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= Strobilurus tenacellus =
Strobilurus tenacellus , commonly known as the pinecone cap , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Physalacriaceae . It is found in Asia and Europe , where it grows on the fallen cones of pine and spruce trees . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) are small , with convex to flat , reddish to brownish caps up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , set atop thin cylindrical stems up to 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long with a rooting base . A characteristic microscopic feature of the mushroom is the sharp , thin @-@ walled cystidia found on the stipe , gills , and cap . The mushrooms , sometimes described as edible , are too small to be of culinary interest . The fungus releases compounds called strobilurins that suppress the growth and development of other fungi . Derivatives of these compounds are used as an important class of agricultural fungicides .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Agaricus tenacellus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his 1796 Observationes <unk> . In its taxonomic history , it has been moved to the genera Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1803 , Marasmius by Jules Favre in 1939 , and <unk> by Georges MΓ©trod in 1952 . Rolf Singer transferred it to the newly circumscribed genus Strobilurus in 1962 , giving it the name by which it is currently known .
The specific epithet tenacellus is a diminutive form of the Latin word <unk> , meaning " tough " . Its British Mycological Society @-@ recommended common name is the " pinecone cap " . English botanist James Edward Smith called it the " dark fir @-@ cone Agaric " in his 1836 work The English Flora .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex before flattening out , sometimes retaining a small central papilla , and sometimes developing a central depression ; the cap diameter reaches 5 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) . The smooth cap is hygrophanous ( i.e. , it changes colour as it loses or absorbs moisture ) , and has shallow radial grooves extending about halfway up the cap . Its colour is reddish to brownish , and is often paler in the center than the margin ; when dry , the colour fades to greyish . The greyish @-@ white gills have a free to deeply emarginate ( notched ) attachment to the cap . They are somewhat crowded together , numbering 20 – 25 gills with 1 to 7 tiers of interspersed lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe ) . The cylindrical stipe measures 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 2 mm thick , and has at its base a root @-@ like pseudorrhiza that extends into the substrate . The upper stipe is yellowish brown , while lower it is dark orange @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown . The flesh has no odour and usually has a bitter taste . While the fruit bodies are sometimes described as are edible , they are too small to be of culinary interest .
The spore print is white . Spores are roughly elliptical to tear @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 0 ΞΌm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 20 – 40 by 7 – 11 ΞΌm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are thin walled , plentiful , spindle @-@ shaped to somewhat flask @-@ shaped with a sharp tip , and measure 30 – 70 by 3 – 10 ΞΌm . The pleurocystidia ( on the gill face ) are similar in shape and size to the cheilocystidia , although usually not quite as numerous . The cap cuticle is made of a hymeniderm of club @-@ shaped to somewhat spherical cells measuring 8 – 25 by 7 – 20 ΞΌm , mixed with flask @-@ shaped pileocystidia ( cystidia on the cap ) that are 20 – 45 by 5 – 11 ΞΌm . Hyphae lack clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Strobilurus esculentus and S. <unk> are similar in appearance to S. tenacellus . S. esculentus mushrooms have thin , sharp cap margins and only fruit on fallen spruce cones . S. <unk> has a yellow @-@ brown to reddish @-@ yellow cap that is not hygrophanous . Baeospora myosura is another small agaric that grows on pine and spruce cones , but it fruits in autumn .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Strobilurus tenacellus is a saprobic wood @-@ rotting fungus . It fruits singly or in small groups on fallen and often partially buried cones of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) , European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and sometimes spruce ( Picea ) in coniferous and mixed forests . It is found in Europe and Asia , where it has been recorded in Japan and Jordan . In Europe , the fungus usually fruits from March to June . Its occurrence is occasional .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Two cyathane @-@ like diterpenoids , ( 12S ) <unk> , <unk> @-@ epoxy @-@ <unk> , <unk> , 15 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ ene and ( <unk> ) <unk> , <unk> @-@ epoxy @-@ <unk> , <unk> , 15 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ ene , have been isolated and identified from the liquid culture of the fungus . These compounds inhibit the growth of certain tumor cells when grown in vitro .
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Strobilurus tenacellus fruit bodies were shown in a 2000 study to have low antibacterial activity against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis , and low to moderate activity against the fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus . The fungus produces the natural antibiotic strobilurin A , which was reported as a novel compound from this species in 1977 ; other strobilurins have since been found in other basidiomycete wood @-@ rotting fungi , like Porcelain Mushroom for example . <unk> A is thought to be derived biosynthetically from the amino acid L @-@ phenylalanine . In nature , the fungus secretes the chemical to prevent invasion by other fungi that challenge its nutrient source . It works by blocking electron transfer in the mitochondria , stopping respiration by binding to the <unk> oxidation center of the <unk> complex . This prevents the competing fungus from creating its own energy and inhibiting its growth at the earliest stages of the life cycle , the spore germination stage . The fungus is resistant to its own chemical because its <unk> has three amino acid residues that prevent the strobilurins from binding . Because of their sensitivity to light , and high vapor pressures that causes them to rapidly disappear when applied to the surface of a leaf , chemically unmodified strobilurins are not generally useful as fungicides for agricultural use . The strobilurin @-@ derived compound <unk> , first made commercially available in 1996 , was designed to overcome these limitations . It is the world 's biggest @-@ selling fungicide . Other commercial fungicides developed from the strobilurins include Allegro , and Brio ( <unk> @-@ methyl ) <unk> .
= Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester =
Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester , 7th Earl of Hertford , 10th Lord of Clare , 5th Lord of Glamorgan ( c . 10 May 1291 – 24 June 1314 ) was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Scottish Wars . In contrast to most English earls at the time , his main focus lay in the pursuit of war rather than in domestic political strife . He was the son of Gilbert de Clare , 7th Earl of Gloucester , and Joan of Acre , daughter of Edward I. The older Gilbert died when his son was only four years old , and the younger Gilbert was invested with his earldoms at the young age of sixteen . Almost immediately , he became involved in the defence of the northern border , but later he was drawn into the struggles between Edward II and some of his barons . He was one of the Lords Ordainers who ordered the expulsion of the king 's favourite Piers Gaveston in 1311 . When Gaveston was killed on his return in 1312 , Gloucester helped negotiate a settlement between the perpetrators and the king .
Now one of Edward 's strongest supporters , he accompanied the king on a campaign to Scotland in 1314 , when several other nobles refused . He was killed at the Battle of Bannockburn on 24 June , under somewhat unclear circumstances . Gloucester was the most prominent of the casualties of the battle , which ended in a humiliating defeat for England . As he had no issue , his death marked the end of the prominent de Clare family . His estates were divided between his three sisters , one of whom was married to the king 's new favourite , Hugh Despenser the Younger . Despenser 's ruthless expansion of the de Clare lordship of Glamorgan in Wales led directly to the troubles of Edward II 's later reign , including a rebellion in the Welsh Marches , the defeat of the Earl of Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge , and eventually the deposition of the king by Roger Mortimer and Queen Isabella in 1326 .
= = Family background and early life = =
Gilbert de Clare was the son of Gilbert de Clare , 7th Earl of Gloucester – known as Gilbert ' the Red ' – who in 1290 married Joan of Acre , daughter of Edward I. As a condition for the marriage , the earl had to surrender all his lands to the king , only to have them returned jointly to himself and his wife for the lifetime of either . This grant was made on the condition that the lands would pass to the couple 's joint heirs , but if they were childless to Joan 's heirs from any later marriages . The younger Gilbert was born the next year , around 10 May 1291 , securing the inheritance for the de Clare family , but his father died only four years later , on 7 December 1295 , while the boy was still a minor . Because of the joint enfeoffment , Joan kept the custody of the family lands , and did homage to the king on 20 January the next year .
In 1297 , Joan secretly married Ralph de Monthermer , a knight in the late earl 's household . This enraged Edward I , who had other marriage plans for Joan . The king imprisoned Monthermer , but later relented , and sanctioned the marriage . Because of the previous settlement , Joan was still titled countess , and her new husband became Earl of Gloucester and Hertford . This , however , only lasted for the life of Joan , who died in 1307 . Only a few months later , Gilbert was granted his inheritance , and by March 1308 made Earl of Gloucester and Hertford , at the young age of sixteen . This grant was made by Edward II , who succeeded his father Edward I in July 1307 . It was previously believed that Edward II and Gilbert were brought up together , but this is based on a confusion with another person of the same name . This other Gilbert de Clare , who was closer to the king in age , was in fact the earl 's cousin , the son of Thomas de Clare , Lord of Thomond .
= = Early service under Edward II = =
Gilbert 's first years as earl were predominantly concerned with the Scottish Wars . He had no personal interest in the region , but the Welsh Marches , where his landed interest lay , were largely pacified at the time , and Scotland presented a good opportunity to pursue military glory and reward . He was almost immediately trusted with important military commands on the northern border , and served as warden of Scotland from 1308 to 1309 , and as captain of Scotland and the northern marches in 1309 . He led an expedition to relieve the castle of Rutherglen in December 1308 . The war effort , however , was not pursued with the same intensity by Edward II as it had been by his father . The new king 's neglect of the Scottish Wars allowed Robert the Bruce to regain the initiative in the war .
This situation led to frustration among the English nobility . In addition to the Scottish issue , there was also discontent with the king 's treatment of his favourite , Piers Gaveston . Gaveston 's promotion from relative obscurity to Earl of Cornwall , combined with his arrogant behaviour , caused resentment among the established nobility . Gloucester was initially not hostile to Gaveston , who had married Gloucester 's sister Margaret in October 1307 . He did , however , share in the other earls ' frustration with Edward 's lack of initiative towards Scotland . In 1308 , therefore , Gloucester was among the earls who demanded Gaveston 's exile , a demand the king was forced to meet . After this , he seems to have been reconciled with the king , and in 1309 he acted as a mediator when the earls agreed to Gaveston 's return . Relations between the king and the nobility deteriorated even further , however , after Gaveston 's return . In 1310 , a group of so @-@ called Lords Ordainers were appointed to draft the Ordinances of 1311 , a set of restrictions on the rule of Edward II , including a renewed exile for Gaveston . Gloucester , who was still a supporter of the king , was not initially among the Ordainers , but was appointed on 4 March 1311 , upon the death of the Earl of Lincoln .
= = Escalation of the national conflict = =
In spite of his participation in the baronial reform movement , Gloucester still maintained the trust of the king . He , Gaveston and the Earl of Warenne were the only earls to accompany the king on a Scottish campaign in 1310 – 11 . In March 1311 , while the Ordinances were still in the workings , Gloucester was appointed guardian of the realm while the king was still in Scotland . There are signs that he might have fallen out with Thomas , Earl of Lancaster – who was at this point the leader of the opposition against the king – over a feud between two of their respective retainers . When Gaveston once more returned from exile , however , Gloucester sided with the baronial opposition . The earls divided the country into different parts for defence , and Gloucester was given charge of the south . In June 1312 , Gaveston was captured by Guy de Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick , who was working in cooperation with Lancaster . Aymer de Valence , Earl of Pembroke , who had the custody of Gaveston and had guaranteed his safety to the king , appealed to Gloucester , as Gaveston 's kinsman , for assistance . Gloucester , however , refused to help , and Gaveston was killed . This act brought the country to the brink of civil war , and Gloucester was one of the few men who was still trusted enough by both sides to be able to take on a role as mediator . In the following months , he was among the main negotiators working towards an agreement between the king and the offending earls , an effort that was at least temporarily successful .
Gloucester remained in the inner circle around the king over the next months . In the summer of 1313 , he was again guardian of the realm while the king was in France , and in February 1314 , he was sent to France on a diplomatic mission regarding Gascony . The greatest problem of the reign , however , remained the unresolved conflict with Scotland , and the resurgence of Robert the Bruce . In the summer of 1314 , Edward finally embarked on a major Scottish campaign . The objective was to protect the English garrison at Stirling Castle from an attack by Bruce . The campaign was impeded by the absence of some of the greater magnates , such as Lancaster and Warwick . There were still a number of great lords in the king 's company , including Humphrey de Bohun , Earl of Hereford , Pembroke and Gloucester . These men were valuable to the king for their ability to raise large numbers of troops from their dominions in the Welsh Marches . On 23 June 1314 , the royal army had passed Falkirk and was within a few miles of Stirling . There were , however , signs of strife between the earls of Gloucester and Hereford . Gloucester had been given the command of the English vanguard , a position he had earned through his loyalty to the king . Yet Hereford , who had been placed under Gloucester 's command , believed the command belonged to him , in his capacity of hereditary Constable of England .
= = Death at Bannockburn = =
Gloucester was involved in a brief skirmish with the Scots on 23 June , the day before the main battle . While the king considered whether to camp for the night or to engage the Scots immediately , Gloucester and Hereford – either through insubordination or a misunderstanding – charged directly into the place called the New Park , where the Scots were encamped . The English immediately ran into difficulties , and Hereford 's cousin Henry de Bohun was killed by King Robert the Bruce . It was perhaps during the subsequent retreat that Gloucester was thrown off his horse , but managed to escape unharmed . The next day the English were still not entirely decided on the course of action . While Gloucester took the part of certain experienced captains , recommending that Edward avoid battle that day , the younger men surrounding the king labelled this lethargic and cowardly , and advised attack . According to the Vita Edwardi , when Edward grew angry and accused Gloucester of treason , the earl forcefully replied that he would prove his loyalty on the field of battle .
The most detailed account of the Earl of Gloucester 's death at the Battle of Bannockburn is the chronicle Vita Edwardi Secundi . This account is written as a moral tale , expounding on the earl 's heroism and the cowardly conduct of his companions . For this reason , its historical accuracy must be taken with some caution . According to some accounts , Gloucester rushed headfirst into battle in the pursuit of glory , and fell victim to his own foolishness . The Vita , on the other hand , claimed that , as the earl was vigorously trying to fend off the Scottish attacks , he was knocked off his horse , and killed when his own men failed to come to his rescue . It is also likely that the quarrels between Gloucester and Hereford over precedence could have contributed to the chaotic situation . According to one account , Gloucester rushed into battle without a distinguishing coat of arms , exposing himself to the Scottish soldiers , who otherwise would have been eager to secure a valuable ransom .
After Gloucester was killed , the English army soon fell into disarray , and the battle resulted in a resounding victory for the Scots , and a humiliating withdrawal for the English . It was widely agreed that Gloucester , with his proud family history and valuable estates , was the most prominent of the many casualties that day . Robert the Bruce mourned his death and stood vigil over Gloucester 's body at a local church . Later he allowed its transfer to England , where the earl was buried at Tewkesbury Abbey , on his father 's right @-@ hand side .
= = Dispersal of estates and aftermath = =
Gloucester 's political importance did not end with his death ; his disappearance from the political scene had immediate consequences . In his Welsh lordship of Glamorgan , the uncertain situation caused by his death caused a short @-@ lived rebellion in 1316 . In Ireland , where he also held large possessions , the power vacuum he left behind facilitated the 1315 invasion by Robert the Bruce 's brother Edward . The greatest consequences , however , resulted from the division of the de Clare estates . In 1308 , Gilbert de Clare had married Maud ( or Matilda ) de Burgh , the daughter of Richard de Burgh , Earl of Ulster . The couple left no surviving issue , so his death marked the end of the great de Clare family . The family lands were worth as much as Β£ 6 @,@ 000 , second only to those of the Earl of Lancaster among the nobility of the realm .
The lands went into royal possession while the matter of inheritance was being settled . By the entail of 1290 , the lands could only be inherited by direct descendants of the seventh earl and Joan of Acre . Maud managed to postpone the proceedings by claiming to be pregnant , but by 1316 it was clear that this could not be the case . The late earl 's sisters , Eleanor , Margaret ( now widowed after the death of Gaveston ) and Elizabeth were by 1317 all married to favourites of Edward II : Hugh Despenser the Younger , Hugh de Audley and Roger d 'Amory respectively . The three were granted equal parts of the English possessions , but Despenser received the entire lordship of Glamorgan in Wales , politically the most important of the de Clare lands .
Not content with his part , Despenser used his relationship with the king to impinge on the lands of other Marcher lords . This caused resentment among such men as Hereford and Roger Mortimer , who rose up in rebellion in 1321 . The rebellion was crushed , but resistance continued under the Marcher lords ' ally Thomas of Lancaster , who was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 , and executed . Although this victory temporarily secured Edward 's position on the throne , he was eventually deposed in 1326 by Roger Mortimer , with the help of the king 's wife Queen Isabella . The title of Earl of Gloucester was recreated by Edward II 's son Edward III in 1337 , for Hugh de Audley .
= = Ancestry = =
= Romeo and Juliet =
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star @-@ crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families . It was among Shakespeare 's most popular plays during his lifetime and , along with Hamlet , is one of his most frequently performed plays . Today , the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers .
Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity . The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 , and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567 . Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both , but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters , particularly Mercutio and Paris . Believed to have been written between 1591 and 1595 , the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597 . The text of the first quarto version was of poor quality , however , and later editions corrected the text to conform more closely with Shakespeare 's original .
Shakespeare 's use of his poetic dramatic structure ( especially effects such as switching between comedy and tragedy to heighten tension , his expansion of minor characters , and his use of sub @-@ plots to embellish the story ) has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill . The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters , sometimes changing the form as the character develops . Romeo , for example , grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play .
Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage , film , musical and opera venues . During the English Restoration , it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant . David Garrick 's 18th @-@ century version also modified several scenes , removing material then considered indecent , and Georg Benda 's Romeo und Julie omitted much of the action , and added a happy ending . Performances in the 19th century , including Charlotte Cushman 's , restored the original text , and focused on greater realism . John Gielgud 's 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeare 's text , and used Elizabethan costumes and staging to enhance the drama . In the 20th and into the 21st century , the play has been adapted in versions as diverse as George Cukor 's 1935 film Romeo and Juliet , Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 version Romeo and Juliet , and Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 MTV @-@ inspired Romeo + Juliet .
= = Characters = =
= = Synopsis = =
The play , set in Verona , Italy , begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who , like their masters , are sworn enemies . Prince <unk> of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death . Later , Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet , but Capulet asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to attend a planned Capulet ball . Lady Capulet and Juliet 's nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Paris 's courtship .
Meanwhile , Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo , Montague 's son , about Romeo 's recent depression . Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline , one of Capulet 's nieces . Persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio , Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline . However , Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet . Juliet 's cousin , Tybalt , is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the ball , but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliet 's father , who doesn 't wish to shed blood in his house . After the ball , in what is now called the " balcony scene " , Romeo sneaks into the Capulet orchard and overhears Juliet at her window vowing her love to him in spite of her family 's hatred of the Montagues . Romeo makes himself known to her and they agree to be married . With the help of Friar Laurence , who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children 's union , they are secretly married the next day .
Tybalt , meanwhile , still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball , challenges him to a duel . Romeo , now considering Tybalt his kinsman , refuses to fight . Mercutio is offended by Tybalt 's insolence , as well as Romeo 's " vile submission " , and accepts the duel on Romeo 's behalf . Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo attempts to break up the fight . Grief @-@ stricken and wracked with guilt , Romeo confronts and slays Tybalt .
Montague argues that Romeo has justly executed Tybalt for the murder of Mercutio . The Prince , now having lost a kinsman in the warring families ' feud , exiles Romeo from Verona , under penalty of death if he ever returns . Romeo secretly spends the night in Juliet 's chamber , where they consummate their marriage . Capulet , misinterpreting Juliet 's grief , agrees to marry her to Count Paris and threatens to disown her when she refuses to become Paris 's " joyful bride " . When she then pleads for the marriage to be delayed , her mother rejects her .
Juliet visits Friar Laurence for help , and he offers her a potion that will put her into a deathlike coma for " two and forty hours " . The Friar promises to send a messenger to inform Romeo of the plan , so that he can rejoin her when she awakens . On the night before the wedding , she takes the drug and , when discovered apparently dead , she is laid in the family crypt .
The messenger , however , does not reach Romeo and , instead , Romeo learns of Juliet 's apparent death from his servant Balthasar . Heartbroken , Romeo buys poison from an apothecary and goes to the Capulet crypt . He encounters Paris who has come to mourn Juliet privately . Believing Romeo to be a vandal , Paris confronts him and , in the ensuing battle , Romeo kills Paris . Still believing Juliet to be dead , he drinks the poison . Juliet then awakens and , finding Romeo dead , stabs herself with his dagger . The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find all three dead . Friar Laurence recounts the story of the two " star @-@ cross 'd lovers " . The families are reconciled by their children 's deaths and agree to end their violent feud . The play ends with the Prince 's elegy for the lovers : " For never was a story of more woe / Than this of Juliet and her Romeo . "
= = = Modern form = = =
Luigi da Porto ( 1485 – 1529 ) adapted the story as Giulietta e Romeo and included it in his Historia <unk> <unk> di due Nobili <unk> , written in 1524 and published posthumously in 1531 in Venice . Da Porto drew on Pyramus and Thisbe , Boccacio 's Decameron , and <unk> 's Mariotto e <unk> , but it is likely that his story is also autobiographical : present as a soldier at a ball on 26 February 1511 at a residence of the Savorgnan clan in Udine , following a peace ceremony with the opposite <unk> , Da Porta fell in love with Lucina , the daughter of the house , but relationships of their mentors prevented advances . The next morning , the <unk> led an attack on the city , and many members of the <unk> were murdered . When years later , half @-@ paralyzed from a battle @-@ wound , he wrote Giulietta e Romeo in <unk> Vicentino ( from where he could see the " castles " of Verona ) , he dedicated the novella to <unk> e <unk> madonna Lucina Savorgnan . Da Porto presented his tale as historically true and claimed it took place a century earlier than <unk> had it , in the days Verona was ruled by Bartolomeo II della Scala ( anglicized as Prince <unk> ) .
Da Porto gave Romeo and Juliet most of its modern form , including the names of the lovers , the rival families of <unk> and <unk> , and the location in Verona . He named the friar Laurence ( <unk> Lorenzo ) and introduced the characters Mercutio ( <unk> <unk> ) , Tybalt ( <unk> <unk> ) , Count Paris ( <unk> ( <unk> ) di <unk> ) , the faithful servant , and Giulietta 's nurse . Da Porto originated the remaining basic elements of the story : the feuding families , Romeo <unk> by his <unk> meeting Giulietta at a dance at her house , the love scenes ( including the balcony scene ) , the periods of despair , Romeo killing Giulietta 's cousin ( <unk> ) , and the families ' reconciliation after the lovers ' suicides . In da Porto 's version Romeo takes poison and Giulietta stabs herself with his dagger .
In 1554 , Matteo Bandello published the second volume of his <unk> , which included his version of <unk> e Romeo , probably written between 1531 and 1545 . Bandello lengthened and weighed down the plot , while leaving the storyline basically unchanged ( though he did introduce Benvolio ) . Bandello 's story was translated into French by Pierre Boaistuau in 1559 in the first volume of his Histories <unk> . Boaistuau adds much moralising and sentiment , and the characters indulge in rhetorical outbursts .
In his 1562 narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet , Arthur Brooke translated Boaistuau faithfully , but adjusted it to reflect parts of Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde . There was a trend among writers and playwrights to publish works based on Italian <unk> β€” Italian tales were very popular among theatre @-@ goers β€” and Shakespeare may well have been familiar with William Painter 's 1567 collection of Italian tales titled Palace of Pleasure . This collection included a version in prose of the Romeo and Juliet story named " The goodly History of the true and constant love of Romeo and <unk> " . Shakespeare took advantage of this popularity : The Merchant of Venice , Much Ado About Nothing , All 's Well That Ends Well , Measure for Measure , and Romeo and Juliet are all from Italian novelle . Romeo and Juliet is a dramatisation of Brooke 's translation , and Shakespeare follows the poem closely , but adds extra detail to both major and minor characters ( in particular the Nurse and Mercutio ) .
Christopher Marlowe 's Hero and Leander and Dido , Queen of Carthage , both similar stories written in Shakespeare 's day , are thought to be less of a direct influence , although they may have helped create an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive .
= = Date and text = =
It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet . Juliet 's nurse refers to an earthquake she says occurred 11 years ago . This may refer to the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 , which would date that particular line to 1591 . Other earthquakes β€” both in England and in Verona β€” have been proposed in support of the different dates . But the play 's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night 's Dream and other plays conventionally dated around 1594 – 95 , place its composition sometime between 1591 and 1595 . One conjecture is that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591 , which he completed in 1595 .
Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet was published in two quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623 . These are referred to as Q1 and Q2 . The first printed edition , Q1 , appeared in early 1597 , printed by John Danter . Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions , it is labelled a ' bad quarto ' ; the 20th @-@ century editor T. J. B. Spencer described it as " a detestable text , probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors " , suggesting that it had been pirated for publication . An alternative explanation for Q1 's shortcomings is that the play ( like many others of the time ) may have been heavily edited before performance by the playing company . In any event , its appearance in early 1597 makes 1596 the latest possible date for the play 's composition .
The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and <unk> <unk> of Romeo and Juliet . It was printed in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert <unk> . Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1 . Its title page describes it as " Newly corrected , augmented and amended " . Scholars believe that Q2 was based on Shakespeare 's pre @-@ performance draft ( called his foul papers ) , since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and " false starts " for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter . It is a much more complete and reliable text , and was reprinted in 1609 ( Q3 ) , 1622 ( Q4 ) and 1637 ( Q5 ) . In effect , all later <unk> and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2 , as are all modern editions since editors believe that any deviations from Q2 in the later editions ( whether good or bad ) are likely to arise from editors or compositors , not from Shakespeare .
The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3 , with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical <unk> or Q1 . Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 ( F2 ) , 1664 ( F3 ) , and 1685 ( F4 ) . Modern versions β€” that take into account several of the Folios and <unk> β€” first appeared with Nicholas Rowe 's 1709 edition , followed by Alexander Pope 's 1723 version . Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1 . This tradition continued late into the Romantic period . Fully annotated editions first appeared in the Victorian period and continue to be produced today , printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play .
= = Themes and motifs = =