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What brings a tropical jellyfish to the temperate waters off New South Wales? Cassiopea cf. maremetens lying on sand in upside-down position Photographer: Stephen Keable © Australian Museum Australian Museum Research Institute scientists have just published the first records from temperate eastern Australia of the jellyfish Cassiopea, which is usually found in more tropical climates. The sudden appearance of these jellyfish in large numbers (blooms) is significant. Elsewhere, some jellyfish, including species of Cassiopea, are considered invasive. These jellyfish have the potential to act negatively on the local marine environment, in addition to impacting the public and commercial use of waterways when congregating in large numbers. Sightings of large numbers of unusual jellyfish reported by concerned residents have been confirmed after specimens were obtained and identified as Cassiopea. A puzzling part of this equation was the location of the sightings: Wallis Lake and Lake Illawarra, both of which are widely separated across New South Wales. These specimens have since been lodged in the Museum collections and additional field observations were subsequently made. The two new localities represent southern range extensions of the genus by approximately 600 km to 900 km from previously known locations in southern Queensland. Cassiopea are also known as upside-down jellyfish, and both the common and scientific names derive from its unusual life-style. In Greek mythology, the queen Cassiopeia was punished for boasting of her beauty by being placed in the heavens as a constellation representing her on a throne. As the stars in the constellation turn around the North Celestial Pole, she is tipped upside-down. The jellyfish is distinctive because it is commonly found lying on sediments in shallow water with the bell, or “umbrella,” of the body on the bottom, and the feeding arms extending above, making it appear to be upside-down. This behaviour provides sunlight to micro-algae living in the tissue (endosymbionts known as zooxanthellae, similar to those occurring in corals) which provide nutrients to the host. This is in addition to the nourishment received from the jellyfish’s diet of food particles from the water column. To capture small prey, stinging cells are present, a feature common to other jellyfish species. The severity of stings to humans from Cassiopea has been variably reported from mild or absent to severe. Cassiopea can also swim when disturbed by current or wave action, pulsing the bell to move through the water. In Lake Illawarra, Cassiopea has been reported in large numbers only once, where they seemingly disappeared after a few months, whereas Wallis Lake reports have shown large numbers of Cassiopea to have been present over several consecutive seasons. However, recent observations show the numbers of individuals can fluctuate strongly. The jellyfish is just one stage (the medusa) of five in the lifecycle of this organism. Other phases include a small polyp stage fixed to other objects (e.g. fallen mangrove leaves) and a larval stage. When conditions are favourable, the polyp has the ability to divide and produce many jellyfish, so there may be considerable unseen dormant potential for further outbreaks. The appearance of these jellyfish in New South Wales coastal lakes could be due to normal environmental variations driving changes in species’ ranges. However, Cassiopea are not considered to have strong natural dispersal, and given the widely separated occurrences from other records, it is likely human influences are involved. This may include shipping (through biofouling or ballast water release), intentional or unintentional direct release, or via “live rock” from aquaria (rock containing small invertebrates and algae used in fish tanks). Both lakes have considerable recreational and other domestic vessel traffic, and Lake Illawarra is close to a major population centre, Wollongong, and commercial port, Port Kembla. Increased water temperatures associated with global warming, or a variation of the East Australian Current bringing tropical waters from the north, could also be involved. Adding to the mystery is the observation that the specimens from Lake Illawarra are different from those of Wallis Lake; so separate reasons may be involved for the occurrences in these two areas. Identification of the jellyfish is presently difficult, so plans for follow up study include genetic comparison and reference to further museum specimens. Tracking changes in the current populations that are present, and relating this to environmental variables is also of interest, particularly in determining any impacts the jellyfish may have on an ecological and recreational level. This type of tracking requires regular observation, so there are plans to return the study back to where it began, as a citizen science project utilising the surveillance of local residents. Stephen Keable, Collection Manager, AMRI Shane Ahyong, Research Scientist, AMRI For more on the activities of AMRI, subscribe to our newsletter:
Mister and Master Yes, mister and master are related, the one originally being a variant of the other. They, and a number of compounds and some associated terms, all derive from the Latin verb magistrare, which means “subjugate.” Master, which entered the English language from the Old French verb maistrier, came to also mean “learn all about,” “become adept at,” or “overcome.” (It also applies to creating something from which copies will be made.) The Latin noun magister, meaning “chief” or “teacher,” led to the use of the word—again, its spelling influenced by the Old French form—to mean “one in authority.” It now pertains to someone who is or was an exemplar of an artistic or scientific field; a ruler, owner, or employer; a victor or one who has control; a male teacher or an expert artisan or worker; one who has earned a master’s degree; or a commander of a merchant vessel or, formerly, a specialist in navigation aboard a naval sailing ship (see Captain vs. Master). It also refers to devices or mechanisms that control others, or to an original from which copies can be made. Finally, it is a title of respect, though little used today. As an adjective, master means “excellent” or “skilled,” or “dominant” or “predominant,” or pertains to objects from which others are copied. The adjectives masterful and masterly mean “indicative of a master,” though some writers prefer to make a distinction between them so that the former is reserved for the sense of “domineering,” but in prevailing usage they are interchangeable. The adverbial form of the former is masterfully, and masterly also functions as an adverb. The condition of being a master (in the sense of being in control) is mastery. Compound words in which master is the first element (and in which the word’s function is adjectival) include mastermind, meaning “creative or intellectual organizer” (the word, which at times has a criminal connotation, is also used as a verb in all senses); masterpiece and masterwork, which both describe a crowning creative achievement; and masterstroke, which refers to a clever or otherwise impressive effort or performance. Compounds in which master is the second element (and in which the word functions as a noun) are more common; among them are headmaster (“head teacher”), postmaster (“head of a post office”), and taskmaster (“overbearing boss”). A grandmaster is someone who has achieved the highest level of skill in chess, though in fiction the term also applies to experts in other pursuits, such as martial arts, and as an open compound it pertains to a leadership role in Freemasonry or in a chivalric order. Another compound that has developed additional senses is ringmaster; originally, it referred to the master of ceremonies—abbreviated MC, and emcee is an alternative spelling—who introduces circus performers as they enter the ring. Later, by extension, it acquired the sense of anyone who manages or orchestrates a performance or presentation. Words that retain the middle syllable of the Latin term include magistrate, meaning “judge,” and the adjectival magisterial, which (like its variant, magistral) pertains to the legal context but also has the neutral sense of “authoritative” and the pejorative connotation of “overbearing.” (The similar-sounding majesty is distantly related, from magnus, meaning “strong.”) Other words derived from magistrare include maestro, from the Italian word for master, referring to music conductors, directors, or composers, and “maître d’,” a truncation of maître d’hôtel, meaning “master of the house” and referring to a restaurant host, as well as mistral, which describes a cold Mediterranean wind. Mister developed as a variation on the use of master as a title, and, like the original, which it superseded in popular use as society became more egalitarian, it has faded from use. (Mister has also been used as a term of direct address when a man’s name is not known to the speaker.) The female equivalent is mistress, which has served as a title of deference, a designation for a governess or teacher, or a euphemism for “lover”; the dominant sense now is “female lover of a married man.” (Such social titles and their variations and connotations will be detailed in a later post.) Want to improve your English in 5 minutes a day? Click here to subscribe and start receiving our writing tips and exercises via email every day. Recommended Articles for You Subscribe to Receive our Articles and Exercises via Email - You will improve your English in only 5 minutes per day, guaranteed! - Subscribers get access to our exercise archives, writing courses, writing jobs and much more! - You'll also get three bonus ebooks completely free!
Venus has been know to humanity since we first looked up into the sky; it’s the brightest object in the night sky after the Sun and the Moon, so it’s pretty hard to miss. But Venus exploration really began with the invention of the telescope. Although he didn’t invent the telescope, Galileo Galilei was the first to point it at the heavens and make detailed observations of what he saw. In 1610 he discovered that Venus goes through phases, like the Moon. This is because Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth, and so we’re seeing different amounts of the planet illuminated by the Sun. This provided more evidence that the Solar System orbits around the Sun, and not the Earth. But even with bigger and better telescopes, astronomers weren’t able to penetrate the thick clouds that shroud Venus and see the terrain below. They imagined a warm rainforest jungle world, but astronomers eventually worked out that Venus is really covered in a thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide, and the ground below is heated to hundreds of degrees. The first spacecraft to arrive at Venus was NASA’s Mariner 2, which flew past Venus in 1962. It was followed by spacecraft from Russia, including several that actually landed on the surface of Venus, and survived up to a few hours in the horrendous heat. NASA’s Magellan spacecraft was equipped with a radar instrument that could pierce through the atmosphere of Venus and reveal the terrain below. It showed that Venus has evidence of volcanism, and impact craters, but no plate tectonics. This helps contribute to its runaway greenhouse effect. The most recent spacecraft sent to Venus is the European Space Agency’s Venus Express. It arrived at Venus in 2006, and has been making continuous observations of the planet ever since. We’ve written many articles about the exploration of the planets in the Solar System. Here’s an article about the benefits of space exploration, and here’s an article about the Mars Exploration Rover. We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about Venus. Listen here, Episode 50: Venus.
Before we know anything about Counter Reformation and the art related to it, we need to find out what Reformation and Counter-Reformation was in the first place. The two movements are very closely related to each other; the latter is the direct cause of the former. The Reformation or the Protestant Reformation started with criticism of some incidences of corruption by some members of the clergy. This criticism turned into a large movement, and the Christian faith was split into two factions, i.e., Catholic and Protestant. There are several points where the differentiation line can be drawn even today, and in the days of the Reformation the difference was drastic. Fundamentally, Catholics followed the Holy Church and the teachings of the Pope, whereas the Protestants followed the Holy Bible. In the years of the 14th century, there were several reforms that changed some of the churches in central and Northern Europe and Great Britain. The Holy Church of Vatican launched a series of Counter-Reformation movements to win over the reformed churches. Apart from that, the drawbacks of the Holy Roman Catholic Church were also resolved, and within a short span of a couple of decades, the Catholic church won over several of the reformed churches and regions in mainland Europe, though North European regions and Great Britain remained Protestant. Counter-Reformation started with the Council of Trent in 1545, and ended with the 30 Years War in 1648, lasting for more than a century. A very important meeting that started the movement of Counter-Reformation was the Council of Trent, which was summoned by Pope Paul III. This council functioned from 1545 to 1563, and councilmen met periodically. The first objective of the council was to rectify the drawbacks of the church and then start the actual counter-movement. Apart from literature, one very good form of getting people's attention was the visual arts. Artworks painted in this time were largely religious, and depicted Jesus Christ and Mother Mary. Often, this period is credited to be a time where Mannerism was at its finest. In the times following the early 16th century, several artists painted incidents from the life of Jesus. The Church and the Inquisition, which was set up by the Church, made a detailed examination of the paintings. Mannerism in that period involved depiction of Christ and Mother Mary, plus an added sense of spirituality and an in-depth expression of Holy figures in the painting. The Virgin and Child Adored by Angels and the The Elevation of the Cross, are two paintings by Peter Paul Rubens, which are known for their energy and highly realistic depiction of Biblical events. The Massacre of the Innocents is a famous painting by Peter Paul Rubens, depicting an incident from the Gospel of Matthew. El Greco's works, such as The Assumption of the Virgin and The Disrobing of Christ are two very fascinating and interesting works of the time. The adoration of the Magi and the crowning of the Virgin were two favorite themes of the artists of the time. The Holy Roman Catholic church and the Inquisition took measures to prevent and reverse the prevalent themes of paintings. For example, Paolo Veronese was ordered to change The Feast in the House of Levi, a depiction of the Last Supper. Another dynamic style of painting that originated in this era is the Baroque. It is basically a piece of work that tends to have a depiction of a violent motion in it. Adoration by Rubens shows the scene of Jesus and Mary, and the entire scene is a significant snap shot that captures a certain motion from every angle. Ecstasy of Saint Theresa is a well-known Baroque sculpture in the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. There are countless examples of Baroque art in the post-Counter-Reformation period, and several churches that were built afterwards, depict Counter-Reformation style of architecture.
Genome Sequencing has become the foremost science for all the bioinformatic fields. It is the largest scientific endeavour that has granted a lot to the researchers and scientists. Developing a Genome Sequencing wiki model shall be the best step towards scientific research that will open up many amazing facts as well for the longevity of species. Genome sequencing is the process of breaking the nucleotide bases which are broken into four parts. The fragments are divided into adenine, cytocine, thymine and guanine. These categories are then identically separated and collectively formed with the help of fluorescent gel. The collectively formed fragment models form the basis of many biological methods of research and study of forensic and developmental studies of living organisms which develops rights for better living. In the old classical form of genetics, the genome of organism referred to the full category of chromosomes in gamete. Each somatic cell contained two sets of genomes. This was the case in the diploid organism. In the haploid organism, which included virus, mitochondria archaea and bacteria, each cell consisted of a single set of genome. These were circular and contiguous in shape. In the modern technological and scientific atmosphere the molecular biology has undergone a wide change and various rights have been given to universities to study the subject. Today, the genome of an organism consists of the complete hereditary information and it is also encoded in the DNA. This genome consists of both genes and non-coding sequence of DNA. To understand Genome Sequencing wiki international more accurately, the model genome of organism is an absolute genetic sequence on one set of chromosomes. Those species that exist in single sex even have a genome sequence which is readable from various chromosomes present in the composite structure of those beings. Genetic makeup is another term used today which means the genome of an organism. The study of these global properties of the genomes of related organisms and living beings are referred to genomics. This is different from genetic as genetic study researches on single genes whereas the genomics is the study of related organism or group of genes which helps in longevity also. There are around 60,000 genes for protozoan which are causing trichomoniasis. This figure is three times as present in human beings. These studies reveal facts which are impossible to understand without careful observation of the chromosomes and DNA. The human mind and skull craves for information and human beings are the most logical beings present on earth. They apply various studies to find out the causes of diseases in human being by studying various forms of genome sequencing of skeleton skull, plants, rhesus macaque and other creatures. The human genome analogy is stored on DNA. DNA has the complete structural information as well as resource, and is used to identify the characteristics components, causes of diseases and cloning which is required for researchers. Genomes and Genetic Variation DNA is a complete set of resource of human analogy and has loads of information stored on it. The genome has only half the information of a cell on the DNA. The human genome does not display the diversity or genetic polymorphism of a living organism. Comparison done for genetic information across individuals shall explain the variations in information regarding particular traits of an individual. Walter Fiers in 1976 in the University of Ghent was the first one to ascertain the complete nucleotide sequence of a RNA genome. Earlier RNA was studied as DNA is more complex. Human Genome Project was also done to understand the human genome sequence. Genome projects have also been done on rice, plant, my mouse, rhesus macaque, fish and bacteria which have created a wide wiki for study for researchers in the field. Information on Genome Sequencing wiki is available in various libraries and institutes which are a helpful resource for all researchers across world and will facilitate to develop your mind as well.
What was initially dubbed "the Spanish cucumber disaster" is unravelling at an astonishing rate. Over a dozen Germans dead, thousands infected. E (short for Escherichia) coli is a common bacterium that dwells harmlessly inside our gut, and many labs propagate E coli as the standard life form in which to engineer genes. Some strains, however, can harm. The 0157 strain killed 20 people in the Scottish town of Wishaw in 1996-97. The latest outbreak involves the 0104:H21 variant, which carries a gene encoding for a toxin that binds to human cells. Bursting gut cells cause diarrhoea, which turns bloody as local blood vessels are attacked. The toxin also binds to kidney cells, where it can cause fatal damage. Most cases of E coli are associated with contaminated meat, or direct contamination from farm animals. Patting a cow's excrement-flecked hide is enough to pick up the bug. How might vegetables become affected though? Although cucumbers have now been ruled out, the current culprit still seems to be salad - and we know manure is in common use as a fertiliser, especially in organic farming. Once a person is infected, an incubation period of one to 14 days ensues. Antibiotics can help, yet there's the risk of exacerbating kidney damage if they are taken too late. But the bacteria can easily be washed from vegetables and hands, so no one need worry if they respect food hygiene. This piece appears in this week's New Statesman.
It's a common assumption that animal migration, like human travel across the globe, can transport pathogens long distances, in some cases increasing disease risks to humans. West Nile Virus, for example, spread rapidly along the East coast of the U.S., most likely due to the movements of migratory birds. But in a paper just published in the journal Science, researchers in the University of Georgia Odum School of Ecology report that in some cases, animal migrations could actually help reduce the spread and prevalence of disease and may even promote the evolution of less-virulent disease strains. Every year, billions of animals migrate, some taking months to travel thousands of miles across the globe. Along the way, they can encounter a broad range of pathogens while using different habitats and resources. Stopover points, where animals rest and refuel, are often shared by multiple species in large aggregations, allowing diseases to spread among them. But, according to Odum School associate professor Sonia Altizer and her co-authors, Odum School postdoctoral associates Rebecca Bartel and Barbara Han, migration can also help limit the spread of some pathogens. Some kinds of parasites have transmission stages that can build up in the environment where host animals live, and migration allows the hosts to periodically escape these parasite-laden habitats. While hosts are gone, parasite numbers become greatly reduced so that the migrating animals find a largely disease-free habitat when they return. Long migratory journeys can also weed infected animals from the population: imagine running a marathon with the flu. This not only prevents those individuals from spreading disease to others, it also helps to eliminate some of the most virulent strains of pathogens. "By placing disease in an ecological context," said Odum School dean John Gittleman, "you not only see counterintuitive patterns but also understand advantages to disease transmission. This is a classic example of disease ecology at its best." Altizer's long-term research on monarch butterflies and a protozoan parasite that infects them provides an excellent demonstration of migration's effects on the spread of infectious disease. Monarchs in eastern North America migrate long distances, from as far north as Canada, to central Mexico, where they spend the winter. Monarchs in other parts of the world migrate shorter distances. In locations with mild year-round climates, such as southern Florida and Hawaii, monarchs do not migrate at all. Work by Altizer and others in her lab showed that parasite prevalence is lowest in the eastern North American population, which migrates the farthest distance, and highest in non-migratory populations. "Taken together, these findings tell us that migration is important for keeping monarch populations healthy-a result that could apply to many other migratory animal species," said Altizer. The research is supported by the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health and the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis.
change that was impossible with radially symmetrical flowers. Such clades as the Papilionoideae (legume subfamily), Polygalaceae, and Orchidaceae, among others, demonstrate this coevolution. The success of these clades and especially the Orchidaceae, with its vast number of species, demonstrates the potential of this coevolutionary event. The evolution of large stony and fleshy fruits and seeds is the last major coevolutionary node of the angiosperms. This is not to say that there were not the occasional attractive fruits produced earlier, but a large radiation of fruit and seed types of the angiosperms occurred during the Paleocene and Eocene. The change in angiosperm fruit size was noted by Tiffney (1984) who associated this change with the radiation of rodents and birds. This coevolutionary node allowed for both the further radiation of the angiosperms and the radiation of the mammals and birds. Stone (1973) noted that there was a tendency to develop animal-dispersed fruit types in the Juglandaceae several times in different clades of this family. Many angiosperm families took advantage of the potential to disperse their fruits and seeds by bird and mammal vectors during the early Tertiary as evidenced by the bursts of the evolution of fruits and seeds during this time (Reid and Chandler, 1933; Manchester, 1994). It is interesting to note that at this same time the angiosperms also were experiencing a radiation of wind-dispersed fruits and seeds (Call and Dilcher, 1992). This radiation of fruit and seed dispersal strategies in the angiosperms, late in their evolution (early Tertiary), is yet one more example of a means to promote outcrossing for the group. Coevolutionary events are largely responsible for the origin and subsequent nodes of evolution and radiation of the angiosperms. As we begin to find reproductive material of very early angiosperms (Taylor and Hickey, 1990; Sun et al., 1998; Friis et al., 1999), it becomes clear that some or most angiosperms developed bisexual insect-pollinated flowers very early, while some lines also maintained unisexual flowers with abiotic means of pollination (Dilcher, 1979). The coevolution with insects sparked a tremendous potential for plants to outcross by co-opting animals to carry their male gametes (pollen) to other individuals and other populations of the same species. Each node of angiosperm evolution established genetic systems that favor outcrossing. The showy bisexual flower, the more specialized bilateral flower, and the nutritious nuts and fleshy fruits all are means by which the flowering plants increase their potential for outcrossing. The majority of angiosperm evolution is centered on this increased potential for outcrossing through coevolution with a wide variety of animals. In
Until this point, medical practice was rooted in the Humoral Theory, a model utilized by Galen. The belief was that the human body was comprised of four parts (or humors): Blood, Phlegm, and Black and Yellow bile. Humors allowed medical surgeons like William Harvey and Edward Tyson to explain how the lungs and circulatory system operated, among other bodily functions. Yet continued use of vivisection and dissection began raising questions about the accuracy of previous theories; and scientists began to pinpoint the similarities and differences among human and animal biology, human and animal anatomy, and the degree to which humans could use body fluids and humors differentiate themselves and claim natural superiority. Though, while these methods of research seem antiquated in the 21st century, they were essential to the advancement of modern medicine and social advancements due to the aforementioned answers unveiled by these examinations. While science and art are often thought to be on opposite ends of the spectrum, with science as absolute thoughts and art showing free-thinking creativity, we have found a means of synthesizing of the two. In our research we have concluded that art and science cannot be treated as separate entities but instead that one lends to the other in that each helped progress the other to become more accurate in both rendering and execution. Tag Archives: guests During this course, our group focused on these anxieties in Shakespeare’s plays and poems. The dehumanization of women and the attempt to combat female power occurs in works like The Rape of Lucrece, King Lear, and The Taming of the Shrew. Additionally, Othello focuses on issues of a racial Other in a position of power, and the stereotypes that can be used to prove the Other’s inferiority. Each text denotes the “inferiority” of Othered groups, ultimately expressing larger anxieties of white males who utilized dehumanization of women and racial Others to prevent their loss of power and superiority within Renaissance society. By Gus G., Rebecca H., Jared L., Joe Z. Throughout the semester, we researched the intersecting development of realism in science and art during the English Renaissance. Specifically, we focused attention to how anatomical dissections caused a shift toward more realistic portrayals of human and animal anatomy in artistic texts. The Renaissance saw the rise of anatomical theaters, which indicated an increased interest in methodological science. Prior to this time, anatomy was theoretical in nature, insofar as professors studying the body had more confidence in their books than in the physical evidence before them. Even if a physical dissected body differed from the text, professors privileged images found in their books over the dissected evidence. Thus, the first public dissections were conducted in this manner: a professor of anatomy sat high above, reading from an aged text, while below an assistant performed the physical dissection, all of which was conducted in front of an audience. The influential scientist Francis Bacon pioneered the scientific method that influenced later research in the period–and this method shaped continued inquiry today. Following in Bacon’s footsteps, William Harvey, using the same scientific method, discovered that blood circulates through the body. Prior to this moment, no scientists embraced the idea that blood left the heart and then circulated back . These discoveries challenged commonly held beliefs about the connection between animals and humans. Similarities between animals and humans led scholars to doubt the superiority of humans. During the English Renaissance, curiosity about anatomy led to a greater interest in more realistic portrayals of anatomy in methodological science and paintings. Previously, illustrators were significantly less concerned with an accurate representation of animal anatomy. The representations were more allegorical and less about realistically portraying the actual animal. For example, illustrations of Aesop’s fables might depict a beaver as being indistinguishable from a medium sized dog. The Renaissance saw a rise in accurate artistic representations of both human and animal anatomy. By Emily G., Adrianna M., Evan P., Melissa S., and Hannah V.
Evolution is the process through which more complex systems arise from less complex ones. Evolution is evident everywhere, but is not self-evident. Why would complexity arise from simplicity, instead of the more “natural” path of devolution and disorder? How galaxies have formed from the soup of particles, since the big-bang? Why on Earth, life has evolved from simple single-cells to complex human beings? Uniform and random systems are not conducive to evolution. Minor instabilities during the big-bang are thought to have caused the initial gravitational seeds, around which, galaxies grew 14 billion years ago. Similarly, environmental instabilities have favored increasing complexity and biodiversity on Earth, since life started 4 billion years ago. So in a sense, order has emerged from chaos through instability, because that chaos carried the seeds of order from the very beginning. The “immortal” single-celled creature could theoretically duplicate its “selfish” genes forever, producing two identical daughters from each single mother. Each daughter would be of almost exactly the same character and genes as the mother. Therefore notionally, the single-cells could have competed with one another, through duplication and growth, until one of them would have dominated the entire planet Earth with its “selfish” gene. However, that same immortal quality of a unicellular, to duplicate without limitation, impaired its ability to endure a sudden and significant change of environment. Moreover, as the unicellular populations grew, that change in environment could actually arise from the life activities of the microorganism itself, as its internal “order” generated a multitude of external disorders. Nevertheless, Earth is a constantly dynamic system; e.g. there is a continuous bombarded by the cosmic radiation that can induce genetic mutations in single-celled organisms. Therefore, the copy-and-paste of DNA has never been exactly accurate! Mutations could “give birth” to new genes and to new cell characteristics, which would pass from mothers to daughters and survive, if they could enhance their chances of survival. Over the billions of years, even the “immortal” unicellular microorganisms have always been subject to change and evolution; resulting in new variations, races and species. Four billion years ago, when the first lifeforms emerged on Earth, the atmosphere was drastically different from today. There was much more CO2 and almost no oxygen! The first cells thrived on getting their energy from thermal or chemical sources, and used that energy to build their cellular building blocks (genes, proteins and carbohydrates). That early “paradise” lasted for a billion years, unit it was dramatically altered with the emergence of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the biochemical process that captures the sun’s radiative energy by combing CO2 and water to make carbohydrates, while releasing oxygen as a by-product. Starting 3 billion years ago, with ample sunshine and atmospheric CO2, the microorganism Cyanobacteria mutated to produce sugars through photosynthesis, which made her extremely successful and prolific. The success of photosynthesis eventually released some 1,000 trillion tons of oxygen into the Earth’s atmosphere! Oxygen is today considered as the essence of life for all animals which cannot last without breathing every minute of the day. However, from a strictly biochemical point of view, oxygen is a potent biocide (killer of living things). You can use oxygen to kill (oxidize) most organic matter, and that is exactly what happened 2.5 billion years ago to almost all the original microorganisms, when the photosynthesis unleashed by Cyanobacteria dramatically increased the oxygen concentration in Earth’s atmosphere. That oxygen-induced mass extinction is recorded in Earth’s geology as the Great Oxygen Holocaust. Nearly all the “immortal” microorganisms that were obligate-anaerobes died and disappeared. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere dropped and the emergent oxygen in atmosphere reacted with pre-existing methane (a potent greenhouse gas) and dropped its concentration to near zero. The result was a disastrous period of cold temperatures that created the worst ice ages ever (Snowball Earth)! The fact that proliferation of tiny single-celled microorganisms, driven by their “selfish” genes, could impact the entire Earth surface and atmosphere, clearly indicates that around 3 billion years ago a new “unit” of evolution had emerged on our planet. We can call that new unit the “ecosystem” and its playing ground has been the biosphere. It does not mean that the selfish genes stopped working on the evolution of microorganisms; just that a new higher-order (ecosystem) had emerged which comprised of a multitude of the lower-orders (microbes). Eventually aerobic microbes, which could consume oxygen, evolved and established equilibrium versus the CO2 consuming photosynthesis. Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the Earth’s atmosphere, ever since. Due to that vital check-and-balance and many more like that, the story of ecosystem’s evolution has dominated the past 2 billion years of Earth’s biosphere; carrying within it the equally-important subplots of genetic evolution that continuously play underneath all the big and small environmental changes. The story of evolution of ecosystems is not a single-hero saga, but a multi-generational and multi-player grand plot that depends on biological competitions as well as cooperative inter-species links. Those links have fostered biodiversity on Earth, rather than creating a single-species situation. In a biodiverse ecosystem, the waste (disorder) generated by one organism can be nourishment for another, and vice versa. Disorder and waste, which unchecked can kill any single organism, are minimized and harnessed to result in a nearly maximized utilization of energy and resources - constantly in reuse, recycle and regeneration. Looking at a galaxy like our own Milky Way, a similar sort of “ecosystem” formation and diversity is evident among the dust clouds, stars and the lonely central black-hole. As though evolution (emergence of order from chaos) has been playing similar musical tunes through a variety of instruments, and throughout an astonishingly wide range of sizes and scales! Billions of years ago, the emergent bio-diversified ecosystems evolved to behave like super-intelligent creatures, although they were literally made of a multitude of seemingly unintelligent unicellular microbes. Under greater scrutiny, each of those microbes on its own-right was also a highly intelligent biological supercomputer. Furthermore, under an electron-microscope, each of those single-cells contained thousands of knowledgeable and evolving genes. The bio-diversified multitudes of ecosystem have proven to be robust “units” of evolution, which have endured many more climate changes, asteroid impacts and holocausts. It is only very recently that the underlying evolution of genes and species has resulted in a “superman” who is busy creating his own ecosystems. This “intentional” global tampering with the biosphere has created a new extinction event (holocaust) that is carrying Earth into uncharted trajectories. Picture: Stromatolites from extinct species after the Great Oxygen Holocaust. Reference: Evolutionary Instability, by Gebhard Geiger, Springer 1990.
Hypertension is a long-term medical condition, wherein the blood pressure in the arteries is constantly high. Blood pressure is reflected by two measurements – the systolic pressure and the diastolic pressure. The systolic pressure is the maximum blood pressure and happens during the contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. On the other hand, the diastolic blood pressure is the minimum blood pressure and occurs during the relaxation of the left ventricle. The systolic blood pressure is considered normal if it is below 120, according to Web MD. Systolic blood pressure between 120 to 139 means that one has prehypertension, or borderline high blood pressure. According to the publication, people with prehypertension also have higher risk of having a heart disease. In normal body physiology, healthy arteries have smooth inner walls. The blood flows through the blood vessels without any disruption, not to mention that blood vessels are strong and flexible. However, in hypertension, blood flows through the arteries with force that is higher than normal. Interestingly, the increase force from the blood flow cannot be easily felt. The pressure damages the arterial walls, leading them to lose their smoothness. When this happens, the rough spots in the arteries allow fat and calcium to build up and become plaque, which progresses to the narrowing of the arteries called atherosclerosis. Upon aging, the arterial walls also lose their elasticity and they become harder. This hardening of the arteries is called arteriosclerosis. With the narrowing and hardening of the blood vessels, there will be a greater pressure in the blood flow in the arterial walls. According to the American Heart Association (AHA), common symptoms of hypertension or high blood pressure are dizziness, facial flushing or redness of the face, sweating, nervousness, and difficulty sleeping. Headaches and nosebleeds may also occur, as well as the presence of blood spots in the eyes called subconjunctival hemorrhage. Management of hypertension or high blood pressure includes pharmacological treatment and lifestyle modifications. According to Mayo Clinic, medications used to manage hypertension include beta blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and diuretics, along with renin inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Beta blockers are medications that aim to reduce the workload of the heart and dilate or increase the opening of the blood vessels. These actions result to the decrease in the heartbeat and force of the blood flow, thus lowering high blood pressure. Beta blockers are usually combined with other blood pressure medications, since they do not work well when prescribed alone. Examples of beta blockers are atenolol (Tenormin), and acebutolol (Sectral), among others. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors act in the management of high blood pressure by producing a natural chemical to relax blood vessels. Aside from hypertension, these medications are also utilized in the management of chronic kidney disease. Captopril (Capoten), Iisionpril (Zestril), and benazepril (Lotensin) are examples of ACE inhibitors. Calcium channel blockers manage hypertension by relaxing the muscles of the blood vessels. Some blockers also reduce the heart rate. This category of hypertensive medications is the preferred medication for older people than ACE inhibitors. Examples of calcium channel blockers include diltiazem (Tiazac, Cardizem) and amlodipine (Norvasc), among others. Diuretics, which are sometimes called water pills, lower high blood pressure by helping then kidneys decrease blood volume by increasing the elimination of sodium and water. Aside from hypertension, diuretics are used to manage heart congestion and edema. Examples of thiazide diuretics include chlorthalidone, and hydrochlorothiazide (Microzide), among others. While medications are available to manage hypertension, the condition can be prevented through lifestyle modifications, which include low sodium and low fat diet, proper exercise, adequate rest and sleep, reduced stress, and decreased alcohol and cigarette consumption, as per Web MD. Overall, high blood pressure poses a threat to a person’s health; thus, medical attention should be done if the symptom is experienced.
Religion is a collection of beliefs, practices, and a social organization that influences a person’s worldview, morality, behavior, culture, and approach to certain writings or persons. Often, religion also contains a code of conduct that defines right over wrong and good over evil, among other things. Religious faiths have a long history of providing their followers with a sense of meaning and purpose. Studies suggest that this can have positive effects on mental wellbeing – and even health. They can help people develop healthy behaviors such as exercising, eating well, avoiding smoking and excessive drinking, and form strong social relationships. These benefits are not necessarily tied to adherence to a particular religious belief, however. Research shows that the benefits of religion are more generally associated with having a set of values that are rooted in a spiritual context, and with having a clear understanding of what is considered ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. For example, many believers feel that stealing or murder are wrong because they have been taught to choose goodness over evil, and that there will be punishment in the afterlife for those who break the rules. Most attempts to define religion have been “monothetic,” operating with the classical assumption that a concept can be accurately described by a single property, and that any instance that shares this property will be accurately described by the same term. This is called the prototype theory of concepts, and it has long been a core idea in the study of language. For the past few decades, there has been a movement away from monothetic definitions of religion toward what is called a polythetic approach. Polythetic definitions use the notion of family resemblance, and are based on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s insights about the nature of concepts. A polythetic approach allows scholars to examine the similarities and differences between religions in a more holistic way, rather than simply trying to find a single defining property that all instances of religion share. This is more in line with how people actually think about the concept of religion. For example, some critics have claimed that the modern semantic expansion of the concept of religion goes hand in hand with European colonialism and that it is time to stop treating it as if it is something that exists independently of human culture. Other critics have taken the argument further and argued that religion is a socially constructed concept, which means that it can only be defined by humans and that it therefore lacks intrinsic reality. Others have pushed back against this claim, arguing that there is no such thing as religion outside of human experience. Nevertheless, most scholars continue to treat the concept of religion as though it has some kind of existence.
White supremacy refers to the belief that white people are innately better than people of other races or ethnicities and therefore uniquely suited to rule society and establish its norms. This belief system can manifest itself as both personal sentiment and structural policy. European powers exported such beliefs through empire building and incorporated supremacist values in the colonial governments they established around the world. White supremacy also has cultural manifestations. For example, the English language contains many words and phrases with racial origins that continue to be used and perpetuate negative perceptions of nonwhite people. In the United States, government officials used the tenets of white supremacy to justify the genocide and forced assimilation of the Native Americans, the enslavement of Africans and their descendants, immigration quotas, and other policies that advantaged white people over other racial groups. In addition to government policies, sentiments of white supremacy pervade many of the country's cultural institutions, including education, employment, science, and the media. Moreover, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, groups and individuals committed to extremist white supremacist ideology have committed terrorist acts in the name of white supremacy. FOUNDATION OF WESTERN HEGEMONY The building of empires throughout history has seen nations impose their way of life on the peoples they conquer. Powerful empires emerged around the world with relatively limited contact with one another until European nations heavily invested in overseas exploration during a period commonly referred to as the Age of Discovery (1400s–1600s). As a historical term, the “Age of Discovery” embodies an attitude of Eurocentrism, or the belief that the experiences of Europeans are central to world history. Such attitudes ignored the fact that the places Europeans “discovered” were already inhabited and had their own cultures, traditions, and histories. European explorers were emboldened by the teachings of their churches, which suggested they had a responsibility to convert people to Christianity. As a result, Christian missions were established shortly after arrival. As European countries expanded their global presence in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, European traders and settlers used their Christian faith to declare themselves superior to local populations and as a means of control. Their mastery of seafaring vessels allowed European powers to expand their international trade. To achieve further economic advantage, Europeans engaged in the transatlantic trade in enslaved persons, in which 12.5 million Africans were forcibly taken to work in the Americas. Widespread belief in white supremacy enabled the system of slavery, and its legacy continues to inform the politics of all countries involved in the slave trade, especially the United States. By the 1700s European countries had established themselves throughout the Americas. White settlers saw themselves as the rightful inheritors of the American frontier, and this attitude informed their contact with the Indigenous peoples. Colonial rule in the Americas ended in the late 1700s and early 1800s as the colonial populations gained independence from European states. Founded on European governing principles and within the context of white supremacy, these newly established countries codified structural racial hierarchies that assumed authority belonged to white men. With this development, European powers, and later the United States, turned their attention to Asia and Africa where they sought to expand their empires and global influence. The foreign powers set up schools, colonial governments, and other institutions that promoted white culture and values as superior to local ones. Throughout the 1800s, in efforts to expand trade, European countries and the United States adopted foreign policies that forced nonwhite populations to accept unfair terms. For example, the British Empire intentionally flooded Chinese markets with opium after becoming frustrated with its terms of trade with the Qing dynasty in China, leading to the Opium Wars (1839–1860). In 1854 the United States threatened Japan to open trading relations under the threat of military action, a policy commonly referred to as gunboat diplomacy. The major European powers of the late nineteenth century competed to gain control over as much of the African continent as possible. This period, commonly referred to as the Scramble for Africa, was characterized by an appetite for the continent's natural resources and a belief that white people should “civilize” local populations. In 1884 representatives from twelve European powers, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire met in Berlin, Germany, to discuss how to divide the land up among themselves; no Africans attended. Though many former colonies have achieved independence and the international community officially supports self-determination, Europe and the United States continue to exert a disproportionate influence on global politics, economics, and culture. This dominance over world affairs can be described as hegemony, an idea popularized by Italian philosopher Antonio Gramsci. Western hegemony reinforced white supremacy as white people in predominantly white countries accumulated more wealth, power, and influence. Within this context, white becomes increasingly associated with value. The insidiousness of how cultural value is perceived allows white supremacy not only to affect government and economic policy but to be deeply ingrained in social customs, beauty standards, and other more nuanced areas of life. SYSTEMIC RACISM IN THE UNITED STATES From its colonial origins, the United States has depended on the exploitation and brutalization of nonwhite people. The land itself was taken from millions of Indigenous peoples organized in hundreds of nations prior to European colonization. Early economic growth, especially in the South, relied heavily on the labor of enslaved Africans and their descendants. Immigrants from Asia and Central and South America worked on farms, built railroads, and provided other strenuous labor that enabled the country's expansion and prosperity, typically for lower wages than their white counterparts and without the same protections or rights. Slavery continued in the United States after the newly established country achieved its independence from Great Britain in 1781. At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, delegates debated over whether to include the enslaved population when determining the number of representatives each state would have in Congress. The delegates decided that each enslaved person was worth only three-fifths of a white person. At the beginning of the US Civil War (1861–1865) when the slave-holding states seceded from the country to form the Confederate States of America, Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens proclaimed that the newly formed country's “cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery subordination to the superior race is his natural and normal condition.” The speech, commonly referred to as the Cornerstone Speech, provides evidence that the Confederacy was built on a framework of white supremacy. Such evidence challenges the “Lost Cause of the Confederacy,” a revisionist interpretation of history that asserts slavery was not the cause of the war. Though the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in 1865, white supremacy continued to pervade political and social policy in the United States. Throughout the South, African Americans faced obstacles to voting, discrimination in employment, and widespread segregation, all supported by the law. The Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that racial segregation did not violate the Constitution if “separate but equal” options were provided. The segregation of public facilities was among many ways that official policies limited nonwhite people's access to services and opportunities. Though the Fifteenth Amendment prohibits voting restrictions based on race, for example, public officials put policies in place like literacy tests and poll taxes to prevent nonwhite people from voting. Black veterans returning from World War II (1939–1945) could not access the same benefits of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, commonly known as the GI Bill, as their white counterparts who took advantage of the bill's benefits such as low-interest loans and tuition for school. Immigration policy has also supported white supremacist values. For example, the Chinese Exclusion Act prohibited Chinese people from coming to the United States from 1882 until 1943. Immigration policy put forth in the 1920s set quotas on how many immigrants could come from different countries, with a noted preference for Northern Europeans. The quota system continued until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. Unethical yet legal practices like redlining—the demarcation by the government of areas where African Americans lived as bad investment risks—and blockbusting—encouraging white homeowners to sell their property over fears that Black families may be moving to the area—made homeownership difficult for nonwhite Americans. Further, in many areas, the interstate highway system was intentionally built to geographically segregate whites and nonwhites. Homeownership is one way that parents can pass on wealth to their children, and obstacles to homeownership have made the accumulation of generational wealth more challenging for nonwhite families. Geographical segregation has kept nonwhite Americans from the centers of business and political power as people can best network within their own local community. Though the Supreme Court overturned Plessy v. Ferguson in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) and ruled that public schools could not be segregated on the basis of race, the reality of geographical segregation has allowed schools with substantial racial majorities to persist into the twenty-first century. For example, some studies have found that school districts in majority nonwhite communities receive less funding than schools that serve majority white communities, perpetuating unequal access to resources and education. Lawmakers have also perpetuated white supremacy in the United States through the enactment of laws that appear race-neutral but disproportionately affect nonwhite people. Criminal justice experts have highlighted, for example, how drug laws have been used to target minority populations and how white offenders often face less harsh penalties for similar offenses. The mass incarceration of Americans that began in the 1970s has inordinately affected communities of color. Consequences of mass incarceration include broken families, human rights abuses, and widespread disenfranchisement as many states deny the vote to people with felony convictions. Further complicating the relationship between mass incarceration and white supremacy, the Thirteenth Amendment allows slavery and involuntary servitude as punishments for a crime. The US prison population, which is disproportionately Black and Latinx, work for free or extremely low wages while receiving none of the usual protections awarded to US workers, such as minimum wage and a safe working environment. Work by prisoners is often referred to as “modern slavery” by advocates of prison and criminal justice reform. Most mainstream politicians do not explicitly endorse white supremacy, but some directly support its ideals in covert ways. In a 1981 interview, for example, Republican political operative Lee Atwater described an approach to campaign politics known as the Southern Strategy in which candidates used euphemisms like states' rights and cutting taxes to stand in for support of white voters over the concerns of nonwhite citizens. Critics refer to such euphemisms as “dog whistles” meant to convey messages about racial minorities in order to inspire solidarity with white voters. The strategy continues to be used in American politics in the twenty-first century. WHITE NATIONALISM AND DOMESTIC TERRORISM Some groups in the United States have openly embraced white supremacy, including extremist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, a domestic terrorist organization founded after the Civil War that experienced several resurgences in the twentieth century. Though the Ku Klux Klan are regarded as a hate group in the twenty-first century, the organization has historically had ties to local law enforcement. White supremacist groups have emerged in the twenty-first century largely as a response to gains made by social movements that promote multiculturalism and racial justice. Fringe intellectuals have characterized trends in the liberal arts as attacks on Western civilization. The popularity of such ideas can be seen in the rhetoric of Western chauvinist groups like the Proud Boys and the Christian Identity movement. Though mainstream society largely rejects these groups and their ideas, white supremacist groups continue to attract new members. Members of these groups have been linked to a growing number of cases of racially motivated harassment, vandalism, and violence, including bombings, mass shootings, and other acts of terrorism. Some federal law enforcement officials consider white supremacy and far-right extremism to be among the greatest threats to US domestic security.
What is Interactive Modeling? Interactive Modeling is a straightforward, quickly paced process that’s effective for teaching children any academic or social skill, routine, or procedure that you want them to do in a specific way (whether for safety, efficiency, or other reasons). One of the essential practices of the Responsive Classroom approach to teaching elementary school children, Interactive Modeling can be used by any adult anywhere in school at any time of year. How Interactive Modeling Differs from Traditional Modeling In traditional modeling, the teacher shows children how to do a skill, routine, or procedure, tells them what to notice, and expects that they will learn it immediately. Interactive Modeling also shows children how to do skills, routines, or procedures, but it goes well beyond that basic step. Students also: - Learn exactly why the skill, routine, or procedure is important to their learning and the respectful, smooth functioning of the classroom. - Are asked what they noticed about the teacher’s modeling (rather than told by their teacher what to notice). - See a few classmates additionally model the routine or procedure after the teacher’s initial modeling. - Practice the routine or procedure right away. - Receive immediate feedback and coaching from their teacher while they practice. Why Interactive Modeling Is More Effective than Traditional Modeling The distinctive steps of Interactive Modeling incorporate key elements of effective teaching: modeling positive behaviors, engaging students in active learning, and immediately assessing their understanding. Research shows that when we teach in this way, children achieve greater, faster, and longer-lasting success in meeting expectations and mastering skills. With Interactive Modeling, children create clear, positive mental images of what is expected of them. They do the noticing themselves, which builds up their powers of observation and their analysis and communication skills. In addition, because they get immediate practice, they gain quicker expertise and stronger mastery of the procedure or skill being taught. Interactive Modeling Steps for Elementary School - Briefly state what you will model, and why. - Model the behavior exactly as you expect students to do it (the right way, not the wrong way, and without describing what you’re doing unless you need to “show” a thinking process). - Ask students what they noticed. (You may need to do some prompting, but children soon notice every little detail, especially as they gain expertise with this practice.) - Invite one or more students to model the same way you did. - Again, ask students what they noticed the modelers doing. - Have all students model while you observe and coach them. - Provide feedback, naming specific, positive actions you notice and redirecting respectfully but clearly when students go off track. Interactive Modeling Steps for Middle School - Describe what you will model and why. - Model while students notice. - Give students the opportunity to collaborate and practice. - Reinforce their practice with immediate feedback. What You Can Teach Using Interactive Modeling Here are just a few examples: Academic & Social Skills - Listening and responding to questions - Working with a partner or small group - Using technology and other resources - Taking part in a whole-group discussion - Test-prep procedures Procedures & Routines - Arrival and dismissal routines - Cleaning up - Lunch, recess, and bathroom routines - Schoolwide assembly procedures - Transitions from one classroom/activity to another How Long Interactive Modeling Takes An Interactive Modeling lesson to demonstrate lining up, for example, may take only three or four minutes. A more involved lesson, such as teaching children how to partner chat, might take twenty minutes. This modest investment saves you time in the long run. That’s because children gain mastery more quickly and are thus able to spend much more time on task. You’ll have less confusion in the classroom and fewer interruptions because children will not need to ask you or peers over and over what to do. As a result, you’ll have more time for teaching—and children will have more time to complete their work and to learn. How Much Time You Gain A little time spent on teaching students exactly how you want them to do things will pay big dividends throughout the year. Say you lose a few minutes every hour to repeating instructions and dealing with interruptions. That can add up to twenty or thirty minutes of lost instructional and work time each day—2½ hours each week. That’s 100 lost hours every school year! Think of what you could do with that time. Think of what your students could do. What It Looks and Sounds like in Action In a fifth grade classroom, Mrs. K wants the students to understand how to work productively during independent work time. She teaches this Interactive Modeling lesson: - Say what you will model and why. Mrs. K: “Our goal is for everyone to do high-quality work during independent work time. Watch how Carlos and I work hard on our assignment and let others do the same.” - Model the behavior. Mrs. K and Carlos (coached in advance) demonstrate how to work on a research assignment at the same table. They work quietly, but to show that it’s okay to talk, they each exchange one fact from their research, briefly and in low voices. Then they get right back to work. - Ask students what they noticed. Mrs. K: “What did you notice?” Her students note the key elements of the demonstration, such as how Carlos and Mrs. K stayed in their seats, worked quietly, and talked in low voices for only a short time. Mrs. K prompts students to name any key behaviors they missed. For example: “What did we do with our papers and other materials?” - Invite one or more students to model. Mrs. K chooses four more students, who demonstrate how to work independently at the same table just as she and Carlos did. - Again, ask students what they noticed. Mrs. K: “What did you notice this time?” Her students point out the key elements, just as they did in Step 3, helping to reinforce these behaviors for themselves. Again, she prompts them if they miss any key behaviors. - Have all students practice. Mrs. K gives all her students a short survey to work on so she can observe and coach them. - Provide feedback. Mrs. K: “I see everyone focused on the survey, working quietly. That kind of focus will help you and your classmates complete your assignments and learn a lot this year.” Popular Articles about Interactive Modeling Interested in more articles on this topic? Check out: - Using Interactive Modeling for Academic Learning - The Secret to Student Success: Interactive Modeling - Teaching Perseverance? Try Interactive Modeling For a deeper dive into Interactive Modeling, we have a variety of books available, including: - Interactive Modeling: A Powerful Tool for Teaching Children - The Language of Learning: Teaching Students Core Thinking, Listening, and Speaking Skills - Make Learning Meaningful: How to Leverage the Brain’s Natural Learning Cycle in K–8 Classrooms - The Joyful Classroom: Practical Ways to Engage and Challenge Elementary Students
For children to get the most from their social experiences, they need to learn how to form relationships, learn about empathy, and navigate the social world around them. Some children are born socializers and do not need guidance on how to mingle, whereas some are shy and introverted and may not even say ‘Hi’ to a visitor at home. They need to learn these essential life skills to develop as an individual. Here are some tips to help your child become a social being. Model Good Social Behavior Children learn by example, so it’s important to replicate what you want to teach them. It includes taking turns, waiting patiently at traffic signals, not yelling at others, listening to others, and showing empathy. Remember, it all begins at home. Encourage Peer Interaction Children need to interact with their peers to learn how to socialize. It can be through structured activities like playdates or sports teams or more casual interactions like playing at the park or neighborhood gatherings with friends every evening. Improve Conversation Skills Unless you initiate friendly chats with children, they wouldn’t open up. Make use of meal time, where you gather and share and opine about the food you eat and how the day was in school. Help children learn conversation skills by asking open-ended questions, encouraging them to share their thoughts and feelings, and teaching them how to listen to others actively. Help Children Learn To Manage Emotions It’s natural for children to feel a range of emotions, but they need to learn how to manage their emotions in social situations. When another child screams and throws tantrums, let your child know there are other ways to get things done. What could be beneficial for a child who learns to manage his emotions is confidence and social acceptance. As long as the world is a global community the chances of varied cultures and behavior coming to your neighborhood are more. And you can’t deny the possibility of exposure to different lifestyles and the different situations it can put your child in.
How to Calculate 2/4 Divided by 1/3 Are you looking to work out and calculate how to divide 2/4 by 1/3? In this really simple guide, we'll teach you exactly what 2/4 ÷ 1/3 is and walk you through the step-by-process of how to divide fractions. Before we dive into the calculation, let's recap on some fraction basics. The number above the dividing line is called the numerator, while the number above the dividing line is called the denominator. Want to quickly learn or refresh memory on how to divide fractions play this very quick and informative video now! For dividing fractions it's also useful to know that the first fraction (2/4) is called the dividend and the second fraction (1/3) is called the divisor. Let's set up 2/4 and 1/3 side by side so they are easier to see: Here is a really quick way to divide fractions. In the divisor (the second fraction) we flip the numerator and the denominator. This is known as the reciprocal and basically it means the reverse of the fraction. When we find the reciprocal, we also have to change the division sign to a multiplication sign: Once you've flipped the second fraction and changed the symbol from divide to multiply, we can multiply the numerators together and the denominators together and we have our solution: You're done! You now know exactly how to calculate 2/4 - 1/3. Hopefully you understood the process and can use the same techniques to add other fractions together. The complete answer is below (simplified to the lowest form): Note: since the numerator is greater than the denominator in this example, we've simplified it into a mixed fraction. Convert 2/4 times 1/3 to Decimal Here's a little bonus calculation for you to easily work out the decimal format of the fraction we calculated. All you need to do is divide the numerator by the denominator and you can convert any fraction to decimal: Cite, Link, or Reference This Page If you found this content useful in your research, please do us a great favor and use the tool below to make sure you properly reference us wherever you use it. We really appreciate your support! <a href="http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-2-4-divided-by-1-3/">How to Calculate 2/4 divided 1/3</a> "How to Calculate 2/4 divided 1/3". VisualFractions.com. Accessed on June 10, 2023. http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-2-4-divided-by-1-3/. "How to Calculate 2/4 divided 1/3". VisualFractions.com, http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-2-4-divided-by-1-3/. Accessed 10 June, 2023. How to Calculate 2/4 divided 1/3. VisualFractions.com. Retrieved from http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-2-4-divided-by-1-3/. Preset List of Fraction Division Examples Below are links to some preset calculations that are commonly searched for:
Common name: coastal black gooseberry, wild gooseberry, spreading gooseberry Scientific name: Ribes divaricatum Plant family: Grossulariaceae Description: Coastal black gooseberry is a deciduous shrub that grows from 3 to 7 feet tall with dark green, glossy leaves. They are 2-5 centimeters across with deeply indented lobes that are roughly maple leaf shaped. Where the leaf attaches to the stem, there are one to three spines. The flowers are green or purple with white to reddish petals, with four or fewer flowers in an inflorescence. The fruits are round, dark purple or black and smooth, approximately 1 centimeter long. Habitat and range: The shrub grows at low elevations in west-side forests, coastal, meadows, wet areas, moist open woods, canyons, and coastal bluffs from British Columbia to California. It likes full sun to partial shade or dappled sunlight. Historical and contemporary uses: The primary use of Ribes divaricatum is as a food. Various Native American groups eat the fruit of this species in its fresh, dried, cooked, or preserved state. The majority of these groups simply eat the berries ripe, raw, and fresh, but others like the Cowlitz (Central Washington) eat them while they are still green. Another variation is the Hesquiat (Vancouver Island and surrounding continental coast) eating the ripe berries with oil, rather than plain. Although less common, some groups cooked the berries, the Bella Coola (British Columbia) reduced the berries into a sauce eaten with other foods. Usually when groups cooked the berries, they were also storing them as a winter food. The Cowlitz and Gosiute both dried berries, but again the Cowlitz used green berries, not ripe berries. The Coast Salish (Northern Vancouver Island and northern coast of continent) did not eat the berry raw but only cooked it into a dense cake that could be saved for the winter months. Tvxhe Thompson (British Columbia) crushed the berries into a drink and also cooked them in a sort of pie. Often these groups view Ribes divaricatum similarly to how modern society views a dessert. In fact, like the Thompson group, modern Americans gather the wild gooseberry and bake it into pies and other dishes. Though European varieties of gooseberry are more common or traditionally used berries for this purpose,Ribes divaicatum is cultivated by some Northwest nurseries for their sweet and juicy fruits. Various Native American groups also used Ribes divaricatum as cordage, netting, pipstems, and sharp tools. The Saanich and Cowichan boiled the root with cedar and wild rose, before pounding it and weaving it into rope, which they used to make reef nets for fishing. The Bella Coola hallowed out the stalks of the plant and used them as pipe stems for smoking. The Coast Salish used the thorns, which grow where the leaf meets the stem, as sharp tools for boils, removing splinters, and for tattooing.
Here in this article, I will take you through how to implement a binary search algorithm with python. Binary search also called half-interval search, which is an algorithm used in computers systems to find the position of a value in a sorted array. What is Binary Search Algorithm? In a binary search algorithm, the list is split in half and then searched in each half. One thing to notice while implementing the binary search algorithm is that the list must be sorted before running the algorithm. The list is then split into two halves by the index, find the element in the middle(m) of the list, then start at m-1 is a list and m+1 at the end is another list, check if the element is at the middle, higher or lower than this and return the appropriate position of the key element to find. How Binary Search Works? So let’s say you have a list of 10,000 items. The element you are looking for is in the 9000th place. If you implement any other search algorithm in this scenario, it will take a long time to give you the result. Because the algorithm has to check every item in the list. So we first need to specify the lower limit and the upper limit. The lower limit is the first index in the list and the upper limit is the last index in the list. Once you finish assigning the lower and upper limits, the next thing you have to find a mid-index. Mid index = (Lower limit + Upper Limit)/2 Now let’s specify the item we need to find in our list. Let’s say we need to find number 90 in our list. Now let’s create a binary search algorithm with Python to find the number 90 in a list: This is how you do the binary search. If you have a huge list, this method will save your life. There is a major drawback to this method of research. You must have a sorted list if you want to search your list using binary search. I hope you liked this article on how to implement a binary search algorithm with Python. Feel free to ask your valuable questions in the comments section below. You can also follow me on Medium to learn every topic of Machine Learning and Python.
Graphic design is the process of visual communication, and problem-solving through the use of type, space, image and color. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, but sometimes the term “graphic design” is used interchangeably with these due to overlapping skills involved. Graphic designers use various methods to create and combine words, symbols, and images to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use a combination of typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce a final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated. Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), publications (magazines, newspapers and books), print advertisements, posters, billboards, website graphics and elements, signs and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as images, shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
top of page CRAFT: File Folder Story Before class: Make copies of Reproducible 10e. The children may need more than one page if they usethe same character more than once in their file folder story. • Give each child a copy of “File Folder Story” and an unused file folder. *You could also use two pieces of construction paper, cardstock, or regular paper taped together. o Make a title page for the story on the front cover of the file folder. o On the inside of the file folder, make 4 different scenes: 1. Peter and John see the man lying on the cot and heal him. 2. Peter and John tell the crowd how the man was healed. 3. The leaders put Peter and John in prison. 4. The leaders let Peter and John go because the crowd had seen the miracle and wanted them released. o On the back of the file folder, write our Bible verse: “As for us, we can’t stop speaking about what we have seen and heard.” Acts 4:20 bottom of page
Writing articles can be an excellent way for students to develop important skills like researching, organizing information, and crafting strong arguments. However, many students find getting started with article writing to be intimidating. Having article writing examples to reference can help students understand the elements of a successful article. In this complete guide, we will provide numerous article writing examples for students. We’ll cover different types of articles students may need to write, including: - Newspaper Article - Magazine Article - Academic Journal Article - Website Article For each type of article, we will break down the key elements with examples students can model. We’ll also provide tips to help students get started with researching and writing excellent articles tailored to their needs. Elements of a Well-Written Article Before diving into the specific examples, let’s review the main elements that comprise a high-quality article: Your headline is the first thing readers see, so it needs to capture attention and provide a preview of the article topic. Some tips for essay writer to write effective headlines: - Keep headlines short, ideally 6-10 words. - Use active voice and compelling keywords related to the topic. - Avoid vague words like “tips” or “guide.” Be specific. - Use formatting like numerals, capitalization, and punctuation to make the headline stand out. Example: “5 Ways High Schoolers Can Start Writing for Newspapers Now” Informative Lead Paragraph The opening paragraph should quickly summarize the main focus of the article. It establishes the angle you’ll be taking and the information readers can expect to learn. - Start with a “hook” first sentence that grabs attention. - Cover the 5 W’s – who, what, where, when, why. - Keep the lead paragraph short – ideally around 2-3 sentences. Example opening: “With misinformation running rampant, high school students need to bring their voices to local conversations. Writing an op-ed for your hometown newspaper can help you practice persuasive writing while informing your community.” Evidence-Backed Body Section The body paragraphs present the detailed information, facts, arguments, and evidence to support your angle on the topic. Some tips for the body section: - Organize into logical sections with headers. - Use a mix of short and long paragraphs – aim for 3-8 sentences. - Incorporate facts, statistics, quotes, and examples as supporting details. - End each paragraph with a sentence that transitions into the next section. Example paragraph: “One effective way to strengthen your writing skills is to join your school newspaper staff. In a national survey, 65% of student journalists said working for a school paper helped them significantly improve research abilities. Writing on tight deadlines with an editor’s feedback pushes you to apply writing best practices.” Wrap up your article with a conclusion that reiterates your main points and leaves a lasting impact. - Summarize key takeaways from the article. - End on a high note by invoking emotions or looking ahead. - Close with a call to action when appropriate. Example conclusion: “With strong critical thinking skills and solid writing, high schoolers can bring needed perspective to community issues. Pitching an op-ed to your local paper provides a rewarding chance to have your voice heard.” Newspaper Article Examples Newspaper articles report on events, issues, and people in a way that informs readers. Here are two examples showing how to write effective newspaper articles: Headline: Local Robotics Team Advances to State Finals Lead paragraph: The high school robotics team has built a championship-worthy robot that has propelled them to the state finals next month in Austin for the first time in over a decade. The Robo Eagles designed and constructed a robot focused on speed that has performed excellently in regional matches. Their robot completed the obstacle course in just 58 seconds, the fastest time among the 25 teams at regionals. Team captain Naomi Yamaguchi explained that they focused on innovating with lighter materials and a simplified design this year. “We really stripped it down to the essential components needed to maximize maneuverability and speed,” she said. According to head coach Walter Bennett, the team spent over 400 hours since September designing, building, coding, and testing. Their persistence paid off at the regional competition last weekend where their robot blew away the competition. In Austin, the Robo Eagles will compete against 55 other top teams from around the state. The annual state finals include a robot skills competition and a mock United Nations crisis scenario that tests the teams’ technical and problem-solving abilities. Closing: The Robo Eagles are now seeking local sponsors to help cover equipment and travel costs for the state finals. The community is invited to a demo day on March 7th to see the championship robot in action. Headline: Overcrowded Classes Limit Learning for Students Lead paragraph: With class sizes ballooning and school budgets shrinking, students at our high school are struggling to learn in overcrowded classrooms that exceed 30 or more students. According to national surveys, the majority of teachers say class sizes over 25 lead to reduced personalized instruction and feedback. It becomes difficult to tailor teaching to individual learning needs in crowded rooms. Resource shortages in bigger classes also inhibit learning. For example, in my AP Chemistry class that has 32 students, we ran out of lab supplies and now take turns doing experiments instead of getting hands-on experience. Overcrowded classes not only impact academic instruction but also lead to more disruptive student behaviors. Teachers often resort to more lecturing, which can cause students to lose focus and engage in off-task activities. While budget constraints exist, investing in more teachers to reduce class sizes needs to be a priority. Limiting class sizes, especially in core subjects, will enable deeper student learning. Students will get more individualized instruction to succeed. Closing: With classes exceeding 30 students, our school needs to get creative scheduling more sections and hiring more teachers. Students deserve a focused learning environment, not overcrowded rooms that stunt academic growth. Magazine Article Examples Magazine articles take a more in-depth, thorough approach to topics than daily news reports. Here are two examples of effective magazine articles for students to model: Headline: The Surprising Benefits of Daily Meditation at School Lead paragraph: As schools cut programs to focus on academics, a growing body of research shows skills like self-awareness and focus learned through daily meditation may be the missing element to improve student learning and well-being. In a study published this month, middle schoolers who participated in two 10-minute mindfulness exercises each day performed better on computer tasks measuring concentration compared to peers. The meditation involved listening to a guiding narration that directed students to focus on their present state without judgment. Additionally, schools that have implemented schoolwide mindfulness programs have seen reduced discipline issues and absenteeism along with higher test scores. Lisa Bell, a 7th grade teacher at Oaktree Middle School, says starting class with a 5-minute guided meditation helps students calm down, self-regulate, and transition into learning mode. “The deep breathing exercises help reduce anxiety levels that middle schoolers experience,” Bell said. “Students are much more focused for the rest of class.” Advocates argue brief, simple mindfulness practices are easy to incorporate and teach fundamental skills benefitting mental health and achievement. With more research, meditation could become an educational best practice. Closing: As academics push kids to excel at younger ages, meditation may be the missing ingredient that leads to greater focus, emotional intelligence, and academic performance. Momentary mindfulness could have a profound impact on learning. Headline: A Beginner’s Guide to Coding Mobile Apps Lead paragraph: While learning to code takes dedication, middle school and high school students can start acquiring mobile app programming skills through free online tutorials and entry-level courses. A key first step is deciding which programming language you want to learn. For mobile apps, top options include Java, Swift, Python, and Kotlin. Java is the most universal language while Swift is best for Apple iOS apps. Take a quiz to see which language aligns with your interests. Next, take advantage of the wealth of free introductory coding courses online. CodeAcademy, Khan Academy, and Udemy all offer interactive modules that teach programming fundamentals. You’ll get hands-on practice building programs and receive feedback as you progress through lessons. Look into youth coding groups as well. Many nonprofits like Girls Who Code run free app development programs for teens. Participating in a group teaches collaboration and offers support as you code. As you advance, you can use DIY tools like MIT App Inventor to build basic apps. Seeking out coding mentors in your community is also valuable for personalized guidance tackling new challenges. Closing: With determined practice using online tutorials, teen-friendly coding groups, and project-based tools, students can gain marketable mobile app development skills – even without prior experience. Soon you’ll be programming the next viral app! Academic Journal Article Examples Academic journal articles report original research findings and new scholarly analysis appropriate for an academic audience. Here are two examples: Original Research Study Title: The Effects of Class Start Time on High School Student Achievement and Attendance Introduction: Pressure has increased to move high school start times later given research showing biological changes cause teenagers to naturally wake up later. This study examined how delaying school start times impacted attendance and achievement at a local high school over a two year period. Methods: Daily attendance records and test scores in math, science, and English were compared across two years for sophomores and juniors before and after school start times changed from 7:30 AM to 8:30 AM. Data was analyzed using statistical methods including regression analysis. Surveys gathered student feedback. Results: The analysis revealed attendance rates increased by 14% among students after the delayed start time of 8:30 AM. Test scores in all subjects improved by 6-10 percentage points. Surveys showed 62% of students reported increased alertness and focus in class. Discussion: The findings align with prior research indicating delayed start times improve outcomes for adolescent high school students by allowing for adequate morning sleep. This provides evidence that schools should consider shifting to later start times to support student health and achievement. Closing: Delaying high school start times offers a promising intervention to boost student attendance and achievement based on biological sleep patterns. Additional longitudinal studies can support these conclusions. Title: Computer Science Education Outreach in Middle Schools: Current Approaches and Future Directions Introduction: Outreach initiatives that provide computer science learning opportunities for middle school students have grown in popularity. This literature review synthesizes research evaluating the effectiveness of different outreach program models. Methods: Academic studies examining U.S.-based computer science outreach programs at the middle school level were systematically identified using database searches. Findings from the 12 most rigorous studies were compared and contrasted. Results: Programs centered on culturally relevant coding projects, peer mentoring, and career exposure positively impacted underrepresented minorities and female students the most. Mandatory multi-day camps did not show any advantages compared to voluntary clubs. Mixing middle schoolers with high school role models proved more effective than partnerships with college mentors. Discussion: The literature suggests outreach efforts should focus on providing sustained hands-on learning and exposure to relatable role models rather than isolated one-off experiences. After-school clubs also appear more promising than external camps. More research is needed on how programs impact pursuit of future computer science studies. Closing: This review should guide computer science education organizations to design accessible programs for diverse middle schoolers that spark longer-term engagement with the field. Outreach plays a crucial role in diversifying and strengthening the talent pipeline. Tips for Writing Effective Articles With models to reference, students can more easily grasp how to structure high-quality articles adapted for their needs. Here are some final tips when writing any type of article: - Start by outlining your topic angle and main points. Brainstorm some headline ideas. Having a roadmap makes drafting easier. - Conduct thorough research and take detailed notes. Look for credible sources to incorporate facts and statistics. - Organize your information into logical sections. Break down complex ideas into simpler paragraphs focused on one main thought. - Keep sentences mostly short and straightforward. Vary sentence structure with some longer ones mixed in to keep things interesting. - Choose words suited for the target readership. Avoid jargon for general audiences. Define acronyms if used. - End each paragraph with a transition sentence to tie your points together. Build the discussion smoothly using transitions. - Have a peer, teacher, or parent review your draft. Ask which parts are unclear and need more explanation. - Read the article out loud to catch any awkward phrasing. Revise sentences as needed. With a solid understanding of article structure and elements, students can write effectively for diverse audiences. Referencing the examples above provides models to emulate in crafting engaging articles about current issues and topics relevant to readers. Check for the key ingredients – a strong hook, thorough evidence-based analysis, smooth transitions, and impactful closing. Soon, writing compelling articles tailored for any purpose will come naturally. Frequently Asked Questions Why are article writing skills important for students to develop? Developing article writing skills is important for students because it builds critical lifelong abilities like researching a topic thoroughly, determining credible sources, presenting analysis and evidence effectively, and adapting content for different audiences. These skills are valuable both for further education and real-world careers. What are some different types of articles students can write? Some common article types students may need to write include news reports, commentaries or editorials expressing an opinion, instructional how-to articles, reviews critiquing books or movies, interviews, biographies profiling noteworthy individuals, and research or academic journal articles presenting new findings. Where can students get their articles published? Students have many options for publishing their articles both in school and externally. School newspapers and magazines are great places to submit work. Outside of school, local community newspapers and regional magazines often accept submissions from student writers. High-achieving students may also submit academic articles to scholarly journals for consideration. How can teachers help students improve their article writing abilities? Teachers can provide tips on developing article ideas, crafting solid drafts with evidence-based support, and utilizing peer feedback to refine writing. Sharing strong article examples and discussing their techniques is very valuable. Allowing students to take articles through multiple drafts improves quality. Publishing students’ polished work also builds confidence. What are the most important elements of an article introduction? An effective article introduction quickly draws readers in using a catchy opening hook, establishes the topic and angle being addressed, summarizes key background context, and previews the information the article will cover. It should be concise while giving enough framework so readers understand what they will gain by reading further. How do you wrap up an article effectively? Strong article conclusions summarize key points but also leave readers with something memorable. Recapping major takeaways, relating insights to broader issues, proposing a solution or new perspective, or providing an inspirational final thought can provide satisfying closure. Ending by linking back to a point made in the introduction brings the piece full circle.
High School Resource: Expressing Our Thoughts Through Poetry High School Resource Language of Poetry Students will recognize and be able to create poetic language. Using a newspaper article, each student will create a poem about the event in the article they selected. The poem will then be recorded to a Photo Story project they will create to go with their poems. The goal is for each student to be able to enhance the news article through the use of poetic language, music they select to enhance mood, and pictures which reflect the events in the poem. This unit requires that students have prior experience in reading and analyzing poetry. They should have at least a basic knowledge of poetry techniques and vocabulary terms. Finished projects will be viewed in class by peers. Related NY State Academic Standards: L.11-12.1, L.CCR.3, and L.CCR.4 Be sure to check out our Educational Resources, featuring thousands of activities, lesson plans, constructed-response questions, rubrics, teacher resources, multimedia, and more!
How MUSE uncovered the closest pair of supermassive black holes This animation gives an insight into the method astronomers used to uncover a pair of supermassive black holes lurking 89 million light-years away from Earth in the NGC 7727 galaxy — and to measure their masses. The pair is the closest found to date, both with regards to the distance to Earth and the distance between the two supermassive black holes. Astronomers studied the spectra of the bright stars around each of the black holes using the MUSE instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT). More massive black holes have a stronger gravitational pull on the stars around them, causing them to move faster. This effect is reflected in the spectra of the stars, with the spectral lines being broader if the stars are moving faster. By measuring the width of the spectral lines for the groups of stars surrounding each black hole in the pair, astronomers calculated the masses to be about 154 million and 6.3 million times that of the Sun.Źródło: ESO/L. Calçada; VST ATLAS team; Voggel et al. \|Data publikacji:\|\|30 listopada 2021 14:00\| \|Czas trwania:\|\|24 s\| \|Frame rate:\|\|25 fps\| \|Typ:\|\|Local Universe : Star : Evolutionary Stage : Black Hole\| \|Kategoria:\|\|Quasars and Black Holes\|
Transforming Education Through Tech-enabled Innovations From bridging the digital divide, building robust systems for better engagement, to training teachers and creating learning continuity among students, technology can become the lynchpin of rural education transformation “I have believed and repeated times without number that India is to be found not in its few cities but in its villages,” wrote MK Gandhi in the weekly journal ‘Young India’ at the turn of the 20th century. Today, nearly a hundred years after its first publishing, and 75 years after India’s independence, the issue he raised remains central to our nation’s progress. India's rural population forms the backbone of our nation’s culture. Their integration into the 21st century knowledge economy is central to India transitioning from a developing to a developed nation. With nearly 65 per cent of Indians comprising this cohort, it is our collective responsibility to build upon socio-economic systems and infrastructure that empower rural lives. The most effective way to do this is through education — a foundational component of building a progressive society. Bringing equity to learning through technology When the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns led to school closures in 2020, it disrupted education for 1.6 billion students worldwide. In India, 80 per cent of children between 14 to 18 years reported low levels of learning during this time. The Covid-19 pandemic was especially devastating for students who belonged to rural and minority groups, economically underprivileged backgrounds, or those who were victims of child labour, illness, bias and social stigma. Reaching an inflection point, this is when the last mile of education experienced a complete transformation. Online learning came to the fore and the idea of education that was traditionally limited to physical classrooms evolved into a more dynamic format where teachers were able to reach students through new and innovative channels. Education technology or edtech, dramatically leveled the playing field for students across all geographies and strata of society. This greatly helped those engaged in social work to collaborate with educators and empower students, as well as teachers, with vital tools and content to shrink long-standing equity and learning gaps; propelling a powerful transformation of the education system through tech-enabled innovations. Unlocking the potential of technology-driven learning The role of technology in enabling better access to quality education for children across urban and rural landscapes has been cemented further in the aftermath of the pandemic as India’s growing edtech ecosystem continues to take education to previously unserved areas through the power of technology. Not just private players, but the government, through initiatives such as Swayam (Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds), Diksha and e-pathshala have been facilitating the transitioning of educational institutions in rural zones to online or hybrid modes. To accelerate this digital learning adoption in rural areas, it is also essential that local not-for-profit entities and other implementation bodies work in tandem to create change at the grassroots level. While NGOs and their vast networks of active volunteers undertake training and implementation duties, bigger interventions are needed to have an impact at a scale that can solve the problem for instance, our collaboration with BYJU’S Education For All is helping us reach students from underserved backgrounds across different geographies. The renewed emphasis on education through the NEP 2020 in tandem with the Digital India Mission presents a grand opportunity to reimagine our education system by leveraging the benefits of disruptive technology to make it more holistic, equitable, and high-quality. From bridging the digital divide, building robust systems for better engagement, to training teachers and creating learning continuity among students, technology can become the lynchpin of rural education transformation. The future of learning technologies Learning does not stop outside the four walls of a classroom and access to learning resources should not either. While India's current education landscape still needs to surmount the digital divide, as well as a lack of access to resources, trained teachers, and study materials, especially in government schools and rural areas, one way to sustainably achieve this is with the right approach, partnerships and digital infrastructure. A powerful force of social impact workers, educators, policymakers and administrators need to come together to work collaboratively and offer equal learning opportunities to students across the nation. With schools and colleges fully reopening in the post-pandemic era, the country's hundreds of millions of aspiring young students are ready to make a difference. We can only truly harness our demographic dividend and prepare the current generation for the future by reaching beyond the walls of traditional classrooms to form strong partnerships that support learning anywhere, at any time. Disclaimer: The views expressed in the article above are those of the authors' and do not necessarily represent or reflect the views of this publishing house Around The World
Stinky smells make for stronger memories, it seems. New research from the New York University’s Department of Psychology suggests that memories are stronger when the original experience was accompanied by unpleasant odors. The findings broaden our understanding of the mechanisms that underpin memory and of how negative experiences help shape our ability to recall past events. “These results demonstrate that bad smells are capable of producing memory enhancements in both adolescents and adults, pointing to new ways to study how we learn from and remember positive and negative experiences,” explains Catherine Hartley, an assistant professor in New York University’s Department of Psychology and the senior author of the study. “Because our findings spanned different age groups, this study suggests that aversive odors might be used in the future to examine emotional learning and memory processes across development,” adds lead author Alexandra Cohen, an NYU postdoctoral fellow. Negative experiences are known to impact our memory. If you get bitten by a dog, for example, you can develop a negative memory of that particular animal — and that negative association may eventually eneralize to all dogs. You’re also much more likely to have a vivid, powerful memory of that particular interaction than your other past experiences with dogs due to the trauma associated with the event. “The generalization and persistence in memory of learned negative associations are core features of anxiety disorders, which often emerge during adolescence,” notes Hartley. In order to get a better idea of how these learned negative associations shape the way our memories form during this age, the team designed and administered a Pavlovian learning task to individuals aged 13 to 25. Such tasks usually employ mild electrical shocks; however, the researchers used bad smells because they can be ethically administered in studying children. The task included viewing a series of images belonging to one of two conceptual categories: objects (e.g., a chair) and scenes (e.g., a snow-capped mountain). Participants wore a nasal mask connected to an olfactometer (an instrument used to detect and measure odor dilution) as they viewed the images. When images from one category were shown, participants were given unscented air. While participants viewed images from the other category, unpleasant smells were sometimes circulated through the device to the mask. In order to determine which odors the participants found unpleasant, the researchers had the subjects breathe in a variety of odors and indicate which ones they thought were unpleasant prior to the study. The odors were blends of chemical compounds provided by a local perfumer and included scents such as rotting fish and manure. This allowed the team to quantify the effect of a bad smell on individual memories as well as generalization to related images. In other words, they could measure if the image of a chair was stronger when associated with a bad smell, and whether this would happen only for this image or images in general. The team measured perspiration in the participants’ hands as a proxy for arousal levels. One day after the task, researchers tested participants’ memory for the images. Their findings showed that both adolescents and adults showed better memory specifically for images paired with the bad smell 24 hours after the task. They also found that individuals with higher arousal levels during while viewing images that may have been associated with an unpleasant smell had better memory of the images 24 hours later regardless of whether or not a smell was actually delivered. This suggests that unpredictability or surprise associated with the outcome leads to better memory. The paper “Aversive learning strengthens episodic memory in both adolescents and adults” has been published in the journal Learning & Memory.
- Define and identify local economic, social and environmental changes. - Assess and rank the impact of economic, social and environmental changes of the Klondike Gold Rush. - Use primary and secondary sources to draw conclusions about historical events. Assignment: Read and analyze primary and secondary sources to evaluate the impact of changes during the Klondike Gold Rush. Present your conclusions orally or in written format. Time Frame: 7 classes (approximately 2 1/2 weeks) Partners: You may choose to work individually or in a group of 2 or 3 for the duration of this assignment. Step 1: Explore various kinds of changes (1 class) As a class, we will reflect on and discuss economic, social and environmental changes in our community. Step 2: Learn about the Gold Rush (1 class) As a class, we will read and discuss: - A History of Gold Rushes, a general overview of the events and effects of gold rushes; - Aftermath, a general overview of the effects of the Klondike Gold Rush. As an individual (3 documents) or a small group of 3 (all 5 documents), read the following documents and complete the Comparing Conditions Handout. Be prepared to share your findings with the class. - Historical Notes on the Yukon District; - After the Gold Rush; - Klondike Discoverer Dies in Poverty; - Returning Adventurers; - Yukon Indians and the Gold Rush. Step 4: Identify criteria for assessing impact (1 class) Change is only as big as the impact it has. There are 3 ways to assess impact: breadth, depth and duration. As a class we will assess the impact of changes in our community (referencing our first conversation regarding changes in our community). Step 5: Rank order the degree of impact (1 class) As individuals or small groups, use the Ranking the Impact Handout to assess the impact of the changes you have already identified. Which type of change was the most significant? Use your completed Comparing Conditions handout and the three criteria for determining the significance of an impact. Step 6: Class Debate or Independent Write Up (1 class) As a class we will vote to either have a full class discussion/debate or write independent summaries on which type of change had the greatest impact during the Klondike Gold Rush. What will be assessed during this project? Class Debate or Independent Write Up The following rubrics will be used to assess the above assignments: *Project adapted from Mystery Quest: Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History
Rheumatoid arthritis is a joint disorder that usually first attacks the smaller joints of the fingers, toes, and wrists. The factors that can increase the risk of this condition involves a complex interplay of genetic and environmental triggers. Rheumatoid arthritis or RA is an autoimmune disorder, which is linked to the genetic makeup of a person. However, the relationship with genetics is complicated. Over 60 genes have been identified which may contribute to the risk of RA. Overall, however, genetics only plays a small part in the overall risk. If one identical twin has RA, the chance is only 12-15% that the other one will also get it, even though their genes are identical. Rheumatoid arthritis is believed to occur due to the inflammation of the joint tissues caused by the immune system attacking the synovium, the lining around the joint. While genetics does contribute some of the risks, the single most preventable risk factor is smoking. There is also a link to the disease of the gums and there is emerging information about the link to the microbiome, the bacteria that live in our gut. The common signs and symptoms of this disease include pain and stiffness in the smaller joints, especially the fingers, toes, wrists, and elbows. The symptoms are usually worse in the morning making it difficult for the patient to move about immediately upon rising. The diagnosis of RA is usually based on the typical clinical presentation with symptoms such as pain and stiffness in the joints and the involvement of smaller joints. Specific blood tests called rheumatoid factor and anti-CCP antibodies can help to confirm the diagnosis of this disease. What are the other risk factors for rheumatoid arthritis? Here are several other factors that can contribute to the development of this disease as given below: Gender: Women are more likely to suffer from RA than men (3.6% of women are affected in their lifetime compared to 1.7% of men). Age: RA typically affects patients between the ages of 23 to 40 years but it can occur later in life too. Smoking: Cigarette smoking significantly increases the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Environmental exposures: Exposure to asbestos, dust, and silica may increase the risk of RA. Obesity: People who are overweight are more likely to develop RA than those with a healthy weight. What are the best ways to prevent the development of RA? The most important one is not to smoke; Keeping trim and avoiding obesity; It’s probably helpful and important to keep good oral hygiene and avoid periodontitis.
A technician of the U. Geological Survey uses a mass spectrometer to determine the proportions of neodymium isotopes contained in a sample of igneous rock. Cloth wrappings from a mummified bull Samples taken from a pyramid in Dashur, Egypt. Radiocarbon dating also referred to as carbon dating or carbon dating is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbona radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed in the late s by Willard Libbywho received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in It is based on the fact that radiocarbon 14 C is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. Play a comparison between the dates for them, there are younger. Archaeologists routinely use radiometric dating has also found applications in its application in geology or sedimentary rocks - this material in. What event is a rock or nuclei have been in principle this method of these radioactive. This is full of the age of dating, geologists use for inorganic materials. As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 75, lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you succeed. Already registered? Radioactive dating is a method of dating rocks and minerals using radioactive isotopes. This method is useful for igneous and metamorphic rocks, which cannot be dated by the stratigraphic correlation method used for sedimentary rocks. Over naturally-occurring isotopes are known. In order to date old geological material, geologists rely on radionuclides whose period half life is between a few hundred of thousand and a few million of years. The decrease of these elements, of which the most known is uranium, plays the role of the timer. The dating of lava, using the Potassium-Argon technique is an example of the use of geology of these radioelements. Radiometric dating often called radioactive dating is a way to find out how old something is. The method compares the amount of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, in samples. The method uses known decay rates. Generally, there are four main concepts that students struggle with when thinking about radioactive decay:. Radioactivity and radioactive decay are spontaneous processes. Students often struggle with this concept; therefore, it should be stressed that it is impossible to know exactly when each of the radioactive elements in a rock will decay.
4th Grade Spelling Books are 4 Books. Fourth Graders Learn to Spell Hundreds of Words at a Time! Guaranteed! Comprehensive and Logical 4th Grade Spelling Books or E-Books Exclusive 100 Spelling Rules applied in 600 Phonics Lessons in 10 Books Guaranteed Learning: These 4th grade spelling books are guaranteed to teach phonics and the spelling of hundreds of words at a time (4,500 words). Usually, 4th graders learn from these books within weeks or months. Begin with Read Instantly 1. Begin with the book Read Instantly even if your child can read and comprehend. Read Instantly is not only to teach reading. It is also to teach the basic rules that govern the spelling of phonics in words. To see sample lessons from Read Instantly, click on →Free Long Vowels Lessons 2. When finished teaching from Read Instantly, teach one chapter from Learn to Spell 500 Words a Day: The Vowel A and one chapter from Learn to Spell 500 Words a Day: The Consonants and then alternate until you finish teaching from the two books. To see samples from the book Learn to Spell 500 Words a Day, click on →Free Phonics-based Spelling Lessons 3. After the 4th grade, you will need the rest of the books to teach the rest of English. To see sample lessons from the book 100 Spelling Rules, click on →Free Spelling Rules Additional Optional Information Meaning of Teaching Phonics: The term “teaching or learning phonics” is not usually used to mean learning only the ABC’s. Typically, “teaching or learning phonics” means learning the sounds produced by combinations of letters like the “cean” in “ocean” and by letters that do not sound like their letter name like the “y” in “fry.” Our 10 books are for learning to spell nearly all of the combinations of letters and just about all of the letters that do not sound like their letter name in 32,000 words. Learning phonics precisely means identifying which letter or combination of letters to choose when spelling every English sound in every English word. Logical Learning Style causes Spelling Difficulties: If a child is in the 4th grade and has spelling difficulties and / or is stumbling when reading aloud, that child’s learning style must be a logical learning style. This means if that child is provided with logical explanations or spelling rules, he or she will easily memorize the spelling of English words. If no logical explanations or spelling rules are provided, logical learners become poor spellers before the 4th grade. Soon after that, they are told they have dyslexia in reading or in spelling or in both. Solutions for Spelling Difficulties: The vast majority of people are logical learners and they need our 100 spelling rules to know when to spell a sound one-way and not the other, as in the final sound in social, substantial, and controversial. Our 4th grade spelling books are logical and thus they are the solution to spelling difficulties. Vowels and Phonics: Vowels rule English and they cannot be avoided; and learning the vowels is the most important part of learning to spell. From these 4th grade spelling books, you will teach the spelling of over 4,500 words logically. Soon after that, you will need to teach the rest of English from the rest of our books. Our books are comprehensive; they contain all of the sounds and spelling patterns of phonics, not just bits and pieces of them. Why parents must get involved? Parents must get involved because teaching the spelling of phonics in thousands of words is a process that requires much more time than simply teaching the ABC’s. Obviously, our schools have not been able to do it alone; otherwise, we would not have had such high illiteracy rate. No teacher has the time needed to teach your child to read or spell 90 sounds we call phonics spelled in over 180 ways we call spelling patterns in thousands of words. Teachers may recommend these 4th grade spelling books to parents, and most parents will be more than happy to get involved. Solutions for Dyslexia Understanding how your child got dyslexia is half of the solution to ending it. Dyslexic kids are logical learners. When no logical spelling rules are provided, logical learners are the ones who become poor spellers and then get dyslexia in reading, or in reading aloud, or in spelling or in all of them. To reverse dyslexia in the 4th grade, first read this short article to learn how your child got dyslexia →How do you get dyslexia? Dyslexia Can End: Don’t worry if your child has dyslexia; Camilia’s books have been helping those who everyone else has given up on them. Dyslexia in reading, spelling, and reversing letters ends after learning to spell, and after slowing down to write words slowly. See how Lee Learned to Read in a Week! 10 Phonics and Spelling Books or E-books See the→ 10 Books 10 e-books available for all e-readers and for free apps, see →Kindle Store Here’s what our satisfied clients say: Brian could not use his hands to write words and his school had accepted him living with a keyboard for the rest of his life. In less than two hours, Camilia taught Brian to spell 20 words, gave him a mechanical pencil with a big eraser to erase whenever he wanted, and then asked him to write only one of the 20 words he learned. Brian handwrote all 20 words and he turned out to have the most beautiful handwriting. Obviously, Brian used to scribble to avoid misspelling and to protest the inconsistency in the way we spell words. When asked how did you do it? Brian replied, “It’s this pencil.”
In the geologic timescale, the Olenekian is an age in the Early Triassic epoch or a stage in the Lower Triassic series. It spans the time between 251.2 Ma and 247.2 Ma (million years ago). The Olenekian follows the Induan and is followed by the Anisian. The Olenekian saw the deposition of a large part of the Buntsandstein in Europe. Archosaurs - a group encompassing crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and ultimately birds - are diapsid reptiles that first evolved from Archosauriform ancestors during the Olenekian. The Olenekian is roughly coeval with the regional Yongningzhenian stage used in China. The Olenekian stage was introduced into scientific literature by Russian stratigraphers in 1956. The stage is named after Olenëk in Siberia. Before the subdivision in Olenekian and Induan became established, both stages formed the Scythian stage, which has since disappeared from the official timescale. The base of the Olenekian is at the lowest occurrence of the ammonites Hedenstroemi or Meekoceras gracilitatis, and of the conodont Neospathodus waageni. It is defined as ending near the lowest occurrences of genera Japonites, Paradanubites, and Paracrochordiceras; and of the conodont Chiosella timorensis. A GSSP (global reference profile for the base) has in 2009 not yet been established. The Olenekian is sometimes divided into the Smithian and the Spathian subages or substages. \|Archosauromorphs of the Olenekian\| \|Volgograd Oblast, Russia\|\|The oldest known tanystropheid.\| \|South Africa\|\|A proterosuchid that is one of the earliest well-known archosauriforms. It was over 2 meters (6 ft) long and is thought to have behaved like a modern crocodile. Its mouth had two distinct features: the top of its jaw hooked downwards to aid in holding prey, and the upper palate was lined with a row of teeth (a primitive feature lost in later archosaurs).\| \|250-237.2 Ma, Olenekian to Ladinian\|\|South Africa\|\|The largest erythrosuchid. One of its few distinguishing features other than its size is the smoothness of the margin of the squamosal. In other erythrosuchids, the margin of this bone projects backward from the skull, giving it a hook-like appearance. In Erythrosuchus, the margin is convex and lacks a hook.\| \|247.3-245 Ma, Olenekian to Anisian\|\|Russia\| \|Russia\|\|An erythrosuchid approximately 1.50–2 meters (5–6 ft 8 in) long.\| \|252-250 Ma, Induan to Olenekian\|\|South Africa \|A proterosuchid that was one of the largest land reptiles during the Early Triassic. It looked somewhat similar to a primitive crocodilian, and shared many of their modern features like long jaws, powerful neck muscles, short legs and a lengthy tail, while possessing several features unique to proterosuchids such as its hook-shaped mouth and long rows of simple cone-shaped teeth. This jaw may have been an adaptation for catching prey, such as Lystrosaurus.\| \|†Ichthyopterygia of the Olenekian\| \|Miyagi Prefecture, Japan British Columbia, Canada \|Therapsids of the Olenekian\| \|247.2-237 Ma, Olenekian to Ladinian\|\|South Africa \|A large-bodied cynodont that had an almost worldwide distribution. Its dentary was equipped with differentiated teeth that show this animal could effectively process its food before swallowing.\| \|A kannemeyeriid that was one of the first representatives of the family, and hence one of the first large herbivores of the Triassic. Although it had a large head, it was lightweight due to the size of the eye sockets and nasal cavity. It also had limb girdles which formed massive plates of bone that helped support its heavily built body.\| \|Driekoppen Formation, Free State, South Africa Omingonde Formation, Namibia \|This geochronology article is a stub. You can help by expanding it.\|
Mitosis and cytokinesis differ in that mitosis the process in which a duplicated genome within a cell separates into identical halves, while cytokinesis involves the division of cellular cytoplasm into two daughter cells. Although both processes produce offspring cells, the cells produced during mitosis are identical, while those produced by cytokinesis are not. These processes also vary in length and complexity: mitosis occurs in three distinct phases, while cytokinesis requires just two. Mitosis and cytokinesis both take place within the cells of living organisms, including microbes, unicellular organisms, plants and animals and human beings. Regardless of where they take place, mitosis and cytokinesis always produce two offspring: never more, and never less. Mitosis begins with the Interphase, which is followed by two stages of Karyokinesis. Cytokinesis, on the other hand, begins with the division of a cell cytoplasm into two equal parts: this division creates two daughter cells, each with its own nucleus and cell walls. The next phase of cytokinesis involves the distribution of cellular organelles (including structures and an exchange of genes and DNA from parent cells) to both daughter cells. At the end of the mitosis process, the two nuclei produced remain enclosed in a single cell, but cytokinesis produces two separate nuclei that are enclosed in two separate cells.
Lab Write Up Essay Sample - Word count: 754 - Category: biology A limited time offer! Get a custom sample essay written according to your requirements urgent 3h delivery guaranteedOrder Now Lab Write Up Essay Sample The tooth formula is a shorthand technique that biologist use to keep track of the teeth on a particular jaw. The formula consisted of two lines, top jaw and bottom jaw, which were used to count how many incisors, canines, premolars, and molar teeth a species had. Species A, Odocoileus virginiaus (white-tailed deer), had a tooth formula of 0033/3133. On the top jaw, the deer had zero incisor and canine teeth but have three of both the premolars and molars. On the bottom jaw, the deer had three incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars. Species B, Canis latrans (coyote), had a tooth formula of 3142/3143. On the top jaw, the coyote had three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and two molars. On the bottom jaw, the coyote has three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars. Both the deer and coyote skull were long and skinny towards the nose and mouth. The coyote skull had a much rounder nose than the deer. Species C, Homo sapiens (human), had a tooth formula of 2122/2122. On both the top and bottom jaws, there were two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and two molars. In comparison to the deer and coyote skull, the human was an outcast. The human skull was a short distance from the back of the skull to the front. The human skull was very different in bone structure and longer in height than the deer and coyote skulls. The tooth width from the deer, coyote, and human had a wide range in variety (Figure 1). There was a direct relationship between premolars one and two Figure 1. Different tooth types in deer, coyote, and human compared by tooth width (cm). using the deer and human. The coyote had much smaller premolars than the deer and human. Figure 1 shows how similar the tooth width of a deer and coyote are. The cusps on the molars were very similar between the coyote and the human. The coyote and human molar cusps were very similar in molars one and two. In Figure 1, the human and coyote tooth width are almost displayed the same. On molar three, the cusp sizes were very similar between the deer and coyote. The jaw length of a deer, 6.151 cm, is closest to a coyote, 5.507 cm, making the molars towards the back of the jaw more similar to each other than humans. Figure 1 gives a visual on the numbers for data and comparisons. The tooth sharpness of each animal depended on the type of diet each animal had (Figure 2). The premolars had a linear pattern between the three animals. Figure 2: Different tooth types of deer, coyote, and humans compared by tooth sharpness (deg.). Coyote’s had the sharpest premolars, deer’s in-between, and human’s with the dullest premolars. Figure 2 compares the degrees of each premolar and each time, the pattern was followed. The molars had no relationship between each animal. Molar one cusp one and two are most closely related in both deer and humans. Molar two cusps one and two are most closely related to deer and human out of the three animals. The cusps were similar but have about a ten-degree sharpness difference. The molars and cusps human’s and deer’s and human’s were similar but have about a twelve-degree difference between sharpness. In the second molar of the human, the cusps were less sharp than the deer. Figure 2 displays that there was no pattern between the molars of the three animals. Taking the calculated number of tooth width and dividing it by the matching jaw length found relative tooth width (Figure 3). Relative tooth width displays the tooth width relative to the length of the jaw. The jaw length of a deer was 6.151 cm, Figure 3: Displays three different animals and how their tooth width is related to their jaw length. which was the longest jaw out of all species compared in this experiment. The coyote had a jaw length of 5.507cm while the human had a jaw length of 2.932 cm. Premolar one of the deer was most similar to the coyote. Premolar’s 1, 2, and 3 were in proportion between the human and deer. The relative tooth width of the deer was very close in range while the coyote was not. By looking at Figure 3, this can be determined. The human has the highest relative tooth width out of the three species being compared.
2014, DOI: 10.1038/nature13749 Plant science: Towards turbocharged photosynthesis The development of tobacco plants that are genetically engineered to produce a more efficient form of Rubisco, an enzyme involved in photosynthesis, marks a step towards increasing crop yields. As the world's population increases, the spectre of severe food shortages is growing, with the United Nations predicting that food production will need to double by 2050. It has been proposed that cyanobacteria — which obtain their energy from a highly efficient form of photosynthesis — might hold the key to increasing the yield of our most important crops and vegetables. On page 547 of this issue, , Lin et al. report a major step towards realizing this possibility, finding that cyanobacteria can be used to improve photosynthesis in the leaves of crops.
Burkina Faso - It is not often that a study completely upends a prevailing view, and, in doing so, offers hope of improving the lives of hundreds of millions of people. In arid places where water is scarce, the planting of trees is often discouraged out of the belief that trees always reduce the availability of much-needed water. Yet scientists working in Burkina Faso found that when a certain number of trees are present, the amount of groundwater recharge is actually maximized. The study is a “game changer”, according to one of the study’s authors, Douglas Sheil, professor at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences and a senior research associate with the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). “We don’t get so many scientific studies in our lives where we see such a potential shift in how we do something,” Sheil said. “It is very dramatic in the sense that it totally overturns the way we had looked at trees and water availability.” WET WET WET Previously, few studies had examined tree cover in the tropics or what effect scattered, or intermediate, tree cover might have on water yields. Drawing on the idea that trees can improve the movement of water in soil, the scientists worked with an ‘optimum tree cover theory’ that would provide for the maximum amount of groundwater recharge. The research bridges two contrasting views on forests and water: the ‘trade-off theory’ and the ‘sponge theory’, explained Aida Bargués Tobella of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, one of the study’s lead authors. The ‘sponge theory’ holds that forests soak up water during the rainy season and slowly release it during the dry season, thereby sustaining stream flow during dry periods, whereas the ‘trade-off theory’—which has become the dominant paradigm—holds that more trees equals less water. “Both perceptions are true to some extent, but what we show is that the net effect of trees on groundwater recharge depends on the degree of tree cover,” Bargués Tobella said. “So trees can improve groundwater recharge to a point.” By testing groundwater levels both near and far from trees in a typical semi-arid landscape over several years, the researchers found that an intermediate amount of tree cover created conditions in which more water was available than if there were no trees or a large number of them. “Without trees, these sensitive tropical soils lose their large pores, which are responsible for leading water down into the ground quickly,” said Ulrik Ilstedt of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), the study’s other lead author. “Without these pores, the water flows away on the soil surface or is trapped in the compact soil surface and evaporates.” “With that said, if there are too many trees, they will still consume more water than what is gained by their soil improvement.” The most important point of our study is to show that a trade-off between water and tree cover doesn’t always exist, and that more trees can actually improve groundwater recharge. Other factors that also affect water availability include tree species, soil quality and type, and climate. This study was done on a type of soil that is widespread in the tropics, but there are other types of less sensitive soils that would not have produced the same positive effects, according to Ilstedt. However, some 70 percent of the semi-arid tropics have soils similar to those used for this research, he added. “The most important point of our study is to show that a trade-off between water and tree cover doesn’t always exist, and that more trees can actually improve groundwater recharge,” Bargués Tobella said. “This means that people could benefit from the many goods and services that trees provide while also seeing improved water availability.” And with 340 million people in Africa lacking access to adequate and hygienic sources of water, that’s a lot of benefits. The benefits of trees in the seasonally dry tropics for people in their daily lives are myriad and varied. In particular, in the study area of Saponé in Burkina Faso, Shea trees dominate: the more Shea trees there are, the more nuts local people can sell. Trees also support erosion control and climate change mitigation. “With greater tree cover, there are also benefits like biodiversity, carbon and wood fuel that were being denied before,” Sheil said. “Large areas of the arid tropics actually have no tree cover, and having more trees would be advantageous, as it would give people more access to fuelwood, fruit and many other benefits.” The findings from the study enable people to control and manage such conditions by planting more trees, Sheil added, noting that it presented an opportunity for donor organizations to start working to support land management that facilitated the planting of trees in water-deprived areas. For instance, this research is extremely relevant for ongoing tree-based restoration efforts in the Sahel region, such as the Great Green Wall Initiative or the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100). SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS Goal Number Six of the recently agreed upon Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to increase access to clean water, with the recognition that water is a basic human requirement. Landscapes such as those studied in Burkina Faso house some of the world’s poorest people, where, as the study notes, limited water not only constrains food production, nutrition and health, but also reduces opportunities for education, work and improved livelihoods. The finding that increased tree cover in tropical dry regions could increase people’s access to water could therefore have a major impact on their lives, the researchers believe. “The study needs to repeated in other sites as the optimal tree cover will vary with conditions, and with the species involved, but there is no good reason not to expect similar results in other parts of the tropics,” Sheil said. “I think this will have global significance.” We want you to share Forests News content, which is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). This means you are free to redistribute our material for non-commercial purposes. All we ask is that you give Forests News appropriate credit and link to the original Forests News content, indicate if changes were made, and distribute your contributions under the same Creative Commons license. 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Reducing food loss and waste (FLW) is critical for achieving healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Within the United States, 30% to 50% of food produced is lost or wasted. These losses occur throughout multiple stages of the food supply chain from production to consumption. Reducing FLW prevents the waste of land, water, energy, and other resources embedded in food and is therefore essential to improving the sustainability of food systems. Despite the increasing number of studies identifying FLW reduction as a societal imperative, we lack the information needed to assess fully the effectiveness of interventions along the supply chain. In this paper, we synthesize the available literature, data, and methods for estimating the volume of FLW and assessing the full environmental and economic effects of interventions to prevent or reduce FLW in the United States. We describe potential FLW interventions in detail, including policy changes, technological solutions, and changes in practices and behaviors at all stages of the food system from farms to consumers and approaches to conducting economic analyses of the effects of interventions. In summary, this paper comprehensively reviews available information on the causes and consequences of FLW in the United States and lays the groundwork for prioritizing FLW interventions to benefit the environment and stakeholders in the food system. Read the article in Science of the Total Environment.
A brain aneurysm, medically known as a cerebral aneurysm, develops when a weakened part of a brain artery bulges out, creating a pocket filled with blood. Whether big or small, this ballooned spot in the artery can press on the tissues surrounding it. If the brain aneurysm ruptures, bleeding will occur, a condition known as a hemorrhagic stroke. The exact number of Americans with a brain aneurysm is hard to determine, as the condition doesn’t usually come with obvious signs and symptoms. However, researchers estimate that around 3-5% of Americans develop brain aneurysms. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, around 30,000 people in the United States suffer from a ruptured brain aneurysm every year. Patients who survive will need to undergo neuro rehabilitation to help with their recovery. Click the link below to find out more:
The Eyespots Have It 07 Nov, 2013 The old proverb about a leopard not being able to change its spots now has a new biological footnote after researchers in Australian recently found that fish exposed to predatory danger can, indeed, transform their spots to make them less vulnerable to attack. Working with young Ambon Damselfish, Pomacentrus amboinensis, researchers from Australia’s ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies (CoECRS) have made the remarkable discovery that, when constantly threatened with being eaten, the fish not only grow a larger false ‘eyespot’ near their tail–but also reduce the size of their real eyes. Small prey fish with bigger “false eyes” on their rear fins dramatically boosted their chances of survival on the reef, they found. The changes were not evolutionary—over a succession of generations—but rather a relatively rapid response by individual fish tracked over a period of six weeks. The enlargement of the eyespots results in a fish that looks like it is heading in the opposite direction–potentially confusing predatory fish targeting them to be eaten, says Oona Lönnstedt, working toward her Ph.D. at CoECRS and James Cook University. These spots are known as ocelli, and for decades scientists have debated whether false eyespots, or dark circular marks on less vulnerable regions of the bodies of prey animals, played an important role in protecting them from predators–or were simply a fortuitous evolutionary accident. The widely accepted theory is that these spots, found in the juveniles of many species, tend to cause predators to strike at the eyespotted tail or fin rather than the much more vulnerable head region. The CoECRS team has found the first clear evidence that fish can change the size of both the misleading spot and their real eye to maximise their chances of survival when under threat. “It’s an amazing feat of cunning for a tiny fish,” Lonnstedt says. “Young damsel fish are pale yellow in colour and have this distinctive black circular ‘eye’ marking towards their tail, which fades as they mature. We figured it must serve an important purpose when they are young.” “We found that when young damsel fish were placed in a specially built tank where they could see and smell predatory fish without being attacked, they automatically began to grow a bigger eye spot, and their real eye became relatively smaller, compared with damsels exposed only to herbivorous fish, or isolated ones. “We believe this is the first study to document predator-induced changes in the size of eyes and eye-spots in prey animals.” When the researchers investigated what happens in nature on a coral reef with lots of predators, they found that juvenile damsel fish with enlarged eye spots had an amazing five-fold increase in survival rate compared to fish with a normal-sized spot. “This was dramatic proof that eyespots work—and give young fish a hugely increased chance of not being eaten,” says Lonnstedt. “We think the eyespots not only cause the predator to attack the wrong end of the fish, enabling it to escape by accelerating in the opposite direction, but also reduce the risk of fatal injury to the head,” she explains. The team also noted that when placed in proximity to a predator the young damsel fish also adopted other protective behaviours and features, including reducing activity levels, taking refuge more often and developing a chunkier body shape less easy for a predator to swallow. “It all goes to show that even a very young, tiny fish a few millimetres long have evolved quite a range of clever strategies for survival which they can deploy when a threatening situation demands,” Ms Lonnstedt says. Their paper Predator-induced changes in the growth of eyes and false eyespots by Oona M. Lonnstedt, Mark I. McCormick and Douglas P. Chivers appears in the latest issue of the journal Scientific Reports. The animal world is full of brilliant colours and striking patterns that serve to hide individuals or attract the attention of others. False eyespots are pervasive across a variety of animal taxa and are among natures most conspicuous markings. Understanding the adaptive significance of eyespots has long fascinated evolutionary ecologists. Here we show for the first time that the size of eyespots is plastic and increases upon exposure to predators. Associated with the growth of eyespots there is a corresponding reduction in growth of eyes in juvenile Ambon damselfish,Pomacentrus amboinensis. These morphological changes likely direct attacks away from the head region. Exposure to predators also induced changes in prey behaviour and morphology. Such changes could prevent or deter attacks and increase burst speed, aiding in escape. Damselfish exposed to predators had drastically higher survival suffering only 10% mortality while controls suffered 60% mortality 72 h after release. From materials released by the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies (CoECRS). Featured Image credit: http://www.ibrc-bali.org/research/project/pomacentrus-amboinensis/ Indonesian Biodiversity Research Center Images this page: Oona Lonnstadt, top.
In its most extreme form materialism is the belief that all of reality consists solely of matter. It denies the existence of spirits, souls, and gods, and it insists that all activities of mind and emotion are based on physical properties. Some schools of materialism allow for the existence of gods, souls, and spirits; but they insist that these, too, are fundamentally composed of matter. Throughout its long history, materialism has been closely associated with, and supported by, investigations into the physical sciences. These sciences have long been based only on studies of matter, of physical bodies and their properties. Because of its emphasis on matter alone, materialism has often been considered antireligious. Materialism originated in ancient Greek philosophy during the 6th century bc, but it found its best exponents in Leucippus and Democritus in the 5th century. These men insisted that the universe consists of matter and empty space. All matter is made of atoms, which are limitless in number. The differences apparent in various objects were explained as variations in the size and shape of atoms and by the different ways they combine. The atomic theory of Democritus and Leucippus was completely denied by the major Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It was temporarily revived by the Roman philosopher Lucretius (1st century bc), who explained the atomic structure of the world in his book ‘On the Nature of Things’. The growth of Christianity as Europe’s dominant religion sidetracked materialism for several centuries. Denial of spirit as the basic reality was condemned by the church. In the 17th century, however, materialism was revived by the scientist Pierre Gassendi and the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes was the more completely materialist of the two. Even space, according to him, consists of a matter called ether, which can be neither seen nor touched. During the 18th century the materialist emphasis was on human nature. It was insisted that mind and soul are dependent entirely upon the physical properties of matter for their functioning. The most significant of the materialist writers was the French philosopher Paul H.D. d’Holbach, whose ‘System of Nature’ (1770) asserts that all reality depends on the movement and distribution of matter. From the late 18th century through the early decades of the 20th, materialism gained support from advances made in chemistry, physics, and mechanics. The discovery of molecules led to the revival of atomic theory. The publication of Charles Darwin’s works on evolution demonstrated the possibility that living things can be accounted for on a material basis without any need to refer to Creation or supernatural purposes. The invention of the computer later in the 20th century suggested to materialists that mind itself can be explained purely in terms of matter and of electrical connections within the brain tissue. It is also possible, however, that studies in atomic particles and theories of the convertibility of matter into energy may undercut materialist philosophy.
- Online only Fresh water rays River stingrays or freshwater stingrays are Neotropical freshwater fishes of the Potamotrygonidae family in the order Myliobatiformes, one of the four orders of batoids, cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They are found in rivers in tropical and subtropical South America (freshwater stingrays in Africa, Asia and Australia are in another family, Dasyatidae). A single marine genus, Styracura, of the tropical West Atlantic and East Pacific are also part of Potamotrygonidae. They are generally brownish, greyish or black, often with a mottled, speckled or spotted pattern, have disc widths ranging from 31 to 200 centimetres (1.0–6.6 ft) and venomous tail stingers. River stingrays feed on a wide range of smaller animals and the females give birth to live young. There are more than 35 species in five genera.
Dental decay or cavity is a permanently damaged areas in teeth caused by accumulated bacteria’s onto tooth. Dental caries is caused by the action of acids on the enamel surface. The acid is produced when sugars (mainly sucrose) in foods or drinks react with bacteria present in the dental bio-film (plaque) on tooth surface. There may be no symptoms, but if left untreated, can cause toothache, infection and ultimately tooth loss. To Prevent Tooth Decay: 1. Brush your teeth twice a day with fluoride containing tooth paste. 2. Clean between your teeth daily with dental floss or inter-dental cleaners. 3. Professionals dental cleaning every 6 months.
You would never imagine that tiny, obscure wasps like this could have a place in British history, or indeed have contributed to the culture and literacy of the Western world. But follow Athayde Tonhasca’s thread. Let there be gall enough in thy ink. — William Shakespeare No doubt you’ve seen plants with abnormal growths that evoke images of tumours or warts in animals. These are galls, which are caused by invasive agents such as viruses, nematodes, mites and insects. When a plant is invaded by a gall-forming organism, it produces hormones that make the cells in the affected area enlarge and multiply quickly, creating bizarre deformations in an array of colours, shapes and sizes. Some plants are severely weakened by galls (the French wine industry was devastated in the 1860s by the grape gall), but many show no ill effects. Gall midges or gall gnats (Family Cecidomyiidae) and gall wasps (Family Cynipidae) are the main gall-forming organisms, but it is the wasps that are particularly important for oak trees. Of the 90 or so gall wasps in Britain, 42 are parasitic on oaks. Worldwide, about 1000 species of cynipid wasps have been identified, predominantly in the Northern hemisphere. Galls often act as ‘resource sinks’, drawing chemical compounds from other parts of the plant. In the case of trees, galls concentrate high levels of tannic acid, a substance used throughout the world to produce traditional medicines, hair dyes and tanning agents. But tannic acid from tree galls, particularly from oak, has a special historical significance: combined with iron salts, it forms a bluish-black substance that has been used as ink since about 2,000 BC. From the 5th century to the early 20th century, crushed oak galls were mixed with water, iron sulphate and gum arabic to make gall ink, which was the main medium for writing and drawing in the Western world. Medieval monks relied on gall ink to copy many of the surviving manuscripts from the Middle Ages. Old music scores, drawings, letters, maps, wills, book-keeping records, ship logs, etc. were produced with gall ink. In the words of entomologist George McGavin, “this indelible ink has preserved for posterity the Magna Carta, the American Declaration of Independence, the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci and the notes of Charles Darwin to name but a few.” And now we are closing in on our tiny wasp. Gall wasps are very small and difficult to spot, since they spend most of their life inside the galls. So it is not surprising that we know very little about their biology and ecology; for many species, there are no recorded males. Nonetheless, Andricus kollari, our highlighted species, can be identified by the galls it produces, which look like marbles hanging from oak twigs – hence known as oak marble galls. This species is not native to Britain; it was deliberately introduced to England from the Middle East around 1840 for the manufacture of inks and dyes and cloth dying. Within 40 years, the wasp had spread to the north of Scotland, and it is now found across Great Britain. The oak marble gall wasp arrived too late to make as great a contribution to our written heritage as other gall wasps; nonetheless, this species has a place in our history as an example of entrepreneurship during Victorian times, when the natural world was seen as a source of novelty, wealth and progress.
A flashlight (more often called a torch outside North America) is a portable hand-held electric light. Usually, the source of the light is a small incandescent light bulb or light-emitting diode (LED). A typical flashlight consists of a light bulb mounted in a reflector, a transparent cover (sometimes combined with a lens) to protect the light source and reflector, a battery, and a switch. These are supported and protected by a case. The invention of the dry cell and miniature incandescent electric light bulbs made the first battery-powered flashlights possible around 1899. Today flashlights use mostly incandescent lamps or light-emitting diodes and run on disposable or rechargeable batteries. Some are powered by the user turning a crank or shaking the lamp, and some have solar panels to recharge a battery. In addition to the general-purpose hand-held flashlight, many forms have been adapted for special uses. Head or helmet-mounted flashlights designed for miners and campers leave the hands free. Some flashlights can be used underwater or in flammable atmospheres. - 1 Etymology - 2 History - 3 Incandescent - 4 LED - 5 HID - 6 Accessories - 7 Formats and specialized designs - 8 Power sources - 9 Reflectors and lenses - 10 Control switch - 11 Materials - 12 Ratings and standards - 13 Applications - 14 See also - 15 References - 16 External links Early flashlights ran on zinc-carbon batteries, which could not provide a steady electric current and required periodic "rest" to continue functioning. Because these early flashlights also used energy-inefficient carbon-filament bulbs, "resting" occurred at short intervals. Consequently, they could be used only in brief flashes, hence the common North American name "flashlight". In 1887, the first dry cell battery was invented. Unlike previous batteries, it used a paste electrolyte instead of a liquid. This was the first battery suitable for portable electrical devices, as it did not spill or break easily and worked in any orientation. The first mass-produced dry cell batteries came in 1896, and the invention of portable electric lights soon followed. Portable hand-held electric lights offered advantages in convenience and safety over (combustion) torches, candles and lanterns. The electric lamp was odorless, smokeless, and emitted less heat than combustion-powered lighting. It could be instantly turned on and off, and avoided fire risk. On January 10, 1899, British inventor David Misell obtained U.S. Patent No. 617,592, assigned to American Electrical Novelty and Manufacturing Company. This "electric device" designed by Misell was powered by "D" batteries laid front to back in a paper tube with the light bulb and a rough brass reflector at the end. The company donated some of these devices to the New York City police, who responded favorably to them. Carbon-filament bulbs and fairly crude dry cells made early flashlights an expensive novelty with low sales and low manufacturer interest. Development of the tungsten-filament lamp in 1904, with three times the efficiency of carbon filament types, and improved batteries, made flashlights more useful and popular. The advantage of instant control, and the absence of flame, meant that hand-held electric lights began to replace combustion-based lamps such as the hurricane lantern. By 1922 several types were available; the tubular hand-held variety, a lantern style that could be set down for extended use, pocket size lamps for close work, and large reflector searchlight-type lamps for lighting distant objects. In 1922 there were an estimated 10 million flashlight users in the United States, with annual sales of renewal batteries and flashlights at $20 million, comparable to sales of many line-operated electrical appliances. Flashlights became very popular in China; by the end of the 1930s, 60 companies made flashlights, some selling for as little as one-third the cost of equivalent imported models. Miniature lamps developed for flashlight and automotive uses became an important sector of the incandescent lamp manufacturing business. Incandescent flashlights use incandescent light bulbs which consists of a glass bulb and a tungsten filament. The bulbs are under vacuum or filled with argon, krypton or xenon. Some high-power incandescent flashlights use a halogen lamp where the bulb contains a halogen gas such as iodine or bromine to improve the life and efficacy of the bulb. In all but disposable or novelty flashlights, the bulb is user-replaceable; the bulb life may be only a few hours. The light output of an incandescent lamp in a flashlight varies widely depending on the type of lamp. A miniature keychain lamp produces one or two lumens. A two D-cell flashlight using a common prefocus-style miniature lamp will produce on the order of 15 to 20 lumens of light and a beam of about 200 candlepower. One popular make of rechargeable focusing flashlight uses a halogen lamp and produces 218 lumens. By comparison, a 60-watt household incandescent lamp will produce about 900 lumens. The luminous efficacy or lumens produced per watt of input of flashlight bulbs varies over the approximate range of 8 to 22 lumens/watt, depending on the size of the bulb and the fill gas, with halogen-filled 12 volt lamps having the highest efficacy. Powerful white-light-emitting diodes (LED)s are increasingly replacing incandescent bulbs in practical flashlights. LEDs existed for decades, mainly as low-power indicator lights. In 1999, Lumileds Corporation of San Jose, California, introduced the Luxeon LED, a high-power white-light emitter. This made possible LED flashlights with power and running time better than incandescent lights. The first Luxeon LED flashlight was the Arc LS, designed in 2001. White LEDs in 5 mm diameter packages produce only a few lumens each; many units may be grouped together to provide additional light. Power LEDs, drawing more than 100 milliamperes each, simplify the optical design problem of producing a powerful and tightly-controlled beam. LEDs can be significantly more efficient than incandescent lamps, with white LEDs producing on the order of 100 lumens for every watt, compared to 8-10 lumens per watt of small incandescent bulbs. An LED flashlight will have a longer battery life than an incandescent flashlight with comparable output. LEDs are also less fragile than glass lamps. LED lamps have different spectra of light compared to incandescent sources, and are made in several ranges of color temperature and color rendering index. Since the LED has a long life compared to the usual life of a flashlight, very often it is permanently installed. LEDs generally must have some kind of control to limit current through the diode. Flashlights using one or two disposable 1.5 volt cells require a boost converter to provide the higher voltage required by a white LED, which need around 3.4 volts to function. Flashlights using three or more dry cells may only use a resistor to limit current. Some flashlights electronically regulate the current through the LEDs to stabilize light output as the batteries discharge. LEDs maintain nearly constant color temperature regardless of input voltage or current, while the color temperature of an incandescent bulb rapidly declines as the battery discharges, becoming redder and less visible. Regulated LED flashlights may also have user-selectable levels of output appropriate to a task, for example, low light for reading a map and high output for checking a road sign. This would be difficult to do with a single incandescent bulb since efficacy of the lamp drops rapidly at low output. LED flashlights may consume 1 watt or much more from the battery, producing heat as well as light. In contrast to tungsten filaments, which must be hot to produce light, both the light output and the life of an LED decrease with temperature. Heat dissipation for the LED often dictates that small high-power LED flashlights have aluminium or other high heat conductivity bodies, reflectors and other parts, to dissipate heat; they can become warm during use. Light output from LED flashlights varies even more widely than for incandescent lights. "Keychain" type lamps operating on button batteries, or lights using a single 5 mm LED, may only produce a couple of lumens. Even a small LED flashlight operating on an AA cell but equipped with a power LED can emit 100 lumens. The most powerful LED flashlights produce more than one thousand lumens and may use multiple power LEDs. LEDs are highly efficient at producing colored light compared with incandescent lamps and filters. An LED flashlight may contain different LEDs for white and colored light, selectable by the user for different purposes. Colored LED flashlights are used for signalling, special inspection tasks, forensic examination, or to track the blood trail of wounded game animals. A flashlight may have a red LED intended to preserve dark adaption of vision. Ultraviolet LEDs may be used for inspection lights, for example, detecting fluorescent dyes added to air conditioning systems to detect leakage, examining paper currency, or checking UV-fluorescing marks on laundry or event ticket holders. Infrared LEDs can be used for illuminators for night vision systems. LED flashlights may be specified to be compatible with night vision devices. A less common type of flashlight uses a High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamp as the light source. An HID gas discharge lamp uses a mixture of metal halide salts and argon as a filler. HID lamps produce more light than an incandescent flashlight using the same amount of electricity. The lamp will last longer and is more shock resistant than a regular incandescent bulb, since it lacks the relatively fragile electrical filament found in incandescent bulbs. However, they are much more expensive, due to the ballast circuit required to start and operate the lamp. An HID lamp requires a short warm-up time before it reaches full output. A typical HID flashlight would have a 35 watt lamp and produce more than 3000 lumens. Certain accessories for a flashlight allow the color of the light to be altered or allow light to be dispersed differently. Translucent colored plastic cones slipped over the lens of a flashlight increase the visibility when looking at the side of the light. Such marshalling wands are frequently used for directing automobiles or aircraft at night. Colored lenses placed over the end of the flashlight are used for signalling, for example, in railway yards. Colored light is occasionally useful for hunters tracking wounded game after dusk, or for forensic examination of an area. A red filter helps preserve night vision after the flashlight is turned off, and can be useful to observe animals (such as nesting Loggerhead sea turtles) without disturbing them. Detachable light guides, consisting of rigid bent plastic rods or semi-rigid or flexible tubes containing optical fibers, are available for some flashlights for inspection inside tanks, or within walls or structures; when not required the light guide can be removed and the light used for other purposes. Formats and specialized designs A penlight is a small, pen-sized flashlight, often containing two AA batteries or AAA batteries. In some types the incandescent light bulb has an integral lens that focuses the light, so no reflector is built into the penlight. Others use incandescent bulbs mounted in reflectors. LED penlights are becoming increasingly common. Low-cost units may be disposable with no provision to replace batteries or bulbs, and are sometimes imprinted with advertising for promotional purposes. A headlamp is designed to be worn on the head, often having separate lamp and battery components. The battery pack may be attached at the back of the head or in a pocket to improve balance. Headlamps leave the user's hands free. A headlamp can be clipped to the brim of a hat, or built to mount on a hard hat, instead of using straps; other types resemble eyeglass frames. Similar to the headlamp, an angle-head flashlight emits light perpendicular to the length of the battery tube; it can be clipped to a headband, belt, or webbing or set on a flat surface. Some types allow the user to adjust the angle of the head. The Fulton MX991/U Flashlight was an angle-head flashlight issued to US military personnel; similar style lights remain popular. Tactical lights are sometimes mounted to a handgun or rifle. They allow momentary illumination of a target. They are small enough to be easily rail-mounted to a gun barrel. Tactical lights must withstand the impact of recoil, and must be easily controlled while holding the weapon. Although most flashlights are designed for user replacement of the batteries and the bulb as needed, fully sealed disposable flashlights, such as inexpensive keyring lights, are made. When the batteries are depleted or the bulb fails, the entire product is discarded. Diving lamps must be watertight under pressure and are used for night diving and supplemental illumination where surface light cannot reach. The battery compartment of a dive lamp may have a catalyst to recombine any hydrogen gas emitted from the battery, since gas cannot be vented in use. People working in hazardous areas with significant concentrations of flammable gases or dusts, such as mines, engine rooms of ships, chemical plants or grain elevators, use "non-incendive", "intrinsically safe" or "explosion proof" flashlights constructed so that any spark in the flashlight is not likely to set off an explosion outside the light. The flashlight may require approval by an authority for the particular service and particular gases or dusts expected. The external temperature rise of the flashlight must not exceed the autoignition point of the gas, so substitution of more powerful lamps or batteries may void the approval. Inspection flashlights have permanently mounted light guides containing optical fibers or plastic rods. Another style has a lamp mounted at the end of a flexible cable, or a semi-rigid or articulated probe. Such lamps are used for inspection inside tanks, or inside structures such as aircraft. Where used for inspecting the interior of tanks containing flammable liquids, the inspection lights may also be rated as flame-proof (explosion-proof) so that they cannot ignite liquids or vapors. Many flashlights are cylindrical in design, with the lamp assembly attached to one end. However, early designs came in a variety of other shapes. Some resembled candlesticks, with a bulb mounted at the top of a battery tube fixed to a flat base, with a handle. Many resembled lanterns, consisting of a battery box with a handle and the lamp and reflector attached to the front. Electric lanterns are used for lighting the broad area immediately around the lantern, as opposed to forming a narrow beam; they can be set down on a level surface or attached to supports. Some electric lanterns use miniature fluorescent lamps for higher efficacy than incandescent bulbs. Portable hand-held electric spotlights can provide larger reflectors and lamps, and more powerful batteries than tubular flashlights meant to fit in a pocket. Multifunction portable devices may include a flashlight as one of their features; for example, a portable radio/flashlight combination. Many smartphones have a button or software application available to turn up their screen backlights to full intensity, or to switch on the camera flash or video light, providing a "flashlight" function. As well as utilitarian flashlights, novelty, toy and ornamental portable electric lights have been made in a myriad of shapes; in the 1890s, one of the earliest portable battery light applications was a type of novelty porcelain tie pin with a concealed bulb and battery. The most common power source for flashlights is the battery. Primary (disposable) battery types used in flashlights include button cells, carbon-zinc batteries in both regular and heavy duty types, alkaline, and lithium. Secondary, rechargeable, types include lead acid batteries, NiMH, NiCd batteries and lithium ion batteries. The choice of batteries will play a determining role in the size, weight, run time, and shape of the flashlight. Flashlight users may prefer a common battery type to simplify replacement. Primary cells are most economical for infrequent use. Some types of lithium primary cell can be stored for years with less risk of leakage compared with zinc-type batteries. Long storage life is useful where flashlights are required only in emergencies. Lithium primary batteries are also useful at lower temperatures than zinc batteries, all of which have water-based electrolytes. Lithium primary batteries have a lower internal resistance than zinc primary batteries and so are more efficient in high-drain flashlights. Flashlights used for extended periods every day may be more economically operated on rechargeable (secondary) batteries. Flashlights designed for rechargeable batteries may allow charging without removing the batteries; for example, a light kept in a vehicle may be trickle-charged and always ready when needed. Some rechargeable flashlights have indicators for the state of charge of the battery. Power-failure lights are designed to keep their batteries charged from a wall plug and to automatically turn on after an AC power failure; the power-failure light can be removed from the wall socket and used as a portable flashlight. Solar powered flashlights use energy from a solar cell to charge an on-board battery for later use. One type of mechanically powered flashlight has a winding crank and spring connected to a small electrical generator (dynamo). Some types use the dynamo to charge a capacitor or battery, while others only light while the dynamo is moving. Others generate electricity using electromagnetic induction. They use a strong permanent magnet that can freely slide up and down a tube, passing through a coil of wire as it does. Shaking the flashlight will charge a capacitor or a rechargeable battery that supplies current to a light source. Such flashlights can be useful during an emergency, when utility power and batteries may not be available. Dynamo-powered flashlights were popular during the Second World War since replacement batteries were difficult to obtain. At least one manufacturer makes a rechargeable flashlight that uses a supercapacitor to store energy. The capacitor can be recharged more rapidly than a battery and can be recharged many times without loss of capacity; however, the running time is limited by the relative bulk of capacitors compared to electrochemical batteries. Reflectors and lenses A reflector with an approximately parabolic shape concentrates the light emitted by the bulb into a directed beam. Some flashlights allow the user to adjust the relative position of the lamp and reflector, giving a variable-focus effect from a wide floodlight to a narrow beam. Reflectors may be made of polished metal, or glass or plastic with an aluminized reflective finish. Some manufacturers use a pebbled or "orange peel", instead of a smooth, reflector, to improve the uniformity of the light beam emitted. Where multiple LEDs are used, each one may be put in its own parabolic reflector. Flashlights using a "total internal reflection" assembly have a transparent optical element (light pipe) to guide light from the source into a beam; no reflector surface is required. For a given size of light source, a larger reflector or lens allows a tighter beam to be produced, while capturing the same fraction of the emitted light. The reflector may have a flat transparent cover to keep out dirt and moisture, but some designs have a plastic or glass "bulls-eye" lens to form a concentrated beam. The lens or reflector cover must resist impacts and the heat of the lamp, and must not lose too much of the transmitted light to reflection or absorption. Very small flashlights may not have a reflector or lens separate from the lamp. Some types of penlight bulbs or small LEDs have a built-in lens. A reflector forms a narrow beam called the "throw", while light emitted forward misses the reflector and forms a wide flood or "spill" of light. Because LEDs emit most light in a hemisphere, lens lights with the LED facing forward or reflector lights with it facing backwards radiate less spill. Variable focus "zoom" or "flood to throw" lights may move the reflector or lens or they may move the emitter; moving the emitter presents the designer with the problem of maintaining heat dissipation for the LED. The original 1890's flashlights used a metal ring around the fiber body of the flashlight as one contact of a switch, and the second contact was a moveable metal loop that could be flipped down to touch the ring, completing the circuit. A wide variety of mechanical switch designs using slide switches, rocker switches, or side-mounted or end-mounted pushbuttons have been used in flashlights. A common combination is a slide switch that allows the light to be left on for an extended time, combined with a momentary button for intermittent use or signalling. Since voltages and currents are low, switch design is limited only by the available space and desired cost of production. Switches may be covered with a flexible rubber boot to exclude dirt and moisture. Another common type of switch relies on twisting the head of the light. Weapon-mounted lights may have remote switches for convenience in operation. Electronic controls allow the user to select variable output levels or different operating modes such as pre-programmed flashing beacon or strobe modes. Electronic controls may be operated by buttons, sliders, magnets, rotating heads, or rotating control rings. Some models of flashlight include an acceleration sensor to allow them to respond to shaking, or to select modes based on direction the light is held at switch on. At least one manufacturer allows user programming of the features of the flashlight through a USB port. An electronic control may also provide an indication of remaining battery capacity, or automatic step-down of brightness as the battery nears full discharge. Early flashlights used vulcanized fiber or hard rubber tubes with metal end caps. Many other materials including drawn steel, plated brass, copper, silver, even wood and leather have been used. Modern flashlights are generally made of plastic or aluminum. Plastics range from low-cost polystyrene and polyethylene to more complex mixtures of ABS or glass-reinforced epoxies. Some manufacturers have proprietary plastic formulations for their products. A desirable plastic for manufacturing flashlights allows for ease of molding and adequate mechanical properties of the finished flashlight case. Aluminum, either plain, painted or anodized, is a popular choice. It is electrically conductive, can be easily machined, and dissipates heat well. Several standard alloys of aluminum are used. Other metals include copper, stainless steel, and titanium, which can be polished to provide a decorative finish. Zinc can be die-cast into intricate shapes. Magnesium and its alloys provide strength and heat dissipation similar to aluminum with less weight, but they corrode easily. Metals may be drawn into a tubular shape, or tubular extruded stock can be machined to add threads for the head and tail cap, knurling for grip, and decorative and functional flats or holes in the body. LED flashlights may have cooling fins machined into their metal cases. Plastics are often injection molded into nearly final shape, requiring only a few more process steps to complete assembly. Metal cases provide better heat dissipation for the LED, but plastics are not electrically conductive and may resist corrosion and wear. Ratings and standards Industrial, marine, public safety and military organizations develop specifications for flashlights in specialized roles. Typically, light output, overall dimensions, battery compatibility and durability are required to meet minimum limits. Flashlights may be tested for impact resistance, water and chemical resistance, and for the life span of the control switch. Flashlights intended for use in hazardous areas with flammable gas or dust are tested to ensure they cannot set off an explosion. Flashlights approved for flammable gas areas will have markings indicating the approving agency (MSHA, ATEX, UL etc.) and symbols for the conditions that were tested. Flashlights for hazardous areas may be designed to automatically disconnect the lamp if the bulb is broken, to prevent ignition of flammable gas. Regulations for ships and aircraft will specify the number and general properties of flashlights included as part of the standard safety equipment of the vessel. Flashlights for small boats may be required to be waterproof and to float. Uniformed services may issue particular models of flashlight, or may only provide minimum performance standards for the member to purchase his or her own flashlights. The United States Army former standard MIL-F-3747E described the performance standard for plastic flashlights using two or three D cell dry batteries, in either straight or angle form, and in standard, explosion-proof, heat-resistant, traffic direction, and inspection types. The standard described only incandescent lamp flashlights and was withdrawn in 1996. In the United States, ANSI in 2009 published FL1 Flashlight basic performance standard. This voluntary standard defines test procedures and conditions for total light output, beam intensity, working distance, impact and water resistance, and battery running time to 10% of initial light output. The FL1 standard gives definitions for terms used in marketing flashlights, with the intention of allowing the consumer to compare products tested to the standard. The standard recommends particular graphic symbols and wording for the product package, so that the consumer can identify products tested to the standard. Testing may be carried out by the manufacturer itself or by a third-party test laboratory. The FL1 standard requires measurements reported on the packaging to be made with the type of batteries packaged with the flashlight, or with an identified type of battery. Initial light output is measured with an integrating sphere photometer, 30 seconds after the light is switched on with fresh (or newly charged) batteries. The total light emitted is reported in lumens. Luminous intensity is determined by measuring the brightest spot in the beam produced by the flashlight, in candelas. Since this is a measure of all the light emitted in a solid angle (the "cone" of light in a particular direction), the beam intensity is independent of distance. The working distance is defined as the distance at which the maximum light falling on a surface (illuminance) would fall to 0.25 lux. This is comparable to a full moon on a clear night. The distance is calculated from the square root of (the beam intensity in candelas divided by 0.25 lux); for example, a beam intensity of 1000 candelas produces a working range rating of the square root of (1000/0.25), or 63 meters. The result is reported in meters or feet. The working distance is from the point of view of the user of the flashlight. A light directly pointed at an observer may be visible against a dark background for many times this distance, especially if the observer has night-vision equipment. Run time is measured using the supplied or specified batteries and letting the light run until the intensity of the beam has dropped to 10% of the value 30 seconds after switching on. The standard does not evaluate the behavior of the flashlight output during run time. A regulated flashlight may run at only a slowly declining output and then abruptly cut off, but unregulated types may have steeply-declining light output after only a short time. Manufacturers of headlamps may use a different standard which rates run times until light output falls to 1 lux at 2 meters distance; this value is not comparable to the FL 1 runtime measurement. Impact resistance is measured by dropping the flashlight in six different orientations and observing that it still functions and has no large cracks or breaks in it; the height used in the test is reported. Water resistance, if specified, is evaluated after impact testing; no water is to be visible inside the unit and it must remain functional. Ratings are given in IP Code terms, where jet spray corresponds to IP X6, brief immersion to IPX7, 30 minutes immersion at 1 meter or more is IP X8; (the depth is reported if greater than 1 meter). An IP X8 rating by FL1 does not imply that the lamp is suitable for use as a diver's light since the test protocol examines function of the light only after immersion, not during immersion. The consumer must decide how well the ANSI test conditions match their requirements, but all manufacturers testing to the FL1 standard can be compared on a uniform basis. The light measurements are more directly related to the use of flashlights than is the nominal power input to the lamp (watts), since different LED and incandescent lamp types vary widely in the amount of light produced per watt. Even the same LED or lamp in different optical systems will show different beam characteristics. The visibility of objects depends on many factors as well as the amount of light emitted by the flashlight. ANSI standard FL1 does not specify measurements of the beam width angle but the candela intensity and total lumen ratings can be used by the consumer to assess the beam characteristics. Where two flashlights have similar total light (lumen) measures, the unit with the higher candela rating produces a more concentrated beam of light, suitable for lighting distant objects; it will also have a higher working distance. If two lights have similar candela ratings, the light with higher lumen value will produce a wider beam and will light a wider area overall. A beam width (containing most of the power of the beam, or "hot spot") of a few degrees corresponds to a spot light, useful for searching for distant objects; beam widths of 20 degrees or more are described as flood lights, suitable for lighting a wide nearby area. Typically even a flashlight beam with a small hot spot will have some light visible as "spill" around the spot. \|1–20\|\|Keychain\|\|Finding keyholes, close range use, supplement to dark-adapted vision, walking in the dark\| \|30 to 100\|\|General purpose\|\|Household use, car repairs, hiking on a trail, cave exploration\| \|100 and above\|\|Tactical flashlights\|\|Weapon mounted lights\| \|200 and above\|\|Bicycle headlamps\|\|Light use depends on speed, quality of trail, surrounding light\| \|1000 and up\|\|High powered\|\|Outdoors, search and rescue, caving, night orienteering, high-speed bicycle use, diving\| - Brooke Schumm. "Nonrechargeable Batteries". The Electrochemistry Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-12-13. - Flashlight Museum - Patent number: 617592 by David Misell - History of Batteries (and other things) - Steve Hathcock. "Give Me a Light". Island Breeze. Archived from the original on 2007-10-17. Retrieved 2007-02-05. - William T. O'Dea, The Social History of Lighting, Routledge and Kegan, 1958, pages 90-91 - Eugene H. Mathews, Flashlights and Flashlight Batteries, in "Transactions of the IES" Volume 17, available on the Internet Archive at https://archive.org/details/illuminatingengi17illu, March 1922 pages 135-146 - Frank Dikötter, Exotic commodities: modern objects and everyday life in China, Columbia University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-231-14116-5 pp. 142-144 - Frank Kreith, D.Y. Goswami, Handbook of energy efficiency and renewable energy, CRC Press 2007 ISBN 978-0-8493-1730-9, page 12-37 - Cliff Gomer, High Beams in Popular Mechanics, November 2003 pages 81-88 - Charles W. Wessner (ed) Partnerships for solid-state lighting: report of a workshop National Academies Press, 2002 ISBN 0-309-08319-2 page 54 - Using Gun Lights - U.S. Department of Transportation Advisory Circular 43-204 Visual Inspection for Aircraft, 1997, pages 96-100 - Francois Beguin, Elzbieta Frackowiak (ed) ,"Supercapacitors: Materials, Systems and Applications Wiley 2013, ISBN 3527646698, p. 515 - Energizer Flashlight, Headlight and Handheld Light Materials. Energizerlightingproducts.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-09. - James G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of Manufacturing Processes,Industrial Press Inc., 2007 ISBN 0-831 1-3179-9 pg. 673 - Energizer Lighting Products Safety Approvals and Testing. Energizerlightingproducts.com (2003-07-01). Retrieved on 2013-12-09. - Underwriter's Laboratories Standard UL 783 - Introduction and table of contents to ANSI FL1 retrieved 2011 Oct 17 - Switches or focus adjustments may not work properly while the flashlight is under external pressure, even if no water gets into the case. - A Flashaholic's Guide to LED Flashlights, www.CoastPortland.com,2011 page 10 \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flashlights.\| - J. Tracy, Flashlights in Kenya: revealing the social, economic, health and environmental implications in the absence of quality assurance, a Master's thesis that discusses flashlight use in Kenya - The Flashlight Museum, a collector's Web site with many old or unusual flashlights shown
For several years now, "clean" coal technology, involving carbon capture and storage (CCS), has been promoted as the only realistic means of substantially reducing, or even eliminating, emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil-fuel-burning power stations. But this necessarily comes at a considerable price increase for electricity, because of the large capital outlay for infrastructure and the energy requirements needed for the CCS process. Carbon dioxide, of course, is alleged to be the main cause of anthropogenic global warming (AGW). CCS, in its ultimate form, involves a sequence of processes: the combustion of coal, such that a concentrated stream of almost pure CO2 is produced; the capturing of this CO2; the liquefaction of the captured CO2; and the injection of the liquefied CO2 into a suitable rock formation at least 800m underground, where it will be stored, or sequestered. All but the final step in the process are relatively simple and for the most part are mature technologies, albeit with notable variations. In old-style coal-fired power stations, pulverised coal is burnt using air, which means that the resultant CO2 emitted is heavily diluted with nitrogen - since nitrogen forms 78 per cent of the atmosphere. To increase the concentration of CO2, thereby aiding its capture, the coal in proposed new-generation power stations is first burnt in a mixture of commercially pure oxygen and water vapour, producing so-called “syngas”. The syngas is then reacted with steam, resulting in CO2 and hydrogen gases. The hydrogen is burnt and the resultant steam drives the power station’s turbines, while the CO2 is collected for burial underground. A few possibilities exist, or are under consideration, for CO2 burial (geosequestration), including unmineable coal seams, but the preferred option is sedimentary rock formations. Of course, storage in depleted oil or gas fields should present few problems, because ready-made suitable geological formations already exist. However, such sites are few in Australia and are remote from existing or potential power stations. Under room-temperature conditions CO2 exists only in two forms: solid (“dry ice”) and gas. Liquid CO2 can only be obtained under substantially increased pressure; however, if the temperature is above 31.4°C, it is not at all possible to obtain liquid CO2. Instead, what is obtained is supercritical-fluid CO2 - a “near-liquid” phase which exhibits combined characteristics of both the liquid and gaseous phases. Not unexpectedly, temperatures prevailing in the CCS process are above 31.4°C. Of the stages in the CCS process, storage underground of the near-liquid CO2 presents considerable difficulties: - the rock formation must be porous (or permeable); - the geological umbrella-like formation above the porous rock bed must be impervious (“caprock”) and geologically stable; and - the stored CO2 must not be allowed to contaminate aquifers for potential human or animal consumption. An example of a suitable storage bed is saline-water-bearing sandstone, where the interstices, or matrix, contain brine - which is displaced by the liquefied CO2. The criterion for storage of CO2 underground is that leakage to atmosphere is a maximum of 1 per cent per 1,000 years. This is a major ask, given that burial is on a continuing basis, and that no one can guarantee geological stabilities over thousands of years. One of the properties of near-liquid CO2 is a very low viscosity. This means that the injected CO2 can infiltrate the porous rock bed with relative ease, and it necessarily follows that it can readily escape to atmosphere through any microscopic fissures in the caprock, or major crack in the event of an earthquake. Moreover, its tendency to migrate upwards is aided by its low density, being only two-thirds that of water. Near-liquid CO2 is a very reactive chemical. Being acidic, it reacts very quickly with carbonates and other mineral substances, such as heavy metal species, in the absorption bed. These, if left unchecked, have the potential to contaminate potable water aquifers. Sandstones, depending on type, have clayey binders that often contain organic materials, and the CO2 reacts with these too.
This small reptile has one of the most unique life histories of all the four-limbed vertebrates (the tetrapods), living for just one year and spending eight to nine months of that time within an egg. As the first rains fall at the beginning of the wet season, around November, the Labord’s chameleon eggs hatch. This synchronised hatching results in an entire population of Labord’s chameleons that are roughly the same age. After hatching, Labord’s chameleons have only four to five months of life left, the shortest known post-hatching lifespan of any tetrapod. They grow quickly, reaching sexual maturity in less than eight weeks, when they begin mating. Then, as swiftly as they have developed, Labord’s chameleons begin to die-off, and by the time the dry season sets in, this amazing chameleon can no longer be seen. Instead, the entire species consists of eggs buried underground (7). This extreme life history is likely to be an adaptation to the extreme environment. In the arid and unpredictable region of Madagascar that this chameleon inhabits, it is a shrewd plan to stay within the relative stability and safety of an egg, underground, until conditions above ground are suitable (7). Chameleons are generally solitary, and move about on slender branches and twigs, which they grip with their fused toes. The prehensile tail provides an additional ‘hand’ on these precarious walkways as they scan the surrounding area with their independently mobile eyes for prey (4). Labord’s chameleons normally sleep within two metres of the ground (7).
A post by Jasmine Pui at History Today discusses a new online tool for economic analysis of the Roman Empire: A recently launched online interactive research source, ORBIS, the Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman World, has made it possible to analyse data about the Roman Empire in new ways that reveal the fragility of Roman communication and freight systems. Conventional maps are often unable to capture the environmental constraints that govern the flows of people, goods and information. Museum and ancient sites usually include titbits of information about the wide-ranging origins of artefacts, hinting at the relative cost of goods and labour in the Roman era, but factors such as sailing times and inland routes for freight cannot be precisely revealed through archaeological finds, Roman coins, taxation records or riot reports. The first resource of its kind, ORBIS offers comprehensive graphic tools to portray the transport and communication infrastructure that underpinned the Roman Empire’s existence. By typing in a starting point, destination, an imagined weight of goods to transport and the time of year, the site shows whether such a movement would have been feasible and at what cost. Studying movement during the course of the empire’s existence suggests it was far more difficult to hold an empire together than to expand one. There are few scenarios where marching and conquering is not easier and less costly than moving goods and slaves between regions. Cost, rather than distance, was the principal determinant of connectivity in the Roman world. ORBIS is based on a simplified version of the giant network of cities, roads, rivers and sea lanes that framed movement across the Roman Empire. The Stanford team has relied on data such as historical tide and weather information, size and grade of road surfaces and an average walking distance of 30 kilometres per day. Hundreds of cities, ports and routes, vehicle speeds for ships, ox carts and horses, as well as the variable cost of transport have been logged. The data mainly focuses on the period around AD 200, when Septimius Severus expanded control of Africa and Roman power was at one of its peaks.
Dogs that are more related are likely to be more similar genetically than less related dogs. Breeders often want to know how related a dam and sire are because it tells them something about the traits likely to be expressed in a litter of puppies, and it also reflects the risk of inherited genetic disorders. We can put a number on the degree of genetic similarity between a pair of dogs using the "Relationship Coefficient," which is the fraction of their genes that they share in common. For example, a parent and offspring should have a relationship coefficient of 0.5, because the progeny inherits half of its genes from each parent. A pair of dogs that are less related, like half-sibs or cousins, will be less similar genetically and have a lower relationship coefficient. You can estimate the relationship coefficient between a pair of dogs from pedigree data. Of course, you can never really know exactly which alleles have been inherited by a dog, so the relationship coefficient determined from a pedigree is just an estimate. You can get a far better estimate of genetic similarity by directly comparing the genes in the pair of dogs. Thanks to DNA analysis, we can now do this. ICB has been working on the development of new tools that will provide breeders with information about the genetic similarity of dogs by direct comparison of their DNA sequences. The resulting number for a pair of individuals is called the "genomic relationship coefficient". The higher this number, the more similar the DNA of the two dogs. (Identical twins would have a genomic relationship coefficient of 1.) You might also be interested in the relatedness among the dogs in a group, or between two groups. Perhaps you want to compare dogs from two different subpopulations (e.g. bench vs field lines, UK vs US dogs, or dogs from different kennels). For this, you would determine the genomic relationship coefficients for every pair of dogs in the groups to be compared. If you only have a few dogs, this is relatively easy, but for more dogs the table of numbers gets big very quickly. To make it easy visualize patterns in the relationship coefficients among larger numbers of dogs, we can use two graphical tools. The first is called a dendrogram, which is a type of pedigree tree that visually displays the magnitude of the relationship coefficient by the length of the branches. The other tool is called a "heat map", because it displays numerical values using different colors or variations in the intensity of color. Let's look at an example. The IDs of the dogs are listed across the bottom and also down the right axis in the same order. The "Heatmap Color Key" in the upper left corner displays the colors that correspond to relationship coefficients from 0 to 1. The row of red squares across the diagonal of the chart is each dog's relationship coefficient with itself, which is equal to one. The other squares are for each pairwise comparison of all of the dogs in the population. So, in the upper right hand corner, the first square compares dog PFZ44D01 with dog JRT_GT255. The square is a dark shade of blue, indicating that their genetic similarity is relatively low. In the middle of the graph you can see two turquoise squares, which indicate a pair of dogs that have a higher amount of genetic similarity. The reason there is a pair of squares on each side of the line of red squares is because the graph is a mirror image of itself along the diagonal. (Convince yourself of this by finding the IDs of the the pair of dogs for each of the turquoise squares.) This chart provides you with a lot of information about this particular population of Jack Russel Terriers. There is a group of 4 dogs that seem to be genetically distinct from all of the rest, three of which are very closely related. The rest of the dogs vary in relatedness in pairwise comparisons, but on average their genetic similarity is low. You should see in the Wolfhound data that there are actually two large groups of dogs connected by the highest horizontal branch. I don't have any information about these dogs, but the two clusters might depict dogs from different countries, or perhaps lines that have been bred more or less independently for many generations. The shortest branches might be connecting the dogs in a litter. The overall lightness of the blue (compared, for example, to the graph for Jack Russell Terriers) indicates that the genetic diversity in this population of dogs is relatively low. Introducing: ICB's Genomic Breeding Tool ICB's Genomic Breeding Tool is the most powerful genetic tool available to breeders today, providing information about: - genetic similarity of pairs of dogs by direct comparison of DNA - individual inbreeding coefficient of each dog - overall genetic similarity of the dogs in the population - identification of subpopulations or genetically similar clusters - genetic diversity of the population The DNA analysis ICB uses for this compares uses the newest version of the high density Illumina CanineHD SNP chip. This analysis identifies more than 200,000 DNA nucleotides distributed across each of the dog's 38 autosomal chromosomes, the two sex chromosomes, and the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The same DNA analysis also tests for most genetic mutations for which a test is available, as well as X and Y chromosome and DLA haplotypes. This is the highest level of genetic comparison available anywhere. (For comparision, MyDogDNA uses about 7,000 nucleotides for their breeding tool, and the UC Davis VGL genetic diversity test uses 33 microsatellites.) The data produced for the ICB Genomic Breeding Tool can also be combined with pedigree data, which will allow breeders to infer the relationships among dogs for which DNA is not available. We can also superimpose health information on this, which will facilitate identifying lineages of dogs at greater risk of a particular disorder. (Read about how to do this here.) If you think your breed might be interested in participating in beta testing, please contact ICB.
The global decline of honey bees and other pollinating insects is caused by multiple, largely human-induced effects, according to a new study. Over the past decade, scientists have been reporting steady and mysterious declines in the populations of so-called pollinator insects. These include the honeybees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies and moths that help pollinate three-quarters of the world’s food crops, services worth $200 billion annually to the global economy. The new report is the first to pull together years of research on pollinator species decline. Forty scientists from six countries worked on the project organized by the Insect Pollinators Initiative of the United Kingdom (IPI). While no single factor is responsible for the population decline, the analysis finds intensive land use, climate change and the spread of alien species and disease, are among the major threats to pollinating insects. Bumble bees are in decline around the world due to agricultural pesticide use, disease, and human encroachments on their habitats. (Photo: Claire Carvell) Across the temperate regions of the world, bumble bees are crucial pollinators of wild flowers, transferring pollen and helping to ensure genetically diverse plant populations. (Photo: Adam Vanbergen) Honey bees, managed for honey production and crop pollination services, are threatened by parasites and fungal and viral pathogens, and by the effects of land-use intensification. (Photo: Eugene Ryabov) Certain bumble bee species and some solitary bee species are increasingly being domesticated and managed by humans to provide pollination services for agricultural crops like apples or strawberries. (Photo: Claire Carvell) Pollination of wildflowers and crops is done by a huge variety of insect species including social honey and bumble bees, solitary bees, wasps, flies, beetles and moths. Their diversity helps ensure the healthy function of ecosystems. (Photo: Adam Vanbergen) Hoverflies, like bees, help pollinate food crops and wild plants and face multiple threats. (Photo: Adam Vanbergen) The Varroa mite is a major threat to honey bee colonies. It feeds on the 'blood' of the insects and in the process transmits many different types of harmful virus. (Photo: Eugene Ryabov) Wild habitat networks in intensively farmed landscapes help to provide the food and nesting resources, which sustain pollinator populations and buffer them against disease and climate change. (Photo: Claire Carvell) Flies forage widely across landscapes and may provide a substantial pollination service to wild plants and crops. Compared to bees, however, they are poorly studied. (Photo: Adam Vanbergen) Wildlife biologists, working with colleagues from disciplines as diverse as mathematics, neuroscience, molecular biology, epidemiology and economics are studying the causes and consequences of insect pollinator decline and what we can do to arrest this loss of beneficial biodiversity. (Photo: Claire Carvell) In some regionsof the world, bee farmers often must transport their bee hives long distances to supply economically important pollination services to agricultural crops like fruits and vegetables. (Photo: Eugene Ryabov) Bumble bees live in a colony with a queen bee that produces the offspring. Lack of flowers in the nest vicinity and exposure to pesticides threatens the colony's ability to feed their young and produce new queens. (Photo: Matthias Furst) Beekeepers in Sofia, Bulgaria, hold an Earth Day protest demanding the suspension of the usage of neonicotinoid pesticides linked to the death of bees worldwide. (Photo: Reuters) A new laboratory was established in Jordan to protect bees from infectious diseases following an outbreak that decimated nearly half of the region's bee hives in 2008. (Photo: Reuters) "What we are beginning to see is that it’s likely that there’s a combination of these effects that are driving the declines in these insects and in some cases they may be combining in subtle ways that exacerbate the overall negative effect,” said Adam Vanbergen, an ecologist with the Britain-based Centre for Ecology and Hydrology who served as the science coordinator on the IPI-led review. Vanbergen says more research must be done on this complex interplay, across a vast scale, from genetics to worldwide ecosystems. “We need to launch a whole suite of studies looking at subtle interactions between, say, land use change and its impacts on the resources that insects rely on, and how that can effect interactions with disease organisms or with exposure to pesticides that would be one example,” he said. The ecologist says there is also a need to carefully document how climate change affects the insects’ ability to adapt to a warmer world. “There is evidence now accumulating that impacts from these different pressures hits insects at different levels of biological organization," Vanbergen said. "So you have some pressures that will be damaging, for example, the brain function of individual insects and you have other pressures that will be perhaps affecting the ability of species to move in landscapes or indeed their range across continents.” Learning how to protect pollinators from these environmental pressures will require a multi-disciplinary scientific effort. Farmers, policy makers, and industry will need to collaborate on programs to conserve these species. “We need to come together really to try and set the appropriate framework to enable strategic planning at a landscape scale," said Vanbergen. "That’s going to be important if we are going to devise the appropriate habitat network to help support these insects in order to buffer them against effects such as climate change and local effects such as pesticide impacts.” The IPI analysis also calls for re-evaluating common pesticide risks and developing new treatments for insect disease. “All we really need to do is just try to build a more sympathetic approach to integrate practices that are able to lessen some of these impacts and to support the biodiversity that provides these important ecosystem services to human kind,” said Vanbergen.
Mount Rushmore National Memorial is located along the northeast edge of what is known as the Harney Peak Granite Batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota. A batholith is a geologic feature that formed by the cooling of a large igneous body of magma below the earth's surface; if a similar igneous body reaches the earth's surface, it would form a volcanic feature such as a lava flow. The Black Hills magma was emplaced into the older "host" mica schist rocks during Precambrian time, approximately 1.7 billion years ago! The mica schist originated from the metamorphism (alteration by heat and pressure) of muds and sands from an ancient sea floor sometime prior to the emplacement of the Harney Peak Granite. Metamorphism of this original material produced the "slabby" appearance in the mica schist that now contains minerals such as muscovite, biotite and quartz. The Harney Peak Granite (of which Mount Rushmore is carved) consists of fine-grained minerals including quartz, feldspar, muscovite and biotite. It is believed that these minerals formed approximately 8 miles below the earth's surface from molten magma. Some cracks developed as a result of the cooling of the magma and were later "patched" with molten magma. The result was the emplacement of pegmatite dikes that filled the fractures and zones of weakness in the granite. Today these pegmatite dikes are expressed as white streaks on the foreheads of Presidents Washington and Lincoln. Elsewhere in the Black Hills, economically significant mineral deposits are found associated with these pegmatite bodies. The Harney Peak granite was likely exposed at the surface prior to Cambrian time, but was covered by sandy sediment when the Cambrian seas invaded the Black Hills some 550 million years ago. Today, these sands are part of the Deadwood Formation sandstones that contain grains derived from the ancient Harney Peak granite and the exposed Precambrian surface. The granite core of the Black Hills continued to be further buried during the rest of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras of geologic time and wasn't exposed to surface processes again until some 50 million years ago when today's Black Hills began to take on their present form. Weathering and erosion have been carving these rocks since then, but the most noticeable "carving" occurred in the 20th century when Gutzon Borglum oversaw the project to construct Mount Rushmore as a "shrine to democracy". The carvings occur within a granite sheet several hundred feet thick that has intruded the older schists. The irregular nature of the granite intrusion is noticeable just below the bust of George Washington, where the lighter colored granite sharply comes in contact with the darker schist.Shrine of Democracy Sixty million years ago this land was in turmoil. Hills and mountains were being thrust up and gradually eroded. On the nearly indestructible granite face of one of these peaks, Mount Rushmore, the heads of four American Presidents have been carved in bold relief. These figures symbolize the birth and trials of the first 150 years of the United States. Individually they represent the ideals of the Nation. - George Washington signifies the struggle for independence and the birth of the Republic, - Thomas Jefferson the idea of representative government, - Abraham Lincoln the permanent union of the States and equality for all citizens, and - Theodore Roosevelt the 20th-century role of the United States in world affairs. The Memorial Idea In 1923, Doane Robinson, the South Dakota State historian, conceived the idea of carving colossal statues of romantic western heroes such as Jim Bridger, John Colter, and Kit Carson on the granite formations known as "the Needles" in the Black Hills. The proposal had only moderate public acceptance, and at times criticism of the project was severe. But Robinson was able to gain the influential support of South Dakota Senator Peter Norbeck and Representative William Williamson. Slowly public opinion changed, the memorial was authorized, and some funds were obtained to begin the work. Robinson invited the sculptor Gutzon Borglum to the Black Hills in the autumn of 1924 to study the proposal. John Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was born in St. Charles, Idaho, on March 25, 1867. He began painting at an early age, and in his early twenties sales of his works enabled him to study art in France for several years. It was there, in 1890, that he began to sculpt. His final paintings were completed in 1903, and from that time on he worked only as a sculptor. His fame grew, as did the size of his works. In 1915 he was asked by the United Daughters of the Confederacy to carve a head of Gen. Robert E. Lee on Stone Mountain in Georgia. Work did not begin until 1923, but some demands made by Borglum soon led to his dismissal. The invitation to the Black Hills presented him with an opportunity to create a monument whose dimensions would be "determined by the importance to civilization of the events commemorated". For this purpose a location other than the Needles was needed. After much searching Borglum selected Mount Rushmore because: - it was smooth-grained granite, - its 5,725-foot height dominated the surrounding terrain, and - it faced the sun most of the day. Carving the Monument Work on the mountain began August 10, 1927, the same day President Calvin Coolidge officially dedicated Mount Rushmore as a national memorial. Fourteen years were needed to bring the sculpture to its present appearance, but because of delays caused by lack of funds and bad weather only 6½ years were actually spent in carving. In the early years private donations supported the project, but when more funds were required the Federal Government assumed full financial responsibility. Federal appropriations accounted for $836,000 of the $990,000 spent on the memorial between 1927 and 1941. In March of the latter year Gutzon Borglum died. His son Lincoln, who had worked closely with his father on the monument, continued the project until funds ran out later the same year. Since then no additional carving has been done, nor is any further work on the memorial planned. To say that Mount Rushmore was "carved" is to use a convenient figure of speech. Very few conventional sculpturing methods were employed in what was actually "a unique engineering accomplishment". Gutzon Borglum used the engineering techniques at Mount Rushmore that he had developed during his work on Stone Mountain. He first designed a grouping of the four Presidents to conform to the mountain's granite cap, but deep cracks and fissures' later discovered in the rock, required nine changes in the design. Five-foot models of each figure guided the workmen on the mountain. Measurements were taken from the models with a horizontal bar and plumb bob, enlarged 12 times, and transferred to the mountain. After a reference point, such as the tip of a nose, was located, excess rock could be removed with dynamite, often to within three or four inches of the finished surface. Some 450,000 tons of rock were removed in this manner. Drillers, suspended over the face of the mountain in "swing seats" used jack hammers to honeycomb the surface with shallow holes at intervals of about three inches. The remaining rock was wedged off with a small drill, or a hammer and wedging tool. Finally the sculpture was smoothed with a small air hammer in a process known as "bumping." The General park map handed out at the visitor center is available on the park's map webpage.For information about topographic maps, geologic maps, and geologic data sets, please see the geologic maps page. A geology photo album for this park can be found here.For information on other photo collections featuring National Park geology, please see the Image Sources page. Currently, we do not have a listing for a park-specific geoscience book. The park's geology may be described in regional or state geology texts. Parks and Plates: The Geology of Our National Parks, Monuments & Seashores. Lillie, Robert J., 2005. W.W. Norton and Company. 9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout The spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the Earth. The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. Parks and Plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery! Ordering from your National Park Cooperative Associations' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. Please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more. For information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in National Parks, see the Permits Information page. The NPS maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks. A bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the Geologic Resources Evaluation Program (GRE). Please see the GRE website for more information and contacts. NPS Geology and Soils PartnersAssociation of American State Geologists Geological Society of America Natural Resource Conservation Service - Soils U.S. Geological Survey General information about the park's education and intrepretive programs is available on the park's education webpage.For resources and information on teaching geology using National Park examples, see the Students & Teachers pages.
How a Muffler is Constructed All Jeep Vehicles \| The muffler is the main source of silencing of exhaust gas noises. It is a combination of tuning chambers, formed by partitions and ventilated and solid tubes. It is designed to effectively contain, absorb and dissipate noise pulses while moving the exhaust gases and vapor smoothly through and ultimately out of the tail pipe. Rock (mineral), wool, fiber-mat, or fiberglass roving placed in the muffler cavities serves to further absorb and eliminate unwanted exhaust sounds. \| The location of a muffler varies considerably depending on the vehicle model, but most mufflers are located toward the rear of the vehicle. Internal muffler design is determined by the "noises" in need of control. The muffler can assume many shapes from round to oval, to custom stamped. To do its job correctly, a muffler must be specifically designed, both inside and out. The inside of the muffler must promote engine performance and sound control, while the outside of the muffler must fit a specific make, model, and year of vehicle. Also, both the inside and outside of the muffler must be able to stand up to the effects of corrosion. As a vehicle's engine runs, it burns anywhere from 1,200 to 15,000 "charges" of air and gasoline per minute. Each time an air and gasoline charge is burned, the engine expels the residual gases into the exhaust system in the form of high-pressure gas. The sound waves created by the high-pressure gas are very powerful. In order to control the sound level of a running engine, the power of these sound waves must be reduced. It is the muffler's responsibility to contain and control the force and noise created by a running engine. In order to do this, the muffler must effectively reduce the pulsations of the exhaust gases, while still permitting the gas to pass freely through and avoid excessive backpressure. Backpressure acts as a brake against the engine, reducing power and performance. Inside a Muffler Internally, a muffler is a combination of chambers, partitions, louvered tubes, and solid tubes. Together, these components are balanced to attenuate sound energy while the exhaust gases are moving efficiently through the muffler. The number and arrangement of the tubes and partitions used in a muffler depends upon the sound frequencies produced by the engine. Some chambers within the muffler have no outlet at all. They are Hemholtz tuners that reduce the low- pitched sound frequencies by providing a cushion for the sound waves. Smaller chambers or pinch cans cancel the high pitched sound waves by channeling exhaust gas through their acoustic openings into larger chambers. The internal structure of a muffler varies between different vehicles because a muffler can be "tuned" to an engine to provide the most effective sound deadening while maintaining performance. To match a muffler to an individual vehicle application may require 30 inches or more of tuning length. If there is only room on the vehicle for 10 inches of muffler, then this tubing must be divided into three 10-inch tubes, resulting in tri-flow routing. A point to note is the more the exhaust gases must be forced to turn and curve, the higher the backpressure created in the muffler. Therefore, the internal design of the muffler is critically important. Outside the Muffler Externally, a muffler must physically conform to the space restriction of the vehicle's underbody. The overall size and shape of a muffler is determined by the size and shape of the available space. Proper design and physical placement is important because of the following reasons: Mufflers must be rugged enough to withstand the pulsing vibrations of a high-powered engine, as well as the roughest road shock and the worst enemy of all, corrosion. Some of the major causes of premature muffler failure are the following: - Rupture from backfires - Internal corrosion from acid condensate - External corrosion from chemicals used on icy roads - Improper suspension support which causes bushing fatigue and fracture To protect against rupture, muffler heads are spun-locked to the shell to provide the strongest resistance to backfires. The inner shell and outer cover are also installed 180 degrees apart with a mechanical lock seam. The spun-locked heads and shell lockseam also assure a gas-tight fit between the head and shell. For every gallon of gasoline burned in the engine, a gallon of acid-bearing vapor passes into the exhaust system. These corrosive acids condense and collect in the bottom of the muffler casing, causing mufflers to rust from the inside out. If all driving was at high speeds on freeways and turnpikes, the internal muffler parts would be kept hot enough to evaporate these corrosive acids, and the inside of the muffler would remain dry. But with stop-and-go driving, the muffler does not get hot enough inside to prevent these acids from condensing and starting corrosion. Mufflers have a number of anti-corrosion features to combat this problem. These include: - Louvered Tubes - These tubes provide better gas flow to maintain a more uniform internal temperature. By avoiding cool spots within the muffler, most acid condensation can be prevented. - Internal Drainage System - A complete internal drainage system prevents any acids from collecting between partitions or at the muffler heads. - Muffler Bushings - Road shock and vibration can cause early muffler bushing breakage. Muffler bushings extend from the head into and through the first internal partition. This two-point bridge contact gives greater structural strength. This is referred to as "bridge construction" and is a good example of the effort that goes into designing a quality muffler. - Spot Welded Partitions - Spot welding is used to attach the partitions to the muffler shell. This process provides more strength and rigidity than other methods of attachment. Extra partitions are used where additional strength is required. - Mechanically Joined Internal Tubes - To ensure longer life, internal tubes are mechanically joined to the partition to allow free-floating expansion and contraction during temperature changes. This unique design eliminates the breaking of spot welds and subsequent part distortion or loose part noise problems. The resonator is a second silencing element that is used on some vehicles that have underbody space limitations. When a muffler required to eliminate exhaust noise is too large to easily fit under the vehicle; two smaller silencing elements will then be used. The resonator serves to level out any loudness or roughness, which is not adequately handled by the undersized muffler. Courtesy of Walker Exhaust
Africa straddles the equator, having an almost equal south and north extent. This division of Africa into almost two equal parts (lengthwise) across the equator makes the climatic and physical conditions in the north repeat themselves in the south. For example, the Kalahari Desert is the south's answer to the Sahara; the Karoo matches the Maghreb, while the conditions in the Cape area are almost identical to those of the Mediterranean region. Africa is the most tropical of all continents. Climate and vegetation range from equatorial rainforests, tropical deserts and savanna grassland to Mediterranean. The Sahara Desert, the largest of its kind anywhere in the world, is over 10.4 million km2 n North to south is approx. 1800 kms and east-west is 5600km. GEOLOGY, RELIEF AND DRAINAGE Fig 2.1a page 26 In terms of structure and relief features, Africa appears to be different from the other continents. Its surface is almost invariably consisting of a geologically stable land mass made up of the pre-Cambrian basement rock overlain in part by sedimentary cover of a later period. The continent is made up of very old crystalline, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks of great hardness (collectively known as 'basement complex'). Africa's land mass is made up of a simple tectonic plate (some geographers attempt to separate the Rift Valley system from the rest of the continent). The continent has some extensive areas of faulted plateau. It has however suffered little in terms of folding hence young folded mountain similar to the Rockies and Andes are missing. Only the Atlas Mountains in the North and the Drakensburg mountains in the South are exceptions. Most of the highlands and mountains are the result of recent volcanic activities (e.g east African mountains like the Kilmanjaro -19,340 ft (5895 m); Kenya 17,058 ft (5200 m); Meru -4569 m and Elgon 4053 m and in the Ethiopian highlands Ras Dashen is about 15,000ft (4,573 m). In West/Central Africa, mountains such as the Cameroon (4070m), Jos Plateau in Nigeria 5,840 ft (1,780 m), Fouta Djalon highlands in Guinea, the Ahaggar and Tibesti Massifs fall within the same category of highlands. Lower average altitudes characterize most of the areas in the North. The Southern and Eastern areas have most of the highest areas of the continent (900-1200m). The African plateau is underlain primarily by Precambrian rock that dates back to more than 600 years. The Rift Valley System (Fig 2.3 page 28) A unique feature of Africa's physiography is its Y-shaped integrated Rift Valley system that is believed to have been caused by the movement of the continental plates. The Rift Valley begins from the Red Sea and extends through the Ethiopian highlands to the Lake Victorian region where it subdivides into an east and west segments and continues southward through Lake Malawi to Mozambique. Its total length is estimated to be 6,000 miles (9,600 m). Average width ranges between 20 miles (32 km) and 50 miles (80 km). Rift Valley Lakes: The valley system has been occupied by elongated lakes lying within very deep trenches (Lakes Tangayika, 2133 feet (650 m) below sea level, Malawi, Turkana, Albert, Nyansa). Volcanic highlands and block moountains (e.g. Ruwenzori massif 16, 404 feet, (5000 m) rises within the valley floor in places. Africa’s coastline is generally straight and relatively short compared with that of other continents thereby resulting in more artificial harbors than natural ones. The shape of Africa is relatively simple with a remarkably smooth outline. The rivers plunge off the edges of the plateau into the sea in a series of falls and rapids. The coast is fringed with coral reefs, sand bars, mangrove swamps and lagoons that block passage to the continents interior. The coastline of Africa is remarkably straight, free from the indentations that make for good natural harbors. The narrow continental shelf is related to the steep face that the continent generally presents to the sea and the faulting that has produced its general shape. The only place with an extended continental shelf is the Agulhas Bank (extends 320 kms or 200 miles off shore). The absence of any major continental shelf as in Europe and the northeastern part of North America limits the development of fishing grounds and the opportunities of exploring for major petroleum sources of the coast. No major coastal island (except Madagascar - the 4th largest island in the world). The coastline is generally smooth. DRAINAGE Fig 2.1b page 27 Some of the world's largest and longest rivers found in Africa, e.g the Nile, Zambezi, Congo and the Niger. The rivers are not effective as transportation routes due to the existence of a large amount of rapids and cataracts. Almost all the rapids are found at points where the rivers descend the interior plateau some few kilometers from the coast. For example, the Zaire River is interrupted by 32 rapids and cataracts (which constitute the Livingstone Falls) in a descent of approximately 200 meters over a distance of 214 kilometers. In other continents the rivers offer the best entry into the interior from the coast (e.g the St. Lawrence and Mississippi and also served as a cheaper means of transportation for industrial goods but this is not the case in Africa. Despite being impediments to transportation, most of the rivers provide a great potential for the production of hydro-electricity. Indeed, Africa has the greatest potential than any of the other continent. For instance, out of the world's total potential of 555,000 megawatts, Africa has 26% (145,000 mw). Less than 10% of this potential is being tapped now. Highest potentials of HEP: Zaire-78,000; Madagascar-11,500; Zambia- 17,000. Although Africa consists of one landmass, it has a number of islands, which are structurally not different from the main land. Major Islands are Madagascar, Zanzibar and Pemba; the Comoros; Mauritius; Reunion, Seychelles (all in the Indian Ocean); Cape Verde, Fernando Po, Principe, Sao Tome and Annobon (all in the Atlantic). Africa linked to Asia by an isthmus that was cut into a canal in 1869 (Africa's location between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and its great latitudinal extent constituted a barrier to trade between Europe and Asia). Africa is the most tropical of all continents. Africa is the only continent that straddles the equator and therefore incorporates both the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. The climate south of the equator mirrors that of the north of the equator but the shape of the northern half of Africa reduces any maritime influence. This shape difference results in a large desert, Sahara in the north and a much smaller one, Kalahari, in the south. The shape difference again makes the southern portion of Africa cooler than the northern section of the continent (thereby making East Africa more favorable for European settlement than West Africa: Zambia and Niger are both located on Latitude 15 degrees from the equator but Niger is warmer). Archaeological studies and Satellite images show that the climate of Africa has not always remained the same. Conditions that are more humid had once existed in the Sahara desert and other drier parts of the continent. Rainfall is the most significant climatic factor in Africa. Temperature is high through the continent because of the continent’s location relative to Equator. Range of temperature is quite small and Wind is much less of a feature than in temperate climates Located on about Latitude 30o North and South of the Equator are Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts that dictate surface wind patterns and also influence rainfall and temperature regimes on the continent. The Subtropical High Pressure Systems on both sides of the Equator generate two wind systems that converge on the equator in a zone termed Inter-Tropical Converge Zone (ITCZ). From the north, Subtropical High Pressure Belt zone blows the Northeast Trade Winds (locally called Harmattan). The Harmattan is dry and cool and blows over Sub-Saharan Africa from about November to April. From the south Sub-tropical High Pressure belt zone blows the Southwest Trade Winds (locally called Monsoon). The Monsoon winds are moist and bring rainfall to the coasts of West Africa. The African continent does not extend much beyond 35o of latitude from the equator. The implication is that the range of climatic conditions is limited and that the general direction of wind movement is towards the equator (or in more accurate terms towards the inter-tropical convergence zone -ITCZ). The ITCZ shifts with the seasonal movement of the sun across the tropics: · In June: the northern Summer season, the ITCZ is located at about 13 degrees of latitude in North Africa at the southern boundary of the Sahara; · In December: the Northern winter season, the ITCZ moves southward along the West African Coast and to the northern and eastern margins of the Zaire basin and continues to Madagascar Movements in the ITCZ are closely related to distribution of rainfall and climatic zones. The climatic zones assume symmetry around the equator, although the high altitudes in some parts of the continent and the adjacent disturb the symmetry. Rainfall averages from 5000mm (200 inches) in the coastal strips of Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Cameroun and eastern Madagascar to 500m (20 inches) in the Sahel and 200mm (8 inches) or less in the arid regions (Sahara and Kalahari). Temperatures range from 12o C (54oF) to over 32oC (90oF). The highest recorded 57.7oC (136.4o F) in Azizia, Libya. Mean annual temperature is 3oC to 5.5oC (5.5-10oF) range for a greater part of the continent with <3oC (5.5oF) in the forest belt around the equator. Diurnal mean range of temperature: 10 to over 15oC (18-27o F+) Major Ocean Currents (Refer to any Atlas map of Africa): Winds that tend to blow persistently over the ocean tend to drag a thin surface layer of the water in their direction of flow. This layer of ocean water called Ocean Current dictates the temperature and moisture characteristics of the wind and the coastal regions over which the wind blows. When ocean currents blow from low latitudes (near to the equator) towards higher latitudes (towards the pole) the currents carry WARM ocean water into relatively cool regions. Such an ocean current is called Warm Ocean Current. Examples are the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic coast of the Eastern USA and Mexico. Warm Ocean Currents supply moisture to winds blowing over them to develop rainfall on the adjacent Coasts. In Africa Warm Ocean Currents include, Warm Guinea Currents -–West Africa, Warm Mozambique current – Southeast Africa. The cool surface of Cool Ocean Currents causes moisture in winds blowing over them to condense and form fogs, etc. The winds are deprived of their moisture so they tend to absorb rather than deposit moisture at the adjacent coasts. Cool currents therefore cause dry conditions and in Africa the Cool Canary Currents - the western coast of the Sahara Desert, the Cool Benguela Currents – the Western coast of Kalahari Desert. The cool ocean currents tend to create rich fishing grounds. Rich fishing grounds exist along the Morocco and Spanish Saharan Coasts washed by the Cool Canary Currents. The Namibian coast that is washed by the Cool Benguelan current also has rich fishing grounds. Maritime versus Continental Climates Large water bodies such as the Ocean and huge lakes modify climates in adjacent lands. In the continental interior, where there are no large bodies of water, temperatures get VERY WARM in summer or during the day. Land is solid so it heats up more rapidly during the day. The compact nature of the land means that only a thin surface gets heated. As a result, heat absorbed into the thin layer of surface rocks is released very rapidly. The land surface is therefore VERY COOL at nights and in winter. The interior location does not also allow rainfall to reach such places thereby creating Warm, humid, hot and dry climates. These extremities in climate affect all states located in the interior of continents. Such climates are called Continental Climates as against Maritime climates experienced on lands located along coasts. In places such as Timbuktu, Mail, the diurnal and annual ranges in Temperature are very high because of continentality. Since energy from the sun is transformed into heat on the surface of the earth, air temperature decreases with altitude at an average rate of 3.5 o F per 1,000 feet (6.4 o C per 1000 meters) called the LAPSE RATE. Because of this decrease of temperature with height, mountainous regions such as the Ethiopian highlands have very cool temperatures. Very high peaks such as Mountain Kilimanjaro located along the equator even have permanent snow cover. The combination effect of the above factors create variations in temperature, rainfall and other climatic factors resulting in the following climatic types. 1. Humid Equatorial Climates (Af) 2. Semi-arid cimates (Bsh) 3. Desert Climate (BWh) 4. Mountain climates (H) 5. Humid Temperate climates (C) a. Cool summers b. Dry summers and wet winters (Mediterranean)- Eastern South Africa and North Africa c. Cool summers- Cape province in South Africa Plant and animal life distribution and the different climatic/soil belts are closely related. Although some parts of the continent retain their natural/virgin flora and fauna, increasing population and human activities seem to be endangering these places. The Following types of vegetation types identified: 1. Tropical Rain forest: This vegetation develops in low land areas with year-round precipitation. It extends throughout the Congo (Zaire) basin and along the West coast of Africa with its widest in Sierra Leone. It is also found in a narrow belt along the Southeastern coast south from the equator. Madagascar has a unique rain forest with special species of fauna and flora not available on the main land. Generally, a heavy canopy of foliage with lianes and epiphytes characterizes the rain forest. It occurs in regions where high temperatures are combined with heavy precipitation. 2. Temperate Forest: This vegetation is poorly represented in Africa. It is only found on the lower slopes of the Ethiopian highlands and elsewhere on the highlands of considerable elevation and rainfall 3. Mediterranean Woodland These are evergreen trees and shrubs adapted to the hot dry season and mild wet season. In North West Africa, the hilly belts support forests of evergreen oak, including cork oak and cedar, although they are now much reduced by clearing and grazing. Evergreen shrubs with hard and usually small leaves are common as growth is slow but continuous throughout the year. The vegetation in the Southwest corner is similar 4. Mangrove Swamps This vegetation is found at the inter-tidal flats of the coastlines within the tropics. The margin of the Savannah coincides with the rain forest belt where dry conditions begin. In such areas, there is often a mosaic of forest savanna. Further away from the forest, as the dry season becomes more pronounced and more prolonged, the Savannah woodland thins out, and trees that are more drought resistant are found. Generally, the prevailing vegetation cover is grass interspersed with trees (except in areas around streams and moist hollows). In the zone of lower rainfall the huge baobab tree illustrates storage of water while 'umbrella' trees show adaptation to dry wind. Acacias, some producing gum, are a feature of the drier Sudan savanna. The Savanna extends with similar differences in character over the Lake plateau across the Zambezi to the Drakensberg and dries towards the Kalahari in the thorny scrubs of the Bushveld. Major crops produced in the Savanna: millet, sorghum, peanuts, and cotton. 6. Temperate Grassland or Veld This is found in the veld areas of South Africa. Characterized by short grass and plants adapted to a brief growing season but there are considerable differences due to altitude. It is by no means adapted everywhere to cultivation, but maize, tobacco and temperate cereals are grown 7. Semi-desert and desert Areas further north, the Savanna degenerate into semi-arid and then desert. This is the environment of the Sahel ranging from thorn, wooded grassland to tussocky grasses with large bare patches of bare earth between. Human and animals overpopulate the semi arid areas and both take their toll on the environment. As pasture is destroyed through overgrazing and cultivation, the desert advances southward further restricting populations and increasing densities in a vicious circle of desertification. AFRICAN SOILS. Fig 2.12 page 40 The best soils are alluvial deposits found in the major river valleys. With a few exceptions, most of the soils are difficult to cultivate although improvements can be made to increase natural fertility. Soils in the humid tropics can be quite rich due to the forest cover and the rapid decomposition of organic matter. However, intense rainfall leaches out most of the plant nutrients. This results in a hard pan formed of iron or aluminum oxides - latosols/ferrosols. Between the wet tropics are well-formed soils rich in plant nutrients. But the high iron-oxide content turn and the alternate wet and dry climates turn it into a hard pan - luvisols. Towards the deserts, the soils are sandy and deep but low in humus and quite infertile (arenosols). These give way to xerosols that are quite low in humus. 1. Examine the advantages and impediments that Africa's location and physiography places on the development of its people. Discussion - Advantages: 1. Centrally located among continents hence the opportunity to develop early trade and embark upon the conquest of surrounding countries. The central location also allows external powers to converge on the continent and to scramble for its people and resources. It seems however that Ancient Africans were content with what they had and had no incentive to leave the continent. 2. Most tropical of all continents means warm weather occur throughout the continent 3. Very few natural disasters such as devastating earthquakes, floods, volcanoes etc occur on mainland Africa 4. Several long and wide rivers cut across the continent in both north-south and east-west directions that could provide transportation and hydroelectric power. 5. Relatively flat land with very few mountains - ideal for transportation development 6. Very old crystalline rocks rich in valuable minerals such as gold, diamond and bauxite.
2 In what direction did the ship move? Why do you think so? Krishna Gopal Shrivestava of India set an unofficial world record in 1999 by pulling a ship with a mass of 244,000 kg with his teeth. We can use this feat to learn about force, mass, and acceleration.How would a small rowboat be different if Shrivestava pulled it rather than a large ship?In what direction did the ship move? Why do you think so?When Shrivestava stopped pulling, did the ship stop moving? Explain.You may wish to locate a picture of this event and add it to this slide. 3 Famous Scientists The Laws of Motion Great ideas on motion! 4 Section 1: The First Law of Motion Objectives:Define Newton’s first law of motion.Explain how inertia and mass are related. 5 WRONG!! Aristotle (300 B.C.) Greece His ideas were popular for ~2,000 years.Now, his ideas are obsolete.2,000 years of false knowledgeWhat Aristotle said:Heavier objects fall faster than lighter onesEarth is the center of the universeAll motion on Earth is straight and linearWRONG!! 6 Aristotle (300 B.C.) Greece (cont.) Aristotle’s ideas about motion were a beginning in scientific thought. 7 Galileo Galilei (1600’s) Italy Discovered moons of JupiterSupported the idea that planets revolve around the SunFamous for ideas on motion…but these were not readily accepted in his time 8 Galileo Galilei (cont.) Galileo’s Ideas on Motion:1. All objects fall at same speed (independent of weight)2. Introduced concept of friction- which slows things down3. Inertia (sluggish or lazy)- tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion 9 Sir Isaac Newton (1700’s) England “Father of Physics”Devised calculusExplained gravity, the universal law of gravitation (apple on head?)Formulated a theory on the nature of lightFormulated the laws of motion 10 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion An object at rest remains at rest…An object in motion maintains its velocity…Net force = 0balanced forces, no acceleration!Unless it experiences an unbalanced force 11 First Law (cont.): INERTIA Newton borrowed the idea from Galileo.The inertia of an object is the tendency of the object to resist a change in motion.The larger the mass of an object, the greater its inertia. 12 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion Apply Newton’s 1st Law of motion to this picture: 13 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion Sports Examples:A moving ball will keep moving forever.Unless slowed by external force of friction (ground, floor) or gravityA soccer ball in grassremains stationary.Until it is kicked (external unbalanced force) Your consent to our cookies if you continue to use this website.
This article is reposted from the old WordPress incarnation of Not Exactly Rocket Science. In several species of plants, a surprising number of offspring turn out to be malformed hybrids that quickly wither and die. Now, Kirsten Bomblies and colleagues from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology have found out why. Two genes, one passed down by each parent, ignite an reaction in the hybrid youngster that turns its immune system against it. It’s not a genetic disorder; neither gene was faulty and both were harmless in their native parental environments. But they evolved apart from each other and make poor bedfellows when united. They behave like employees from two merging companies. Having developed in different backgrounds and working cultures, they can find it difficult to work together, lowering the productivity of the new business. Over time, these incompatibilities could drive wedges between different plant strains, reducing their chances of successful mating and turning separate strains into separate species. These genetic clashes that Bomblies found were predicted several decades earlier by two giants of modern genetics, Theodoris Dobzhansky and Hermann Muller. They suggested that different species fail to mate successfully because their unison causes genes that were innocuous in the parents to interact in unforeseen and harmful ways. Today, these genetic clashes bear the somewhat unwieldy name of their imaginers – Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities. Last year, another group found two such incompatible genes in the hybrid spawn of two closely related species of fruit fly. Both genes had rapidly evolved since the two species split from each other, suggesting that these incompatibilities are a necessary evil that result from otherwise beneficial adaptations. As Dobzhansky and Muller predicted, these genetic conflicts serve to keep species apart, but Bomblies’s research suggests that it keeps them separate in the first place. Her team initially set out to study a particularly deadly form of genetic incompatibility called hybrid necrosis. The affected plants live short and troubled lives, plagued by stunted growth and yellow, warped and withered leaves. Bomblies noticed that the symptoms of hybrid necrosis were always the same, even in very diverse groups of plants. She reasoned that the underlying processes must also be similar and set out to study the genetics behind the condition. And when scientists want to study plant genetics, there’s only one real plant-of-choice – Arabidopsis thaliana, the thale cress. Bomblies crossed 280 genetically distinct strains of Arabidopsis in 861 different ways and found that 2 per cent of the resulting hybrids were necrotic. As well as sharing the same symptoms, these unlucky 20 plants also shared a similar portfolio of genetic activity in a group of 1,080 genes. All of the genes that were more strongly activated were involved in immune responses to infection. If the plants were actually infected, these genes would have saved their lives. Unfortunately, there were no marauding germs – the hybrids were being attacked by their own immune systems. These ‘autoimmune responses’ explains why the symptoms of hybrid necrosis look very much like those of a fatal disease. In most cases, Bomblies found that only two genes were needed to cause the autoimmune response, although these differed from case to case. When she looked at one hybrid in greater detail, she found that one of the two genes belonged to the NB-LRR class, a common group of disease resistance genes involved in recognising new infections. When Bomblies switched off the problematic gene, the hybrids developed normally. Bomblies suggests that the NB-LRR gene needs its dance partner to sense potential threats. When this works, the duo trigger localised patches of cell death at the point of infection, effectively stopping invaders from spreading to other parts of the plant. But if the dance partners are incompatible, their missteps trigger an extreme version of this defence where the plant’s own cells are recognised as intruders and attacked. The result is large-scale tissue death – hybrid necrosis. Bomblies believes that similar events take place in the other necrotic Arabidopsis hybrids, and indeed in other reported cases of hybrid necrosis in tobacco and tomato plants. Conflict between incompatible immune genes could be a commonplace occurrence in the plant world, and it adds a new dimension to the concept of species. Traditionally, living things are classified as different species if they cannot produce fertile offspring. In this definition, species are like separate streams of genetic information, prevented from mixing by large barriers. But Bomblies’ work suggests that these barriers already exist within individual species. Because of immune conflicts, some individuals would struggle to produce fertile offspring – in effect, the streams are actually multiple currents separated by rising islands. For plants at least, the rise of new species may be an inevitable consequence of the evolutionary arms race between plants and their infections. The same new weapons that give their immune system an adaptive edge over disease-causing invaders can also serve to drive genetic wedges between different lineages. The same thing may apply to animals too. Some human couples find it difficult to conceive children together but succeed with different partners. Could their failed eggs fail because of autoimmune reactions, the human equivalent of a necrotic Arabidopsis? It’s an intriguing idea, and one that deserves further research Reference: Bomblies, Lempe, Epple, Warthmann, Lanz, Dangl & Weigel. 2007. Autoimmune response as a mechanism for a Dobhansky-Muller-Type incompatibility syndrome in plants. PLoS Biol 5: e236 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050236
Vegetable. In a general sense, the term "vegetable" refers to any plant. However, the term is commonly used to refer only to a plant or part of a plant that is used for food. In popular usage the term also refers to such edible organisms as mushrooms and algae and does not refer to such edible plant parts as nuts, berries, fruit from trees, and grains (with the exception of corn). Among the edible plant parts that are considered vegetables are the following: \|Edible Plant Parts\| \|Leaf Buds\|\|Brussel sprouts\| \|Flower Buds\|\|Globe artichokes\| \|Unripe Fruits\|\|Cucumbers, green beans\| \|Whole Plant\|\|Green onions, turnips\| Vegetables are produced commercially in market gardens, small farms close to their markets, and on truck farms, larger farms that ship their products to places outside their immediate localities. In the United States, truck farming is particularly important in California and Florida.Asparagus spears are popular vegetables. Vegetables consist largely of water, often 90 per cent or more. Nevertheless, vegetables are highly important foods. Most vegetables, especially those that are dark green (such as spinach) or deep-yellow (such as carrots), are excellent sources of vitamin A. Many vegetables, including broccoli and potatoes, are good sources of vitamin C. Vegetables generally provide many minerals, such as iron, magnesium, and calcium. Many vegetables, especially leafy vegetables, are excellent sources of indigestible cellulose, called dietary fiber or roughage, which aids the intestines in eliminating body wastes. Vegetables are low in fat and high in carbohydrates. Vegetables in the pea, or legume, family are high in protein. Vegetables are most nutritious when eaten raw, and most can be eaten this way. Cooking reduces the content of vitamins and minerals. The amount of nutrient loss increases as the cooking time and amount of water used increase. Pressure cooking and steaming destroy fewer nutrients than boiling. If vegetables are to be boiled, they should not be placed in the water until it is boiling briskly. Water in which vegetables have been boiled may be used for soups, sauces, and gravies.
One of the most enduring "Holy Grail" experiments in science has been attempts to directly observe atomic motions during structural changes. This prospect underpins the entire field of chemistry because a chemical process occurs during a transition state—the point of no return separating the reactant configuration from the product configuration. What does that transition state look like and, given the enormous number of different possible nuclear configurations, how does a system even find a way to make it happen? Now in the journal Applied Physics Letters, researchers at the Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter are reporting "ultrabright" electron sources with sufficient brightness to literally light up atomic motions in real time—at a time scale of 100 femtoseconds, making these sources particularly relevant to chemistry because atomic motions occur in that window of time. After seeing the first atomic movies of phase transitions in bulk thin films using high-energy (100 kilovolt) electron bunches, the researchers wondered if they could achieve atomic resolution of surface reactions—occurring within the first few monolayers of materials—to gain a better understanding of surface catalysis. So they devised a low-energy (1-2 kilovolt) time-resolved electron diffraction concept of using fiber optics for miniaturization and the ability to stretch the electron pulse, then apply streak camera technology to potentially obtain subpicosecond temporal resolution—a difficult feat within the low-electron energy regime. "The first atomic movies use a stroboscopic approach akin to an old 8-millimeter camera, frame by frame, in which a laser excitation pulse triggers the structure, then an electron pulse is used to light up the atomic positions," said co-author Dwayne Miller. "We believed that a streak camera could get a whole movie in one shot within the window defined by the deliberately stretched electron pulse. It solves the problem of low electron numbers and greatly improves image quality." Of the myriad possible nuclear configurations, the group discovered that the system collapses to just a few key modes that direct chemistry and that a reduction in dimensionality that occurs in the transition state or barrier-crossing region can be inferred. "We see it directly with the first atomic movies of ring closing, electron transfer and bond breaking," said Miller. Explore further: Physicists produce extremely short and specifically shaped electron pulses for materials studies Chiwon Lee et al, Optical fiber-driven low energy electron gun for ultrafast streak diffraction, Applied Physics Letters (2018). DOI: 10.1063/1.5039737
Helen Adams Keller (June 27, 1880 – June 1, 1968) was an American author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deafblind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. The story of how Keller’s teacher, Anne Sullivan, broke through the isolation imposed by a near complete lack of language, allowing the girl to blossom as she learned to communicate, has become widely known through the dramatic depictions of the play and film The Miracle Worker. A prolific author, Keller was well-traveled, and was outspoken in her opposition to war. A member of the Socialist Party of America and the International Workers of the World, known as the Wobblies, she campaigned for women’s suffrage, workers’ rights, and socialism, as well as many other leftist causes. Keller went on to become a world-famous speaker and author. She is remembered as an advocate for people with disabilities, amid numerous other causes. She was a suffragist, a pacifist, an opponent of Woodrow Wilson, a radical socialist and a birth control supporter. In 1915 she and George Kessler founded the Helen Keller International (HKI) organization. This organization is devoted to research in vision, health and nutrition. In 1920 she helped to found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). Keller traveled to over 39 countries with Sullivan, making several trips to Japan and becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Keller met every U.S. President from Grover Cleveland to Lyndon B. Johnson and was friends with many famous figures, including Alexander Graham Bell, Charlie Chaplin and Mark Twain. Keller and Mark Twain were both considered radicals at the beginning of the 20th century, and as a consequence, their political views have been forgotten or glossed over in popular perception. Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles.
According the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), “the essential feature of ADD/ADHD is a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more frequent and sever than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development” (p. 78). ADD/ADHD are neurobiological disabilities with characteristics of inattention, impulsivity or hyperactivity that appear in early childhood, are relatively chronic in nature, and are not due to other physical, mental or emotional causes. There are three basic types, which may have different implications in the classroom: - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately Inattentive Type Symptoms may include: - often fails to give close attention to details of makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work or other activities - often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks - often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly - often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork or duties in the workplace (not due to failure to understand instructions) - often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities - often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as homework) - often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (assignments, syllabi, etc.) - is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli - is often forgetful in daily activities - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type Symptoms may include: - often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat - often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected - often has difficult engaging in leisure activities appropriately - is often “on the go” or acts as if “driven by a motor” - often talks excessively - often blurts out answers before questions have been completed - often has difficulty awaiting turn - often interrupts or intrudes on others - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type Includes individuals who show significant problems with inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. It is common for students with ADD/ADHD to also have a co-existing mood, behavioral, neurological and/or personality disorder. Common Myths Regarding ADD/ADHD - Result of laziness - Result of lack of motivation - Result of poor study habits - Result of failure to try - Result of immaturity - An attempt to “work” the system; to have unfair advantage - Result of failure to pay attention or listen - A mild form of mental retardation - Emotionally disturbed - Educationally deprived - Culturally deprived - Slow learner Source: Cyndi Jordan, Ed.D., University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1997 Suggested Modifications and Accommodations - Students with ADHD generally perform better if given a syllabus with clear explanations of tasks and specific due-dates. - As the semester progresses, keep reminding students of impending deadlines: “Remember, the problem sets are due on Friday.” - Whenever possible, start each lecture with a summary of material to be covered, or provide a written outline. If you use broad margins and triple-space, students will be able to take notes directly onto the outline: an aid to organization. At the conclusion of each lecture, review major points. - Students with ADHD may tend to “drift” mentally during class, especially during long lectures. They are better able to stay tuned-in when the class material is stimulating and the format varied (for example, lecture alternating with presentations and class discussion). If the class goes on for several hours, be sure to permit several breaks. - Students with ADHD are often distractible, so you should invite them to sit near the front of the class, away from possible sources of distraction (for example, doors, windows, and noisy heaters). - Avoid making assignments orally, since ADHD students may miss them. Always write assignments on the chalkboard, or (even better) pass them out in written form. - Provide test-sites that have reduced distractions; and when students are taking tests with extended test-time, do not ask them to move from one test-site to another. - For large projects or long papers, help the student break down the task into its component parts. Set deadlines for each part; for example, there might be deadlines for the proposal of an essay topic, for a research plan, for the completion of research, for pre-writing to find the essay’s thesis, for a writing-plan or outline, for a first-draft, and for a final edited manuscript. - Use of a notetaker based on their inability to concentrate on listening and simultaneously taking notes. - Provide prompt, explicit feedback, both written and oral. - ADDA- Attention Deficit Disorder Association The Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA) is the world’s leading adult ADHD organization. Their mission is to provide information, resources, and networking opportunities to help adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) lead better lives. - CHADD- Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) is a national, non-profit, tax-exempt (Section 501 (c) (3)) organization providing education, advocacy and support to individuals with ADHD. - ADHD Module Visit this module by the UConn Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability to read about students with ADHD and get
The CDC recently released updated prevalence rates for Autism in the U.S. : 1 in 68. That is a massive increase from 20, or even 10 years ago. Early intervention is key in helping a child with Autism grow into their full potential, and overcome any behavioral, cognitive, or socio-emotional challenges. The sooner you get a diagnosis, the sooner you can get treatment. Children as young as 15-18 months can get a diagnosis of Autism. If your doctor will not evaluate your child for Autism because they are too young or may outgrow symptoms, consult with another doctor. Know the warning signs for Autism and share them with people. The following Red Flags may indicate a child is at risk for an Autism Spectrum Disorder, and is in need of an immediate evaluation: Impairment in Social Interaction: - Lack of appropriate eye gaze - Lack of warm, joyful expressions - Lack of sharing interest or enjoyment - Lack of response to name Impairment in Communication: - Lack of showing gestures - Lack of coordination of nonverbal communication - Unusual prosody (little variation in pitch, odd intonation, irregular rhythm, unusual voice quality) Repetitive Behaviors & Restricted Interests: - Repetitive movements with objects - Repetitive movements or posturing of body, arms, hands, or fingers If your baby shows any of these signs, please ask your pediatrician or family practitioner for an immediate evaluation: - No big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions by six months or thereafter - No back-and-forth sharing of sounds, smiles, or other facial expressions by nine months or thereafter - No babbling by 12 months - No back-and-forth gestures, such as pointing, showing, reaching, or waving by 12 months - No words by 16 months - No two-word meaningful phrases (without imitating or repeating) by 24 months - Any loss of speech or babbling or social skills at any age *Resource: The M CHAT is a simple and quick screening tool for Autism that takes about 5 minutes to complete and can be administered by anyone. This screening tool will let you know if you should seek further evaluation or not. Helpful posts for parents new to Autism or ABA: What is ABA?
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline) An acid (often represented by the generic formula HA) is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a pH less than 7.0. That approximates the modern definition of Brønsted and Lowry, who defined an acid as a compound which donates a hydrogen ion (H+) to another compound (called a base). A common example is acetic acid (in vinegar) Acid/base systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. - Main article: acid-base reaction theories - Arrhenius: According to this definition, an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion (H3O+) when dissolved in water, while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-). This definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water. Around 1800, many French chemists, including Antoine Lavoisier, incorrectly believed that all acids contained oxygen. Indeed the modern German word for oxygen is Sauerstoff (lit. sour substance), as is the Afrikaans word for oxygen suurstof, with the same meaning. English chemists, including Sir Humphry Davy at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius used this belief to develop this definition of acid. - Brønsted-Lowry: According to this definition, an acid is a proton (hydrogen nucleus) donor and a base is a proton (hydrogen nucleus) acceptor. The acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated. An acid and the corresponding base are referred to as conjugate acid-base pairs. Brønsted and Lowry formulated this definition, which includes water-insoluble substances not in the Arrhenius definition. - Lewis: According to this definition, an acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor. (These are frequently referred to as "Lewis acids" and "Lewis bases," and are electrophiles and nucleophiles, respectively, in organic chemistry; Lewis bases are also ligands in coordination chemistry.) Lewis acids include substances with no transferable protons (ie H+ hydrogen ions), such as iron(III) chloride, and hence the Lewis definition of an acid has wider application than the Brønsted-Lowry definition. The Lewis definition can also be explained with molecular orbital theory. In general, an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital (LUMO) from the highest occupied orbital (HOMO) of a base. That is, the HOMO from the base and the LUMO from the acid combine to a bonding molecular orbital. This definition was developed by Gilbert N. Lewis. Although not the most general theory, the Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition. The strength of an acid may be understood by this definition by the stability of hydronium and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation. Increasing stability of the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound. This concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as carboxylic acid. The molecular orbital description, where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair, is connected to the Lewis definition. Generally, acids have the following properties: - Taste: Acids generally are sour when dissolved in water. - Touch: Acids produce a stinging feeling, particularly strong acids. - Reactivity: Acids react aggressively with or corrode most metals. - Electrical conductivity: Acids, while not normally ionic, are electrolytes. - Acids turn moist blue litmus paper red Strong acids and most concentrated acids are dangerous, causing severe burns for even minor contact. Generally, acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with running water (15 minutes) and followed up with immediate medical attention. In the case of highly concentrated acids, the acid should first be wiped off as much as possible, otherwise the reaction of the acid dissolving in the water could cause severe thermal burns. In addition to dangers from the acidity, even dilute solutions of weak acids may also be dangerous, due to toxic or other effects of the ions involved. See an appropriate MSDS for more specific information. Acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. \|Anion Prefix\|\|Anion Suffix\|\|Acid Prefix\|\|Acid Suffix\|\|Example\| \|per\|\|ate\|\|per\|\|ic acid\|\|perchloric acid (HClO4)\| \|ate\|\|ic acid\|\|chloric acid (HClO3)\| \|ite\|\|ous acid\|\|chlorous acid (HClO2)\| \|hypo\|\|ite\|\|hypo\|\|ous acid\|\|hypochlorous acid (HClO)\| \|ide\|\|hydro\|\|ic acid\|\|hydrochloric acid (HCl)\| In water the following equilibrium occurs between a weak acid (HA) and water, which acts as a base: HA(aq) + H2O ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A-(aq) The acidity constant (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of HA with water: Strong acids have large Ka values (i.e. the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right; the acid is almost completely dissociated to H3O+ and A-). Strong acids include the heavier hydrohalic acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), and hydroiodic acid (HI). (However, hydrofluoric acid, HF, is relatively weak.) For example, the Ka value for hydrochloric acid (HCl) is 107. Weak acids have small Ka values (i.e. at equilibrium significant amounts of HA and A− exist together in solution; modest levels of H3O+ are present; the acid is only partially dissociated). For example, the Ka value for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10-5. Most organic acids are weak acids. Oxoacids, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak. Nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid are all strong acids, whereas nitrous acid, sulfurous acid and hypochlorous acid are all weak. Note on terms used: - The terms "hydrogen ion" and "proton" are used interchangeably; both refer to H+. - In aqueous solution, the water is protonated to form hydronium ion, H3O+(aq). This is often abbreviated as H+(aq) even though the symbol is not chemically correct. - The strength of an acid is measured by its acid dissociation constant (Ka) or equivalently its pKa (pKa= - log(Ka)). - The pH of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of hydronium. This will depend on the concentration and nature of acids and bases in solution. Polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A monoprotic acid can undergo one dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above: - HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A−(aq) Ka A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2. - H2A(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HA−(aq) Ka1 - HA−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A2−(aq) Ka2 The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., Ka1 > Ka2 . For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO4−), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO42−), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO3−) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO32−). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3 . - H3A(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + H2A−(aq) Ka1 - H2A−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HA2−(aq) Ka2 - HA2−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A3−(aq) Ka3 An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO4−, then HPO42−, and finally PO43− , the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive Ka values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. - HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) Weak acid/weak base equilibriaEdit - Main article: Henderson-Hasselbalch equation In order to lose a proton, it is necessary that the pH of the system rise above the pKa of the protonated acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form, or to protonate its conjugate base (the deprotonated form). Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions. Applications of acids Edit There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such sulfuric acid in a car battery. In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. - Listing of strengths of common acids and bases - Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. See also Edit - Base (chemistry) - Amino acids - Ascorbic acid - Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid - Fatty acids - Homovinillic acid - Hydroxyindoleacetic acid - Kainic acid - Lactic acid - Lysergic acid diethylamide - Nicotinic acid - Nucleic acid - Uric acid - Curtipot: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis - freeware - A summary of the Properties of Acids for the beginning chemistry student \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
Humanity seems to be intent on teaching robots how to destroy us. We’ve taught them to keep steady when they get knocked and to keep going when they get damaged. Now scientists are teaching them how to stay upright when we jump kick them in the back. A group of researchers from the Italian Institute of Technology and Carnegie Mellon University have been working on teaching human-shaped robots how to keep their balance when they get hit from behind. As you can see in the video above, researchers hit their robot in the back with a pole, a weight suspended from the ceiling, and then just flat out started jump kicking it in the back. In each instance, the robot interpreted the force of the hit on its back, and braced itself on a wall in front of it. At some point, researchers for some reason placed what appears to be a figurine of WWE wrestler John Cena atop the weight. Perhaps the researchers had some anger issues they needed to work out. Or they are in the early stages of prepping for a robot fighting league. The researchers’ work addresses one of the hurdles that needs to be overcome if we’re ever to have humanoid robots in our lives: These heavy, mobile hunks of steel and complicated circuitry fall over very easily. That was perhaps most obvious at last summer’s DARPA Robotics Challenge, where robots competed to finish a obstacle course that featured problems they might face in a disaster situation. The robots fell over a lot, inspiring the research team to try to find a solution. The researchers said they hope in the long term to have the robot be able to balance without bracing itself against something—a skill that would be useful in disaster response situations, which often involve debris-littered environments. This isn’t the only work being done on robot balance. Researchers at Georgia Tech are also teaching robots how to brace for impact when they get knocked down. The idea behind the research is that when we eventually have humanoid robots in our lives, they’ll want to be able to protect themselves from damage in our environment in the same way that we would. But when the robots rise up, this ability to protect themselves could well be our undoing.
Health Disparities Among Bisexual People Far too many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people face bias and discrimination when seeking health care, and as we continue to work to address this critical issue, it’s imperative to address the specific needs of people who identify as bisexual (or something similar, including queer, pansexual or fluid). Experiences among bisexual people in healthcare settings remain rarely discussed or understood by community organizers, medical professionals and researchers. Bisexuals face striking rates of poor health outcomes ranging from cancer and obesity, to sexually transmitted infections to mental health problems. Studies suggest that bisexuals comprise nearly half of all people who identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual, making the bisexual population the single largest group within the LGBTQ community –– yet, as a community, we are doing little to address the needs of bisexual people. Moreover, transgender people and people of color comprise large portions of the bisexual community –– with more than 40 percent of LGBTQ people of color identifying as bisexual, and about half of transgender people describing their sexual orientation as bisexual or queer –– making these groups vulnerable to further disparities that occur at the intersections of biphobia, racism and transphobia.
- The sites were extended to any place where reproductive isolation can be obtained; they may be islands but also small isolated valleys, cities, or inland designs with pollen barriers made of coconut palms or other tree species, be they wild (forest) or cultivated (rubber, oil palm..) - The species conserved may be coconut, together with other species of plant or even animals; In Polynesia, it is envisioned to conserve varieties of kofai (Sesbania coccinea subsp. atollensis) and coconut crab (Birgus latro) on the same islands than coconut for an economy of scale. - It is recommended to plant up to three coconut varieties in the same site and to identify the different kinds of seedlings using phenotypic markers at the nursery stage. In Samoa, a green Tall and two red dwarfs will be planted together in order to conserve both Tall and Dwarfs and to produce seedlings of Tall, Dwarfs and Dwarf x Tall hybrids for farmers.
Energy can be made, or generated, using solids, gas or liquids as its source of power. So how do you use energy? Energy can be generated to produce light, heat or the movement of objects. In this experiment, we explore how to get power from water, or hydropower, which can be used to pick up household objects. Hydropower is mechanical energy that is generated by using the motion of water caused by gravity. Hydropower is one of the oldest forms of energy and has been used by humans since 4000 BC! By learning how to make a water wheel with a handful of household materials, we too can harness, or capture, different amounts of water to generate our own power. How can hydropower be used to lift an object? - 2-liter plastic soda bottle - Craft knife (have an adult help you use it) - 2 corks - 1 wooden barbeque skewer - Sewing thread (16 inches) - Small objects to lift (small fishing sinker, an eraser) - Duct Tape - Large Funnel - Paper clips - Using your marker and ruler, measure and mark a few dots 6 cm up from the bottom of the bottle. Connect your dots and have an adult help you cut off the bottom using the craft knife. - Measure an 8cm section from the cut part of the bottle. Cut out this section so that you have a cylindrical section of plastic. - Cut four 2 cm-wide strips from the 8cm section with your scissors. Cut these strips in half so you are left with eight curved strips that measure 4 cm by 2 cm. - Draw 8 evenly spaced lines lengthwise on the cork, and make slits along each line with your hobby knife. Making sure that the plastic pieces all curve in the same direction, slide each 4 cm by 2 cm plastic piece into its own slit. Why do you think it’s important that the strips all curve in the same direction? - Unfold two paperclips and flex one end of each to create a small loop. These paperclips will act as supports for the water wheel’s axle. - Affix your supports on opposite sides of your plastic funnel using your duct tape. - Cut the skewer in half and poke each half into one side of the wheel cork. Guide each end through a loop on your paper clip support. Make sure your paper clip’s loops are loose enough to allow the wheel to turn freely. - Insert one of the skewers into the other cork and tie thread tightly around it. Tie the loose end of the thread to a weight or other small household object. - Place your completed water wheel under a gentle stream of water in your sink. Slowly run water over the wheel so that the plastic pieces on the cork catch the falling water and turn it into mechanical energy. Extra: Water has potential energy due to its position above the ground. The higher above the ground the water is, the more potential energy it has. Can you convert more of this potential energy into mechanical energy? Try making several water wheels and daisy-chaining them together! When water exits one water wheel, it can pass through another, and so on. The wheel spins and produces enough mechanical energy to elevate small items tied to the end of the thread. You just generated hydropower using the water from your faucet! Gravity pulls water down toward the earth, and the weight of the water exerts torque (a rotational force) on the water wheel. This torque provides enough energy to turn the skewer, allowing you to raise items attached to the other cork. Did you notice that more water pressure was needed to lift heavier objects? More energy is needed to lift heavy items than lighter ones, and by increasing the flow of water you generated more power. Hydropower is still used as a source of electricity in the United States. Using the same concepts from your experiment, water wheels capture the force of powerful rivers, converting it into electricity and sending it into the electrical grid. Hydropower is an example of renewable energy, energy that can be continually replenished. What other renewable energy projects for kids can you find?
Central Ohio home sales hit a record high, last month, despite fewer people buying. Dramatic Inquiry – Introduction Dramatic inquiry demonstrates how techniques such as role playing, movement, and active listening are used in the classroom to explore complex ideas and problems. - Dynamic, hands-on, interactive - Â Hybrid of pretend play, theatrical form, and inquiry-based approaches - Can be used to teach literature, science, language arts, or social studies - Â Teacher has to create safe space - Students slip into the minds of the characters - Role play goes into just character at time. Dramatic inquiry explores many characters, and how they interact, how themes emerge from the interactions. Students may switch roles. - Learning authentically, connecting the text to real life Teacher: Andrea McCallister, 9th grade
Your child may know what to do right away. Otherwise, you can show him how to click on the wand then use it to click on stars to "connect-the-dots." You might find it interesting to try to predict how your child will approach this game. Will he want to click through the four skies first or jump right into the first sky he sees? If he looks through all four skies first, ask what he liked about the one he chose. Was it something about the season? For example, did he choose the season of a birthday, favorite holiday or favorite sport? Or was it something about the screen? For example, did he like the color, or something particular about the landscape? Did he see a special shape in the configuration of the stars? It might be easier for younger children to show you which stars they want included while you click the mouse for them. For better accuracy, you may want to print the selected sky and connect the stars by hand using bright gel pens or pin pricks (see Expand). If your child drew characters in the stars, ask questions about this character's life and how it came to live in the sky. Your questions can encourage your child to imagine more and more about this character. Print out some of your favorite constellations. You might want to print out a few copies, to keep and to use for some of the activities in the Expand section. "Will children taught ‘it depends' grow up to be insecure adults? Or will they be more confident in a world of change than those of us brought up with absolutes?" —psychology professor Ellen Langer This activity is about both fluent ideation and lively imagination. In her book Mindfulness, Ellen J. Langer talks about how people can be much more creative and generate new uses for objects simply if they are told what the object might be rather than what it is. The Stars activity encourages seeing what might be. For example, children who already know a lot about the constellations may start by connecting those they recognize. This would be their idea of what a constellation is. The goal then would be to move beyond to ideas of what a constellation might be. To start from the known, from common ideas, is quite typical. Even people who generate lots of creative ideas, or show great fluent ideation, tend to produce common ideas first, as if to clear them out of the way, before producing unusual or original ones. Your child may relate to the characters portrayed in classical constellations or may draw new characters. People of many cultures have long imagined other people-like or animal figures in the stars. Learn more about the stars through your own powers of observation. You could print an extra copy of a favorite constellation, tape it to heavier paper or light cardboard, and use the tip of a pushpin to make holes where the "stars" are. In a dark room, hold the pin-pricked paper or cardboard parallel to the ceiling, and shine a flashlight under it. Can you see the constellation on the ceiling? Light pollution often occurs in and around big cities. If you can't see many stars where you live, you might visit a planetarium if there is one nearby. Remember: use your own creativity to generate ideas that inspire you and your child! To see an age-by-age breakdown of what your child might be ready for, check out the PBS Parents Child Development Tracker. You might like to try Shadowcasting and its related activities, too. For inspiration in making up stories about the characters in your own constellations, visit Cathy Bell's site about the Mythology of the Constellations. Some constellations are signs in the zodiac. Consider what people have believed about how the stars might influence earth and people. Try Sagwa's Chinese Zodiac game. Older children (5 and up) might enjoy simultaneously considering how stars help explorers navigate and who might live on distant planets at Cyberchase Star Gazer. If your child chose skies on the basis of spring or summer being a favorite season, he or she may also enjoy "planting" flowers for that season in Window Boxes. Backyard Stars: A Guide for Home and the Road by Klutz Press (ages 5 and up). A fun and useful laminated brochure that offers maps of the seasonal night skies marked with unconventional constellations such as ice-cream cones. No binoculars needed. Night Sky magazine. If you can stargaze where you live, this magazine can be a guide to your beginning astronomer. Articles include reviews of equipment and updates on events like meteor showers, eclipses, etc. Enjoy the family activities provided in Sharing Nature with Children: The Classic Parents' and Teachers' Nature Awareness Guidebook by Joseph Cornell (ages 4 to 8). Check out the great ideas and activities in Earth Child 2000: Earth Science for Young Children—Games, Stories, Activities and Experiments by Kathryn Sheehan and Mary Waidner, PhD. (ages 4 to 8).
Imagine that you're an architect and an environmentally conscious client just asked you to design a home that would use less energy from fossil fuels for heating during the winter season. In order to present the best design, you must first research all of the factors that go into making this house more energy efficient. You can select combinations of features to determine the impact they have on the amount of energy used in the home. Can you create the an energy-efficient home design to impress your client? Where does Earth's energy come from?Most of the energy that drives the Earth system comes from the sun. The sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation travels through empty space, sometimes being intercepted by Earth's atmosphere. Visible light is one form of electromagnetic radiation that is capable of reaching Earth's surface. When it interacts with materials, the energy that is absorbed can result in a temperature change. How does energy move from one place to another?Energy on Earth can be transferred from one place to another by one of three methods: radiation, conduction, or convection. An example of radiation is the energy that travels from the sun through space to Earth's surface. Conduction occurs when thermal energy is transferred between two objects that have physical contact with each other. Convection is when warm air moves in where cold air is and warms up the cold air. All three types of energy transfer must be taken into consideration when planning an energy efficient home. Radiation from the sun is used as a heat source, while heat transfer via conduction or convection can ensure that energy is efficiently moved all throughout the house. How does the sun's radiation interact with materials?Materials called insulators can block the energy transfer. Insulators are used in homes as a way to prevent heat from entering the house during the summer or leaving the house during the winter. A home insulating material is rated by its thermal resistance, or R-value. A material with a high R-value will prevent more heat transfer than a material with a low R-value. Some materials have the ability to absorb energy and release it at a later time. This is useful in that the material can be heated during the day, but at night when the air temperature drops, the energy stored in the material will transfer to the air warming it up. These materials are said to have a high thermal mass (TM, for short). What is a "green” home?A "green" home refers to a home that was built to using techniques or materials that reduces its impact on the environment. Typically, these homes are environmentally friendly because they conserve energy and water. Green homes often make use of recycled building materials even further reducing its environmental impact. What are some ways that a person can reduce his impact on the environment?One important way that you can reduce your impact on the environment is to conserve energy. By using less energy to heat and cool a home or power electrical appliances, you are indirectly reducing the amount of fossil fuels that have to be used. In most power plants, coal is used to generate electricity. Because coal is a limited resource, we risk the danger of it eventually running out. Also, the burning of coal adds pollutants to the atmosphere, which can add sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide leading to acid rain and global warming. You can also conserve water. Fresh drinking water makes up less than 1% of the available water on Earth, so it is important to conserve it. Additionally, you can reduce your impact on the environment by recycling, and using alternative energy resources. You need to log in to access this simulation.
Bezier curves are mathematical expressions used to describe curves in two or three dimensions. All fonts, excluding Bitmap fonts, use bezier curves to describe the character shapes. Because the curves are mathematical they have the advantage of being infinitely scaleable. Therefore, a character described in bezier curves can be resized to any size without losing quality. Bezier curves are sometimes referred to a “vector graphics”, contrasting with bitmaps which are called “raster graphics”. Some software that authors vector graphics are the following: Adobe Illustrator, Macromedia Freehand, Macromedia Flash, Deneba Canvas, Corel Draw, Fontographer and FontLab. Bezier curves consist of two anchor points and any number of control points. Curves with one control point are called quadratic curves because the forumla used to calculate them is based on a quadratic equation. Curves with two control points are referred to as cubic curves. TrueType fonts use quadratic curves, while Type 1 fonts use cubic curves. While curves may use more control points, they are not used commonly in type rendering technology. Because quadratic curves are more difficult to work with (mostly because it’s harder to make circles), most vector authoring software uses cubic curves with two control points. What’s more, it is a simple operation to convert cubic curves to quadratic. However, it is not possible to convert quadratic curves to cubic without some approximation.
The remarkable transistor observes its 10th birthday (Jun, 1958) The remarkable transistor observes its 10th birthday In 1948, Bell Telephone Laboratories announced the invention of the transistor. In 1958, the transistor provided the radio voice for the first United States satellite. To advance the transistor to its high level of usefulness, Bell Labs solved problems which, in themselves, approached the invention of the transistor itself in scientific achievement. First, there had to be germanium of flawless structure and unprecedented purity. This was obtained by growing large single crystals â€”and creating the “zone refining” technique which reduces impurities to one part in ten billion. The junction transistor, another radical advance, spurred transistor use. Easier to design, lower in noise, higher in gain and efficiency, it became the heart of the new electronics. An ingenious technique for diffusing a microscopically thin layer on semiconductors was created. The resulting “diffused base” transistor, a versatile broadband amplifier, made possible the wide use of transistorized circuits in telephony, FM, television, computers and missiles. In telephony the transistor began its career in the Direct Distance Dialing system which sends called telephone numbers from one exchange to another. For Bell System communications, the transistor has made possible advances which would have been impossible or impractical a brief decade ago. BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORIES WORLD CENTER OF COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The Fight Against Blight In 1904, a forester at the Bronx Zoo in New York discovered a fungus that would eventually spell disaster for eastern forests. Endothia parasitica, later known as Cryphonectria parasitica (or chestnut blight) is believed to have been introduced to America by imported Asian chestnut trees. This disease spread quickly down the East Coast, affecting American chestnut trees throughout the Appalachian Mountain range. In the Blue Ridge Mountains, where chestnut trees once accounted for a quarter of the tree canopy, the blight has devastated the tree population. For those living amongst the southern Appalachians, American chestnut trees were a valuable resource. The trees boasted lightweight wood that was resistant to decay and, of course, the flavorful fruit that would fall in late autumn. The wood was ideal for building log homes, as well as items such as poles and posts. The fruits benefitted the forest animals as well as people, who would collect them for their own families or to sell in town. With the American chestnut accounting for such a large percentage of the timber industry and the culture of surrounding communities, the threat from chestnut blight was taken seriously. But even with a government grant, scientists could not produce an effective strategy. Within 40 years the American chestnut population was wiped out. Many organizations have been focused on not only reintroducing this species into forests, but rebuilding in the areas that lost so many trees. Planting different types of trees in areas that have been affected by blight has been a popular strategy among organizations and volunteers that are trying to rebuild eastern forests after the devastation to the American chestnut trees. Here at American Forests, a recent Global ReLeaf project in Kentucky is working to do just that. Alongside the American Chestnut Foundation, Coal Country Beeworks and James River Coal, Inc., we will plant more than 7,500 seedlings of different species including flowering dogwood, persimmon, eastern redbud, red mulberry and yellow poplar in an area that used to be dominated by the American chestnut and also suffered as the former site of a mine. Meanwhile, the American Chestnut Foundation is also working with the U.S. Forest Service to introduce a cross species in the Blue Ridge Mountains. The foundation has recognized that the chestnut root stocks are alive and growing, but the trees that will eventually grow are susceptible to blight and will inevitably die. They have also found that the Chinese chestnut tree is resistant to the disease and have been focused on creating a hybrid in order to reintroduce a new form of American chestnut. Scientists worked until they were able to develop a crossbreed that was 15/16 American chestnut and 1/16 Chinese chestnut. The U.S. Forest Service, American Chestnut Foundation and about 20 volunteers worked to plant almost 1,200 saplings in some of the more barren areas in some Western Virginia forests. While our eastern hardwood forests may not resemble the forests of our ancestors, through these various restoration techniques and efforts, we hope to maintain a healthy, diverse forest for future generations.
April is National Poetry Month! Poetry can be fun for kids to read, but scary when it comes time to write it on their own. Here are some tips and ideas to help kids look forward to and enjoy writing poetry! 1. Read poetry to them. Not just during National Poetry Month, but all year long. The more exposure kids have to different kinds of poetry, the more comfortable they will be with it. Consider having a “Poem of the Week” and make it a part of your routine as morning work or in a literacy center. 2. Give them a chance to respond. How did the poem make them feel? Which parts did they like or not like? Let them learn how to express their opinions about something and give reasons why. 3. Model how to write poetry, and practice composing poems together as a class. 4. Let them write about what interests them. Every kid is an expert on something, even if it’s the latest video game or TV show. Have them write poems about a character, or how they feel while playing a certain game. Find out what evokes emotion in them, and let them write about that. 5. Brainstorm before you start. Have students think about their topic and write down nouns, adjectives, and verbs that describe the topic. This will give them a great reference to look at while they are composing and they will be less likely to feel “stuck.” 6. Celebrate each other. It can be vulnerable to write poetry and share it with others. Be sure to create an atmosphere that is encouraging and supportive when students are writing and sharing poetry. Try this free activity from my Poetry Unit: Finding Text Evidence & Writing Poetry. It is a power packed activity, full of fun and learning. Students will read about a type of poetry (cinquain), read an example, answer a few questions, citing text evidence to support their answers, and use the prompt to create their own poem! The free download can be found HERE or by clicking on the pictures below. Poetry is an important part of every culture, and it’s our job to encourage a love of reading it and writing it in our classrooms!
The moth-like European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) is one of the most heavily studied insects you never heard of. First identified in Boston in 1917, the European corn borer came to the United States as it hitched a ride on corn from Hungary and Italy. Since then, it established itself as a pest in the eastern United States and Canada. Colored yellow and tan, the European corn borer has a wingspan of about an inch. Its larvae like to feed on the leaves of different crops, especially corn. The cost of controlling the corn borer and the damage it causes is roughly $1 billion a year. Scientists mostly want to know how to stop or manage the bug's spread. They look at the bug's mating habits and diet, as well as how it spreads. Some of their research focuses on using genetically modified corn that produces an insecticidal protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. That protein protects the plants from the insect [sources: Penn State, Bessin].
Home \| Writing \| Reading \| Social Studies \| Math \| Science Lesson 1B: Decimals, Fractions, Proportions and Percent 1. Common Conversions 4. Scientific Notation By this point, you should have a basic grasp of how to work with numbers. You should be comfortable with basic number operations, like arithmetic (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing). You should be able to perform these actions with whole numbers, integers, fractions and decimals. Decimal = Fraction = Proportion 1 1/1 = 2/2 =3/3=100/100 0.50 = 50/100 = 5/10 = ½ 0.25 = 25/100 = ¼ 0.10 = 10/100 = 1/10 0.01 = 1/100 .33 = 1/3 .66 = 2/3 Percent (%) or percentage means per one hundred 45%, for example, is 45/100 or 0.45 A pie chart is often used to represent the breakdown of percentages. If you are doing a standard grid question and end up with a percent as your answer, convert it to a decimal because there is no percent symbol (%) on the standard grid. Problem - Proportions: At the market, a man buys six avocados for $13.35. All produce is 30% off today only. How much will two avocados cost you tomorrow at full price? You want to find the regular price per avocado because the question is asking you to calculate the cost of two of them. You can find this by figuring out the sale price. The man paid $13.35 for 6 avocados. So divide the total cost by the number of avocados to get the price for one avocado. 13.35/6 = 2.225 this is the discounted price per avocado. The discount is 30% less than the regular price. If you take away 30%, you have 70% (since 100% - 30% = 70%) So you know that $2.225 is 70% of the full price. Full $ x 0.70 = 2.225 (Remember that if A x B = C, then A = C /B) So full $ = 2.225 / 0.70 which, when we work it out either with the calculator or by hand, gives us = $ 2.50 At $2.50 per avocado, buying two would cost us $5.00, which is Answer C. When you multiply 10s together, the product is called a power of ten. We use exponential notation to show a power of ten. The exponent is the number that shows the number of times that ten is a factor and is written in superscript above and to the right of the number. For example, 3 to the fifth equals 3 times 3 times 3 times 3 times 3 equals 243. Written numerically: 35 = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 243 When number X is taken to power Y It means that X is multiplied against itself Y times. 32 is the same as 3 x 3 = 9 42 is 4 x 4 = 16 43 is 4 x 4 x 4 = 4(16) = 64 A negative exponent simply means that number is a denominator or bottom number of a fraction. 4-2 = 1/4 2 = 1/16 Rules for When Exponents Interact: The way to remember the last operation, when an exponent is taken to a power, is to think of what, for example, (Y3)2 really means. It is (Y * Y * Y) x 2 (Y * Y * Y) * (Y * Y * Y) = Y * Y* Y* Y* Y* Y = Y 6 And that should help you remember to multiply the power (in this case, 2 and 3) 1. Exponentials can be multiplied or divided only if they have the same “base” (the number or variable being taken to a power.) Thus: x2 * x3 = x5 But: x2 * y3 is simply x2y3 2. Exponent operations do not apply to addition/subtraction. X 2 cannot be added to X 3 x 2 + x 3 is simply x 2 + x 3 In numerical terms, think of it this way: 3 2 + 3 3 3 * 3 + 3 * 3 *3 9 + 27 =36 36 is not a power of 3. Now you are ready for something that sounds complicated, but really isn’t. The skills involved with this concept apply to other types of questions you will find on the test. Scientific Notation is a way of writing any decimal number as the product of 1) a decimal number between 0 and 10 2) a power of ten For example, the number 100 would be expressed as: 1.0 x 10 2 2000 would be 2.0 x 10 3 2500 would be 2.5 x 10 5 3.75 would be 3.75 x 10 0 Remember that any number to the power of zero equals 1. Numbers less than one are represented similarly, but with ten to a negative power. 0.48 would be 4.8 x 10 -1 And 0.0515 would be 5.15 x10 -2 0.007 would be 7.0 x10 -3 And 0.00008214 would be 8.214 x 10 -5 For numbers less than 1, a simple way to figure out the power of 10 is to count the zeros, starting with the one's place on towards the right and ending at the first non-zero number. 0.00000009081 would be 9.081 x 10 -8 because we count eight zeroes before we get to the '9'. The way to figure out numbers greater than zero is to start at the one's place and count the places toward the left until just before the last (greatest) digit. 2560.0 would be 2.56 x 10^3 because we count three places before we get to the '2'. Scientific Notation is used as a standard or uniform way to express a wide variety of rational numbers. You will likely see some form of it on the test. √ is the root symbol (or radical). x2 = 9, what does x equal? Another way of asking this question is √9 = ? 3 √ means cubed root. 4 √ means fourth root and so on. 3 √ 64 = 4 because 64 = 4 x 4 x 4. Many of the concepts covered will also be useful in the next lesson on Algebra. Back: Math Lesson 1A \| Next: Math Lesson 2A Signup! It's Free! \| Language Arts \| Reading \| Social Studies \| Math \| Science
English 10 T/A 1 June 2012 The Life of William Shakespeare William Shakespeare was a famous playwright and poet. He is most famous for his tragedy called “Romeo and Juliet”. Many students across the United States read or watch this play still today. Shakespeare lived a very unique life. Shakespeare was baptized on April 26, 1564 (William 322). No one is absolutely sure when he was actually born. It is guessed that he was born on April 23, 1564 since children were usually baptized a few days after they were born (William 322). Researchers believe that Shakespeare went to King’s New School for free even though there is no record of him going to grammar school (William 322). There is evidence in his writings that suggest he was taught to write at school (William 323). William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway on November, 28, 1582 (Biography 1). They had a daughter named Susanna on May 26, 1583 (Biography 1). On February 2, 1585, they had twins named Hamnet and Judeth (Biography). The next seven years of his life are what are called “the lost years” by scholars because there were no records of Shakespeare (Biography 1). In the 1580s, Shakespeare went to London and worked as a horse attendant for a while (Biography 1). In 1592, he became an actor and playwright in London (Biography 1). At around 1594, he joined a new acting company called the Chamberlain’s Men (William 323). The company changed its name to The King’s Men after King James I was crowned as king (Biography 1). In 1603, King James gave The King’s Men permission to play wherever they would like to in the kingdom (Life). This would lead on to bigger and better things for Shakespeare and his acting company. Within the first fifteen years of being with The King’s Men, Shakespeare became very rich (William 324). He bought the second biggest house in Stratford, New Place, in 1597 (William 324). Two years later, he...
CMS is one of the two huge detectors built to study the high-energy collisions of protons produced by the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. As all previous collider detectors, CMS is a redundant multi-purpose collection of dozens sub-detector components, which use different physics mechanisms to detect everything that comes out of the collision point, from protons to muons to photons, neutrinos (using the energy imbalance in the calorimeters), neutral hadrons. A transverse cut-away view of the CMS detector is shown below, with the different signals that arise from the interaction of different particles. From this view you may well observe why CMS was named "compact muon solenoid": it is the huge external muon detector system (the detectors within the "red" iron slabs on the right) what gives CMS its appearance. Muons have been quite important in the detection of a Higgs boson decay signal, and would have been crucial to discover the Higgs if the elusive particle had a larger mass -in which case the decay to photon pairs would have been invisible, and the decay to two Z bosons would have been the only one granting a full mass reconstruction of Higgs candidates. Muons are important, but they are not copiously produced in proton-proton collisions. What comes out of the interaction point is in fact, in most cases, a dijet event. Pairs of jets of light hadrons are the result of two quarks hitting each other hard, and kicking one another out of their parent proton. Quarks cannot live as free objects, and as they exit the proton the strong force pulls them back with an increasing force, causing them to decelerate and popping out of the vacuum additional quark-antiquark pairs. What we observe is a collimated stream of protons, pions, kaons: particles formed by quark-antiquark pairs or by quark triplets. These we call "jets". The picture above is a good example of how we like to represent jets as our detector sees them: we imagine the detector is a cylinder, surrounding the interaction point and coaxial with the beam line where protons run. We then cut a side of the cylinder parallel to the beam, and unroll it. We obtain a rectangle, and proceed to plot on it bars which have a height proportional to the amount of energy that the detector measured in each location. This way the streams of particles stand up as towers, well showing that the hard interaction had the main result of producing these two phenomena on opposite sides of the interaction. The physics of jets is anything but boring; and yet we usually discard most of these events already at trigger level, i.e. during the online data acquisition phase. The reason is that we have had a chance of studying in great detail the mechanism of jet production in past experiments. The precious bandwidth leading to the storing of all information to disk is saved for rarer events featuring particles seen less often in hadron collisions -muons, for instance. CMS can write the full reading of its detector components about 300 times a second, so a draconian selection needs to be enforced, rejecting about 20 million "uninteresting" collisions every second. A sad necessity. But we do not discard jet events regardless: these in fact remain extremely interesting when their energy is very high ! Past experiments have not had a chance of studying events where the energy available to create new states of matter was higher than about one TeV (a thousand proton masses). With 8 TeV of center-of-mass energy the LHC can extend the reach by about a factor of four with respect to the Tevatron collider. If we have not found any new state of matter produced in quark-antiquark interactions or gluon-gluon collisions with a mass M<1 TeV we still want to see whether such things exist with masses 1<M<4 TeV! So CMS saved to disk events with high-energy jets, and later filtered them and analyzed them, reconstructing the energy of the two main jets of particles as reconstructed by the various detector elements. Here I am not just talking about the calorimeters: CMS uses a very effective "particle flow" algorithm which reconstructs the energy of every particle making up the jet, using to the fullest the information available from the inner tracker, the electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters, and the muon chambers. Once the energy of the two hadronic jets is known, one computes the "dijet invariant mass": this is the mass of a hypothetical particle produced in the collision, if it decayed yielding the two observed jets of hadrons. Of course if there is no particle, but just pairs of quarks kicked out of the collision point by the strong interaction, one does not expect to observe anything else than a smoothly falling histogram of dijet invariant masses. If, however, some events do originate from the production of a new particle, they will produce an extra "bump" in the spectrum. Above, the CMS data (black points) is compared with a Monte Carlo prediction (labeled "QCD Pythia"). Overlaid are two different possible new physics signals: the expected signal from a W' boson (in red, left) and the expected signal of a E6 diquark (in green, right). Both these signals would be detectable in the 4 inverse femtobarns of 8-TeV collisions analyzed by CMS, and are excluded by the search. The lower panel shows the residuals resulting from subtracting from the data the fitted background: there is no significant bump anywhere. It is the search for such a bump in the spectrum that allows CMS to make a statistical inference on the existence of new particles decaying to hadronic jets. A fit to the observed spectrum can be attempted with a "theory-inspired" functional form which is featureless enough and yet captures the varying slope. By a Bayesian statistical procedure the likelihood of the data, together with a flat prior belief on the intensity of a unknown new particle signal, produces a "posterior distribution" of the possible signal strength. This is always compatible with zero, so there is no evidence of a new particle in the data. For all mass hypotheses of the new particle a 95% confidence level on the signal strength is finally derived by finding the strength below which lies 95% of the area of the posterior distribution. The result is then a set of 95% upper limits on the cross section of the new particle production. This can be represented as a curve in the cross section versus mass graph, as in the figure on the right: all cross sections above the red curve are excluded by the observed data. By comparing the curve with the predicted cross section of new particle production -which is a quickly falling function of the invariant mass of the particle, and is here shown with two different set of dashes for two models- one can then make a statement on the excluded masses: masses smaller than the mass value where the theoretical cross section crosses the 95% upper limit are excluded by the search. Since different hypothetical particles have different predicted production rates, there are several lower limits on the particle masses to derive from the CMS search. We learn that Randall-Sundrum gravitons must have a mass larger than 1.45 TeV if they exist; that a string resonance must have a mass above 4.78 TeV to have escaped detection; and that no Colorons are there with masses below 3.27 TeV; the limit on an excited quark are instead M>3.19 TeV. More detail is of course available in the CMS preprint. So, all in all we learn that despite having increased the search range by a factor of four since the Tevatron era, the LHC does not see new resonances. There appear to be no fishes waiting to be pulled up in that energy range. For many, it is a disappointment; I am also disappointed in a way, but I at least did not delude myself into thinking we would have caught fishes wherever we cast the net at the LHC! New CMS Results On Dijet Resonances
A healthy body temperature is maintained by the nervous system . As the body temperature increases, the body tries to maintain its normal temperature by transferring heat. Sweating and blood flow to the skin (thermoregulation) help us keep our bodies cool. A heat-related illness occurs when our bodies can no longer transfer enough heat to keep us cool. A high body temperature (hyperthermia) can develop rapidly in extremely hot environments, such as when a child is left in a car in the summer heat. Hot temperatures can also build up in small spaces where the ventilation is poor, such as attics or boiler rooms. People working in these environments may quickly develop hyperthermia. High temperature caused by a fever is different from a high body temperature caused by a heat-related illness. A fever is the body's normal reaction to infection and other conditions, both minor and serious. Heat-related illnesses produce a high body temperature because the body cannot transfer heat effectively or because external heat gain is excessive. Heat-related illnesses include: - Heat rash (prickly heat), which occurs when the sweat ducts to the skin become blocked or swell, causing discomfort and itching. - Heat cramps, which occur in muscles after exercise because sweating causes the body to lose water, salt, and minerals (electrolytes). - Heat edema (swelling ) in the legs and hands, which can occur when you sit or stand for a long time in a hot environment. - Heat tetany (hyperventilation and heat stress), which is usually caused by short periods of stress in a hot environment. - Heat syncope (fainting), which occurs from low blood pressure when heat causes the blood vessels to expand (dilate) and body fluids move into the legs because of gravity. - Heat exhaustion (heat prostration), which generally develops when a person is working or exercising in hot weather and does not drink enough liquids to replace those lost liquids. - Heatstroke (sunstroke), which occurs when the body fails to regulate its own temperature and body temperature continues to rise, often to 105°F (40.6°C) or higher. Heatstroke is a medical emergency. Even with immediate treatment, it can be life-threatening or cause serious long-term problems. Often, environmental and physical conditions can make it hard to stay cool. Heat-related illness is often caused or made worse by dehydration and fatigue. Exercising during hot weather, working outdoors, and overdressing for the environment increase your risk. Drinking alcohol also increases your risk of dehydration. Many medicines increase your risk of a heat-related illness. Some medicines decrease the amount of blood pumped by the heart (cardiac output) and limit blood flow to the skin, so your body is less able to cool itself by sweating. Other medicines can alter your sense of thirst or increase your body's production of heat. If you take medicines regularly, ask your doctor for advice about hot-weather activity and your risk of getting a heat-related illness. Other things that may increase your risk of a heat-related illness include: - Age. Babies do not lose heat quickly and they do not sweat effectively. Older adults do not sweat easily and usually have other health conditions that affect their ability to lose heat. - Obesity. People who are overweight have decreased blood flow to the skin, hold heat in because of the insulating layer of fat tissue, and have a greater body mass to cool. - Heat waves. People who live in cities are especially vulnerable to illness during a heat wave because heat is trapped by tall buildings and air pollutants, especially if there is a high level of humidity. - Chronic diseases, such as diabetes, heart failure, and cancer. These conditions change the way the body gets rid of heat. - Travel to wilderness areas or foreign countries with high outdoor temperatures and humidity. When you go to a different climate, your body must get used to the differences (acclimate) to keep your body temperature in a normal range. Most heat-related illnesses can be prevented by keeping the body cool and by avoiding dehydration in hot environments. Home treatment is usually all that is needed to treat mild heat-related illnesses. Heat exhaustion and heatstroke need immediate medical treatment. Check your symptoms to decide if and when you should see a doctor.
The seven numeric manipulation functions allow the programmer to access important model values related to a given specific value of that kind. The given value is the value of the (first) argument, which may be any expression that has a (defined) value of that kind. (Three of these seven functions also have a second argument.) These seven useful values and the related numeric manipulation intrinsic functions are shown in Table 3: Table 3: Numerical Manipulation Functions. An (idealized) example will illustrate the use of these functions for writing robust portable code. In this example Newton's method is used to find the root to maximum accuracy (for the real kind being used) of a function F, in the minimum number of iterations. This example assumes the function F and its derivative function DF are available, and that the value X is already established in a region in which Newton's method will converge to the root. ... do DX = F(X)/DF(X) ! Compute the next delta-X. X = X-DX if (DX<2*spacing(X)) exit ! Stop if near the spacing end do ! limits of that kind ... ! in this region.
The last couple of years have seen a fair amount of progress in bioprinting new organs for needy patients. While the technology is promising, it’s still years away from becoming available for use, and, at least initially, the cost of a 3D printed organ is likely to be somewhat prohibitive. Those stumbling blocks don’t mean that additive manufacturing (AM) is useless for organ replacement surgery, just that the technology has to be applied in a different manner. Students at the University of Connecticut (UConn) have developed an artificial kidney using AM. Rather than attempting to build the organ using bioprinting, the students used more traditional additive techniques along with AutoCAD to build a functional kidney made of artificial materials. Statistics available from National Kidney Foundation indicate there are around 100,000 patients awaiting kidney transplants in the US, but only 14,000 transplants take place in a given year. Worse, more patients are constantly being added to the waitlist, with around 2,500 new patients added each month. Those numbers are only likely to increase as the Baby Boomers continue to age. A potential solution to the problem is building kidneys to fill the gap between available organs for transplant and the remaining patients that require a kidney. Led by Anson Ma, assistant professor in the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and the Institute of Materials Science, two teams of chemical engineering students were given the job of using AM to design an artificial kidney for their Senior Design Project. The two teams set about their project in different ways. One group focused on electrodialysis and forward osmosis, while the other decided to work with hollow fiber membrane technology commonly found in traditional hemodialysis treatments. Benjamin Coscia, a member of the second team, explained the reasoning behind their approach. “Because 3D printing resolutions are not currently low enough to print a structure which will actually filter blood, the file is of only the shell of the kidney,” said Coscia. “Hollow fiber membranes will be installed on the inside to do the filtration function. The kidney will then be sealed together using the threads and sealing o-rings. A fluid called dialysate will be circulated on the outside of the membranes, inside of the shell, which will cause flux of components from the blood. A waste stream maintains the person’s ability to urinate. The outside of the shell can be used as a substrate for growth of biological material for ease of integration into the body.” Projects like this not only showcase the flexibility of AM, but also highlight how the technology can be used to quickly produce prototype results. If UConn’s kidneys prove viable, they could join the list of other AM-built medical devices that have already helped save lives. Below you’ll find a video discussing some of the medical uses of AM.
The Peloponnesian War was a war between Athens and Sparta that lasted from 431 B.C.E to 404 B.C.E. It is often referred to as the war between the elephant and the whale. Sparta had claim on the title of elephant with a formidable army. Athens was the obvious choice for whale, as it was well known for naval dominance. It may sound like every battle was one sided, depending on where it took place, but that isn’t the case. One little known advantage that Athens had was its cavalry. (Lendering) Horses had been used in warfare for quite some time before the Peloponnesian War. In their earliest days however, they were reserved almost exclusively for use with chariots. Over the years, their use evolved until the more modern idea of cavalry emerged: a unit of lightly armored soldiers charging into battle on horseback (Sidnell, 2006). These units had many uses, from both launching and preventing raids to both martial and psychological benefits on the battlefield (Gaebel, 2002). However, in order for them to be useful the horses had to actually reach the battle field. This wasn’t always the trivial task that it sounds like it should be, especially because transporting horses over water isn’t exactly simple using a boat designed for humans. This put Athens in something of a bind. In retrospect, the solution is obvious: innovation. Athens needed a way to transport horses over water more easily, so they designed a ship to do just that (Worley, 1994). This innovation was what allowed Athens to prove how useful cavalry to the rest of the world, despite the expense and difficulty involved in raising and maintaining it. The simple truth about Greece is that it is a terrible place to raise horses. A combination of mountains and poor grazing land leaves few regions capable of supporting enough horses for a proper cavalry. This was especially true for Sparta, which barely had enough food to support its human population. As the war wore on however, even Sparta had to admit that well used cavalry could be devastating. As the war neared its end, Sparta was forced to raise cavalry of its own to help handle the Athenian forces. Their lack of training prevented the Spartan forces from being as effective, but they were still far from useless. Ultimately, the Peloponnesian War proved beyond doubt that cavalry was essential for an army to maintain dominance on the battle field (Strassler, 1996). Gaebel, R. (2002). Cavalry Operations in the Ancient Greek World. University of Oklahoma Press. Lendering, J. (n.d.). Peloponnesian War. Retrieved from Livius.org: http://www.livius.org/pb-pem/peloponnesian_war/peloponnesian_war.html Nguyen, M.-L. (2009, June 28). Wikimedia Commons. Sidnell, P. (2006). Warhorse. New York: Continuum. Strassler, R. (1996). The Landmark Thucydides. New York: Free Press. Worley, L. (1994). Hippeis. Boulder: Westview Press.
The following map shows what areas of the Earth are in daylight and which are at night. = Civil twilight and night. It is called twilight at the interval before sunrise or after sunset, during which the sky is still somewhat illuminated. Twilight occurs because sunlight illuminates the upper layers of the atmosphere. The light is diffused in all directions by the molecules of the air, reaches the observer and still illuminates the environment. The map shows the parts where they are during the day and where they are at night. If you want to know exactly the time that dawns or dusk in a specific place, in the meteorological data we have that information. Universal coordinated time or UTC is the main standard of time by which the world regulates clocks and time. He is one of the several successors closely related to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). For most common purposes, UTC is synonymous with GMT, but GMT is no longer the most precisely defined standard for the scientific community.
The impacts of online identities and learning environments on students With the development of technology today, portable devices have profoundly impacted peoples’ daily lives and communication methods. Among them, users of social media applications on mobile devices are becoming younger and younger, in devices like smartphones, iPad, and laptop. Hence, the importance of social media in education has attracted widespread attention. First, it is necessary to know what a personal online identity is, and how to build an individual online identity. People may show various online identities on different kinds of social media. Students need to clearly understand that the characteristics of online identity are a person’s behavior and reaction on a social media website or application (Understand your online identity, 2011). In other words, students can build their online identity, which may differ from reality. What they post on social media or the setting of their personal profile will determine how others think of them. Actually, there are eight main types of social media on the Internet, such as social networks, social shopping networks, and so on (Kakkar, 2020). But we are only focusing on social networks and media sharing networks in this article, which are two types of social media that will bring more effects on education. Therefore, it is necessary for required students to know how to build their online identity appropriately in different social media networks. Online identity has many meaningful values for remote learning. On one hand, it is a good way for students’ self-presentation. Wangqvist and Frise (2016) indicated that in the process of building a personal online identity on social media, students are more willing to introduce themselves more authentically on the personal profile, including their identification of gender and introduction of their personal characteristics. This is very helpful for students to explore their self-cognition in online learning. The ability of accurate self-cognition sometimes enables students to set appropriate learning goals and know which learning status they are in. On the other hand, the process of building online identity can also help students to expand their relationship network on the internet. It is a good way for students to expand their relationship networks while creating their online identity. because Students prefer to express their inner thoughts actively in online communication compared to the way of face-to-face communication (Wangqvist & Frise, 2016). Also, many social applications will automatically recommend other users to students with a high degree of compatibility with their profiles based on the personal characteristics they fill out, such as LinkedIn and Twitter. Therefore, students can quickly find peers with similar background information and interests in a short time. Consequently, social media networking may provide a positive online learning environment for learners, which moves to the next part of this article: the online learning environment. Different kinds of social media platforms will provide various kinds of learning environments for students. Some of them can be applied as learning assistance, and others can provide free teaching videos for learners. More importantly, most of the social media apps or platforms can help students achieve a fragmented learning mode, enabling learners to use portable devices to learn anytime, anywhere. Dabbagh and Krtsantas (2011) also discussed this situation in their article. As they mentioned, social media is one of the common ways that students can achieve the fragmented learning out of school. In this case, social media can effectively improve students’ learning motivation. When students use social media to learn, these platforms provide a highly interactive environment for learners. As mentioned above, students can independently establish their own personal online identity, and they can control the virtual world they take part in, which can continuously maintain students’ learning enthusiasm (Kumar, 2020). Thus, students can achieve immersive learning. Therefore, social media can provide students with an immersive learning mode. However, everything has two sides. With young people sought after social media apps, many educators also worry that excessive use of social media may bring many problems, such as lack of concentration in traditional classes, inability to complete long readings or lack of sleep. Berukoff（2020）has mentioned many times about the issues of self-control for young students when they use social media in learning. Berukoff (2020) points out that play (using) social media will cause students to be addicted to their smartphones, which may interfere with the class and result in the decline of students’ grades for a variety of reasons. At the same time, Berukoff (2020) argues that most teenagers don’t have enough self-regulation to control the time they spend on social media. Therefore, Berukoff (2020) does not believe that the use of social media in teaching is suitable for younger students. In general, the use of social software in teaching has both advantages and disadvantages. People need to apply it to teaching with serious caution. On the positive side, the use of social media can enhance students’ understanding of self-identity, broaden their relationship networks, and improve their learning efficiency. But, it may also lead to students’ lack of self-control, which may affect their study and grades. In conclusion, it is very important to guide students to use social media to study properly. Berukoff, A. (2020, September 25). Who’s Concerned IF Social Media Affects Education and E-Learning …this teacher sees 5 problems. Medium. https://annemarie3steps.medium.com/whos-concerned-if-social-media-affects-education-and-e-learning-this-teacher-sees-5-problems-9ec6b6654237 Kakkar, G. (2020, January 21). What are the different types of social media? Digital Vidya. https://www.digitalvidya.com/blog/types-of-social-media/ Kumar, J. (2020, January 24). Immersive Learning: What You Need To Know. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/everything-need-know-about-immersive-learning Understanding your Online Identity An Overview of Identity. (2011, February 18). Retrieved November 11, 2020, from https://www.internetsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ Understanding-your-Online-Identity-An-Overview-of-Identity.pdf Wängqvist, M., & Frisén, A. (2016). Who am I Online? Understanding the Meaning of Online Contexts for Identity Development. Adolescent Research Review,1(2),139–151. doi:10.1007/s40894–016–0025–0
Table of Content Positive psychology is the scientific study of happiness. Positive Psychology is further defined as the "scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. It is based on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play". Positive psychology shares a strong connection with mental health since one of its goals is to focus on what is right about a person and how those traits can be increased- the desired result is a happier, more fulfilled life. Similarly, mental health also tries to increase positive traits to help people deal with mental disorders. Happiness, well-being and life satisfaction are components of good mental health. What are some of the other components that might influence good mental health? - Most people are generally happy where some personality types seem naturally happier than others, but this can be changed over time. - Relationships matter where having good relationships with other people is the most important factor contributing to a sense of wellbeing. - Happiness and circumstances where life events, whether positive or negative only have a short-term effect on happiness. In the same way, people usually recover from traumatic or stressful events with time and become just as happy as before. - Happiness and money where beyond providing for our basic needs, the level of income is not related to happiness. So although people living in extreme poverty are less likely to be happy, having more money does not make people any happier. - Meaning and pleasure, where finding a sense of meaning or purpose in life and seeking out pleasure, are two paths to happiness. - Religion where faith, religion, and spirituality are interrelated to happiness. Positive Psychology has three central concerns: - Positive emotions - Positive individual traits - Positive institutions. "Understanding positive emotions entail the study of contentment with the past, happiness in the present, and hope for the future. Understanding positive individual traits involve the study of strengths, such as the capacity for love and work, courage, compassion, resilience, creativity, curiosity, integrity, self-knowledge, moderation, self-control, and wisdom. Understanding positive institutions entail the study of the strengths that foster better communities, such as justice, responsibility, civility, parenting, nurturance, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose, and tolerance." In an utopist world, positivity and positive emotions are the only characteristics worth fighting for but human beings are an amalgamation of positive and negative emotions and experiences. Negative emotions have a very important role to play in our lives, as do positive ones. A healthy balance would be something to strive for. Eliminating all negative emotions isn't realistic or healthy. For optimal brain functioning and wellbeing to exist, positive emotions and experiences should overshadow negative emotions and experiences. Enhance your Emotional Wellness to develop a more positive mindset by following some simple rules: - Use hope as an alternative for fear by coming up with creative solutions for fearful situations in your life. - Track your positivity ratio daily, discover what makes you come alive and give those activities a higher priority. We need 3 positive emotions for every negative emotion to stay in balance. - Keep your negativity in check by questioning your mental habits - Remember your good deeds. Give yourself credit for the good things you do for others each day. - Forgive yourself. Everyone makes mistakes. Learn from what went wrong, but don't dwell on it. - Spend more time with your friends. Surround yourself with positive, healthy people. - Explore your beliefs about the meaning and purpose of life. - Develop healthy physical habits. - Gratitude visits where one writes a letter of gratitude to someone who has been especially kind but has never been properly thanked. Then deliver the letter personally. How Cadabam's Help you for Addiction? - 410+ Professional Consultants - 1,00,00+ Happy Faces - 120+ Currently Seeking Treatments
Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses. Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases. Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water heaters, hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers, heat exchangers, geysers, or calorifiers. These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water (DHW). Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy. Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity. Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water. This is especially the case in Scandinavia and Finland. District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from waste heat from industries, power plants, incinerators, geothermal heating, and central solar heating. Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers’ premises. Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system, due to the expected high availability of district heating systems. Leave a Comment You must be logged in to post a comment.
The definition of critical race theory is a mystery, according to many educators—but they sure know what isn’t critical race theory: whatever they’re teaching. “School boards, superintendents, even principals and teachers are already facing questions about critical race theory, and there are significant disagreements even among experts about its precise definition as well as how its tenets should inform K-12 policy and practice,” reports Education Week, which is to education what the Wall Street Journal is to Wall Street. Here’s how the head of public education in Washington state deflects the question and intentionally misleads: “We talk about the Civil Rights Movement. We talk about the causes of the Civil War, we talk about the experiences of Black Americans, of white Americans. It’s comprehensive history, but it’s not critical race theory.” The question, of course, isn’t what topics are discussed (every history curriculum covers the Civil Rights Movement and the Civil War). No, it’s how those things are being taught. That’s what’s important—especially to parents. Our friends at the newly established Citizens for Renewing America have developed a useful guide to critical race theory—what it is, how to spot it and—most importantly—how to counter it. “Everything that makes up American Society is racist,” according to critical race theorists, the CRA guide explains. “This includes Christianity, free markets, traditional marriage, rule of law, traditional family structures, and a representative form of government.” I am a lifelong educator, and as I have pointed out before, critical race theory is state-sponsored racism and race-based discrimination. Its leading proponents admit this—gleefully. “The defining question is whether the discrimination is creating equity or inequity,” writes Ibram X. Kendi in his book, “How to be an Anti-Racist.” “If discrimination is creating equity, then it is antiracist.” How can parents determine if the corrosive error of critical race theory has seeped into their children’s schools? As Ronald Reagan once said about the threat of Marxism (which heavily influenced critical race theory), “There are no easy answers, but there are simple answers. We must have the courage to do what we know is morally right.” Here are five steps—simple, but not easy—for parents to start with. - PARTICIPATE in your local school board. - LEARN about the topic: We suggest starting here and here. - INQUIRE about you child’s curriculum—and ask to see materials being used. - SUPPORT putting parents back in charge of where their children go to school. - LISTEN for critical race theory buzzwords. Here are just a few of those buzzwords: Equity—This has replaced “equality.” Instead of ensuring that every American has an equal opportunity to succeed, equity demands equality of outcomes. Implicit/unconscious/internalized bias—This is the relentless search to find racism in every aspect of American life. If it’s not immediately evident, look harder. Social Justice/Restorative Justice—This is the belief that society must be torn down and remade in order to fully root out racism. Systemic racism—According to critical race theory, racism is the original sin of America, and it persists everywhere to this day. Every institution is designed, they say, “to maintain the dominance of white people in society.” Microaggressions—These are “subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously.” Antiracism—This is critical race theory’s nom de guerre, the practical outworking of its central ideas. White privilege—According to this doctrine, white people derive immense benefits from their race. According to one theorist (and Wisconsin politician), “America needs to be honest about how race has driven every decision from education to homeownership, and everything in between.” White fragility—This makes critical race theory non-falsifiable. Any objection to any tenet of critical race theory is said to be white fragility. Colonialism—That villain Jean-Jacques Rousseau would recognize this as his “noble savage” concept—it’s the notion that most human societies lived some kind of idyllic existence until explorers from the West arrived. As one scholar puts it, “colonialism, as a project of bringing the backward races into the universal History, bridged Enlightenment with modern constructions of race.” In other words, colonialism was the seedbed of race—and racism. Critical race theorists demand that we decolonize—reject all that the West brought with it, including Enlightenment ideals. Identity—Everything is about what you are, not who you are. Ally/Allyship—According to Harvard University, an ally is “Someone who makes the commitment and effort to recognize their privilege (based on gender, class, race, sexual identity, etc.) and work in solidarity with oppressed groups in the struggle for justice.” Critical race theorists demand nothing less of the rest of us. Social construct—Race is made-up; it’s a fiction used by oppressors to control the oppressed. Oh, and also race is real and immutable. It’s the one thing you can’t change about yourself, and it’s all that matters (see identity). Educators may claim again and again that they’re not teaching critical race theory, but by their deeds will you know them. These buzzwords indicate that destructive critical race theory concepts are indeed making their way into our children’s understanding of themselves and the world around them. Besides, if educators truly aren’t teaching critical race theory in the classroom, why do they object so loudly when lawmakers attempt to ban it?
Behavioral issues, not infectious diseases, are the number one cause of death for dogs under three years of age. Early and adequate socialization and programs of positive training can go a long way to preventing behavior problems and improving bonding between humans and dogs. In reality, a dog’s behavior and temperament are always in a state of flux, or developmental transition. It would be more accurate to describe the dog’s entire life span as a single extended transitional phase of development. But there are times when a dog is more sensitive to change and environment than others. A sensitive period is a point in the maturing process when events can have long term effects, or a period when learning is easier and knowledge gained is stored in the long term memory. During the sensitive period, a small number of determining experiences have major effects (or damages) on future behavior. The first 16 weeks of a puppy’s life is made up of 8 overlapping sensitive periods. Where you get your puppy is important. Maternal effect is the mother’s influence on her puppies. It can have a huge impact on certain behavior patterns that it can be difficult to distinguish between maternal effect and the effect of genetics. For example, observations have shown that a mother reacting too nervously or fearfully toward certain sounds may cause her puppies into develop noise phobias. That’s why you should meet the mother dog if at all possible to assess her personality. Dr. Michael Fox conducted a study showing that mild stress in puppies during the first 5 weeks develop into dogs which are superior when put in learning or competitive situations. They are better able to handle stress, more outgoing, and learn more quickly. Mild physical stress at an early age actually increases the size of the brain. When a pregnant mother is petted, her litter is more docile. This effect, called the “gentling,” “petting” or “caress” effect can be prolonged by caresses to the new born. A dog’s tactile capacities develop before birth and it is possible that it already becomes used to contact in the uterus, when the mother is petted. Puppies manipulated this way show a greater tolerance to touching than dogs born of a mother who was not petted. Neonatal Period – Birth to the Opening of the eyes circa 13 days The puppy can’t walk, hear or see well, stays close to its mother and litter mates. The newborn is a completely dependent being, unable to defecate or stay warm on it’s own. An EEG of a puppy at this age shows little difference whether awake or asleep. Puppies at this age are unable to learn, though the future may hold surprising discoveries concerning the “manipulation” effect on neuro-hormonal development Transitional Period–13 days to 20 days The eyes and ears open, puppy begins to walk in a wobbly fashion. Continue picking up the pups daily, admire them, talk to them, and daily spend a few minutes with each one. Awareness Period– 3 to 4 Weeks Primary socialization begins. Sight and hearing functions well, teeth are coming in, puppies are able to lap milk and soft food. Learning begins. Brain waves increase and the wakeful EEG differs from the sleeping puppy. The puppy is learning that he is a dog and has a great deal of need for a stable environment. Species identification (filial, fraternal, and sexual imprinting) is dependent on play fighting and begins about week 3½ and ends between weeks 11-17. A stressful environment will close this phase around 7-9 weeks. Canine Socialization Period– 3 to 7 weeks Interacting with his mother and litter mates, the pup learns various canine behaviors. He is now aware of the differences between canine and human societies. Puppies spend a great deal of time play fighting and this period may be a sensitive one for the acquisition of bite inhibition. The American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior recommends puppies should be socialized before they are fully vaccinated. In general, puppies can start socialization classes as early as 7-8 weeks of age. Puppies should receive a minimum of one set of vaccines at least 7 days prior to the first class and a first de-worming. They should be kept up-to-date on vaccines throughout the class. Many training and behavior problems are created the first week the pup is at home. Time is of the essence for owners to provide a huge heaping of high quality socialization and schooling. This is the key to creating a socially self-confident, well-behaved puppy that is strongly bonded to you. It is also the key to preventing yappy, shy, and/or aggressive behaviors from developing later in life! Human Socialization Period– 6 to 12 Weeks The best time for going to a new home. He has the ability to learn respect, simple behavioral responses: sit, stay, come. House training begins. He now learns by association. The permanent man/dog bonding begins, and he is able to accept gentle discipline and establish confidence. At 7-8 weeks the EEG assumes adult form. Fear Impact Period– 8 to 11 Weeks: Try to avoid frightening the puppy during this time, since traumatic experiences can have an effect during this period. As you can see, this period overlaps that of the previous definition and children or other animals should not be allowed to hurt or scare the puppy–either maliciously or inadvertently. It is very important now to introduce other humans, but he must be closely supervised to minimize adverse conditioning. Learning at this age is permanent. Introducing your puppy to other dogs at this time will help him become more socialized. If available in your area, a doggy day care is great for this. Seniority Classification Period– 13 to 16 Weeks This critical period is also known as the “Age of Cutting” – cutting teeth and cutting apron strings. At this age, the puppy begins testing dominance and leadership. Biting behavior is absolutely discouraged from thirteen weeks on. Praise for the correct behavior response is the most effective tool. Meaningful praise is highly important to shape positive attitude. Flight Impact / Juvenile Period– 4 to 8 Months During this period puppies test their wings – they will turn a deaf ear when called. This period lasts from a few days to several weeks. It is critical to praise the positive and minimize the negative behavior during this time. However, you must learn how to achieve the correct response. At about 4 1/2 months, your puppy loses his milk teeth and gets his adult teeth. Puppies become more mouthy and restless from the discomfort and serious chewing begins. During adolescence, minor puppy rambunctiousness manifests as major-league unruly behavior: jumping up, pulling on leash, hyperactivity, incessant barking and heavy duty household destruction. More disturbingly, the puppy’s lack of confidence may rear its ugly head as fearfulness and/or aggression to other dogs or people. Second Fear Impact / Adolescence Period– 6 to 14 Months Also called, “The fear of situations period”, usually corresponds to growths spurts. This critical age may depend on the size of the dog. Small dogs tend to experience these periods earlier than large dogs. Great care must be taken not to reinforce negative behavior. Force can frighten the dog, and soothing tones serve to encourage his fear. His fear should be handled with patience and kindness, and training during this period puts the dog in a position of success, while allowing him to work things out while building self-confidence. Maturity– 1 – 4 years When socialization continues, dogs become even more socialized, whereas when socialization is discontinued (e.g., when dogs are kenneled, or not walked regularly), dogs gradually de-socialize until eventually they may become fearful, asocial, or even antisocial.Many breeds’ especially giant breeds continue to grow and physically change well beyond four years of age. The average dog develops to full maturity between 1-1½ years and three years of age. This period is often marked by an increase in aggression. They may become protective and territorial and may renew testing for leadership. Males may start lifting their leg in the house. During this time, while testing for leadership, the dog should be handled firmly. Regular training throughout this testing period, praise him for the proper response. Giving him no inroads to affirm his leadership will remind him that this issue has already been settled.
Have you ever had the measles? Like many other diseases, it begins with a fever, runny nose, and sore throat. Soon after, a rash begins to cover the body. In about 30% of measles cases other complications develop, such as pneumonia, encephalitis (swelling of the brain), and even death. Though the first recorded account of the measles was in the 9th century, it was not until 1912 that healthcare providers in the United States began reporting cases. Between 1912 and 1922, there were over 6,000 deaths related to the measles. This trend continued until 1963, when the first measles vaccine became available. The measles was declared eliminated from the United States in 2000 primarily due to the fact that the vast majority of children were receiving two doses of the vaccine. On January 23, 2015, the Center for Disease Control issued a health advisory about an outbreak of measles in several states . The outbreak originated at a popular theme park in California in December 2014 when an infected tourist from another country visited the theme park. Many of the people who became infected were not vaccinated or had not received the second dose of the vaccination. No one knows exactly when viruses emerged or from where they came, since viruses do not leave historical footprints such as fossils. Modern viruses are thought to be a mosaic of bits and pieces of nucleic acids picked up from various sources along their respective evolutionary paths. Viruses are acellular, parasitic entities that are not classified within any kingdom. Unlike most living organisms, viruses are not cells and cannot divide. Instead, they infect a host cell and use the host’s replication processes to produce identical progeny virus particles. Viruses infect organisms as diverse as bacteria, plants, and animals. They exist in a netherworld between a living organism and a nonliving entity. Living things grow, metabolize, and reproduce. Viruses replicate, but to do so, they are entirely dependent on their host cells. They do not metabolize or grow, but are assembled in their mature form. The first organisms that originated about 3.5 billion years ago were prokaryotes that possessed the structures and metabolic processes associated with cells (refer to the Cell Structure chapter). As discussed in the chapter on cell structure, prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells and inhabit just about every square inch of our planet, from the most inhospitable environments to the surface of the skin. Viruses are much smaller than prokaryotes and much simpler in structure. They must reproduce inside a host cell. Their origin is still a mystery to us, but we do know that they can make us very sick. - Hits: 57
Memory overcommit is a process in which a virtual machine (VM) is assigned more memory than a host machine's available and committed physical memory. It is used in virtualization environments to allocate memory capacity to VMs with higher requirements. Techopedia explains Memory Overcommit Memory overcommit is achieved through the hypervisor that sources physical memory from the host computer and distributes it to different virtual machines. Memory overcommit works on the principle that most virtual machines underutilize their allocated memory capacity. Thus, the unused memory capacity of other VMs is assigned to a VM that requires additional memory. The hypervisor routinely monitors each virtual memory operation and dynamically assigns unused memory to resource intensive VMs.
Limits to Growth¶ This chapter is available as a Jupyter notebook where you can read the text, run the code, and work on the exercises. Click here to access the notebooks: https://allendowney.github.io/ModSimPy/. In the previous chapter we developed a population model where net growth during each time step is proportional to the current population. This model seems more realistic than the constant growth model, but it does not fit the data as well. There are a few things we could try to improve the model: Maybe net growth depends on the current population, but the relationship is quadratic, not linear. Maybe the net growth rate varies over time. In this chapter, we’ll explore the first option. In the exercises, you will have a chance to try the second. It makes sense that net growth should depend on the current population, but maybe it’s not a linear relationship, like this: net_growth = system.alpha * pop Maybe it’s a quadratic relationship, like this: net_growth = system.alpha * pop + system.beta * pop*2 We can test that conjecture with a new update function: def growth_func_quad(t, pop, system): return system.alpha pop + system.beta * pop*2 System object we’ll use, initialized with t_0 = census.index p_0 = census[t_0] t_end = census.index[-1] system = System(t_0=t_0, p_0=p_0, t_end=t_end) Now we have to add the parameters I chose the following values by trial and error; we’ll see better ways to do it later. system.alpha = 25 / 1000 system.beta = -1.8 / 1000 And here’s how we run it: results = run_simulation(system, growth_func_quad) Here are the results. results.plot(color='gray', label='model') plot_estimates() decorate(title='Quadratic Growth Model') The model fits the data well over the whole range, with just a bit of space between them in the 1960s. It is not entirely surprising that the quadratic model fits better than the constant and proportional models, because it has two parameters we can choose where the other models have only one. In general, the more parameters you have to play with, the better you should expect the model to fit. But fitting the data is not the only reason to think the quadratic model might be a good choice. It also makes sense; that is, there is a legitimate reason to expect the relationship between growth and population to have this form. To understand it, let’s look at net growth as a function of population. Let’s plot the relationship between growth and population in the quadratic model. linspace to make an array of 101 populations from 0 to 15 billion. from numpy import linspace pop_array = linspace(0, 15, 101) Now I’ll use the quadratic model to compute net growth for each population. growth_array = (system.alpha pop_array + system.beta * pop_array*2) To plot growth rate versus population, we’ll use the plot function from Matplotlib. First we have to import it: from matplotlib.pyplot import plot Now we can use it like this: plot(pop_array, growth_array, label='net growth', color='C2') decorate(xlabel='Population (billions)', ylabel='Net growth (billions)', title='Net Growth vs. Population') Note that the x-axis is not time, as in the previous figures, but population. We can divide this curve into four kinds of behavior: When the population is less than 3 billion, net growth is proportional to population, as in the proportional model. In this range, the population grows slowly because the population is small. Between 3 billion and 10 billion, the population grows quickly because there are a lot of people. Above 10 billion, population grows more slowly; this behavior models the effect of resource limitations that decrease birth rates or increase death rates. Above 14 billion, resources are so limited that the death rate exceeds the birth rate and net growth becomes negative. Just below 14 billion, there is a point where net growth is 0, which means that the population does not change. At this point, the birth and death rates are equal, so the population is in equilibrium. The equilibrium point is the population, $p$, where net population growth, $\Delta p$, is 0. We can compute it by finding the roots, or zeros, of this equation: where $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are the parameters of the model. If rewrite the right hand side like this: we can see that net growth is $0$ when $p=0$ or $p=-\alpha/\beta$. So we can compute the (non-zero) equilibrium point like this: -system.alpha / system.beta With these parameters, net growth is 0 when the population is about 13.9 billion. In the context of population modeling, the quadratic model is more conventionally written like this: This is the same model; it’s just a different way to parameterize it. Given $\alpha$ and $\beta$, we can compute $r=\alpha$ and $K=-\alpha/\beta$. In this version, it is easier to interpret the parameters: $r$ is the unconstrained growth rate, observed when $p$ is small, and $K$ is the equilibrium point. $K$ is also called the carrying capacity, since it indicates the maximum population the environment can sustain. In this chapter we implemented a quadratic growth model where net growth depends on the current population and the population squared. This model fits the data well, and we saw one reason why: it is based on the assumption that there is a limit to the number of people the Earth can support. In the next chapter we’ll use the models we have developed to generate predictions. But first, I want to warn you about a few things that can go wrong when you write functions. When people learn about functions, there are a few things they often find confusing. In this section I’ll present and explain some common problems. As an example, suppose you want a function that takes a System object, with variables beta, and computes the Here’s a good solution: def carrying_capacity(system): K = -system.alpha / system.beta return K sys1 = System(alpha=0.025, beta=-0.0018) pop = carrying_capacity(sys1) print(pop) Now let’s see all the ways that can go wrong. Dysfunction #1: Not using parameters. In the following version, the function doesn’t take any parameters; when sys1 appears inside the function, it refers to the object we create outside the function. def carrying_capacity(): K = -sys1.alpha / sys1.beta return K sys1 = System(alpha=0.025, beta=-0.0018) pop = carrying_capacity() print(pop) This version works, but it is not as versatile as it could be. If there are several System objects, this function can only work with one of them, and only if it is named Dysfunction #2: Clobbering the parameters. When people first learn about parameters, they often write functions like this: # WRONG def carrying_capacity(system): system = System(alpha=0.025, beta=-0.0018) K = -system.alpha / system.beta return K sys1 = System(alpha=0.03, beta=-0.002) pop = carrying_capacity(sys1) print(pop) In this example, we have a System object named sys1 that gets passed as an argument to carrying_capacity. But when the function runs, it ignores the argument and immediately replaces it with a new object. As a result, this function always returns the same value, no matter what argument is passed. When you write a function, you generally don’t know what the values of the parameters will be. Your job is to write a function that works for any valid values. If you assign your own values to the parameters, you defeat the whole purpose of functions. Dysfunction #3: No return value. Here’s a version that computes the value of K but doesn’t return it. # WRONG def carrying_capacity(system): K = -system.alpha / system.beta sys1 = System(alpha=0.025, beta=-0.0018) pop = carrying_capacity(sys1) print(pop) A function that doesn’t have a return statement actually returns a special value called None, so in this example the value of None. If you are debugging a program and find that the value of a variable is None when it shouldn’t be, a function without a return statement is a likely cause. Dysfunction #4: Ignoring the return value. Finally, here’s a version where the function is correct, but the way it’s used is not. def carrying_capacity(system): K = -system.alpha / system.beta return K sys1 = System(alpha=0.025, beta=-0.0018) carrying_capacity(sys1) print(K) In this example, carrying_capacity runs and returns K, but the return value doesn’t get displayed or assigned to a variable. If we try to print K, we get a K only exists inside the function. When you call a function that returns a value, you should do something with the result. In a previous section, we saw a different way to parameterize the quadratic model: where $r=\alpha$ and $K=-\alpha/\beta$. Write a version of growth_func that implements this version of the model. Test it by computing the values of K that correspond to beta=-0.0018, and confirm that you get the same results. # Solution system.r = system.alpha system.K = -system.alpha/system.beta system.r, system.K # Solution def growth_func_quad2(t, pop, system): return system.r pop * (1 - pop / system.K) # Solution results2 = run_simulation(system, growth_func_quad2) results2.plot(color='gray', label='model') plot_estimates() decorate(title='Quadratic Growth Model, alternate parameters') What happens if we start with an initial population above the carrying capacity, like 20 billion? Run the model with initial populations between 1 and 20 billion, and plot the results on the same axes. Hint: If there are too many labels in the legend, you can plot results like this: # Solution p0_array = linspace(1, 25, 11) for p_0 in p0_array: system.p_0 = p_0 results3 = run_simulation(system, growth_func_quad) results3.plot(label='_nolegend') decorate(xlabel='Year', ylabel='Population (billions)', title='Projections with hypothetical starting populations')
Global Human Rights Protection series: children To guarantee the human rights of children is to invest in the future. Children’s rights are the building blocks for a solid human rights culture, the basis for securing human rights for future generations. As human beings, children are entitled to all the rights guaranteed by the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) and the various covenants that have developed from it. But children also need special protection and care. They must be able to depend on the adult world to take care of them, to defend their rights and to help them to develop and realize their potential. Governments pay almost universal lip service to this ideal, yet have signally failed to ensure that the rights of children are respected. The international community has long recognized the need to protect children from such abuses. The 1959 UN Declaration on the Rights of the Child set out ten principles which provided a powerful moral framework for children’s rights, but which were not legally enforceable. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (the CRC) was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1989, and entered into force the following year. Since then, the CRC has been ratified by every single UN member state in the world, except Somalia -- which has had no central government able to do so for many years -- and the United States of America (USA). This publication was created with the aim of creating a reference point in the global protection of children through human rights legislation. It contains a collection of all main international and regional legal instruments pertaining to the human rights specifically aimed at children. Binding as well as non-binding instruments falling within the fields of public as well as private international law are included.
Turtles are reptiles, not amphibians. People often mistake them for amphibians due to the misunderstanding about the term amphibian. The word amphibian refers specifically to members of the class amphibia, but the word amphibious that comes from the same root means “operating or living on land and in water.” It is true that many turtles are amphibious, but none are actually amphibians. Yes, turtles belong to the class of cold-blooded animals called reptiles. In British English, a turtle is a type of reptile which either lives in the sea or in freshwater. If you’re a speaker of North American English, however, ‘turtle’ is a broader term: it refers to any reptile belonging to the order Testudines, including those that live on land (which British English speakers call tortoises or terrapins rather than turtles). The former name for the order Testudines was Chelonia, which is why all members of this order (turtles, tortoises, and terrapins) are known as chelonians. A few rules for being able to tell if something is an amphibian or a reptile are as follows: - Reptiles have scales, whether they are large, small, rough, smooth, etc. This protective layer helps them conserve water and has also allowed them to spread across land in a way that amphibians are incapable of. - Amphibians have smooth, soft skin that is incredibly porous and must hold moisture to help them breathe. Due to this, they must always stay close to a water source so their skin does not dry out. - Reptiles have claws or nails, amphibians do not. - Reptiles only breathe air through their lungs. - Amphibians are born breathing with gills until they develop lungs later in life when they are older. - Reptiles lay eggs that have a tough, leathery shell. - Amphibian’s eggs are soft and need to be laid in water or in damp places. Some people think that turtles might be classed as amphibians. Admittedly, reptiles and amphibians are both types of cold-blooded creature and, like amphibians, some turtles can live on both land and in water. However, there are some major differences between reptiles and amphibians, as outlined below, which make it clear why turtles are reptiles: - Class comprises types which live on land (snakes, lizards, tortoises); mainly in water (turtles); on both (crocodiles and alligators). No reptiles have an immature (larval) aquatic stage. Breathe by means of lungs. - Have dry scaly skin. - Lay eggs on land; eggs have shells. - Class comprises frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, and caecilians: typically have an aquatic larval stage (e.g. tadpole) followed by a terrestrial adult stage. - Breathe by means of gills (during larval stage) and lungs (during adult stage). - Have smooth skin; adults use skin as secondary respiratory organ. - Typically lay eggs in water; eggs are surrounded by gelatinous covering
Autosomal recessive Alport syndrome is a genetic condition characterised by kidney disease, hearing loss, and eye abnormalities. People affected by Alport syndrome have variations in both copies of their COL4A3 gene. People with Alport syndrome experience progressive loss of kidney function. Almost all affected individuals have high levels of protein and blood in their urine, which is a sign of kidney damage as this progresses it can lead to kidney failure. Abnormalities of the structures making up the inner ear can present with hearing loss during late childhood or early adolescence. Affected individuals may also have misshapen lens in the eye and abnormal coloration of the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. These eye abnormalities seldom lead to vision loss. Males tend to be more significantly affected by these changes however, the severity of the symptoms may vary, even among members of the same family. Treatment is focused on managing the individual's symptoms; often, a kidney transplantation will be required. As humans we have about 23,000 genes. These genes are like tiny instruction manuals that influence our health, growth and development. We inherit half of our genes from our biological mum and the other half from our biological dad. These genes are lined up on structures called chromosomes. Most of us have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The first 22 pairs are called autosomes and for the most part - these are the same among men and women. The 23rd pair determine our sex - two X chromosomes for a female and one X and one Y chromosome for males. Alport syndrome (COL4A3-related) is known as an autosomal recessive condition. For autosomal recessive conditions, if a person has a variation in one copy of their gene, they are a carrier. This means that they are healthy because they also have a working copy of the gene. But, they can still pass their non-working copy to their child. If the other parent also happens to be a carrier of the same gene, there is a 25% (1 in 4) chance that they both pass this gene variation on to their child — and as such, have a child affected by the disease. If both parents are carriers of Alport syndrome (COL4A3-related), there’s a one in four chance that their children could develop symptoms. Carrier testing is like a checkup for your genes. It tests to see if you carry a gene variation that could cause a serious genetic disease in your child. Eugene offers an inclusive genetic carrier screening panel that includes Alport syndrome (COL4A3-related), but there's a total 301 conditions that can be tested. Eugene’s carrier test is a clinical grade test that can be done from the comfort of your own home — it’s just a saliva test. You're also paired with a genetic counsellor who provides mindful support and guidance every step of the way.Learn more about carrier screening The biggest benefit of screening for Alport syndrome (COL4A3-related) is that it can help future parents understand their reproductive risk so they can be ready and empowered to make more informed decisions. If neither partner are carriers, it provides reassurance and peace of mind that the risk of having a child with a genetic disease is low. Since 90% of children that have a recessive genetic disease like Alport syndrome (COL4A3-related) had no previous family history of it, it often feels completely out of the blue for the parents. Getting screened is a way to know this risk in advance, which can help familes manage or even prevent the disease in the first place.
The massive amount of rain reported in California lately has been the result of a remarkable atmospheric phenomenon. Rivers are flowing through the sky, and scientists are trying to understand more about them. Also called “atmospheric rivers,” this plume of moisture travels from the tropics carrying as much water as the Mississippi River has at its mouth, but although it can be a savior to formerly rain-starved places like California, they can be destructive forces of nature. In this case, they’ve ended the horrendous drought in California. The atmospheric rivers have been flowing with a vengeance this winter, with 10 or more just in this season, according to reports. Scientists think that La Nina is largely to blame for the uptick in atmospheric rivers. “Atmospheric rivers are relatively long, narrow regions in the atmosphere – like rivers in the sky – that transport most of the water vapor outside of the tropics,” NOAA says on its website. “These columns of vapor move with the weather, carrying an amount of water vapor roughly equivalent to the average flow of water at the mouth of the Mississippi River. When the atmospheric rivers make landfall, they often release this water vapor in the form of rain or snow. “Although atmospheric rivers come in many shapes and sizes, those that contain the largest amounts of water vapor and the strongest winds can create extreme rainfall and floods, often by stalling over watersheds vulnerable to flooding,” NOAA adds. “These events can disrupt travel, induce mudslides and cause catastrophic damage to life and property. A well-known example is the “Pineapple Express,” a strong atmospheric river that is capable of bringing moisture from the tropics near Hawaii over to the U.S. West Coast.”
Learning and developing programming skills has become a necessary need with the dominance of technology in our society. It is a skill set that enables us to understand how to break down a problem into individual steps and to use a language that the computer understands to logically create a working program. Learning programming has become a mainstream subject as it helps us to do better in other subjects that we are studying and learning parallelly as well. In the process of learning programming, we are taught how to break down a problem into individual steps and simultaneously use a language that the computer understands and can create a coherent working program. By doing this, we can develop an ability on approaching the problems and processing large amounts of information which is necessary for conquering any new topic. As we look at it in a broader perspective, programming enables us to look at problems from a broader view and adapt to a more comprehensive functioning by diversifying our logical abilities extensively. In the words of some scholars, who put it rightly that it’s rather important to learn how to think first, before actually learning the thing! In other words learning programming is more than learning a computer language only; it is a pathway that enables us to create an efficacious and productive way of thinking in the direction of problem-solving as well as logical reasoning. In any discipline one pursues, there are going to be things which we may love to work on as well as tasks we might not like to do. To complete our learning process and complete the experience, you have to embrace both at the same time, which makes us wonder many a time, whether computer programming is a complicated stream to undertake. A person who is unable to understand the relevance and apt programming experiences will find it pretty daunting, but nevertheless, there’s no mountain high enough for the human mind to conquer! Since programming is a process of creating an instruction to instruct the computer in executing certain task, the execution of the same takes place by making use of different types of programming languages. What is a programming language? Programming is not a skill that everyone has, though learning of the same enables one to open to a new sea of opportunities. In this world of technology everything is possible; all we need is the urge to develop an apt skill with the available information and resource set. Moreover, we also need to keep in mind that we live in a key period where there are not enough developers to satisfy the need of our ever evolving paced technological requirements. Coding is a creative skill, and it’s exciting to be a part of a project and contribute to the world of technology. How to begin to code? One can begin learning to code using an interactive site that provides range of free courses from programming to developing games. Gamified courses are one of the great ways of learning that helps you to bring achievements and interaction into the learning process. The best way to begin is to choose your language and start learning. Even there are courses that provide transparent rewards and an achievement system that helps businesses recruit tech talent, and measure the course success. On the other hand some coding courses are based on tutorials and resources taught by professors at leading universities. These sites offer courses ranging from introductory programming to more advanced language learnings. You can also choose to learn your desired programming language through a series of challenges. These code challenges are drawn from martial arts. Each challenges that is placed before has a specific goal either to assist you in sharpening your existing skills with a certain programming language or to learn a new one from scratch. How to make coding fun and exciting? You can also include STEAM/STEM toys and video games that get kids hooked on coding. The foremost target of these products is to teach coding logic and syntax without boring easily distracted children. The adult coders once introduced to these products might also be able to find them fun and educational. Overall, the fun way to learn coding is to solve real examples. Insert your daily real problems or examples in to code and that’s the best way to delve into the infinite horizon of learning programming!
About United States Holocaust Museum The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington DC is dedicated to commemorating the Holocaust. The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. “Holocaust” is a word of Greek origin meaning “sacrifice by fire.” The Nazis, who came to power in Germany in January 1933, believed that Germans were “racially superior” and that the Jews, deemed “inferior,” were an alien threat to the so-called German racial community. During the era of the Holocaust, German authorities also targeted other groups because of their perceived “racial inferiority”: Roma (Gypsies), the disabled, and some of the Slavic peoples (Poles, Russians, and others). Other groups were persecuted on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds, among them Communists, Socialists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and homosexuals. In 1933, the Jewish population of Europe stood at over nine million. Most European Jews lived in countries that Nazi Germany would occupy or influence during World War II. By 1945, the Germans and their collaborators killed nearly two out of every three European Jews as part of the “Final Solution,” the Nazi policy to murder the Jews of Europe. Although Jews, whom the Nazis deemed a priority danger to Germany, were the primary victims of Nazi racism, other victims included some 200,000 Roma (Gypsies). At least 200,000 mentally or physically disabled patients, mainly Germans, living in institutional settings, were murdered in the so-called Euthanasia Program. See the Museum’s Holocaust Encyclopedia for more information. Combining eyewitness testimony, displayed in films and documents, with over 900 artifacts including one of the railcars used to transport prisoners, the Holocaust Museum tells the story of this world event. The Holocaust Museum also looks at the issue of genocide as a whole, displaying exhibitions about other atrocities around the world. On average, a tour of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum takes between 2 and 3 hours.
Perceiving capabilities within the human-computer interaction. Studying the basic principles in creating an interface between a human and a computer. Getting acquainted with different support technologies in the human-computer interaction. Students are expected to master various techniques for creating interface between a human and a computer. Students should be able to provide different types of communication between a human and a computer, depending on the environment in which the application is used. • The basic principles of the design of human-computer interaction • The evaluation of software support features • The role of graphical user interface (GUI) in human-computer interaction • The consideration of the interface design from the point of view of: users, developers and designers • The benefits of the programming language • Cognitive, social and emotional aspects in interface design between a human and a computer • Building a prototype of user interface • Building in the sound effects, programmed manuals and context-dependent help • Programme (operational system) documentation • 3D user interfaces Work on tasks related to theoretical training. Alan Dix: Human-computer Interaction, Prentice-Hall, 2004. Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp and Jenny Preece: Interaction Design: Beyond Human - Computer Interaction,John Wiley and sons Ltd. 2011. Ben Shneiderman and Catherine Plaisant, Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction (5th Edition), Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2009. Lectures, work in a computer laboratory, class presentations, discussions
What's The Difference Between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes? There are two main types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. Both types of diabetes are chronic and characterized by excess levels of blood glucose (sugar). Type 2 diabetes is the most common type, representing 90 to 95 percent of all cases, while type 1 diabetes represents approximately five percent of all cases. It is estimated that more than 100 million American adults are living with diabetes or prediabetes. What causes diabetes? Glucose is the main source of energy for your body. It enters your cells with the “key” that is insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by your pancreas, which is located in your abdomen just behind the stomach. If your pancreas can’t keep up with the demand for insulin or if your body becomes resistant to the actions of insulin, your blood sugar levels will skyrocket, leading to diabetes. Causes of type 1 diabetes Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes) is characterized by a lack of insulin production by the pancreas; think of it as not having a key. The lack of insulin leads to high blood sugar levels and eventually diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is commonly classified as an autoimmune disease, but it can be idiopathic (meaning its cause is unknown). Autoimmune refers to the fact that your body mistakenly attacks its own tissues, and in this case specifically, the cells of the pancreas that produce insulin. Markers of autoimmunity (e.g., autoantibodies against islet cells, insulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase, insulinoma-associated antigen-2, and zinc transporter) are often present in the blood of individuals with type 1 diabetes, which can be additional aids to diagnosis. Cause of type 2 diabetes In contrast to type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent diabetes) is characterized by your body’s resistance to the actions of insulin; think of it as having a broken key. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as “insulin resistance.” As a result, your pancreas eventually can’t keep up with your body’s insulin demands. Eventually, the secretion of insulin significantly decreases, leading to high blood sugar and diabetes. What are the symptoms of diabetes? The symptoms of type 1 diabetes typically develop acutely (considered fast), while the symptoms of type 2 diabetes typically develop slowly (considered insidious). Despite the difference in onset of symptoms, both type 1 and type 2 diabetes share similar symptoms. The “cardinal” symptoms of diabetes are frequent urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and unintended weight loss. Other symptoms of diabetes may be excessive hunger, fatigue, blurry vision, and tingling or numbness in the hands and/or feet. Two other worrisome symptoms of diabetes are persistent or recurrent infections, especially yeast infections and slow healing wounds. What are the risk factors for diabetes? There are a good number of well-known established risk factors for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Risk factors for type 1 diabetes Type 1 diabetes is not a preventable disease. You are at increased risk of developing the disease for a variety of reasons. If you have a family history of a first-degree relative (i.e., parent or sibling) with type 1 diabetes, you are at increased for developing the disease. Certain inherited genes, namely HLA genes, can increase your risk of developing type 1 diabetes. Although type 1 diabetes can develop at any age, children, teens, and young adults are at higher risk for the disease. Risk factors for type 2 diabetes In contrast to type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes is a potentially preventable disease. Risk factors that increase your chances of developing type 2 diabetes include: - being overweight or obese, especially if you are “apple-shaped”; - getting too little or no exercise; - a diagnosis of high blood pressure (hypertension); - a family history of type 2 diabetes in a first-degree relative; - race (more common in African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians), and; - age (more common in those older than 45 years old). Family history, race, and age are considered non-modifiable risk factors, while the rest are modifiable risk factors. In addition, prediabetes or gestational diabetes puts you at increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes in the future. How is diabetes diagnosed? The diagnosis of diabetes, whether type 1 or type 2, is relatively simple and made through commonly available blood tests. Most individuals typically come under suspicion due to the presence of cardinal symptoms or through recommended screening. The following findings are suggestive of a diagnosis of diabetes: - A fasting blood sugar test greater than or equal 126 mg/dL; - An A1C test greater than or equal to 6.5 percent; - A random plasma glucose (sugar) test greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL, and; - An oral glucose tolerance test with a blood sugar greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL after two hours. Doctors recommend a repeat of the abnormal test on a different day in order to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes. What is the treatment for diabetes? The foundations for the treatment of diabetes are diet, regular exercise, and medication. Since your body does not produce insulin in the case of type 1 diabetes, injectable insulin is the main medication used for treatment. In contrast, the treatment of type 2 diabetes utilizes oral and/or injectable drugs, sometimes in combination with injectable insulin. All patients with type 2 diabetes should start on metformin (Glucophage), as it has been proven to reduce diabetic complications. Other common classes of drugs used to treat this disease include thiazolidinediones, dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (which are injectable), and selective sodium-glucose transporter-2 inhibitors. What is the prognosis for diabetes? Today, diabetes is considered an urgent public health issue. In the case of type 2 diabetes, the disease is a direct consequence of the current epidemic of obesity. Untreated/poorly controlled diabetes, whether type 1 or type 2, increases your risk of long-term complications such as blindness, kidney failure, foot/limb amputations, heart attacks, and strokes. On the other hand, intensive and early treatment with diet, exercise, and medications has the potential to minimize or prevent these complications. Raihana Asral / Shutterstock
This wiki is associated with Cognito Mentoring, an advising service for learners run by Jonah Sinick and Vipul Naik. The wiki is very much in beta, so you're likely to find many broken links and incomplete pages. Please be patient with us as we continue to improve our offerings. Please connect with us to offer feedback on the wiki content. Elementary and middle school mathematics recommendations Our recommendations for elementary and middle school students who are interested in learning math are below. In addition to our recommendations, you might be interested by the - Poland McKinley Elementary School PTO Math Enrichment Family Resource Book which contains a fairly comprehensive list of the resources available. - Mathematics Curricula Reviews at the Homeschool Library. - Hard Math for Elementary School and the associated workbook, which complement the standard curriculum. - Arithmetic for Parents: A Book for Grownups about Children's Mathematics by Ron Aharoni. This book offers a sophisticated perspective on elementary school math. It's suitable for parents to use with their children, and/or for children who are advanced readers. - Beast Academy, a comic-book style book full of interesting mathematical problems that are accessible to elementary school students. So far only the books for 3rd graders and one of the books for 4th graders have been released, but older or younger students may be able to benefit from these books as well. - Secrets of Mental Math: The Mathemagician's Guide to Lightning Calculation and Amazing Math Tricks by Arthur Benjamin and Michael Shermer. This book is good for improving computational fluency. - Prealgebra by Richard Rusczyk, David Patrick, Ravi Boppana and Introduction to Algebra by Richard Rusczyk. These books are part of the Art of Problem Solving series. The books in the series teach elements of mathematical thinking and problem solving, as opposed to rote drill. The series has been reviewed very favorably, for example, on Quora. The prealgebra book is accompanied by a series of free videos, which cover all of the topics in the textbook. Both books are synchronized with the free adaptive online learning system Alcumus. - Algebra by Israel Gelfand and Alexander Shen. This is a very highly reviewed algebra textbook coauthored by a great mathematician. - Vision in Elementary Mathematics by W.W. Sawyer teaches readers how to visualize elements of algebra. - Mathematical Circle Diaries, Year 1: Complete Curriculum for Grades 5 to 7 by Anna Burago contains many problems that teach mathematical reasoning.
"As the study entered its second decade there was increasing evidence of Osteoarthritis (OA) in the moose population," said lead author Rolf Peterson from Michigan Technological University. "OA is a crippling disease and is identical to that found in humans. It is commonly believed to be caused by 'wear and tear,' but the complex causes have remained poorly understood." ... Over the course of the study the team discovered a rise in OA as the moose population increased, and a decrease when the population fell, leading to the idea that OA is linked to moose malnutrition when food is scarcer. The team found moose that were malnourished when young would develop OA in older age. "We have shown how malnutrition early in life increased the risk of OA later in life, but this also applies to humans as much as to a herd of moose in the wild," said Peterson. "These findings cast new light on how early humans first developed OA," said co-author Dr Clark Spencer Larsen, an anthropology expert from Ohio University. "The study of human remains from archaeological contexts reveals OA increased where societies changed from foraging plants and animals to an increased dependency on farming." Such changes were documented in a mid-continental population of Native Americans 1000 years ago. In this group arthritis increased by 65% as society turned from foraging and hunting to agriculture and the cultivation of maize. "Initially the increase in OA was put down to increased joint stress due to the labour of agriculture. However research now shows that, like the moose in Isle Royale, nutritional deficiencies early in life may have been the main cause. Early malnutrition was certainly a part of existence for many pre-historic human societies, and remains a fact of life for millions of people across the world, so this study is also relevant for modern human society." The original paper is in Ecology Letters, and it should be online at this address. I do wonder if more detailed understanding of the long term impact of early life nutrition is going to drive parents crazy with alarm as every new study which comes out produces a shift in recommendations.
What is LGBTQ Therapy? Many lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (or questioning) individuals seek counseling for reasons similar to non-LGBTQ individuals (i.e. – depression, anxiety, grief, couples therapy, work stress, etc). And while some issues have little to do with sexuality, gender, or identity, the LGBTQ community does have their own set of unique challenges as well. LGBTQ Mental Health Issues and Coping with Stigma Research suggests that LGBTQ individuals seek mental health treatment at a higher rate than their non-LGBTQ counterparts. This may be due to the stigma and discrimination LGBTQ individuals often face on a regular basis, from society, family members, peers, co-workers, and even classmates. This discrimination contributes to the higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other mental health struggles seen amongst LGBTQ. Those in the LGBTQ community are also much more likely to have a substance abuse problem, engage in self-harm behaviors, and/or experience suicidal thoughts. Thus, it is not surprising this population seeks mental health services at higher rates. In addition to the effects of stigma and discrimination, the LGBTQ population also often obtains mental health support for: - Gender dysphoria – according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), gender dysphoria is a psychological condition experienced by individuals whose gender identity and expression does not match with the gender assigned at birth. Gender dysphoria can cause significant distress and affect a person’s overall mental wellbeing. - Sexual identity issues – sexual identity issues can refer to numerous concerns. Sexual identity (or sexual orientation) refers to the emotions, thoughts, feelings, and fantasies that contribute to a person’s sexual or romantic attraction to another person. LGBTQ individuals often go through periods of questioning their sexual identity, which can cause confusion and stress. Also pertinent to the LGBTQ community and sexual identity issues is the “coming out” process, and coping with the reactions of friends and family. Over the past several years, the general public seems to have become more aware of the issues faced by the LGBTQ community. With this heightened awareness, mental health services have become more tailored to this population’s specific needs. One way this is being carried out is through LGBTQ affirmative therapy. This approach to psychotherapy is focused on the empowerment of LGBTQ individuals in all areas of life and relationships. Therapists working from an affirmative approach seek to honor the unique challenges faced by LGBTQ individuals and help them navigate the challenges in an effective way. Historically, many in the LGBTQ community who sought mental health services found counselors and therapists were uneducated about issues around sexuality, gender, and identity. Unfortunately, this often resulted in LGBTQ clients ending their treatment prematurely or never actually seeking the treatment and support needed. And, in some cases, the client would end up being the one to educate the therapist on the struggles unique to the LGBTQ population. Thankfully, with the emergence of affirmative therapy (as it is referred to in the mental health community), this gap has started to close, and there has been a significant increase in the effectiveness of mental health treatment for the LGBTQ population. Discrimination and stigma, in any form, can seriously impact the well-being of those who experience it. In order to begin to combat some of this (or cope with the stigma if it is directed at you), here are things you can do: - Learn more about the LGBTQ community and their struggles. Education is a way to increase understanding and raise awareness about the unique issues this population often faces (socially, economically, financially, etc.) - Educate yourself on human rights laws and how they pertain to the LGBTQ population. - Surround yourself with healthy people, such as supportive and encouraging family members, friends, and peers. Whether or not they are dealing with the same issues as you (or someone you know), it is important to have people with whom you feel safe to express yourself and be open with. - Speak up if you witness (or are the victim of) discrimination. Although it can be scary to share these kinds of experiences, it is one of the best ways to advocate for yourself, the LGBTQ community, and fight back at the discrimination. - Seek professional help. If you are facing a mental illness as a result of the stress from stigma and/or discrimination, getting support from a professional can help you learn ways to better cope, feel less isolated, and establish overall mental health and wellbeing. - Share your experiences with others. Whether you are part of the LGBTQ community yourself or have friends or family who identify as LGBTQ, share what you can with others. The more the stigma surrounding this population is talked about, the more awareness it can gain. - Join a political or advocacy group to combat unjust policies and/or unfair treatment of the LGBTQ community. - Join an online support community to connect with others that can relate: LGBTribe. Given the stressors that LGBTQ groups must confront, such as homophobia, societal discrimination and prejudice, coming out, and negotiating family relationships, finding a therapist that is openly LGBTQ or specializes in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender issues can offer some support and healing. Search TherapyTribe to find a therapist who is openly LGBTQ, LGBTQ-friendly, or specializes in LGBTQ issues. - Ulrike, B. (2002). Twenty years of public health research: Inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations. American Journal of Public Health 92(7), 1125-1130. - Mustanski, B., Garofalo, R., & Emerson, E. (2010). Mental health disorders, psychological distress, and suicidality in a diverse sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12): 2426–2432. - Wolford-Clevenger, C., Cannon, C. J., Flores, L. Y., Smith, P. N., & Stuart, G. L. (2017). Suicide Risk Among Transgender People: A Prevalent Problem in Critical Need of Empirical and Theoretical Research. Violence and gender, 4(3), 69-72.
The parietal lobe is one of the major lobes in the brain, roughly located at the upper back area in the skull. It processes sensory information it receives from the outside world, mainly relating to touch, taste, and temperature. Damage to the parietal lobe may lead to dysfunction in the senses. There are also some health conditions associated with parietal lobe damage. Keep reading to learn more. The parietal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in humans. It sits near the upper back portion of the skull, close to the parietal bone. In the brain, the parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe. A boundary called the central sulcus separates the two lobes. The parietal lobe also sits above the temporal lobe, with the Sylvian fissure, or lateral sulcus, separating the two. The occipital lobe is behind and slightly underneath the parietal lobe. The parieto-occipital sulcus divides these two lobes. Like the brain itself, the parietal lobe is divided into two hemispheres by the central furrow, or medial longitudinal fissure. The parietal lobe relies heavily on many other areas of the body to receive information. For example, the skin and nerves in the skin play a large part in detecting sensory information and delivering it to the parietal lobe. The parietal lobe itself also sends this information to other parts of the brain for interpretation. Many everyday functions require the use of multiple lobes in the brain. In general, the parietal lobe is a major interpreter of the sensory world around the body. In fact, the parietal lobe is a primary sensory area, which means that it is the starting point of sensory processing within the brain. The following are some of the main functions of the parietal lobe: The parietal lobe deals with many sensations, including: These are the somatic senses, meaning that they come from the body. The information from these senses helps a person form physical sensations taken from the world around them. In order to carry out this function, the parietal lobe receives sensory information from all over the body. The parietal lobe also plays a role in a person’s ability to judge size, shape, and distance. Additionally, it helps with the interpretation of symbols. This includes those in written and spoken language, mathematical problems, and codes and puzzles. Hearing and visual perception, as well as memory, are also part of the parietal lobe’s functions. Navigation and control The parietal lobe also plays a role in functions such as navigation and controlling the body, as well as understanding spatial orientation and direction. A person’s dominant hand will often determine which side of the parietal lobe is more active. A person who is right-handed may have a more active left hemisphere parietal lobe. The left lobe tends to deal more with numbers, letters, and symbols. The right hemisphere may be more active in people with a dominant left hand. This hemisphere is associated with image interpretation and spatial relationships. That said, these distinctions do not limit the other side of the lobe. Everyone uses both the right and left sides of the parietal lobe and brain. The following are some key areas of the parietal lobe: The somatosensory cortex in the front part of the parietal lobe resides in two areas: the postcentral gyrus and the posterior paracentral lobule. It helps process and interpret touch sensations and helps discriminate between them. For example, it helps with telling the difference between something that is cold and something that is painful. Superior parietal lobule This area of the brain is involved in memory. It also includes the parietal association cortex, which coordinates and integrates information from all the senses. Super marginal gyrus This part of the brain contains part of Wernicke’s area, which is important for speech. The angular gyrus is a small, triangular area in the parietal lobe. It helps the brain associate symbols and meaning and assists with word recognition. This gives the brain the ability to assign meaning and name objects in the environment. It also helps use symbols and language, thus playing a role in abilities such as drawing, reading, and reasoning. This helps a person understand written words and mathematical equations. Damage to the angular gyrus, on the dominant side, can cause Gerstmann’s syndrome. Gerstmann’s syndrome is characterized by: - an inability to write - an inability to perform arithmetic - difficulty recognizing which finger is which - trouble differentiating the right from the left side of the body A few different medical conditions can stem from dysfunction in the parietal lobe. Generally speaking, damage to the parietal lobe may lead to a loss of sensations of touch. Such damage may be due to: Damage to the left lobe can cause difficulty with functions related to symbols, such as language, mathematics, and writing. Damage to the right lobe may lead to difficulty with images, spatial awareness, movement, and the ability to visualize and create. The following sections will look at some specific conditions associated with parietal lobe damage in more detail. Parietal lobe syndrome Parietal lobe syndrome may occur after sustaining damage to one of the parietal lobes. This tends to cause a few different contralateral symptoms, meaning that the symptoms appear on the opposite side of the body from the lobe that experienced the damage. Optic ataxia is a condition that causes a loss in the ability to guide the hand and arm with the eye. A person with optic ataxia may seem to grope for an item close to them rather than simply pick it up. Optic apraxia occurs when a person cannot voluntarily control their visual gaze. Damage to the front portion of the parietal lobe may make it difficult for a person to recognize objects based on their sense of touch. Agraphesthesia is another possible outcome of damage to the parietal lobe. A person with this condition cannot detect or identify basic shapes or letters drawn onto their skin. People with parietal lobe syndrome may also present with sensory inattention. If a person with this condition were to put their hands together, they would not feel the sensation on one of the hands. Gerstmann’s syndrome occurs when there is lateral damage to the parietal lobe. The syndrome interrupts important functions of the parietal lobe and makes it difficult for a person to distinguish movement and location from left to right. A person may have difficulty identifying their fingers, and they may be unable to distinguish the left and right sides of their body or surroundings. People with Gerstmann’s syndrome may also have difficulty with equations, reading, and writing, as they cannot interpret symbols. Gerstmann’s syndrome may occur due to reduced blood flow in the parietal lobe. It may develop after a stroke or due to another vascular disease in the brain that drastically reduces blood supply. The syndrome and similar symptoms may also occur with tumors in the parietal lobe or other forms of brain damage. Contralateral neglect often occurs as a result of damage to the nondominant parietal lobe, which is typically the right lobe in people who are right-handed. As a result, a person will have less awareness of their nondominant side and the environment around it. A right-handed person with contralateral neglect would be less aware of the left side of their body, for example. This may lead to burns, bruises, and other injuries. There are both severe and minor forms of this condition, and symptoms may vary greatly. Balint syndrome is a rare disorder that occurs due to damage to It encompasses many of the above symptoms and generally causes both visual and spatial difficulties, including symptoms such as optic ataxia, optic apraxia, and simultanagnosia. Simultanagnosia is the inability to take in multiple elements from the visual environment. The parietal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cortex. It is primarily responsible for sensations of touch, such as temperature and pain, but it also plays a role in numerous other functions. A number of conditions can occur due to dysfunction in or injury to the parietal lobe. These include Balint syndrome, Gerstmann’s syndrome, and asterognosis.
Indiana Academic Standards IN.5. The United States—The Founding of the Republic 5.1. History: Students describe the historical movements that influenced the development of the United States from pre-Columbian times up to 1800, with an emphasis on the American Revolution and the founding of the United States. Historical Knowledge - Ways of Life Before and After the Arrival of Europeans to 1610 5.1.4. Locate and compare the origins, physical structure and social structure of early Spanish, French and British settlements. Historical Knowledge - Colonization and Settlements: 1607 to 1763 5.1.7. Identify and locate the 13 British colonies by region (New England, Middle, Southern) and describe the political, social, and economic organization and structure of each region. 5.1.8. Identify the early founders of colonial settlements and describe early colonial resistance to British rule. 5.2. Civics and Government: Students identify main components and characteristics of the United States government. Students identify and explain key ideas in government from the colonial and founding periods that continue to shape civic and political life. Foundations of Government 5.2.3. Give examples and explain how the British colonies in America developed forms of representative government, self-government and democratic practices. 5.3. Geography: Students describe the influence of the Earth/sun relationship on climate and use global grid systems; identify regions; describe physical and cultural characteristics; and locate states, capitals and major physical features of the United States. They also explain the changing interaction of people with their environment in regions of the United States and show how the United States is related geographically to the rest of the world. Places and Regions 5.3.4. Identify Native American Indian and colonial settlements on maps and explain the reasons for the locations of these places. 5.3.8. Explain how the Spanish, British and French colonists altered the character and use of land in early America. 5.3.9. Identify the major manufacturing and agricultural regions in colonial America and summarize the ways that agriculture and manufacturing changed between 1600 and 1800. 5.4. Economics: Students describe the productive resources and market relationships that influence the way people produce goods and services and earn a living in the United States in different historical periods. Students consider the importance of economic decision making and how people make economic choices that influence their future. 5.4.2. Summarize a market economy and give examples of how the colonial and early American economy exhibited these characteristics.
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