv:1 cieuvw:1 additive:3 mix:2 subtractive:3 us:1 mixing:2 kind:2 light:5 need:2 emit:1 form:2 darkness:1 store:3 individual:1 rgba:1 additional:1 alpha:1 indicate:1 transparency:1 printing:2 ink:6 apply:1 reflect:1 substrate:3 start:1 white:3 canvas:1 page:1 etc:2 subtract:1 press:1 characteristic:1 change:2 dot:1 gain:1 transfer:1 appearance:1 yiq:2 formerly:1 ntsc:1 north:1 america:1 japan:1 elsewhere:1 television:3 broadcast:1 historical:2 reason:1 luminance:2 chrominance:1 correspond:1 approximately:1 yuv:3 scheme:3 video:3 capture:1 pal:1 australia:1 europe:1 except:2 france:1 secam:2 rotate:2 respect:1 ydbdr:1 ypbpr:1 scaled:1 version:1 commonly:1 ycbcr:1 widely:1 compression:1 mpeg:1 jpeg:1 xvycc:1 international:1 publish:1 iec:2 itu:1 bt:2 extend:1 beyond:1 r:1 b:1 specify:1 hsb:1 artist:1 natural:2 think:1 transformation:1 colorspace:2 colorimetry:1 relative:1 derive:1 hsl:1 lightness:4 hl:1 hsi:1 intensity:2 quite:1 replace:1 pure:2 equal:2 gray:1 commercial:1 munsell:1 ncs:1 special:1 purpose:1 rg:2 vision:1 application:1 show:1 dark:1 bright:1 obsolete:1 largely:1 ignore:1 added:1 complexity:1 marginal:1 increase:1 fidelity:1 jump:1 monochrome:1 technicolor:1 film:1 rgk:1 theory:1 external:1 link:1 faq:2 charles:1 poynton:1 physic:1 stephen:1 westland:1 science:1 dan:1 bruton:1 rolf:1 kūhni:1 october:1 colour:1 perceptual:1 applicational:1 background:1 marko:1 tkalčič:1 |@bigram cmyk_color:3 magenta_yellow:2 clerk_maxwell:1 subtractive_color:3 iec_iec:1 bt_bt:1 hue_saturation:5 external_link:1 |
1,774 | Binary_search_algorithm | In computer science, a binary search algorithm (or binary chop) is a technique for locating a particular value in a sorted list. The method makes progressively better guesses, and closes in on the location of the sought value by selecting the middle element in the span (which, because the list is in sorted order, is the median value), comparing its value to the target value, and determining if it is greater than, less than, or equal to the target value. A guessed index whose value turns out to be too high becomes the new upper bound of the span, and if its value is too low that index becomes the new lower bound. Only the sign of the difference is inspected: there is no attempt at an interpolation search based on the size of the difference. Pursuing this strategy iteratively, the method reduces the search span by a factor of two each time, and soon finds the target value or else determines that it is not in the list at all. A binary search is an example of a dichotomic divide and conquer search algorithm. Overview Finding the index of a specific value in a sorted list is useful because, given the index, other data structures will contain associated information. Suppose a data structure containing the classic collection of name, address, telephone number and so forth has been accumulated, and an array is prepared containing the names, numbered from one to N. A query might be: what is the telephone number for a given name X. To answer this the array would be searched and the index (if any) corresponding to that name determined, whereupon the associated telephone number array would have Xs telephone number at that index, and likewise the address array and so forth. Appropriate provision must be made for the name not being in the list (typically by returning an index value of zero), indeed the question of interest might be only whether X is in the list or not. If the list of names is in sorted order, a binary search will find a given name with far fewer probes than the simple procedure of probing each name in the list, one after the other in a linear search, and the procedure is much simpler than organizing a hash table. However, once created, searching with a hash table may well be faster, typically averaging just over one probe per lookup. With a non-uniform distribution of values, if it is known that some few items are much more likely to be sought for than the majority, then a linear search with the list ordered so that the most popular items are first may do better than binary search. The choice of the best method may not be immediately obvious. If, between searches, items in the list are modified or items are added or removed, maintaining the required organisation may consume more time than the searches. Examples Number guessing game This rather simple game begins something like "I'm thinking of an integer between forty and sixty inclusive, and to your guesses I'll respond 'High', 'Low', or 'Yes!' as might be the case." Supposing that N is the number of possible values (here, twenty-one as "inclusive" was stated), then at most questions are required to determine the number, since each question halves the search space. Note that one less question (iteration) is required than for the general algorithm, since the number is already constrained to be within a particular range. Even if the number we're guessing can be arbitrarily large, in which case there is no upper bound N, we can still find the number in at most steps (where k is the (unknown) selected number) by first finding an upper bound by repeated doubling. For example, if the number were 11, we could use the following sequence of guesses to find it: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 12, 10, 11 One could also extend the technique to include negative numbers; for example the following guesses could be used to find −13: 0, −1, −2, −4, −8, −16, −12, −14, −13 Word lists People typically use a mixture of the binary search and interpolative search algorithms when searching a telephone book, after the initial guess we exploit the fact that the entries are sorted and can rapidly find the required entry. For example when searching for Smith, if Rogers and Thomas have been found, one can flip to a page about halfway between the previous guesses. If this shows Samson, we know that Smith is somewhere between the Samson and Thomas pages so we can bisect these. Applications to complexity theory Even if we do not know a fixed range the number k falls in, we can still determine its value by asking simple yes/no questions of the form "Is k greater than x?" for some number x. As a simple consequence of this, if you can answer the question "Is this integer property k greater than a given value?" in some amount of time then you can find the value of that property in the same amount of time with an added factor of . This is called a reduction, and it is because of this kind of reduction that most complexity theorists concentrate on decision problems, algorithms that produce a simple yes/no answer. For example, suppose we could answer "Does this n x n matrix have determinant larger than k?" in O(n2) time. Then, by using binary search, we could find the (ceiling of the) determinant itself in O(n2log d) time, where d is the determinant; notice that d is not the size of the input, but the size of the output. The method In order to discuss the method in detail, a more formal description is necessary. The basic idea is that there is a data structure represented by array A in which individual elements are identified as A(1), A(2),…,A(N) and may be accessed in any order. The data structure contains a sub-element or data field called here Key, and the array is ordered so that the successive values A(1).Key ≤ A(2).Key and so on. The requirement is that given some value x, find an index p (not necessarily the one and only) such that A(p).Key = x. To begin with, the span to be searched is the full supplied list of elements, as marked by variables L and R, and their values are changed with each iteration of the search process, as depicted by the flowchart. Note that the division by two is integer division, with any remainder lost, so that 3/2 comes out as 1, not 1½. The search finishes either because the value has been found, or else, the specified value is not in the list. That it works The method relies on and upholds the notion If x is to be found, it will be amongst elements (L + 1) to (R − 1) of the array. The initialisation of L and R to 0 and N + 1 make this merely a restatement of the supplied problem, that elements 1 to N are to be searched, so the notion is established to begin with. The first step of each iteration is to check that there is something to search, which is to say whether there are any elements in the search span (L + 1) to (R − 1). The number of such elements is (R − L − 1) so computing (R − L) gives (number of elements + 1); halving that number (with integer division) means that if there was one element (or more) then p = 1 (or more), but if none p = 0, and in that case the method terminates with the report "Not found". Otherwise, for p > 0, the search continues with p:=L + p, which by construction is within the bounds (L + 1) to (R − 1). That this position is at or adjacent to the middle of the span is not important here, merely that it is a valid choice. Now compare x to A(p).Key. If x = A(p).Key then the method terminates in success. Otherwise, suppose x < A(p).Key. If so, then because the array is in sorted order, x will also be less than all later elements of the array, all the way to element (R − 1) as well. Accordingly, the value of the right-hand bound index R can be changed to be the value p, since, by the test just made, x < A(p).Key and so, if x is to be found, it will be amongst elements earlier than p, that is (p − 1) and earlier. And contrariwise, for the case x > A(p).Key, the value of L would be changed. Thus, whichever bound is changed the ruling notion is upheld, and further, the span remaining to be searched is reduced. If L is changed, it is changed to a higher number (at least L + 1), whereas if R is changed, it is to a lower number (at most R − 1) because those are the limits for p. Should there have been just one value remaining in the search span (so that L + 1 = p = R − 1), and x did not match, then depending on the sign of the comparison either L or R will receive the value of p and at the start of the next iteration the span will be found to be empty. Accordingly, with each iteration, if the search span is empty the result is "Not found", otherwise either x is found at the probe point p or the search span is reduced for the next iteration. Thus the method works, and so can be called an Algorithm. That it is fast With each iteration that fails to find a match at the probed position, the search is continued with one or other of the two sub-intervals, each at most half the size. More precisely, if the number of items, N, is odd then both sub-intervals will contain (N - 1)/2 elements. If N is even then the two sub-intervals contain N/2 - 1 and N/2 elements. If the original number of items is N then after the first iteration there will be at most N/2 items remaining, then at most N/4 items, at most N/8 items, and so on. In the worst case, when the value is not in the list, the algorithm must continue iterating until the span has been made empty; this will have taken at most ⌊log2(N) + 1⌋ iterations, where the ⌊ ⌋ notation denotes the floor function that rounds its argument down to an integer. This worst case analysis is tight: for any N there exists a query that takes exactly ⌊log2(N) + 1⌋ iterations. When compared to linear search, whose worst-case behaviour is N iterations, we see that binary search is substantially faster as N grows large. For example, to search a list of 1 million items takes as much as 1 million iterations with linear search, but never more than 20 iterations with binary search. However, binary search is only valid if the list is in sorted order. Average performance There are two cases: for searches that will fail because the value is not in the list, the search span must be successively halved until no more elements remain and this process will require at most the p probes just defined, or one less. This latter occurs because the search span is not in fact exactly halved, and depending on the value of N and which elements of the list the absent value x is between, the span may be closed early. For searches that will succeed because the value is in the list, the search may finish early because a probed value happens to match. Loosely speaking, half the time the search will finish one iteration short of the maximum and a quarter of the time, two early. Consider then a test in which a list of N elements is searched once for each of the N values in the list, and determine the number of probes n for all N searches. N = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 n/N = 1 3/2 5/3 8/4 11/5 14/6 17/7 21/8 25/9 29/10 33/11 37/12 41/13 1 1.5 1.66 2 2.2 2.33 2.43 2.63 2.78 2.9 3 3.08 3.15 In short is about the expected number of probes in an average successful search, and the worst case is , just one more probe. If the list is empty, no probes at all are made. Suppose the list to be searched contains N even numbers (say, 2,4,6,8 for N = 4) and a search is done for values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The even numbers will be found, and the average number of iterations can be calculated as described. In the case of the odd numbers, they will not be found, and the collection of test values probes every possible position (with regard to the numbers that are in the list) that they might be not found in, and an average is calculated. The maximum value is for each N the greatest number of iterations that were required amongst the various trail searches of those N elements. The first plot shows the iteration counts for N = 1 to 63 (with N = 1, all results are 1), and the second plot is for N = 1 to 32767. Iteration count for 1 ≤ N < 64 The curve for the "found" searches approaches log2(N) − 1 more closely for larger N as larger numbers of iterations are involved, in the same way that the successive summations 1/2, 1/4 + 1/2, 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 approach 1 as the number of terms increases: these are the probabilities of early detection of equality in successive iterations of a search. The slight bend in the curves within each iteration limit group is due to the early narrowing of the search bounds into two sub-spans whose lengths are often unequal. Iteration count for 1 ≤ N < 32768 Thus binary search is a logarithmic algorithm and executes in O() time. In most cases it is considerably faster than a linear search. It can be implemented using iteration (as shown above), or recursion. In some languages it is more elegantly expressed recursively; however, in some C-based languages tail recursion is not eliminated and the recursive version requires more stack space. Binary search can interact poorly with the memory hierarchy (i.e. caching), because of its random-access nature. For in-memory searching, if the span to be searched is small, a linear search may have superior performance simply because it exhibits better locality of reference. For external searching, care must be taken or each of the first several probes will lead to a disk seek. A common technique is to abandon binary searching for linear searching as soon as the size of the remaining span falls below a small value such as 8 or 16 or even more in recent computers. The exact value depends entirely on the machine running the algorithm. Notice that for multiple searches with a fixed value for N, then (with the appropriate regard for integer division), the first iteration always selects the middle element at N/2, and the second always selects either N/4 or 3N/4, and so on. Thus if the array's key values are in some sort of slow storage (on a disc file, in virtual memory, not in the cpu's on-chip memory), keeping those three keys in a local array for a special preliminary search will avoid accessing widely separated memory. Escalating to seven or fifteen such values will allow further levels at not much cost in storage. On the other hand, if the searches are frequent and not separated by much other activity, the computer's various storage control features will more or less automatically promote frequently-accessed elements into faster storage. When multiple binary searches are to be performed for the same key in related lists, fractional cascading can be used to speed up successive searches after the first one. Extensions There is no particular requirement that the array being searched has the bounds 1 to N. It is possible to search a specified range, elements first to last instead of 1 to N. All that is necessary is that the initialisation be L:=first − 1 and R:=last + 1, then all proceeds as before. The elements of the list are not necessarily all unique. If one searches for a value that occurs multiple times in the list, the index returned will be of the first-encountered equal element, and this will not necessarily be that of the first, last, or middle element of the run of equal-key elements but will depend on the positions of the values. Modifying the list even in seemingly unrelated ways such as adding elements elsewhere in the list may change the result. To find all equal elements an upward and downward linear search can be carried out from the initial result, stopping each search when the element is no longer equal. Thus, e.g. in a table of cities sorted by country, we can find all cities in a given country. Several algorithms closely related to or extending binary search exist. For instance, noisy binary search solves the same class of projects as regular binary search, with the added complexity that any given test can return a false value at random. (Usually, the number of such erroneous results are bounded in some way, either in the form of an average error rate, or in the total number of errors allowed per element in the search space.) Optimal algorithms for several classes of noisy binary search problems have been known since the late seventies, and more recently, optimal algorithms for noisy binary search in quantum computers (where several elements can be tested at the same time) have been discovered. Variations There are many, and they are easily confused. Exclusive or inclusive bounds The most significant differences are between the "exclusive" and "inclusive" forms of the bounds. This description uses the "exclusive" bound form, that is the span to be searched is (L + 1) to (R − 1), and this may seem clumsy when the span to be searched could be described in the "inclusive" form, as L to R. Although the details differ the two forms are equivalent as can be seen by transforming one version into the other. The inclusive bound form may be attained by replacing all appearances of "L" by "(L − 1)" and "R" by "(R + 1)" then rearranging. Thus, the initialisation of L:=0 becomes (L − 1):=0 or L:=1, and R:=N + 1 becomes (R + 1):=N + 1 or R:=N. So far so good, but note now that the changes to L and R are no longer simply transferring the value of p to L or R as appropriate but now must be (R + 1):=p or R:=p − 1, and (L − 1):=p or L:=p + 1. Thus, the gain of a simpler initialisation, done once, is lost by a more complex calculation, and which is done for every iteration. If that is not enough, the test for an empty span is more complex also, as compared to the simplicity of checking that the value of p is zero. Nevertheless, the inclusive bound form is found in many publications, such as Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Deferred detection of equality Because of the syntax difficulties discussed below, so that distinguishing the three states <, =, and > would have to be done with two comparisons, it is possible to use just one comparison and at the end when the span is reduced to zero, equality can be tested for. The example distinguishes only < from >=. Midpoint and width An entirely different variation involves abandoning the L and R pointers in favour of a current position p and a width w where at each iteration, p is adjusted by + or − w and w is halved. Professor Knuth remarks "It is possible to do this, but only if extreme care is paid to the details" – Section 6.2.1, page 414 of The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition, outlines an algorithm, with the further remark "Simpler approaches are doomed to failure!" Computer usage The algorithm "Although the basic idea of binary search is comparatively straightforward, the details can be surprisingly tricky…" — Professor Donald Knuth When Jon Bentley assigned it as a problem in a course for professional programmers, he found that an astounding ninety percent failed to code a binary search correctly after several hours of working on it , and another study shows that accurate code for it is only found in five out of twenty textbooks (Kruse, 1999). Furthermore, Bentley's own implementation of binary search, published in his 1986 book Programming Pearls, contains an error that remained undetected for over twenty years. Extra, Extra – Read All About It: Nearly All Binary Searches and Mergesorts are Broken, Google Research Blog Numerical difficulties In a practical implementation, the variables used to represent the indices will be of finite size, hence only capable of representing a finite range of values. For example, 16-bit unsigned integers can only hold values from 0 to 65535. If the binary search algorithm is to operate on large arrays, this has two implications: The values first − 1 and last + 1 must both be representable within the finite bounds of the chosen integer type . Therefore, continuing the 16-bit example, the largest value that last may take is +65534, not +65535. A problem exists even for the "inclusive" form of the method, as if x > A(65535).Key, then on the final iteration the algorithm will attempt to store 65536 into L and fail. Equivalent issues apply to the lower limit (where first − 1 could become negative when the allowed search space only contains positive or null indice). If the midpoint of the span is calculated as p := (L + R) / 2, then the value (L + R) will exceed the number range if last is greater than (in our example) 65535/2 and the search wanders toward the upper end of the search space. This can be avoided by performing the calculation as p := L + (R - L) / 2. Syntax difficulties Another difficulty is presented by the absence in most computer languages of a three-way result from a comparison, which forces a comparison to be performed twice. The form is somewhat as follows: if a < b then action1 else if a > b then action2 else action3; About half the time, the first test will be true so that there will be only one comparison of a and b, but the other half of the time it will be false, and a second comparison forced. This is so grievous that some versions are recast so as not to make a second test at all thus not determining equality until the span has been reduced to zero, and thereby foregoing the possibility of early termination – remember that about half the time the search will happen on a matching value one iteration short of the limit. It is quite easy to make this problem still worse (e.g. as in ) by using an order such as if a = b then action3 else if a > b then action2 else action1; Rather than detecting equality early (as it might appear to), this will force two comparisons to be performed for all but the last iteration of a search. Implementations Iterative Niklaus Wirth recorded this algorithm in Standard Pascal Niklaus Wirth: Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. Prentice-Hall, 1975, ISBN 0-13-022418-9 : i := 1; j := N; {array size: var A : array [1..N] of integer} repeat k := (i + j) div 2; if x > A[k] then i := k + 1 else j := k - 1; until (A[k] = x) or (i > j); This code uses inclusive bounds and a three-way test (for early loop termination in case of equality), but with two separate comparisons per iteration. It is not the most efficient solution. Note that this code assumes that n is positive or null, and that the integer type can store both negative values using two's complement, so that the addition i+j may use the extra bit sign (in case of overflow) in a way that the division by 2 can be safely performed by unsigned shifting to the right. If this is not the case, the division by 2 will incorrectly compute the probed index. However, if integers are effectively represented by two's complement, the (signed) division by 2 should be realised using (i +j) shr 1 when bounds are not within 0..(Integer.MAX_VALUE div 2). If the array index bounds are allowing negative values, this code may fail when one or both array bounds are not within (Integer.MIN_VALUE div 2)..(Integer.MAX_VALUE div 2) and the probed index should be computed as k := i + (j - i) shr 1; (here again using an unsigned shift is necessary to correctly compute the width using two's complement for large width values). Three-way comparison Since Fortran does offer a three-way test, here is a version for searching an array of integers. For labels Fortran uses numbers at the start of statements, thus the 1, 2, 3, and 4. The if statement performs a go to to one of the three nominated labels according to the sign of its arithmetic expression. Integer Function BinarySearch(A,X,N) ! Search for the value X in A(1)..A(N) Integer A(*),X !The array is indexed 1 to ? Integer N !Stated number of elements. Integer L,R,P L = 0 !Exclusive bounds, R = N + 1 !To search elements 1 to N. 1 P = (R - L)/2 !Probe; integer division. Not (L + R)/2! if (P <= 0) Return(-L) !Search exhausted. P = L + P !Convert an offset from L to an array index. if (X - A(P)) 3,4,2 !Test: negative,zero,positive. 2 L = P !A(P) < X. Shift the left bound up. go to 1 3 R = P !X < A(P). Shift the right bound down. go to 1 4 Return(P) !X = A(P). Found at index P. End Function''' BinarySearch Recursive The most straightforward implementation is recursive, which recursively searches the subrange dictated by the comparison: BinarySearch(A[0..N-1], value, low, high) { if (high < low) return -1 // not found mid = low + ((high - low) / 2) // Note: not (low + high) / 2 !! if (A[mid] > value) return BinarySearch(A, value, low, mid-1) else if (A[mid] < value) return BinarySearch(A, value, mid+1, high) else return mid // found } It is invoked with initial low and high values of 0 and N-1. We can eliminate the tail recursion above and convert this to an iterative implementation: Single comparison per iteration In computer languages that lack a three-way comparison, the required three-way comparison has to be replaced by two two-way comparisons that would on average involve one and a half comparisons per iteration, not one. To reduce this overhead, some implementations defer checking for equality until after the search completes, as in this pseudocode: low = 0 high = N while (low < high) { mid = low + ((high - low) / 2) // Note: not (low + high) / 2 !! if (A[mid] < value) low = mid + 1; else //can't be high = mid-1: here A[mid] >= value, //so high can't be < mid if A[mid] == value high = mid; } // high == low, using high or low depends on taste if ((low < N) && (A[low] == value)) return low // found else return -1 // not found This approach foregoes the possibility of early termination on discovery of a match, that for successful searches reduces the expected running time from log2(N) to log2(N) − 1. On the other hand, as N increases, 1·5(log2(N) − 1) exceeds log2(N) by an ever-increasing margin. Language support Many standard libraries provide a way to do a binary search: C provides in its standard library. C++'s STL provides algorithm functions binary_search, lower_bound and upper_bound. Java offers a set of overloaded binarySearch() static methods in the classes and in the standard java.util package for performing binary searches on Java arrays and on collections with indexed random access, respectively. They must be arrays of primitives, or the arrays or Lists must be of a type that implements the Comparable interface, or you must specify a custom Comparator object. Microsoft's .NET Framework 2.0 offers static generic versions of the Binary Search algorithm in its collection base classes. An example would be System.Array's method BinarySearch<T>(T[] array, T value). Python provides the bisect module. COBOL can perform binary search on internal tables using the SEARCH ALL statement. Perl can perform a generic binary search using the CPAN module Search::Binary. See also Index (information technology) Very fast 'lookup' using an index to directly select an entry Branch tables Alternative indexed 'lookup' technique for decision making Self-balancing binary search tree Run-time analysis, illustrating binary search technique on machines of differing speeds Bisection method, the same idea used to solve equations in the real numbers References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.1: Searching an Ordered Table, pp.409–426. Kruse, Robert L.: "Data Structures and Program Design in C++", Prentice-Hall, 1999, ISBN 0-13-768995-0, page 280. Netty van Gasteren, Wim Feijen. The Binary Search Revisited'', AvG127/WF214, 1995. (investigates the foundations of the Binary Search, debunking the myth that it applies only to sorted arrays) External links NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: binary search msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/2cy9f6wb.aspx .NET Framework Class Library Array.BinarySearch Generic Method (T[], T) Google Research: Nearly All Binary Searches and Mergesorts are Broken. Implementations of binary search on LiteratePrograms. 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1,775 | Amasis_II | Amasis II (also Ahmose II) was a pharaoh (570 BC - 526 BC) of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest. Most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins. A revolt which broke out among native Egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. These troops, returning home from a disastrous military expedition to Cyrene in Libya, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his Greek mercenaries; many Egyptians fully sympathized with them. General Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated. Apries was either taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at Memphis before being eventually strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais, or fled to the Babylonians and was killed mounting an invasion of his native homeland in 567 BC with the aid of a Babylonian army. An inscription confirms the struggle between the native Egyptian and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the third year of Amasis (c.567 BC). Amasis then married Chedebnitjerbone II, one of the daughters of his predecessor Apries, in order to better legitimise his kingship. Some information is known about the family origins of Amasis: his mother was a certain Tashereniset as a bust statue of this lady, which is today located in the British Museum, shows. Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004. pp.245 & 247 A stone block from Mehallet el-Kubra also establishes that his maternal grandmother—Tashereniset's mother—was a certain Tjenmutetj. Dodson & Hilton, pp.245 & 247 Egypt's wealth Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration, Egypt reached a new level of wealth; Amasis adorned the temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by existing remains). Amasis assigned the commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile to the Greeks, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt, he contributed 1,000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named Ladice daughter of King Battus III (see Battus) and made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia. Under Amasis or Ahmose II, Egypt's agricultural based economy reached its zenith. Herodotus who visited Egypt less than a century after Amasis II's death writes that: His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence was great in Cyrene. In his fourth year (c.567 BC), Amasis was able to defeat a Babylonian invasion of Egypt Nebuchadrezzar II; henceforth, the Babylonians experienced sufficient difficulties controlling their empire that they were forced to abandon future attacks against Amasis. Alan B. Lloyd, 'The Late Period' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (ed. Ian Shaw), Oxford Univ. Press 2002 paperback, pp.381-82 However, Amasis was later faced with a more formidable enemy with the rise of Persia under Cyrus who ascended to the throne in 559 BC; his final years were preoccupied by the threat of the impending Persian onslaught against Egypt. Ibid., p.382 With great strategic skill, Cyrus had destroyed Lydia in 546 BC and finally defeated the Babylonians in 538 BC which left Amasis with no major Near Eastern allies to counter Persia's increasing military might. Amasis reacted by cultivating closer ties with the Greek states to counter the future Persian invasion into Egypt but was fortunate to have died in 526 BC shortly before the Persians attacked. The final assault instead fell upon his son Psamtik III, whom the Persians defeated in 525 BC after a reign of only six months. The New Encyclopaedia Brittanica: Micropaedia, Vol.9 15th edition, 2003. p.756 Tomb and desecration Amasis II died in 526 BC. He was buried at the royal necropolis of Sais, and while his tomb was never discovered, Herodotus describes it for us: Herodotus also relates the desecration of Ahmose II/Amasis' mummy when the Persian king Cambyses conquered Egypt and thus ended the 26th Saite dynasty: Gallery of images References W. M. Flinders Petrie, History, vol. iii. James Henry Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509 Gaston Maspero, Les Empires Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991, Christian Settipani, p. 161 | Amasis_II |@lemmatized amasis:17 ii:8 also:4 ahmose:3 pharaoh:1 bc:11 twenty:1 sixth:1 dynasty:2 egypt:15 successor:1 apries:6 sais:3 last:1 great:3 ruler:1 persian:6 conquest:1 information:2 derive:1 herodotus:5 imperfectly:1 verify:1 monumental:1 evidence:1 accord:1 greek:6 historian:1 common:1 origin:1 revolt:2 break:1 among:1 native:4 egyptian:3 soldier:1 give:1 opportunity:1 seize:1 throne:2 troop:1 return:1 home:1 disastrous:1 military:2 expedition:1 cyrene:2 libya:1 suspect:1 betray:1 order:2 reign:2 king:4 might:2 rule:1 absolutely:1 mean:1 mercenary:2 many:1 fully:1 sympathize:1 general:1 send:1 meet:1 quell:1 proclaim:1 rebel:1 instead:2 rely:1 entirely:1 defeat:4 either:1 take:1 prisoner:1 ensue:1 conflict:1 memphis:1 eventually:1 strangle:1 bury:3 ancestral:1 tomb:3 flee:1 babylonian:5 kill:2 mount:1 invasion:3 homeland:1 aid:1 army:1 inscription:1 confirm:1 struggle:1 foreign:1 soldiery:1 prove:2 honourably:1 third:1 year:3 c:2 marry:2 chedebnitjerbone:1 one:1 daughter:2 predecessor:1 good:2 legitimise:1 kingship:1 know:1 family:2 origins:1 mother:2 certain:2 tashereniset:2 bust:1 statue:1 lady:1 today:1 locate:1 british:1 museum:1 show:1 aidan:1 dodson:2 dyan:1 hilton:2 complete:1 royal:2 ancient:2 thames:1 hudson:1 pp:3 stone:1 block:1 mehallet:1 el:1 kubra:1 establish:1 maternal:1 grandmother:1 tjenmutetj:1 wealth:2 although:1 thus:2 appear:1 first:2 champion:1 disparaged:1 sense:1 cultivate:2 friendship:1 world:1 bring:1 closer:1 touch:1 ever:1 relate:2 prudent:1 administration:1 reach:2 new:2 level:1 adorn:1 temple:2 low:1 especially:1 splendid:1 monolithic:1 shrine:1 monument:1 activity:1 exist:1 remains:1 assign:1 commercial:1 colony:1 naucratis:1 canopic:1 branch:1 nile:1 delphi:1 burnt:1 contribute:1 talent:1 rebuilding:1 princess:1 name:1 ladice:1 battus:2 iii:3 see:1 make:1 alliance:1 polycrates:1 samos:1 croesus:1 lydia:2 agricultural:1 base:1 economy:1 zenith:1 visit:1 less:1 century:1 death:1 write:1 kingdom:1 consist:1 probably:1 far:1 cataract:1 add:1 cyprus:1 influence:1 fourth:1 able:1 nebuchadrezzar:1 henceforth:1 experience:1 sufficient:1 difficulty:1 control:1 empire:2 force:1 abandon:1 future:2 attack:2 alan:1 b:1 lloyd:1 late:1 period:1 oxford:2 history:3 ed:1 ian:1 shaw:1 univ:1 press:1 paperback:1 however:1 later:1 face:1 formidable:1 enemy:1 rise:1 persia:2 cyrus:2 ascend:1 final:2 preoccupy:1 threat:1 impending:1 onslaught:1 ibid:1 p:4 strategic:1 skill:1 destroy:1 finally:1 leave:1 major:1 near:1 eastern:1 ally:1 counter:2 increase:1 react:1 close:1 tie:1 state:1 fortunate:1 die:2 shortly:1 assault:1 fell:1 upon:1 son:1 psamtik:1 six:1 month:1 encyclopaedia:1 brittanica:1 micropaedia:1 vol:3 edition:1 desecration:2 necropolis:1 never:1 discover:1 describe:1 u:1 mummy:1 cambyses:1 conquer:1 end:1 saite:1 gallery:1 image:1 reference:1 w:1 flinders:1 petrie:1 james:1 henry:1 breast:1 historical:1 document:1 iv:1 gaston:1 maspero:1 les:1 nos:1 ancêtres:1 de:1 l:1 antiquité:1 christian:1 settipani:1 |@bigram thames_hudson:1 maternal_grandmother:1 croesus_lydia:1 reach_zenith:1 univ_press:1 ascend_throne:1 flinders_petrie:1 |
1,776 | Fox | A fox is an animal belonging to any one of about 27 species (of which only 12 actually belong to the Vulpes genus, or 'true foxes') of small to medium-sized canids, characterized by possessing a long, narrow snout, and a bushy tail, or brush. By far the most common and widespread species of fox is the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), although various species are found on almost every continent. The presence of fox-like carnivores all over the globe has led to their appearance in both popular culture and folklore (see Foxes in culture). Etymology The Modern English "fox" is Old English, and comes from the Proto-Germanic word fukh – compare German Fuchs, Gothic fauho, Old Norse foa and Dutch vos. It corresponds to the Proto-Indo-European word puk- meaning "tail of it" (compare Sanskrit puccha, also "tail"). The bushy tail is also the source of the word for fox in Welsh: llwynog, from llwyn, "bush, grove" Transactions of the Philological Society, retrieved August 31st 2008 . Lithuanian: uodegis, from uodega, "tail", Portuguese: raposa, from rabo, "tail" The Online Etymology Dictionary, retrieved Apr 3rd 2009: headword "Fox" and Ojibwa: waagosh, from waa, which refers to the up and down "bounce" or flickering of an animal or its tail. Introduction to Ojibwe Language . General characteristics The Fennec Fox is the smallest species of fox. Arctic fox curled up in snow Skeleton In the wild foxes can live for up to 10 years, but most foxes only live for 2 to 3 years due to hunting, road accidents and diseases. In captivity they can survive for 10 years. Foxes are generally smaller than other members of the family Canidae such as wolves, jackals, and domestic dogs. Dogs (male foxes) weigh on average, 5.9 kilograms (13 lb) and vixens (female foxes) weigh less, at 5.2 kilograms (11.5 lb). Fox-like features typically include an acute muzzle (a "fox face") and bushy tail. Other physical characteristics vary according to their habitat. For example, the fennec fox (and other species of foxes adapted to life in the desert, such as the kit fox) has large ears and short fur, whereas the Arctic fox has small ears and thick, insulating fur. Another example is the red fox which has a typical auburn , the tail normally ending with white marking. Unlike many canids, foxes are not usually pack animals, however this does happen in some rare cases. Typically, they are solitary, opportunistic feeders that hunt live prey (especially rodents). Using a pouncing technique practiced from an early age, they are usually able to kill their prey quickly. Foxes also gather a wide variety of other foods ranging from grasshoppers to fruit and berries. Foxes are normally extremely wary of humans and are not kept as indoor pets (with the exception of the fennec); however, the silver fox was successfully domesticated in Russia after a 45 year selective breeding program. This selective breeding also resulted in physical and behavioral traits appearing that are frequently seen in domestic cats, dogs, and other animals: pigmentation changes, floppy ears, and curly tails. Early Canid Domestication: The Fox Farm Experiment Classification Canids commonly known as foxes include members of the following genera: Alopex -- Arctic fox, although the definitive mammal taxonomy list as well as genetic evidence places it in Vulpes, not its own genus Alopex. Cerdocyon -- Crab-eating fox Chrysocyon -- Maned wolf (in English), aguara guazú ("big fox" in Guarani) and zorro rojizo ("reddish fox", one of several names used by Spanish speakers). Dusicyon -- Falkland Islands fox Lycalopex -- Six South American species Otocyon -- Bat-eared fox Urocyon -- Gray fox, island fox and Cozumel fox Vulpes -- Including twelve species of true ("vulpine") foxes, including the red fox, V. vulpes, Tibetan Sand Fox, Vulpes ferrilata, and their closest kin. Diet The diet of foxes is largely made up of invertebrates. However, it also includes rodents, rabbits and other small mammals, reptiles, (such as snakes), amphibians, grasses, berries, fruit, fish, birds, eggs, and all other kinds of small animals. Many species are generalist predators, but some (such as the crab-eating fox) are more specialist. Most species of foxes generally consume around 1 kg of food every day. Foxes cache excess food, burying it for later consumption, usually under leaves, snow, or soil. Conservation The island fox is a critically endangered species. Foxes are readily found in cities and cultivated areas and (depending upon species) seem to adapt reasonably well to human presence. Red foxes have been introduced into Australia which lacks similar carnivores, and the introduced foxes prey on native wildlife, some to the point of extinction. A similar introduction occurred in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in temperate North America, where European reds (Vulpes vulpes) were brought to the colonies for fox hunting, where they devastated the American red fox population through more aggressive hunting and breeding. Interbreeding with American reds, traits of the European red eventually pervaded the gene pool, leaving European and American foxes now virtually identical. Other fox species do not reproduce as readily as the red fox, and are endangered in their native environments. Key among these are the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) and the African bat-eared fox. Other foxes such as fennec foxes, are not endangered. Foxes have been successfully employed to control pests on fruit farms while leaving the fruit intact. Foxes on Fruit Farms Historians believe foxes were imported into non-native environments long before the colonial era. The first example of the introduction of the fox into a new habitat by humans seems to be Neolithic Cyprus. Stone carvings representing foxes have been found in the early settlement of Göbekli Tepe in eastern Turkey. Relationships with humans Fox attacks on humans are not common but have been reported. In November 2008 an incident in Arizona, USA was reported in which a jogger was attacked and bitten by a rabid fox. Attacked jogger takes fox for run: BBC News Fox hunting Fox hunting is a controversial sport that originated in the United Kingdom in the 16th century. Hunting with dogs is now banned in the United Kingdom , though hunting without dogs is still permitted. The sport is practiced in several other countries including Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Russia and the United States. Domestication The Russian Silver Fox, or Domesticated Silver Fox, is the result of nearly 50 years of experiments in the Soviet Union and Russia to domesticate the silver morph of the Red Fox. Notably, the new foxes not only became more tame, but more dog-like as well: they lost their distinctive musky "fox smell", became more friendly with humans, put their ears down (like dogs), wagged their tails when happy and began to vocalize and bark like domesticated dogs. The breeding project was set up by the Soviet scientist Dmitri Belyaev. See also Foxes in culture References External links The fox website Fox sound files. More fox sound files. 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1,777 | Eindhoven | People of Eindhoven (during World War II) watching Allied forces entering the city following its liberation from Axis forces on 19 September 1944. The Evoluon conference center. The Regent (right) and Admirant (centre) apartment buildings, with the south wing of the Witte Dame multifunctional centre (left). The Effenaar music venue. Philips Stadion. Eindhoven () is a municipality and a city located in the province of Noord-Brabant in the south of the Netherlands, originally at the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. The Gender was dammed off in the post-war years, but the Dommel still runs through the city. Neighbouring cities and towns include Son en Breugel, Nuenen, Geldrop-Mierlo, Heeze-Leende, Waalre, Veldhoven, Eersel, Oirschot and Best. The agglomeration has some 440,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area (which includes Helmond) has nearly 750,000 inhabitants. Also, Eindhoven is part of Brabant Stad, a combined metropolitan area with more than 2 million inhabitants. History The written history of Eindhoven started in 1232, when Duke Hendrik I of Brabant granted city rights to Endehoven, then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. The city's name translates literally as "End Yards", reflecting its position at the southern end of Woensel. At the time of granting of its charter, Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a rampart. Just outside of the city walls stood a small castle. The city was also granted the right to organize a weekly market and the farmers in nearby villages were obliged to come to Eindhoven to sell their produce. Another factor in its establishment was its location on the trade route from Holland to Liège. Around 1388 the city's fortifications were strengthened further. And between 1413 and 1420, a new castle was built within the city walls. In 1486, Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from Gelderland. The reconstruction was finished in 1502, with a stronger rampart and a new castle. However, in 1543 Eindhoven fell again: its defense works were neglected due to poverty. A big fire in 1554 destroyed 75% of the houses but by 1560 these had been rebuilt with the help of William I of Orange. During the Dutch Revolt, Eindhoven changed hands between the Dutch and the Spanish several times during which it was burned down by renegade Spanish soldiers, until finally in 1583 it was captured once more by Spanish troops and its city walls were demolished. Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until 1629. During the French occupation Eindhoven suffered again with many of its houses destroyed by the invading forces. Eindhoven remained a minor city after that until the start of the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution of the Nineteenth century provided a major growth impulse. Canals, roads and railroads were constructed. Eindhoven was connected to the major Zuid-Willemsvaart canal through the Eindhovens Kanaal branch in 1843 and was connected by rail to Tilburg, 's-Hertogenbosch, Venlo and Belgium between 1866 and 1870. Industrial activities initially centred around tobacco and textile and boomed with the rise of lighting and electronics giant Philips, which was founded as a light bulb manufacturing company in Eindhoven in 1891. The explosive growth of industry in the region and the subsequent housing needs of workers called for radical changes in administration, as the City of Eindhoven was still confined to its medieval moat city limits. In 1920, the five neighbouring municipalities of Woensel (to the north), Tongelre (northeast and east), Stratum (southeast), Gestel en Blaarthem (southwest) and Strijp (west), which already bore the brunt of the housing needs and related problems, were incorporated into the new Groot-Eindhoven ("Greater Eindhoven") municipality. The prefix "Groot-" was later dropped. The early twentieth century saw additions in technical industry with the advent of car and truck manufacturing company Van Doorne's Automobiel Fabriek (DAF) and the subsequent shift towards electronics and engineering, with the traditional tobacco and textile industries waning and finally disappearing in the Seventies. Large-scale air raids in World War II (including the preliminary bombing during Operation Market Garden to aid the paratroopers in securing the bridges in and around the town) destroyed large parts of the city. The reconstruction that followed left very little historical remains and the post-war reconstruction period saw drastic renovation plans in highrise style, some of which were implemented. At the time, there was little regard for historical heritage; in the Sixties, a new city hall was built and its neo-gothic predecessor (1867) demolished to make way for a planned arterial road that never materialised. The Seventies, Eighties and Nineties saw large-scale housing developments in the districts of Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord, making Eindhoven the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands. Geography The villages and city that make up modern Eindhoven were originally built on sandy elevations between the Dommel, Gender and Tongelreep streams. Starting from the Nineteenth Century, the basins of the streams themselves have also been used as housing grounds, leading to occasional floodings in the city centre. Partly to reduce flooding, the Gender stream, which flowed straight through the city centre, was dammed off and filled up after the War, and the course of the Dommel was regulated. New ecologial and socio-historical insights have led to parts of the Dommel's course being restored to their original states, and plans to have the Gender flow through the centre once again (link to article in Dutch). The large-scale housing developments of the Twentieth Century saw residential areas being built on former agricultural lands and woods, former heaths that had been turned into cultivable lands in the Nineteenth Century. Demographics , the population of Eindhoven consisted of 209,179 persons. Of these, 26.5% or some 55,400 people are of foreign descent Eindhoven Population Municipality of Eindhoven. Accessed 26 January 2007 . People are classified as being of foreign descent when they were born outside of the Netherlands, or when at least one of their parents was born outside of the Netherlands. Large minority groups include: Turks (9,420) (4.50%) Moroccans (5,161) (2.47%) Surinamese (3,610) (1.73%) Antilleans/Arubans (2,325) (1.11%) Other large minority groups are Germans and Indonesians. Economy Eindhoven has grown from a little village in 1232 to one of the bigger cities in the Netherlands with around 210,000 inhabitants in 2006. Much of its growth is due to Philips and DAF Trucks. In 1891, brothers Gerard and Anton Philips founded the small light bulb factory that would grow into one of the largest electronics firms in the world. Philips' presence is probably the largest single contributing factor to the major growth of Eindhoven in the 20th century. It attracted and spun off many hi-tech companies, making Eindhoven a major technology and industrial hub. In 2005, a full third of the total amount of money spent on research in the Netherlands was spent in or around Eindhoven. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in technology and ICT, with companies such as FEI Company (once Philips Electron Optics), NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors), ASML, Toolex, Simac, Neways, Atos Origin and the aforementioned Philips and DAF. Prime examples of industrial heritage in Eindhoven are the renovated Witte Dame ("White Lady") complex, a former Philips lamp factory; and the Admirant building (informally known as Bruine Heer or "Brown Gentleman" in reference to the Witte Dame across the street), the former Philips main offices. The Witte Dame currently houses the municipal library, the Design Academy and a selection of shops. The Admirant has been renovated into an office building for small companies. Across the street from the Witte Dame and next to the Admirant is Philips' first light bulb factory (nicknamed Roze Baby, or "Pink Baby", in reference to its pink colour and much smaller size when compared to the "White Lady" and "Brown Gentleman"). The small building now houses the "Centrum Kunstlicht in de Kunst" (centre artificial light in art) and the "Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory of 1891" museum. Administration and population After the incorporation of 1920, the five former municipalities became districts of the Municipality of Eindhoven, with Eindhoven-Centrum (the City proper) forming the sixth. Since then, an additional seventh district has been formed by dividing the largest district, that of Woensel, into Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord. At the turn of the century, a whole new housing development called Meerhoven was constructed at the site of the old airport of Welschap, west of Eindhoven. The airport itself, now called Eindhoven Airport, had moved earlier to a new location, paving the way for much needed new houses. Meerhoven is part of the Strijp district and partially lies on lands annexed from the municipality of Veldhoven. Of all Eindhoven districts, the historical centre is by far the smallest in size and population, numbering only 5,419 in 2006. According to the Eindhoven City Council, the city will reach the maximum population of 230,000 inhabitants around the year 2025. Population figures for all districts, as of January 1, 2008, ranked by size eindhoven.buurtmonitor.nl bij "bevolking->stand bevolking" : Woensel-Noord (65,429) Woensel-Zuid (35,789) Stratum (31,778) Gestel (26,590) Strijp (25,402) Tongelre (19,680) Centrum (5,757) Government and politics After the municipal elections on March 7 2006, the division of the 45 seats in the Eindhoven city council was as follows: PvdA - 14 (+ 5) (compared to the result during the municipal elections held in 2002) CDA - 7 (-2) SP - 6 (+3) VVD - 6 (0) GroenLinks - 3 (0) Leefbaar Eindhoven - 3 (-6) OuderenAppel Eindhoven - 2 (0) D'66 - 1 (-2) Stadspartij - 1 (0) ChristenUnie - 1 (+1) Lijst Pim Fortuyn - 1 (+1) In April 2006 a coalition was formed between PvdA, SP and CDA. Together they have 27 seats in the city council. On January 23, 2008, a referendum to elect a mayor was held in Eindhoven. This referendum, the second of its kind in the Netherlands, was attended by 24,6% of the inhabitants. This was less than the required 30% needed to make a referendum binding. Nevertheless, the city council would choose the winner of the referendum as the preferred candidate. The main reason for the low attendance was that the candidates, Leen Verbeek and Rob van Gijzel, were from the same party. Rob van Gijzel won the referendum with 61,8% of the votes and will be the city's new mayor. In research by the Dutch newspaper Algemeen Dagblad based on the police’s statistical data on crime rates, Eindhoven was found to have the highest crime rate in the Netherlands for 2006. Culture The students from the Eindhoven University of Technology and a number of undergraduate schools give Eindhoven a young population. Eindhoven has a lively cultural scene. For going out, there are numerous bars on the Market square, Stratumseind (Stratum's End), Dommelstraat, Wilhelmina square and throughout the rest of the city. The biggest festivals in Eindhoven are: ABlive, popfestival (September) Carnaval, (February) Koninginnedag, national day (30 April) Dynamo Open Air, rock festival (last edition in Eindhoven in 1999) EDIT, festival (June) Fiesta del Sol, street- and music acts (June) UCI ProTour - Eindhoven Team Time Trial, international cycling tour (June) Virus Festival, alternative music festival (last edition in 2007, inactive at the moment) Park Hilaria, fun fair (August) Folkwoods, folk festival (August) Reggae Sundance, reggae festival (August) Lichtjesroute, 15-miles tour of light-ornaments, commemorating the liberation of Eindhoven (from 18 September) Marathon Eindhoven, (October) Dutch Design Week, international school festival (October) TROMP international music competition & Festival, international classical music competition & festival (15-23 November 2008: String Quartet, Nov 2010: Percussion) STRP Festival, art & technology festival (23-25 Nov 2007) The Van Abbemuseum has a collection of modern and contemporary art, including works by Picasso and Chagall. The Effenaar is a popular music venue and cultural center in Eindhoven, it's located at the Dommelstraat. Eindhoven was home to the Evoluon science museum, sponsored by Philips. The Evoluon building is currently used as a conference centre. In 1992 the Muziekcentrum Frits Philips was opened as a stage for classical and popular music in Eindhoven, received by critics as a concert hall with acoustics that rival the best halls in Europe. Parktheater Eindhoven is Eindhoven's stage for opera, cabaret, ballet etc. Opened in 1964, it has received over 250,000 visitors every year. With its 1000 m2 it has one of the largest stages in the Netherlands. With a major renovation ending in 2007, the new Parktheater will receive an estimated 300,000 visitors a year. During Carnival, Eindhoven is rechristened Lampegat (Hole of lamps). Eindhoven's Plaza Futura, a former porn theater, is nowadays a cinema featuring cultural movies, lectures and special cultural events. Transport Eindhoven Airport Eindhoven Airport serves as a military air base and a civilian commercial airport. Eindhoven is a rail transport hub. The main station has connections in the directions of: Tilburg - Breda - Dordrecht - Rotterdam - Delft - The Hague 404 Pagina niet gevonden › NS reizigers 's-Hertogenbosch - Utrecht - Amsterdam - Alkmaar 404 Pagina niet gevonden › NS reizigers 's-Hertogenbosch - Utrecht - Amsterdam Zuid - Schiphol Airport Helmond - Venlo 404 Pagina niet gevonden › NS reizigers Weert - Roermond - Sittard - Maastricht/Heerlen 404 Pagina niet gevonden › NS reizigers Eindhoven's central railway station is served by both intercity and local services while the smaller station, Eindhoven Beukenlaan is only served by local trains. Up until World War II, a train service connected Amsterdam to Liège via Eindhoven and Valkenswaard, but the service was discontinued and the line broken up. Recently, talks have resumed to have a service to Neerpelt, Belgium via Weert. Located approximately 8 kilometres from the town centre, Eindhoven Airport is the closest airport nearby, and the second busiest in the country (after Schiphol). There are flights with Air France to London City, and Ryanair serves London Stansted airport, Dublin, Rome, Milan, Pisa, Marseille, Glasgow, Madrid, Valencia, Stockholm and Barcelona. In the summerseason, Reykjavík is served with 2 weekly flights operated by Iceland Express. The A2 / E25 motorway from Amsterdam to Luxemburg passes Eindhoven to the west and south of the city. The A2 connects to the highway A58 to Tilburg and Breda just north of the city. Just south of Eindhoven, the A2 connects to the A67 / E34 between Antwerp and Duisburg. In 2006, the A50 was completed connecting Eindhoven to Nijmegen and Zwolle. The public transport of Eindhoven consists of almost 25 city bus lines, which also serve neighbouring cities like Veldhoven, Geldrop and Nuenen. Two of these buslines (401 and 402) are high quality public transport and the buses on these lines are so-called Phileas vehicles, a combination of tram and bus. Apart from the city lines there are some 30 regional and rush-hour lines. Sport PSV Eindhoven is the major football (soccer) club in the city. Playing in the Philips Stadion it is one of the dominant clubs in The Netherlands' top-ranked league, Eredivisie. PSV won the national title a total of 21 times. Recent successes include the 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 national titles, finishing second in the league in 2002 and 2004. In international football, PSV were the 1988 winners of the European Cup (Champions League), the highest achievement in European club football. The second professional club is FC Eindhoven, which competes in the second league (Eerste Divisie). In field hockey the city has three major clubs, Oranje Zwart, Eindhovense Mixed Hockey Club (E.M.H.C.) and HC Eindhoven with Oranje Zwart as the most prominent one. Since 1990 the city of Eindhoven is the host of the annual Eindhoven Marathon. Eindhoven is the place where three-time Olympic swimming champion Pieter van den Hoogenband trains on a daily basis. He does so in the renovated swimming complex De Tongelreep under the guidance of his long-time coach and friend Jacco Verhaeren. Eindhoven houses Europe's largest indoor skateboard park and is home of a lively skateboard culture. Eindhoven has two boxing clubs, The Golden Gloves and Muscle Fit. Eindhoven hosted the 1999 World Table Tennis Championships. Eindhoven has a baseball club called PSV, which plays at the stadium which co-hosted the 2005 IBAF Baseball World Cup. Eindhoven hosted 29th LEN European Championships Swimming, Diving and Synchronised Swimming championship in March, 2008 Notable residents Statue of Frits Philips in Eindhoven Kees Bol (1916-), painter and art educator Jan de Bont (1943), film director Arthur Borren (1949), (field) hockey player Jan Borren (1947), (field) hockey player and coach Jan van Hooff (1755–1816), statesman Lenny Kuhr (1950), singer/songwriter Piet Souer (1945), Record producer Gerard Philips (1858–1942) and Anton Philips (1874–1951), founders of the Philips Frits Philips (1905-2005), businessman, son of Anton Philips Hugo Brandt Corstius (1935), writer Peter Koelewijn (1940), musician and record producer Tineke Bartels (1951), equestrian François van Kruijsdijk (1952), medley swimmer Robert de Wit (1962), decathlete and bobsledder Bas Rutten (1965), MMA sportsman, color commentator, actor Rik Smits (1966), basketball player Paul Haarhuis (1966), Tennis player Theo Maassen (1966), comedian and actor Patrick Lodewijks (1967), football (soccer) goalkeeper Phillip Cocu (1970), football (soccer) player Margje Teeuwen (1974), (field) hockey midfielder Imke Bartels (1977), equestrian Christijan Albers (1979), racing driver Lonneke Engel (1981), fashion model Rob Reckers (1981), (field) hockey player Cor Vriend (1949), long-distance runner, on the time manager for long-distance runner Klaas-Erik Zwering (1981), swimmer Wieger van Wageningen (1983), professional skateboarder Rick VandenHurk (1985), professional baseball player Twin Towns - Sister Cities Eindhoven is twinned with: Minsk in Belarus (since 1994) {{cite web|url=http://minsk.gov.by/cgi-bin/org_ps.pl?k_org=3604&mode=doc&doc=3604_2_a&lang=eng|title=Twin towns of Minsk|publisher=© 2008 The department of protocol and international relations of Minsk City Executive Committee|accessdate=2008-12-08}} Nanjing in China Białystok in Poland Chinandega in Nicaragua Emfuleni in South Africa Gedaref in Sudan Bayeux in France See also Eindhoven University of Technology PSV Eindhoven FC Eindhoven Eindhoven Airport Jewish Eindhoven References External links The official international site of the city of Eindhoven The city of Eindhoven on the Internet InternetGemeentegids Eindhoven over 1450 links Website of the local rockscene, Eindhoven Rockcity Eindhoven-in-Beeld Regional Historical Centre RHC-eindhoven Eindhoven's history in 8 maps and 1 section - Urbanism and city development The Van Abbe Museum of Modern Art Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven-eertijds.tk The City Stage-Park Theater The Concert Hall International Education in Eindhoven Images A photo history of Eindhoven Eindhoven early 20th century photography - Photos of streets and buildings from a while ago Eindhoven in Site: Photos, Virtual city tour. 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1,778 | Oracle | "Consulting the Oracle" by John William Waterhouse, showing eight priestesses in a temple of prophecy An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion; an infallible authority, usually spiritual in nature. It may also be a revealed prediction or precognition of the future, from deities, that is spoken through another object or life-form (e.g.: augury and auspice). In the ancient world many sites gained a reputation for the dispensing of oracular wisdom: they too became known as "oracles," and the oracular utterances, called khrēsmoi in Greek, were often referred to under the same name—a name derived from the Latin verb ōrāre, to speak. Ancient civilizations China Oracles were common in many civilizations of antiquity. In China, the use of oracle bones dates as far back as the Shang Dynasty, (1600–1046 BC). The I Ching, or "Book of Changes", is a collection of linear signs used as oracles that are from that period. Although divination with the I Ching is thought to have originated prior to the Shang Dynasty, it was not until King Wu of Zhou (1046–1043 BC) that it took its present form. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China from the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC – AD 256). Egypt The earliest known oracle was in the renowned temple of Per-Wadjet. This was an important site in the Predynastic era of Ancient Egypt, which includes the cultural developments of ten thousand years from the Paleolithic to 3100 BC The temple was dedicated to the worship of Wadjet and may have been the source for the oracular tradition that spread to Ancient Greece from Egypt. Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134 The Per-Wadjet tradition continued through the entire history of the Ancient Egyptian culture. The later Greeks called both the goddess and the city Buto. Another oracle of note lay in Egypt during the Eighteenth dynasty (1550–1292 BC), in a temple dedicated to Amun, a god who rose to importance during that time. The Greeks associated him with Zeus. Alexander the Great once visited it, and although no record of his query remains, the oracle is thought to have hailed him as Ammon's son, influencing his conceptions of his own divinity. Orrappa Oracle Originates from the heart of Sudan orrappa oracle aka Amol c Amol from the ibinirokosiniginamasasakanafato village migrates every other decade to intervene on behalf of his immediate vicinity orrappa oracle. Greece The earliest tradition of oracular practice in Hellenic culture is from the archaic period shortly after arrival of the Hellenes in their current place of settlement c. 1300 BC. The oracle was associated with the cults of deities derived from the great goddess of nature and fertility, the pre-eminent ancient oracle—the Delphic Oracle—operated at the temple of Delphi. The temple was changed to a center for the worship of Apollo during the classical period of Greece and priests were added to the temple organization—although the tradition regarding prophecy remained unchanged—and the apparently always-female priestess continued to provide the services of the oracle exclusively. It is from this institution that the English word, oracle, is derived. The Delphic Oracle exerted considerable influence throughout Hellenic culture. The Greeks consulted her prior to all major undertakings, wars, the founding of colonies, and so forth. The semi-Hellenic countries around the Greece world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt also respected her and came to Delphi as supplicants. Croesus of Lydia consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to Herodotus was told, "If you cross the river, you will destroy a great empire." Believing the response favorable, Croesus attacked, but it was his own empire that ultimately was destroyed by the Persians. She allegedly also proclaimed Socrates to be the wisest man in Greece, to which Socrates said that, if so, this was because he alone was aware of his own ignorance. After this confrontation, Socrates dedicated his life to a search for knowledge that was one of the founding events of western philosophy. This Oracle's last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Dodona another oracle devoted to the Mother Goddess identified at other sites with Rhea or Gaia, but here called Dione. The shrine of Dodona was the oldest Hellenic oracle, according to the fifth-century historian Herodotus and, in fact, dates to pre-Hellenic times, perhaps as early as the second millennium BC when the tradition spread from Egypt. It became the second most important oracle in ancient Greece, which later was dedicated to Zeus and to Heracles during the classical period of Greece. During the period, on Crete lay another important oracle, sacred to Apollo. It ranked as one of the most accurate oracles in Greece. India In ancient India, the oracle was known as Akashwani, literally meaning "voice from the sky" and was related to the message of God. Oracles played key roles in many of the major incidents of the epics Mahabharat and Ramayana. An example is that Kamsa, the evil uncle of lord Krishna, was informed by an oracle that the eighth son of his sister Devaki would kill him. Mesoamerica In the migration myth of the Mexitin, i.e., the early Aztecs, a mummy-bundle (perhaps an effigy) carried by four priests directed the trek away from the cave of origins by giving oracles. An oracle led to the foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The Yucatec Mayas knew oracle priests or chilanes, literally 'mouthpieces' of the deity. Their written repositories of traditional knowledge, the Books of Chilam Balam, were all ascribed to one famous oracle priest who correctly had predicted the coming of the Spaniards and its associated disasters. Nigeria The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria in Africa have a long tradition of using oracles. In Igbo villages, oracles were usually female priestesses to a particular deity, usually dwelling in a cave or other secluded location away from urban areas, and, much as the oracles of ancient Greece, would deliver prophecies in an ecstatic state to visitors seeking advice. Though the vast majority of Igbos today are Christian, many in Nigeria today still use oracles. In Igboland of present-day Nigeria many different oracles were regularly consulted. Two of these became especially famous: the Agbala oracle at Awka and the Chukwu oracle at Arochukwu. Webster J.B. and Boahen A.A., The Revolutionary Years, West Africa since 1800, Longman, London, p. 107–108. Scandinavia In Norse mythology, Odin took the severed head of the mythical god Mimir to Asgard for consultation as an oracle. The Havamal and other sources relate the sacrifice of Odin for the oracular Runes whereby he lost an eye (external sight) and won wisdom (internal sight; insight). Tibet In Tibet, oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word "oracle" is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis". The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has according to custom, a custom that has endured for centuries, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivites of Losar. Gyatso, Tenzin (1988). Freedom In Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama of Tibet. Fully revised and updated. Lancaster Place, London, UK: Abacus Books (A Division of Little, Borwn and Company UK). ISBN 0 349 11111 1. p.233 Before fleeing from Tibet however he consulted the oracle of Dorje Shugden. Another oracle he consults is the Tenma oracle, for which a young Tibetan woman is the medium for the goddess. The Dalai Lama gives a complete description of the process of trance and spirit possession in his book Freedom in Exile. . Notes Further reading Broad, William J. 2006. The Oracle: The Lost Secrets and Hidden Message of Ancient Delphi. New York: Penguin Press. Curnow, T. 1995. The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Duckworth – ISBN 0-7156-3194-2 Evans-Pritchard, E. 1976. Witchcraft, oracle, and magic among the Azande. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fontenrose, J. 1981. The Delphic Oracle. Its responses and operations with a catalogue of responses. Berkeley: University of California Press (main page) Temple, Robert 2002. Netherworld. London: Century. External links Documentary about Tibetan oracles by David Cherniack Autobiography of Kuten Lama (Dorje Shugden Oracle) | Oracle |@lemmatized consult:8 oracle:54 john:1 william:2 waterhouse:1 show:1 eight:1 priestess:3 temple:9 prophecy:3 person:1 agency:1 consider:2 source:3 wise:2 counsel:1 prophetic:1 opinion:1 infallible:1 authority:1 usually:3 spiritual:2 nature:2 may:2 also:3 revealed:1 prediction:1 precognition:1 future:1 deity:4 speak:2 another:5 object:1 life:2 form:2 e:3 g:1 augury:1 auspice:1 ancient:11 world:3 many:5 site:3 gain:1 reputation:1 dispensing:1 oracular:6 wisdom:2 become:3 know:5 utterance:1 call:3 khrēsmoi:1 greek:4 often:1 refer:2 name:2 derive:3 latin:1 verb:1 ōrāre:1 civilization:2 china:3 common:1 antiquity:1 use:5 bone:1 date:2 far:2 back:1 shang:2 dynasty:4 bc:7 ching:3 book:4 change:2 collection:1 linear:1 sign:1 period:5 although:3 divination:1 think:2 originate:1 prior:2 king:1 wu:1 zhou:2 take:2 present:2 addition:1 power:1 major:3 influence:3 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1,779 | Ethnology | Ethnology (from the Greek , ethnos meaning "habit, custom, convention") is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity. Ethnology is that branch of anthropology,which deals with the study,in terms of comparison and analysis,of the origins,distribution,technology,religion,language and social structure of various ethnics,races and nations of humanity. Compared to ethnography, the study of single groups through direct contact with the culture, ethnology takes the research that ethnographers have compiled and then compares and contrasts different cultures. The term ethnology is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783. Zmago Šmitek and Božidar Jezernik, "The anthropological tradition in Slovenia." In: Han F. Vermeulen and Arturo Alvarez Roldán, eds. Fieldwork and Footnotes: Studies in the History of European Anthropology. 1995. Kollár's interest in linguistic and cultural diversity was aroused by the situation in his native multi-lingual Kingdom of Hungary and his roots among its Slovaks, and by the shifts that began to emerge after the gradual retreat of the Ottoman Empire in the more distant Balkans.<ref>Gheorghiţă Geană, "Discovering the whole of humankind: the genesis of anthropology through the Hegelian looking-glass." In: Han F. Vermeulen and Arturo Alvarez Roldán, eds. Fieldwork and Footnotes: Studies in the History of European Anthropology. 1995.</ref> Among the goals of ethnology have been the reconstruction of human history, and the formulation of cultural invariants, such as the incest taboo and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about "human nature", a concept which has been criticized since the 19th century by various philosophers (Hegel, Marx, structuralism, etc.). In some parts of the world ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain. The distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered an academic field since the late 18th century especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups. The 15th century "discovery of America" had an important role in the new Occidental interest toward the "Other", often qualified as "savages", which was either seen as a brutal barbarian or as a "noble savage". Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly-shared ethnocentrism. The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between "societies with histories" and "societies without histories", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth. Lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaigne's essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a structural method, at discovering universal invariants in human society, chief among which he believed to be the incest taboo. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Althusser and Deleuze. The French school of ethnology was particularly significant for the development of the discipline since the early 1950s with Marcel Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, Claude Lévi-Strauss and Jean Rouch. References Bibliography Johann Georg Adam Forster Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5 (2 vols), London (1777) Lévi-Strauss, Claude, The Elementary Structurs of Kinship, (1949), , Structural Anthropology' (1958) Mauss, Marcel, originally published as Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïques in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. Maybury-Lewis, David, Akwe-Shavante society. (1967) , The Politics of Ethnicity: Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States (2003). Clastres, Pierre, Society Against the State (1974), Pop, Mihai and Glauco Sanga, Problemi generali dell'etnologia europea'' La Ricerca Folklorica, No. 1, La cultura popolare. Questioni teoriche (Apr., 1980), pp. 89–96 Scholars List of scholars of ethnology See also Anthropology Cultural Survival Culture Ethnocentrism Evolutionism Functionalism Indigenous Peoples Intangible Cultural Heritage Marxism Modernism Post-Modernism Postcolonial Primitive culture Primitivism Racism Society Structural anthropology Websites relating to ethnology Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, grouped by host nation-state. Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History - Over 160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online. National Museum of Ethnology - Osaka, Japan Turkish Ethnology Source (in Turkish) be-x-old:Этналёгія | Ethnology |@lemmatized ethnology:14 greek:1 ethnos:1 meaning:1 habit:1 custom:1 convention:1 branch:2 anthropology:12 compare:3 analyze:1 origin:2 distribution:2 technology:2 religion:2 language:4 social:4 structure:2 ethnic:3 racial:1 national:2 division:2 humanity:2 deal:1 study:5 term:3 comparison:1 analysis:1 various:3 race:1 nation:2 ethnography:1 single:1 group:4 direct:1 contact:1 culture:5 take:1 research:1 ethnographer:1 compile:1 contrast:1 different:1 credit:1 adam:2 franz:1 kollár:2 use:1 define:1 historiae:1 ivrisqve:1 pvblici:1 regni:1 vngariae:1 amoenitates:1 publish:2 vienna:1 zmago:1 šmitek:1 božidar:1 jezernik:1 anthropological:1 tradition:1 slovenia:1 han:2 f:2 vermeulen:2 arturo:2 alvarez:2 roldán:2 ed:2 fieldwork:2 footnote:2 history:7 european:2 interest:2 linguistic:1 cultural:6 diversity:1 arouse:1 situation:1 native:1 multi:1 lingual:1 kingdom:1 hungary:1 root:1 among:3 slovak:1 shift:1 begin:1 emerge:1 gradual:1 retreat:1 ottoman:1 empire:1 distant:1 balkan:1 ref:2 gheorghiţă:1 geană:1 discover:2 whole:1 humankind:1 genesis:1 hegelian:1 look:1 glass:1 goal:1 reconstruction:1 human:4 formulation:2 invariant:2 incest:2 taboo:2 change:1 generalization:1 nature:1 concept:1 criticize:2 since:3 century:4 philosopher:1 hegel:1 marx:2 structuralism:1 etc:1 part:1 world:2 develop:1 along:1 independent:1 path:1 investigation:1 pedagogical:1 doctrine:1 become:1 dominant:1 especially:2 united:1 state:4 great:1 britain:1 distinction:1 three:1 increasingly:1 blurry:1 consider:1 academic:1 field:2 late:1 europe:1 sometimes:1 conceive:1 comparative:1 discovery:1 america:1 important:1 role:1 new:1 occidental:1 toward:1 often:2 qualify:1 savage:2 either:1 see:2 brutal:1 barbarian:1 noble:1 thus:1 civilization:1 oppose:1 dualist:1 manner:1 barbary:1 classic:2 opposition:2 constitutive:1 even:1 commonly:1 share:1 ethnocentrism:2 progress:2 example:2 claude:3 lévi:5 strauss:5 structural:4 lead:1 criticism:1 conception:1 linear:1 pseudo:1 society:7 without:1 judge:1 dependent:1 limited:1 view:1 constitute:1 accumulative:1 growth:1 refer:1 montaigne:1 essay:1 cannibalism:1 early:2 aim:1 method:1 universal:1 chief:1 believe:1 however:1 claim:1 universalism:1 thinker:1 include:1 nietzsche:1 foucault:1 althusser:1 deleuze:1 french:1 school:1 particularly:1 significant:1 development:1 discipline:1 marcel:2 griaule:1 germaine:1 dieterlen:1 jean:1 rouch:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 johann:1 georg:1 forster:1 voyage:1 round:1 britannic:1 majesty:1 sloop:1 resolution:1 command:1 capt:1 james:1 cook:1 year:1 vols:1 london:1 elementary:1 structurs:1 kinship:1 mauss:1 originally:1 essai:1 sur:1 le:1 forme:1 et:1 raison:1 de:1 l:1 échange:1 dans:1 les:1 sociétés:1 archaïques:1 text:1 gift:2 economy:1 appear:1 english:1 edition:1 form:1 reason:1 exchange:1 archaic:1 maybury:1 lewis:1 david:1 akwe:1 shavante:1 politics:1 ethnicity:1 indigenous:2 people:2 latin:1 american:3 clastres:1 pierre:1 pop:1 mihai:1 glauco:1 sanga:1 problemi:1 generali:1 dell:1 etnologia:1 europea:1 la:2 ricerca:1 folklorica:1 cultura:1 popolare:1 questioni:1 teoriche:1 apr:1 pp:1 scholar:2 list:1 also:1 survival:1 evolutionism:1 functionalism:1 intangible:1 heritage:1 marxism:1 modernism:2 post:1 postcolonial:1 primitive:1 primitivism:1 racism:1 website:1 relate:1 describe:1 find:1 worldwide:1 host:1 museum:2 natural:1 object:1 pacific:1 north:1 african:1 asian:1 ethnographic:1 collection:1 image:1 detailed:1 description:1 link:1 original:1 catalogue:1 page:1 notebook:1 photograph:1 available:1 online:1 osaka:1 japan:1 turkish:2 source:1 x:1 old:1 этналёгія:1 |@bigram multi_lingual:1 ottoman_empire:1 incest_taboo:2 noble_savage:1 claude_lévi:2 lévi_strauss:5 jean_rouch:1 johann_georg:1 essai_sur:1 sur_le:1 dans_les:1 |
1,780 | Left-wing_politics | In politics, left-wing, political left, leftist and the Left are terms applied to positions that focus on changing traditional social orders and creating a more egalitarian distribution of wealth and privilege. The phrase left-wing was coined during the French Revolution, when left-wing referred to the seating arrangements in parliament; those who sat on the left opposed the traditional hierarchies and supported radical reform. The concept of a distinct political left originated with the June Days Uprising of 1848. The organizers of the First International saw themselves as the successors of the left-wing of the French Revolution. In contemporary political discourse, the term the Left usually means either social liberal or socialist. JoAnne C. Reuss, American Folk Music and Left-Wing Politics, The Scarecrow Press, 2000, ISBN 9780810836846 Van Gosse, The Movements of the New Left, 1950 - 1975: A Brief History with Documents, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, ISBN 9781403968043 The term is also used to describe ideologies ranging from social democracy Berman, Sheri. "Understanding Social Democracy". http://www8.georgetown.edu/centers/cdacs//bermanpaper.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-11. to most forms of anarchism. Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi. "Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism... Origins and history of the term In politics the term left wing derives from the French Revolution, when radical Montagnard deputies from the Third Estate generally sat to the left of the president's chair, a habit which began in the Estates General of 1789. The moderate Feuillants generally sat to the right. It is still the tradition in the French Assemblée Nationale for the representatives to be seated left-to-right (relative to the Assemblée president) according to their political alignment. In some European countries classical liberals were labelled as 'left' before Marxist ideas came to define the left. In the case of Denmark and Norway the historical liberal parties still carry the name Venstre, literally meaning 'Left'. Some modern left-wing politics were inspired by the works of Thomas Paine, who introduced the conspect of Asset-based egalitarianism, which theorises that social equality is possible by a redistribution of resources, usually in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of majority. Paine was an early advocate of republicanism and liberalism, dismissing monarchy and viewing government as a necessary evil. He opposed slavery, proposed universal, free public education, a guaranteed minimum income and other ideas then considered radical. From mid-19th century, 'left' would increasingly refer to various forms of socialism and communism. Particularly influential was the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, which asserted that the history of all hitherto existing human society is the history of class struggle. It predicted that a proletarian revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois society, and by abolishing private property create a classless, stateless, and post-monetary society. The International Workingmen's Association (1864-76), sometimes called the First International, brought together delegates from many different countries, and from many different left-wing groups and trade union organizations. Some of Marx's contemporaries espoused similar ideas, but differed in their views of how to reach to a classless and stateless society. Following the split between those associated with Marx and Mikhail Bakunin at the First International, the anarchists formed the International Workers Association. Marshall, Peter. "Demanding the Impossible — A History of Anarchism" p. 9. Fontana Press, London, 1993 ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1 The Second International (1888-1916) was eventually divided by the question of supporting or opposing the First World War. Those who opposed the war, such as Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, saw themselves as further to the left (see Zimmerwald Left). Out of this conflict the socialist movement divided into Social Democrats and Communists, the latter being seen as further to the Left. In the 1960s with the political upheavals of the Sino-Soviet split and May 1968 in France, thinkers of the 'New Left' viewed themselves as being more critical of Marxist and Marxist-Leninist discourse (labelled the 'Old Left'). Left-libertarian Roderick Long describes left-wing politics as including "concerns for worker empowerment, worry about plutocracy, concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality. Long, Roderick. T. "An Interview With Roderick Long" In contemporary politics the term the Left usually means social liberal or socialist. JoAnne C. Reuss, American Folk Music and Left-Wing Politics, The Scarecrow Press, 2000, ISBN 9780810836846 Van Gosse, The Movements of the New Left, 1950 - 1975: A Brief History with Documents, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, ISBN 9781403968043 Varieties of left-wing politics The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from centre-left to far left (or ultra-left). The term centre left describes a position close to the political mainstream. The terms far left and ultra-left refer to positions that are more radical. The centre-left includes social democrats, progressives and also some democratic socialists and greens (in particular the eco-socialists). Centre-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with a significant public sector and a thriving private sector. Centre-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in the economy in matters pertaining to the public interest. The centre-left also often favours moderate environmentalist policies and generally, though not universally, supports individual freedom on moral issues. In several countries, the terms far left and radical left have been associated with ideologies such as communism, Maoism, Autonomism and Collectivist anarchism. They have been used to describe groups that advocate anti-capitalist, identity politics or eco-terrorism as well as the totalitarian regimes of Stalin, Mao and Pol Pot. In France, a distinction is made between the left (Socialist Party and Communist Party) and the far left (Trotskyists, Maoists and Anarchists). Cosseron, Serge (ed.). Le dictionnaire de l'extrême gauche. Paris: Larousse, 2007. p. 20 The US Department of Homeland Security defines left-wing extremism as groups who want "to bring about change through violent revolution rather than through established political processes." Left-wing extremists likely to increase use of cyber attacks over the next coming decade "The president also signaled that he may support some kind of independent inquiry into the program. It seems that he has capitulated to left-wing groups and some in Congress who are demanding show trials over this program.",http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124044188941045415.html?mod=relevancy In China, the term Chinese New Left denotes those who oppose the current economic reforms and favour the restoration of more socialist policies. In the Western world, the term New Left refers to cultural politics. In the United Kingdom in the 1980s, the term hard left was applied to supporters of Tony Benn, such as the Campaign Group and Labour Briefing, as well as Trotskyist groups such as the Militant Tendency and Socialist Organiser. In the same period, the term soft left was applied to supporters of the British Labour Party who were perceived to be more moderate. Positions Economics Although specific economic means are not agreed upon by different leftists, almost all of them agree that some form of government or social intervention in the economy is necessary, ranging from Keynesian economics and the welfare state through industrial democracy and the social market to nationalization of the economy and central planning. Andrew Glyn, Social Democracy in Neoliberal Times: The Left and Economic Policy since 1980, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0199241385. During the industrial revolution, left-wingers became associated with trade union movements. More recently, leftists have criticized what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, such as sweatshops, the race to the bottom and unjust lay-offs. Some leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the economic theories of Karl Marx. Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is intellectually independent of his advocacy of revolutionary socialism or his belief in the inevitability of proletarian revolution. Marxian economics does not lean entirely upon the works of Marx and other widely known Marxists; it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. The dictatorship of the proletariat or workers' state are terms used by Marxists to describe what they see as a temporary state between the capitalist and communist society. Marx defined the proletariat as salaried workers, in contrast to the lumpen proletariat, who he defined as the poorest and outcasts of society, such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes. Lumpen proletariat -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia The political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject. Marxism Fails on the Farm Mao Zedong believed that the proletariat revolution would be run by rural peasants rather than urban workers after the Chinese civil war. Left-libertarians and Libertarian socialists believe in a decentralized economy run by trade unions, workers' councils, municipalities and communes and oppose both government and business control of the economy. Left-wing anarchists also hold this view. National question The question of nationality and nationalism have been central features of political debates on the left. The Marxist social class theory of proletarian internationalism asserts that members of the working class should act in solidarity with working people in other countries due to common class interest, rather than only focusing on their own countries. Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan, "Workers of all countries, unite!", the last line of The Communist Manifesto. Union members learned that more members meant more bargaining power, and taken to an international level, leftists argued that workers ought to act in solidarity to further increase the power of the working class. Proletarian internationalism saw itself as a deterrent against war, because people with a common interest are less likely to take up arms against one another, instead focusing on fighting the ruling class. According to Marxist theory, the antonym of proletarian internationalism is bourgeois nationalism. Marxists and others on the left see nationalism, Szporluk, Roman. Communism and Nationalism. 2nd. Oxford University Press, 1991. racism Marxism, Racism, and Ethnicity SOLOMOS and BACK American Behavioral Scientist.1995; 38: 407-420 (including anti-Semitism ) and religion as divide and conquer strategies used by the ruling classes to prevent the working class from uniting against them. Left-wing movements therefore have often taken up anti-imperialist positions. The defeat of several proletarian revolutions in countries like Germany and Hungary, ended Bolshevik hopes for an imminent world revolution and began promotion of "Socialism in One Country" by Joseph Stalin. In the first edition of the book Osnovy Leninizma (Foundations of Leninism, 1924), Stalin was still a follower of Lenin's idea that revolution in one country is insufficient. But by the end of that year, in the second edition of the book, his position started to turn around: the "proletariat can and must build the socialist society in one country". In April 1925 Nikolai Bukharin elaborated the issue in his brochure Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat? The position was adopted as the state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article On the Issues of Leninism (К вопросам ленинизма). This idea was opposed by Leon Trotsky and his followers who still declared the need for an international "permanent revolution". Numerous Fourth Internationalist groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyist and see themselves as standing in this tradition while Maoist China supported Socialism in One Country. There have been strong elements of left-wing nationalism, political tendencies which some link to the pressure generated by economic integration with other countries encouraged by free-trade agreements. This view is sometimes used to justify hostility towards supranational organizations such as the European Union. Left-wing nationalism can also refer to any nationalism emphasizing a working-class populist agenda attempting to overcome perceived exploitation or oppression by other nations. Many Third World anti-colonial movements adopted left-wing and socialist ideas. Social progressivism and counterculture Social progressivism is another common feature of the modern Left, particularly in the United States, where social progressives advocated the abolition of slavery James Brewer Stewrt, Abolitionist Politics and the Coming of the Civil War, University of Massachusetts Press, 2008, ISBN: 9781558496354. "...the progressive assumptions of 'uplift'." (page 40) , women's suffrage, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/progress/suffrage/suffrage.html civil rights, and multiculturalism. Progressives have both advocated prohibition legislation and worked towards its repeal. Current positions associated with social progressivism in the West include opposition to the death penalty, legal recognition of same-sex marriage, distribution of contraceptives, public funding of embryonic stem-cell research, and the right of women to chose abortion. Public education is a subject of great interest to social progressives, who support higher standards in science and mathematics education, comprehensive sex education, and making condoms available to high school students. Social progressives are also anti-racist. Various counterculture movements in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the "New Left". Unlike the earlier leftist focus on union activism, the "New Left" instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called social activism. U.S. "New Left" is associated with the Hippie movement, college campus mass protest movements and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race, and sexual orientation. The British "New Left" was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of "Old Left". The New Left opposed the prevailing authority structures in society, which it termed "The Establishment", and those who rejected this authority became known as "anti-Establishment." The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers, but rather concentrated on a social activist approach to organization. Many in the New Left were convinced that they could be the source for a better kind of social revolution. This view has been criticised by some Marxists (especially Trotskyites) who characterized this approach as 'substitutionism'- or what they saw as the misguided and apparently non-Marxist belief that other groups in society could 'substitute' for the revolutionary agency of the working class. http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1960/xx/trotsub.htm http://www.scribd.com/doc/4662049/Against-Substitutionism Many early feminists and advocates of women's rights were considered politically radical left-wing by their contemporaries. http://www.gla.ac.uk/centres/tltphistory/training/advanced/custom/coredocs/coredoc2.htm Feminist pioneers such as Mary Wollstonecraft were influenced by radical thinkers such as Thomas Paine. Many notable leftists have been claimed as influence in feminism, such as: Marxists Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai, Helen Keller, anarchist Emma Goldman and Annie Besant, who was involved in various socialist groups. groups.http://www.feministsforlife.org/history/foremoth.htm http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/occ.html However, the classical Marxists such as Clara Zetkin Zetkin, Clara On a Bourgeois Feminist Petition 1895 Zetkin, Clara Lenin on the Women’s Question and Alexandra Kollontai Kollontai, Alexandra The Social Basis of the Woman Question 1909 Kollontai, Alexandra Women Workers Struggle For Their Rights 1919 , though foremost supporters of radical social equality for women, were against feminism as a bourgeois ideology. In more recent times the women's liberation movement is closely connected to the New Left and other new social movements that challenged the orthodoxies of the Old Left. Socialist feminism (e.g.Freedom Socialist Party, Radical Women) and Marxist feminism (e.g. Selma James) saw themselves as very much within the left, even though they challenge its male-dominated and sexist structures. Liberal feminism is closely connected with left-liberalism, and the left-wing of mainstream American politics. (e.g. the National Organization for Women). Radical feminism (e.g. Mary Daly) is harder to place on a left-right spectrum; it has more in common with deep ecology, which rejects this axis. Religion The Left has had a complex relationship with religion. The original French left-wing was anti-clerical and opposed the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Karl Marx was critical of institutionalized religion, saying "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people." Marx, K. 1976. Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Collected Works, v. 3. New York. In Soviet Russia the Bolsheviks originally embraced "an ideological creed which professed that all religion would atrophy" and "resolved to eradicate Christianity as such." In 1918 "[t]en Orthodox hierarchs were summarily shot" and "[c]hildren were deprived of any religious education outside the home." Michael Burleigh Sacred Causes HarperCollins (2006) p41-43 Later communist governments, such as the People's Republic of China, have also been hostile to religion and have promoted atheism. However, religious beliefs have been associated with some left-wing movements, such as the American abolitionist movement and the anti-capital punishment movement. Liberation theology is a mixing of left-wing politics and Christian theology and has Marxist origins. The terms religious socialism and religious communism refer to a number of egalitarian and utopian religious societies practicing the voluntary dissolution of private property, so that society's benefits are distributed according to a person's needs, and every person performs labor according to their abilities. Recently, the relationship between the Left and Islam has been a controversial issue. Many on the Left support the Palestinian liberation movement, but some liberal hawks, including Christopher Hitchens, see Islam as reactionary, especially in its treatment of women. http://www.workersliberty.org/story/2008/09/08/political-islam-clerical-fascism There have been alliances between the Left and anti-war Muslims, such as in Respect – The Unity Coalition and the Stop the War Coalition in Britain. In France, the Left has been divided over moves to ban the hijab from schools, with some supporting a ban based on separation of church and state, and others opposing the ban based on personal freedom. This subject was the source of some debate within the Revolutionary Communist League. http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=45 There are some left-wing Islamic movements such as Islamic socialism. Green Politics Karl Marx argued that capitalism ruthlessly exploited not only human labour but also the natural environment. In Capital Volume One, he argued that “For a century and a half England has indirectly exported the soil of Ireland, without even allowing its cultivators the means for replacing the constituents of the exhausted soil.” http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=13676 . Marx described the mismatch between the frantic pace of capitalist exploitation and the limited regenerative capacities of nature as “an irreparable rift in the interdependent process of social metabolism”. ibid. He argued that society was moraly bound to protect the environment; “Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together,” Marx stated, “are not owners of the earth. They are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations.” ibid. Environmental degradation can be seen as a class or equity issue as environmental destruction overwhelmingly affects poorer communities and countries. http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/articles/file/The+Argentimes.pdf However, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, in their drive to compete economically and militarily with the West, have caused significant environmental degredation; examples include the Chernobyl disaster, and the drying of the Aral Sea and Lop Nor. http://www.hc.ceu.hu/envsci/aleg/research/EnvDegradationEastEurope090903.pdf There have been alliances between left-wing trade unions and environmentalists over development issues, such as the Green Bans movement during the 1970s in Australia. Meredith Burgman, Green Bans, Red Union: Environmental Activism and the New South Wales Builders Labourers' Federation (UNSW Press, Sydney,1998) In Europe, some 'Green-Left' political parties exist which combine traditional social-democratic values such as greater economic equality with demands for environmental protection, such as the Nordic Green Left. http://www.nordic-green-left-alliance.org/ . In an ideal world, scientific questions would be settled by observation and experiment. In the 21st Century, however, questions about the environment have become increasingly politicized, with the left generally accepting the findings of environmental scientists about global warming http://dieoff.org/page8.htm , and the right vigorously disputing those findings. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/01/29/weather-channel-founder-blasts-gore-global-warming-campaign/ Anti-globalization and Third-worldism The Global Justice Movement, also known as the anti-globalisation or alter-globalization movement, protests against global trade agreements and the negative consequences they perceive them to have for the poor and the environment. This movement is generally characterised as left-wing, though some activists within it reject association with the traditional left. There are also those on the right, Pat Buchanan for example, who oppose globalization on nationalistic grounds. The Global Justice Movement does not oppose globalisation per se, on the contrary, it supports some forms of internationalism). The main themes of the movement are the reforms (or abolition) of international institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, and the creation of an international social and environmental justice movement. It rejects the leadership of any political party, defining itself as a "movement of movements." Third-worldism regards the inequality between developed, or First World countries, and the developing, or Third World countries as of key political importance. It supports national liberation movements against what it takes to be imperialism by capitalist nations. Key figures associated with Third-worldism include Frantz Fanon, Ahmed Ben Bella, Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin and Simon Malley. Among the New Left groups associated with Third Worldism were Monthly Review and the New Communist Movement. Third worldism is closely connected with Pan-Africanism, Pan-Arabism, Maoism, African socialism and Latin American socialist trends. The Palestine Liberation Organization and the Sandinistas are or have been particular causes célèbres. Some left-wing groups in the developing world, such as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico, the Abahlali baseMjondolo in South Africa, and the Naxalites in India, argue that the First-World left takes a racist and paternalistic attitude towards liberation movements in the Third-World. There is particular criticism of the role played by NGOs and the assumption by the Western Anti-globalization movement that they should seek to influence the politics of the Third World. Post-modernism Left-wing postmodernism opposes attempts to supply universal explanatory theories, including Marxism, deriding them as grand narratives. It embraces culture as the battleground for change, rejecting traditional ways of organising, such as political parties and trade unions, and focusing instead upon critiquing or deconstruction. Left-wing critics of post-modernism assert that cultural studies inflates the importance of culture by denying the existence of an independent reality. Post-modernism, commodity fetishism and hegemony, Néstor Kohan, International Socialism, Issue 105. Chomsky on Postmodernism, Noam Chomsky, Z-Magazine's Left On-Line Bulletin Board. In 1996, physicist Alan Sokal wrote a a nonsensical article entitled "Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity". Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity, Alan Sokal, first published in; Social Text, issue 46/47, 1996 The journal Social Text published the paper in its Spring/Summer 1996 issue, whereupon Sokal publicly revealed his hoax. While this action was interpreted as an attack upon leftism, Sokal intended it as a critique from within. A Physicist Experiments With Cultural Studies, Alan Sokal He said he was concerned about what he saw as the increasing prevalence on the Left of "a particular kind of nonsense and sloppy thinking... that denies the existence of objective realities". Gary Jason, a philosophy professor, claims that "the failure of socialism, both empirically and theoretically...brought about a crisis of faith among socialists, and Post-modernism is their response." Socialism's Last Bastion, Gary Jason, Liberty Recent changes in the usage of left-wing In the United States, beginning early in the 21st Century, the word left-wing came to be used by the major popular media in several different non-standard ways. Sometimes "left-wing" and "right-wing" are used as synonyms for Democrat and Republican, sometimes as synonyms for liberal and conservative. Examples include the following. "RNC chair sends a letter to supporters Tuesday asking for contributions to stop Franken from "stealing" the Minnesota incumbent's Senate seat. 'I'm no stranger to the gutter campaign tactics and shady legal maneuverings of the Left Wing.'" http://thepage.time.com/2009/03/03/steele-to-gop-fight-for-coleman/?xid=rss-page "Yoo is reviled for his advocacy of torture during his time in the Bush administration's Office of Legal Counsel. At Berkeley, where he previously taught law, he clashed with 'hippies, protesters and left-wing activists,' he says. http://www.newsweek.com/id/188153 "Garzon doesn't want to right the wrongs of the world, but rather intends to cement his reputation as a darling of the Left." ABC news, reported in The Week, May 15, 2009, page 13 "(GOP Chairman) Steele also said yesterday that Specter, who is basically a moderate conservative, has a "left-wing" voting record. reported in Mother Jones, April 29, 2009 "Study finds left-wing brain, right-wing brain" Reported in the Los Angeles Times, September 10, 2007 . See also Ideology Jacobin (politics) List of left-wing internationals Political spectrum Social criticism Notes Bibliography Encyclopedia of the American Left, ed. by Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Second Edition, Oxford University Press 1998, ISBN 0-19-512088-4 Lin Chun, The British New Left, Edinburgh : Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1993 Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000, Oxford University Press 2002, ISBN 0-19-504479-7 "Leftism in India, 1917-1947", Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2007, ISBN 9780230517165 | Left-wing_politics |@lemmatized politics:18 leave:54 wing:42 political:18 left:62 leftist:6 term:16 apply:3 position:8 focus:6 change:4 traditional:5 social:31 order:1 create:2 egalitarian:2 distribution:2 wealth:1 privilege:1 phrase:1 coin:1 french:5 revolution:13 refer:5 seat:3 arrangement:1 parliament:1 sit:3 oppose:13 hierarchy:1 support:10 radical:11 reform:3 concept:1 distinct:1 originate:1 june:1 day:1 uprising:1 organizer:1 first:8 international:13 saw:6 successor:1 contemporary:4 discourse:2 usually:4 mean:6 either:1 liberal:7 socialist:16 joanne:2 c:3 reuss:2 american:7 folk:2 music:2 scarecrow:2 press:10 isbn:10 van:2 gosse:2 movement:30 new:19 brief:2 history:8 document:2 palgrave:3 macmillan:3 also:13 use:8 describe:6 ideology:5 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1,781 | Mariana_Trench | Location of the Mariana Trench The Mariana Trench (or Marianas Trench) is the deepest part of the world's oceans, and the deepest location on the surface of the Earth's crust. It has a maximum depth of about 10,911 meters (35,798 feet; 6.78 miles), and is located in the western North Pacific Ocean, to the east and south of the Mariana Islands, near Guam. Part of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc system, the trench forms the boundary between two tectonic plates, where the Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the small Mariana Plate. At the bottom, the water column above exerts a pressure of 108.6 MPa, over one thousand times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level. The creatures that could live at these depths are few, but some fish species, like the angler fish or other deep-sea fishes, have been spotted in these waters. To illustrate the depth of the Mariana Trench, consider this: if Mount Everest, which is the tallest point on earth at 8,848 meters (29,029 feet), were set in the Mariana Trench, there would still be 2,183 meters (7,166 feet) of water left above it. Measurement and study Cross-section of Mariana Trench, NOAA image The trench was first sounded during the Challenger expedition (December 1872 – May 1876), which recorded a depth of 31,614 feet (9,636 m). In 1951, the Royal Navy vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench using echo sounding, a much more precise and vastly easier way to measure depth than the sounding equipment and drag lines used in the original expedition. During this survey, the deepest part of the trench was recorded when the Challenger II measured a depth of 5,960 fathoms (10,900 metres, 35,760 ft) at . , known as the Challenger Deep. In 1957, the Soviet vessel Vityaz reported a depth of 11,034 meters (36,200 ft), dubbed the Mariana Hollow. (Although this claim was made by the Soviets in 1957, the finding has not been repeated by subsequent mapping expeditions using more accurate and modern equipment. ) In 1962, the surface ship M.V. Spencer F. Baird recorded a maximum depth of 10,915 meters (35,840 ft), using precision depth gauges. The deepest depths In 1984, the Japanese sent the Takuyō (拓洋), a highly specialized survey vessel, to the Mariana Trench and collected data using a narrow, multi-beam echo sounder; they reported a maximum depth of 10,924 meters, also reported as 10,920 meters ± 10 meters. The most accurate measurement on record was taken by a Japanese probe, Kaikō (かいこう), which descended unmanned to the bottom of the trench on March 24, 1995 and recorded a depth of 10,911 meters (35,798 ft). Descents January 23, 1960: Trieste just before the dive The Swiss-designed, Italian-built, United States Navy bathyscaphe Trieste reached the bottom at 1:06 p.m. on January 23, 1960, with U.S. Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard on board. Iron shot was used for ballast, with gasoline for buoyancy. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521 meters (37,799 ft), but this was later revised to 10,916 meters (35,813 ft). At the bottom, Walsh and Piccard were surprised to discover soles or flounder about 30 cm (1 ft) long, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) webpage. Section "1960 - Man at the Deepest Depth" as well as shrimp. According to Piccard, "The bottom appeared light and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze". The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is planning to send its Nereus hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) to explore the trench. Vessels and vehicles of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution See also Oceanic trench Izu-Ogasawara Trench Yap Trench Notes a trench External links Ocean Explorer (http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov) - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration & Research. NOAA, Ocean Explorer Mariana Arc - A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast. 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1,782 | Battle_of_Waterloo | In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 1815 Calendar near Waterloo, Belgium) forces of the French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte and Michel Ney were defeated by those of the Seventh Coalition, including a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher and an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington. It was the decisive battle of the Waterloo Campaign and Bonaparte's last. The defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as the French emperor, and marked the end of Napoleon's Hundred Days of return from exile. Upon Napoleon's return to power in 1815, many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and began to mobilise armies. Two large forces under Wellington and von Blücher assembled close to the northeastern border of France. Napoleon chose to attack in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a coordinated invasion of France with other members of the Coalition. The decisive engagement of this three-day Waterloo Campaign (16 June - 19 June 1815) occurred at the Battle of Waterloo. According to Wellington, the battle was "the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life." Wikiquote:Wellington citing Creevey Papers, ch. x, p. 236 Napoleon delayed giving battle until noon on 18 June to allow the ground to dry. Wellington's army, positioned across the Brussels road on the Mont St Jean escarpment, withstood repeated attacks by the French, until, in the evening, the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank. At that moment, the British counter-attacked and drove the French army in disorder from the field. Pursuing Coalition forces entered France and restored Louis XVIII to the French throne. Napoleon abdicated, surrendering to the British, and was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. The battlefield is in present-day Belgium, about eight miles (12 km) SSE of Brussels, and about a mile (1.6 km) from the town of Waterloo. The site of the battlefield is today dominated by a large mound of earth, the Lion's Hillock. As this mound used earth from the battlefield itself, the original topography has not been preserved. Prelude Map of the Waterloo campaign On 13 March 1815, six days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw. Timeline: The Congress of Vienna, the Hundred Days, and Napoleon's Exile on St Helena, Center of Digital Initiatives, Brown University Library Four days later, the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon. Hamilton-Williams, David p. 59 Napoleon knew that once his attempts at dissuading one or more of the Seventh Coalition allies from invading France had failed, his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the Coalition mobilised. If he could destroy the existing Coalition forces south of Brussels before they were reinforced, he might be able to drive the British back to the sea and knock the Prussians out of the war. Wellington's initial dispositions were intended to counter the threat of Napoleon enveloping the Coalition armies by moving through Mons to the south-west of Brussels. Siborne, W., p. 82 This would have cut Wellington's communications with his base at Ostend, but would have pushed his army closer to Blücher's. Napoleon manipulated Wellington's fear of this loss of his supply chain from the channel ports with false intelligence. Hofschröer (2005), Waterloo Campaign Ligny and Quatre Bras pp. 136–160 He divided his army into a left wing commanded by Marshal Ney, a right wing commanded by Marshal Grouchy, and a reserve, which he commanded personally (although all three elements remained close enough to support one another). Crossing the frontier near Charleroi before dawn on 15 June, the French rapidly overran Coalition outposts, securing Napoleon's favoured "central position" between Wellington's and Blücher's armies. Only very late on the night of 15 June was Wellington certain that the Charleroi attack was the main French thrust. In the early hours of 16 June, at the Duchess of Richmond's ball in Brussels, he received a dispatch from the Prince of Orange, and was shocked by the speed of Napoleon's advance. He hastily ordered his army to concentrate on Quatre Bras, where the Prince of Orange, with the brigade of Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, was holding a tenuous position against the soldiers of Ney's left wing. Longford, p. 508 Ney's orders were to secure the crossroads of Quatre Bras, so that, if necessary, he could later swing east and reinforce Napoleon. Napoléon abdiquant à Fontainebleau ("Napoleon abdicating at Fontainebleau") by Paul Delaroche, 1845, The Royal Collection, London. Oil-on-canvas. Napoleon moved against the concentrated Prussian army first. On 16 June, with the reserve and the right wing of the army, he attacked and defeated Blücher's Prussians at the Battle of Ligny. The Prussian centre gave way under heavy French assaults, but the flanks held their ground. Ney, meanwhile, found the crossroads of Quatre Bras lightly held by the Prince of Orange, who successfully repelled Ney's initial attacks, but was gradually driven back by overwhelming numbers of French troops. First reinforcements and then Wellington himself arrived. He took command and drove Ney back, securing the crossroads by early evening, but too late to send help to the Prussians, who were defeated at the Battle of Ligny on the same day. The Prussian defeat made Wellington's position at Quatre Bras untenable, so the next day he withdrew northwards, to a defensive position he had personally reconnoitred the previous year—the low ridge of Mont St Jean, south of the village of Waterloo and the Forest of Soignes. Longford, p. 527 The Prussian retreat from Ligny went uninterrupted, and seemingly unnoticed, by the French. Chesney, p. 136 The bulk of their rearguard units held their positions until about midnight, and some elements did not move out until the following morning, completely ignored by the French. Crucially, the Prussians did not retreat to the east, along their own lines of communication. Instead, they too fell back northwards—parallel to Wellington's line of march, still within supporting distance, and in communication with him throughout. The Prussians rallied on Von Bülow's IV Corps, which had not been engaged at Ligny, and was in a strong position south of Wavre. Napoleon, with the reserves, made a late start on 17 June and joined Ney at Quatre Bras at 13:00 to attack Wellington's army, but found the position empty. The French pursued Wellington, but the result was only a brief cavalry skirmish in Genappe just as torrential rain set in for the night. Before leaving Ligny, Napoleon ordered Grouchy, commander of the right wing, to follow up the retreating Prussians with 33,000 men. A late start, uncertainty about the direction the Prussians had taken, and the vagueness of the orders given to him meant that Grouchy was too late to prevent the Prussian army reaching Wavre, from where it could march to support Wellington. By the end of 17 June, Wellington's army had arrived at its position at Waterloo, with the main body of Napoleon's army following. Blücher's army was gathering in and around Wavre, around eight miles (13 km) to the east. Armies Duke of Wellington Three armies were involved in the battle: Napoleon's Armée du Nord, a multinational army under Wellington, and a Prussian army under Blücher. The French army of around 69,000 consisted of 48,000 infantry, 14,000 cavalry, and 7,000 artillery with 250 guns. Barbero, p. 75 Napoleon had used conscription to fill the ranks of the French army throughout his rule, but he did not conscript men for the 1815 campaign. All his troops were veterans of at least one campaign who had returned more or less voluntarily to the colours. The cavalry in particular was both numerous and formidable, and included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry and seven of highly versatile lancers. Neither Coalition army had any armoured troops at all, and Wellington had only a handful of lancers. Wellington admitted he had "an infamous army, very weak and ill-equipped, and a very inexperienced Staff". Longford, p. 485 His troops consisted of 67,000 men: 50,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 6,000 artillery with 150 guns. Of these, 24,000 were British, with another 6,000 from the King's German Legion. All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers and 7,000 of them were Peninsular War veterans. Longford, p. 484 In addition, there were 17,000 Dutch troops, 11,000 from Hanover, 6,000 from Brunswick, and 3,000 from Nassau. Barbero, pp. 75–76 Portrait of the Prince of Orange, shortly after becoming King William II of the Netherlands, ca. 1840. These Coalition armies had been re-established in 1815, following the earlier defeat of Napoleon. Most of the professional soldiers in these armies had spent their careers in the armies of France or Napoleonic regimes, with the exception of some from Hanover and Brunswick who had fought with the British army in Spain. Many of the troops in the continental armies were inexperienced militia. MercerAn artillery captain, Mercer, thought the Brunswickers "perfect children". Longford, p. 486On 13 June, the commandant at Ath requested powder and cartridges as members of a Hanoverian reserve regiment there had never yet fired a shot. Wellington was also acutely short of heavy cavalry, having only seven British and three Dutch regiments. The Duke of York imposed many of his staff officers on Wellington, including his second-in-command, the Earl of Uxbridge. Uxbridge commanded the cavalry and had carte blanche from Wellington. Wellington stationed a further 17,000 troops at Halle, eight miles (11 km) away to the west; they were not recalled to participate in the battle but were to serve as a fall back position should the battle be lost. They were mostly composed of Dutch troops under William, Prince of Orange's younger brother Prince Frederik of the Netherlands. The Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation. In 1815, the former Reserve regiments, Legions, and Freikorps volunteer formations from the wars of 1813–14 were in the process of being absorbed into the line, along with many Landwehr (militia) regiments. The Landwehr were mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium. The Prussian cavalry were in a similar state. Hofschröer (2005), Waterloo Campaign Ligny and Quatre Bras p. 59 Its artillery was also reorganising and would not give its best performance – guns and equipment would continue to arrive during and after the battle. Offsetting these handicaps, however, the Prussian Army did have excellent and professional leadership in its General Staff organisation. These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training. This system was in marked contrast to the conflicting and vague orders issued by the French army. This staff system ensured that before Ligny, three-quarters of the Prussian army concentrated for battle at 24 hours' notice. After Ligny, the Prussian army, although defeated, was able to realign its supply train, reorganise itself, and intervene decisively on the Waterloo battlefield within 48 hours. Hofschröer (2005), Waterloo Campaign Ligny and Quatre Bras pp. 60–62 Two and a half Prussian army corps, or 48,000 men, were engaged at Waterloo – two brigades under Friedrich von Bülow, commander of IV Corps, attacked Lobau at 16:30, while Zieten's I Corps and parts of Georg von Pirch's II Corps engaged at about 18:00. Battlefield The famous morne plaine described by Victor Hugo and the Lions' Hillock. The Waterloo position was a strong one. It consisted of a long ridge running east – west, perpendicular to, and bisected by, the main road to Brussels. Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road, a deep sunken lane. Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that was roughly in the centre of Wellington's position and served as his command post for much of the day. Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road. Using the reverse slope, as he had many times previously, nowhere could Wellington's strength actually be seen by the French except for his skirmishers and artillery. Barbero, pp. 78–79 The length of front of the battlefield was also relatively short at two and a half miles (4 km). This allowed Wellington to draw up his forces in depth, which he did in the centre and on the right, all the way towards the village of Braine-l'Alleud, in the expectation that the Prussians would reinforce his left during the day. Barbero, p. 80 In front of the ridge, there were three positions that could be fortified. On the extreme right were the château, garden, and orchard of Hougoumont. This was a large and well-built country house, initially hidden in trees. The house faced north along a sunken, covered lane (or hollow way) along which it could be supplied. On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte. Both Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned, and thus anchored Wellington's flanks securely. Papelotte also commanded the road to Wavre that the Prussians would use to send reinforcements to Wellington's position. On the western side of the main road, and in front of the rest of Wellington's line, was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte, which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King's German Legion. Barbero, p. 149 On the opposite side of the road was a disused sand quarry, where the 95th Rifles were posted as sharpshooters. Parry p.58 This position presented a formidable challenge to an attacker. Any attempt to turn Wellington's right would entail taking the entrenched Hougoumont position; any attack on his right centre would mean the attackers would have to march between enfilading fire from Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. On the left, any attack would also be enfiladed by fire from La Haye Sainte and its adjoining sandpit, and any attempt at turning the left flank would entail fighting through the streets and hedgerows of Papelotte, and some very wet ground. Barbero, pp. 141, 235 The French army formed on the slopes of another ridge to the south. Napoleon could not see Wellington's positions, so he drew his forces up symmetrically about the Brussels road. On the right was I Corps under d'Erlon with 16,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, plus a cavalry reserve of 4,700. On the left was II Corps under Reille with 13,000 infantry, and 1,300 cavalry, and a cavalry reserve of 4,600. In the centre about the road south of the inn La Belle Alliance were a reserve including Lobau's VI Corps with 6,000 men, the 13,000 infantry of the Imperial Guard, and a cavalry reserve of 2,000. Barbero, pp. 83–85 In the right rear of the French position was the substantial village of Plancenoit, and at the extreme right, the Bois de Paris wood. Napoleon initially commanded the battle from Rossomme farm, where he could see the entire battlefield, but moved to a position near La Belle Alliance early in the afternoon. Command on the battlefield (which was largely hidden from his view) was delegated to Ney. Barbero, p. 91 Battle Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Wellington rose around 02:00 or 03:00 on the morning of 18 June, and wrote letters until dawn. He had earlier written to Blücher confirming that he would give battle at Mont St Jean if Blücher could provide him with at least a corps, otherwise he would retreat towards Brussels. At a late-night council, Blücher's chief of staff, August Neidhardt von Gneisenau, was distrustful of Wellington, but Blücher persuaded him that they should march to join Wellington's army. In the morning Wellington received dispatches from Blücher promising him three corps. Longford, pp. 535–536 After 06:00 Wellington was out supervising the deployment of his forces. The Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was designated to lead the march to Waterloo as it was in the best shape, having not been involved in the Battle of Ligny. Although they had not taken casualties, IV Corps had been marching for two days covering the retreat of the other three corps of the Prussian army from the battlefield of Ligny. They had been posted farthest away from the battlefield and progress was very slow. The roads were in poor condition after the night's heavy rain, and Bülow's men had to pass through the congested streets of Wavre, along with 88 pieces of corps artillery. Matters were not helped by a fire which broke out in Wavre and blocked several streets along Bülow's intended route. As a result, the last part of the corps left at 10:00, six hours after the leading elements had moved out towards Waterloo. Bülow's men would be followed to Waterloo first by I Corps and then by II Corps. Barbero, p. 141 Napoleon breakfasted off silver at Le Caillou, the house where he had spent the night. When Soult suggested that Grouchy should be recalled to join the main force, Napoleon said, "Just because you have all been beaten by Wellington, you think he's a good general. I tell you Wellington is a bad general, the English are bad troops, and this affair is nothing more than eating breakfast." Longford, p. 547 Later, on being told by his brother, Jerome, of some gossip between British officers (overheard by a waiter at a lunch at 'King of Spain Inn' in Genappe) that the Prussians were to march over from Wavre, Napoleon declared that the Prussians would need at least two days to recover and would be dealt with by Grouchy. Barbero, p. 73 Napoleon had delayed the start of the battle waiting for the sodden ground, which would have made manoeuvring cavalry and artillery difficult, to dry. In addition, many of his forces had bivouacked well to the south of La Belle Alliance. At 10:00, in answer to a dispatch he had received from Grouchy six hours earlier, he sent a dispatch telling Grouchy to "head for Wavre [to Grouchy's north] in order to draw near to us [to the west of Grouchy]" and then "push before him" the Prussians to arrive at Waterloo "as soon as possible". Longford, p. 548 At 11:00, Napoleon drafted his general order: Reille's Corps on the left and d'Erlon's Corps to the right were to attack the village of Mont Saint Jean and keep abreast of one another. This order assumed Wellington's battle-line was in the village, rather than at the more forward position on the ridge. Bonaparte, Napoleon; Correspondance, No. 22060, vol XXVIII, p. 392. To enable this, Jerome's corps would make an initial attack on Hougoumont, which Napoleon expected would draw in Wellington's reserves, since its loss would threaten his communications with the sea. A grande batterie of the reserve artillery of I, II, and VI Corps was to then bombard the centre of Wellington's position from about 13:00. D'Erlon's corps then would attack Wellington's left, break through, and roll up his line from east to west. In his memoirs, Napoleon wrote that his intention was to separate Wellington's army from the Prussians and drive it back towards the sea. Barbero, pp. 95–98 Hougoumont Clément-Auguste Andrieux's 1952 The Battle of Waterloo Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at "about ten o'clock [Napoleon] commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont". Wellesley Other sources state that the attack began around 11:30. Fitchett"The hour at which Waterloo began, though there were 150,000 actors in the great tragedy, was long a matter of dispute. The Duke of Wellington puts it at 10:00. General Alava says half-past eleven, Napoleon and Drouet say noon, and Ney 13:00. Lord Hill may be credited with having settled this minute question of fact. He took two watches with him into the fight, one a stop-watch, and he marked with it the sound of the first shot fired, and this evidence is now accepted as proving that the first flash of red flame which marked the opening of the world-shaking tragedy of Waterloo took place at exactly ten minutes to twelve." The historian Andrew Roberts notes that "It is a curious fact about the Battle of Waterloo that no one is absolutely certain when it actually began". Roberts, p. 55 The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards, and the wood and park by Hanoverian Jäger and the 1/2nd That is, the 1st battalion of the 2nd Regiment. Among Prussian regiments, "F/12th" denoted the fusilier battalion of the 12th Regiment. Nassau. Barbero, pp. 113–114 The initial attack by Bauduin's brigade emptied the wood and park, but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire, and cost Bauduin his life. As the British guns were distracted by a duel with French artillery, a second attack by Soye's brigade and what had been Bauduin's succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house. Some French troops managed to enter its courtyard before the gate was resecured. The 2nd Coldstream Guards and 2/3rd Foot Guards then arrived and repulsed the attack. Gate on the north side assaulted by the 1st Legere who were led by sous-lieutenant Legros Napoleonic: The Great Gate of Hougoumont (Image). MilitaryCompany.com. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Fighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon. Its surroundings were heavily invested with French light infantry, and coordinated attacks were made against the troops behind Hougoumont. Wellington's army defended the house and the hollow way running north from it. In the afternoon, Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire, Barbero, p. 298 Seeing the flames, Wellington sent a note to the house's commander stating that he must hold his position whatever the cost, resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel. Du Plat's brigade of the King's German Legion was brought forward to defend the hollow way, which they had to do without senior officers. They were then relieved by the 71st Foot, a Scottish infantry regiment. Adam's brigade were further reinforced by Hugh Halkett's 3rd Hanoverian Brigade, and successfully repulsed further infantry and cavalry attacks sent by Reille, and Hougoumont held out until the end of the battle. The Hougoumont battle has often been characterised as a diversionary attack to draw in Wellington's reserves but which escalated into an all-day battle and drew in French reserves instead. See, for example, Longford, pp. 552–554 In fact there is a good case that both Napoleon and Wellington thought Hougoumont was key to the battle. Hougoumont was a part of the battlefield that Napoleon could see clearly, and he continued to direct resources towards it and its surroundings all afternoon (33 battalions in all, 14,000 troops). Similarly, though the house never contained a large number of troops, Wellington devoted 21 battalions (12,000 troops) over the course of the afternoon in keeping the hollow way open to allow fresh troops and ammunition to be admitted to the house. He moved several artillery batteries from his hard-pressed centre to support Hougoumont, Barbero, pp. 305–306 and later stated that "the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont". Roberts, p. 57 First French infantry attack Map of the battle. Napoleon's units are in blue, Wellington's in red, Blücher's in grey. The 80 guns of Napoleon's grande batterie drew up in the centre. These opened fire at 11:50, according to Lord Hill (commander of the Anglo-allied II Corps), Fitchett, "Lord Hill may be credited with having settled this minute question of fact. He took two watches with him into the fight, one a stop-watch, and he marked with it the sound of the first shot fired ... At ten minutes to twelve the first heavy gun rang sullenly from the French ridge" while other sources put the time between noon and 13:30. Barbero p. 131 The grande batterie was too far back to aim accurately, and the only other troops they could see were part of the Dutch division (the others were employing Wellington's characteristic "reverse slope defence". Barbero, p. 130 In addition, the soft ground prevented the cannon balls from bouncing far, and the French gunners covered Wellington's entire deployment, so the density of hits was low. The idea was not to cause a large amount of physical damage, however, but in the words of Napoleon's orders, "to astonish the enemy and shake his morale". At about 13:00, Napoleon saw the first columns of Prussians around the village of Chapelle St Lambert, four or five miles (three hours' march for an army) away from his right flank. Barbero, p. 136 Napoleon's reaction was to send a message to Grouchy telling him to come towards the battlefield and attack the arriving Prussians. Barbero, p. 145 Grouchy, however, had been executing Napoleon's previous orders to follow the Prussians "with your sword against his back" towards Wavre, and was by now too far away to reach Waterloo. Grouchy was advised by his subordinate, Gérard, to "march to the sound of the guns", but stuck to his orders and engaged the Prussian III Corps rear guard under the command of Lieutenant-General Baron Johann von Thielmann at the Battle of Wavre. A little after 13:00, I Corps' attack began. D'Erlon, like Ney, had encountered Wellington in Spain, and was aware of the British commander's favoured tactic of using massed short-range musketry to drive off infantry columns. Rather than use the usual nine-deep French columns deployed abreast of one another, therefore, each division advanced in closely spaced battalion lines behind one another. This allowed them to concentrate their fire, Barbero, p. 165 but it did not leave room for them to change formation. The formation was initially effective. Its leftmost division, under Donzelot, advanced on La Haye Sainte. While one battalion engaged the defenders from the front, the following battalions fanned out to either side and, with the support of two brigades of cuirassiers, succeeded in isolating the farmhouse. The Prince of Orange saw that La Haye Sainte had been cut off, and tried to reinforce it by sending forward the Hanoverian Lüneberg Battalion in line. Cuirassiers concealed in a fold in the ground caught and destroyed it in minutes, and then rode on past La Haye Sainte almost to the crest of the ridge, where they covered d'Erlon's left flank as his attack developed. At about 13:30, d'Erlon started to advance his three other divisions, some 14,000 men over a front of about 1,000 metres (1,094 yd) against Wellington's weak left wing. Barbero, p. 164 They faced 6,000 men: the first line consisted of the Dutch 2nd division, the second of British and Hanoverian troops under Sir Thomas Picton, who were lying down in dead ground behind the ridge. All had suffered badly at Quatre Bras; in addition, the Dutch brigade under Bijlandt, posted towards the centre of the battlefield, had been ordered to deploy on the forward slope and had been exposed to the artillery battery. Barbero, pp. 166–168 Receiving no orders they had remained in this dangerous position This is contradicted by Dutch sources, especially the after-battle account of the chief-of-staff of the 2nd Netherlands Division, colonel Van Zuylen van Nyevelt; see e.g. Erwin Muilwijk,Bylandt's brigade during the morning . As the French advanced, Bijlandt's brigade withdrew to the sunken lane, and then, with nearly all their officers dead or wounded, left the battlefield, leaving just the 7th, "Belgian" batallion. Barbero, p. 177 Longford, p. 556The Dutch were booed by some units as they left the battlefield, though some disagreed with this as they thought that they might be more Bonapartists than cowards. D'Erlon's men began to ascend the slope, and as they did so, Picton's men stood up and opened fire. The French infantry returned fire and successfully pressured Wellington's troops; although the attack faltered at the centre of Wellington's position, Barbero, p. 174 the left wing started to crumble. Picton was killed and the British and Hanoverian troops began to give way under the pressure of numbers. Charge of the British heavy cavalry At this crucial juncture, Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry, formed unseen behind the ridge, to charge in support of the hard-pressed infantry. The 1st Brigade, known as the Household Brigade, commanded by Major-General Edward Somerset (Lord Somerset), consisted of 'guards regiments': the 1st and 2nd Life Guards, the Royal Horse Guards (the Blues), and the 1st 'King's' Dragoon Guards. The 2nd Brigade, also known as the Union Brigade, commanded by Major-General Sir William Ponsonby, was so called as it consisted of an English (1st, 'The Royals'), a Scottish (2nd, 'Scots Greys'), and an Irish (6th, 'Inniskilling') regiment of heavy dragoons. More than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent; this resulted in the British heavy cavalry entering the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm. They also received excellent mounted swordsmanship training. They were, however, inferior to the French in manoeuvring in large formations, cavalier in attitude, and unlike the infantry had scant experience of warfare. According to Wellington, they had little tactical ability or nous (common sense). Barbero, pp. 185–187 The two brigades had a combined field strength of about 2,000 (2,651 official strength), and they charged with the 47-year-old Uxbridge leading them and little reserve. Barbero, p. 188Three squadrons for the Household Brigade and none for the Union out of nineteen squadrons in total. Siborne, HT., Letter 5 Glover, Letter 16The total may have been 18 squadrons as there is an uncertainty in the sources as to whether the King's Dragoon Guards fielded three or four squadrons. There is evidence that Uxbridge gave an order, the morning of the battle, to all cavalry brigade commanders to commit their commands on their own initiative, as direct orders from himself might not always be forthcoming, and to "support movements to their front". It appears that Uxbridge expected the brigades of Vandeleur, Vivian and the Dutch cavalry to provide support to the British heavies. The Sunken Road at Waterloo, by Stanley Berkley The Household Brigade charged down the hill in the centre of the battlefield. The French brigade of cuirassiers guarding d'Erlon's left flank were still dispersed, and so were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed. Barbero, note 18, p. 426An episode famously used later by Victor Hugo in Les Miserables. The sunken lane acted as a trap which funnelled the flight of the French cavalry to their own right, away from the British cavalry. Some of the cuirassiers then found themselves hemmed in by the steep sides of the sunken lane, with a confused mass of their own infantry in front of them, the 95th Rifles firing at them from the north side of the lane, and Somerset's heavy cavalry still pressing them from behind. Siborne, W., pp. 410–411 The novelty of fighting armoured foes impressed the British cavalrymen, as was recorded by the commander of the Household Brigade. Continuing their attack, the squadrons on the left of the Household Brigade then destroyed Aulard's brigade. Despite attempts to recall them, however, they continued past La Haye Sainte and found themselves at the bottom of the hill on blown horses facing Schmitz's brigade formed in squares. Sergeant Ewart of the Scots Greys capturing the eagle of the 45eme Ligne To their left, the Union Brigade suddenly swept through the infantry lines (giving rise to the legend that some of the 92nd Gordon Highland Regiment clung onto their stirrups and accompanied them into the charge). This anecdote can be found in The Waterloo Papers by E. Bruce Low contained in With Napoleon at Waterloo, MacBride, M., (editor), London 1911. The tale was related, in old age, by a Sgt-Major Dickinson of the Greys, reputedly the last survivor of the charge. From the centre leftwards, the Royal Dragoons destroyed Bourgeois' brigade, capturing the eagle of the 105th Ligne. The Inniskillings routed the other brigade of Quoit's division, and the Greys destroyed most of Nogue's brigade, capturing the eagle of the 45th Ligne. Barbero, pp. 198–204 On Wellington's extreme left, Durutte's division had time to form squares and fend off groups of Greys. As with the Household Cavalry, the officers of the Royals and Inniskillings found it very difficult to rein back their troops, who lost all cohesion. James Hamilton, commander of the Greys (who were supposed to form a reserve) ordered a continuation of the charge to the French grande batterie. Though the Greys had neither the time nor means to disable the cannon or carry them off, they put very many out of action as the gun crews fled the battlefield. Barbero, p. 211 Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter-attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot's two lancer regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division. The result was very heavy losses for the British cavalry. Siborne, W., pp. 425–426. All figures quoted for the losses of the cavalry brigades as a result of this charge are estimates, as casualties were only noted down after the day of the battle and were for the battle as a whole. Adkin, p. 217 (for initial strengths) Smith, p. 544 (for losses) Losses are ultimately from the official returns taken the day after the battle: Household Brigade, initial strength 1,319, killed – 95, wounded – 248, missing – 250, totals – 593, horses lost – 672. Union Brigade, initial strength 1,332, killed – 264, wounded – 310, missing – 38, totals – 612, horses lost – 631. Some historians believe the official rolls tend to overestimate the number of cavalrymen present in their squadrons on the field of battle and that the proportionate losses were, as a result, considerably higher than the numbers on paper might suggest. This view appears to have arisen from a comment by Captain Clark-Kennedy of the 1st Dragoons 'Royals', in a letter in H. T. Siborne's book, he makes an estimate of around 900 men actually in line within the Union Brigade before its first charge. He does not, however, explain how his estimate was arrived at. The shortfall of 432 men (the equivalent of a whole regiment) from the paper strength of the brigade is large. By comparison the 15th Hussars, at approximately the same paper strength as each of the Union Brigade regiments, had about 60 men detached or in the rear at the start of the battle (Glover, Gareth. From Corunna to Waterloo: the Letters and Journals of Two Napoleonic Hussars, 1801–1816. London: Greenhill Books, 2007). By extrapolation a figure of around 180 men, rather than more than 400, from the brigade could be expected to be detached. The Union Brigade lost heavily in both officers and men killed (including its commander, William Ponsonby, and Colonel Hamilton of the Scots Greys) and wounded. The 2nd Life Guards and the King's Dragoon Guards of the Household Brigade also lost heavily (with Colonel Fuller, commander of the King's DG, killed). However, the 1st Life Guards, on the extreme right of the charge, and the Blues, who formed a reserve, had kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties. A counter-charge, by British and Dutch light dragoons and hussars on the left wing and Dutch carabiniers in the centre, repelled the French cavalry back to their positions. Barbero, pp. 219–223 Siborne, W., pp. 329, 349 (composition of brigades), pp. 422–424 (actions of brigades)Note: William Siborne was in possession of a number of eyewitness accounts from generals, such as Uxbridge, down to cavalry cornets and infantry ensigns. This makes his history particularly useful (though only from the British and KGL perspective); some of these eyewitness letters were later published by his son, a British Major General (H.T. Siborne)). Parts of Siborne's account was, and is, highly controversial. The very negative light shed on the conduct of the Dutch troops during the battle by Siborne prompted a semi-official rebuttal by Dutch historian captain Willem Jan Knoop in his "Beschouwingen over Siborne's Geschiedenis van den oorlog van 1815 in Frankrijk en de Nederlanden" en wederlegging van de in dat werk voorkomende beschuldigingen tegen het Nederlandsche leger. Breda 1846; 2nd printing 1847. Knoop based his rebuttal on the official Dutch after-battle reports, drawn up within days of the battle, not on twenty-year-old recollections of veterans, like Siborne. Interestingly, some of the Dutch reports (like that of Col. Van Zuylen van Nyevelt, the chief-of-staff of the Dutch 2nd division) seem to have been available to Siborne, but he chose not to use them. Many popular histories suggest that the British heavy cavalry were destroyed as a viable force following their first, epic charge. Examination of eyewitness accounts reveals, however, that far from being ineffective, they continued to provide very valuable services. They counter-charged French cavalry numerous times (both brigades), Siborne, H.T., Letters: 18, 26, 104 halted a combined cavalry and infantry attack (Household Brigade only), Siborne, H.T., p. 38 Siborne, W., p. 463 were used to bolster the morale of those units in their vicinity at times of crisis, and filled gaps in the Anglo-Allied line caused by high casualties in infantry formations (both brigades). Siborne, H.T., Letters 9, 18, 36 This service was rendered at a very high cost, as close combat with French cavalry, carbine fire, infantry musketry and – more deadly than all of these – artillery fire steadily eroded the number of effectives In a cavalry unit an "effective" was an unwounded trooper mounted on a sound horse. The military term "effective" describes a soldier, piece of equipment (eg. a tank or aircraft) or military unit capable of fighting or carrying out its intended purpose. in the two brigades. At the end of the fighting the two brigades, by this time combined, could muster only a few composite squadrons. Some 20,000 French troops had been committed to this attack. Its failure cost Napoleon not only heavy casualties – 3,000 prisoners were taken – but valuable time, as the Prussians now began to appear on the field to his right. Napoleon sent his reserve, Lobau's VI corps and two cavalry divisions, some 15,000 troops, to hold them back. With this, Napoleon had committed all of his infantry reserves, except the Guard, and he now had to beat Wellington not only quickly, but with inferior numbers. The French cavalry attack A little before 16:00, Ney noted an apparent exodus from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Following the defeat of d'Erlon's Corps, Ney had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney therefore tried to break Wellington's centre with cavalry alone. Siborne, W., p. 439 Initially Milhaud's reserve cavalry corps of cuirassiers and Lefebvre-Desnoëttes' light cavalry division of the Imperial Guard, some 4,800 sabres, were committed. When these were repulsed, Kellermann's heavy cavalry corps and Guyot's heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to the massed assault, a total of around 9,000 cavalry in 67 squadrons. Adkin, p. 356 "French Cuirassiers", artist unknown. Wellington's army responded by forming squares (hollow box-formations four ranks deep). Squares were much smaller than usually depicted in paintings of the battle – a 500-man battalion square would have been no more than 60 feet (18 m) in length on a side. Vulnerable to artillery or infantry, squares that stood their ground were deadly to cavalry, because they could not be outflanked and because horses would not charge into a hedge of bayonets. Wellington ordered his artillery crews to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry approached, and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated. Witnesses in the British infantry recorded as many as 12 assaults, though this probably includes successive waves of the same general attack; the number of general assaults was undoubtedly far fewer. Kellermann, recognising the futility of the attacks, tried to reserve the elite carabinier brigade from joining in, but eventually Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement. Adkin, p. 359 A British eyewitness of the first French cavalry attack, an officer in the Foot Guards, recorded his impressions very lucidly and somewhat poetically: "The artillery officers had the range so accurately, that every shot and shell fell into the very centre of their masses." (Original inscription by Jones) In essence this type of massed cavalry attack relied almost entirely on psychological shock for effect. Weller, pp. 211–212 Close artillery support could disrupt infantry squares and allow cavalry to penetrate; at Waterloo, however, co-operation between the French cavalry and artillery was not impressive. The French artillery did not get close enough to the Anglo-allied infantry in sufficient numbers to be decisive. Adkin, pp. 252, 361 Artillery fire between charges did produce mounting casualties, but most of this fire was at relatively long range and was often indirect, at targets beyond the ridge. If infantry being attacked held firm in their square defensive formations, and were not panicked, cavalry on their own could do very little damage to them. The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry squares, the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive counter-charges of Wellington's light cavalry regiments, the Dutch heavy cavalry brigade, and the remaining effectives of the Household Cavalry. At least one artillery officer disobeyed Wellington's order to seek shelter in the adjacent squares during the charges. Captain Mercer, who commanded 'G' Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, thought the Brunswick troops on either side of him so shaky This qualification may have been self-serving on Mercer's part. Wellington himself sought refuge in the "shaky" Brunswick squares at the time and observed what he interpreted as acts of cowardice by British artillerymen, who "...ran off the field entirely, taking with them limbers, ammunition, and everything..." as he wrote in a letter of December 21, 1815 to the Master-General of the Ordnance, Lord Mulgrave. The incident even justified the denial of pensions to members of the Artillery Corps in his view. So, where Mercer claimed heroism, Wellington saw the opposite. See for the full text of Wellington's letter, and an attempted rebuttal (1879) History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Appendix A, pp. 444-464. The letter was originally published in WSD, vol. XIV (1858 ed.), pp. 618-620 that he kept his battery of six nine-pounders in action against the cavalry throughout, to great effect: After numerous fruitless attacks on the Mont St Jean ridge, the French cavalry was spent. Weller, p. 114 Their casualties cannot easily be estimated. Senior French cavalry officers, in particular the generals, experienced heavy losses. Four divisional commanders were wounded, nine brigadiers wounded, and one killed – testament to their courage and their habit of leading from the front. Illustratively, Houssaye reports that the Grenadiers à Cheval numbered 796 of all ranks on 15 June, but just 462 on 19 June, while the Empress Dragoons lost 416 of 816 over the same period. Houssaye, p. 522 Overall Guyot's Guard heavy cavalry division lost 47 percent of its strength. The Grenadiers à Cheval. Napoleon can be seen in the background on a grey horse. A number of different mounts could have been ridden by Napoleon at Waterloo: Ali, Crebère, Désirée, Jaffa, Marie and Tauris (Summerville p. 315) Lozier states it was Désirée (Lozier). Eventually it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps (about 6,500 infantrymen) plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks. Adkin, p. 361 It was halted by a charge of the Household Brigade cavalry led by Uxbridge. The British cavalry were unable, however, to break the French infantry, and fell back with losses from musketry fire. Siborne, H.T., pp. 14, 38–39 Uxbridge recorded that he tried to lead the Dutch Carabiniers, under Major-General Trip, to renew the attack and that they refused to follow him. Other members of the British cavalry staff also commented on this occurrence. Siborne, H.T., pp. 14–15 and letters 6,7 and 9. However, there is no support for this incident in Dutch or Belgian sources On the contrary, many contradicted this British account vehemently. See e.g. (1879) "Dissertation sur la participation des troupes des Pays-Bas a la campagne de 1815 en Belgique", in: Societé royale des beaux arts et de litérature de Gand, Messager des Sciences Historiques, pp. 131-198. ; , "Beschouwingen over Siborne's Geschiedenis van den oorlog van 1815 in Frankrijk en de Nederlanden" en wederlegging van de in dat werk voorkomende beschuldigingen tegen het Nederlandsche leger. Breda 1846; 2nd printing 1847; (1817) An historical account of the battle of Waterloo, p. 30 written in 1816 on the basis of eyewitness accounts does not mention the incident. . Bachelu's and Tissot's men and their cavalry supports were being hard hit meanwhile, by fire from artillery and from Adam's infantry brigade, and eventually fell back themselves. Although the French cavalry caused few direct casualties to Wellington's centre, artillery fire onto his infantry squares caused many. The Anglo-allied cavalry, except for Sir John Vandeleur's and Sir Hussey Vivian's brigades on the far left, had all been committed to the fight, and had taken significant losses. The situation appeared so desperate that the Cumberland Hussars, the only Hanoverian cavalry regiment present, fled the field spreading alarm all the way to Brussels. Siborne, W., p. 465The commander of this regiment, who was later court-martialled and cashiered, claimed that as his troopers (all well-to-do young Hanoverians) owned their own horses he could not order them to remain on the field. Following the battle the regiment was broken up and the troopers assigned duties they, no-doubt, considered ignominious. Four were posted to Captain Mercer's horse artillery troop, where he found them "amazingly snappish and sulky with everyone" (see: Mercer, A.C.). At approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, rallied elements of D'Erlon's I Corps, spearheaded by the 13th Légère, renewed the attack on La Haye Sainte, and this time were successful (partly because the defenders' ammunition ran out). Beamish, p. 367 Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to pulverise the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. A small detail in this unsuccessful cavalry offensive is that, contrary to their habit, the French Cavalry under Marshal Ney, did not bring headless nails with them. After the capture of the heavy British guns, the Cavalry could have made them unusable by inserting a small headless nail into the priming tube. If they had done so, the British could not have used them so devastatingly against the French Infantry after they recaptured them a short while later. If the French infantry had remained intact until they came into contact with British Forces they might have won, and the Imperial Guard would never have been deployed and, possibly, the outcome of the Battle would have been different. Arrival of the Prussian IV Corps: Plancenoit Prussian attack Plancenoit The first Prussian corps to arrive was Bülow's IV Corps. His objective was Plancenoit, which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions. Blücher intended to secure his right upon Frichermont using the Bois de Paris road. Hofschröer (1999), p. 116 Blücher and Wellington had been exchanging communications since 10:00 am and had agreed to this advance on Frichermont if Wellington's centre was under attack. Hofschröer (1999), p. 95 Chesney, p. 165 General Bülow noted that the way to Plancenoit lay open and that the time was 16:30. At about this time, as the French cavalry attack was in full spate, the 15th Brigade IV Corps was sent to link up with the Nassauers of Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area with the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Hofschröer (1999), p. 117 Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade threw Lobau's troops out of Frichermont with a determined bayonet charge, then proceeded up the Frichermont heights, battering French Chasseurs with 12-pounder artillery fire, and pushed on to Plancenoit. This sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area, and in effect drove Lobau past the rear of the Armee Du Nord's right flank and directly threatened its only line of retreat. Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed. The Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Hofschröer (1999), p. 122 Napoleon sent two battalions of the Middle/Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious bayonet fighting — they did not deign to fire their muskets — and this force recaptured the village. The dogged Prussians were still not beaten, and approximately 30,000 troops of IV and II Corps, under Bülow and Pirch, attacked Plancenoit again. It was defended by 20,000 Frenchmen in and around the village. Zieten's flank march Throughout the late afternoon, Zieten's I Corps had been arriving in greater strength in the area just north of La Haie. General Müffling, Prussian liaison to Wellington, rode to meet I Corps. Zieten had by this time brought up his 1st Brigade, but had become concerned at the sight of stragglers and casualties, from the Nassau units on Wellington's left and from the Prussian 15th Brigade. These troops appeared to be withdrawing, and Zieten, fearing that his own troops would be caught up in a general retreat, was starting to move away from Wellington's flank and towards the Prussian main body near Plancenoit. Müffling saw this movement away and persuaded Zieten to support Wellington's left flank. Zieten resumed his march to support Wellington directly, and the arrival of his troops allowed Wellington to reinforce his crumbling centre by moving cavalry from his left. Hofschröer (1999), p. 125 I Corps proceeded to attack the French troops before Papelotte and by 19:30, the French position was bent into a rough horseshoe shape. The ends of the line were now based on Hougoumont on the left, Plancenoit on the right, and the centre on La Haie. Hofschröer (1999), p. 139 Durutte had taken the positions of La Haie and Papelotte in a series of attacks, but now retreated behind Smohain without opposing the Prussian 24th Regiment as it retook both. The 24th advanced against the new French position, was repulsed, and returned to the attack supported by Silesian Schützen (riflemen) and the F/1st Landwehr. Hofschröer (1999), p. 140 The French initially fell back before the renewed assault, but now began seriously to contest ground, attempting to regain Smohain and hold on to the ridgeline and the last few houses of Papelotte. The 24th Regiment linked up with a Highlander battalion on its far right and along with the 13th Landwehr regiment and cavalry support threw the French out of these positions. Further attacks by the 13th Landwehr and the 15th Brigade drove the French from Frichermont. Hofschröer (1999), p. 141. Durutte's division, finding itself about to be charged by massed squadrons of Zieten's I Corps cavalry reserve, retreated from the battlefield. I Corps then advanced to the Brussels road and the only line of retreat available to the French. Attack of the Imperial Guard Meanwhile, with Wellington's centre exposed by the fall of La Haye Sainte, and the Plancenoit front temporarily stabilised, Napoleon committed his last reserve, the hitherto-undefeated Imperial Guard. This attack, mounted at around 19:30, was intended to break through Wellington's centre and roll up his line away from the Prussians. Although it is one of the most celebrated passages of arms in military history, it is unclear which units actually participated. It appears that it was mounted by five battalions Barbero notes that two Chasseur battalions were merged into one on the day of the battle, so while five Guard formations went forward, they may have comprised six battalions. of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Grenadier of the Old Guard, by Edouard Detaille Three Old Guard battalions did move forward and formed the attack's second line, though they remained in reserve and did not directly assault the Anglo-allied line. Adkin p. 391The attacking battalions were 1st/3rd and 4th Grenadiers and 1st/3rd, 2nd/3rd and 4th Chasseurs of the Middle Guard; those remaining in reserve were the 2nd/2nd Grenadiers, 2nd/1st and 2nd/2nd Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte, and in so doing, separated into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated Wellington's first line of British, Brunswick and Nassau troops and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them and its artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke. Chesney, pp. 178–9 Further to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to answer the fire, but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retired with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Parry p. 70 Under this onslaught they too broke. The last of the Guard retreated headlong. A ripple of panic passed through the French lines as the astounding news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard retreats. Save yourself if you can!"). Wellington now stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance. His army rushed forward from the lines and threw themselves upon the retreating French. The surviving Imperial Guard rallied on their three reserve battalions (some sources say four) just south of La Haye Sainte, for a last stand. A charge from Adam's Brigade and the Hanoverian Landwehr Osnabrück Battalion, plus Vivian's and Vandeleur's relatively fresh cavalry brigades to their right, threw them into confusion. Those left in semi-cohesive units retreated towards La Belle Alliance. It was during this retreat that some of the Guards were invited to surrender exhorting the famous retort "La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!" ("The Guard dies, it does not surrender!") White The reply is commonly attributed to General Pierre Cambronne originating from an attribution by the journalist Balison de Rougemont in Journal General published on 24 June 1815 (Shapiro (2006) p. 128), although Cambronne clamed he replied "Merde!" (Boller p. 12). However according to letters in The Times in June 1932, Cambronne was already a prisoner of Colonel Hugh Halkett, so the retort, in whatever form it took, may have come from General Michel instead. (White, and Parry p. 70) Capture of Plancenoit At about the same time, the Prussian 5th, 14th, and 16th Brigades were starting to push through Plancenoit, in the third assault of the day. The church was by now on fire, while its graveyard — the French centre of resistance — had corpses strewn about "as if by a whirlwind". Hofschröer, pp. 144,145 Five Guard battalions were deployed in support of the Young Guard, virtually all of which was now committed to the defence, along with remnants of Lobau's corps. The key to the Plancenoit position proved to be the Chantelet woods to the south. Pirch's II Corps had arrived with two brigades and reinforced the attack of IV Corps, advancing through the woods. The 25th Regiment's musketeer battalions threw the 1/2e Grenadiers (Old Guard) out of the Chantelet woods, outflanking Plancenoit and forcing a retreat. The Old Guard retreated in good order until they met the mass of troops retreating in panic, and became part of that rout. The Prussian IV Corps advanced beyond Plancenoit to find masses of French retreating from British pursuit in disorder. The Prussians were unable to fire for fear of hitting Anglo-allied units. This was the fifth and final time that Plancenoit changed hands. French forces not retreating with the Guard were surrounded in their positions and eliminated, neither side asking for nor offering quarter. The French Young Guard Division would report 96 percent casualties, and two-thirds of Lobau's Corps ceased to exist. Disintegration Lord Hill invites the last remnants of the French Imperial Guard to surrender. Artist unknown. The French right, left, and centre had all now failed. The last cohesive French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around La Belle Alliance, the final reserve and personal bodyguard for Napoleon. Napoleon hoped to rally the French army behind them Kincaid but as retreat turned into rout, they too were forced to withdraw, one on either side of La Belle Alliance, in square as protection against Coalition cavalry. Until persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave, Napoleon commanded the square to the left of the inn. Drouet Creasy, Chapter XV. Battle of Waterloo, A.D. 1815Fifteen decisive battles of the world from Marathon to Waterloo. Adam's Brigade charged and forced back this square, Hofschröer (1999), p. 149 while the Prussians engaged the other. As dusk fell, both squares withdrew in relatively good order, but the French artillery and everything else fell into the hands of the allies. The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing, broken French troops. Coalition cavalry harried the fugitives until about 23:00, with Gneisenau pursuing them as far as Genappe before ordering a halt. There, Napoleon's abandoned carriage was captured, still containing diamonds left in the rush. These became part of King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia's crown jewels, one Major Keller of the F/15th receiving the Pour le Mérite with oak leaves for the feat. Hofschröer (1999), p. 151 By this time 78 guns and 2,000 prisoners had also been taken, including more generals. Hofschröer (1999), p. 150 Aftermath "The morning after the battle of Waterloo", by John Heaviside Clarke, 1816. Historian Peter Hofschröer has written that Wellington and Blücher met at Genappe around 22:00 signifying the end of the battle. Other sources have recorded that the meeting took place around 21:00 near Napoleon's former headquarters at La Belle Alliance. Regimental history of the Rifles: Battle of Waterloo on an old website of the British Ministry of Defence. See the link near the bottom called "here" (ppt) Slide 39 Waterloo cost Wellington around 15,000 dead and wounded, and Blücher some 7,000 (810 of which were suffered by just one unit, the 18th Regiment, which served in Bulow's 15th Brigade, fought at both Frichermont and Plancenoit, and won 33 Iron Crosses. Prussian Reserve Infantry 1813–1815, Robert Mantle, Napoleonic Association, 1977 ). Napoleon lost 25,000 dead or injured, with 8,000 taken prisoner. At 10:30 on 19 June General Grouchy, still following his orders, defeated General Thielemann at Wavre and withdrew in good order though at the cost of 33,000 French troops that never reached the Waterloo battlefield. Wellington, Blücher and other Coalition forces advanced upon Paris. Napoleon announced his second abdication on 24 June 1815. In the final skirmish of the Napoleonic Wars, Marshal Davout, Napoleon's minister of war, was defeated by Blücher at Issy on 3 July 1815. Nuttal Encyclopaedia: Issy Allegedly, Napoleon tried to escape to North America, but the Royal Navy was blockading French ports to forestall such a move. He finally surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS Bellerophon on 15 July. There was a campaign against French fortresses that still held out; Longwy capitulated on 13 September 1815, the last to do so. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne of France, and Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. Hofschröer (1999), pp. 274–276, 320 Maitland's 1st Foot Guards, who had defeated the Chasseurs of the Guard, were thought to have defeated the Grenadiers; they were awarded the title of Grenadier Guards in recognition of their feat, and adopted bearskins in the style of the Grenadiers. Britain's Household Cavalry likewise adopted the cuirass in 1821 in recognition of their success against their armoured French counterparts. The effectiveness of the lance was noted by all participants and this weapon subsequently became more widespread throughout Europe; the British converted their first light cavalry regiment to lancers in 1816. Waterloo was a decisive battle in more than one sense. It definitively ended the series of wars that had convulsed Europe, and involved many other regions of the world, since the French Revolution of the early 1790s. It also ended the political and military career of Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the greatest commanders and statesmen in history. Finally, it ushered in almost half a century of international peace in Europe; no major conflict was to occur until the Crimean War. A French view of the reasons for Napoleon's defeat General Baron Jomini, one of the leading military writers on the Napoleonic art of war had a number of very cogent explanations of the reasons behind Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. Jomini was Swiss by birth, but was an officer, eventually a general, in the French army and had served on the staff of Marshal Ney. The battlefield today Lion's Mound at Waterloo, erected on the spot where it is believed the Prince of Orange was wounded Some portions of the terrain on the battlefield have been altered from their 1815 appearance. Tourism began the day after the battle, with Captain Mercer noting that on 19 June "a carriage drove on the ground from Brussels, the inmates of which, alighting, proceeded to examine the field". Captain Cavalie Mercer, RHA In 1820, the Netherlands' King William I ordered the construction of a monument on the spot where it was believed his son, the Prince of Orange, had been wounded. The Lion's Hillock, a giant mound, was constructed here, using 300,000 cubic metres (392,000 cu yd) of earth taken from other parts of the battlefield, including Wellington's sunken road. However, other terrain features and notable landmarks on the field have remained virtually unchanged since the battle. These include the rolling farmland to the east of the Brussels-Charleroi Road as well as the buildings at Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte, and La Belle Alliance. Apart from the Lion Mound, there are several more conventional but noteworthy monuments scattered throughout the battlefield. A cluster of monuments at the Brussels-Charleroi and Braine L'Alleud-Ohain crossroads mark the mass graves of English, Dutch, Hanoverian and KGL troops. A monument to the French dead entitled The Wounded Eagle (L'aigle Blessé) marks the location where it is believed one of the French guard units formed square during the closing moments of the battle. A monument to the Prussian dead is located in the village of Placenoit on the site where one of their artillery batteries took position. See also Lord Uxbridge's leg was shattered by a grape-shot at the Battle of Waterloo and removed by a surgeon. The amputated limb went on to lead a somewhat macabre after-life as a tourist attraction in the village of Waterloo in Belgium. Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815): involved Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions. Timeline of the Napoleonic era Waterloo in popular culture: describes the cultural impact of the battle. Waterloo Medal awarded to those soldiers of the British Army who fought at the battle. Notes References Adkin, Mark (2001). The Waterloo Companion. Aurum. ISBN 1-85410-764-X Barbero, Alessandro (2005). The Battle: A New History of Waterloo. Atlantic Books. ISBN 1-84354-310-9 Beamish, N. Ludlow (1832, reprint 1995). History of the King's German Legion. Dallington: Naval and Military Press. ISBN 0-952201-10-0 Boller, Jr., Paul F.; George, John (1989). They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, and Misleading Attributions. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505541-1. Bonaparte, Napoleon; Correspondance, No. 22060, vol XXVIII, p. 392. Bonaparte, Napoleon; Chandler David G. Cairnes William E. (1995). The Military Maxims of Napoleon, Da Capo Press, ISBN 0306806185, 9780306806186 Booth, John (1815). The Battle of Waterloo: Containing the Accounts Published by Authority, British and Foreign, and Other Relevant Documents, with Circumstantial Details, Previous and After the Battle, from a Variety of Authentic and Original Sources. available on Google Books Chandler, David G. (1973). Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-02523-660-1 Chesney, Charles C. (1907). Waterloo Lectures: A Study Of The Campaign Of 1815. Longmans, Green, and Co. ISBN 1428649883 Cookson, John E. (1996). The British Armed Nation, 1793-1815. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198206585 Cotton, Edward (1849). A voice from Waterloo. A history of the battle, on the 18th June 1815. London: B.L. Green. Creasy, Sir Edward (1877). The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo. Richard Bentley & Son. ISBN 0-30680-559-6 Drouet J-B, (1805). Drouet's account of Waterloo to the French Parliament. napoleonbonaparte.nl. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Fitchett, W. H. (1897, reprint 1921 & 2006). Deeds that Won the Empire. Historic Battle Scenes. London: John Murray. (Project Gutenberg). Chapter: King-making Waterloo Frye, W. E. After Waterloo: Reminiscences of European Travel 1815–1819, Project Gutenberg Gleig, George Robert (ed) (1845). The Light Dragoon. London: George Routledge & Co. Gronow, R. H. (1862). Reminiscences of Captain Gronow London. ISBN 1-40432-792-4 Hofschröer, Peter (1998). 1815: The Waterloo Campaign. Vol. 1: Wellington, His German Allies and the Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1853673047 Hofschröer, Peter (1999). 1815: The Waterloo Campaign. Vol. 2: The German Victory. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1853673689 Hofschröer, Peter (2005). Waterloo 1815: Quatre Bras and Ligny. London: Leo Cooper. ISBN 978-1844151684 Houssaye, Henri. Waterloo (translated from the French), London, 1900. Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables "Chapter VII: Napoleon in a Good Humor". The Literature Network. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Jomini, Antoine-Henri (1864). The Political and Military History of the Campaign of Waterloo (Trans. Benet S.V.)]. (3rd edn.) New York; D. Van Nostrand. Kincaid, Captain J., Rifle Brigade. Waterloo, 18 June 1815: The Finale. iprimus.com.au. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Longford, Elizabeth (1971). Wellington the Years of the Sword. London: Panther. ISBN 0-58603-548-6 The whole of Mercer's book "Journal of the Waterloo Campaign: Kept Throughout the Campaign of 1815" can be found on Google Books. Lozier J.F. [http://www.napoleon-series.org/faq/c_horses.html What was the name of Napoleon's horse?, The Napoleon Series. Parry, D.H. (1900). Waterloo from Battle of the nineteenth century, Vol. 1. London: Cassell and Company. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Roberts, Andrew (2005). Waterloo: June 18, 1815, the Battle for Modern Europe. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-008866-4 Siborne, H.T. (1891, reprint 1993). The Waterloo Letters. New York & London: Cassell & Greenhill Books. ISBN 1853671568 Siborne, William (1844, reprint 1894 & 1990). The Waterloo Campaign. Birmingham. 4th edition. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 1853670693 Smith, Digby (1998). The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London & Pennsylvania: Greenhill Books & Stackpole Books. ISBN 1-85367-276-9 Summerville, Christopher J. (2007). Who was who at Waterloo: a biography of the battle, Pearson Education, ISBN 0582784050, 9780582784055 Weller, J. (1992). Wellington at Waterloo, London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85376-339-0 Wellesley, Arthur Wellington's Dispatches June 19, 1815. War Times Journal Archives. White, John. Cambronne's Words Letters to The Times (June 1932). NapoleonSeries.org. Retrieved on 14 September 2007. Further reading Articles Anonymous. Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo 1815 Bijl, Marco, 8th Dutch Militia a history of the 8th Dutch Militia battalion and the Bylandt Brigade, of which it was a part, in the 1815 campaign (using original sources from the Dutch and Belgian national archives) Timeline of the Napoleonic era Lichfield, John. Waterloo's significance to the French and British – including proportions of soldiers by nation The Independent, 17 November 2004 Staff, Battle of Waterloo a British regimental account on the The Rifles web site Staff, Empire and Sea Power: The Battle of Waterloo BBC History, 9 June 2006 Muilwijk, Erwin. Contribution of the Netherlands Mobile Army during the 1815 campaign. Gives full account of the Dutch troops that fought at Quatre-Bras, based on many unknown primary sources. de Wit, Pierre. The campaign of 1815: a study. Study of the campaign of 1815, based on sources from all participating armies. Keegan, John. The Face of Battle Books Glover, Michael (1973). The Napoleonic Wars: An Illustrated History, 1792–1815. Hippocrene Books New York; ISBN 0-882-54473-X Hofschröer, Peter (2004). Wellington's Smallest Victory: The Duke, the Model Maker and the Secret of Waterloo. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21769-9 Howarth, David (2003). Waterloo - A Near Run Thing. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-842-12719-5 Maps Map of the battlefield Battle of Waterloo maps and diagrams Map of the battlefield on modern Google map and satellite photographs showing main locations of the battlefield 1816 Map of the battlefield with initial dispositions by Willem Benjamin Craan Primary sources The published version of Wellington's initial despatch describing the battle. Casualty returns. Cook, Christopher. 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1,783 | Beer | Leffe, a Belgian beer, served in its own branded glasses Schlenkerla Rauchbier straight from the cask Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains—the most common of which is malted barley, although wheat, maize (corn), and rice are widely used. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi," a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries and are commonly categorized into two main types — the globally popular pale lagers, and the regionally distinct ales, All Beer is Either Ale or Lager which are further categorised into other varieties such as pale ale, stout and brown ale. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (abv.) though may range from less than 1% abv., to over 20% abv. in rare cases. Beer forms part of the culture of various beer-drinking nations and has acquired various social traditions and associations, such as beer festivals and a rich pub culture involving activities such as pub crawling or pub games such as bar billiards. History Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt, Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, San Jose, California Beer is one of the world's oldest beverages, possibly dating back to the early Neolithic or 9000 BC, and is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.<ref>; Michael M. Homan, 'Beer and Its Drinkers: An Ancient near Eastern Love Story, Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 2004), pp. 84-95.</ref> The earliest Sumerian writings contain references to a type of beer. A prayer to the goddess Ninkasi, known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi", serves as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. As almost any substance containing carbohydrates, mainly sugar or starch, can naturally undergo fermentation, it is likely that beer-like beverages were independently invented among various cultures throughout the world. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization. The earliest known chemical evidence of beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, Prehistoric brewing: the true story, 22 October 2001, Archaeo News. Retrieved 13 September 2008 though it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Dreher Breweries, Beer-history The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. The early European beers might contain alongside the basic starch source: fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic drugs. Max Nelson, The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe pp2, Routledge (2005), ISBN 0-415-31121-7 What they did not contain was hops, as that was a later addition—first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot Google Books Richard W. Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance pp57, University of Pennsylvania Press ( 2004), ISBN 0-8122-3795-1 and again in 1067 by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen. Max Nelson, The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe pp110, Routledge (2005), ISBN 0-415-31121-7 Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. More than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons) are sold per year (the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side), producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion) in 2006. Brewing The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of beer's history. A company which makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is classed as homebrewing regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made in the home. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, which from the late 19th century, largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972, and the USA in 1979, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby. A 16th century brewery The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast. The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as "mashing". Hot water (known as "liquor" in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as "grist") in a mash tun. Roger Protz, Roger Protz tries his hand at brewing, Beer-pages.com, June 2007 The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours, Steve Parkes, British Brewing, American Brewers Guild during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are now washed in a process known as "sparging". This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is lautering, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium. Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow a more finely ground grist. Goldhammer, Ted (2008), The Brewer's Handbook, 2nd ed., Apex, ISBN 978-0-9675212-3-7 pp. 181 ff. Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer. This process is known as second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing. Randy Mosher, Parti-Gyle Brewing, Brewing Techniques, March/April 1994 The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or "copper", (so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper) and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. Hops are added during boiling in order to extract bitterness, flavour and aroma from them. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but less of the hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer. Michael Lewis, Tom W. Young, Brewing, page 275, Springer (2002), ISBN 0-306-47274-0 After boiling, the hopped wort is now cooled, ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter; but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the yeast is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing alcohol, fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear. beer-brewing.com Ted Goldammer, The Brewers Handbook, Chapter 13 - Beer Fermentation, Apex Pub (January 1, 2000), ISBN 0-9675212-0-3. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages, primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity. Google Books Michael Lewis, Tom W. Young, Brewing pp306, Springer (2002), ISBN 0-306-47274-0. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 When the beer has fermented, it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs, aluminum cans, or bottles for other sorts of beer. Harold M. Broderick, Alvin Babb, Beer Packaging: A Manual for the Brewing and Beverage Industries, Master Brewers Association of the Americas (1982) Ingredients Malted barley before roasting The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as malted barley, able to be fermented (converted into alcohol); a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as hops. alabev.com The Ingredients of Beer. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary starch source, such as maize (corn), rice or sugar, often being termed an adjunct, especially when used as a lower-cost substitute for malted barley. beer-brewing.com Ted Goldammer, The Brewers Handbook, Chapter 6 - Beer Adjuncts, Apex Pub (January 1, 2000), ISBN 0-9675212-0-3. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 Less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava root in Africa, potato in Brazil, and agave in Mexico, among others. BeerHunter.com Michael Jackson, A good beer is a thorny problem down Mexico way, What's Brewing, 1 Oct, 1997. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Water Beer is composed mostly of water. Regions have water with different mineral components; as a result, different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer, thus giving them a regional character. For example, Dublin has hard water well suited to making stout, such as Guinness; while Pilzen has soft water well suited to making pale lager, such as Pilsner Urquell. The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum, which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation. Michael Jackson, BeerHunter, 19 October, 1991, Brewing a good glass of water. Retrieved 13 September 2008 Starch source The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination, and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Wikisource 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brewing/Chemistry. retrieved 29 Sept 2008 Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers. Farm-direct Oz, Barley Malt, 6 Feb 2002. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because of its fibrous husk, which is not only important in the sparging stage of brewing (in which water is washed over the mashed barley grains to form the wort), but also as a rich source of amylase, a digestive enzyme which facilitates conversion of starch into sugars. Other malted and unmalted grains (including wheat, rice, oats, and rye, and less frequently, corn and sorghum) may be used. In recent years, a few brewers have produced gluten-free beer made with sorghum with no barley malt for those who cannot consume gluten-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye. Hops Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops. A. H. Burgess, Hops: Botany, Cultivation and Utilization, Leonard Hill (1964), ISBN 0-471-12350-1 The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard Hops were used by monastery breweries, such as Corvey in Westphalia, Germany, from 822 AD, though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century. Before the thirteenth century, and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants; for instance, Glechoma hederacea. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used. Richard W. Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, University of Pennsylvania Press (2004), ISBN 0-8122-3795-1. Retrieved 14 September 2008. Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company, use plants other than hops for flavouring. Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale. Hops contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer. Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms, and hops aids in "head retention", the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative. PDQ Guides, Hops: Clever Use For a Useless Plan. retrieved 13 September 2008 , A better control of beer properties by predicting acidity of hop iso-α-acids, Blanco Carlos A.; Rojas Antonio; Caballero Pedro A.; Ronda Felicidad; Gomez Manuel; Caballero. retrieved 13 September 2008 Yeast Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains, which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour. Ostergaard, S., Olsson, L., Nielsen, J., Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000 64: 34-50 The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are ale yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and lager yeast (Saccharomyces uvarum); their use distinguishes ale and lager. Google Books Paul R. Dittmer, J. Desmond, Principles of Food, Beverage, and Labor Cost Controls, John Wiley and Sons (2005), ISBN 0-471-42992-9 Brettanomyces ferments lambics, Google Books Ian Spencer Hornsey, Brewing pp221-222, Royal Society of Chemistry (1999), ISBN 0-85404-568-6 and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier. Web.mst.edu David Horwitz, Torulaspora delbrueckii. Retrieved 30 Sept 2008 Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles such as lambics rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures. Google Books Y. H. Hui, George G. Khachatourians, Food Biotechnology pp847-848, Wiley-IEEE (1994), ISBN 0-471-18570-1 Clarifying agent Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers. Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin. EFSA Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, 23/08/2007. retrieved 29 Sept 2008 If a beer is marked "suitable for Vegans", it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents. Food.gov.uk Draft Guidance on the Use of the Terms ‘Vegetarian’ and ‘Vegan’ in Food Labelling: Consultation Responses pp71, 5 October 2005. retrieved 29 Sept 2008 Varieties of beer Kriek, a variety of beer brewed with cherries While there are many types of beer brewed, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. Will Smale, BBC, 20 April 2006, Is today's beer all image over reality?. Retrieved 12 September 2008 The traditional European brewing regions—Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Poland, the Czech Republic, Scandinavia, the Netherlands and Austria—have local varieties of beer. In some countries, notably the USA, Canada and Australia, brewers have adapted European styles to such an extent that they have effectively created their own indigenous types. Despite the regional variations, beer is categorised into two main types based on the temperature of the brewing which influences the behaviour of yeast used during the brewing process — lagers, which are brewed at a low temperature, and the more regionally distinct ales, brewed at a higher temperature. Ales are further categorised into other varieties such as pale ale, stout and brown ale. Michael Jackson, in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer, categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names. Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989. The most common method of categorising beer is by the behaviour of the yeast used in the fermentation process. In this method, beers using a fast-acting yeast which leaves behind residual sugars are termed "ales", while beers using a slower-acting yeast, fermented at lower temperatures, which removes most of the sugars, leaving a clean, dry beer, are termed "lagers". Differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorise. Steam beer, Kölsch, Alt, and some modern British Golden Summer Beers use elements of both lager and ale production. Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager production results in a cleaner-tasting, drier and lighter beer than ale. BeerTutor The Difference Between Ales and Lagers. retrieved 11 Oct 2008 Ale Cask ale hand pumps with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries A modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature. Ales are normally brewed with top-fermenting yeasts (most commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae), though a number of British brewers, including Fullers and Weltons, use ale yeast strains that have less-pronounced top-fermentation characteristics. The important distinction for ales is that they are fermented at higher temperatures and thus ferment more quickly than lagers. Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24°C (60 and 75°F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, or prune, among others. Google Books Lalli Nykänen, Heikki Suomalainen, Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages pp 13, Springer (1983), ISBN 90-277-1553-X A pint of Real Ale in a dimpled glass jug or mug. Typically ales have a sweeter, fuller body than lagers. Before the introduction of hops into England from the Netherlands in the 15th century, the name ale was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages, the term beer being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. This distinction no longer applies. Google books F. G. Priest, Graham G. Stewart, Handbook of Brewing pp2, CRC Press (2006), ISBN 0-8247-2657-X The word ale may come from the Old English ealu, in turn from the Proto-Indo-European base *alut-, which holds connotations of "sorcery, magic, possession, intoxication". Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) in 1973 for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide". It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers. Lambic Lambic, a beer of Belgium, is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness. Webb, Tim; Pollard, Chris; and Pattyn, Joris; Lambicland: Lambikland, Rev Ed. (Cogan and Mater Ltd, 2004), ISBN 0-9547789-0-1 Stout Stout and porter are styles of dark ale made using roasted malts or roast barley, and brewed with top-fermenting ale yeast. There are a number of variations including Baltic porter, dry stout, and Imperial stout. The name Porter was first used in 1721 to describe a dark ale popular with street and river porters of London that had been made with roasted malts. This same beer later also became known as stout, though the word stout had been used as early as 1677. The history and development of stout and porter are intertwined. Lager Lager is the English name for cool fermenting beers of Central European origin. Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. The name lager comes from the German lagern for "to store", as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions. Michael Jackson, BeerHunter, The birth of lager, 1 March, 1996. Retrieved 16 September 2008 Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces pastorianus) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12°C (45–55°F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0–4°C (32–40°F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer. Gavin Sherlock, Ph.D., EurekAlert, Brewing better beer: Scientists determine the genomic origins of lager yeasts, 10 September 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2008 Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the Spaten Brewery in Bavaria, and Anton Dreher, who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red colour, in Vienna in 1840–1841. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks. Colour Beer colour is determined by the malt. Google Books Fritz Ullmann, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Vol A-11 pp455, VCH (1985), ISBN 3-527-20103-3 The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with coke. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used. British Bitter A beer style or a way of life?, RateBeer (January 2006). Retrieved 30 September 2008 Martyn Cornell, Beer: The Story of the Pint, Headline (2004), ISBN 0-7553-1165-5 Paulaner dunkel - a dark lager In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present-day Czech Republic. BeerHunter Michael Jackson, A Czech-style classic from Belgium, Beer Hunter Online (7 Sept 1999). Retrieved 20 Sept 2008 The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation (fizzy bubbles) and a typical alcohol by volume content of around 5%. The Pilsner Urquell, Bitburger, and Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands Budweiser, Coors, and Miller. Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as stout, use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley. Google Books Costas Katsigris, Chris Thomas, The Bar and Beverage Book pp320, John Wiley and Sons (2006), ISBN 0-471-64799-3 Google Books J. Scott Smith, Y. H. Hui, Food Processing: Principles and Applications pp228, Blackwell Publishing (2004), ISBN 0-8138-1942-3 Alcoholic strength Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to almost 30% abv. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice . or beer style. The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical abv of 5%. The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv. . Some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools. . The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a byproduct of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content. In recent years the world production of low alcohol beers and zero alcohol beers has been increasing driven mainly by stricter "drinking and driving" regulations, a change in social attitudes toward alcohol consumption, and religious prohibitions against the consumption of alcohol. Various methods are used for lowering the alcohol content in the production of beer however with one of the main technologies utilized in the dealcoholisation of beer being the Spinning Cone Column (SCC). The SCC is manufactured by an Australian technology company and is a gas-liquid contact device employing counter current gas and liquid flows. It consists of a vertical column of alternate rotating and stationary metal cones. A thin liquid film flows down the column over the upper surface of each cone and flow is produced alternately by centrifugal and gravitational forces. Gas (steam vapour) flows up the column in the spaces between the cones, and radial fins on the lower rotating cone surfaces ensures turbulence of both steam and liquid phases; this improves efficiency as well as imparting a pumping action to the steam phase. There is a reduced pressure drop across the column, an important consideration with alcohol removal from beer, as it allows lower temperatures to be used in the system, resulting in less heat impact on the product. Although lower temperatures are possible, the system typically works under vacuum at a temperature of 40-45°C. Exceptionally strong beers The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% abv (33 degrees Plato, hence Vetter "33"), doppelbock, was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time, . though Samichlaus, by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% abv. Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. Samuel Adams reached 20% abv with Millennium . and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with Utopias. The strongest beer sold in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% abv beer. Delaware's Dogfish Head's World Wide Stout, a 21% abv stout was available from UK Safeways in 2003. . The beer that is considered to be the strongest yet made is Hair of the Dog's Dave—a 29% abv barley wine made in 1994. The strength was achieved by using the eisbock method of freeze distilling - the brewery freeze distilled a 10% ale twice. Related beverages Around the world, there are a number of traditional and ancient starch-based beverages classed as beer. In Africa, there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet, such as Oshikundu in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia. Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo". Glenn Randall Mack and Asele Surina, Food culture in Russia and Central Asia, Greenwood Publishing Group, (2005), ISBN 0-313-32773-4 Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern Himalayas. Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu—traditional rice-based beverages related to beer. The Andes in South America has Chicha, made from germinated maize (corn); while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim, a traditional beverage made since pre-Columbian times by chewing manioc so that enzymes present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars; Lewin Louis and Louis Levin, Phantastica: A Classic Survey on the Use and Abuse of Mind-Altering Plants, Inner Traditions / Bear & Company (1998), ISBN 0-89281-783-6 this is similar to Masato in Peru. The Anthropological Review, By Anthropological Society of London Published by Trübner, 1863 Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are Sahti in Finland, Kvass in Russia and the Ukraine, and Bouza in Sudan. Brewing industry Cropton, a typical UK microbrewery The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. More than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons) are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion) in 2006. A microbrewery, or craft brewery, is a modern brewery which produces a limited amount of beer. http://bbc.bloomington.com/terms/terms.html The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority, though is usually around 15,000 barrels (18,000 hectolitres/ 475,000 US gallons) a year. Microbrewery#Definition A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other eating establishment. SABMiller became the largest brewing company in the world when it acquired Royal Grolsch, brewer of Dutch premium beer brand Grolsch. InBev was the second-largest beer-producing company in the world, and Anheuser-Busch held the third spot, but after the merger, between InBev and Anheuser-Busch, the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company is the largest brewer in the world. - Reuters AB/InBev Press Release Serving Draught Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels Draught beer from a pressurised keg is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Nitrogen produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called beer balls. In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the beer widget, a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense, tight head, similar to beer served from a nitrogen system. The words draft and draught'' can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised. A selection of cask beers Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "real ale" by the CAMRA organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a "stillage" which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 12-14°C/53-57°F), before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition—this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass. Packaging Bottles of beer from the Spoetzl Brewery Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans. Google books Charles W. Bamforth, Beer: Tap Into the Art and Science of Brewing pp58-59, Oxford University Press US (2003), ISBN 0-19-515479-7. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008 However, bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast. Google Books T. Boekhout, Vincent Robert, Yeasts in Food: Beneficial and Detrimental Aspects pp370-371, Behr's Verlag DE (2003), ISBN 3-86022-961-3. retrieved 29 Sept 2008 It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with wheat beers. Typically, when serving a hefeweizen, 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers. Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing "skunked" beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles. Plastic (PET) bottles are used by some breweries. Serving temperature The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer; however, cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength pale ale to be served cool, while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature. RealBeer Beyond the coldest beer in town, 21 Sept 2000. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008 Édouard Manet's The Waitress showing a woman serving beer Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C/45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C/47 °F) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C/48 °F) for all dark lagers, altbier and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C/55 °F) for regular British ale, stout and most Belgian specialities; and room temperature (15.5 °C/60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially trappist beer) and barley wine. Michael Jackson, Michael Jackson's Beer Companion, Courage Books; 2 edition (February 27, 2000), ISBN 0-7624-0772-7 Drinking chilled beer is a social trend that began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager. Google Books Jack S. Blocker, David M. Fahey, Ian R. Tyrrell, Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History pp95, ABC-CLIO (2003), ISBN 157607833 Chilling below 15.5 °C/60 °F starts to reduce taste awareness Google Books Howard Hillman, The New Kitchen Science pp178, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), ISBN 0-618-24963-X and reduces it significantly below 10 °C/50 °F; Google Books Robert J. Harrington, Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience pp 27-28, John Wiley and Sons (2007), ISBN 0-471-79407-4 while this is acceptable for beers without an appreciable aroma or taste profile, beers brewed with more than basic refreshment in mind reveal their flavours more when served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature. Yahoo Lifestyle Holly Ramer, Set the perfect temperature for a drink and enjoy maximum flavour, The Associated press. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008. Cask Marque, a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°-14°C (53°-57°F) for cask ales to be served. Cask Marque Standards & Charters. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008 Vessels Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein, a mug, a pewter tankard, a beer bottle or a can. Some drinkers consider that the type of vessel influences their enjoyment of the beer. In Europe, particularly Belgium, breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers. Belgian Style Belgian Beer Glasses. retrieved 11 Oct 2008 The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and turbulence of the beer and its release of carbonation. Google Books Ray Foley, Heather Dismore, Running a Bar For Dummies pp 211-212, For Dummies (2007), ISBN 0-470-04919-7 Beer and society Social context Inside a tent at Munich's Oktoberfest—the world's largest beer festival Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, bags, or other pub games; attending beer festivals, or visiting a series of different pubs in one evening; joining an organisation such as CAMRA; or rating beer. Leslie Dunkling & Michael Jackson, The Guinness Drinking Companion, Lyons Press (2003), ISBN 158574617 Various drinking games, such as beer pong, flip cup and quarters are also popular. Best Drinking Game Book Ever, Carlton Books (October 28, 2002), ISBN 1-85868-560-5 International consumption Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon, Iraq and Syria as well as African countries (see African beer). Sales of beer are four times that of wine, the second most popular alcoholic beverage. In most societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage. Health effects The main active ingredient of beer is alcohol, and therefore, the health effects of alcohol apply to beer. The moderate consumption of alcohol, including beer, is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease, stroke and cognitive decline. The long-term effects of alcohol abuse, however, include the risk of developing alcoholism, alcoholic liver disease and some forms of cancer. Brewer's yeast is known to be a rich source of nutrients; therefore, as expected, beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients, including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, and B vitamins. In fact, beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread". Some sources maintain that filtered beer loses much of its nutrition. A 2005 Japanese study found that low alcohol beer may possess strong anti-cancer properties. Another study found nonalcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. However, much research suggests that the primary health benefit from alcoholic beverages comes from the alcohol they contain. Dean edell. Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. NY: Harper Collins, 2004, pp. 191–192. It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A recent study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself. Several diet books quote beer as having the same glycemic index as maltose, a very high (and therefore undesirable) 110; however, the maltose undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose. Environmental impacts Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences. Home brewing can reduce the environmental impact of beer via less packaging and transportation. A life cycle study of one beer brand shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds) -- including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management. The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square meters (26 square feet). Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO2 emissions. The use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar (where legal) can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption (as opposed to buying pre-bottled beer). See also Beer style Low-alcohol beer Brewery Brewing History of beer Zythology Homebrewing List of commercial brands of beer List of countries by beer consumption per capita Notes References Archeological Parameters For the Origins of Beer. Thomas W. Kavanagh. The Complete Guide to World Beer, Roger Protz. ISBN 1-84442-865-6. The Barbarian's Beverage: a history of beer in ancient Europe, Max Nelson. ISBN 0-415-31121-7. The World Guide to Beer, Michael Jackson. ISBN 1-85076-000-4 The New World Guide to Beer, Michael Jackson. ISBN 0-89471-884-3 Beer: The Story of the Pint, Martyn Cornell. ISBN 0-7553-1165-5 Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain, Peter Haydon. ISBN 0-7509-2748-8 The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany, Jeff Evans. ISBN 1-85249-198-1 Country House Brewing in England, 1500–1900, Pamela Sambrook. ISBN 1-85285-127-9 Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300–1600 , Judith M. Bennett. ISBN 0-19-512650-5 A History of Beer and Brewing, I. Hornsey. ISBN 0-85404-630-5 Beer: an Illustrated History, Brian Glover. ISBN 1-84038-597-9 Beer in America: The Early Years 1587–1840—Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation, Gregg Smith. ISBN 0-937381-65-9 Big Book of Beer, Adrian Tierney-Jones. ISBN 1-85249-212-0 Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage, Bob Ricketts. ISBN 1-905203-69-1 Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition, Phil Marowski. ISBN 0-937381-84-5 The World Encyclopedia of Beer, Brian Glover. ISBN 0-7548-0933-1 The Complete Joy of Homebrewing, Charlie Papazian ISBN 0-380-77287-6 (This is the seminal work on home brewing that is almost universally suggested to new hobbyist) The Brewmaster's Table, Garrett Oliver. ISBN 0-06-000571-8 Bacchus and Civic Order: The Culture of Drink in Early Modern Germany, Ann Tlusty. 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1,784 | Marvel_Comics | Marvel Publishing, Inc., doing business as Marvel Comics, http://www.secinfo.com/d122g8.ted.c.htm is an American comic book and related media company, and a subsidiary of Marvel Entertainment, Inc. Marvel Comics: The Early Timely Years Classic Comics Suite. Retrieved October 18, 2008. Marvel counts among its characters such well-known properties as Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, the Hulk, Thor, Iron Man, Captain America, the X-Men, and many others. Most of Marvel's fictional characters operate in one single reality; this is known as the Marvel Universe. Ultimate Marvel Universe Retrieved October 18, 2008 The comic book arm of the company started in 1939 as Timely Publications, and by the 1950s was generally known as Atlas Comics. Marvel's modern incarnation dates from 1961, with the launching of Fantastic Four and other superhero titles created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Steve Ditko, and others. Marvel has since become the largest American comic book publisher over long time competitor DC Comics. Marvel Comics official site Retrieved October 18, 2008 History Timely Publications Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939), the first comic from Marvel precursor Timely Comics. Cover art by Frank R. Paul Martin Goodman founded the company later known as 'Marvel Comics' under the name "Timely Publications" in 1939. Per statement of ownership, dated October 2, 1939, published in Marvel Mystery Comics #4 (February 1940), p. 40; reprinted in Marvel Masterworks: Golden Age Marvel Comics Volume 1 (Marvel Comics, 2004, ISBN 0-7851-1609-5), p. 239 Goodman, a pulp-magazine publisher whose first publication was a Western pulp in 1933, expanded into the emerging — and by then already highly popular — new medium of comic books. Goodman began his new line from his existing company's offices at 330 West 42nd Street, New York City, New York. He officially held the titles of editor, managing editor, and business manager, with Abraham Goodman officially listed as publisher. Timely's first publication, Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939), contained the first appearance of Carl Burgos' android superhero the Human Torch, and the first generally available appearance of Bill Everett's anti-hero Namor the Sub-Mariner, among other features. The contents of that sales blockbuster Per researcher Keif Fromm, Alter Ego #49, p. 4 (caption), Marvel Comics #1, cover-dated October 1939, quickly sold out 80,000 copies, prompting Goodman to produce a second printing, cover-dated November 1939. The latter is identical except for a black bar over the October date in the inside front cover indicia, and the November date added at the end. That sold approximately 800,000 copies. Also per Fromm, the first issue of Captain America Comics sold nearly one million copies. were supplied by an outside packager, Funnies, Inc., but by the following year Timely had a staff in place. With the second issue the series title changed to Marvel Mystery Comics. The company's first true editor, writer-artist Joe Simon, teamed up with soon-to-be industry legend Jack Kirby to create one of the first patriotically themed superheroes, Captain America, in Captain America Comics #1. (March 1941) It, too, proved a major sales hit, with a circulation of nearly one million. While no other Timely character would achieve the success of these "big three", some notable heroes — many continuing to appear in modern-day retcon appearances and flashbacks — include the Whizzer, Miss America, the Destroyer, the original Vision, and the Angel. Timely also published one of humor cartoonist Basil Wolverton's best-known features, "Powerhouse Pepper," Grand Comics Database: "Powerhouse Pepper" A Smithsonian Book of Comic-Book Comics (Smithsonian Institution / Harry N. Abrams, 1981) as well as a line of children's funny animal comics whose most popular characters were Super Rabbit and the duo Ziggy Pig and Silly Seal. The funny animal title All Surprise Comics #12 (Winter 1946-47) was labeled "A Marvel Magazine" 14 years before the publisher formally adopted the name. Goodman hired a teen-aged relative, Stanley Lieber, as a general office assistant in 1939. When editor Simon left the company in late 1941, Goodman made Lieber — by then writing pseudonymously as "Stan Lee" — interim editor of the comics line, a position Lee kept for decades except for three years during his World War II military service. Lee wrote extensively for Timely, contributing to a number of different titles. Atlas Comics Post-war American comics saw superheroes falling out of fashion. Goodman's comic-book line dropped superheroes and expanded into a wider variety of genres than even Timely had published, emphasizing horror, Westerns, humor, funny-animal, men's adventure-drama, crime, and war comics, later adding a helping of jungle books, romance titles, and even espionage, medieval adventure, Bible stories and sports. Like other publishers, Atlas also courted female readers with mostly humorous comics about models and career women. Goodman began using the globe logo of Atlas, the newsstand-distribution company he owned, on comics cover-dated November 1951. This united a line put out by the same publisher, staff, and freelancers through 59 shell companies, from Animirth Comics to Zenith Publications. Atlas, rather than innovate, took what it saw as the proven route of following popular trends in TV and movies — Westerns and war dramas prevailing for a time, drive-in movie monsters another time — and even other comic books, particularly the EC horror line. Per Les Daniels in Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics (Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1991) ISBN 0-8109-3821-9, pp. 67-68: "The success of EC had a definite influence on Marvel. As Stan Lee recalls, 'Martin Goodman would say, "Stan, let's do a different kind of book," and it was usually based on how the competition was doing. When we found that EC's horror books were doing well, for instance, we published a lot of horror books'." Atlas also published a plethora of children's and teen humor titles, including Dan DeCarlo's Homer, the Happy Ghost (a la Casper the Friendly Ghost) and Homer Hooper (a la Archie Andrews). Atlas unsuccessfully attempted to revive superheroes in Young Men #24-28 (December 1953 - June 1954), with the Human Torch (art by Syd Shores and Dick Ayers, variously), the Sub-Mariner (drawn and most stories written by Bill Everett), and Captain America (writer Stan Lee, artist John Romita Sr.). The Fantastic Four #1 (November 1961). Cover art by Jack Kirby (penciler) and unconfirmed inker. 1960s The first comic book under the Marvel Comics brand, the science-fiction anthology Amazing Adventures #3, showed the "MC" box on its cover. Cover-dated August 1961, it was published May 9, 1961. Library of Congress copyright information at Grand Comics Database: Amazing Adventures #3 Then, in the wake of DC Comics' success in reviving superheroes in the late 1950s and early 1960s, particularly with the Flash, Green Lantern, and other members of the team the Justice League of America, Marvel followed suit. Apocryphal legend has it that in 1961, Timely and Atlas publisher Martin Goodman was playing golf with either Jack Liebowitz or Irwin Donenfeld of rival DC Comics, then known as National Periodical Publications, who bragged about DC's success with the Justice League (which had debuted in The Brave and the Bold #28 [February 1960] before going on to its own title). However, film producer and comics historian Michael Uslan partly debunked the story in a letter published in Alter Ego #43 (December 2004), pp. 43-44: Goodman, a publishing trend-follower aware of the JLA's strong sales, did direct his comics editor, Stan Lee, to create a comic-book series about a team of superheroes. According to Lee in Origins of Marvel Comics (Simon and Schuster/Fireside Books, 1974), p. 16: The introduction of modern Marvel's first superhero team, in The Fantastic Four #1, cover-dated November 1961, began establishing the company's reputation. From then until the end of 1969, Marvel published a total of 831 comic books with at least one new superhero story, Marvel Original Superhero Comics of the 1960s, http://www.storypilot.com/sf/marvels-of-the-60s.html almost all of which were written by Stan Lee. Editor-writer Lee and freelance artist Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four, reminiscent of the non-superpowered adventuring quartet the Challengers of the Unknown that Kirby had created for DC in 1957, originated in a Cold War culture that led their creators to deconstruct the superhero conventions of previous eras and better reflect the psychological spirit of their age. Genter, Robert. "'With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility': Cold War Culture and the Birth of Marvel Comics," The Journal of Popular Culture 40:6, 2007 Eschewing such comic-book tropes as secret identities and even costumes at first, having a monster as one of the heroes, and having its characters bicker and complain in what was later called a "superheroes in the real world" approach, the series represented a change that proved to be a great success. Commentators such as comics historian Greg Theakston have suggested that the decision to include monsters and initially distance the new breed of superheroes from costumes was a conscious one, and born of necessity. Since DC was distributing Marvel's output at the time, Theakston theorizes that "Goodman and Lee decided to keep their superhero line looking as much like their horror line as they possibly could," downplaying "the fact that [Marvel] was now creating heroes" with the knock-on effect that they ventured "into deeper waters, where DC had never considered going". See: Ro, Ronin. Tales to Astonish: Jack Kirby, Stan Lee and the American Comic Book Revolution, pp. 86-88 (Bloomsbury, 2004) Marvel began publishing further superhero titles featuring such heroes and antiheroes as the Hulk, Spider-Man, Thor, Ant-Man, Iron Man, the X-Men and Daredevil, and such memorable antagonists as Doctor Doom, Magneto, Galactus, the Green Goblin, and Doctor Octopus. The most successful new series was The Amazing Spider-Man, by Lee and Steve Ditko. Marvel even lampooned itself and other comics companies in a parody comic, Not Brand Echh (a play on Marvel's dubbing of other companies as "Brand Echh", a la the then-common phrase "Brand X"). Time (October 31, 1960): "The Real Brand X" Marvel's comics had a reputation for focusing on characterization to a greater extent than most superhero comics before them. This was true of The Amazing Spider-Man in particular. Its young hero suffered from self-doubt and mundane problems like any other teenager. Marvel superheroes are often flawed, freaks, and misfits, unlike the perfect, handsome, athletic heroes found in previous traditional comic books. Some Marvel heroes looked like villains and monsters. In time, this non-traditional approach would revolutionize comic books. Comics historian Peter Sanderson wrote that in the 1960s, The Avengers #4 (March 1964), with (from left to right), the Wasp, Giant-Man, Captain America, Iron Man, Thor and (inset) the Sub-Mariner. Cover art by Jack Kirby and George Roussos. Lee became one of the best-known names in comics, with his charming personality and relentless salesmanship of the company. His sense of humor and generally lighthearted manner became the "voice" that permeated the stories, the letters and news pages, and the hyperbolic house ads of that era's Marvel Comics. He fostered a clubby fan-following with Lee's exaggerated depiction of the Bullpen (Lee's name for the staff) as one big, happy family. This included printed kudos to the artists, who eventually co-plotted the stories based on the busy Lee's rough synopses or even simple spoken concepts, in what became known as the Marvel Method, and contributed greatly to Marvel's product and success. Kirby in particular is generally credited for many of the cosmic ideas and characters of Fantastic Four and The Mighty Thor, such as the Watcher, the Silver Surfer and Ego the Living Planet, while Steve Ditko is recognized as the driving artistic force behind the moody atmosphere and street-level naturalism of Spider-Man and the surreal atmosphere of Dr. Strange. Lee, however, continues to receive credit for his well-honed skills at dialogue and sense of storytelling, for his keen hand at choosing and motivating artists and assembling creative teams, and for his uncanny ability to connect with the readers — not least through the nickname endearments he bestowed in the credits and the monthly "Bullpen Bulletins" and letters pages, giving readers humanizing hype about the likes of "Jolly Jack Kirby," "Jaunty Jim Steranko," "Rascally Roy Thomas," "Jazzy Johnny Romita," and others, right down to letterers "Swingin' Sammy Rosen" and "Adorable Artie Simek." Lesser-known staffers during the company's industry-changing growth in the 1960s (some of whom worked primarily for Marvel publisher Martin Goodman's umbrella magazine corporation) included circulation manager Johnny Hayes, subscriptions person Nancy Murphy, bookkeeper Doris Siegler, merchandising person Chip Goodman (son of publisher Martin), and Arthur Jeffrey, described in the December 1966 "Bullpen Bulletin" as "keeper of our MMMS [Merry Marvel Marching Society] files, guardian of our club coupons and defender of the faith". In the fall of 1968, company founder Goodman sold Marvel Comics and his other publishing businesses to the Perfect Film and Chemical Corporation. It grouped these businesses in a subsidiary called Magazine Management Co. Goodman remained as publisher. Daniels, Les, Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics (Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1991), p. 139. ISBN 0-8109-3821-9. 1970s In 1971, the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare approached Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Stan Lee to do a comic-book story about drug abuse. Lee agreed and wrote a three-part Spider-Man story portraying drug use as dangerous and unglamorous. However, the industry's self-censorship board, the Comics Code Authority, refused to approve the story because of the presence of narcotics, deeming the context of the story irrelevant. Lee, with Goodman's approval, published the story regardless in The Amazing Spider-Man #96-98 (May-July 1971), without the Comics Code seal. The storyline was well-received and the Code was subsequently revised the same year. Nyberg, Amy Kiste. Seal of Approval: History of the Comics Code. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson, Miss., 1998 Howard the Duck #8 (January 1977). Cover art by Gene Colan and Steve Leialoha. Goodman retired as publisher in 1972 and Lee succeeded him, stepping down from running day-to-day operations at Marvel. A series of new editors-in-chief oversaw the company during another slow time for the industry. Once again, Marvel attempted to diversify, and with the updating of the Comics Code achieved moderate to strong success with titles themed to horror (The Tomb of Dracula), martial arts, (Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu), sword-and-sorcery (Conan the Barbarian, Red Sonja), satire (Howard the Duck) and science fiction ("Killraven" in Amazing Adventures and, late in the decade, the long running Star Wars series). Some of these were published in larger-format black and white magazines, that targeted mature readers, under its Curtis Magazines imprint. Marvel was able to capitalize on its successful superhero comics of the previous decade by acquiring a new newsstand distributor and greatly expanding its comics line. Marvel pulled ahead of rival DC Comics in 1972, during a time when the price and format of the standard newsstand comic were in flux. Goodman increase the price and size of Marvel's November 1971 cover-dated comics from 15 cents for 39 pages total to 25 cents for 52 pages. DC followed suit, but Marvel the following month dropped its comics to 20 cents for 36 pages, offering a lower-priced product with a higher distributor discount. Daniels, Marvel, pp.154-155 In 1973, Perfect Film and Chemical Corporation changed its name to Cadence Industries, which in turn renamed Magazine Management Co. as Marvel Comics Group. Goodman, now completely disconnected from Marvel, set up a new company called Atlas/Seaboard Comics in 1974, reviving Marvel's old Atlas name, but this lasted only a year-and-a-half. Atlas Archives In the mid-1970s, a decline of the newsstand distribution network affected Marvel. Cult hits such as Howard the Duck were the victims of the distribution problems, with some titles reporting low sales when in fact they were being resold at a later date in the first specialty comic-book stores. But by the end of the decade, Marvel's fortunes were reviving, thanks to the rise of direct market distribution — selling through those same comics-specialty stores instead of newsstands. In October 1976, Marvel, which already licensed reprints in different countries, including the , created a superhero specifically for the British market. Captain Britain debuted exclusively in the UK, and later appeared in American comics. 1980s Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars #1 (May 1984). Cover art by Mike Zeck. In 1978 Jim Shooter became Marvel's editor-in-chief. Although a controversial personality, Shooter cured many of the procedural ills at Marvel (including repeatedly missed deadlines) and oversaw a creative renaissance at the company. This renaissance included institutionalizing creator royalties, starting the Epic imprint for creator-owned material in 1982, and launching a brand-new (albeit ultimately unsuccessful) line named New Universe, to commemorate Marvel's 25th anniversary, in 1986. However, Shooter was responsible for the introduction of the company-wide crossover (Contest of Champions, Secret Wars). In 1981 Marvel purchased the DePatie-Freleng Enterprises animation studio from famed Looney Tunes director Friz Freleng and his business partner David H. DePatie. The company was renamed Marvel Productions and it produced well-known animated TV series and movies featuring such characters as G.I. Joe, The Transformers, Jim Henson's Muppet Babies, and such TV series as Dungeons & Dragons, as well as cartoons based on Marvel characters, including Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends. In 1986, Marvel was sold to New World Entertainment, which within three years sold it to MacAndrews and Forbes, owned by Revlon executive Ronald Perelman. Perelman took the company public on the New York Stock Exchange and oversaw a great increase in the number of titles Marvel published. As part of the process, Marvel Productions sold its back catalog to Saban Entertainment (acquired in 2001 by Disney). 1990s Spider-Man #1, later renamed "Peter Parker: Spider-Man" (August 1990; Second printing). Cover art by Todd McFarlane. Marvel earned a great deal of money and recognition during the early decade's comic-book boom, launching the highly successful 2099 line of comics set in the future (Spider-Man 2099, etc.) and the creatively daring though commercially unsuccessful Razorline imprint of superhero comics created by novelist and filmmaker Clive Barker. Yet by the middle of the decade, the industry had slumped and Marvel filed for bankruptcy amidst investigations of Perelman's financial activities regarding the company. In 1991 Marvel began selling Marvel Universe Cards with trading card maker Impel. These were collectible trading cards that featured the characters and events of the Marvel Universe. Marvel in 1992 acquired Fleer Corporation, known primarily for its trading cards, and shortly thereafter created Marvel Studios, devoted to film and TV projects. Avi Arad became director of that division in 1993, with production accelerating in 1998 following the success of the film Blade. In 1994, Marvel acquired the comic book distributor Heroes World to use as its own exclusive distributor. As the industry's other major publishers made exclusive distribution deals with other companies, the ripple effect resulted in the survival of only one other major distributor in North America, Diamond Comic Distributors Inc. Rozanski, Chuck, "Diamond Ended Up With 50% of the Comics Market". MileHighComics.com (n.d.) Creatively and commercially, the '90s were dominated by the use of gimmickry to boost sales, such as variant covers, cover enhancements, regular company-wide crossovers that threw the universe's continuity into disarray, and even special swimsuit issues. In 1996, Marvel had almost all its titles participate in the Onslaught Saga, a crossover that allowed Marvel to relaunch some of its flagship characters, such as the Avengers and the Fantastic Four, in the Heroes Reborn universe, in which Marvel defectors Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld were given permission to revamp the properties from scratch. After an initial sales bump, sales quickly declined below expected levels, and Marvel discontinued the experiment after a one-year run; the characters returned to the Marvel Universe proper. In 1998, the company launched the imprint Marvel Knights, taking place within Marvel continuity; helmed by soon-to-become editor-in-chief Joe Quesada, and featuring tough, gritty stories showcasing such characters as the Inhumans, Black Panther and Daredevil, it achieved substantial success. Marvel goes public Marvel's logo, circa 1990s. In 1991, Perelman took Marvel public in a stock offering underwritten by Merrill Lynch and First Boston Corporation. Following the rapid rise of this immediately popular stock, Perleman issued a series of junk bonds that he used to acquire other children's entertainment companies. Many of these bond offerings were purchased by Carl Icahn Partners, which later wielded much control during Marvel's court-ordered reorganization after Marvel went bankrupt in 1996. In 1997, after protracted legal battles, control landed in the hands of Isaac Perlmutter, owner of the Marvel subsidiary Toy Biz. With his business partner Avi Arad, publisher Bill Jemas, and editor-in-chief Bob Harras, Perlmutter helped revitalize the comics line. Comic Wars by Dan Raviv. New York: Random House, 2002. 2000s With the new millennium, Marvel Comics escaped from bankruptcy and again began diversifying its offerings. In 2001, Marvel withdrew from the Comics Code Authority and established its own Marvel Rating System for comics. The first title from the era to not have the code was X-Force #119 (October 2001). It also created new imprints, such as MAX, a line intended for mature readers, and Marvel Age, developed for younger audiences. In addition to this is the highly successful Ultimate Marvel imprint, which allowed Marvel to reboot their major titles by deconstructing and updating its major superhero and villain characters to introduce to a new generation. This imprint exists in a universe parallel to mainstream Marvel continuity, allowing writers and artists freedom from the characters' convoluted history and the ability to redesign them, and to maintain their other ongoing series without replacing the established continuity. This also allowed Marvel to capitalize on an influx of new readers unfamiliar with comics but familiar with the characters through the film and TV franchises. The company has also revamped its graphic novel division, establishing a bigger presence in the bookstore market. As of 2007, Marvel remains a key comics publisher, even as the industry has dwindled to a fraction of its peak size decades earlier. Stan Lee, no longer officially connected to the company save for the title of "Chairman Emeritus", remains a visible face in the industry. In 2002, he sued successfully for a share of income related to movies and merchandising of Marvel characters, based on a contract between Lee and Marvel from the late 1990s; according to court documents, Marvel had used "Hollywood accounting" to claim that those projects' "earnings" were not profits. Marvel Comics' parent company Marvel Entertainment continues to be traded on the New York Stock Exchange as MVL. Some of its characters have been turned into successful film franchises, the highest-grossing being the X-Men film series, starting in 2000, and the Spider-Man series, beginning in 2002 Box Office Mojo: "Franchises: Marvel Comics" In 2006, Marvel's fictional crossover event "Civil War" established federal superhero registration in the Marvel universe, creating a political and ethical schism throughout it. Also that year, Marvel created its own wiki. Marvel Universe wiki The company launched an online initiative late in 2007, announcing Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a digital archive of 2,500 back issues available for viewing, for a monthly or annual subscription fee. Colton, David. "Marvel Comics Shows Its Marvelous Colors in Online Archive", USA Today, November 12, 2007 In 2009, Marvel Comics closed their Open Submissions Policy; therefore, they would not be accepting any art or stories from aspiring writers and artists. C.B. Cebulski explained the reason was no one got hired to draw for Marvel through open submissions, and they received far too many submissions that would have never made it into the business. Marvel was the last (major) company that had an Open Submissions Policy. Editors-in-chief The Marvel editor-in-chief oversees the largest-scale creative decisions taken within the company. While the fabled Stan Lee held great authority during the decades when publisher Martin Goodman privately held his company, of which the comics division was a relatively small part, his successors have been to greater and lesser extents subject to corporate management. The position evolved sporadically. In the earliest years, the company had a single editor overseeing the entire line. As the company grew, it became increasingly common for individual titles to be overseen separately. The concept of the "writer-editor" evolved, stemming from when Lee wrote and managed most of the line's output. Overseeing the line in the 1970s was a series of chief editors, though the titles were used intermittently. Confusing matters further, some appear to have been appointed merely by extending their existing editorial duties. By the time Jim Shooter took the post in 1978, the position of editor-in-chief was clearly defined. In 1994, Marvel briefly abolished the position, replacing Tom DeFalco with five "group editors", though each held the title "editor-in-chief" and had some editors underneath them. It reinstated the overall editor-in-chief position in 1995, installing Bob Harras. Joe Quesada became editor-in-chief in 2000. Joe Simon (1940-1941) Stan Lee (1941-1942) Vincent Fago (acting editor during Lee's military service) (1942-1945) Stan Lee (1945-1972) Roy Thomas (1972-1974) Len Wein (1974-1975) Marv Wolfman (black-and-white magazines 1974-1975, entire line 1975-1976) Gerry Conway (1976) Archie Goodwin (1976-1978) Jim Shooter (1978-1987) Tom DeFalco (1987-1994) Bob Harras (1995-2000) Joe Quesada (2000-present) Offices Located in New York City, Marvel has been successively headquartered in the McGraw-Hill Building (where it originated as Timely Comics in 1939); in suite 1401 of the Empire State Building; at 635 Madison Avenue (the actual location, though the comic books' indicia listed the parent publishing-company's address of 625 Madison Ave.); 575 Madison Avenue; 387 Park Avenue South; 10 East 40th Street; and 417 Fifth Avenue. Marvel characters in other media Marvel characters and stories have been adapted to many other media. Some of these adaptations were produced by Marvel Comics and its sister company, Marvel Studios, while others were produced by companies licensing Marvel material. Television programs Many television series, both live action and animated, have been based on Marvel Comics characters. These include multiple series for popular characters such as Spider-Man and the Fantastic Four. Of particular note were the animated series from the mid to late 90's, which were all part of the same Marvel animated universe. Additionally, a handful of television movies based on Marvel Comics characters have been made. Films Marvel characters have been adapted into films including the Spider-Man, Blade and X-Men trilogies; the Fantastic Four film series, Daredevil, Elektra, Ghost Rider, Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Hulk, The Punisher, Punisher: War Zone, and X-Men Origins: Wolverine as well as the upcoming films Runaways, Iron Man II, Spider-Man 4,Thor, The First Avenger: Captain America and The Avengers. Additionally, a series of direct-to-DVD animated films began in 2006 with Ultimate Avengers, The Invincible Iron Man, and Doctor Strange. Theme Parks Marvel has licensed its characters for theme parks and attractions, including at the Universal Orlando Resort's Islands of Adventure, in Orlando, Florida, which includes rides based on the Hulk, Spider-man, and Doctor Doom, and performers costumed as Captain America, the X-Men, and Spider-Man. Universal's Islands of Adventures: Marvel Super Hero Island official site Universal theme parks in California and Japan also have Marvel rides. Reuters newswire, "Marvel Theme Park to Open in Dubai by 2011", March 22, 2007 In early 2007 Marvel and developer the Al Ahli Group announced plans to build Marvel's first full theme park, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, by 2011. Video games Imprints Icon Comics Marvel Adventures Marvel Knights Marvel Illustrated Marvel Noir MAX Soleil Ultimate Marvel Defunct Amalgam Comics Curtis Magazines Epic Comics Marvel 2099 Marvel Absurd Marvel Age Malibu Comics Marvel Edge Marvel Mangaverse Marvel Music Marvel Next Marvel UK MC2 Age Of Heroes New Universe Paramount Comics Razorline Star Comics Tsunami See also Panini Comics Soleil Productions Footnotes References Marvel Entertainment official site The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe Marvel Guide: An Unofficial Handbook of the Marvel Universe All in Color for a Dime by Dick Lupoff & Don Thompson ISBN 0-87341-498-5 The Comic Book Makers by Joe Simon with Jim Simon ISBN 1-887591-35-4 Excelsior! The Amazing Life of Stan Lee by Stan Lee and George Mair ISBN 0-684-87305-2Jack Kirby: The TCJ Interviews, Milo George, ed. (Fantagraphics Books, Inc., 2001). ISBN 1-56097-434-6 Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics, by Les Daniels (Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1991) ISBN 0-8109-3821-9Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book by Gerard Jones (Basic Books, 2004) trade paperback ISBN 0-465-03657-0 Comic Wars by Dan Raviv ISBN 0-7679-0830-9 Stephen Korek- Marvel comics and the future Origins of Marvel Comics by Stan Lee ISBN 0-7851-0579-4 The Steranko History of Comics, Vol. 1 by James Steranko ISBN 0-517-50188-0Tales to Astonish: Jack Kirby, Stan Lee and the American Comic Book Revolution'' by Ronin Ro (Bloomsbury, 2004) ISBN 1-58234-345-4 A Timely Talk with Allen Bellman Atlas Tales The Marvel/Atlas Super-Hero Revival of the Mid-1950s Jack Kirby Collector #25: "More Than Your Average Joe" Clive Barker official site: Comics Independent Heroes from the USA: Clive Barker's Razorline Buzzscope (June 23, 2005): "Addicted to Comics" #10 (column) by Jim Salicrup Daredevil: The Man Without Fear fan site: Marv Wolfman interview External links Marvel Comics Big Comic Book DataBase: Marvel Comics Marvel News Marvel Directory Ultimate Central The Jack Kirby Museum & Research Center Marvel Database (Wiki) Marvel at Comic Book Realm | Marvel_Comics |@lemmatized marvel:161 publishing:3 inc:5 business:7 comic:124 http:2 www:2 secinfo:1 com:3 ted:1 c:2 htm:1 american:6 book:32 related:1 medium:4 company:37 subsidiary:3 entertainment:6 early:5 timely:14 year:10 classic:1 suite:2 retrieve:3 october:11 count:1 among:2 character:24 well:8 know:11 property:2 spider:17 man:26 fantastic:9 four:9 hulk:5 thor:5 iron:6 captain:9 america:11 x:9 men:8 many:8 others:4 fictional:2 operate:1 one:13 single:2 reality:1 universe:15 ultimate:5 arm:1 start:3 publication:7 generally:4 atlas:13 modern:3 incarnation:1 date:6 launching:1 superhero:14 title:19 create:11 stan:17 lee:34 jack:11 kirby:13 steve:4 ditko:3 since:2 become:9 large:3 publisher:15 long:2 time:9 competitor:1 dc:9 official:4 site:5 history:4 first:16 precursor:1 cover:16 art:9 frank:1 r:1 paul:1 martin:6 goodman:22 found:1 later:6 name:7 per:4 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tomorrow:1 geek:1 gangster:1 gerard:1 jones:1 basic:1 paperback:1 stephen:1 korek:1 origins:1 vol:1 james:1 talk:1 allen:1 bellman:1 tales:1 revival:1 collector:1 average:1 independent:1 buzzscope:1 addict:1 comics:1 column:1 salicrup:1 fear:1 external:1 link:1 directory:1 central:1 museum:1 research:1 center:1 realm:1 |@bigram marvel_comic:30 http_www:2 spider_man:17 marvel_universe:9 stan_lee:16 jack_kirby:10 steve_ditko:3 dc_comic:4 pulp_magazine:1 sub_mariner:3 alter_ego:2 smithsonian_institution:1 n_abrams:4 dan_decarlo:1 romita_sr:1 science_fiction:2 green_lantern:1 brave_bold:1 simon_schuster:1 non_superpowered:1 green_goblin:1 amazing_spider:3 marvel_superheroes:1 mighty_thor:1 silver_surfer:1 hone_skill:1 jim_steranko:1 martial_art:1 shang_chi:1 master_kung:1 kung_fu:1 sword_sorcery:1 conan_barbarian:1 red_sonja:1 looney_tune:1 friz_freleng:1 jim_henson:1 dungeon_dragon:1 stock_exchange:2 todd_mcfarlane:1 clive_barker:3 shortly_thereafter:1 hero_reborn:1 joe_quesada:3 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1,785 | Nordea | Nordea Bank AB is a Nordic financial services group operating in Northern Europe, based in Stockholm. It is the result of the successive mergers and acquisitions of the Swedish, Finnish, Danish and Norwegian banks of Nordbanken, Merita Bank, Unibank and Kreditkassen (Christiania Bank) that took place between 1997 and 2000. The Baltic countries and Poland are today considered part of the home market, Latvia already having a branch of Nordea () from 2006. The largest share holder of Nordea is the Swedish Government with 19.9 % of the shares. Nordea is listed in Stockholm Stock Exchange, Helsinki Stock Exchange and Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Nordea has more than 1,400 branches and is present in 19 countries around the world, operating through full service branches, subsidiaries and representative offices. The international corporate banking division has branches in Germany (Frankfurt), United Kingdom (London), Singapore, and in the United States (New York). Nordea International private banking has its headquarters in Luxembourg with branches in Belgium (Brussels), France (Cannes), Luxembourg, Spain (Fuengirola - Malaga) and Switzerland (Zurich). Nordea currently serves 10 million private and 960,000 corporate customers. The group also operates an internet bank, which is the world leader of internet banking in terms of usage, having more than 5.0 million online customers doing more than 200 million payments / year. Online theft In 2007 Nordea was the subject of a large online phishing scam. The amount of money involved was "between seven and eight million SEK". Swedish bank hit by 'biggest ever' online heist | CNET News.com The theft was perpetrated by targeting Nordea customers with phishing emails containing a trojan horse, that was especially made for this robbery. Apparently these emails were sent out over a period of 15 months. According to Nordea, at least 250 people had unwittingly installed the trojan. The thieves evaded detection by limiting their transfers to small sums. Nordea has refunded all the victims and is now implementing a new security system. Subsidiaries The Danish headquarters of Nordea is placed in Christianshavn, Copenhagen. Nordea Bank Danmark A/S Nordea Bank Finland Abp / Nordea Pankki Suomi Oyj Nordea Bank Norge ASA Nordea Bank Polska S.A. JSB Ogresbank (Russia) Nordea Bank Lietuva Nordea Bank Finland Plc Latvijas filiāle (Latvia) See also PlusGirot – open clearing system in Sweden owned by Nordea European Financial Services Roundtable Inter-Alpha Group of Banks Kansallis-Osake-Pankki References External links Official site Yahoo! - Nordea Bank AB Company Profile | Nordea |@lemmatized nordea:21 bank:14 ab:2 nordic:1 financial:2 service:3 group:3 operate:3 northern:1 europe:1 base:1 stockholm:2 result:1 successive:1 merger:1 acquisition:1 swedish:3 finnish:1 danish:2 norwegian:1 nordbanken:1 merita:1 unibank:1 kreditkassen:1 christiania:1 take:1 place:2 baltic:1 country:2 poland:1 today:1 consider:1 part:1 home:1 market:1 latvia:2 already:1 branch:5 large:2 share:2 holder:1 government:1 list:1 stock:3 exchange:3 helsinki:1 copenhagen:2 present:1 around:1 world:2 full:1 subsidiary:1 representative:1 office:1 international:2 corporate:2 banking:3 division:1 germany:1 frankfurt:1 united:2 kingdom:1 london:1 singapore:1 state:1 new:2 york:1 private:2 headquarters:2 luxembourg:2 belgium:1 brussels:1 france:1 cannes:1 spain:1 fuengirola:1 malaga:1 switzerland:1 zurich:1 currently:1 serve:1 million:4 customer:3 also:2 internet:2 leader:1 term:1 usage:1 online:4 payment:1 year:1 theft:2 subject:1 phishing:2 scam:1 amount:1 money:1 involve:1 seven:1 eight:1 sek:1 hit:1 big:1 ever:1 heist:1 cnet:1 news:1 com:1 perpetrate:1 target:1 email:2 contain:1 trojan:2 horse:1 especially:1 make:1 robbery:1 apparently:1 send:1 period:1 month:1 accord:1 least:1 people:1 unwittingly:1 instal:1 thief:1 evade:1 detection:1 limit:1 transfer:1 small:1 sum:1 refund:1 victim:1 implement:1 security:1 system:2 subsidiaries:1 christianshavn:1 danmark:1 finland:2 abp:1 pankki:2 suomi:1 oyj:1 norge:1 asa:1 polska:1 jsb:1 ogresbank:1 russia:1 lietuva:1 plc:1 latvijas:1 filiāle:1 see:1 plusgirot:1 open:1 clearing:1 sweden:1 european:1 roundtable:1 inter:1 alpha:1 kansallis:1 osake:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 yahoo:1 company:1 profile:1 |@bigram nordea_bank:8 merger_acquisition:1 stock_exchange:3 cnet_news:1 trojan_horse:1 external_link:1 |
1,786 | George_Abbot_(bishop) | George Abbot (October 19, 1562 – August 5, 1633) was an English divine and Archbishop of Canterbury. Carr, William, University College], Routledge, 1998. ISBN 9780415186322. Chapter V, [http://books.google.com/books?id=hzBc2Ur_9YIC&pg=PA74&vq=George+Abbot The Sixteen Century and Chapter VI, The Seventeenth Century to the Restoration, 1660. Darwall-Smith, Robin, A History of University College, Oxford. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-928429-0. George Abbot, pages 120–126 Abbot, George in the Christian Cyclopedia He also served as the fourth Chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin between 1612 and 1633. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "[a] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist". Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 His brother Robert was Bishop of Salisbury. Biography Early years Born at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth-worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford. He later studied, and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University, and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards. |Abbot's alms houses in Guildford Archbishop of Canterbury Less than a year later, on March 4, 1611 Abbot was raised to the position of Canterbury. As archbishop, he defended the Apostolic Succession of the Anglican archbishops & bishops and the validity of the Church's priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag's Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his own episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that: "The register agrees in every particular with what we know of the history of the times, and there exists not the semblance of a reason for pronouncing it a forgery." In spite of his defense of the Catholic nature of the priesthood, his un-puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the elector palatine, Frederick V, and the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. This policy brought upon him the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the King himself never forsook him. Abbot statue at Guildford In 1622, while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The King had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the King gave a casting vote in the Archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the Archbishop seldom appeared at the Council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. In 1625 he attended the King constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of King Charles I. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on February 22 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the Archbishop's powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on August 5 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year. Legacy Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions. Guildford remembers the Archbishop with his Hospital (www.abbotshospital.org) a statue in the High Street, a pub and also a secondary school (George Abbot School) named after him. His tomb can be seen in Holy Trinity Church. See also Maurice Abbot References | George_Abbot_(bishop) |@lemmatized george:6 abbot:12 october:1 august:2 english:1 divine:1 archbishop:9 canterbury:3 carr:1 william:2 university:5 college:5 routledge:1 isbn:3 chapter:2 v:2 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 pg:1 vq:1 sixteen:1 century:2 vi:1 seventeenth:1 restoration:2 darwall:1 smith:1 robin:1 history:2 oxford:4 press:1 page:2 christian:1 cyclopedia:1 also:5 serve:1 fourth:1 chancellor:2 trinity:2 dublin:1 chamber:2 biographical:2 dictionary:2 describes:1 sincere:1 narrow:2 minded:1 calvinist:1 brother:1 robert:2 bishop:3 salisbury:1 biography:1 early:1 year:3 bear:1 guildford:6 surrey:1 father:1 maurice:2 died:1 cloth:1 worker:1 teach:2 royal:3 grammar:1 school:3 later:2 study:1 balliol:1 choose:1 master:1 appoint:1 dean:1 winchester:1 three:1 time:3 vice:1 take:1 leading:1 part:1 prepare:1 authorized:1 version:1 new:1 testament:1 go:1 scotland:2 home:1 earl:2 dunbar:1 arrange:1 union:1 church:3 england:1 pleased:1 king:7 james:1 affair:1 make:1 lichfield:1 coventry:1 translate:1 see:3 london:1 month:1 afterwards:1 alms:1 house:1 less:1 march:1 raise:1 position:1 defend:1 apostolic:1 succession:1 anglican:1 validity:1 priesthood:2 consequence:1 nag:1 head:1 fable:1 invite:1 certain:1 roman:3 catholic:4 inspect:1 register:2 presence:2 six:1 episcopal:1 colleague:1 detail:1 inspection:1 preserve:1 agree:2 party:2 every:1 particular:1 know:1 exist:1 semblance:1 reason:1 pronounce:1 forgery:1 spite:1 defense:1 nature:1 un:1 puritan:1 instinct:1 frequently:1 lead:3 harsh:2 treatment:1 courageous:1 resistance:2 e:1 g:1 oppose:1 scandalous:1 divorce:1 suit:1 lady:1 frances:1 howard:1 essex:1 croydon:2 forbid:1 reading:1 declaration:1 permit:1 sunday:1 sport:2 naturally:1 therefore:1 promoter:1 match:1 elector:1 palatine:1 frederick:1 princess:1 elizabeth:1 firm:1 opponent:1 projected:1 marriage:1 prince:1 wale:1 infanta:1 spain:1 policy:1 bring:2 upon:1 hatred:1 laud:2 previously:1 come:1 collision:1 court:2 though:5 never:1 forsake:1 statue:2 hunt:2 lord:1 zouch:1 park:1 bramshill:1 hampshire:1 bolt:1 cross:1 bow:1 aim:1 deer:1 happen:1 strike:1 one:2 keeper:1 die:2 within:1 hour:1 greatly:1 distress:1 event:1 fell:1 state:1 settled:1 melancholia:1 enemy:1 maintain:1 fatal:1 issue:1 accident:1 disqualify:1 office:1 argue:1 homicide:1 involuntary:1 clerical:1 person:1 could:1 lawfully:1 indulge:1 refer:1 matter:1 commission:3 ten:1 say:1 angel:1 might:1 miscarry:1 sort:1 equally:1 divide:1 give:1 casting:1 vote:1 favour:1 signing:1 formal:1 pardon:1 dispensation:1 seldom:1 appear:1 council:1 chiefly:1 account:1 infirmity:1 attend:1 constantly:1 however:2 last:1 illness:1 perform:1 ceremony:1 coronation:1 charles:2 refusal:1 license:1 assize:1 sermon:1 preach:1 dr:1 sibthorp:1 northampton:1 february:1 cheerful:1 obedience:1 urge:1 demand:1 general:1 loan:1 duty:1 proclaimed:1 absolute:1 non:1 even:1 arbitrary:1 command:1 deprive:1 function:1 primate:1 put:1 need:1 summon:1 parliament:1 soon:1 nominal:1 power:1 unwelcome:1 live:1 retirement:1 leave:1 undisputed:1 ascendancy:1 bury:1 native:1 place:1 endow:1 hospital:2 land:1 value:1 legacy:1 conscientious:1 prelate:1 view:1 often:1 towards:1 separatist:1 write:1 large:1 number:1 work:1 interesting:1 discursive:1 exposition:1 prophet:1 jonah:1 reprint:1 geography:1 brief:1 description:1 whole:1 world:1 pass:1 numerous:1 edition:1 remember:1 www:1 abbotshospital:1 org:1 high:1 street:1 pub:1 secondary:1 name:1 tomb:1 holy:1 reference:1 |@bigram archbishop_canterbury:2 id_pg:1 christian_cyclopedia:1 chamber_biographical:2 biographical_dictionary:2 balliol_college:1 vice_chancellor:1 authorized_version:1 apostolic_succession:1 earl_essex:1 elector_palatine:1 infanta_spain:1 sermon_preach:1 |
1,787 | Explorers_program | The Explorer program was the United States's first successful attempt to launch an artificial satellite. It began as a U.S. Army proposal to place a scientific satellite into orbit during the International Geophysical Year. That proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's Project Vanguard. It was revived as a crash program to catch up with the Soviet Union after that nation's launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957. (See: Sputnik crisis) Explorer 1 was launched January 31, 1958. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the Van Allen radiation belt. Explorer at NASA ISEE-C in a dynamic test chamber, 1978 The Explorer program was taken over by NASA, which continued to use the name for robotic spacecraft missions. Over the years, NASA has launched a series of "Explorer" spacecraft carrying a wide variety of scientific investigations. The list below identifies the 79 successful missions as of December 2004. As of this writing, Explorers 50 (IMP-8), 68-71, 73-74, 79-83 (SAMPEX, RXTE, FAST, ACE, TRACE, SWAS, WMAP, RHESSI, CHIPSat, GALEX and SWIFT) are still operating. NASA's Explorer spacecraft series not only is the longest running series of spacecraft, it has produced highly-durable, well-engineered spacecraft as well. Of the 79 successful Explorer missions depicted, five of them had missions that lasted 10 or more years, the longest of which (IMP-8) has been operational for over 26 years now and still produces valuable information about the solar wind. NASA's IUE spacecraft operated for 19 years and produced copious amounts of data for the astronomical community. The ISEE 3/ICE spacecraft operated for 14 years. As of March 2000, of the ten operational Explorer missions, SNOE and TRACE have operated for about two years, ACE two and a half years, FAST for about three and a half, RXTE for over four, EUVE and SAMPEX for nearly eight, and IMP 8 for more than 26. SWAS has been operational for slightly more than one year, having been launched in early December 1998. Energetic Particle Explorers Explorers 12, 14, 15 and 26 were the S 3 series of spacecraft, known as Energetic Particle Explorers. They were spin-stabilized, solar-cell-powered spacecraft instrumented to measure cosmic ray particles, trapped particles, solar wind protons, and magnetospheric and interplanetary magnetic fields. Mission History + Explorer Missions Explorer Name Launch Date Mission End of Data Re-Entry 1 Explorer 1 January 31, 1958 Energetic particle studies, discovered the Van Allen radiation belt May 23, 1958 March 31, 1970 2 Explorer 2 March 5, 1958 Failed to achieve orbit - - 3 Explorer 3 (Gamma 1) March 26, 1958 Energetic particle studies June 27, 1958 June 27, 1958 4 Explorer 4 July 26, 1958 Energetic particle studies October 5, 1958 October 23, 1959 5 Explorer 5 August 24, 1958 Failed to achieve orbit - - 7x Explorer 7x (S 1) July 16, 1959 Measure earth's radiation balance, destroyed by range safety - - 6 S-2 (Able 3) August 7, 1959 Magnetosphere research October 6, 1959 July 1, 1961 7 S 1A October 13, 1959 Energetic particle studies August 24, 1961 In orbit -- S 46 March 23, 1960 Analyze electron and proton radiation energies, failed to achieve orbit - - 8 S 30 November 3, 1960 Measured atmospheric composition of the ionosphereDecember 27, 1960 In orbit -- S 56 December 4, 1960 Atmospheric density measurements, failed to achieve orbit - - 9 S 56A February 16, 1961 Atmospheric density measurementsApril 9, 1964April 9, 1964 -- S 45 February 24, 1961 Ionosphere research, failed to achieve orbit - - 10 P 14 March 25, 1961 Investigated field magnetic field between the earth March 27, 1961June 1, 1968 11 S 15 April 27, 1961 Gamma ray astronomyNovember 17, 1961 In orbit -- S 45A May 25, 1961 Ionosphere research, failed to achieve orbit - - -- S 55 (Meteoroid Satellite-A, Micrometeorite Explorer) June 30, 1961 Micrometeoroid research, failed to achieve orbit - - 12 EPE-A (S 3, Energetic Particle Explorer-A) August 16, 1961 Energetic particle research December 6, 1961September 1, 1963 13 S 55A August 25, 1961 Micrometeoroid researchAugust 28, 1961August 28, 1961 14 EPE-B (Energetic Particle Explorer-B) October 2, 1962 Energetic particle research August 11, 1963July 1, 1966 15 EPE-C (Energetic Particle Explorer-C) October 27, 1962 Energetic particle researchJanuary 30, 1963January 15, 1978 16 S 55B December 16, 1962 Micrometeoroid researchJuly 22, 1963November 24, 1966? 17 AE-A (Atmosphere Explorer-A) April 3, 1963 Atmospheric research July 10, 1963 November 24, 1966? 18 IMP-A (IMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-A) November 27, 1963 Magnetospheric researchMay 10, 1965December 30, 1965 19 AD-A (Atmospheric Density-A) December 19, 1963 Atmospheric density measurementsMay 10, 1981May 10, 1981 20 IE-A (S 48, TOPSI, Ionosphere Explorer-A) August 25, 1964 Ionosphere researchDecember 29, 1965In orbit 21 IMP-B (IMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-B) October 4, 1964 Magnetospheric researchOctober 13, 1965January 30, 1966 22 BE-B (S 66, Beacon Explorer-B) October 10, 1964 Ionospheric and geodetic researchFebruary 1970In orbit 23 S 55C (Explorer 23) November 6, 1964 Micrometeoric researchNovember 7, 1965June 29, 1983 24 AD-B (Atmospheric Density-B) November 21, 1964 Atmospheric density measurementsOctober 18, 1968October 18, 1968 25 Injun 4 (IE-B, Ionosphere Explorer-B) November 21, 1964 Ionospheric researchDecember 1966In orbit 26 EPE-D (Energetic Particle Explorer-D) December 21, 1964 High energy particle observationsDecember 27, 1967In orbit 27 BE-C (Beacon Explorer-C) April 29, 1965 Magnetospheric researchJuly 20, 1973In orbit 28 IMP-C (IMP 3, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-C) May 29, 1965 Magnetospheric researchMay 12, 1967July 4, 1968 29 GEOS 1 (GEOS-A) November 6, 1965 Geodetic earth monitoringJune 23, 1978In orbit 30 SOLRAD 8 (SE-A) November 19, 1965 Solar radiation monitoring(Cover for covert ELINT mission)November 5, 1967In orbit 31 DME A November 29, 1965 Ionospheric researchOctober 1 1969In orbit 32 AE-B (Atmosphere Explorer-B) May 25, 1966 Atmospheric researchMarch 1967February 22, 1985 33 IMP-D (AIMP 1, Anchored IMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-D) July 1, 1966 Magnetospheric research September 21, 1971 In orbit 34 IMP-F (IMP 4, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-F) May 24, 1967 Magnetospheric researchMay 3, 1969May 3, 1969 35 IMP-E (AIMP-E, AIMP 2, Anchored IMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-E) July 19, 1967 Magnetospheric researchJune 24, 1973? 36 GEOS 2 (GEOS-B) January 11, 1968 Geodetic earth monitoringJuly 1, 1982In orbit 37 Solrad 9 (SE B) March 5, 1968 Solar radiation monitoring(Cover for covert ELINT mission)April 30, 1974November 16, 1990 38 RAE-A (RAE 1, Radio Astronomy Explorer-A) July 4, 1968 Radio astronomy?In orbit 39 AD-C (Atmospheric Density-C) August 8, 1968 Atmospheric density measurementsJune 23, 1971June 22, 1981? 40 Injun 5 (Injun C, IE-C, Ionosphere Explorer-C) August 8, 1968 Magnetospheric ResearchJune 1971In orbit 41 IMP-G (IMP 5, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-G) June 21, 1969 Magnetospheric researchDecember 23, 1972December 23, 1972 42 SAS-A (Small Astronomy Satellite-A, SAS 1) December 12, 1970 X-Ray Astronomy January 4, 1975April 5, 1979 43 IMP-H (IMP 6, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-H) March 13, 1971 Magnetospheric researchOctober 2, 1974October 2, 1974 44 Solrad 10 (SE-C, SOLRAD-C) July 8, 1971 Solar radiation monitoring(Cover for covert ELINT mission)June 30, 1973December 15, 1979 45 SSS-A (S-Cubed A) November 15, 1971 Magnetospheric researchSeptember 30, 1974January 10, 1992 46 Meteoroid Technology Satellite (MTS, METEC) August 13, 1972 Micrometeoroids researchNovember 4, 1974November 2, 1979 47 IMP-I (IMP 7, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-I) September 23, 1972 Magnetospheric researchOctober 31, 1978In orbit 48 SAS-B (Small Astronomy Satellite-B, SAS 2) November 15, 1972 X-Ray Astronomy June 8, 1973August 20, 1980 49 RAE-B (RAE 2, Radio Astronomy Explorer-B) June 10, 1973 Radio astronomyApril 26, 1977In Lunar orbit 50 IMP J (IMP 8, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-J) October 26, 1973 Magnetospheric researchOperational (34 years)In orbit 51 AE-C (Atmosphere Explorer-C) December 16, 1973 Atmospheric research?December 12, 1978 52 Hawkeye 1, Injun 6 (IE-D, Ionosphere Explorer-D) June 3, 1974 Magnetospheric researchApril 28, 1978April 28, 1978 53 SAS-C (Small Astronomy Satellite-C, SAS 3) May 7, 1975 X-Ray Astronomy April 7, 1979April 9, 1979 54 AE-D (Atmosphere Explorer-D) October 6, 1975 Atmospheric researchJanuary 29, 1976March 12, 1976 55 AE-E (Atmosphere Explorer-E) November 20, 1975 Atmospheric researchSeptember 25, 1980June 10, 1981 56 ISEE 1 & 2 (International Sun-Earth Explorer-A & B) October 22, 1977 Magnetospheric researchSeptember 26, 1987September 26, 1987 57 IUE January 26, 1978 Ultraviolet astronomySeptember 30, 1996In orbit 58 HCMM (AEM-A, Applications Explorer Mission-A, Heat Capacity Mapping Mission) April 26, 1978 Thermal mapping of the earthSeptember 30, 1980? 59 ISEE 3 (International Sun-Earth Explorer-C, ICE) August 12, 1978 Magnetospheric researchMay 5, 1997In heliocentric orbit 60 SAGE (AEM-B, Applications Explorer Mission-B, Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment) February 18, 1979 Stratospheric aerosol and ozone dataJanuary 7, 1982April 11, 1989 61 MAGSAT (AEM-C, Applications Explorer Mission-C, Magnetic Field Satellite) October 30, 1979 Mapped the near surface magnetic field of the EarthMay 6, 1980June 11, 1980 62 DE 1 (DE-A, Dynamics Explorer-A) August 3, 1981 Magnetospheric researchFebruary 28, 1991In orbit 63 DE 2 (DE-B, Dynamics Explorer-B) August 3, 1981 Magnetospheric research1983February 19, 1983 64 SME October 6, 1981 Atmospheric researchApril 4, 1989March 5, 1991 65 AMTPE/CCE (Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers/Charge Composition Explorer) August 16, 1984 Magnetospheric researchJuly 12, 1989? 66 COBE November 18, 1989 Microwave astronomyDecember 23, 1993In orbit 67 EUVE June 7, 1992 Ultraviolet astronomyJanuary 30, 2002In orbit 68 SAMPEX July 3, 1992 Magnetospheric researchoperational?In orbit 69 RXTE December 30, 1995 X-ray astronomyOperational (11 years)In orbit 70 FAST August 21, 1996 Auroral phenomenaoperational?In orbit 71 ACE August 25, 1997 Solar/interplanetary/interstellar particle researchOperational (11 years)In L1 orbit 72 SNOE February 26, 1998 Atmospheric researchDecember 13, 2003December 13, 2003 73 TRACE April 2, 1998 Solar observatoryOperational (10 years)In orbit 74 SWAS December 6, 1998 Submillimeter astronomyJuly 2004 hibernationAugust 2005 after Deep Impact sub-missionIn orbit 75 WIRE March 5 1999 InfraRed astronomy, primary mission failed due to loss of coolantoperational?In orbit 76 TERRIERS May 18 1999 Atmospheric research, satellite failed shortly after achieving orbitMay 18 1999In orbit 77 FUSE June 23 1999 Ultraviolet astronomyOctober 18, 2007In orbit 78 IMAGE March 25, 2000 Magnetospheric research December 18, 2005In orbit 79 HETE-2 October 9, 2000 UV, X-Ray, and gamma ray astronomyOperational (7 years)In orbit 80 WMAP June 30, 2001 Microwave astronomyOperational (6 years)In L2 orbit 81 RHESSI February 5, 2002 X-ray and gamma ray solar flare imagingOperational (6 years)In orbit 82 CHIPSat January 13, 2003 Ultraviolet spectroscopy and astronomyApril 11, 2008 CHIPSat quietly shut down In orbit 83 GALEX April 28, 2003 Ultraviolet astronomyOperational (5 years)In orbit 84 SWIFT November 20, 2004 Gamma ray astronomyOperational (3 years)In orbit 85 THEMIS February 17, 2007 Magnetospheric researchOperationalIn orbit 86 THEMIS February 17, 2007 Magnetospheric researchOperationalIn orbit 87 THEMIS February 17, 2007 Magnetospheric researchOperationalIn orbit 88 THEMIS February 17, 2007 Magnetospheric researchOperationalIn orbit 89 THEMIS February 17, 2007 Magnetospheric researchOperationalIn orbit 90 AIM April 25, 2007 Noctilucent cloud observationOperationalIn orbit References See also Small Explorer program External links NASA Explorer program missions page Explorer Program Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration 1957 Video (30 minutes) on launch and impact of Explorer Master list of Names, Initialisms, and Abbreviations for un-manned satellites | Explorers_program |@lemmatized explorer:52 program:6 united:1 state:1 first:2 successful:3 attempt:1 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september:2 f:2 e:5 researchjune:2 monitoringjuly:1 rae:4 radio:4 astronomy:10 measurementsjune:1 g:2 sa:2 small:4 sas:4 x:6 h:2 ss:1 cub:1 researchseptember:3 technology:1 mt:1 metec:1 astronomyapril:2 lunar:1 j:2 researchoperational:3 hawkeye:1 researchapril:2 sun:2 ultraviolet:5 astronomyseptember:1 hcmm:1 aem:3 application:3 heat:1 capacity:1 map:2 thermal:1 mapping:1 earthseptember:1 heliocentric:1 sage:1 stratospheric:2 aerosol:2 gas:1 experiment:1 ozone:1 datajanuary:1 magsat:1 near:1 surface:1 earthmay:1 de:4 sme:1 amtpe:1 cce:1 active:1 tracer:1 charge:1 cobe:1 microwave:2 astronomydecember:1 astronomyjanuary:1 astronomyoperational:5 auroral:1 phenomenaoperational:1 interstellar:1 observatoryoperational:1 submillimeter:1 astronomyjuly:1 hibernationaugust:1 deep:1 impact:2 sub:1 missionin:1 wire:1 infrared:1 primary:1 due:1 loss:1 coolantoperational:1 terrier:1 shortly:1 orbitmay:1 fuse:1 astronomyoctober:1 image:1 hete:1 uv:1 flare:1 imagingoperational:1 spectroscopy:1 quietly:1 shut:1 themis:5 researchoperationalin:5 aim:1 noctilucent:1 cloud:1 observationoperationalin:1 reference:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 profile:1 system:1 exploration:1 video:1 minute:1 master:1 initialisms:1 abbreviation:1 un:1 man:1 |@bigram soviet_union:1 copious_amount:1 energetic_particle:13 cosmic_ray:1 magnetic_field:4 gamma_ray:4 imp_interplanetary:10 interplanetary_monitoring:10 solar_flare:1 orbit_themis:5 themis_february:5 magnetospheric_researchoperationalin:5 researchoperationalin_orbit:5 external_link:1 |
1,788 | Baudot_code | The Baudot code, invented by Émile Baudot Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed.), Encyclopedia of Computer Science Third Edition, IEEE Press/Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 1993, ISBN 0-442-27679-6 Baudot Code , is a character set predating EBCDIC and ASCII. It was the predecessor to the International Telegraph Alphabet No 2 (ITA2), the teleprinter code in use until the advent of ASCII. Each character in the alphabet is represented by a series of bits, sent over a communication channel such as a telegraph wire or a radio signal. History Baudot invented his original code in 1870 and patented it in 1874. It was a 5-bit code, with equal on and off intervals, which allowed telegraph transmission of the Roman alphabet and punctuation and control signals. It was based on an earlier code developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber in 1834. The code was entered on a keyboard which had just five piano type keys, operated with two fingers of the left hand and three fingers of the right hand. Once the keys had been pressed they were locked down until mechanical contacts in a distributor unit passed over the sector connected to that particular keyboard, when the keyboard was unlocked ready for the next character to be entered, with an audible click (known as the "cadence signal") to warn the operator. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute. Baudot's code became known as International Telegraph Alphabet No. 1, and is no longer used. Murray code In 1901 Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865-1945), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. The Murray system employed an intermediate step, a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch a paper tape, and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape. At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or a reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message. As there was no longer a direct correlation between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no need to worry about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue and instead Murray designed the code to minimize wear and tear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most frequently used characters. The Murray code also introduced what later became known as "format effectors" or "control characters" - the CR (Carriage Return) and LF (Line Feed) codes. A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and the DEL code. NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent. Early British Creed machines used the Murray system. Western Union Keyboard of a Teletype using the Baudot code, with FIGS and LTRS shift keys. Murray's code was adopted by Western Union which used it until the 1950s, with a few changes that consisted of dropping some characters and adding more control codes. An explicit SPC (space) character was introduced, in place of the BLANK/NULL, and a new BEL code rang a bell or otherwise produced an audible signal at the receiver. Additionally, the WRU or "Who aRe yoU?" code was introduced, which caused a receiving machine to send an identification stream back to the sender. ITA2 Around 1930, the CCITT introduced the International Telegraphy Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) code as an international standard, which was based on the Western Union code with some minor changes. The US standardized on a version of ITA2 called the American Teletypewriter code (USTTY) which was the basis for 5-bit teletype codes until the debut of 7-bit ASCII in 1963. ITA2 is still used in TDDs and some amateur radio applications, such as radioteletype ("RTTY"). Though it is significantly different from Baudot's original code, it is nonetheless often incorrectly referred to as "Baudot code". Baudot's original code was adapted to be sent from a manual keyboard and no teleprinter equipment was ever constructed that used it in its original form. http://wps.com/projects/codes/index.html#BAUDOT History of character codes, retrieved 2008 June 27 Nomenclature Nearly all 20th century teleprinter equipment used Western Union's code, ITA2, or variants thereof. Radio amateurs casually call ITA2 and variants "baudot" incorrectly, and even the American Radio Relay League's Amateur Radio Handbook does so, though in more recent editions the tables of codes correctly identifies it as ITA2. Details NOTE: This table presumes the space called "1" by Baudot and Murray is rightmost, and least significant. The actual order of transmission varied by manufacturer. Table of ITA2 codepoints (hexadecimal) In ITA2, characters are expressed using five bits. ITA2 uses two code sub-sets, the "letter shift" (LTRS), and the "figure shift" (FIGS). The FIGS character (11011) signals that the following code is to be interpreted as being in the FIGS set, until this is reset by the LTRS (11111) character. "ENQuiry" will trigger the other machine's answerback. It means "Who are you?" CR is carriage return, LF is line feed, BEL is the bell character which rang a small bell (often used to alert operators to an incoming message), SP is space, and NUL is the null character (blank tape). Note: the binary conversions of the codepoints are often shown in reverse order, depending on (presumably) from which side one views the papertape. Note further that the "control" characters were chosen so that they were either symmetric or in useful pairs so that inserting a tape "upside down" did not result in problems for the equipment and the resulting printout could be deciphered. Thus FIGS (11011), LTRS (11111) and space (00100) are invariant, while CR (01000) and LF (00010), generally used as a pair, result in the same output when the tape is reversed. LTRS could also be used to overpunch characters to be deleted on a paper tape (much like DEL in 7-bit ASCII). The sequence RYRYRY... is often used in test messages, and at the start of every transmission. Since R is 01010 and Y is 10101, the sequence exercises much of a teleprinter's mechanical components at maximum stress. Also, at one time, fine-tuning of the receiver was done using two coloured lights (one for each tone). 'RYRYRY...' produced 0101010101..., which made the lights glow with equal brightness when the tuning was correct. US implementations of Baudot code may differ in the addition of a few characters, such as #, & on the FIGS layer. The above table represents the US TTY code. The Russian version of Baudot code (MTK-2) used three shift modes; the Cyrillic letter mode was activated by the character (00000). Because of the larger number of characters in the Cyrillic alphabet, the characters !, &, £, and BEL were omitted and replaced by Cyrillics. See also Serial communication Asynchronous communication Morse code RY (test signal) Notes References Five-unit codes An examination of Baudot code in respect to other character codes by Tom Jennings MTK-2 code table Baudot, Murray, ITA2, ITA5, etc. Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot; (includes photos of 1870s-1880s gear, tech details & references) | Baudot_code |@lemmatized baudot:19 code:42 invent:2 émile:2 anthony:1 ralston:1 edwin:1 reilly:1 ed:1 encyclopedia:1 computer:1 science:1 third:1 edition:2 ieee:1 press:2 van:1 nostrand:1 reinhold:1 new:2 york:1 isbn:1 character:20 set:3 predate:1 ebcdic:1 ascii:4 predecessor:1 international:4 telegraph:4 alphabet:6 teleprinter:4 use:18 advent:1 represent:2 series:1 bit:7 send:5 communication:3 channel:1 wire:1 radio:5 signal:6 history:2 original:4 patent:1 equal:2 interval:1 allow:2 transmission:3 roman:1 punctuation:1 control:4 base:2 early:2 develop:1 carl:1 friedrich:1 gauss:1 wilhelm:1 weber:1 enter:2 keyboard:7 five:3 piano:1 type:1 key:3 operate:1 two:3 finger:2 left:1 hand:3 three:2 right:1 lock:1 mechanical:2 contact:1 distributor:1 unit:2 pass:1 sector:1 connect:1 particular:1 unlocked:1 ready:1 next:1 audible:2 click:1 know:3 cadence:1 warn:1 operator:6 maintain:1 steady:1 rhythm:1 usual:1 speed:1 operation:1 word:1 per:1 minute:1 become:2 longer:2 murray:9 modify:1 donald:1 prompt:1 development:1 typewriter:1 like:2 system:2 employ:1 intermediate:1 step:1 perforator:1 punch:1 paper:3 tape:8 transmitter:1 message:5 punched:2 receive:1 end:1 line:3 printing:1 mechanism:1 would:1 print:1 reperforator:1 could:3 make:2 perforated:1 copy:1 direct:1 correlation:1 movement:1 transmit:1 need:1 worry:1 arrange:1 minimize:2 fatigue:1 instead:1 design:1 wear:1 tear:1 machinery:1 assign:1 combination:1 hole:1 frequently:1 used:1 also:4 introduce:4 later:1 format:1 effector:1 cr:3 carriage:2 return:2 lf:3 feed:2 cod:2 move:1 position:1 stay:1 ever:2 since:2 null:4 blank:4 del:2 idle:1 british:1 creed:1 machine:3 western:4 union:4 teletype:2 fig:5 ltrs:5 shift:4 adopt:1 change:2 consist:1 drop:1 add:1 explicit:1 spc:1 space:4 place:1 bel:3 ring:2 bell:3 otherwise:1 produce:2 receiver:2 additionally:1 wru:1 cause:1 receiving:1 identification:1 stream:1 back:1 sender:1 around:1 ccitt:1 telegraphy:1 standard:1 minor:1 u:3 standardize:1 version:2 call:3 american:2 teletypewriter:1 ustty:1 basis:1 debut:1 still:1 tdds:1 amateur:2 application:1 radioteletype:1 rtty:1 though:2 significantly:1 different:1 nonetheless:1 often:4 incorrectly:2 refer:1 adapt:1 manual:1 equipment:3 construct:1 form:1 http:1 wps:1 com:1 project:1 index:1 html:1 retrieve:1 june:1 nomenclature:1 nearly:1 century:1 variant:2 thereof:1 amateurs:1 casually:1 even:1 relay:1 league:1 handbook:1 recent:1 table:5 correctly:1 identify:1 detail:2 note:4 presume:1 rightmost:1 least:1 significant:1 actual:1 order:2 vary:1 manufacturer:1 codepoints:2 hexadecimal:1 express:1 sub:1 letter:2 figure:1 figs:1 following:1 interpret:1 reset:1 enquiry:1 trigger:1 answerback:1 mean:1 small:1 alert:1 incoming:1 sp:1 nul:1 binary:1 conversion:1 show:1 reverse:2 depend:1 presumably:1 side:1 one:3 view:1 papertape:1 far:1 choose:1 either:1 symmetric:1 useful:1 pair:2 insert:1 upside:1 result:3 problem:1 printout:1 decipher:1 thus:1 invariant:1 generally:1 output:1 overpunch:1 delete:1 much:2 sequence:2 ryryry:2 test:2 start:1 every:1 r:1 exercise:1 component:1 maximum:1 stress:1 time:1 fine:1 tuning:2 coloured:1 light:2 tone:1 glow:1 brightness:1 correct:1 implementation:1 may:1 differ:1 addition:1 layer:1 tty:1 russian:1 mtk:2 mode:2 cyrillic:3 activate:1 large:1 number:1 omit:1 replace:1 see:1 serial:1 asynchronous:1 morse:1 ry:1 reference:2 examination:1 respect:1 tom:1 jennings:1 etc:1 jean:1 maurice:1 include:1 photo:1 gear:1 tech:1 |@bigram baudot_code:10 van_nostrand:1 nostrand_reinhold:1 carl_friedrich:1 friedrich_gauss:1 cr_lf:1 fine_tuning:1 cyrillic_alphabet:1 morse_code:1 |
1,789 | Foreign_relations_of_Oman | When Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said assumed power in 1970, Oman had limited contacts with the outside world, including neighbouring Arab states. A total of 14 countries maintained diplomatic presence in the country: Bangladesh, Brunei, the People's Republic of China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Malaysia, Netherlands, Pakistan, Philippines, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A special treaty relationship permitted the United Kingdom close involvement in Oman's civil and military affairs. Ties with the United Kingdom have remained very close under Sultan Qaboos. Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy and expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. It supported the 1979 Camp David accords and was one of three Arab League states, along with Somalia and Sudan, which did not break relations with Egypt after the signing of the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty in 1979. During the Persian Gulf crisis, Oman assisted the United Nations coalition effort. Oman has developed close ties to its neighbors; it joined the six-member Gulf Cooperation Council when it was established in 1980. Oman has traditionally supported Middle East peace initiatives, as it did those in 1983. In April 1994, Oman hosted the plenary meeting of the Water Working Group of the peace process, the first Persian Gulf state to do so. From 1996-2000, Oman and Israel exchanged trade offices. Oman closed the Israeli Trade Office in October 2000 in the wake of public demonstrations against Israel during the intifada. During the Cold War period, Oman avoided relations with communist countries because of the communist support for the insurgency in Dhofar. In recent years, Oman has undertaken diplomatic initiatives in the Central Asian republics, particularly in Kazakhstan, where it is involved in a joint oil pipeline project. In addition, Oman maintains good relations with Iran, its northern neighbor, and the two countries regularly exchange delegations. Oman is an active member in international and regional organizations, notably the Arab League and the GCC. International disputes The northern boundary with the United Arab Emirates has not been bilaterally defined; the northern section in the Musandam Peninsula is an administrative boundary. External links Government Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs See also Diplomatic missions of Oman Iran-Arab Relations (Oman) Pakistan-Arab relations (Oman) List of diplomatic missions in Oman Territorial disputes in the Persian Gulf | Foreign_relations_of_Oman |@lemmatized sultan:2 qaboos:2 bin:1 say:2 al:1 assumed:1 power:1 oman:17 limit:1 contact:1 outside:1 world:1 include:1 neighbour:1 arab:7 state:4 total:1 country:4 maintain:1 diplomatic:5 presence:1 bangladesh:1 brunei:1 people:1 republic:2 china:1 france:1 germany:1 india:1 italy:1 malaysia:1 netherlands:1 pakistan:2 philippine:1 turkey:1 united:7 emirate:2 kingdom:3 special:1 treaty:2 relationship:1 permit:1 close:4 involvement:1 civil:1 military:1 affair:2 tie:2 remain:1 since:1 pursue:1 moderate:1 foreign:2 policy:1 expand:1 relation:6 dramatically:1 support:3 camp:1 david:1 accord:1 one:1 three:1 league:2 along:1 somalia:1 sudan:1 break:1 egypt:1 signing:1 egyptian:1 israeli:2 peace:3 persian:3 gulf:4 crisis:1 assist:1 nation:1 coalition:1 effort:1 develop:1 neighbor:2 join:1 six:1 member:2 cooperation:1 council:1 establish:1 traditionally:1 middle:1 east:1 initiative:2 april:1 host:1 plenary:1 meeting:1 water:1 work:1 group:1 process:1 first:1 israel:2 exchange:2 trade:2 office:2 october:1 wake:1 public:1 demonstration:1 intifada:1 cold:1 war:1 period:1 avoid:1 communist:2 insurgency:1 dhofar:1 recent:1 year:1 undertake:1 central:1 asian:1 particularly:1 kazakhstan:1 involve:1 joint:1 oil:1 pipeline:1 project:1 addition:1 maintains:1 good:1 iran:2 northern:3 two:1 regularly:1 delegation:1 active:1 international:2 regional:1 organization:1 notably:1 gcc:1 dispute:2 boundary:2 bilaterally:1 define:1 section:1 musandam:1 peninsula:1 administrative:1 external:1 links:1 government:1 omani:1 ministry:1 see:1 also:1 mission:2 list:1 territorial:1 |@bigram sultan_qaboos:2 arab_emirate:2 diplomatic_relation:1 somalia_sudan:1 persian_gulf:3 plenary_meeting:1 musandam_peninsula:1 external_links:1 omani_ministry:1 foreign_affair:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
1,790 | Individualism | Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, or social outlook that stresses independence and self-reliance. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires, while opposing most external interference upon one's choices, whether by society, or any other group or institution. Individualism is opposed to collectivism, which stress that communal, community, group, societal, or national goals should take priority over individual goals. Individualism is also opposed to any tradition or other form of external moral standard being used to limit an individual's choice of actions. Etymology The concept of "individualism" was first used by the French Saint-Simonian socialists (the opposite of individualism), to describe what they believed was the cause of the disintegration of French society after the 1789 Revolution. The term was however already used (pejoratively) by reactionary thinkers of the French Theocratic School, such as Joseph de Maistre, in their opposition to political liberalism. The Saint-Simonians did not see political liberalism as the problem though, but saw in "individualism" a form of "egoism" or "anarchy," the "ruthless exploitation of man by man in modern industry." While the conservative anti-individualists attacked the political egalitarianism brought about by the Revolution, the Saint-Simonians criticized laissez-faire (economic liberalism), for its perceived failure to cope with the increasing inequality between rich and poor. Socialism, a word introduced by the Saint-Simonians, was to bring about "social harmony." In the English language, the word "individualism" was first introduced, as a pejorative, by the Owenites in the 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early Owenite socialist, he eventually rejected its collective idea of property, and found in individualism a "universalism" that allowed for the development of the "original genius." Without individualism, Smith argued, individuals cannot amass property to increase one's happiness. William Maccall, another Unitarian preacher, and probably an acquaintance of Smith, came somewhat later, although influenced by John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle, and German Romanticism, to the same positive conclusions, in his 1847 work "Elements of Individualism". Political individualism In political philosophy, the individualist theory of government holds that the state should protect the liberty of individuals to act as they wish as long they do not infringe on the liberties of others. This contrasts with collectivist political theories, where, rather than leaving individuals to pursue their own ends, the state ensures that the individual serves the whole society. The term has also been used to describe "individual initiative" and "freedom of the individual." This theory is described well by "laissez faire," which means in French "let [the people] do" [for themselves what they know how to do]. This term is commonly associated with a free market system in economics, where individuals and businesses own and control the majority of factors of production. Government interferences are kept to a minimum. Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state). Many individualists believe in protecting the liberties of the minority from the wishes of the majority. Thus, individualists oppose democratic systems without constitutional protections existing that do not allow individual liberty to be diminished by the interests of the majority. These concerns encompass both civil and economic liberties. For example, they oppose any concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state, and the municipality. The principles upon which this opposition is based are mainly twofold: that popularly-elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications, or the sense of responsibility, required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises, and the large sums of public money involved in civic administration; and that the "health of the state" depends upon the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit (who, "like cells", are the containers of the life of the body). Individualism may take a radicalist approach, as in individualist anarchism. For some political individualists, who hold a view known as methodological individualism, the word "society" can never refer to anything more than a very large collection of individuals. Society does not have an existence above or beyond these individuals, and thus cannot be properly said to carry out actions, since actions require intentionality, intentionality requires an agent, and society as a whole cannot be properly said to possess agency; only individuals can be agents. The same holds for the government. Under this view, a government is composed of individuals; despite that democratic governments are elected by popular vote, the fact remains that all of the activities of government are carried out by means of the intentions and actions of individuals. Strictly speaking, the government itself does not act. For example, the point is sometimes made that "we" have decided to enact a certain policy, and sometimes this usage is used to imply that the entity known as "society" supports the policy and thus it is justified. The methodological individualist points out that "we" in fact did not enact or carry out this policy; among those who voted, a certain group of people voted for the policy, individuals all, and another group voted against it. The decision that emerged was not made by the "people", or by the "government"; it was made by those on the winning side of the vote. This is significant because in any collective there exists individuals who oppose the policy whose wills are being overridden, and the use of "we" tends to obscure that fact. The individualist wishes to highlight the importance of the individual and prevent subsumption into a collective. For these reasons, methodological individualists tend to disagree with claims such as "we deserve the government we have, because we are doing it to ourselves," since perhaps that individual and very possibly many others disagree with the actions of the individuals who hold government power. That said, many individualists are willing to use "we" in reference to government or society as a convenient shorthand as long as the fact that these entities are composed of individuals is kept in mind. Individualism and society Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "social contract" maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his or her own will to the "general will." This advocacy of subordinating the individual will to a collective will is in fundamental opposition to the individualist philosophy. An individualist enters into society to further his or her own interests, or at least demands the right to serve his or her own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration (an individualist need not be an egoist). The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any higher social causes. Rousseau would argue, however, that his concept of "general will" is not the simple collection of individual wills and precisely furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason). Societies and groups can differ, in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and arguably self-interested) rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviour. Ruth Benedict argued that there is also a distinction, relevant in this context, between "guilt" societies (e.g., medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard", and "shame" societies (e.g., Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is "acceptable" or not (also known as "group-think"). The extent to which society, or groups are "individualistic" can vary from time to time, and from country to country. For example, Japanese society is more group-oriented (e.g., decisions tend to be taken by consensus among groups, rather than by individuals), and it has been argued that "personalities are less developed" (than is usual in the West). The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say "atomistic") end of the spectrum (the term "Rugged Individualism" is a cultural imprint of being the essence of Americanism), whereas European societies are more inclined to believe in "public-spiritedness", state "socialistic" spending, and in "public" initiatives. John Kenneth Galbraith made a classic distinction between "private affluence and public squalor" in the USA, and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation. Individualism is often contrasted with either totalitarianism or collectivism, but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviors ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g., the USA) through mixed societies (a term the UK has used in the post-World War II period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of collectivist anarchism or libertarian socialism) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices. Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of individualist anarchism, libertarianism or classical liberalism, typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or society has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries, as well as in relation to personal choice of lifestyle. Economic individualism The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, or the community, for him or her. Moreover, it often advocates the private ownership of property as opposed to state or collective arrangements. In some countries, corporations have gained for themselves the legal status of individual persons. Individualist countries A study by Geert Hofstede of 53 countries across 5 continents found the United States to be the most individualist country in the world along a continuum of individualism versus collectivism. Alex Kozulin. Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. Cambridge University Press, 2003. p. 443 Individualism and US history A personification of individualism as represented by a statue in The American Adventure in the World Showcase pavilion of Walt Disney World's Epcot. At the time of the formation of the United States, many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the French revolution. Such ideas influenced the founding fathers of the U.S. Constitution (the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the Bill of Rights. According to Ronald Scollon, the "fundamental American ideology of individualism" can be summarized by the following two statements: 1. The individual is the basis of all reality and all society. 2. The individual is defined by what he or she is not." Explaining the latter statement, he says that American individualism emphasizes that the individual is not subject to arbitrary laws, and not subject to domination by historical precedent and preference. Scollon, Ronald. Intercultural Communication. Blackwell Publishing. 2001. p. 221 Objectivist view Objectivism regards man and woman — every man and woman — as an independent, sovereign entity who possesses an inalienable right to his/her own life, a right derived from his/her nature as a rational being. Objectivism holds that a civilized society, or any form of association, cooperation or peaceful coexistence among humans, can be achieved only on the basis of the recognition of individual rights — and that a group, as such, has no rights other than the individual rights of its members. The principle of individual rights is the only moral base of all groups or associations. Since only an individual man or woman can possess rights, the expression "individual rights" is a redundancy (which one has to use for purposes of clarification in today’s intellectual chaos), but the expression "collective rights" is a contradiction in terms. Individual rights are not subject to a public vote; a majority has no right to vote away the rights of a minority; the political function of rights is precisely to protect minorities from oppression by majorities (and the smallest minority on earth is the individual). Ayn Rand, "Individualism" Ayn Rand Lexicon. Ayn Rand (1961), "Collectivized 'Rights,'" The Virtue of Selfishness. References Further reading Shanahan, Daniel. (1991) Toward a Genealogy of Individualism. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0-870-23811-6. Watt, Ian. (1996) Myths of Modern Individualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48011-6. Gad Barzilai. (2003). Communities and Law. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1. See also Anarchism Collectivism (antonym) Anarcho-capitalism Contrarian Independent Individualist anarchism Libertarianism Existentialism Self-ownership Tragedy of the commons Tragedy of the anticommons Communitarianism Individuation External links The New Individualist magazine Individual-I the i campaign Individualistic sensitivity by Georges Palante roughly translated into English Where the Individual Counts The Objectivist Center The Ayn Rand Institute | Individualism |@lemmatized individualism:28 moral:3 stance:1 political:9 philosophy:4 social:5 outlook:1 stress:2 independence:1 self:5 reliance:1 individualist:21 promote:1 exercise:1 one:6 goal:3 desire:1 oppose:8 external:4 interference:2 upon:5 choice:3 whether:2 society:23 group:13 institution:2 collectivism:5 communal:1 community:3 societal:2 national:1 take:5 priority:1 individual:46 also:6 tradition:1 form:4 standard:3 use:11 limit:1 action:6 etymology:1 concept:2 first:2 french:5 saint:5 simonian:1 socialist:2 opposite:1 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1,791 | Clitoris | The clitoris is a sexual organ that is present only in female mammals. In humans, the visible button-like portion is located near the anterior junction of the labia minora, above the opening of the urethra and vagina. Unlike the penis, which is homologous to the clitoris, the clitoris does not contain the distal portion of the urethra, and functions solely to induce sexual pleasure. The only known exception to this is in the Spotted Hyena. In this species, the urogenital system is unique in that the female urinates, mates and gives birth via an enlarged, erectile clitoris, known as a pseudo-penis. Pronunciation and etymology The word is () or (). The plural forms are clitorises in English and clitorides in Latin. In slang, it is sometimes abbreviated as clit, which originated in the 1950s. The OED suggests that the pronunciation ) is also used in the UK, and gives the likely etymology as coming from the Greek , kleitoris, perhaps derived from the verb , klei-ein, to shut. The Online Etymology Dictionary maintains that the etymology of this diminutive is still uncertain noting that many sources take , kleitorid, literally from the Greek "little hill”. Other etymological candidates are key or latch, to touch or titillate lasciviously, to tickle, to be inclined (toward pleasure) and slope, from the same root as climax. It has been noted in German as der Kitzler meaning "the tickler". Its Latin genitive is clitoridis, as in "glans clitoridis". Form The head or glans of the clitoris is roughly the size and shape of a pea, although it can be significantly larger or smaller. The clitoral glans is highly sensitive, containing 8,000 nerve endings, double the nerve endings as the analogous organ in males, the glans penis, making it particularly well-suited for sexual stimulation. Click here to see a video showing clitoral innervation The clitoris is a complex structure that includes external and internal components. Projecting at the front of the vaginal commissure where the edges of the outer lips (labia majora) meet at the base of the pubic mound is the clitoral hood (prepuce), which in full or part covers the head (clitoral glans). Following from the head back and up along the shaft, it is found that this extends up to several centimeters before reversing direction, branched resulting in a shape like an inverted "V", and extending as a pair of "legs" known as the clitoral crura formed of the corpora cavernosa, which are concealed behind the labia minora, and terminating attached to the pubic arch, according to some, Vulva on MedicaLook Human Anatomy or following interior to the labia minora to meet at the fourchette, according to others. Associated are the urethral sponge, clitoral/vestibular bulbs, perineal sponge, a network of nerves and blood vessels, suspensory ligaments, muscles and pelvic diaphragm. There is considerable variation in how much of the clitoris protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it, ranging from complete, covered invisibility to full, protruding visibility. An article published in the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology in July 1992 states that the average width of the clitoral glans lies within the range of , indicating that the average size is smaller than a pencil eraser. There is no identified correlation between the size of a clitoris and a woman's age, height, weight, use of oral contraceptives, or being post-menopausal. Those who have given birth tend to have slightly larger measurements. Click here to see a video showing clitoris becoming engorged with blood Masters and Johnson were the first to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along the vagina, determining that all orgasms are of clitoral origin. More recently, Australian urologist Dr Helen O'Connell, using MRI technology, noted a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the clitoral bulbs and corpora, and the distal urethra and vagina. She asserts that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-spot and experience of vaginal orgasm taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration. Some individuals who experience orgasm from both direct clitoral stimulation of the glans and vaginal access to the internal bodies may distinguish between them in terms of both the physical and general sensations associated with each. During sexual arousal and during orgasm, the clitoris and the whole of the genitalia engorge and change color as these erectile tissues fill with blood, and the individual experiences vaginal contractions. Masters and Johnson documented the sexual response cycle, which has four phases and is still the clinically accepted definition of the human orgasm. More recent research has determined that some can experience a sustained intense orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris and remain in the orgasmic phase for much longer than the original studies indicated, evidenced by genital engorgement, color changes, and vaginal contractions. Development At the time of development of the urinary and reproductive organs in embryogenesis the previously undifferentiated genital tubercle develops into the clitoris or the penis, along with all other major organ systems, making them homologous. The clitoris is formed from the same tissues that would become the glans and upper shaft of a penis if the embryo had been exposed to “male” hormones. Changes in appearance of male and female embryos begin roughly eight weeks after conception. By birth, the genital structures have developed into the female reproductive system. Embryo sex based on external genitalia is apparent to a doctor at the end of the 14th menstrual week, and the sex can usually be identified by an ultrasound after 16 to 18 menstrual weeks. A condition that can develop from naturally occurring or deliberate exposure to higher than average levels of testosterone is clitoromegaly or macroclitoris, of which there are a few . Recognition of existence The clitoris has been rediscovered repeatedly over the centuries (Harvey 2001, Laqueur 1989). Over a period of more than 2,500 years, some have considered the clitoris and the penis equivalent in all respects except their arrangement. Medical literature first recognized the existence of the clitoris in the 16th century. This is the subject of some dispute: Realdo Colombo (also known as Matteo Renaldo Colombo) was a lecturer in surgery at the University of Padua, Italy, and in 1559 he published a book called De re anatomica in which he described the "seat of woman's delight". Colombo concluded, "Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings, if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me, it should be called the love or sweetness of Venus." Colombo's claim was disputed by his successor at Padua, Gabriele Falloppio (who discovered the fallopian tube), who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris. Caspar Bartholin, a 17th-century Danish anatomist, dismissed both claims, arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to medical science since the second century. Indeed, Hippocrates used the term columella (little pillar). Avicenna named the clitoris the albatra or virga (rod). Albucasis, an Arabic medical authority, named it tentigo (tension). It was also known to the Romans, who named it (vulgar slang) landica. This cycle of suppression and discovery continued, notably in the work of De Graaf (Tractatus de Virorum Organis Generationi Inservientibus, De Mulierum Organis Generationi Inservientibus Tractatus Novus) in the 17th century and Kobelt (Die männlichen und weiblichen Wollustorgane des Menschen und einiger Säugetiere) in the 19th. De Graaf criticised Columbo's claims for this. (Harvey, Laqueur). The full extent of the clitoris was alluded to by Masters and Johnson in 1966, but in such a muddled fashion that the significance of their description became obscured. That same year, feminist psychiatrist Mary Jane Sherfey published an article on female sexuality that described in detail the extensive nature of the internal anatomy of the clitoris and in 1981, the Federation of Feminist Women's Health Clinics (FFWHC) continued this process with anatomically precise illustrations. Today, MRI complements these efforts, as it is both a live and multiplanar method of examination. Female genital modification The external part of the clitoris may be partially or totally removed during female genital cutting, also known as a clitoridectomy, female circumcision, or female genital mutilation (FGM); this may be a voluntary or involuntary procedure. The topic is highly controversial with many countries condemning the traditions that give rise to involuntary procedures, and with some countries outlawing even voluntary procedures. Amnesty International estimates that over 2 million involuntary female circumcisions are being performed every year, mainly in African countries. In various cultures, the clitoris is sometimes pierced directly. In U.S. body modification culture, it is actually extremely rare for the clitoral shaft itself to be pierced, as of the already few people who desire the piercing, only a small percentage are anatomically suited for it; furthermore, most piercing artists are reluctant to attempt such a delicate procedure. Some styles, such as the Isabella, do pass through the clitoris but are placed deep at the base, where they provide unique stimulation; they still require the proper genital build, but are more common than shaft piercings. Additionally, what is (erroneously) referred to as a "clit piercing" is almost always the much more common (and much less complicated) clitoral hood piercing. Enlargement may be intentional or unintentional. Those taking hormones and/or other medications as part of female-to-male transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires (and the difficulties of surgical phalloplasty) often result in the retention of the original genitalia, the enlarged clitoris analogous to a penis as part of the transition. However, the clitoris never completely adapts to the masculinization of its owner and will never be able to ejaculate or urinate and is small in comparison to the genitalia of a natural-born male. On the other hand, use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders and other athletes can result in significant enlargement of the clitoris in concert with other masculinizing effects on their bodies. Temporary engorgement results from suction pumping, practiced to enhance sexual pleasure or for aesthetic purposes. Additional images See also Clitoral pump Erogenous zone Female reproductive system (human) Labium (genitalia) Masturbation References Notes Bibliography Harvey, E. (2002) "Anatomies of Rapture: clitoral politics/medical blazons", Signs 27(2) Winter 2002, pp. 315–46 Laqueur, T. W. (1989) "Amor Veneris, vel Dulcedo Appeletur", in Fragments for a History of the Human Body. #3 Feher, M., Naddaff, R., Tazi, N. (eds.) 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1,792 | Knowbot_Information_Service | The Knowbot Information Service (KIS), also known as netaddress, provides a uniform user interface to a variety of remote directory services such as whois, finger, X.500, MCIMail. By submitting a single query to KIS, a user can search a set of remote white pages services and see the results of the search in a uniform format. There are several interfaces to the KIS service including e-mail and telnet. Another KIS interface imitates the Berkeley whois command. KIS consists of two distinct types of modules which interact with each other (typically across a network) to provide the service. One module is a user agent module that runs on the KIS mail host machine. The second module is a remote server module (possibly on a different machine) that interrogates various database services across the network and provides the results to the user agent module in a uniform fashion. Interactions between the two modules can be via messages between Knowbots or by actual movement of Knowbots. References External links http://www.ou.edu/research/electron/internet/knowbot.htm http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/home/koe/index.html | Knowbot_Information_Service |@lemmatized knowbot:2 information:1 service:6 kis:3 also:1 know:1 netaddress:1 provide:3 uniform:3 user:4 interface:3 variety:1 remote:3 directory:1 whois:2 finger:1 x:1 mcimail:1 submit:1 single:1 query:1 search:2 set:1 white:1 page:1 see:1 result:2 format:1 several:1 ki:3 include:1 e:1 mail:2 telnet:1 another:1 imitate:1 berkeley:1 command:1 consist:1 two:2 distinct:1 type:1 module:7 interact:1 typically:1 across:2 network:2 one:1 agent:2 run:1 host:1 machine:2 second:1 server:1 possibly:1 different:1 interrogate:1 various:1 database:1 fashion:1 interaction:1 via:1 message:1 knowbots:2 actual:1 movement:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:2 www:2 ou:1 edu:1 research:1 electron:1 internet:1 htm:1 cnri:1 reston:1 va:1 u:1 home:1 koe:1 index:1 html:1 |@bigram user_interface:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 reston_va:1 |
1,793 | Andrew_S._Tanenbaum | Andrew Stuart "Andy" Tanenbaum (sometimes referred to by the handle ast) (born March 16, 1944) is a professor of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He is best known as the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes, and for his computer science textbooks, regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work. 2004 article about Linux, the Usenet debate, and the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution Biography Tanenbaum was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains, New York. He received his B.Sc. degree in Physics from MIT in 1965. He received his Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1971. He moved to the Netherlands to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his United States citizenship. He teaches courses about Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervises the work of Ph.D. candidates at the VU University Amsterdam. Books He is well recognized for his textbooks on computer science: Computer Networks, ISBN 0-13-066102-3 Operating Systems: Design and Implementation, (co-authored with Albert Woodhull), ISBN 0-13-142938-8 Modern Operating Systems, ISBN 0-13-031358-0 Distributed Operating Systems, ISBN 0-13-219908-4 Structured Computer Organization, ISBN 0-13-148521-0 Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, (co-authored with Maarten van Steen), ISBN 0-13-239227-5 Operating Systems: Design and Implementation and MINIX The MINIX 3 Operating System were Linus Torvalds' inspiration for the Linux kernel. In his autobiography Just For Fun, Torvalds describes it as "the book that launched me to new heights". His books have been translated into many languages including Basque, Bulgarian, Castillian Spanish, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Mexican Spanish, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian Andrew S. Tanenbaum's FAQ . They have appeared in over 120 editions and are used at universities around the world. Andrew S. Tanenbaum - Publications Amsterdam Compiler Kit The Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a toolkit for producing portable compilers. It was started sometime before 1981, Andrew S. Tanenbaum - Publications, Colloquia section and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5. MINIX In 1987, Tanenbaum wrote the first open-source clone of UNIX, called MINIX (MIni-uNIX), for the IBM PC. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book Amazon.com: Operating Systems Design and Implementation (3rd Edition) (Prentice Hall Software Series): Andrew S Tanenbaum, Albert S Woodhull: Books that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a USENET newsgroup, comp.os.minix, http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/topics had sprung up with over 40,000 readers discussing and improving the system. One of these readers was a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own (POSIX like) operating system, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system but is not based on MINIX code. Some notes on the "Who wrote Linux" Kerfuffle Although MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, now as a production system as well as an educational one. USENIX April 06 The focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure, operating system. The system is based on a microkernel, with only 4000 lines of code running in kernel mode. The rest of the operating system runs as a number of independent processes in user mode, including processes for the file system, process manager, and each device driver. The system continuously monitors each of these processes, and when a failure is detected is often capable of automatically replacing the failed process without a reboot, without disturbing running programs, and without the user even noticing. MINIX 3, as the current version is called, is available under the BSD license for free at www.minix3.org. Research projects Tanenbaum has also been involved in numerous other research projects in the areas of operating systems, distributed systems, and ubiquitous computing, often as supervisor of Ph.D. students or a postdoctoral researcher. These projects include: Amoeba Globe Mansion Orca Paramecium RFID Guardian S3MS Turtle F2F Ph.D. students Tanenbaum has had a number of Ph.D. students who themselves have gone on to become famous computer science researchers. These include Henri Bal, a professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam, Frans Kaashoek, a professor at MIT, Sape Mullender, a researcher at Bell Labs, Robbert van Renesse, a professor at Cornell University, Leendert van Doorn, a fellow at the AMD Corporation, and Werner Vogels, the Chief Technology Officer at Amazon.com. Electoral-vote.com In 2004 Tanenbaum created Electoral-vote.com, a web site analyzing opinion polls for the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, using them to project the outcome in the Electoral College. He stated that he created the site as an American who "knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again." The Votemaster FAQ The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as "the Votemaster" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred John Kerry. A libertarian who supports the Democrats, he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day prior to the election, also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website. Through the site he covered the 2006 midterm elections, correctly predicting the winner of all 33 Senate races that year. In 2008 he tracked the presidential, Senate, and House races. Awards Fellow of the ACM (1996) Fellow of the IEEE Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Academy Professor Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the USENIX LISA Conference in December 2006 Coauthor of the Best Paper for High Impact at the 2006 IEEE Percom conference Winner of the 2006 IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal Winner of the 2003 TAA McGuffey Award for classic textbooks Winner of the 2002 TAA Texty Award for new textbooks Winner of the 1997 ACM SIGCSE for contributions to computer science education Winner of the 1994 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award Coauthor of the 1984 ACM SOSP Distinguished Paper Award USENIX Flame Award 2008 http://www.usenix.org/about/flame.html for his many contributions to systems design and to openness both in discussion and in source. Honorary doctorate Tanenbaum is 4th from left On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an honorary doctorate from Universitatea Politehnică din București (Polytechnic University of Bucharest). The award was given in the academic senate chamber, after which Tanenbaum gave a lecture on his vision of the future of the computer field. The degree was given in recognition of Tanenbaum's career work, which includes about 150 published papers, 18 books (which have been translated into over 20 languages), and the creation of a large body of open-source software, including the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, Amoeba, Globe, and MINIX. Keynote talks Tanenbaum has been keynote speaker at numerous conferences, most recently Free and Open Source Conference Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 23, 2008 XV Semana Informática of the Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal, March 13, 2008 NLUUG 25 year anniversary conference, Amsterdam, November 7, 2007 linux.conf.au in Sydney, Australia, January 17, 2007 Academic IT Festival in Cracow, Poland, February 23, 2006 (2nd edition) ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Brighton, England, October 24, 2005 Bibliography Books written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum published by Prentice Hall Academic publications by Andrew S. Tanenbaum from DBLP Publications list References See also Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate — famous friendly debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design External links Professor Andrew S Tanenbaum at the Dept. of Computer Systems at VU Minix Article in Free Software Magazine contains an interview with Andrew Tanenbaum be-x-old:Эндру Танэнбаўм | Andrew_S._Tanenbaum |@lemmatized andrew:10 stuart:1 andy:1 tanenbaum:23 sometimes:1 refer:2 handle:1 ast:1 bear:2 march:2 professor:6 computer:10 science:6 vrije:2 universiteit:2 amsterdam:7 netherlands:3 best:3 know:2 author:3 minix:15 free:4 unix:3 like:2 operating:9 system:24 teach:3 purpose:1 textbook:3 regard:3 standard:1 text:2 field:2 job:1 important:1 work:4 article:2 linux:6 usenet:2 debate:3 alexis:1 de:1 tocqueville:1 institution:1 biography:1 new:5 york:2 city:1 grow:1 suburban:1 white:1 plain:1 receive:3 b:1 sc:1 degree:3 physic:2 mit:2 ph:5 university:5 california:1 berkeley:1 move:1 live:1 wife:1 dutch:2 retain:1 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1,794 | History_of_Macau | St. Paul's Cathedral in the 19th century by George Chinnery (1774—1852) Macau is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China. It was administered by Portugal for 442 years, first as a trading post, and subsequently as a Portuguese territory, until its handover to China in 1999. It was the last European territory in Asia. Early history The human history of Macau stretches back up to 6,000 years, and includes many different and diverse civilizations and periods of existence. Evidence of human culture dating back 4,000 to 6,000 years has been discovered on the Macau Peninsula and dating back 5,000 years on Coloane Island. During the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), the region now called Macau came under the jurisdiction of Panyu County, Nanhai Prefecture of the province of Guangdong. It was administratively part of Dongguan Prefecture in the Jin Dynasty (265–420 AD), and alternated under the control of Nanhai and Dongguan in later dynasties. In 1152, during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD), it was under the jurisdiction of the new Xiangshan County. Since the 5th century, merchant ships traveling between Southeast Asia and Guangzhou used the region as a way stop for refuge, fresh water, and food. The first recorded inhabitants of the area are some 50,000 people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols in 1277, during the Southern Song Dynasty. They were able to defend their settlements and establish themselves there. Mong Há has long been the center of Chinese life in Macau and the site of what may be the region's oldest temple, a shrine devoted to the Buddhist Guanyin (Goddess of Mercy). Later in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), fishermen migrated to Macau from various parts of Guangdong and Fujian provinces and built the A-Ma Temple where they prayed for safety on the sea. The Hoklo Boat people were the first to show interest in Macau as a trading centre for the southern provinces. However, Macau did not develop as a major settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. Portuguese settlement Map of Macau Peninsula in 1639 Portuguese sailors in the Age of Discovery were exploring the coasts of Africa and Asia, later established posts at Goa in 1510, and conquered Malacca in 1511, driving its Sultan to the hinterland from where he kept making raids on the Portuguese. The Portuguese under Jorge Álvares landed at Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta of China in 1513 with a hired junk sailing from Portuguese Malacca. They erected a stone marker at Lintin Island claiming it for the King of Portugal, Manuel I. In the same year, the Indian Viceroy Afonso de Albuquerque commissioned Rafael Perestrello—a cousin of Christopher Columbus—to sail to China in order to open up trade relations; Rafael traded with the Chinese merchants in Canton in that year and in 1516, but was not allowed to move further. Portugal’s king Manuel I in 1517 commissioned a diplomatic and trade mission to Canton headed by Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade. Their embassy lasted until 1521, they even received a quick audience from emperor Zhengde in Nanjing, but when Zhengde died in 1521, their embassy was further rejected by the Chinese Ming court, which now became less interested in new foreign contacts, and was also influenced by reports of misbehaviour of Portuguese elsewhere in China, and by the deposed Sultan of Malacca seeking Chinese assistance to drive the Portuguese out of Malacca. In 1521 and 1522 several more Portuguese ships reached trading island Tuen Mun off the coast near Canton, but were forcibly driven away by the now hostile Ming authorities. Good relations between the Portuguese and Chinese Ming Dynasty resumed in the 1540s, when Portuguese aided China at eliminating coastal pirates, and could in 1549 start annual trade missions to Shangchuan Island. Diplomatic relations were finally salvaged by Leonel de Sousa in the early 1550s. In 1557 the Ming court gave consent for a permanent and official Portuguese trade base at Macau. In 1558 Leonel de Sousa became the second Portuguese Governor of Macau. Following a ship wreck in 1535, Portuguese traders were allowed to anchor ships in Macau's harbors and the right to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. Around 1552–1553, they obtained a temporary permission to erect storage sheds onshore, in order to dry out goods drenched by sea water. They later built some rudimentary stone-houses around the area now called Nam Van. But not until 1557 did the Portuguese establish a permanent settlement in Macau, at an annual rent of 500 taels of silver. Later that year, the Portuguese established a walled village there. Ground rent payments began in 1573. China retained sovereignty and Chinese residents were subject to Chinese law, but the territory was under Portuguese administration. In 1582 a land lease was signed, and annual rent was paid to Xiangshan County. Macau's golden age Macau and its position in Portuguese and Spanish global trade routes The mission of the Jesuits used Macau as a point of departure & formation during 16th century After Portuguese permanent settlement in Macau, both Chinese and Portuguese merchants flocked to Macau, and it quickly became an important node in the development of Portugal's trade along three major routes: Macau-Malacca-Goa-Lisbon, Guangzhou-Macau-Nagasaki and Macau-Manila-Mexico. The Guangzhou-Macau-Nagasaki route was particularly profitable because the Portuguese acted as middlemen, shipping Chinese silks to Japan and Japanese silver to China, pocketing huge markups in the process. This already lucrative trade became even more so when Chinese officials handed Macau's Portuguese traders a monopoly by banning direct trade with Japan in 1547, due to piracy by Japanese nationals. . Macau's golden age coincided with the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns, between 1580 and 1640. King Philip II of Spain was encouraged to not harm the status quo, to allow trade to continue between Portuguese Macau and Spanish Manila, and to not interfere with Portuguese trade with China. In 1587, Philip promoted Macau from "Settlement or Port of the Name of God in China" to "City of the Name of God in China" (Cidade do Nome de Deus de Macau). The alliance of Portugal with Spain meant that Portuguese colonies became targets for the Netherlands, which was embroiled at the time in a lengthy struggle for its independence from Spain, the Eighty Years' War. After the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602, the Dutch unsuccessfully attacked Macau several times, culminating in a full scale invasion attempt in 1622, when 800 attackers were successfully repelled by 150 Macanese and Portuguese defenders. One of the first actions of Macau's first governor, who arrived the following year, was to strengthen the city's defenses, which included the construction of the Guia Fortress Religious activity As well as being an important trading post, Macau was a center of activity for Catholic missionaries, as it was seen as a gateway for the conversion of the vast populations of China and Japan. Jesuits had first arrived in the 1560s and were followed by Dominicans in the 1580s. Both orders soon set about constructing churches and schools, the most notable of which were the Jesuit Cathedral of Saint Paul and the St. Dominic’s Church built by the Dominicans. In 1576, Macau was established as an episcopal see by Pope Gregory XIII with Melchior Carneiro appointed as the first bishop. Decline The full title awarded to Macau by King Joao IV is still displayed to this day inside the Leal Senado, though the building and emblem itself date from the 19th Century. Macau in 19th century; Vue générale de Macau painted by Auguste Borget (1808-1877) In 1637, increasing suspicion of the intentions of Spanish and Portuguese Catholic missionaries in Japan finally led the shogun to seal Japan off from all foreign influence. Later named the sakoku period, this meant that no Japanese were allowed to leave the country (or return if they were living abroad), and no foreign ship was allowed to dock in a Japanese port. An exception was made for the Protestant Dutch, who were allowed to continue to trade with Japan from the confines of a small man-made island in Nagasaki, Deshima. Macau's most profitable trade route, that between Japan and China, had been severed. The crisis was compounded two years later by the loss of Malacca to the Dutch in 1641, damaging the link with Goa. The news that the Portuguese House of Braganza had regained control of the Crown from the Spanish Habsburgs took two years to reach Macau, arriving in 1642. A ten week celebration ensued, and despite its new-found poverty, Macau sent gifts to the new King João IV along with expressions of loyalty. In return, the King rewarded Macau with the addition of the words "There is none more Loyal" to its existing title. Macau was now "City of the Name of God in China, There is none more loyal". ("Não há outra mais Leal" []). Macau, ca. 1870 In 1685, the privileged position of the Portuguese in trade with China ended, following a decision by the emperor of China to allow trade with all foreign countries. Over the next century, England, Holland, France, Denmark, Sweden, the United States and Russia moved in, establishing factories and offices in Guangzhou and Macau. Until April 20 1844, Macau was under the jurisdiction of Portugal's Indian colonies, the so-called “Estado português da India” (Portuguese State of India), but after this date, it, along with East Timor, was accorded recognition by Lisbon (but not by Beijing) as an overseas province of Portugal. The Treaty of Peace, Amity, and Commerce between China and the United States was signed in a temple in Macau on 3 July 1844. The temple was used by a Chinese judicial administrator, who also oversaw matters concerning foreigners, and was located in the village of Mong Há. The Templo de Kun Iam was the site where, on July 3 1844, the treaty of Wangxia (named after the village of Mong Ha where the temple was located) was signed by representatives of the United States and China. This marked the official beginning of Sino-US relations. The Hong Kong effect 1888 German map of Hong Kong, Macau, and Canton (now Guangzhou) After China ceded Hong Kong to the British in 1842, Macau's position as a major regional trading centre declined further still because larger ships were drawn to the deep water port of Victoria Harbour. In an attempt to reverse the decline, Portugal declared Macau a free port, expelled Chinese officials and soldiers, and thereafter levied taxes on Chinese residents. In 1849, Portugal declared the colony independent of China. Portugal continued to pay rent to China until 1849, when the Portuguese abolished the Chinese customs house and declared Macau's “independence”, a year which also saw Chinese retaliation and finally the assassination of Gov. Ferreira do Amaral. Portugal gained control of the island of Wanzai, to the north of Macau and which now is under the jurisdiction of Zhuhai, in 1849 but relinquished it in 1887. Control over Taipa ( in Chinese, Jyutping: Tam5 Zai2; pinyin: Dàngzǎi) and Coloane ( in Chinese, Jyutping: Lou6 Waan4; pinying: Lùhuán), two islands south of Macau, was obtained between 1851 and 1864. The Treaty of Tianjin (signed 13 August 1862) recognized Macau as a Portuguese colony. Macau and East Timor were again combined as an overseas province of Portugal under control of Goa in 1883. The Protocol Respecting the Relations Between the Two Countries (signed in Lisbon 26 March 1887) and the Beijing Treaty (signed in Beijing on December the 1st 1887) confirmed “perpetual occupation and government” of Macau by Portugal (with Portugal's promise “never to alienate Macau and dependencies without agreement with China”). Taipa and Coloane were also ceded to Portugal, but the border with the mainland was not delimited. Ilha Verde ( in Chinese, Jyutping: Ceng1 Zau1 or Cing1 Zau1; pinyin: Qīngzhōu) was incorporated into Macau's territory in 1890, and, once a kilometer offshore, by 1923 it had been absorbed into peninsular Macau through land reclamation. Slave trade From 1848 to about the early 1870s, Macau was the infamous transit port of a trade of coolies (or slave labourers) from southern China. Most of them were kidnapped from the Guangdong province and were shipped off in packed vessels to Cuba, Peru, or other South American ports to work on plantations or in mines. Many died on the way there due to malnutrition, disease, or other mistreatment. The Dea del Mar which had set sail to Callao from Macau in 1865 with 550 Chinese on board, arrived in Tahiti with only 162 of them still alive. World War II Macau enjoyed a brief period of economic prosperity during World War II as the only neutral port in South China, after the Japanese occupied Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong. In 1943, Japan created a virtual protectorate over Macau. Japanese domination ended in August 1945. Macau and communist China When the Chinese communists came to power in 1949, they declared the Protocol of Lisbon to be invalid as an “unequal treaty” imposed by foreigners on China. However, Beijing was not ready to settle the treaty question, leaving the maintenance of “the status quo” until a more appropriate time. Beijing took a similar position on treaties relating to the Hong Kong territories of the United Kingdom. In 1955, the Salazar regime declared Macau, as well as other Portuguese colonies, an "Overseas Province" of Portugal. Riots broke out in 1966 when local Chinese and the Macau authority clashed, the most serious one being the so-called 12-3 incident. It was sparked by the overreaction of some Portuguese officials to what was a regular minor dispute concerning building permits. The riots cause 8 deaths and the end was a total climb down by the Portuguese Government, signing two agreements one with Macau's Chinese community the other with a mainland China. In the latter an agreement with local Chinese community leaders with as much as 2 million Macau Patacs in compensation and to prohibit all Kuomintang activities in Macau. This move ended the conflict, and relations between the government and the leftist organizations remained largely peaceful. The success in Macau encourage leftist in Hong Kong to "do the same". This eventually lead to the 1967 Hong Kong leftist riots. A Portuguese proposal to return the colony to China was declined by China. In 1974, following the anti-colonialist Carnation Revolution, Portugal relinquished all colonial claims and proposed Chinese sovereignty over Macau. Handover to the People's Republic of China Portugal and the People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations on 8 February 1979, and Beijing acknowledged Macau as “Chinese territory under Portuguese administration.” A year later, Gen. Melo Egidio became the first governor of Macau to pay an official visit to Beijing. The visit underscored both parties' interest in finding a mutually agreeable solution to Macau's status. A joint communiqué signed May 20, 1986, called for negotiations on the Macau question, and four rounds of talks followed between 30 June 1986 and 26 March 1987. The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau was signed in Beijing on 13 April 1987, setting the stage for the return of Macau to full Chinese sovereignty as a Special Administrative Region on 20 December 1999. After four rounds of talks, "the Joint Declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Portugal on the Question of Macau" was officially signed in April 1987. The two sides exchanged instruments of ratification on January 15, 1988 and the Joint Declaration entered into force. During the transitional period between the date of the entry into force of the Joint Declaration and December 19, 1999, the Portuguese government was responsible for the administration of Macau. The Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, was adopted by the National People's Congress (NPC) on 31 March 1993 as the constitutional law for Macau, taking effect on 20 December 1999. The PRC has promised that, under its “one country, two systems” formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs until at least 2049, fifty years after the handover. Thus the history of European colonization of Asia ended where it began. Although offered control of Macau in the 1970s, the Chinese deemed the time "not yet ripe" and preferred to wait until December 1999--the very end of the millennium, two years after the Hong Kong Handover--to close this chapter of history. See also Anders Ljungstedt Culture of Macau Jorge Álvares Names of Macau Religion in Macau References Further reading Coates, Austin: A Macao Narrative Porter, Jonathan: Macau: The Imaginary City Shipp, Steve: Macau, China: A Political History of the Portuguese Colony's Transition to Chinese Rule External links Macau handover: Asia's last colony | History_of_Macau |@lemmatized st:2 paul:2 cathedral:2 century:7 george:1 chinnery:1 macau:87 special:3 administrative:3 region:6 sar:1 people:8 republic:6 china:35 administer:1 portugal:19 year:15 first:8 trading:5 post:3 subsequently:1 portuguese:41 territory:6 handover:5 last:3 european:2 asia:5 early:3 history:5 human:2 stretch:1 back:3 include:2 many:2 different:1 diverse:1 civilization:1 period:4 existence:1 evidence:1 culture:2 date:5 discover:1 peninsula:2 coloane:3 island:8 qin:1 dynasty:7 bc:1 call:5 come:2 jurisdiction:4 panyu:1 county:3 nanhai:2 prefecture:2 province:7 guangdong:3 administratively:1 part:2 dongguan:2 jin:1 ad:3 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1,795 | Radio_Free_Albemuth | A posthumously published novel by Philip K. Dick, written in 1976, Radio Free Albemuth (originally titled VALISystem A) was his first attempt to deal in fiction with his experiences of early 1974. When the publishers, Bantam, requested extensive rewrites he canned the project, reworking some of the material into his subsequent VALIS trilogy. When Arbor House acquired the rights in 1985 they published an edition under the current title (the original was too close to VALIS, already published by then), prepared from the corrected typescript given by Dick to his friend Tim Powers. Plot summary In this alternate history the corrupt US President Ferris F Fremont (FFF for 666, Number of the Beast) becomes chief executive in the sixties. The character is best described as an amalgam of Joseph McCarthy and Richard Nixon, who abrogates civil liberties and human rights through positing a conspiracy theory centred around a fictitious subversive organisation known as "Aramchek". In addition to this, he is associated with a right-wing populist movement called "Friends of the American People" (Fappers). Ironically enough, the President's paranoia and opportunism lead to the establishment of a real resistance movement to him, which is organised, through eponymous radio broadcasts from a mysterious alien satellite, by a superintelligent, extraterrestrial, omnipotent being (or network) named VALIS. As with its successor, VALIS, this novel is autobiographical. Dick himself is a major character, though fictitious protagonist Nicholas Brady serves as a vehicle for Dick's alleged gnostic theophany on February 11, 1974. In addition, Sadassa Silvia is a character who claims that Ferris Fremont is actually a communist covert agent, and that her mother recruited him for the Soviet Union after she joins the resistance. As with VALIS, Radio Free Albemuth deals with his highly-personal style of Christianity (or Gnosticism), as well as with the moral repercussions of being an informer for the authorities, and his dislike of the Republican Party, satirizing Nixon's America as a Stalinist or neo-fascist police state. Eventually, Fremont captures and imprisons Dick and Brady after the latter produces and distributes a record that urges subliminal messages of revolt against the Fremont dictatorship. Brady and Silvia are executed, and Dick narrates the concluding passage about his life in a concentration camp, where "his" latest work is penned by a ghost writer and regime-approved hack. Suddenly, he hears other music, with another subliminal message. As Dick hears children singing the tune, he realises that all may not be lost after all. Relationship to VALIS When he rewrote Radio Free Albemuth as VALIS beforehand, Dick incorporated the plotline of Radio Free Albemuth as a backdrop film that recapitulated the central theological and existential concerns of his novel as a mise en abyme - that is, a miniature copy of his central preoccupations at this stage of his literary career, common to both works.Film adaptation John Alan Simon is producing, writing, and directing the upcoming film adaptation for Radio Free Albemuth''. Alanis Morissette stars as Sylvia. A release date has yet to be determined. Filming took place during October 2007 in Los Angeles at Lacy Street Studios and multiple locations for the film version which will be in 2008. Phillip Kim was the executive producer. References | Radio_Free_Albemuth |@lemmatized posthumously:1 publish:3 novel:3 philip:1 k:1 dick:8 write:2 radio:6 free:5 albemuth:5 originally:1 title:2 valisystem:1 first:1 attempt:1 deal:2 fiction:1 experience:1 early:1 publisher:1 bantam:1 request:1 extensive:1 rewrite:2 project:1 rework:1 material:1 subsequent:1 vali:5 trilogy:1 arbor:1 house:1 acquire:1 right:3 edition:1 current:1 original:1 close:1 valis:2 already:1 prepare:1 correct:1 typescript:1 give:1 friend:2 tim:1 power:1 plot:1 summary:1 alternate:1 history:1 corrupt:1 u:1 president:2 ferris:2 f:1 fremont:4 fff:1 number:1 beast:1 become:1 chief:1 executive:2 sixty:1 character:3 best:1 describe:1 amalgam:1 joseph:1 mccarthy:1 richard:1 nixon:2 abrogate:1 civil:1 liberty:1 human:1 posit:1 conspiracy:1 theory:1 centre:1 around:1 fictitious:2 subversive:1 organisation:1 know:1 aramchek:1 addition:2 associate:1 wing:1 populist:1 movement:2 call:1 american:1 people:1 fappers:1 ironically:1 enough:1 paranoia:1 opportunism:1 lead:1 establishment:1 real:1 resistance:2 organise:1 eponymous:1 broadcast:1 mysterious:1 alien:1 satellite:1 superintelligent:1 extraterrestrial:1 omnipotent:1 network:1 name:1 successor:1 autobiographical:1 major:1 though:1 protagonist:1 nicholas:1 brady:3 serf:1 vehicle:1 allege:1 gnostic:1 theophany:1 february:1 sadassa:1 silvia:2 claim:1 actually:1 communist:1 covert:1 agent:1 mother:1 recruit:1 soviet:1 union:1 join:1 highly:1 personal:1 style:1 christianity:1 gnosticism:1 well:1 moral:1 repercussion:1 informer:1 authority:1 dislike:1 republican:1 party:1 satirize:1 america:1 stalinist:1 neo:1 fascist:1 police:1 state:1 eventually:1 capture:1 imprisons:1 latter:1 produce:2 distribute:1 record:1 urge:1 subliminal:2 message:2 revolt:1 dictatorship:1 execute:1 narrate:1 concluding:1 passage:1 life:1 concentration:1 camp:1 late:1 work:2 pen:1 ghost:1 writer:1 regime:1 approve:1 hack:1 suddenly:1 hear:1 music:1 another:1 hears:1 child:1 sing:1 tune:1 realise:1 may:1 lose:1 relationship:1 beforehand:1 incorporate:1 plotline:1 backdrop:1 film:5 recapitulate:1 central:2 theological:1 existential:1 concern:1 mise:1 en:1 abyme:1 miniature:1 copy:1 preoccupation:1 stage:1 literary:1 career:1 common:1 adaptation:2 john:1 alan:1 simon:1 direct:1 upcoming:1 alanis:1 morissette:1 star:1 sylvia:1 release:1 date:1 yet:1 determine:1 take:1 place:1 october:1 los:1 angeles:1 lacy:1 street:1 studio:1 multiple:1 location:1 version:1 phillip:1 kim:1 producer:1 reference:1 |@bigram free_albemuth:5 richard_nixon:1 soviet_union:1 concentration_camp:1 mise_en:1 los_angeles:1 |
1,796 | Caddy | In golf, a caddy (or caddie) is the person who carries a player's bag, and gives insightful advice and moral support. A good caddy is aware of the challenges and obstacles of the golf course being played, along with the best strategy in playing it. This includes knowing overall yardage, pin placements and club selection. A caddy is not usually an employee of a private club or resort. He is classified as an "independent contractor," meaning that he is basically self employed and does not receive any benefits from his association with the club. Of course, some clubs and resorts do have caddy programs, although benefits are rarely offered. Etymology The term caddie comes from the French word, le cadet, meaning the boy. The term caddie or cadie first appeared in the English language in the year 1634. of Golf Words Fore and Caddie or Caddy". Retrieved on 2008-12-19 Types of caddying Traditional caddying involves both the golfer and the caddie walking the course. The caddy is in charge of carrying the player’s bag, with the caddie out in front of the player. This is the most common method used in golf clubs and is the only method allowed in the PGA (Professional Golf Association) and LPGA (Ladies Professional Golf Association). "Fore-Caddying" entails the caddie running while the players ride in carts. The fore-caddy will give a hole description and then run ahead to spot the players tee shots. The caddie then gets the players yardage (either with a laser, course knowledge, or sprinkler heads) while the players drive their carts from the tee to their shots. The caddy runs ahead again to spot the golfers next shots. This process is continued until the players reach the green. Once on the green the caddie will read greens (if asked per proper golf etiquette), clean golf balls (if asked), fix ball marks, and attend the flag if asked. The caddie is also responsible for raking traps and filling divots on the course. Caddies will help with club selection, reading greens, weather variables, and marking balls on the green but should only do so if asked to by the player. More than anything else, the caddy is there to make the players round enjoyable by taking care of menial tasks, speeding up play, and providing mental support if asked. Cart-caddying, a.k.a. Chariot Riding, See Fore Caddying, Caddy Ranks A caddy plies his trade Most clubs use a ranking system. Caddies will start as a trainee, and be promoted through the ranks of Intermediate, Captain, Honor, and finally Championship. Championship is reserved for only the best caddies. The intermediate and captain ranks can usually be obtained within the first year of caddying, and the honor rank is usually obtained in the second or third year of caddying. Championship takes at least 6 years and often as many as 10 years to obtain. Employment Many professionals working in the golf industry started as a caddy. Psychological Duties A duty of a good caddy often overlooked is the ability to keep their golfer focused and not waver psychologically from the task at hand. This is clearly the toughest of all caddy skills to learn and it requires a great deal of experience and understanding of the game of golf. A caddy that can positively impact the psyche of their golfer, especially if the golfer is not consciously aware of what the caddy is trying to do, can be extremely valuable. Golf arguably relies on mental aspects of the body more than any other sport in today's world and if the mind is not comfortable, calm, and focused, disaster is likely to occur. A crucial factor in performing the psychological duties of a caddy is that to be as effective as possible, the caddy must know the golfer very well. This is typically only possible if the caddy is on the pro tour, a family member/friend, or works regularly for the same member at a country club. Psychological caddying can be as simple as distracting the golfer as you walk down the fairway after a poor tee shot by talking about something the caddy knows will make the golfer be happy or laugh. While this may sound superficial, it can have an amazing effect on the mental state of the golfer as they enter into their next swing. The caddy might also try talking out exactly how the golfer wants to hit the next shot because positive visualization can be the difference between a birdie and a bogey. Other psychological duties that a caddy may partake in would be slight swing corrections. Obviously out on the golf course is not the time to completely change a golfer's swing but if the caddy has seen the golfer shoot multiple rounds under par and multiple rounds in the 90's, it is likely that there are slight tendencies that change within the golfers swing which drastically effect their scoring ability. If the caddy is skilled enough, discussing these changes can often make the golfer aware of something they did not even realize they were doing. Good examples of slight changes in a golfer's swing that could make an enormous difference in their score would be the speed of their take-away, early hip movement, a shoulder dip, too much wrist action, a retraction of the arms, poor balance, and a rushed or sloppy follow through. It should be noted that all psychological duties should only be acted upon by the caddy if he/she feels very comfortable with their golfer and believes that their knowledge and experience is sufficiently reliable. Weekly schedule Caddies are most frequently employed at clubs on weekends, when the majority of country club golf takes place. Some (but usually not as many) opportunities to caddy exist during the week, as well. Additionally, caddies are often allowed to play the course at which they caddy for free, usually on a Monday (the day that most private clubs choose to close their course for maintenance). On pro golf tours, professional caddies accompany their player to all events, which usually take place from Thursday through Sunday. Additionally, the player may hire their caddy to carry their bag for them during training sessions and practice rounds. Pay scale At most clubs, caddies are paid at the end of the round by cash, or receive a payment ticket for which they can redeem their wages in the clubhouse. Generally, the player will tip the caddy based on their performance during the round, with extra money given for exemplary work. Most American club caddies earn between $35 and $60 per bag, though newer caddies will often earn less and more experienced caddies or caddies working during a tournament, high-stakes match, or 4-Day member-guest will often earn significantly more, upwards of $100 per round, per bag, at times. It is considered acceptable to ask a professional at the course what the average pay for a caddie is, as courses differ. Many country clubs have a bag fee. Most people erroneously assume that the caddy is the sole recipient of this bag fee. In truth, the club receives a percentage of the fee, then the caddie master, and finally the caddie (with the caddie usually having the smallest cut). There are clubs that give the caddy the entire bag fee and there are clubs that give the caddy none of the bag fee. It is advisable to ask the pro how much of the bag fee actually goes to the caddy. Tipping is a large part of a caddies income and is certainly dependent upon the quality of service one receives. One should determine how much of the bag fee goes to the caddy and then tip on top of that to reach at least $40 per person. Many resorts do not have bag fees and oftentimes the caddies work solely for tips. [] In a professional golf tour setting, a player often pays their caddy a percentage of their winnings, which can be as high as 10%. A common pay scale is 5% for making the cut, 7% for a top 10, and 10% for a win. The caddy also usually receives a salary, as the player may not be guaranteed to win money at every tournament the player enters. Attire Collared shirt Khaki shorts or pants Gym shoes or golf shoes (lots of walking and standing) Smock Towel Hat Divot tool pencil, scorecard, and pin sheet small amount of sand (used to fill in divots) Alternative names for a caddy B-Jock (B caddies) Matt Phillips (D caddies) Divot Bagger Bag-carrier Divot Jock Looper Fairway Consultant Bag toter Tommy Two Bags Inspector Chisholm Lugger Noonan Glaargull up the water puncher Weekend Warrior Joss Ackland's spunky backpack 2-bagger Deaf-Mute Cake-faker Root-Boy Maggot Flea Cool thwacks Iggy Pop Notes and references[[id:slave | Caddy |@lemmatized golf:16 caddy:55 caddie:14 person:2 carry:3 player:16 bag:15 give:5 insightful:1 advice:1 moral:1 support:2 good:3 aware:3 challenge:1 obstacle:1 course:10 play:4 along:1 best:2 strategy:1 include:1 know:3 overall:1 yardage:2 pin:2 placement:1 club:17 selection:2 usually:8 employee:1 private:2 resort:3 classify:1 independent:1 contractor:1 meaning:1 basically:1 self:1 employ:2 receive:5 benefit:2 association:3 program:1 although:1 rarely:1 offer:1 etymology:1 term:2 come:1 french:1 word:2 le:1 cadet:1 mean:1 boy:2 cadie:1 first:2 appear:1 english:1 language:1 year:5 fore:4 retrieve:1 type:1 traditional:1 caddying:4 involve:1 golfer:16 walk:2 charge:1 front:1 common:2 method:2 use:3 allow:2 pga:1 professional:6 lpga:1 lady:1 entail:1 run:3 ride:1 cart:3 hole:1 description:1 ahead:2 spot:2 tee:3 shot:4 get:1 either:1 laser:1 knowledge:2 sprinkler:1 head:1 drive:1 next:3 process:1 continue:1 reach:2 green:5 read:2 ask:7 per:5 proper:1 etiquette:1 clean:1 ball:3 fix:1 mark:2 attend:1 flag:1 also:3 responsible:1 rake:1 trap:1 fill:2 divot:5 help:1 weather:1 variable:1 anything:1 else:1 make:5 round:7 enjoyable:1 take:5 care:1 menial:1 task:2 speed:2 provide:1 mental:3 k:1 chariot:1 riding:1 see:2 rank:4 ply:1 trade:1 ranking:1 system:1 start:2 trainee:1 promote:1 intermediate:2 captain:2 honor:2 finally:2 championship:3 reserve:1 obtain:3 within:2 second:1 third:1 least:2 often:7 many:5 employment:1 work:5 industry:1 psychological:5 duty:5 overlook:1 ability:2 keep:1 focus:2 waver:1 psychologically:1 hand:1 clearly:1 tough:1 skill:1 learn:1 require:1 great:1 deal:1 experience:2 understanding:1 game:1 positively:1 impact:1 psyche:1 especially:1 consciously:1 try:2 extremely:1 valuable:1 arguably:1 rely:1 aspect:1 body:1 sport:1 today:1 world:1 mind:1 comfortable:2 calm:1 disaster:1 likely:2 occur:1 crucial:1 factor:1 perform:1 effective:1 possible:2 must:1 well:2 typically:1 pro:3 tour:3 family:1 member:3 friend:1 regularly:1 country:3 simple:1 distract:1 fairway:2 poor:2 shoot:2 talk:2 something:2 happy:1 laugh:1 may:4 sound:1 superficial:1 amazing:1 effect:2 state:1 enter:1 swing:5 might:1 exactly:1 want:1 hit:1 positive:1 visualization:1 difference:2 birdie:1 bogey:1 partake:1 would:2 slight:3 correction:1 obviously:1 time:2 completely:1 change:4 multiple:2 par:1 tendency:1 drastically:1 scoring:1 skilled:1 enough:1 discuss:1 even:1 realize:1 example:1 could:1 enormous:1 score:1 away:1 early:1 hip:1 movement:1 shoulder:1 dip:1 much:3 wrist:1 action:1 retraction:1 arm:1 balance:1 rushed:1 sloppy:1 follow:1 note:2 act:1 upon:2 feel:1 believe:1 sufficiently:1 reliable:1 weekly:1 schedule:1 frequently:1 weekend:2 majority:1 place:2 opportunity:1 exist:1 week:1 additionally:2 free:1 monday:1 day:2 choose:1 close:1 maintenance:1 accompany:1 event:1 thursday:1 sunday:1 hire:1 training:1 session:1 practice:1 pay:5 scale:2 end:1 cash:1 payment:1 ticket:1 redeem:1 wage:1 clubhouse:1 generally:1 tip:3 base:1 performance:1 extra:1 money:2 exemplary:1 american:1 earn:3 though:1 new:1 less:1 experienced:1 tournament:2 high:2 stake:1 match:1 guest:1 significantly:1 upwards:1 consider:1 acceptable:1 average:1 differ:1 fee:8 people:1 erroneously:1 assume:1 sole:1 recipient:1 truth:1 percentage:2 master:1 small:2 cut:2 entire:1 none:1 advisable:1 actually:1 go:2 tipping:1 large:1 part:1 caddies:1 income:1 certainly:1 dependent:1 quality:1 service:1 one:2 determine:1 top:2 oftentimes:1 solely:1 setting:1 winning:1 win:2 salary:1 guarantee:1 every:1 enters:1 attire:1 collar:1 shirt:1 khaki:1 short:1 pant:1 gym:1 shoe:2 lot:1 walking:1 stand:1 smock:1 towel:1 hat:1 tool:1 pencil:1 scorecard:1 sheet:1 amount:1 sand:1 alternative:1 name:1 b:2 jock:2 matt:1 phillips:1 bagger:2 carrier:1 looper:1 consultant:1 toter:1 tommy:1 two:1 inspector:1 chisholm:1 lugger:1 noonan:1 glaargull:1 water:1 puncher:1 warrior:1 joss:1 ackland:1 spunky:1 backpack:1 deaf:1 mute:1 cake:1 faker:1 root:1 maggot:1 flea:1 cool:1 thwack:1 iggy:1 pop:1 reference:1 id:1 slave:1 |@bigram golf_course:2 anything_else:1 consciously_aware:1 feel_comfortable:1 joss_ackland:1 deaf_mute:1 iggy_pop:1 |
1,797 | Rail_transport_modelling | HO scale model railroad. A scale model of Berlin's Bahnhof Zoo at the LOXX Berlin model railway. A Japanese HOe scale model railroad. The Miniatur Wunderland in Hamburg/Germany - the largest model railway in the world One of the smallest (Z scale, 1:220) placed on the buffer bar of one of the largest (live steam, 1:8) model locomotives. HO scale (1:87) model of a North American center cab switcher shown with a pencil for size. Model railroading (US) or Railway modelling (UK, Australia and Canada) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale, or ratio. The scale models include locomotives, rolling stock, streetcars, tracks, signalling, and roads, buildings, vehicles, model figures, lights, and features such as streams, hills and canyons. The earliest model railways are the 'carpet railways' in the 1840s. Electric trains appeared around the turn of the 20th century. But these were crude likenesses. Model trains today are more realistic. Today modellers create model railway / railroad layouts, often recreating real locations and periods in history. General description Involvement ranges from possession of a train set to spending hours and large sums on a large and exacting model of a railroad and the scenery through which it passes, called a "layout". Hobbyists, called "model railroaders" or "railway modellers", may maintain models large enough to ride (see Live steam, Ridable miniature railway and Backyard railroad). Modellers may collect model trains, building a landscape for the trains to pass through, or operate their own railroad in miniature. Some older scale models reach high prices. http://www.specialauctionservices.com/zoom.php?id=11962&cat_id=80 Marklin estimate £6k to £10k Sold for £10200 http://www.specialauctionservices.com/category/Trains_Galore_Prices.DOC Layouts vary from a circle or oval of track to the realistic, real places are modelled to scale. One of the largest is in the Pendon Museum in Oxfordshire, UK, where an EM gauge (same 1:76.2 scale as 00 but with more accurate track gauge) model of the Vale of White Horse in the 1930s is under construction. The museum also houses one of the earliest scenic models - the Madder Valley layout built by John Ahern. This was built in the late 1930s to late 1950s and brought in realistic modelling, receiving coverage on both sides of the Atlantic in the magazines Model Railway News and Model Railroader. Bekonscot in Buckinghamshire is the oldest model village and includes a model railway, dating from the 1930s. The world's largest model railroad in H0 scale is Northlandz in Flemington, NJ, United States. The largest live steam layout, with 25 miles (40 km) of track is Train Mountain in Chiloquin, Oregon, U.S.. Model railroad clubs exist where enthusiasts meet. Clubs display models for the public. One specialist branch concentrates on larger scales and gauges, commonly using track gauges from 3.5 to 7.5 inches. Models in these scales are usually hand-built and powered by live steam, or diesel-hydraulic, and the engines are often powerful enough to haul dozens of human passengers. Often railways of this size are called miniature railways. List of model railroad clubs. The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) at MIT in the 1950s pioneered automatic control of track-switching by using telephone relays. The oldest society is The Model Railway Club (established 1910), near Kings Cross, London, UK. As well as building model railways, it has 5,000 books and periodicals. Similarly, The Historical Model Railway Society at Butterley, near Ripley, Derbyshire specialises in historical matters and has archives available to members and non-members. Scales and gauges The size of engines depends on the scale and can vary from 700 mm (28") tall for the largest ridable live steam scales such as 1:8, down to matchbox size for the smallest in Z-scale (1:220). A typical HO (1:87) engine is 50 mm (2") tall, and 100 mm to 300 mm (4" to 12") long. The most popular scales are: G scale, Gauge 1, O scale, H0 scale (in Britain, the similar 00), TT scale, and N scale (1:160). There is growing interest in Z scale. H0 is the most popular. Popular narrow-gauge scales include HOn3 Scale and Nn3, which are the same as HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale three feet instead of the 4'8.5" standard gauge). The largest common scale is 1:8, with 1:4 sometimes used for park rides. G scale (Garden, 1:24 scale) is most popular for backyard modelling. It is easier to fit a G scale model into a garden and keep scenery proportional to the trains. [Gauge 1] and Gauge 3 are also popular for gardens. 0, H0 scale, and N scale are more often used indoors. Lionel trains in 0 scale (1:48 scale) are popular toys. The words scale and gauge seem at first interchangeable but their meanings are different. Scale is the model's measurement as a proportion to the original, while gauge is the measurement between the rails. At first, model railways were not to scale. Manufacturers and hobbyists soon arrived at de facto standards for interchangeability, such as gauge, but trains were only a rough approximation to the real thing. See Normen Europäischer Modelleisenbahnen (NEM) and NMRA. Official scales for the gauges were drawn up but not at first rigidly followed and not necessarily correctly proportioned for the gauge chosen. O (zero) gauge trains, for instance, operate on track too widely spaced in the United States as the scale is accepted as 1:48 whereas in Britain 0 gauge uses a ratio of 43.5:1 or 7 mm/1 foot and the gauge is near to correct. British 00 standards operate on track significantly too narrow. The 4 mm/1 foot scale on a 16.5 mm gauge corresponds to a track gauge of 4ft 1 1/2in, 7 inches undersized). 16.5 mm gauge corresponds to 4ft 8.5 standard gauge in H0 (half zero) 3.5 mm/1 foot or 1:87. Most commercial scales have standards that include wheel flanges that are too deep, wheel treads that are too wide, and rail tracks that are too large. Later, modellers became dissatisfied with inaccuracies and developed standards in which everything is correctly scaled. These are used by modellers but have not spread to mass-production because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales ensure reliable operation and allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control. The finescale standards include the UK's P4, and the even finer S4, which uses track dimensions scaled from the prototype. This 4 mm:1ft modelling uses wheels 2 mm or less wide running on track with a gauge of 18.83 mm. Check-rail and wing-rail clearances are similarly accurate. A compromise of P4 and 00 is 'EM' which uses a gauge of 18.2 mm with more generous tolerances than P4 for check clearances. It gives a better appearance than 00 though pointwork is not as close to reality as P4. It suits many where time and improved appearance are important. Couplers and connectors In addition to different scales, there are also different types of couuplers for connecting cars, which are not compatible each other. Horn-hook and Kadee(knuckle) are two more widely used couplers. Landscaping A HOe scale layout, 47 x 32 cm (18.5 x 12.6") in size. The landscape in this N scale town includes weathered buildings and tall uncut grass. Some modellers pay attention to landscaping their layout, creating a fantasy world or modelling an actual location, often historic. Landscaping is termed "scenery building" or "scenicking". Constructing scenery involves preparing a sub-terrain using screen wire, a lattice of cardboard strips, or carved stacks of expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) sheets. A scenery base is applied over the sub-terrain; typical base include casting plaster, plaster of Paris, hybrid paper-pulp (papier-mâché) or a lightweight foam/fiberglass/bubblewrap composite as in Geodesic Foam Scenery. The scenery base is covered with ground cover, which may be ground foam, colored sawdust, natural lichen, or commercial scatter materials for grass and shrubbery. Buildings and structures can be purchased as kits, or built from cardboard, balsa wood, basswood, paper, or polystyrene or other plastic. Trees can be fabricated from materials such as Western sagebrush, candytuft, and caspia, to which adhesive and model foliage are applied. Water can be simulated using polyester casting resin, polyurethane, or rippled glass. Rocks can be cast in plaster or in plastic with a foam backing. Castings can be painted with stains to give coloring and shadows. Weathering Weathering refers to making a model look used and exposed to weather by simulating dirt and wear on real vehicles, structures and equipment. Most models come out of the box looking new, because unweathered finishes are easier to produce and many collectors want models to look pristine. Also, the wear a freight car or building undergoes depends not only on age but where it is used. Rail cars in cities accumulate grime from building and automobile exhaust, while cars in deserts may be subjected to sandstorms which etch or strip paint. A model that is weathered would not fit as many layouts as a pristine model which can be weathered by its purchaser. However, weathering purchased models is common. At the least, weathering aims to reduce the plastic-like finish of scale models. The simulation of grime, rust, dirt, and wear add realism. Some modelers simulate fuel stains on tanks, or corrosion on battery boxes. In some cases, evidence of accidents or repairs may be added, such as dents or freshly-painted replacement parts, and weathered models can be nearly indistinguishable from their prototypes when photographed appropriately. Methods of power The sugar-cube sized electric motor in a Z scale model locomotive. The entire engine is only 50 mm (2") long. Model of WP Steam Locomotive(1:3 size) at Guntur, India. Model railway engines are generally operated by low voltage DC electricity supplied via the tracks, but there are exceptions, such as Märklin and Lionel Corporation, which use AC. Most early models for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by levers on the locomotive. Although this made control crude the models were large and robust enough that grabbing the controls was practical. Various manufacturers introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow station stops. Other locomotives, particularly large models used steam. Steam or clockwork driven engines are still sought by collectors. Early electrical models used a three-rail system with the wheels resting on a metal track with metal sleepers that conducted power and a middle rail which provided power to a skid under the locomotive. This made sense at the time as models were metal and conductive. Modern plastics were not available and insulation was a problem. In addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains and track were crude tinplate. As accuracy became important some systems adopted two-rail power in which the wheels were isolated and the rails carried the positive and negative supply or two sides of the AC supply. Other systems such as Märklin instead fine metal studs to replace the central rail, allowing existing three-rail models to use more realistic track. Although DC with the positive and negative charges on the two rails is the most common method, Märklin and Lionel use AC on the three-rail system. American Flyer used AC power on two-rail track. Early electric trains ran on batteries because few homes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had electricity. Today, inexpensive train sets on batteries are again common but regarded as toys seldom used by hobbyists. Battery power is used by many garden railway and larger scale systems because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the rails outdoors and because the high power consumption and thus current draw of large scale garden models is more easily and safely met with lead acid batteries. Engines powered by Live steam are often built in large, outdoor gauges, and are available in Gauge 1, G scale, 16 mm scale and can be found in O and HO. Hornby Railways produce live steam locomotives in 00, development of work by some modellers who build live steam models in HO/00, OO9 and N, and there is one in Z in Australia. Occasionally gasoline-electric models, patterned after real diesel-electric locomotives, come up among hobbyists and companies like Pilgrim Locomotive Works have sold such locomotives. Large-scale petrol-mechanical and petrol-hydraulic models are available but unusual and pricier than the electrical power. Scratch building Modern manufacturing techniques mean the quality of mass produced models is now much better than what an individual could produce themselves. In the past this was not the case and scratch building was very common. Simple models were made using cardboard engineering techniques. More sophisticated models can be made using a combination of etched sheets of brass and low temperature castings. Parts that need machining, such as wheels and couplings are bought in. Etched kits are still popular, still accompanied by low temperature castings. These kits produce models that are not covered by the major manufacturers or in scales that are not in mass production. Laser machining techniques have extended this ability to thicker materials for scale steam and other locomotive types. Control Coin-operated model train layout in Germany The first clockwork (spring-drive) and live steam locomotives ran until out of power, with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or vary its speed. The advent of electric trains, which appeared commercially in the 1890s, allowed control of the speed by varying the current or voltage. As trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared, and soon trains powered by AC contained mechanisms to change direction or go into neutral gear when the operator cycled the power. Trains powered by DC can change direction by reversing polarity. Electricity permits control by dividing the layout into isolated blocks, where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting power to a block. Dividing a layout into blocks permitted operators to run more than one train with less risk of a fast train catching and hitting a slow train. Blocks can also trigger signals or other accessories, adding realism or whimsy. Three-rail systems often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track, and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory. Many modern railways are computer-controlled. The industry standard command system is Digital Command Control, or DCC. Less common closed proprietary systems also exist. In large scales, particularly for garden railways, radio control and DCC in the garden has become popular. Model railway manufacturers Exeter Bank: An HO-scale Australian model railway An O-scale Australian model railway A propane fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's miniature track. A model train running on the Willans Hill Model Railway miniature track in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia. 3mm Scale Model Railways Accucraft Trains Accurail Inc. Airfix American Flyer AR Kits Arnold Aristo-Craft Trains Artitec Aster Hobby Athearn Atlas Model Railroad Auhagen Auscision Models Austrains Bachmann Industries Bassett-Lowke Bavaria Bemo Bergs Berliner Bahn Bing Blackstone Models BLMA Models Bowser Manufacturing Branchline Brawa Brimalm Engineering Broadway Limited Imports (BLI) Busch CJM Models Con-Cor International Limited Dapol Electrotren Eureka Models Evan Designs Exley Factory Direct Trains Faller Ferris (defunct) Fleischmann Frateschi (Brazil) Fulgurex G .& R. Wrenn Ltd The Gauge One Model Railway Company Graham Farish ("Grafar") Great West Models Greenmax HAG Hanovale Australia Heico Heki Heljan Herpa Hornby Ibertren InterMountain International Hobby Corporation (IHC) JMRI Jouef Kadee Quality Products Co. Kato Kemtron Corporation (defunct 1964) Kibri Klein Modellbahn Lego Lemaco Lehmann Gross Bahn Life Like Liliput Lima Lionel Marx Mainline (disambiguation) Mantua, later Tyco Toys Märklin Mehano Merkur (toy) Merten Micro Ace Micro Metakit Micro-Trains Line Co. Model Power Modemo (Hasegawa) Motor Bogies MTH Electric Trains Noch Norsk Modelljernbane (NMJ) Overland Ozfreight Peco Piko Playcraft Playmobil Powerline Models Preiser President's Choice Rapido Ratio Red Caboose Regner Dampf & Eisenbahntechnik Rivarossi Roco Rocrail Rokal Sachsenmodelle SARModel Seuthe Steam Era Modelling (SEM) Stewart Hobbies Tomix Tower 55 Tillig Trainorama Tri-ang Railways Trix/Minitrix USA Trains Varney Viessmann Vollmer Weaver Weinert Wiking Walthers Williams Woodland Scenics Worsley Works Wuiske Promotions. Famous model railroaders Model train display at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry Layout standards organizations Several organizations exist to set standardizations for connectability between individual layout sections (commonly called "modules"). This is so several (or hundreds, given enough space and power) people or groups can bring together their own modules, connect them together with as little trouble as possible, and operate their trains. Despite different design and operation philosophies, different organizations have similar goals; standardized ends to facilitate connection with other modules built to the same specifications, standardized electricals, equipment, curve radii. NTRAK (Website). Standardized 3-track (heavy operation) mainline with several optional branchlines. Focuses on Standard Gauge, but also has specifications for Narrow Gauge. Due to its popularity, it can be found in regional variations, most notably the Imperial-to-Metric measurement conversions. Tends to be used more for 'unattended display' than 'operation'. FREMO (Deutsche English). A European-based organisation focusing on a single-track line, HO Scale. Also sets standards for N Scale modules. Standards are considerably more flexible in module shape than NTRAK, and has expanded over the years to accommodate several scenery variations. oNeTRAK (Website). Operationally similar to FREMO, standardises around a single-track mainline, with modules of varying sizes and shapes. Designed with the existing NTRAK spec in mind, is fully compatible with such modules. ausTRAK (Website). N Scale, two-track main with hidden third track (can be used as NTRAK's third main, as a return/continuous loop, or hidden yard/siding/on-line storage). Australian scenery and rolling stock modelled in Standard Gauge. NMRA () National Model Railroad Association, the largest organization devoted to the development, promotion, and enjoyment of the hobby of model railroading. sTTandard () Polish TT-scale (1:120) modules organization. N-orma () Polish N-scale (1:160) modules organization See also Photo of a Bachmann 2-6-6-2 N scale steam locomotive with a pencil shown for size Scale model Brass model Lego train Toy train Train game List of model railroad clubs Rail transport modelling scales Rail transport modelling standards Standard gauge in Model railways Track layout possibilities Wide gauge in Model railways Displays and famous layouts Clemenceau Heritage Museum, elaborate model railroad display depicts the seven railroads that operated in the Upper Verde Valley of Arizona, 1895–1953 Expo Narrow Gauge model railway exhibition Gorre & Daphetid Narrow Gauge North Northlandz San Diego Model Railroad Museum The Great Train Story exhibit at Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago) The Toy Train Depot - A museum dedicated to the history of scale model railroading in Alamogordo, New Mexico Bekonscot - The oldest model village in the world, featuring a large model railway network Miniatur Wunderland Virginian and Ohio References External links The National Model Railroad Association, USA - the largest model railroad organization in the world The Model Railway Club, UK - the oldest known society in the world - established 1910 | Rail_transport_modelling |@lemmatized ho:8 scale:71 model:102 railroad:21 berlin:2 bahnhof:1 zoo:1 loxx:1 railway:33 japanese:1 hoe:2 miniatur:2 wunderland:2 hamburg:1 germany:2 large:22 world:6 one:9 small:2 z:5 place:2 buffer:1 bar:1 live:10 steam:16 locomotive:15 north:2 american:3 center:1 cab:1 switcher:1 show:2 pencil:2 size:9 u:2 modelling:7 uk:5 australia:4 canada:1 hobby:5 rail:20 transport:3 system:9 reduced:1 ratio:3 include:7 roll:2 stock:2 streetcar:1 track:28 signalling:1 road:1 building:9 vehicle:2 figure:1 light:1 feature:2 stream:1 hill:2 canyon:1 early:6 carpet:1 electric:7 train:38 appear:3 around:2 turn:1 century:2 crude:3 likeness:1 today:3 realistic:4 modeller:7 create:2 layout:15 often:7 recreate:1 real:5 location:2 period:1 history:2 general:1 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1,798 | California_Institute_of_Technology | The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) The university itself only spells its short form as "Caltech"; other spellings such as "Cal Tech" and "CalTech" are incorrect. The Institute is also occasionally referred to as "CIT," most notably in its alma mater, but this is uncommon. is a private research university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The Institute maintains a strong emphasis on the natural sciences and engineering, and operates and manages NASA's neighboring Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Caltech is a small school, with only about 2100 students (about 900 undergraduates and 1200 graduate students), but it is ranked in the top ten universities worldwide by metrics such as citation index , Nobel Prizes , and general university rankings. History Caltech began as a vocational school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, and Throop College of Technology, before acquiring its current name in 1921. At a time when scientific research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale, a solar astronomer from the University of Chicago, founded the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1904. He joined Throop's board of trustees the same year, and soon began developing it and the whole of Pasadena into a major scientific and cultural destination. He engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fundraiser, to Throop's presidency in 1908. Scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. The promise of the lab attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes to commit to developing the institution. Arther Fleming, Caltech's primary benefactor, who had donated the land for the permanent campus site at California and Wilson, later donated $100,000 to establish a physics facility, the Norman Bridge Laboratory, which succeeded in attracting experimental physicist Robert Andrews Millikan to join the faculty and assist in establishing the college as a center for science and technology. Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Calif, 1908. This photo was taken on the original campus in downtown Pasadena; in 1910 the Institute moved to its present location. The vocational school was disbanded, and the preparatory program was split off into an independent Polytechnic School in 1910. In 1911, a bill was introduced in the California Legislature calling for the establishment of a publicly funded "California Institute of Technology," with an initial budget of a million dollars, ten times the budget of Throop at the time. The board of trustees offered to turn Throop over to the state, but the presidents of Stanford and the University of California successfully lobbied to defeat the bill, which allowed Throop to develop as the only scientific research-oriented education institute in Southern California, public or private, until the onset of the Second World War necessitated the broader development of research-based science education. With the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. While he supported the idea of federal appropriations for science, he took exception to a federal bill that would have funded engineering research at land-grant colleges, and instead sought to raise a $1 million national research fund entirely from private sources. To that end, as Hale wrote in the New York Times: Throop College of Technology, in Pasadena California has recently afforded a striking illustration of one way in which the Research Council can secure co-operation and advance scientific investigation. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, could be of great service in any broad scheme of cooperation. President Scherer, hearing of the formation of the council, immediately offered to take part in its work, and with this object, he secured within three days an additional research endowment of one hundred thousand dollars. Through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. The new funds were designated for physics research, and ultimately lead to the establishment of the Norman Bridge Laboratory, which attracted Millikan from the University of Chicago. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC. Subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes, and Millikan (and aided by the booming economy of Southern California), Caltech grew to national prominence in the 1920s. In 1923, Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics. In 1925, the school established a department of geology and hired William Bennett Munro, then chairman of the division of History, Government, and Economics at Harvard University, to create a division of humanities and social sciences at Caltech. In 1928, a division of biology was established under the leadership of Thomas Hunt Morgan, the most distinguished biologist in the United States at the time, and discoverer of the role of genes and the chromosome in heredity. In 1930, Kerckhoff marine laboratory was established in Corona del Mar under the care of Professor George MacGinitie. In 1926, a graduate school of aeronautics was created, which eventually attracted Theodore von Kármán. Kármán later helped create the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and played an integral part in establishing Caltech as one of the world's centers for rocket science. In 1928, construction of the Palomar Observatory began. Millikan served as "chairman of the executive council" (effectively Caltech's president) from 1921 to 1945, and his influence was such that the Institute was occasionally referred to as "Millikan's School." In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, Caltech was the home of Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, whose work was central to the establishment of the so-called "Standard Model" of particle physics. Feynman was also widely known outside the physics community as an exceptional teacher and colorful, unconventional character. Caltech remains, to this day, a small and highly focused university, with approximately 900 undergraduates, 1300 graduate students, and over 1000 faculty members (including 293 professors, 104 emeritus professors, 66 permanent research faculty, 87 visiting faculty, and over 500 postdoctoral scholars). At a Glance Caltech.edu, accessed on 2007-11-19 A private institution, Caltech is governed by its Board of Trustees. As of 2006, Caltech has 31 Nobel laureates to its name. This figure includes 17 alumni, 14 non-alumni professors, and 4 professors who were also alumni (Carl D. Anderson, Linus Pauling, William A. Fowler, and Edward B. Lewis). The number of awards is 32, because Pauling received prizes in both Chemistry and Peace. With fewer than 25,000 alumni in total, more than one in 1,400 have received the Nobel Prize — a ratio unmatched by any other university. Five faculty and alumni have received a Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, while 49 have been awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science, and 10 have received the National Medal of Technology. Other distinguished researchers have been affiliated with Caltech as postdoctoral scholars (e.g., Barbara McClintock, James D. Watson, and Sheldon Glashow) or visiting professors (e.g., Albert Einstein and Edward Witten). The Spitzer Science Center (SSC), located on the Caltech campus, is the data analysis and community support center for NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. The SSC, part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC), works in collaboration with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Campus In 1917 Hale hired architect Bertram Goodhue to produce a master plan for the 22 acre (89,000 m²) campus. Goodhue conceived the overall layout of the campus and designed the physics building, Dabney Hall, and several other structures, in which he sought to be consistent with the local climate, the character of the school, and Hale's educational philosophy. Goodhue's designs for Caltech were also influenced by the traditional Spanish mission architecture of Southern California. Throop Hall, 1912. In 1971 a magnitude-6.5 earthquake in San Fernando caused some damage to the Caltech campus. Engineers who evaluated the damage found that two historic buildings dating from the early days of the Institute — Throop Hall and the Goodhue-designed Culbertson Auditorium — had cracked. These were some of the first reinforced concrete buildings, and their plans did not contain enough details (such as how much reinforcing bar had been embedded in the concrete) to be sure they were safe, so the engineers recommended demolition. However, demolishing these historic structures required considerably more effort than would have been necessary had they been in real danger of collapse. A large wrecking ball was used to demolish Throop Hall, and smashing the concrete revealed massive amounts of rebar, far in excess of safety requirements. The rebar had to be cut up before the pieces could be hauled away, and the process took much longer than expected. In 2008 Caltech completed a 238 kW solar array which is projected to produce approximately 320,000 kWh in 2009. http://www.solarindustrymag.com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.2134 Academics Beckman Institute at night Bridge Laboratory of Physics Kerckhoff Laboratory of the Biological Sciences Academics at Caltech emphasize quality over size, concentrating on a core of academic disciplines of very high caliber. Caltech is also known for interdisciplinary programs facilitated by the small physical size of the Caltech campus. Conversely, as a small school, Caltech cannot and does not offer the breadth of academic programs possible at larger universities. It does, however, offer co-operative programs with other schools, such as the Pasadena Art Center College of Design, Occidental College, UCLA, and Scripps College. Caltech is divided into six divisions, each of which offer several degree programs, plus a number of interdisciplinary programs. The six divisions are: Division of Biology Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division of Engineering and Applied Science Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences Division of Humanities and Social Sciences Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy Undergraduate program Caltech is on the trimester system. Because of its schedule, Caltech's school year starts relatively late, in late September, and ends in early June rather than May as at the more common semester-system colleges. Also, Caltech is unusual in that students normally take five classes every term rather than four, as at most colleges. Instead of majors, Caltech has "options", and until 2006 offered only one minor: in control and dynamical systems. During the spring term of 2006 the humanities and social sciences division announced its plans to introduce four more minors in English, history, philosophy, and history and philosophy of science. Approximately 20 percent of students double-major. This is achievable since the humanities and social sciences majors have been designed to be done in conjunction with a science major. Although choosing two options in the same division is discouraged, it is still possible. For the core curriculum, students are required to take five terms of math, including differential equations, probability and statistics, five terms of physics including quantum mechanics, special relativity, and statistical mechanics, two terms of chemistry, and a term of biology, as well as two terms of laboratory classes. Few students fail classes or fail out of the school as a whole. This is due to several cushions that help students survive. First of all, the first two terms of freshman year are on a pass/fail grading scheme, easing the transition to college and reducing academic stress. During the second term, "shadow grades" are given to help students gauge their own progress; during the first term, there are no grades at all. Second, there is little competition; collaboration on homework is encouraged (and often necessary for success) in almost every class. This allows even students who are not doing as well as others to learn the material from their peers and not get behind in their studies. Another helpful factor is the Honor System; this system encourages take-home tests, flexible homework schedules, and other freedoms, alleviating some of the practical burdens associated with a five-to-seven course workload. Millikan Library, the tallest building on campus Caltech has a relatively low four-year graduation rate, compared to most leading US universities. This rate is currently about 80 percent, Caltech Common Data Set 2004-05, accessed on 2007-11-19 despite the fact that entering students have consistently higher average test scores (on the 1 and 2) than any other university or college, as indicated by the major college rankings. "America's Best Colleges 2008" U.S. News and World Report College Rankings, accessed on 2007-11-19 On the other hand, almost all students major in science or engineering, fields that traditionally suffer low graduation rates. In any case, the situation has improved recently; approximately 90 percent of entering students graduate in six years or less, compared to a substantially smaller fraction in the 1960s and 70s. Undergraduates at Caltech are also encouraged to participate in research. About half of students do research through the annual Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF) program at least once during their stay, and many continue it during the school year. Students write and submit SURF proposals for research projects in collaboration with professors, and about 70 percent of applicants are awarded SURFs. The program is open to both Caltech and non-Caltech undergraduate students. It serves as preparation for graduate school and helps to explain why Caltech has one of the highest percentages of alumni who go on to receive a Ph.D. of all the major universities. Athletics Caltech has athletic teams in baseball, men's & women's basketball, cross country, fencing, men's soccer, swimming & diving, men's & women's tennis, track & field, women's volleyball, and men's & women's water polo. Caltech Athletics, accessed on 2007-11-19 Caltech's mascot is the Beaver, and its teams (with the exception of the fencing team) play in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, which Caltech co-founded in 1915. Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, accessed on 2007-11-19 The fencing team Caltech Athletics - Fencing Team competes in the NCAA's Division I, facing teams from USC, UCLA, UCSD, and Stanford, among others. On January 6, 2007, the Beavers' men's basketball team snapped a 207-game losing streak to Division III schools, beating Bard College 81-52. It was their first Division III victory since 1996. They still carry a 259 game losing streak in conference play. Caltech Athletics The documentary film Quantum Hoops concerns the events of the Beavers' 2005-6 season. On January 13, 2007, the Caltech women's basketball team snapped a 50-game losing streak, defeating the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens 55-53. The women's program, which entered the SCIAC in 2002, garnered their first conference win. On the bench as honorary coach for the evening was Dr. Robert Grubbs, 2005 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry. The team went on to beat Whittier College on February 10, for its second SCIAC win, and placed its first member on the All Conference team. The 2006-2007 season is the most successful season in the history of the program. In early 2007, the women's table tennis team (a club team) competed in nationals. The women's Ultimate club team, known as "Snatch", has also been very successful in recent years, ranking 44 of over 200 college teams in the Ultimate Player's Association. College Women's Top UPA Rankings, Ultimate Player's Association, accessed on 2007-11-19 Student life Aerial view of Caltech in Pasadena, California. House system During the early 20th century, a Caltech committee visited several universities and decided to transform the undergraduate housing system from regular fraternities to a house system. Four south houses (or hovses) were built: Blacker House, Dabney House, Fleming House, and Ricketts House. In the 1960s, three north houses were built: Lloyd House, Page House, and Ruddock House, and during the 1990s, Avery House. The four south houses closed for renovation in 2005 and reopened in 2006. Student life traditions Beckman Auditorium Annual events Every Halloween, Dabney House conducts the infamous "Millikan pumpkin-drop experiment" from the top of Millikan Library, the highest point on campus. According to tradition, a claim was once made that the shattering of a pumpkin frozen in liquid nitrogen and dropped from a sufficient height would produce a triboluminescent spark. This yearly event involves a crowd of observers, who try to spot the elusive spark. The title of the event is an oblique reference to the famous Millikan oil-drop experiment which measured e, the elemental unit of electrical charge. On Ditch Day the seniors ditch school, leaving behind elaborately designed tasks and traps at the doors of their rooms to prevent underclassmen from entering. Over the years this has evolved to the point where many seniors spend months designing mechanical, electrical, and software obstacles to confound the underclassmen. Each group of seniors designs a "stack" to be solved by a handful of underclassmen. The faculty have been drawn into the event as well, and cancel all classes on Ditch Day so the underclassmen can participate in what has become a highlight of the academic year. In 2007, Ditch Day fell on May 15. In 2008, on May 21. Another long-standing tradition is the playing of Wagner's ominous Ride of the Valkyries at 7:00 each morning during finals week with the largest, loudest speakers available. The playing of that piece is not allowed at any other time (except if one happens to be listening to the entire fifteen hours of The Ring Cycle), and any offender is dragged into the showers to be drenched in cold water fully dressed. The playing of the Ride is such a strong tradition that the music was used during Apollo 17 to awaken Astronaut Harrison Schmitt, a Caltech alumnus. (Unfortunately, the tradition arose at different times in different Houses, so Schmitt did not react as expected. Instead, he just became confused.) Pranks Caltech students have been known for the many pranks (also known as RFs) they have pulled off. The two most famous are the changing of the Hollywood Sign to read Caltech, by judiciously covering up certain parts of the letters, and the changing of the Rose Bowl scoreboard to an imaginary game where Caltech beat MIT. During the 1961 Rose Bowl Game, Caltech students altered the flip-cards that were raised by the stadium attendees to display "Caltech." This event is now referred to as the Great Rose Bowl Hoax. Recently, a group of Caltech students pulled a string of pranks during MIT's Campus Preview Weekend for admitted students. These include covering up the word Massachusetts in the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read "That Other Institute of Technology". A group of MIT hackers responded by altering the banner so that the inscription read "The Only Institute of Technology." Caltech students also passed out T-shirts to MIT's incoming freshman class, with MIT on the front and "... because not everyone can go to Caltech" along with an image of a palm tree on the back. Fleming Cannon MIT retaliated in April 2006, when students posing as the Howe & Ser Moving Company stole the 130 year old, 1.7 ton Fleming House cannon and moved it to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts for their 2006 Campus Preview Weekend, repeating a similar prank performed by nearby Harvey Mudd College in 1986. (The name "Howe & Ser", if said rapidly, and if read recognizing that the & symbol is a ligature of the Latin word "et", sounds like howitzer; it could also mean "how we answer", since the latest prank was an answer to the 2005 prank on MIT.) Thirty members of Fleming Hovse traveled to MIT and reclaimed their cannon on April 10, 2006. On April 13, 2007 (Friday the 13th), a group of students from The California Tech, Caltech's campus newspaper, arrived and distributed fake copies of The Tech, MIT's campus newspaper, while prospective students were visiting for their Campus Preview Weekend. Articles included "MIT Invents the Interweb," "Architects Deem Campus 'Unfortunate'," and "Infinite Corridor Not Actually Infinite." In July 2008, Caltech graduate student Virgil Griffith released an online tool that traced back Wikipedia edits from individual MIT buildings. > In recent years, pranking has been officially encouraged by Tom Mannion, Caltech's Assistant VP for Student Affairs and Campus Life. "The grand old days of pranking have gone away at Caltech, and that's what we are trying to bring back," reported the Boston Globe, which noted that "security has orders not to intervene in a prank unless officers get Mannion's approval beforehand." Caltech pranks have been documented in three Legends of Caltech books, the most recent of which was edited by alumni Autumn Looijen '99 and Mason A. Porter '98 and published in May 2007. Honor Code Throop Pond Life in the Caltech community is governed by the Honor Code, which simply states: "No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community." This is enforced by a Board of Control, which consists of undergraduate students, The Honor System Handbook from the Board of Control at Caltech.edu and by a similar body at the graduate level, called the Graduate Review Board. Graduate Review Board at Caltech.edu The Honor Code aims at promoting an atmosphere of respect and trust that allows Caltech students to enjoy privileges that make for a more relaxed atmosphere. For example, the Honor Code allows professors to make the majority of exams as take-home, allowing students to take them on their own schedule and in their preferred environment. Through the late 1990s, the only exception to the Honor Code, implemented earlier in the decade in response to changes in federal regulations, concerned the sexual harassment policy. Today, there are myriad exceptions to the Honor Code in the form of new institute policies such as the Fire Policy, and Alcohol Policy. Though both policies are presented in the Honor Code Handbook given to new members of the Caltech Community, large portions of the undergraduate population regard them as a slight against the Honor Code and the implicit trust and respect it represents within the community . Caltech in media and popular culture Caltech has appeared in several works of popular culture, both as itself and in disguised form. As with MIT, a Caltech reference is often used to establish a character's high level of intelligence or a technical background; for example, Penelope Garcia and Spencer Reid of Criminal Minds attended Caltech, and a Caltech geologist tutors the crew of Apollo 15 in From the Earth to the Moon. On television, several characters from the sitcoms The Big Bang Theory The Big Bang Theory on CBS - Recap: Episode 101 and Joey are associated with Caltech, which is also the inspiration for the California Institute of Science of Numb3rs. Caltech References in "Real Genius", accessed on 2007-11-19 On film, the Pacific Tech of The War of the Worlds Cowan, Douglas E. "Intellects vast and cool and unsympathetic: Science, Religion, and The War of the Worlds." Journal of Religion and Film, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1 April 2007. and Real Genius is based on Caltech. In nonfiction, two 2007 documentaries examine aspects of Caltech; Curious, its researchers, "CURIOUS" from Thirteen/WNET "Documentary Focuses on Caltech Researchers" Caltech Press Release, 1 October 2007 and Quantum Hoops, its men's basketball team. Given its Los Angeles-area location, the grounds of the Institute are often host to short scenes in movies and television. The Athenaeum dining club appears in the Beverly Hills Cop series, The X-Files, and True Romance. http://www.movie-locations.com/movies/b/bevhills.html Other examples include Legally Blonde, The Wedding Planner, Numb3rs, and Greek. Presidents of Caltech James Augustin Brown Scherer (1908–1920) (president of Throop College of Technology before the name change) Robert A. Millikan (1921–1945), experimental physicist, Nobel laureate in physics for 1923 (his official title was "Chairman of the Executive Council") Lee A. DuBridge (1946–1969), experimental physicist (first to officially hold the title of President) Harold Brown (1969–1977), physicist and public servant (left Caltech to serve as United States Secretary of Defense in the administration of Jimmy Carter) Robert F. Christy (1977–1978), astrophysicist (acting President) Marvin L. Goldberger (1978–1987), theoretical physicist Thomas E. Everhart (1987–1997), experimental physicist David Baltimore (1997–2006), molecular biologist, Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine for 1975 Jean-Lou Chameau (2006–present), civil engineer and educational administrator See also Caltech Submillimeter Observatory Keck Institute for Space Studies List of California Institute of Technology people List of California Institute of Technology trustees Einstein Papers Project References External links Official website History of Caltech (at the official Nobel Prize website) | California_Institute_of_Technology |@lemmatized california:17 institute:20 technology:12 commonly:1 refer:4 caltech:82 university:16 spell:1 short:2 form:3 spelling:1 cal:1 tech:4 incorrect:1 also:13 occasionally:2 cit:1 notably:1 alma:1 mater:1 uncommon:1 private:4 research:17 locate:2 pasadena:8 united:4 state:6 maintain:1 strong:2 emphasis:1 natural:1 science:24 engineering:5 operate:1 manage:1 nasa:2 neighbor:1 jet:3 propulsion:3 laboratory:11 small:5 school:17 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1,799 | Links_(web_browser) | Links is an open source text and graphic web browser with a pull-down menu system. Links home page It renders complex pages, has partial HTML 4.0 support (including tables and frames and support for multiple character sets such as including UTF-8), supports color and monochrome terminals and allows horizontal scrolling. It is oriented toward visual users who want to retain many typical elements of graphical user interfaces (pop up windows, menus etc.) in a text-only environment. The focus on intuitive usability makes it suitable as a web browser for low-end terminals in libraries, Internet cafes etc. The original version of Links was developed by Mikuláš Patočka in the Czech Republic. His group, Twibright Labs, later developed version 2 of the Links browser, that displays graphics, renders fonts in different sizes (with anti-aliasing) and supports JavaScript (up to version 2.1pre29). The resulting browser is very fast, but it does not display many pages as they were intended. The graphical mode works even on Unix systems without X or any other window environment, using either SVGALib or the framebuffer of the system's graphics card. Elinks ELinks ("Experimental/Enhanced Links") is a fork of Links led by Petr Baudis. It is based on Links 0.9. It has a more open development and incorporates patches from other Links versions (such as additional extension scripting in Lua) and from Internet users. Links Hacked Links Hacked is another version of the Links browser which has merged some of Elinks' features into Links 2. Andrey Mirtchovski has ported it to Plan 9. It is considered a good browser on that operating system, though some users have griped about its inability to cut and paste with the Plan 9 snarf buffer. Evolt hosts an unsupported version on its archive for 32 bit Windows, dated June 29, 2002. See also List of web browsers Comparison of web browsers External links Links umbrella site Official Links homepage Twibright Labs Links ELinks Home Page Links Hacked Web Page Links for Win32 - Windows version of the links web browser Links for Mac OS X on PowerPC and Intel References | Links_(web_browser) |@lemmatized link:20 open:2 source:1 text:2 graphic:3 web:6 browser:9 pull:1 menu:2 system:4 home:2 page:5 render:2 complex:1 partial:1 html:1 support:4 include:2 table:1 frame:1 multiple:1 character:1 set:1 utf:1 color:1 monochrome:1 terminal:2 allow:1 horizontal:1 scrolling:1 orient:1 toward:1 visual:1 user:4 want:1 retain:1 many:2 typical:1 element:1 graphical:2 interface:1 pop:1 window:4 etc:2 environment:2 focus:1 intuitive:1 usability:1 make:1 suitable:1 low:1 end:1 library:1 internet:2 cafe:1 original:1 version:7 develop:2 mikuláš:1 patočka:1 czech:1 republic:1 group:1 twibright:2 lab:1 later:1 display:2 font:1 different:1 size:1 anti:1 aliasing:1 javascript:1 result:1 fast:1 intend:1 mode:1 work:1 even:1 unix:1 without:1 x:2 use:1 either:1 svgalib:1 framebuffer:1 card:1 elinks:4 experimental:1 enhance:1 fork:1 lead:1 petr:1 baudis:1 base:1 development:1 incorporates:1 patch:1 additional:1 extension:1 script:1 lua:1 hack:3 another:1 merge:1 feature:1 andrey:1 mirtchovski:1 port:1 plan:2 consider:1 good:1 operating:1 though:1 grip:1 inability:1 cut:1 paste:1 snarf:1 buffer:1 evolt:1 host:1 unsupported:1 archive:1 bit:1 date:1 june:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 comparison:1 external:1 umbrella:1 site:1 official:1 homepage:1 labs:1 mac:1 powerpc:1 intel:1 reference:1 |@bigram web_browser:5 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 czech_republic:1 anti_aliasing:1 external_link:1 powerpc_intel:1 |
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