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= Byne 's disease =
Byne 's disease , more accurately known as Bynesian decay , is a peculiar and permanently damaging condition ( resulting from an ongoing chemical reaction ) which often attacks mollusk shells that are in storage or on display for long periods of time .
Bynesian decay is a form of efflorescence of salts formed by the reaction of acidic vapors with the basic shell surface . The efflorescence can sometimes superficially resemble a growth of mold . Although first described in the early 19th century , Bynesian decay was not well understood until almost a hundred years later . The condition is named after the man ( L. Byne ) who is best known for describing it in the late 19th century , even though he was not the first person to describe it in print . In addition , Byne mistakenly assumed that the condition was caused by bacteria , and thus the condition came to be referred to as a " disease " .
In addition to mollusk shells , various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay , including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate . This condition is of concern for museum scientists , and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds . In order to avoid Bynesian decay , the use of metal , non @-@ reactive polymers and acid @-@ free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper , wood @-@ based materials , ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments . Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying , with a subsequent <unk> to an archival setting .
= = Appearance = =
Byne 's disease can appear as a powdery white coating on a shell . It also often looks as if a shell has been " infected " with mold ; however , under magnification the mold @-@ like appearance is revealed to be a crystalline growth of salts .
= = History = =
In 1839 , the British naturalist and malacologist Thomas Brown ( 1785 – 1862 ) briefly mentioned this form of deterioration in his book A <unk> 's Text @-@ Book . Agnes Kenyon also described the condition in 1896 , suggesting that " saline particles in the atmosphere [ were ] evidently exerting a corrosive effect " .
Origin of the name
In 1899 , the British amateur conchologist and naturalist Loftus St. George Byne ( 1872 – 1947 ) described this condition , in a presentation to the <unk> Society of Great Britain in Ireland , and did so again in another presentation in June of that same year .
Byne was convinced that butyric acid was present together with calcium acetate in the affected shells , although he never really described the methods he used in the so @-@ called " extensive chemical tests " he claimed to have applied to these specimens . Among other conclusions , he assumed that the butyric acid originated from bacterial activity . He also concluded that the decaying effect ' travelled from shell to shell and drawer to drawer ' , and thus the condition came to be called a " disease " .
Clarification and resolution
The true nature of the " disease " was partially clarified in 1934 , when the British government chemist John Ralph Nicholls explained that oak cabinets at the Natural History Museum in London were giving off acetic acid fumes , which were attacking the shells stored in them .
In 1985 , almost 150 years after the Byne 's disease was first mentioned in the literature , Norman H. Tennent and Thomas Baird published an extensive study on the subject . Their deep analysis , involving many complex and sophisticated techniques such as X @-@ Ray diffraction , infrared spectroscopy , <unk> analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy , finally revealed the true nature of the decaying process . They identified the substances involved ( the calcium salts ) , as well as the chemical reactions that originated them . They concluded that Byne 's disease is not actually a disease , and is in fact caused by simple chemical reactions which occur in the presence of acidic vapors originating from the immediate environment in which the specimens are stored .
= = Chemistry = =
Bynesian decay usually starts when specimens are stored or displayed for considerable periods of time in an enclosed space . The storage method itself usually causes this problem , when containers , cabinets or display cases are entirely or partially made of wood , plywood or other wood products such as <unk> , or when the specimens are surrounded by , or in contact with , various other kinds of materials that are cellulose @-@ based and can turn water vapor acidic .
Other potentially damaging materials include non @-@ archival quality cardboard , card , paper , cotton and cork , all of which give off acidic vapors over time . PVC and polyurethane plastics are also a problem , as they degrade and give off acidic vapors with time . High humidity of the air is a significant contributing factor , as is lack of ventilation of the specimens . High ambient temperatures can increase the rapidity of the decay .
Generally , in cabinets or display cases that are entirely or partially made of wood , the hydrolysis of acetyl groups in the wood <unk> creates acetic acid . The rate at which the acetic acid is produced is proportional to the concentration of esters in the wood , the humidity , the temperature , and the overall acidity of the environment . Acidic fumes can also be released from formaldehyde which can occur in wood as a degradation product of lignin . Acidic fumes can also be given off from ubiquitous formaldehyde resins ( commonly urea @-@ formaldehyde resins ) .
In the first case , acetic acid reacts with the calcium carbonate ( one of the main components of freshwater , marine and land shells , birds ' eggs and other such specimens ) producing calcium acetate , a salt . <unk> can be oxidized by the oxygen in air to create formic acid , which then has basically the same effects as acetic acid , reacting with calcium carbonate to produce a salt . The salts ( calcium acetate and calcium formate ) crystallize through the specimen 's outer surface , destroying its fine detail and exposing more areas for further reaction . As the condition progresses , the salt crystals build up over the specimen 's surface , which becomes increasingly eroded .
The calcium carbonate and acetic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + <unk> → Ca ( CH3COO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
Calcium carbonate and formic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + <unk> → Ca ( HCOO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
Calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
In this last reaction , calcium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid and produce calcium sulfate , water and carbon dioxide .
= = Prevention = =
When specimens are to be placed in any size of container for long @-@ term storage or display , the consistent use of only archival @-@ quality materials prevents the development of Byne 's disease . Thus , materials such as metal cabinets and display cases , archival quality paper labels and card trays are used in museum collections of specimens that might be vulnerable to this reaction .
It is also worth mentioning that sea shells , after collecting , need to be washed thoroughly in freshwater to remove the salt that is on and in the shell , and then dried thoroughly before they are stored . Salt attracts moisture and makes shells more vulnerable to Bynesian decay .
The following is a chart that shows non @-@ archival materials and their archival equivalents :
If possible , the use of wood and cellulose derivatives should be avoided entirely . Many varnishes and paints are well known emitters of volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) , some of which may be acidic , and thus have the potential to damage calcium carbonate specimens . Because of this , these coatings should also be avoided ; water @-@ based varnishes and paints are considered less harmful , and should be preferred .
Because the reactions involved in Bynesian decay require a certain quantity of moisture in the air in order for them to take place , keeping the air somewhat dry , i.e. keeping the environmental relative humidity under control is beneficial . This is achieved by careful monitoring of the relative humidity ( using instruments such as a hygrometer ) , and applying dehumidifiers when necessary ; sometimes , simple air conditioning systems may suffice . Extremely low humidity can damage some specimens , so caution is recommended . Usually , a relative humidity maintained around 50 % is considered to be adequate . Applying <unk> containing a strong base , such as potassium hydroxide , inside the storage environment to protect the specimens against degradation is also possible . Copy paper or KOH @-@ impregnated filter paper are some low cost examples of <unk> which can be used . These strong bases have a preference to react with acid , thus they compete successfully with the calcium carbonate specimens for any acidic vapors that may be present . The bases also help reduce the overall acid concentration inside the enclosed space .
= = Management = =
The damage to specimens is unfortunately not reversible ; however , the decay can be arrested by washing or soaking the specimens in water , followed by a very thorough drying . The specimens must then be placed in an environment that consists of only archival materials , in a completely archival setting .
= = Pyrite disease = =
In collections which contain fossils , high humidity can also affect pyrite ( or its more reactive polymorph marcasite ) ( iron sulphide ) fossils in a somewhat similar condition , which is known as pyrite disease . The iron sulfide can react with water and oxygen to form iron sulfates and sulfuric acid , which then can produce Bynesian decay .
= R. K. Narayan =
R. K. Narayan ( 10 October 1906 – 13 May 2001 ) , full name <unk> Krishnaswami Iyer <unk> , is an Indian writer , best known for his works set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi . He is a leading author of early Indian literature in English , along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao .
Narayan 's mentor and friend , Graham Greene was instrumental in getting publishers for Narayan ’ s first four books , including the semi @-@ autobiographical trilogy of Swami and Friends , The Bachelor of Arts and The English Teacher . The fictional town of Malgudi , was first introduced in Swami and Friends . Narayan ’ s The Financial Expert , was hailed as one of the most original works of 1951 , and Sahitya Akademi Award winner The Guide , was adapted for film and for Broadway .
Narayan highlights the social context and everyday life of his characters , and he has been compared to William Faulkner , who also created a similar fictional town , and likewise explored with humour and compassion the energy of ordinary life . Narayan 's short stories have been compared with those of Guy de Maupassant , because of his ability to compress a narrative . However , he has also been criticised for the simplicity of his prose .
In a career that spanned over sixty years , Narayan received many awards and honours , including the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature , the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Vibhushan , India 's third and second highest civilian awards . He was also nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of India 's parliament .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early days = = =
R. K. Narayan was born in Madras ( now Chennai ) , British India . His father was a school headmaster , and Narayan did some of his studies at his father 's school . As his father 's job entailed frequent transfers , Narayan spent part of his childhood under the care of his maternal grandmother , Parvati . During this time his best friends and playmates were a peacock and a mischievous monkey .
His grandmother gave him the nickname of <unk> , a name that stuck to him in family circles . She taught him arithmetic , mythology , classical Indian music and Sanskrit . According to his youngest brother R. K. Laxman , the family mostly conversed in English , and grammatical errors on the part of Narayan and his siblings were frowned upon . While living with his grandmother , Narayan studied at a succession of schools in Madras , including the Lutheran Mission School in Purasawalkam , <unk> High School , and the Christian College High School . Narayan was an avid reader , and his early literary diet included Dickens , Wodehouse , Arthur Conan Doyle and Thomas Hardy . When he was twelve years old , Narayan participated in a pro @-@ independence march , for which he was reprimanded by his uncle ; the family was apolitical and considered all governments wicked .
Narayan moved to Mysore to live with his family when his father was transferred to the Maharajah 's College High School . The well @-@ stocked library at the school , as well as his father 's own , fed his reading habit , and he started writing as well . After completing high school , Narayan failed the university entrance examination and spent a year at home reading and writing ; he subsequently passed the examination in 1926 and joined Maharaja College of Mysore . It took Narayan four years to obtain his bachelor 's degree , a year longer than usual . After being persuaded by a friend that taking a master 's degree ( M.A. ) would kill his interest in literature , he briefly held a job as a school teacher ; however , he quit in protest when the headmaster of the school asked him to substitute for the physical training master . The experience made Narayan realise that the only career for him was in writing , and he decided to stay at home and write novels . His first published work was a book review of Development of Maritime Laws of 17th @-@ Century England . Subsequently , he started writing the occasional local interest story for English newspapers and magazines . Although the writing did not pay much ( his income for the first year was nine rupees and twelve annas ) , he had a regular life and few needs , and his family and friends respected and supported his unorthodox choice of career . In 1930 , Narayan wrote his first novel , Swami and Friends , an effort ridiculed by his uncle and rejected by a string of publishers . With this book , Narayan created Malgudi , a town that creatively reproduced the social sphere of the country ; while it ignored the limits imposed by colonial rule , it also grew with the various socio @-@ political changes of British and post @-@ independence India .
= = = Turning point = = =
While vacationing at his sister 's house in Coimbatore , in 1933 , Narayan met and fell in love with Rajam , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who lived nearby . Despite many astrological and financial obstacles , Narayan managed to gain permission from the girl 's father and married her . Following his marriage , Narayan became a reporter for a Madras @-@ based paper called The Justice , dedicated to the rights of non @-@ Brahmins . The publishers were thrilled to have a Brahmin Iyer in Narayan espousing their cause . The job brought him in contact with a wide variety of people and issues . Earlier , Narayan had sent the manuscript of Swami and Friends to a friend at Oxford , and about this time , the friend showed the manuscript to Graham Greene . Greene recommended the book to his publisher , and it was finally published in 1935 . Greene also counseled Narayan on shortening his name to become more familiar to the English @-@ speaking audience . The book was semi @-@ autobiographical and built upon many incidents from his own childhood . Reviews were favourable but sales were few . Narayan 's next novel The Bachelor of Arts ( 1937 ) , was inspired in part by his experiences at college , and dealt with the theme of a rebellious adolescent transitioning to a rather well @-@ adjusted adult ; it was published by a different publisher , again at the recommendation of Greene . His third novel , The Dark Room ( 1938 ) was about domestic disharmony , showcasing the man as the oppressor and the woman as the victim within a marriage , and was published by yet another publisher ; this book also received good reviews . In 1937 , Narayan 's father died , and Narayan was forced to accept a commission from the government of Mysore as he was not making any money .
In his first three books , Narayan highlights the problems with certain socially accepted practices . The first book has Narayan focusing on the plight of students , punishments of caning in the classroom , and the associated shame . The concept of horoscope @-@ matching in Hindu marriages and the emotional toll it levies on the bride and groom is covered in the second book . In the third book , Narayan addresses the concept of a wife putting up with her husband 's antics and attitudes .
Rajam died of typhoid in 1939 . Her death affected Narayan deeply and he remained depressed for a long time ; he was also concerned for their daughter Hema , who was only three years old . The bereavement brought about a significant change in his life and was the inspiration behind his next novel , The English Teacher . This book , like his first two books , is autobiographical , but more so , and completes an unintentional thematic trilogy following Swami and Friends and The Bachelor of Arts . In subsequent interviews , Narayan acknowledges that The English Teacher was almost entirely an autobiography , albeit with different names for the characters and the change of setting in Malgudi ; he also explains that the emotions detailed in the book reflected his own at the time of Rajam 's death .
Bolstered by some of his successes , in 1940 Narayan tried his hand at a journal , Indian Thought . With the help of his uncle , a car salesman , Narayan managed to get more than a thousand subscribers in Madras city alone . However , the venture did not last long due to Narayan 's inability to manage it , and it ceased publication within a year . His first collection of short stories , Malgudi Days , was published in November 1942 , followed by The English Teacher in 1945 . In between , being cut off from England due to the war , Narayan started his own publishing company , naming it ( again ) Indian Thought Publications ; the publishing company was a success and is still active , now managed by his granddaughter . Soon , with a devoted readership stretching from New York to Moscow , Narayan 's books started selling well and in 1948 he started building his own house on the outskirts of Mysore ; the house was completed in 1953 .
= = = The busy years = = =
After The English Teacher , Narayan 's writings took a more imaginative and creative external style compared to the semi @-@ autobiographical tone of the earlier novels . His next effort , Mr. Sampath , was the first book exhibiting this modified approach . However , it still draws from some of his own experiences , particularly the aspect of starting his own journal ; he also makes a marked movement away from his earlier novels by intermixing biographical events . Soon after , he published The Financial Expert , considered to be his masterpiece and hailed as one of the most original works of fiction in 1951 . The inspiration for the novel was a true story about a financial genius , <unk> , related to him by his brother . The next novel , Waiting for the Mahatma , loosely based on a fictional visit to Malgudi by Mahatma Gandhi , deals with the protagonist 's romantic feelings for a woman , when he attends the discourses of the visiting Mahatma . The woman , named Bharti , is a loose parody of Bharati , the personification of India and the focus of Gandhi 's discourses . While the novel includes significant references to the Indian independence movement , the focus is on the life of the ordinary individual , narrated with Narayan 's usual dose of irony .
In 1953 , his works were published in the United States for the first time , by Michigan State University Press , who later ( in 1958 ) , relinquished the rights to Viking Press . While Narayan 's writings often bring out the anomalies in social structures and views , he was himself a traditionalist ; in February 1956 , Narayan arranged his daughter 's wedding following all orthodox Hindu rituals . After the wedding , Narayan began travelling occasionally , continuing to write at least 1500 words a day even while on the road . The Guide was written while he was visiting the United States in 1956 on the Rockefeller Fellowship . While in the U.S. , Narayan maintained a daily journal that was to later serve as the foundation for his book My Dateless Diary . Around this time , on a visit to England , Narayan met his friend and mentor Graham Greene for the first time . On his return to India , The Guide was published ; the book is the most representative of Narayan 's writing skills and elements , ambivalent in expression , coupled with a riddle @-@ like conclusion . The book won him the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1958 .
Occasionally , Narayan was known to give form to his thoughts by way of essays , some published in newspapers and journals , others not . Next Sunday ( 1960 ) , was a collection of such conversational essays , and his first work to be published as a book . Soon after that , My Dateless Diary , describing experiences from his 1956 visit to the United States , was published . Also included in this collection was an essay about the writing of The Guide .
Narayan 's next novel , The Man @-@ Eater of Malgudi , was published in 1961 . The book was reviewed as having a narrative that is a classical art form of comedy , with delicate control . After the launch of this book , the restless Narayan once again took to travelling , and visited the U.S. and Australia . He spent three weeks in Adelaide , Sydney and Melbourne giving lectures on Indian literature . The trip was funded by a fellowship from the Australian Writers ' Group . By this time Narayan had also achieved significant success , both literary and financial . He had a large house in Mysore , and wrote in a study with no fewer than eight windows ; he drove a new Mercedes @-@ Benz , a luxury in India at that time , to visit his daughter who had moved to Coimbatore after her marriage . With his success , both within India and abroad , Narayan started writing columns for magazines and newspapers including The Hindu and The Atlantic .
In 1964 , Narayan published his first mythological work , Gods , Demons and Others , a collection of rewritten and translated short stories from Hindu epics . Like many of his other works , this book was illustrated by his younger brother R. K. Laxman . The stories included were a selective list , chosen on the basis of powerful protagonists , so that the impact would be lasting , irrespective of the reader 's contextual knowledge . Once again , after the book launch , Narayan took to travelling abroad . In an earlier essay , he had written about the Americans wanting to understand spirituality from him , and during this visit , Swedish @-@ American actress Greta Garbo accosted him on the topic , despite his denial of any knowledge .
Narayan 's next published work was the 1967 novel , The Vendor of Sweets . It was inspired in part by his American visits and consists of extreme characterizations of both the Indian and American stereotypes , drawing on the many cultural differences . However , while it displays his characteristic comedy and narrative , the book was reviewed as lacking in depth . This year , Narayan travelled to England , where he received the first of his honorary doctorates from the University of Leeds . The next few years were a quiet period for him . He published his next book , a collection of short stories , A Horse and Two Goats , in 1970 . Meanwhile , Narayan remembered a promise made to his dying uncle in 1938 , and started translating the Kamba <unk> to English . The Ramayana was published in 1973 , after five years of work . Almost immediately after publishing The Ramayana , Narayan started working on a condensed translation of the Sanskrit epic , the Mahabharata . While he was researching and writing the epic , he also published another book , The Painter of Signs ( 1977 ) . The Painter of Signs is a bit longer than a novella and makes a marked change from Narayan 's other works , as he deals with hitherto unaddressed subjects such as sex , although the development of the protagonist 's character is very similar to his earlier creations . The Mahabharata was published in 1978 .
= = = The later years = = =
Narayan was commissioned by the government of Karnataka to write a book to promote tourism in the state . The work was published as part of a larger government publication in the late 1970s . He thought it deserved better , and republished it as The Emerald Route ( Indian Thought Publications , 1980 ) . The book contains his personal perspective on the local history and heritage , but being bereft of his characters and creations , it misses his enjoyable narrative . The same year , he was elected as an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and won the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature . Around the same time , Narayan 's works were translated to Chinese for the first time .
In 1983 , Narayan published his next novel , A Tiger for Malgudi , about a tiger and its relationship with humans . His next novel , <unk> Man , published in 1986 , was the tale of an aspiring journalist from Malgudi . During this time , he also published two collections of short stories : Malgudi Days ( 1982 ) , a revised edition including the original book and some other stories , and Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories , a new collection . In 1987 , he completed A Writer 's Nightmare , another collection of essays about topics as diverse as the caste system , Nobel prize winners , love , and monkeys . The collection included essays he had written for newspapers and magazines since 1958 .
Living alone in Mysore , Narayan developed an interest in agriculture . He bought an acre of agricultural land and tried his hand at farming . He was also prone to walking to the market every afternoon , not so much for buying things , but to interact with the people . In a typical afternoon stroll , he would stop every few steps to greet and converse with shopkeepers and others , most likely gathering material for his next book .
In 1980 , Narayan was nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of the Indian Parliament , for his contributions to literature . During his entire six @-@ year term , he was focused on one issue — the plight of school children , especially the heavy load of school books and the negative effect of the system on a child 's creativity , which was something that he first highlighted in his debut novel , Swami and Friends . His inaugural speech was focused on this particular problem , and resulted in the formation of a committee chaired by Prof. Yash Pal , to recommend changes to the school educational system .
In 1990 , he published his next novel , The World of Nagaraj , also set in Malgudi . Narayan 's age shows in this work as he appears to skip narrative details that he would have included if this were written earlier in his career . Soon after he finished the novel , Narayan fell ill and moved to Madras to be close to his daughter 's family . A few years after his move , in 1994 , his daughter died of cancer and his granddaughter <unk> ( Minnie ) started taking care of him in addition to managing Indian Thought Publications . Narayan then published his final book , Grandmother 's Tale . The book is an autobiographical novella , about his great @-@ grandmother who travelled far and wide to find her husband , who ran away shortly after their marriage . The story was narrated to him by his grandmother , when he was a child .
During his final years , Narayan , ever fond of conversation , would spend almost every evening with N. Ram , the publisher of The Hindu , drinking coffee and talking about various topics until well past midnight . Despite his fondness of meeting and talking to people , he stopped giving interviews . The apathy towards interviews was the result of an interview with Time , after which Narayan had to spend a few days in the hospital , as he was dragged around the city to take photographs that were never used in the article .
In May 2001 , Narayan was hospitalised . A few hours before he was to be put on a ventilator , he was planning on writing his next novel , a story about a grandfather . As he was always very selective about his choice of notebooks , he asked N. Ram to get him one . However , Narayan did not get better and never started the novel . He died on 13 May 2001 , in Chennai at the age of 94 .
= = Literary review = =
= = = Writing style = = =