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[
"African Continental Free Trade Area",
"facet of",
"African Continental Free Trade Agreement"
] | The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a free trade area encompassing most of Africa. It was established in 2018 by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, which has 43 parties and another 11 signatories, making it the largest free-trade area by number of member states, after the World Trade Organization, and the largest in population and geographic size, spanning 1.3 billion people across the world's second largest continent.
The agreement founding AfCFTA was brokered by the African Union (AU) and signed by 44 of its 55 member states in Kigali, Rwanda on 21 March 2018. The proposal was set to come into force 30 days after ratification by 22 of the signatory states. On 29 April 2019, the Saharawi Republic made the 22nd deposit of instruments of ratification, bringing the agreement into force on May 30; it entered its operational phase following a summit on 7 July 2019, and officially commenced 1 January 2021. AfCFTA's negotiations and implementation are overseen by a permanent secretariat based in Accra, Ghana.Under the agreement, AfCFTA members are committed to eliminating tariffs on most goods and services over a period of 5, 10, or 13 years, depending on the country's level of development or the nature of the products. General long-term objectives include creating a single, liberalised market; reducing barriers to capital and labor to facilitate investment; developing regional infrastructure; and establishing a continental customs union. The overall aims of AfCFTA are to increase socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, and make Africa more competitive in the global economy.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that AfCFTA will boost intra-African trade by 52 percent by 2022. A report by the World Bank anticipates that AfCFTA could lift 30 million Africans out of extreme poverty, boost the incomes of nearly 70 million people, and generate $450 billion in income by 2035. On January 13, 2022, AfCFTA took a major step towards its objective with the establishment of the Pan-African Payments and Settlements System (PAPSS), which allows payments among companies operating in Africa to be done in any local currency. | facet of | 101 | [
"aspect of",
"element of",
"feature of",
"part of",
"component of"
] | null | null |
[
"African Continental Free Trade Area",
"instance of",
"agreement"
] | The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a free trade area encompassing most of Africa. It was established in 2018 by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, which has 43 parties and another 11 signatories, making it the largest free-trade area by number of member states, after the World Trade Organization, and the largest in population and geographic size, spanning 1.3 billion people across the world's second largest continent.
The agreement founding AfCFTA was brokered by the African Union (AU) and signed by 44 of its 55 member states in Kigali, Rwanda on 21 March 2018. The proposal was set to come into force 30 days after ratification by 22 of the signatory states. On 29 April 2019, the Saharawi Republic made the 22nd deposit of instruments of ratification, bringing the agreement into force on May 30; it entered its operational phase following a summit on 7 July 2019, and officially commenced 1 January 2021. AfCFTA's negotiations and implementation are overseen by a permanent secretariat based in Accra, Ghana.Under the agreement, AfCFTA members are committed to eliminating tariffs on most goods and services over a period of 5, 10, or 13 years, depending on the country's level of development or the nature of the products. General long-term objectives include creating a single, liberalised market; reducing barriers to capital and labor to facilitate investment; developing regional infrastructure; and establishing a continental customs union. The overall aims of AfCFTA are to increase socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, and make Africa more competitive in the global economy.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that AfCFTA will boost intra-African trade by 52 percent by 2022. A report by the World Bank anticipates that AfCFTA could lift 30 million Africans out of extreme poverty, boost the incomes of nearly 70 million people, and generate $450 billion in income by 2035. On January 13, 2022, AfCFTA took a major step towards its objective with the establishment of the Pan-African Payments and Settlements System (PAPSS), which allows payments among companies operating in Africa to be done in any local currency. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"African Continental Free Trade Area",
"instance of",
"free trade area"
] | The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a free trade area encompassing most of Africa. It was established in 2018 by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, which has 43 parties and another 11 signatories, making it the largest free-trade area by number of member states, after the World Trade Organization, and the largest in population and geographic size, spanning 1.3 billion people across the world's second largest continent.
The agreement founding AfCFTA was brokered by the African Union (AU) and signed by 44 of its 55 member states in Kigali, Rwanda on 21 March 2018. The proposal was set to come into force 30 days after ratification by 22 of the signatory states. On 29 April 2019, the Saharawi Republic made the 22nd deposit of instruments of ratification, bringing the agreement into force on May 30; it entered its operational phase following a summit on 7 July 2019, and officially commenced 1 January 2021. AfCFTA's negotiations and implementation are overseen by a permanent secretariat based in Accra, Ghana.Under the agreement, AfCFTA members are committed to eliminating tariffs on most goods and services over a period of 5, 10, or 13 years, depending on the country's level of development or the nature of the products. General long-term objectives include creating a single, liberalised market; reducing barriers to capital and labor to facilitate investment; developing regional infrastructure; and establishing a continental customs union. The overall aims of AfCFTA are to increase socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, and make Africa more competitive in the global economy.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that AfCFTA will boost intra-African trade by 52 percent by 2022. A report by the World Bank anticipates that AfCFTA could lift 30 million Africans out of extreme poverty, boost the incomes of nearly 70 million people, and generate $450 billion in income by 2035. On January 13, 2022, AfCFTA took a major step towards its objective with the establishment of the Pan-African Payments and Settlements System (PAPSS), which allows payments among companies operating in Africa to be done in any local currency. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"U20 Barthés Trophy",
"organizer",
"Rugby Africa"
] | The U20 Barthés Trophy is an annual rugby union competition that features national Under-20 teams from Africa, organised by Rugby Africa. The tournament began in 2007 with Uganda as the host, which saw Namibia winning the title.
The tournament champion qualifies to the next year's World Rugby Junior Championship organised by the World Rugby.History
The 2020 tournament was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. | organizer | 120 | [
"coordinator",
"planner",
"facilitator",
"arranger",
"manager"
] | null | null |
[
"Human sternum",
"different from",
"sternum"
] | Other animals
The sternum, in vertebrate anatomy, is a flat bone that lies in the middle front part of the rib cage. It is endochondral in origin. It probably first evolved in early tetrapods as an extension of the pectoral girdle; it is not found in fish. In amphibians and reptiles it is typically a shield-shaped structure, often composed entirely of cartilage. It is absent in both turtles and snakes. In birds it is a relatively large bone and typically bears an enormous projecting keel to which the flight muscles are attached. Only in mammals does the sternum take on the elongated, segmented form seen in humans. | different from | 12 | [
"not same as",
"not identical to",
"distinct from",
"separate from",
"unlike"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"frontal bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.Other vertebrates
Fenestrae
Bones
The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls.Tetrapods
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe-finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"parietal bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.Tetrapods
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe-finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"temporal bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"sphenoid bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"ethmoid bone"
] | Development
The skull is a complex structure; its bones are formed both by intramembranous and endochondral ossification. The skull roof bones, comprising the bones of the facial skeleton and the sides and roof of the neurocranium, are dermal bones formed by intramembranous ossification, though the temporal bones are formed by endochondral ossification. The endocranium, the bones supporting the brain (the occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid) are largely formed by endochondral ossification. Thus frontal and parietal bones are purely membranous. The geometry of the skull base and its fossae, the anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae changes rapidly. The anterior cranial fossa changes especially during the first trimester of pregnancy and skull defects can often develop during this time.At birth, the human skull is made up of 44 separate bony elements. During development, many of these bony elements gradually fuse together into solid bone (for example, the frontal bone). The bones of the roof of the skull are initially separated by regions of dense connective tissue called fontanelles. There are six fontanelles: one anterior (or frontal), one posterior (or occipital), two sphenoid (or anterolateral), and two mastoid (or posterolateral). At birth, these regions are fibrous and moveable, necessary for birth and later growth. This growth can put a large amount of tension on the "obstetrical hinge", which is where the squamous and lateral parts of the occipital bone meet. A possible complication of this tension is rupture of the great cerebral vein. As growth and ossification progress, the connective tissue of the fontanelles is invaded and replaced by bone creating sutures. The five sutures are the two squamous sutures, one coronal, one lambdoid, and one sagittal suture. The posterior fontanelle usually closes by eight weeks, but the anterior fontanel can remain open up to eighteen months. The anterior fontanelle is located at the junction of the frontal and parietal bones; it is a "soft spot" on a baby's forehead. Careful observation will show that you can count a baby's heart rate by observing the pulse pulsing softly through the anterior fontanelle.
The skull in the neonate is large in proportion to other parts of the body. The facial skeleton is one seventh of the size of the calvaria. (In the adult it is half the size). The base of the skull is short and narrow, though the inner ear is almost adult size. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
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"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"human mandible"
] | Tetrapods
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe-finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"nasal bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"maxilla"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.Tetrapods
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe-finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"zygomatic bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.Other vertebrates
Fenestrae
Bones
The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s)",
"lacrimal bone"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.Tetrapods
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe-finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s) of the class",
"facial skeleton"
] | The skull is a bone protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of four types of bone i.e., cranial bones, facial bones, ear ossicles and hyoid bone. However two parts are more prominent: the cranium and the mandible. In humans, these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium (facial skeleton) that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior-most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation—housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. In humans these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton.
Functions of the skull include protection of the brain, fixing the distance between the eyes to allow stereoscopic vision, and fixing the position of the ears to enable sound localisation of the direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, such as horned ungulates (mammals with hooves), the skull also has a defensive function by providing the mount (on the frontal bone) for the horns.
The English word skull is probably derived from Old Norse skulle, while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον (kranion). The human skull fully develops two years after birth.The junctions of the skull bones are joined by structures called sutures.
The skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina, fossae, processes, and several cavities or sinuses. In zoology there are openings in the skull called fenestrae.Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | has part(s) of the class | 111 | [
"is composed of",
"contains",
"comprises",
"consists of",
"includes"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"has part(s) of the class",
"neurocranium"
] | The skull is a bone protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of four types of bone i.e., cranial bones, facial bones, ear ossicles and hyoid bone. However two parts are more prominent: the cranium and the mandible. In humans, these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium (facial skeleton) that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior-most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation—housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. In humans these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton.
Functions of the skull include protection of the brain, fixing the distance between the eyes to allow stereoscopic vision, and fixing the position of the ears to enable sound localisation of the direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, such as horned ungulates (mammals with hooves), the skull also has a defensive function by providing the mount (on the frontal bone) for the horns.
The English word skull is probably derived from Old Norse skulle, while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον (kranion). The human skull fully develops two years after birth.The junctions of the skull bones are joined by structures called sutures.
The skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina, fossae, processes, and several cavities or sinuses. In zoology there are openings in the skull called fenestrae. | has part(s) of the class | 111 | [
"is composed of",
"contains",
"comprises",
"consists of",
"includes"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"instance of",
"class of anatomical entity"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Human skull",
"subclass of",
"particular anatomical entity"
] | Structure
Humans
The human skull is the bone structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the sutures, and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.
The sutures are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
"is a kind of",
"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Human digestive system",
"has use",
"digestion"
] | The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has three stages: the cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase.
The first stage, the cephalic phase of digestion, begins with secretions from gastric glands in response to the sight and smell of food. This stage includes the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing, and the chemical breakdown by digestive enzymes, that takes place in the mouth. Saliva contains the digestive enzymes amylase, and lingual lipase, secreted by the salivary and serous glands on the tongue. Chewing, in which the food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a bolus which is swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach.
The second stage of digestion begins in the stomach with the gastric phase. Here the food is further broken down by mixing with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.
The third stage begins in the duodenum with the intestinal phase, where partially digested food is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and the teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion (feces) are defecated from the rectum via the anus. | has use | 81 | [
"utilizes",
"employs",
"makes use of",
"is equipped with",
"possesses"
] | null | null |
[
"Human digestive system",
"has part(s)",
"rectum"
] | Lower gastrointestinal tract
The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the small intestine and all of the large intestine. The intestine is also called the bowel or the gut. The lower GI starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and finishes at the anus. The small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The cecum marks the division between the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and anal canal. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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] | null | null |
[
"Human digestive system",
"has part(s)",
"pharynx"
] | Pharynx
The pharynx is a part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system and also a part of the digestive system. It is the part of the throat immediately behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx is made up of three parts. The lower two parts—the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are involved in the digestive system. The laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. Air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. The pharynx is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve.: 1465 Muscles in the pharynx push the food into the esophagus. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the cricoid cartilage. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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"includes",
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] | null | null |
[
"Human digestive system",
"has part(s)",
"large intestine"
] | Components
There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the accessory digestive organs are the liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Other components include the mouth, salivary glands, tongue, teeth and epiglottis.
The largest structure of the digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, covering a distance of about nine metres.A major digestive organ is the stomach. Within its mucosa are millions of embedded gastric glands. Their secretions are vital to the functioning of the organ.
Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine which is the longest part of the GI tract.
The largest part of the GI tract is the colon or large intestine. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste matter is stored prior to defecation.There are many specialised cells of the GI tract. These include the various cells of the gastric glands, taste cells, pancreatic duct cells, enterocytes and microfold cells.
Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the excretory system, including the large intestine. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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] | null | null |
[
"Mandible",
"connects with",
"temporal bone"
] | In anatomy, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human facial skeleton. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear). It is connected to the temporal bones by the temporomandibular joints.
The bone is formed in the fetus from a fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, but this articulation fuses together in early childhood.The word "mandible" derives from the Latin word mandibula, "jawbone" (literally "one used for chewing"), from mandere "to chew" and -bula (instrumental suffix).Function
The mandible forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. It articulates with the left and right temporal bones at the temporomandibular joints.Condyloid process, superior (upper) and posterior projection from the ramus, which makes the temporomandibular joint with the temporal bone
Coronoid process, superior and anterior projection from the ramus. This provides attachment to the temporal muscle.Teeth sit in the upper part of the body of the mandible. | connects with | 122 | [
"links to",
"joins with",
"attaches to",
"ties to",
"associates with"
] | null | null |
[
"Mandible",
"instance of",
"bone"
] | In anatomy, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human facial skeleton. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear). It is connected to the temporal bones by the temporomandibular joints.
The bone is formed in the fetus from a fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, but this articulation fuses together in early childhood.The word "mandible" derives from the Latin word mandibula, "jawbone" (literally "one used for chewing"), from mandere "to chew" and -bula (instrumental suffix). | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Mandible",
"instance of",
"class of anatomical entity"
] | In anatomy, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human facial skeleton. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear). It is connected to the temporal bones by the temporomandibular joints.
The bone is formed in the fetus from a fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, but this articulation fuses together in early childhood.The word "mandible" derives from the Latin word mandibula, "jawbone" (literally "one used for chewing"), from mandere "to chew" and -bula (instrumental suffix).Foramina
The mandible has two main holes (foramina), found on both its right and left sides: | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Cauliflower ear",
"sport",
"rugby union"
] | Cauliflower ear is an irreversible condition that occurs when the external portion of the ear is hit and develops a blood clot or other collection of fluid under the perichondrium. This separates the cartilage from the overlying perichondrium that supplies its nutrients, causing it to die and resulting in the formation of fibrous tissue in the overlying skin. As a result, the outer ear becomes permanently swollen and deformed, resembling a cauliflower.
The condition is common in martial arts such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wrestling, boxing, kickboxing, judo, or mixed martial arts, and in full-contact sports such as rugby league or rugby union. | sport | 89 | [
"athletics",
"competitive physical activity",
"physical competition"
] | null | null |
[
"Human nose",
"has part(s)",
"nasal septum"
] | The human nose is the most protruding part of the face. It bears the nostrils and is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the nasal septum which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. On average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female.
The nose has an important function in breathing. The nasal mucosa lining the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses carries out the necessary conditioning of inhaled air by warming and moistening it. Nasal conchae, shell-like bones in the walls of the cavities, play a major part in this process. Filtering of the air by nasal hair in the nostrils prevents large particles from entering the lungs. Sneezing is a reflex to expel unwanted particles from the nose that irritate the mucosal lining. Sneezing can transmit infections, because aerosols are created in which the droplets can harbour pathogens.
Another major function of the nose is olfaction, the sense of smell. The area of olfactory epithelium, in the upper nasal cavity, contains specialised olfactory cells responsible for this function.
The nose is also involved in the function of speech. Nasal vowels and nasal consonants are produced in the process of nasalisation. The hollow cavities of the paranasal sinuses act as sound chambers that modify and amplify speech and other vocal sounds.
There are several plastic surgery procedures that can be done on the nose, known as rhinoplasties available to correct various structural defects or to change the shape of the nose. Defects may be congenital, or result from nasal disorders or from trauma. These procedures are a type of reconstructive surgery. Elective procedures to change a nose shape are a type of cosmetic surgery. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"instance of",
"leg"
] | Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"instance of",
"class of anatomical entity"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"subclass of",
"particular anatomical entity"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
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"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"subclass of",
"human anatomical structure"
] | Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
"is a kind of",
"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"has part(s)",
"human foot"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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"consists of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"has part(s)",
"human thigh"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"has part(s)",
"human lower leg"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"has part(s)",
"human hip"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Human leg",
"subclass of",
"lower limb"
] | The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.Structure
In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.
The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
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"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Human pelvis",
"has part(s)",
"human bony pelvis"
] | Structure
The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs. It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of the skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx.
the pelvic cavity, typically defined as a small part of the space enclosed by the bony pelvis, delimited by the pelvic brim above and the pelvic floor below; alternatively, the pelvic cavity is sometimes also defined as the whole space enclosed by the pelvic skeleton, subdivided into:
the greater (or false) pelvis, above the pelvic brim
the lesser (or true) pelvis, below the pelvic brim
the pelvic floor (or pelvic diaphragm), below the pelvic cavity
the perineum, below the pelvic floor | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human pelvis",
"has part(s)",
"human pelvic cavity"
] | The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region), together with its embedded skeleton (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton).
The pelvic region of the trunk includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor, below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum, below the pelvic floor. The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones.
The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to the sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two femurs at the hip joints. The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity, is the section of the body underneath the abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive organs (sex organs) and the rectum, while the pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in supporting the organs of the abdomen.
In mammals, the bony pelvis has a gap in the middle, significantly larger in females than in males. Their young pass through this gap when they are born.Structure
The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs. It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of the skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx.
the pelvic cavity, typically defined as a small part of the space enclosed by the bony pelvis, delimited by the pelvic brim above and the pelvic floor below; alternatively, the pelvic cavity is sometimes also defined as the whole space enclosed by the pelvic skeleton, subdivided into:
the greater (or false) pelvis, above the pelvic brim
the lesser (or true) pelvis, below the pelvic brim
the pelvic floor (or pelvic diaphragm), below the pelvic cavity
the perineum, below the pelvic floorPelvic bone
The pelvic skeleton is formed posteriorly (in the area of the back), by the sacrum and the coccyx and laterally and anteriorly (forward and to the sides), by a pair of hip bones.
Each hip bone consists of three sections: ilium, ischium, and pubis. During childhood, these sections are separate bones, joined by the triradiate cartilage. During puberty, they fuse together to form a single bone.Pelvic cavity
The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that is bounded by the bones of the pelvis and which primarily contains reproductive organs and the rectum.
A distinction is made between the lesser or true pelvis inferior to the terminal line, and the greater or false pelvis above it. The pelvic inlet or superior pelvic aperture, which leads into the lesser pelvis, is bordered by the promontory, the arcuate line of ilium, the iliopubic eminence, the pecten of the pubis, and the upper part of the pubic symphysis. The pelvic outlet or inferior pelvic aperture is the region between the subpubic angle or pubic arch, the ischial tuberosities and the coccyx. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
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] | null | null |
[
"Human pelvis",
"has part(s)",
"human pelvic floor"
] | The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region), together with its embedded skeleton (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton).
The pelvic region of the trunk includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor, below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum, below the pelvic floor. The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones.
The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to the sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two femurs at the hip joints. The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity, is the section of the body underneath the abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive organs (sex organs) and the rectum, while the pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in supporting the organs of the abdomen.
In mammals, the bony pelvis has a gap in the middle, significantly larger in females than in males. Their young pass through this gap when they are born.Structure
The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs. It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of the skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx.
the pelvic cavity, typically defined as a small part of the space enclosed by the bony pelvis, delimited by the pelvic brim above and the pelvic floor below; alternatively, the pelvic cavity is sometimes also defined as the whole space enclosed by the pelvic skeleton, subdivided into:
the greater (or false) pelvis, above the pelvic brim
the lesser (or true) pelvis, below the pelvic brim
the pelvic floor (or pelvic diaphragm), below the pelvic cavity
the perineum, below the pelvic floor | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Human pelvis",
"has part(s)",
"human perineum"
] | The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region), together with its embedded skeleton (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton).
The pelvic region of the trunk includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor, below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum, below the pelvic floor. The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones.
The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to the sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two femurs at the hip joints. The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity, is the section of the body underneath the abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive organs (sex organs) and the rectum, while the pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in supporting the organs of the abdomen.
In mammals, the bony pelvis has a gap in the middle, significantly larger in females than in males. Their young pass through this gap when they are born.Structure
The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs. It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of the skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx.
the pelvic cavity, typically defined as a small part of the space enclosed by the bony pelvis, delimited by the pelvic brim above and the pelvic floor below; alternatively, the pelvic cavity is sometimes also defined as the whole space enclosed by the pelvic skeleton, subdivided into:
the greater (or false) pelvis, above the pelvic brim
the lesser (or true) pelvis, below the pelvic brim
the pelvic floor (or pelvic diaphragm), below the pelvic cavity
the perineum, below the pelvic floor | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Polyptychodon",
"instance of",
"taxon"
] | Polyptychodon (meaning 'many-folded tooth') is a genus of pliosaurid found in Middle-Late Cretaceous marine deposits in southern England, France and Argentina. It has been considered a nomen dubium in a 2016 review. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Fel d 1",
"subclass of",
"secretoglobins"
] | Structure
The complete quaternary structure of Fel d 1 has been determined. The allergen is a tetrameric glycoprotein consisting of two disulfide-linked heterodimers of chains 1 and 2. Fel d 1 chains 1 and 2 share structural similarity with uteroglobin, a secretoglobin superfamily member; chain 2 is a glycoprotein with N-linked oligosaccharides. Both chains share an all alpha-helical structure. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
"is a kind of",
"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Chromatophore",
"subclass of",
"cell"
] | Chromatophores are cells that produce color, of which many types are pigment-containing cells, or groups of cells, found in a wide range of animals including amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans and cephalopods. Mammals and birds, in contrast, have a class of cells called melanocytes for coloration.
Chromatophores are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in ectothermic animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development. Mature chromatophores are grouped into subclasses based on their colour (more properly "hue") under white light: xanthophores (yellow), erythrophores (red), iridophores (reflective / iridescent), leucophores (white), melanophores (black/brown), and cyanophores (blue). While most chromatophores contain pigments that absorb specific wavelengths of light, the color of leucophores and iridophores is produced by their respective scattering and optical interference properties. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
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"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Plumbagin",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Plumbagin or 5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone is an organic compound with the chemical formula C11H8O3. It is regarded as a toxin and it is genotoxic and mutagenic.Plumbagin is a yellow dye, formally derived from naphthoquinone.
It is named after the plant genus Plumbago, from which it was originally isolated.
It is also commonly found in the carnivorous plant genera Drosera and Nepenthes. It is also a component of the black walnut drupe. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Plumbagin",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Plumbagin or 5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone is an organic compound with the chemical formula C11H8O3. It is regarded as a toxin and it is genotoxic and mutagenic.Plumbagin is a yellow dye, formally derived from naphthoquinone.
It is named after the plant genus Plumbago, from which it was originally isolated.
It is also commonly found in the carnivorous plant genera Drosera and Nepenthes. It is also a component of the black walnut drupe. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Heart",
"connects with",
"vein"
] | Left heart
The left heart has two chambers: the left atrium and the left ventricle, separated by the mitral valve.The left atrium receives oxygenated blood back from the lungs via one of the four pulmonary veins. The left atrium has an outpouching called the left atrial appendage. Like the right atrium, the left atrium is lined by pectinate muscles. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by the mitral valve.The left ventricle is much thicker as compared with the right, due to the greater force needed to pump blood to the entire body. Like the right ventricle, the left also has trabeculae carneae, but there is no moderator band. The left ventricle pumps blood to the body through the aortic valve and into the aorta. Two small openings above the aortic valve carry blood to the heart muscle; the left coronary artery is above the left cusp of the valve, and the right coronary artery is above the right cusp.Coronary circulation
Heart tissue, like all cells in the body, needs to be supplied with oxygen, nutrients and a way of removing metabolic wastes. This is achieved by the coronary circulation, which includes arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels. Blood flow through the coronary vessels occurs in peaks and troughs relating to the heart muscle's relaxation or contraction.Heart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve. These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery. The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels, the left anterior descending and the left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies heart tissue and the front, outer side, and septum of the left ventricle. It does this by branching into smaller arteries—diagonal and septal branches. The left circumflex supplies the back and underneath of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, and lower posterior sections of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery also supplies blood to the atrioventricular node (in about 90% of people) and the sinoatrial node (in about 60% of people). The right coronary artery runs in a groove at the back of the heart and the left anterior descending artery runs in a groove at the front. There is significant variation between people in the anatomy of the arteries that supply the heart The arteries divide at their furthest reaches into smaller branches that join at the edges of each arterial distribution.The coronary sinus is a large vein that drains into the right atrium, and receives most of the venous drainage of the heart. It receives blood from the great cardiac vein (receiving the left atrium and both ventricles), the posterior cardiac vein (draining the back of the left ventricle), the middle cardiac vein (draining the bottom of the left and right ventricles), and small cardiac veins. The anterior cardiac veins drain the front of the right ventricle and drain directly into the right atrium.Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart. These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk, which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart's surface, receiving smaller vessels as they travel up. These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove, and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. The left vessel joins with this third vessel, and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium, ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node. The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node.Physiology
Blood flow
The heart functions as a pump in the circulatory system to provide a continuous flow of blood throughout the body. This circulation consists of the systemic circulation to and from the body and the pulmonary circulation to and from the lungs. Blood in the pulmonary circulation exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs through the process of respiration. The systemic circulation then transports oxygen to the body and returns carbon dioxide and relatively deoxygenated blood to the heart for transfer to the lungs.The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously. The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava. Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin-walled coronary sinus. Additionally, the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium. The blood collects in the right atrium. When the right atrium contracts, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs, until it reaches capillaries. As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. This happens through the passive process of diffusion.
In the left heart, oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the mitral valve and into the aorta through the aortic valve for systemic circulation. The aorta is a large artery that branches into many smaller arteries, arterioles, and ultimately capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen and nutrients from blood are supplied to body cells for metabolism, and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products. Capillary blood, now deoxygenated, travels into venules and veins that ultimately collect in the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the right heart. | connects with | 122 | [
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[
"Heart",
"connects with",
"artery"
] | Right heart
The right heart consists of two chambers, the right atrium and the right ventricle, separated by a valve, the tricuspid valve.The right atrium receives blood almost continuously from the body's two major veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. A small amount of blood from the coronary circulation also drains into the right atrium via the coronary sinus, which is immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava. In the wall of the right atrium is an oval-shaped depression known as the fossa ovalis, which is a remnant of an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale. Most of the internal surface of the right atrium is smooth, the depression of the fossa ovalis is medial, and the anterior surface has prominent ridges of pectinate muscles, which are also present in the right atrial appendage.The right atrium is connected to the right ventricle by the tricuspid valve. The walls of the right ventricle are lined with trabeculae carneae, ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endocardium. In addition to these muscular ridges, a band of cardiac muscle, also covered by endocardium, known as the moderator band reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction. It arises from the lower part of the interventricular septum and crosses the interior space of the right ventricle to connect with the inferior papillary muscle. The right ventricle tapers into the pulmonary trunk, into which it ejects blood when contracting. The pulmonary trunk branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry the blood to each lung. The pulmonary valve lies between the right heart and the pulmonary trunk. | connects with | 122 | [
"links to",
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] | null | null |
[
"Heart",
"has use",
"pump"
] | Cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in which the heart contracts and relaxes with every heartbeat. The period of time during which the ventricles contract, forcing blood out into the aorta and main pulmonary artery, is known as systole, while the period during which the ventricles relax and refill with blood is known as diastole. The atria and ventricles work in concert, so in systole when the ventricles are contracting, the atria are relaxed and collecting blood. When the ventricles are relaxed in diastole, the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles. This coordination ensures blood is pumped efficiently to the body.At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the ventricles are relaxing. As they do so, they are filled by blood passing through the open mitral and tricuspid valves. After the ventricles have completed most of their filling, the atria contract, forcing further blood into the ventricles and priming the pump. Next, the ventricles start to contract. As the pressure rises within the cavities of the ventricles, the mitral and tricuspid valves are forced shut. As the pressure within the ventricles rises further, exceeding the pressure with the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves open. Blood is ejected from the heart, causing the pressure within the ventricles to fall. Simultaneously, the atria refill as blood flows into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Finally, when the pressure within the ventricles falls below the pressure within the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves close. The ventricles start to relax, the mitral and tricuspid valves open, and the cycle begins again.In some other invertebrates such as earthworms, the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced, having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes. Oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as "hearts".Squids and other cephalopods have two "gill hearts" also known as branchial hearts, and one "systemic heart". The branchial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each, and pump to the gills, whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body. | has use | 81 | [
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"possesses"
] | null | null |
[
"Heart",
"has part(s)",
"cardiac chamber"
] | Chambers
The heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers. The atria open into the ventricles via the atrioventricular valves, present in the atrioventricular septum. This distinction is visible also on the surface of the heart as the coronary sulcus. There is an ear-shaped structure in the upper right atrium called the right atrial appendage, or auricle, and another in the upper left atrium, the left atrial appendage. The right atrium and the right ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right heart. Similarly, the left atrium and the left ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the left heart. The ventricles are separated from each other by the interventricular septum, visible on the surface of the heart as the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the posterior interventricular sulcus.The fibrous cardiac skeleton gives structure to the heart. It forms the atrioventricular septum, which separates the atria from the ventricles, and the fibrous rings, which serve as bases for the four heart valves. The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart's electrical conduction system since collagen cannot conduct electricity. The interatrial septum separates the atria, and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles. The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract. | has part(s) | 19 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Heart",
"instance of",
"organ type"
] | Channelopathies
Channelopathies can be categorized based on the organ system they affect. In the cardiovascular system, the electrical impulse required for each heart beat is provided by the electrochemical gradient of each heart cell. Because the beating of the heart depends on the proper movement of ions across the surface membrane, cardiac ion channelopathies form a major group of heart diseases. Cardiac ion channelopathies may explain some of the cases of sudden death syndrome and sudden arrhythmic death syndrome. Long QT syndrome is the most common form of cardiac channelopathy. | instance of | 5 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Heart",
"different from",
"human heart"
] | Double circulatory systems
Adult amphibians and most reptiles have a double circulatory system, meaning a circulatory system divided into arterial and venous parts. However, the heart itself is not completely separated into two sides. Instead, it is separated into three chambers—two atria and one ventricle. Blood returning from both the systemic circulation and the lungs is returned, and blood is pumped simultaneously into the systemic circulation and the lungs. The double system allows blood to circulate to and from the lungs which deliver oxygenated blood directly to the heart.In reptiles, other than snakes, the heart is usually situated around the middle of the thorax. In terrestrial and arboreal snakes it is usually located nearer to the head; in aquatic species the heart is more centrally located. There is a heart with three chambers: two atria and one ventricle. The form and function of these hearts are different than mammalian hearts due to the fact that snakes have an elongated body, and thus are affected by different environmental factors. In particular, the snake's heart relative to the position in their body has been influenced greatly by gravity. Therefore, snakes that are larger in size tend to have a higher blood pressure due to gravitational change. The ventricle is incompletely separated into two-halves by a wall (septum), with a considerable gap near the pulmonary artery and aortic openings. In most reptilian species, there appears to be little, if any, mixing between the bloodstreams, so the aorta receives, essentially, only oxygenated blood. The exception to this rule is crocodiles, which have a four-chambered heart.In the heart of lungfish, the septum extends partway into the ventricle. This allows for some degree of separation between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the lungs and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the rest of the body. The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin; thus, the blood returned to the heart through the venae cavae is already partially oxygenated. As a result, there may be less need for a finer division between the two bloodstreams than in lungfish or other tetrapods. Nonetheless, in at least some species of amphibian, the spongy nature of the ventricle does seem to maintain more of a separation between the bloodstreams. Also, the original valves of the conus arteriosus have been replaced by a spiral valve that divides it into two parallel parts, thereby helping to keep the two bloodstreams separate. | different from | 12 | [
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[
"Heart",
"has quality",
"heartbeat"
] | Cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in which the heart contracts and relaxes with every heartbeat. The period of time during which the ventricles contract, forcing blood out into the aorta and main pulmonary artery, is known as systole, while the period during which the ventricles relax and refill with blood is known as diastole. The atria and ventricles work in concert, so in systole when the ventricles are contracting, the atria are relaxed and collecting blood. When the ventricles are relaxed in diastole, the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles. This coordination ensures blood is pumped efficiently to the body.At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the ventricles are relaxing. As they do so, they are filled by blood passing through the open mitral and tricuspid valves. After the ventricles have completed most of their filling, the atria contract, forcing further blood into the ventricles and priming the pump. Next, the ventricles start to contract. As the pressure rises within the cavities of the ventricles, the mitral and tricuspid valves are forced shut. As the pressure within the ventricles rises further, exceeding the pressure with the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves open. Blood is ejected from the heart, causing the pressure within the ventricles to fall. Simultaneously, the atria refill as blood flows into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Finally, when the pressure within the ventricles falls below the pressure within the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves close. The ventricles start to relax, the mitral and tricuspid valves open, and the cycle begins again.Electrical conduction
The normal rhythmical heart beat, called sinus rhythm, is established by the heart's own pacemaker, the sinoatrial node (also known as the sinus node or the SA node). Here an electrical signal is created that travels through the heart, causing the heart muscle to contract. The sinoatrial node is found in the upper part of the right atrium near to the junction with the superior vena cava. The electrical signal generated by the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium in a radial way that is not completely understood. It travels to the left atrium via Bachmann's bundle, such that the muscles of the left and right atria contract together. The signal then travels to the atrioventricular node. This is found at the bottom of the right atrium in the atrioventricular septum, the boundary between the right atrium and the left ventricle. The septum is part of the cardiac skeleton, tissue within the heart that the electrical signal cannot pass through, which forces the signal to pass through the atrioventricular node only. The signal then travels along the bundle of His to left and right bundle branches through to the ventricles of the heart. In the ventricles the signal is carried by specialized tissue called the Purkinje fibers which then transmit the electric charge to the heart muscle. | has quality | 99 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Egg",
"facet of",
"oviparity"
] | Evolution and structure
All sexually reproducing life, including both plants and animals, produces gametes. The male gamete cell, sperm, is usually motile whereas the female gamete cell, the ovum, is generally larger and sessile. The male and female gametes combine to produce the zygote cell. In multicellular organisms the zygote subsequently divides in an organised manner into smaller more specialised cells, so that this new individual develops into an embryo. In most animals the embryo is the sessile initial stage of the individual life cycle, and is followed by the emergence (that is, the hatching) of a motile stage. The zygote or the ovum itself or the sessile organic vessel containing the developing embryo may be called the egg.
A recent proposal suggests that the phylotypic animal body plans originated in cell aggregates before the existence of an egg stage of development. Eggs, in this view, were later evolutionary innovations, selected for their role in ensuring genetic uniformity among the cells of incipient multicellular organisms.Egg-laying reproduction
Animals are commonly classified by their manner of reproduction, at the most general level distinguishing egg-laying (Latin. oviparous) from live-bearing (Latin. viviparous).
These classifications are divided into more detail according to the development that occurs before the offspring are expelled from the adult's body. Traditionally:
Ovuliparity means the female spawns unfertilized eggs (ova), which must then be externally fertilised. Ovuliparity is typical of bony fish, anurans, echinoderms, bivalves and cnidarians. Most aquatic organisms are ovuliparous. The term is derived from the diminutive meaning "little egg".
Oviparity is where fertilisation occurs internally and so the eggs laid by the female are zygotes (or newly developing embryos), often with important outer tissues added (for example, in a chicken egg, no part outside of the yolk originates with the zygote). Oviparity is typical of birds, reptiles, some cartilaginous fish and most arthropods. Terrestrial organisms are typically oviparous, with egg-casings that resist evaporation of moisture.
Ovo-viviparity is where the zygote is retained in the adult's body but there are no trophic (feeding) interactions. That is, the embryo still obtains all of its nutrients from inside the egg. Most live-bearing fish, amphibians or reptiles are actually ovoviviparous. Examples include the reptile Anguis fragilis, the sea horse (where zygotes are retained in the male's ventral "marsupium"), and the frogs Rhinoderma darwinii (where the eggs develop in the vocal sac) and Rheobatrachus (where the eggs develop in the stomach).
Histotrophic viviparity means embryos develop in the female's oviducts but obtain nutrients by consuming other ova, zygotes or sibling embryos (oophagy or adelphophagy). This intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in some sharks and in the black salamander Salamandra atra. Marsupials excrete a "uterine milk" supplementing the nourishment from the yolk sac.
Hemotrophic viviparity is where nutrients are provided from the female's blood through a designated organ. This most commonly occurs through a placenta, found in most mammals. Similar structures are found in some sharks and in the lizard Pseudomoia pagenstecheri. In some hylid frogs, the embryo is fed by the mother through specialized gills.The term hemotropic derives from the Latin for blood-feeding, contrasted with histotrophic for tissue-feeding. | facet of | 101 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Egg",
"has part(s)",
"yolk"
] | Mesolecithal
Mesolecithal eggs have comparatively more yolk than the microlecithal eggs. The yolk is concentrated in one part of the egg (the vegetal pole), with the cell nucleus and most of the cytoplasm in the other (the animal pole). The cell cleavage is uneven, and mainly concentrated in the cytoplasma-rich animal pole.The larger yolk content of the mesolecithal eggs allows for a longer fetal development. Comparatively anatomically simple animals will be able to go through the full development and leave the egg in a form reminiscent of the adult animal. This is the situation found in hagfish and some snails. Animals with smaller size eggs or more advanced anatomy will still have a distinct larval stage, though the larva will be basically similar to the adult animal, as in lampreys, coelacanth and the salamanders. | has part(s) | 19 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Photopigment",
"instance of",
"group or class of molecular entities"
] | Photopigments are unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light. The term is generally applied to the non-protein chromophore moiety of photosensitive chromoproteins, such as the pigments involved in photosynthesis and photoreception. In medical terminology, "photopigment" commonly refers to the photoreceptor proteins of the retina. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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] | null | null |
[
"Photopigment",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Photopigments are unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light. The term is generally applied to the non-protein chromophore moiety of photosensitive chromoproteins, such as the pigments involved in photosynthesis and photoreception. In medical terminology, "photopigment" commonly refers to the photoreceptor proteins of the retina.Photosynthetic pigments
Photosynthetic pigments convert light into biochemical energy. Examples for photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobilins. These pigments enter a high-energy state upon absorbing a photon which they can release in the form of chemical energy. This can occur via light-driven pumping of ions across a biological membrane (e.g. in the case of the proton pump bacteriorhodopsin) or via excitation and transfer of electrons released by photolysis (e.g. in the photosystems of the thylakoid membranes of plant chloroplasts). In chloroplasts, the light-driven electron transfer chain in turn drives the pumping of protons across the membrane. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Α-Carotene",
"subclass of",
"carotenoid"
] | α-Carotene (alpha-carotene) is a form of carotene with a β-ionone ring at one end and an α-ionone ring at the opposite end. It is the second most common form of carotene.Human physiology
In American and Chinese adults, the mean concentration of serum α-carotene was 4.71 μg/dL. Including 4.22 μg/dL among men and 5.31 μg/dL among women. | subclass of | 109 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Cinnamic acid",
"instance of",
"(E/Z)-cinnamic acid"
] | Natural occurrence
It is obtained from oil of cinnamon, or from balsams such as storax. It is also found in shea butter. Cinnamic acid has a honey-like odor; it and its more volatile ethyl ester (ethyl cinnamate) are flavor components in the essential oil of cinnamon, in which related cinnamaldehyde is the major constituent. | instance of | 5 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Tyramine",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Tyramine ( TY-rə-meen) (also spelled tyramin), also known under several other names, is a naturally occurring trace amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine acts as a catecholamine releasing agent. Notably, it is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier, resulting in only non-psychoactive peripheral sympathomimetic effects following ingestion. A hypertensive crisis can result, however, from ingestion of tyramine-rich foods in conjunction with the use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).Occurrence
Tyramine occurs widely in plants and animals, and is metabolized by various enzymes, including monoamine oxidases. In foods, it often is produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods that are fermented, cured, pickled, aged, or spoiled have high amounts of tyramine. Tyramine levels go up when foods are at room temperature or go past their freshness date.
Specific foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include:
strong or aged cheeses: cheddar, Swiss, Parmesan; Stilton, Gorgonzola or blue cheeses; Camembert, feta, Muenster.
meats that are cured, smoked, or processed, such as salami, pepperoni, dry sausages, hot dogs, bologna, bacon, corned beef, pickled or smoked fish, caviar, aged chicken livers, soups or gravies made from meat extract.
pickled or fermented foods: sauerkraut, kimchi, tofu (especially stinky tofu), pickles, miso soup, bean curd, tempeh, sourdough breads
condiments: soy, shrimp, fish, miso, teriyaki, and bouillon-based sauces.
drinks: beer (especially tap or home-brewed), vermouth, red wine, sherry, liqueurs.
beans, vegetables, and fruits: fermented or pickled vegetables, overripe fruits.
chocolateScientists more and more consider tyramine in food as an aspect of safety. They propose projects of regulations aimed to enact control of biogenic amines in food by various strategies, including usage of proper fermentation starters, or preventing their decarboxylase activity. Some authors wrote that this has already given positive results, and tyramine content in food is now lower than it has been in the past.Physical effects and pharmacology
Evidence for the presence of tyramine in the human brain has been confirmed by postmortem analysis. Additionally, the possibility that tyramine acts directly as a neuromodulator was revealed by the discovery of a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine, called TAAR1. The TAAR1 receptor is found in the brain, as well as peripheral tissues, including the kidneys. Tyramine binds to TAAR1 as an agonist in humans.
Tyramine is physiologically metabolized by monoamine oxidases (primarily MAO-A), FMO3, PNMT, DBH, and CYP2D6. Human monoamine oxidase enzymes metabolize tyramine into 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde. If monoamine metabolism is compromised by the use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and foods high in tyramine are ingested, a hypertensive crisis can result, as tyramine also can displace stored monoamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, from pre-synaptic vesicles. Tyramine is considered a "false neurotransmitter", as it enters noradrenergic nerve terminals and displaces large amounts of norepinephrine, which enters the blood stream and causes vasoconstriction.
Additionally, cocaine has been found to block blood pressure rise that is originally attributed to tyramine, which is explained by the blocking of adrenaline by cocaine from reabsorption to the brain.The first signs of this effect were discovered by a British pharmacist who noticed that his wife, who at the time was on MAOI medication, had severe headaches when eating cheese. For this reason, it is still called the "cheese reaction" or "cheese crisis," although other foods can cause the same problem.Most processed cheeses do not contain enough tyramine to cause hypertensive effects, although some aged cheeses (such as Stilton) do.A large dietary intake of tyramine (or a dietary intake of tyramine while taking MAO inhibitors) can cause the tyramine pressor response, which is defined as an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. The increased release of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) from neuronal cytosol or storage vesicles is thought to cause the vasoconstriction and increased heart rate and blood pressure of the pressor response. In severe cases, adrenergic crisis can occur. Although the mechanism is unclear, tyramine ingestion also triggers migraine attacks in sensitive individuals and can even lead to stroke. Vasodilation, dopamine, and circulatory factors are all implicated in the migraines. Double-blind trials suggest that the effects of tyramine on migraine may be adrenergic.Research reveals a possible link between migraines and elevated levels of tyramine. A 2007 review published in Neurological Sciences
presented data showing migraine and cluster diseases are characterized by an increase of circulating neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (including tyramine, octopamine, and synephrine) in the hypothalamus, amygdala, and dopaminergic system. People with migraine are over-represented among those with inadequate natural monoamine oxidase, resulting in similar problems to individuals taking MAO inhibitors. Many migraine attack triggers are high in tyramine.If one has had repeated exposure to tyramine, however, there is a decreased pressor response; tyramine is degraded to octopamine, which is subsequently packaged in synaptic vesicles with norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Therefore, after repeated tyramine exposure, these vesicles contain an increased amount of octopamine and a relatively reduced amount of norepinephrine. When these vesicles are secreted upon tyramine ingestion, there is a decreased pressor response, as less norepinephrine is secreted into the synapse, and octopamine does not activate alpha or beta adrenergic receptors.When using a MAO inhibitor (MAOI), an intake of approximately 10 to 25 mg of tyramine is required for a severe reaction, compared to 6 to 10 mg for a mild reaction. | instance of | 5 | [
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] | null | null |
[
"Melatonin",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Melatonin is a natural compound, specifically an indoleamine, produced by and found in different organisms including bacteria and eukaryotes. It was discovered by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues in 1958 as a substance of the pineal gland from cow that could induce skin lightening in common frogs. It was subsequently discovered as a hormone released in the brain at night which controls the sleep–wake cycle in vertebrates.In vertebrates, melatonin is involved in synchronizing circadian rhythms, including sleep–wake timing and blood pressure regulation, and in control of seasonal rhythmicity including reproduction, fattening, moulting and hibernation. Many of its effects are through activation of the melatonin receptors, while others are due to its role as an antioxidant. Its primary function is to defend against oxidative stress in plants and bacteria. Mitochondria are the main cell organelles that produce the antioxidant melatonin, which indicates that melatonin is an "ancient molecule" that primarily provided the earliest cells protection from the destructive actions of oxygen.In addition to its role as a natural hormone and antioxidant, melatonin is used as a dietary supplement and medication in the treatment of sleep disorders such as insomnia and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. | instance of | 5 | [
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[
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"instance of",
"hormone"
] | Melatonin is a natural compound, specifically an indoleamine, produced by and found in different organisms including bacteria and eukaryotes. It was discovered by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues in 1958 as a substance of the pineal gland from cow that could induce skin lightening in common frogs. It was subsequently discovered as a hormone released in the brain at night which controls the sleep–wake cycle in vertebrates.In vertebrates, melatonin is involved in synchronizing circadian rhythms, including sleep–wake timing and blood pressure regulation, and in control of seasonal rhythmicity including reproduction, fattening, moulting and hibernation. Many of its effects are through activation of the melatonin receptors, while others are due to its role as an antioxidant. Its primary function is to defend against oxidative stress in plants and bacteria. Mitochondria are the main cell organelles that produce the antioxidant melatonin, which indicates that melatonin is an "ancient molecule" that primarily provided the earliest cells protection from the destructive actions of oxygen.In addition to its role as a natural hormone and antioxidant, melatonin is used as a dietary supplement and medication in the treatment of sleep disorders such as insomnia and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Melatonin",
"subject has role",
"antioxidant"
] | Melatonin is a natural compound, specifically an indoleamine, produced by and found in different organisms including bacteria and eukaryotes. It was discovered by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues in 1958 as a substance of the pineal gland from cow that could induce skin lightening in common frogs. It was subsequently discovered as a hormone released in the brain at night which controls the sleep–wake cycle in vertebrates.In vertebrates, melatonin is involved in synchronizing circadian rhythms, including sleep–wake timing and blood pressure regulation, and in control of seasonal rhythmicity including reproduction, fattening, moulting and hibernation. Many of its effects are through activation of the melatonin receptors, while others are due to its role as an antioxidant. Its primary function is to defend against oxidative stress in plants and bacteria. Mitochondria are the main cell organelles that produce the antioxidant melatonin, which indicates that melatonin is an "ancient molecule" that primarily provided the earliest cells protection from the destructive actions of oxygen.In addition to its role as a natural hormone and antioxidant, melatonin is used as a dietary supplement and medication in the treatment of sleep disorders such as insomnia and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. | subject has role | 116 | [
"subject plays the role of",
"subject acts as",
"subject fulfills the role of",
"subject is a",
"subject serves as"
] | null | null |
[
"Butyric acid",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Occurrence
Triglycerides of butyric acid compose 3–4% of butter. When butter goes rancid, butyric acid is liberated from the glyceride by hydrolysis. It is one of the fatty acid subgroup called short-chain fatty acids. Butyric acid is a typical carboxylic acid that reacts with bases and affects many metals.
It is found in animal fat and plant oils, bovine milk, breast milk, butter, parmesan cheese, body odor, vomit, and as a product of anaerobic fermentation (including in the colon). It has a taste somewhat like butter and an unpleasant odor. Mammals with good scent detection abilities, such as dogs, can detect it at 10 parts per billion, whereas humans can detect it only in concentrations above 10 parts per million. In food manufacturing, it is used as a flavoring agent.In humans, butyric acid is one of two primary endogenous agonists of human hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), a Gi/o-coupled G protein-coupled receptor.Butyric acid is present as its octyl ester in parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and in the seed of the ginkgo tree. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Butyric acid",
"instance of",
"short-chain fatty acid"
] | Occurrence
Triglycerides of butyric acid compose 3–4% of butter. When butter goes rancid, butyric acid is liberated from the glyceride by hydrolysis. It is one of the fatty acid subgroup called short-chain fatty acids. Butyric acid is a typical carboxylic acid that reacts with bases and affects many metals.
It is found in animal fat and plant oils, bovine milk, breast milk, butter, parmesan cheese, body odor, vomit, and as a product of anaerobic fermentation (including in the colon). It has a taste somewhat like butter and an unpleasant odor. Mammals with good scent detection abilities, such as dogs, can detect it at 10 parts per billion, whereas humans can detect it only in concentrations above 10 parts per million. In food manufacturing, it is used as a flavoring agent.In humans, butyric acid is one of two primary endogenous agonists of human hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), a Gi/o-coupled G protein-coupled receptor.Butyric acid is present as its octyl ester in parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and in the seed of the ginkgo tree. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Butyric acid",
"instance of",
"straight chain fatty acids"
] | Butyric acid (; from Ancient Greek: βούτῡρον, meaning "butter"), also known under the systematic name butanoic acid, is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid with the chemical formula CH3CH2CH2CO2H. It is an oily, colorless liquid with an unpleasant odor. Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) is an isomer. Salts and esters of butyric acid are known as butyrates or butanoates. The acid does not occur widely in nature, but its esters are widespread. It is a common industrial chemical and an important component in the mammalian gut.Occurrence
Triglycerides of butyric acid compose 3–4% of butter. When butter goes rancid, butyric acid is liberated from the glyceride by hydrolysis. It is one of the fatty acid subgroup called short-chain fatty acids. Butyric acid is a typical carboxylic acid that reacts with bases and affects many metals.
It is found in animal fat and plant oils, bovine milk, breast milk, butter, parmesan cheese, body odor, vomit, and as a product of anaerobic fermentation (including in the colon). It has a taste somewhat like butter and an unpleasant odor. Mammals with good scent detection abilities, such as dogs, can detect it at 10 parts per billion, whereas humans can detect it only in concentrations above 10 parts per million. In food manufacturing, it is used as a flavoring agent.In humans, butyric acid is one of two primary endogenous agonists of human hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), a Gi/o-coupled G protein-coupled receptor.Butyric acid is present as its octyl ester in parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and in the seed of the ginkgo tree.Cancer
Butyrate has been shown to be a critical mediator of the colonic inflammatory response. It is responsible for about 70% of energy from the colonocytes, being a critical SCFA in colon homeostasis. Butyrate possesses both preventive and therapeutic potential to counteract inflammation-mediated ulcerative colitis (UC) and colorectal cancer. It produces different effects in healthy and cancerous cells: this is known as the "butyrate paradox". In particular, butyrate inhibits colonic tumor cells and stimulates proliferation of healthy colonic epithelial cells. The explanation why butyrate is an energy source for normal colonocytes and induces apoptosis in colon cancer cells, is the Warburg effect in cancer cells, which leads to butyrate not being properly metabolized. This phenomenon leads to the accumulation of butyrate in the nucleus, acting as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. One mechanism underlying butyrate function in suppression of colonic inflammation is inhibition of the IFN-γ/STAT1 signalling pathways. It has been shown that butyrate inhibits activity of HDAC1 that is bound to the Fas gene promoter in T cells, resulting in hyperacetylation of the Fas promoter and upregulation of Fas receptor on the T cell surface. It is thus suggested that butyrate enhances apoptosis of T cells in the colonic tissue and thereby eliminates the source of inflammation (IFN-γ production). Butyrate inhibits angiogenesis by inactivating Sp1 transcription factor activity and downregulating vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression.In summary, the production of volatile fatty acids such as butyrate from fermentable fibers may contribute to the role of dietary fiber in colon cancer. Short-chain fatty acids, which include butyric acid, are produced by beneficial colonic bacteria (probiotics) that feed on, or ferment prebiotics, which are plant products that contain dietary fiber. These short-chain fatty acids benefit the colonocytes by increasing energy production, and may protect against colon cancer by inhibiting cell proliferation.Conversely, some researchers have sought to eliminate butyrate and consider it a potential cancer driver. Studies in mice indicate it drives transformation of MSH2-deficient colon epithelial cells. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Butyric acid",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Butyric acid (; from Ancient Greek: βούτῡρον, meaning "butter"), also known under the systematic name butanoic acid, is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid with the chemical formula CH3CH2CH2CO2H. It is an oily, colorless liquid with an unpleasant odor. Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) is an isomer. Salts and esters of butyric acid are known as butyrates or butanoates. The acid does not occur widely in nature, but its esters are widespread. It is a common industrial chemical and an important component in the mammalian gut. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Succinic acid",
"has part(s)",
"hydrogen"
] | Succinic acid () is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula (CH2)2(CO2H)2. In living organisms, succinic acid takes the form of an anion, succinate, which has multiple biological roles as a metabolic intermediate being converted into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in complex 2 of the electron transport chain which is involved in making ATP, and as a signaling molecule reflecting the cellular metabolic state.Succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space, changing gene expression patterns, modulating epigenetic landscape or demonstrating hormone-like signaling. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, happens in some genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome, and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury.Succinic acid is marketed as food additive E363. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber.Commercial production
Historically, succinic acid was obtained from amber by distillation and has thus been known as spirit of amber. Common industrial routes include hydrogenation of maleic acid, oxidation of 1,4-butanediol, and carbonylation of ethylene glycol. Succinate is also produced from butane via maleic anhydride. Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tons a year, with an annual growth rate of 10%.Genetically engineered Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are proposed for the commercial production via fermentation of glucose.Chemical reactions
Succinic acid can be dehydrogenated to fumaric acid or be converted to diesters, such as diethylsuccinate (CH2CO2CH2CH3)2. This diethyl ester is a substrate in the Stobbe condensation. Dehydration of succinic acid gives succinic anhydride. Succinate can be used to derive 1,4-butanediol, maleic anhydride, succinimide, 2-pyrrolidinone and tetrahydrofuran. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
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"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Succinic acid",
"has part(s)",
"carbon"
] | Succinic acid () is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula (CH2)2(CO2H)2. In living organisms, succinic acid takes the form of an anion, succinate, which has multiple biological roles as a metabolic intermediate being converted into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in complex 2 of the electron transport chain which is involved in making ATP, and as a signaling molecule reflecting the cellular metabolic state.Succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space, changing gene expression patterns, modulating epigenetic landscape or demonstrating hormone-like signaling. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, happens in some genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome, and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury.Succinic acid is marketed as food additive E363. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Succinic acid",
"subclass of",
"dicarboxylic acid"
] | Succinic acid () is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula (CH2)2(CO2H)2. In living organisms, succinic acid takes the form of an anion, succinate, which has multiple biological roles as a metabolic intermediate being converted into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in complex 2 of the electron transport chain which is involved in making ATP, and as a signaling molecule reflecting the cellular metabolic state.Succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space, changing gene expression patterns, modulating epigenetic landscape or demonstrating hormone-like signaling. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, happens in some genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome, and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury.Succinic acid is marketed as food additive E363. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
"is a kind of",
"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Succinic acid",
"instance of",
"carboxylic acid"
] | Succinic acid () is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula (CH2)2(CO2H)2. In living organisms, succinic acid takes the form of an anion, succinate, which has multiple biological roles as a metabolic intermediate being converted into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in complex 2 of the electron transport chain which is involved in making ATP, and as a signaling molecule reflecting the cellular metabolic state.Succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space, changing gene expression patterns, modulating epigenetic landscape or demonstrating hormone-like signaling. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, happens in some genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome, and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury.Succinic acid is marketed as food additive E363. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Catechol",
"has part(s)",
"hydrogen"
] | Isolation and synthesis
Catechol was first isolated in 1839 by Edgar Hugo Emil Reinsch (1809–1884) by distilling it from the solid tannic preparation catechin, which is the residuum of catechu, the boiled or concentrated juice of Mimosa catechu (Acacia catechu). Upon heating catechin above its decomposition point, a substance that Reinsch first named Brenz-Katechusäure (burned catechu acid) sublimated as a white efflorescence. This was a thermal decomposition product of the flavanols in catechin. In 1841, both Wackenroder and Zwenger independently rediscovered catechol; in reporting on their findings, Philosophical Magazine coined the name pyrocatechin. By 1852, Erdmann realized that catechol was benzene with two oxygen atoms added to it; in 1867, August Kekulé realized that catechol was a diol of benzene, so by 1868, catechol was listed as pyrocatechol. In 1879, the Journal of the Chemical Society recommended that catechol be called "catechol", and in the following year, it was listed as such.Catechol has since been shown to occur in free form naturally in kino and in beechwood tar. Its sulfonic acid has been detected in the urine of horses and humans.Catechol is produced industrially by the hydroxylation of phenol using hydrogen peroxide.C
6
H
5
OH
+
H
2
O
2
⟶
C
6
H
4
(
OH
)
2
+
H
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {C6H5OH + H2O2 -> C6H4(OH)2 + H2O}}}
It can be produced by reaction of salicylaldehyde with base and hydrogen peroxide (Dakin oxidation), as well as the hydrolysis of 2-substituted phenols, especially 2-chlorophenol, with hot aqueous solutions containing alkali metal hydroxides. Its methyl ether derivative, guaiacol, converts to catechol via hydrolysis of the CH3−O bond as promoted by hydroiodic acid (HI). | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Enanthic acid",
"has part(s)",
"carbon"
] | Enanthic acid, also called heptanoic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. Salts and esters of enanthic acid are called enanthates or heptanoates.
Its name derives from the Latin oenanthe which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek oinos "wine" and anthos "blossom." | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Enanthic acid",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Enanthic acid, also called heptanoic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. Salts and esters of enanthic acid are called enanthates or heptanoates.
Its name derives from the Latin oenanthe which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek oinos "wine" and anthos "blossom." | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Enanthic acid",
"instance of",
"straight chain fatty acids"
] | Enanthic acid, also called heptanoic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. Salts and esters of enanthic acid are called enanthates or heptanoates.
Its name derives from the Latin oenanthe which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek oinos "wine" and anthos "blossom." | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Enanthic acid",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Enanthic acid, also called heptanoic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. Salts and esters of enanthic acid are called enanthates or heptanoates.
Its name derives from the Latin oenanthe which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek oinos "wine" and anthos "blossom." | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
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"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Β-Carotene",
"part of",
"beta-carotene 15,15'-dioxygenase activity"
] | No risk for hypervitaminosis A
At the enterocyte cell wall, β-carotene is taken up by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor class B, type 1 (SCARB1). Absorbed β-carotene is then either incorporated as such into chylomicrons or first converted to retinal and then retinol, bound to retinol binding protein 2, before being incorporated into chylomicrons. The conversion process consists of one molecule of β-carotene cleaved by the enzyme beta-carotene 15,15'-dioxygenase, which is encoded by the BC01 gene, into two molecules of retinal. When plasma retinol is in the normal range the gene expression for SCARB1 and BC01 are suppressed, creating a feedback loop that suppresses absorption and conversion. Because of these two mechanisms, high intake will not lead to hypervitaminosis A. | part of | 15 | [
"a component of",
"a constituent of",
"an element of",
"a fragment of",
"a portion of"
] | null | null |
[
"Pelargonic acid",
"has part(s)",
"carbon"
] | Pelargonic acid, also called nonanoic acid, is an organic compound with structural formula CH3(CH2)7CO2H. It is a nine-carbon fatty acid. Nonanoic acid is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, but very soluble in organic solvents. The esters and salts of pelargonic acid are called pelargonates or nonanoates.
The acid is named after the pelargonium plant, since oil from its leaves contains esters of the acid. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Pelargonic acid",
"instance of",
"straight chain fatty acids"
] | Pelargonic acid, also called nonanoic acid, is an organic compound with structural formula CH3(CH2)7CO2H. It is a nine-carbon fatty acid. Nonanoic acid is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, but very soluble in organic solvents. The esters and salts of pelargonic acid are called pelargonates or nonanoates.
The acid is named after the pelargonium plant, since oil from its leaves contains esters of the acid. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Β-Cryptoxanthin",
"subject has role",
"provitamin"
] | Biology and medicine
In the human body, β-cryptoxanthin is converted to vitamin A (retinol) and is, therefore, considered a provitamin A. As with other carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin is an antioxidant and may help prevent free radical damage to cells and DNA, as well as stimulate the repair of oxidative damage to DNA.Recent findings of an inverse association between β-cryptoxanthin and lung cancer risk in several observational epidemiological studies suggest that β-cryptoxanthin could potentially act as a chemopreventive agent against lung cancer. On the other hand, in the Grade IV histology group of adult patients diagnosed with malignant glioma, moderate to high intake of β-cryptoxanthin (for second tertile and for highest tertile compared to lowest tertile, in all cases) was associated with poorer survival. | subject has role | 116 | [
"subject plays the role of",
"subject acts as",
"subject fulfills the role of",
"subject is a",
"subject serves as"
] | null | null |
[
"Β-Cryptoxanthin",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Chemistry
In terms of structure, β-cryptoxanthin is closely related to β-carotene, with only the addition of a hydroxyl group. It is a member of the class of carotenoids known as xanthophylls.
In a pure form, β-cryptoxanthin is a red crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It is freely soluble in chloroform, benzene, pyridine, and carbon disulfide.Biology and medicine
In the human body, β-cryptoxanthin is converted to vitamin A (retinol) and is, therefore, considered a provitamin A. As with other carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin is an antioxidant and may help prevent free radical damage to cells and DNA, as well as stimulate the repair of oxidative damage to DNA.Recent findings of an inverse association between β-cryptoxanthin and lung cancer risk in several observational epidemiological studies suggest that β-cryptoxanthin could potentially act as a chemopreventive agent against lung cancer. On the other hand, in the Grade IV histology group of adult patients diagnosed with malignant glioma, moderate to high intake of β-cryptoxanthin (for second tertile and for highest tertile compared to lowest tertile, in all cases) was associated with poorer survival. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Β-Cryptoxanthin",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Chemistry
In terms of structure, β-cryptoxanthin is closely related to β-carotene, with only the addition of a hydroxyl group. It is a member of the class of carotenoids known as xanthophylls.
In a pure form, β-cryptoxanthin is a red crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It is freely soluble in chloroform, benzene, pyridine, and carbon disulfide.Biology and medicine
In the human body, β-cryptoxanthin is converted to vitamin A (retinol) and is, therefore, considered a provitamin A. As with other carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin is an antioxidant and may help prevent free radical damage to cells and DNA, as well as stimulate the repair of oxidative damage to DNA.Recent findings of an inverse association between β-cryptoxanthin and lung cancer risk in several observational epidemiological studies suggest that β-cryptoxanthin could potentially act as a chemopreventive agent against lung cancer. On the other hand, in the Grade IV histology group of adult patients diagnosed with malignant glioma, moderate to high intake of β-cryptoxanthin (for second tertile and for highest tertile compared to lowest tertile, in all cases) was associated with poorer survival. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Kaempferol",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Kaempferol (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a natural flavonol, a type of flavonoid, found in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods including kale, beans, tea, spinach, and broccoli. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of 276–278 °C (529–532 °F). It is slightly soluble in water and highly soluble in hot ethanol, ethers, and DMSO. Kaempferol is named for 17th-century German naturalist Engelbert Kaempfer.Natural occurrence
Kaempferol is a secondary metabolite found in many plants, plant-derived foods, and traditional medicines. Its flavor is considered bitter.In plants and food
Kaempferol is common in Pteridophyta, Pinophyta, and Angiospermae. Within Pteridophyta and Pinophyta, kaempferol has been found in diverse families. Kaempferol has also been identified in Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons of Angiosperms. The total average intake of flavonols and flavones in a normal diet is estimated as 23 mg/day, to which kaempferol contributes approximately 17%. Common foods that contain kaempferol include: apples, grapes, tomatoes, green tea, potatoes, onions, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, squash, cucumbers, lettuce, green beans, peaches, blackberries, raspberries, and spinach. Plants that are known to contain kaempferol include Aloe vera, Coccinia grandis, Cuscuta chinensis, Euphorbia pekinensis, Glycine max, Hypericum perforatum, Pinus sylvestris, Moringa oleifera, Rosmarinus officinalis, Sambucus nigra, and Toona sinensis, and Ilex. It also is present in endive. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Kaempferol",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Kaempferol (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a natural flavonol, a type of flavonoid, found in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods including kale, beans, tea, spinach, and broccoli. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of 276–278 °C (529–532 °F). It is slightly soluble in water and highly soluble in hot ethanol, ethers, and DMSO. Kaempferol is named for 17th-century German naturalist Engelbert Kaempfer.Natural occurrence
Kaempferol is a secondary metabolite found in many plants, plant-derived foods, and traditional medicines. Its flavor is considered bitter. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Kaempferol",
"has quality",
"bitterness"
] | Natural occurrence
Kaempferol is a secondary metabolite found in many plants, plant-derived foods, and traditional medicines. Its flavor is considered bitter. | has quality | 99 | [
"possesses quality",
"exhibits quality",
"displays quality",
"features quality",
"has characteristic"
] | null | null |
[
"Epigallocatechin gallate",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), also known as epigallocatechin-3-gallate, is the ester of epigallocatechin and gallic acid, and is a type of catechin.
EGCG – the most abundant catechin in tea – is a polyphenol under basic research for its potential to affect human health and disease. EGCG is used in many dietary supplements.Food sources
Tea
It is found in high content in the dried leaves of green tea (7380 mg per 100 g), white tea (4245 mg per 100 g), and in smaller quantities, black tea (936 mg per 100 g). During black tea production, the catechins are mostly converted to theaflavins and thearubigins via polyphenol oxidases. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Tryptamine",
"has part(s)",
"carbon"
] | Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the first one being the heterocyclic nitrogen). The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators including melatonin, serotonin, bufotenin and psychedelic derivatives such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin, psilocin and others. Tryptamine has been shown to activate trace amine-associated receptors expressed in the mammalian brain, and regulates the activity of dopaminergic, serotonergic and glutamatergic systems. In the human gut, symbiotic bacteria convert dietary tryptophan to tryptamine, which activates 5-HT4 receptors and regulates gastrointestinal motility. Multiple tryptamine-derived drugs have been developed to treat migraines, while trace amine-associated receptors are being explored as a potential treatment target for neuropsychiatric disorders.For a list of tryptamine derivatives, see: List of substituted tryptamines. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Tryptamine",
"has part(s)",
"nitrogen"
] | Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the first one being the heterocyclic nitrogen). The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators including melatonin, serotonin, bufotenin and psychedelic derivatives such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin, psilocin and others. Tryptamine has been shown to activate trace amine-associated receptors expressed in the mammalian brain, and regulates the activity of dopaminergic, serotonergic and glutamatergic systems. In the human gut, symbiotic bacteria convert dietary tryptophan to tryptamine, which activates 5-HT4 receptors and regulates gastrointestinal motility. Multiple tryptamine-derived drugs have been developed to treat migraines, while trace amine-associated receptors are being explored as a potential treatment target for neuropsychiatric disorders.For a list of tryptamine derivatives, see: List of substituted tryptamines. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Tryptamine",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the first one being the heterocyclic nitrogen). The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators including melatonin, serotonin, bufotenin and psychedelic derivatives such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin, psilocin and others. Tryptamine has been shown to activate trace amine-associated receptors expressed in the mammalian brain, and regulates the activity of dopaminergic, serotonergic and glutamatergic systems. In the human gut, symbiotic bacteria convert dietary tryptophan to tryptamine, which activates 5-HT4 receptors and regulates gastrointestinal motility. Multiple tryptamine-derived drugs have been developed to treat migraines, while trace amine-associated receptors are being explored as a potential treatment target for neuropsychiatric disorders.For a list of tryptamine derivatives, see: List of substituted tryptamines. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Tryptamine",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the first one being the heterocyclic nitrogen). The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators including melatonin, serotonin, bufotenin and psychedelic derivatives such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin, psilocin and others. Tryptamine has been shown to activate trace amine-associated receptors expressed in the mammalian brain, and regulates the activity of dopaminergic, serotonergic and glutamatergic systems. In the human gut, symbiotic bacteria convert dietary tryptophan to tryptamine, which activates 5-HT4 receptors and regulates gastrointestinal motility. Multiple tryptamine-derived drugs have been developed to treat migraines, while trace amine-associated receptors are being explored as a potential treatment target for neuropsychiatric disorders.For a list of tryptamine derivatives, see: List of substituted tryptamines. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Quercetin",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor and is used as an ingredient in dietary supplements, beverages, and foods. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Quercetin",
"subject has role",
"antioxidant"
] | Pharmacological research
Quercetin has been reported to inhibit the oxidation of other molecules and hence is classified as an antioxidant in vitro. It contains a polyphenolic chemical substructure that stops oxidation in vitro by acting as a scavenger of free radicals. Quercetin has been shown to inhibit the PI3K/AKT pathway leading to downregulation of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-w. Quercetin activates or inhibits the activities of a number of proteins in vitro. For example, it is a nonspecific protein kinase enzyme inhibitor. | subject has role | 116 | [
"subject plays the role of",
"subject acts as",
"subject fulfills the role of",
"subject is a",
"subject serves as"
] | null | null |
[
"Quercetin",
"has quality",
"bitterness"
] | Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor and is used as an ingredient in dietary supplements, beverages, and foods. | has quality | 99 | [
"possesses quality",
"exhibits quality",
"displays quality",
"features quality",
"has characteristic"
] | null | null |
[
"Caprylic acid",
"has part(s)",
"carbon"
] | Caprylic acid (from Latin capra 'goat'), also known under the systematic name octanoic acid or C8 Acid, is a saturated fatty acid, medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA). It has the structural formula H3C−(CH2)6−COOH, and is a colorless oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste. Salts and esters of octanoic acid are known as octanoates or caprylates. It is a common industrial chemical, which is produced by oxidation of the C8 aldehyde. Its compounds are found naturally in the milk of various mammals and as a minor constituent of coconut oil and palm kernel oil.Two other acids are named after goats via the Latin word capra: caproic acid (C6) and capric acid (C10). Together, these three fatty acids comprise 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Caprylic acid",
"subclass of",
"medium-chain fatty acid"
] | Caprylic acid (from Latin capra 'goat'), also known under the systematic name octanoic acid or C8 Acid, is a saturated fatty acid, medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA). It has the structural formula H3C−(CH2)6−COOH, and is a colorless oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste. Salts and esters of octanoic acid are known as octanoates or caprylates. It is a common industrial chemical, which is produced by oxidation of the C8 aldehyde. Its compounds are found naturally in the milk of various mammals and as a minor constituent of coconut oil and palm kernel oil.Two other acids are named after goats via the Latin word capra: caproic acid (C6) and capric acid (C10). Together, these three fatty acids comprise 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat. | subclass of | 109 | [
"is a type of",
"is a kind of",
"is a subtype of",
"belongs to category",
"is classified as"
] | null | null |
[
"Caprylic acid",
"instance of",
"type of chemical entity"
] | Caprylic acid (from Latin capra 'goat'), also known under the systematic name octanoic acid or C8 Acid, is a saturated fatty acid, medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA). It has the structural formula H3C−(CH2)6−COOH, and is a colorless oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste. Salts and esters of octanoic acid are known as octanoates or caprylates. It is a common industrial chemical, which is produced by oxidation of the C8 aldehyde. Its compounds are found naturally in the milk of various mammals and as a minor constituent of coconut oil and palm kernel oil.Two other acids are named after goats via the Latin word capra: caproic acid (C6) and capric acid (C10). Together, these three fatty acids comprise 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat. | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Phenylacetic acid",
"has part(s)",
"hydrogen"
] | Phenylacetic acid (PAA; conjugate base phenylacetate), also known by various synonyms, is an organic compound containing a phenyl functional group and a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a white solid with a strong honey-like odor. Endogenously, it is a catabolite of phenylalanine. As a commercial chemical, because it can be used in the illicit production of phenylacetone (used in the manufacture of substituted amphetamines), it is subject to controls in countries including the United States and China. | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Taxifolin",
"instance of",
"chemical compound"
] | Glycosides
Astilbin is the 3-O-rhamnoside of taxifolin. Taxifolin deoxyhexose can be found in açai fruits.Taxifolin 3-O-glucoside isomers have been separated from Chamaecyparis obtusa.(-)-2,3-trans-Dihydroquercetin-3'-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, a taxifolin glucoside has been extracted from the inner bark of Pinus densiflora and can act as an oviposition stimulant in the cerambycid beetle Monochamus alternatus.(2S,3S)-(-)-Taxifolin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside has been isolated from the root-sprouts of Agrimonia pilosa.(2R,3R)-Taxifolin-3'-O-β-D-pyranoglucoside has been isolated from the rhizome of Smilax glabra.Minor amount of taxifolin 4′-O-β-glucopyranoiside can be found in red onions.(2R,3R)-Taxifolin 3-O-arabinoside and (2S,3S)-taxifolin 3-O-arabinoside have been isolated from the leaves of Trachelospermum jasminoides (star jasmine). | instance of | 5 | [
"type of",
"example of",
"manifestation of",
"representation of"
] | null | null |
[
"Caffeic acid",
"has part(s)",
"hydrogen"
] | Biotransformation
Caffeate O-methyltransferase is an enzyme responsible for the transformation of caffeic acid into ferulic acid.
Caffeic acid and related o-diphenols are rapidly oxidized by o-diphenol oxidases in tissue extracts.Biodegradation
Caffeate 3,4-dioxygenase is an enzyme that uses caffeic acid and oxygen to produce 3-(2-carboxyethenyl)-cis,cis-muconate.Glycosides
3-O-caffeoylshikimic acid (dactylifric acid) and its isomers, are enzymic browning substrates found in dates (Phoenix dactylifera fruits). | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
[
"Caffeic acid",
"has part(s)",
"oxygen"
] | Biodegradation
Caffeate 3,4-dioxygenase is an enzyme that uses caffeic acid and oxygen to produce 3-(2-carboxyethenyl)-cis,cis-muconate.Glycosides
3-O-caffeoylshikimic acid (dactylifric acid) and its isomers, are enzymic browning substrates found in dates (Phoenix dactylifera fruits). | has part(s) | 19 | [
"contains",
"comprises",
"includes",
"consists of",
"has components"
] | null | null |
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