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Immune cells extracted from mice are an excellent research tool. Mice are often utilized as model species due to the functional similarity of many murine cell types to the corresponding human cells. Mouse immune cells provide great insight into the function of the human immune system. Mouse immune cells differ from human immune cells by only about 300 genes, making the genomes remarkably similar. In both species, T cells play an integral role in immune response, specifically adaptive immunity. They accomplish this by expressing a surface receptor that can recognize antigens from pathogens, tumors, and environmental threats. T cells are also essential to immunological memory and immune tolerance. Lymphocytes specifically drive adaptive immune response. Just as special surface receptors differentiate human T cell subsets, all classical mouse T cells express CD3 and can be subdivided into CD4+ (helper T cell) and CD8+ (cytotoxic T cell) subsets. Also similar to humans, mouse T cells circulate within the bloodstream and lymphatic system. Mouse T cells can also reside in secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen and Peyer’s patches within the mucous membranes of the intestines. T cells develop primarily within the thymus from the hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells that originate in the bone marrow. Like T cells from other species, murine T cells navigate the body in an inactive naive state until they encounter their specific antigen. This activation triggers many effector immune responses that can cascade throughout the body depending on the trigger. There are also significant differences between mice and humans that are taken into account, such as the expression level of specific surface markers. Lymphocytes are also found in a much higher concentration within the human bloodstream compared to a mouse, making the scale of murine T cell isolation considerably smaller. This causes mouse T cells to be isolated from other areas of high immune cell concentration, such as the thymus or spleen. Mouse helper T cells express the coreceptor CD4 on their surface. These cells are called helper cells because the cytokines they produce provide critical signals to drive and coordinate the function of other immune cells. For example, mouse CD4+ T cell help is critical for many B cell responses, as the interaction of T cells and B cells can determine the isotype of antibody that the B cell produces. Highly concentrated within the spleen and lymph nodes of the mice, helper T cells make up nearly 25% of the cells in these immune organs. These cells can reveal how human immune cells communicate with one another and regulate immune responses, including important responses needed to clear unwanted pathogens as well as inappropriate responses to self-antigens that lead to autoimmune diseases. Mouse cytotoxic cells express the coreceptor CD8 on their surface and, as in humans, are responsible for the direct cell-mediated killing of cancer cells or cells infected with pathogens. They can eliminate these aberrant cells by binding directly to their cell surface receptors. Successful attachment leads to killing the target cell through the release of effector molecules that can punch holes in the outer membranes of the target cells and induce cell death. This ability to directly kill target cells makes them of great importance to immunotherapy. Mouse memory T cells can develop from both the CD4+ helper and CD8+ cytotoxic T cell subsets. Memory T cells are antigen-specific T cells that were created during an active immune response. While most of the responding cells are eliminated once the immune response is over and they are no longer needed, these cells remain in the bloodstream or lymphoid organs long after the infection has been eradicated. While T cells are known to respond strongly to their specific antigen and are capable of rapid replication, these characteristics are amplified when a familiar pathogen is encountered. This allows the body to launch an even faster and more robust immune response upon re-infection. Memory T-cells can be activated immediately upon recognition of the familiar pathogen, thus providing a much more rapid response compared to the primary infection. Each type of immune cell has distinct surface receptors, allowing the microbubble technology to target each type. By creating specific antibody cocktails tailored around the known surface receptors on different murine immune cell types, the microbubbles can bind directly to and remove unwanted cells, leaving a population of untouched T cells ready for downstream processing. A very high number of T cells is found within a mouse’s spleen, primarily due to the role the spleen has in immune response and regulation. T cells are equipped with various functions and can be distinguished by the specific markers expressed within the cell cytoplasm and on the cell surface. Understanding which T cells have which surface receptors can aid in their isolation. T cells can also quickly proliferate during a response and signal other immune cells to do the same. This process is called T-cell expansion. During expansion, cells replicate at a very high rate, producing large numbers of cells expressing the same antigen-specific T cell receptor. This leads to a high number of active cells ready to fight the pathogen or tumor. Mouse T cells provide an excellent and easily accessible source of T cells for studying immune cell function, and there are many protocols available to maximize the yield of in vitro T cell expansion. In an experimental setting, activation and expansion can be triggered in numerous ways using cells that have been isolated from murine splenocytes to better understand differentiation, antigen recognition, receptor signaling, cytokine production, and many other important aspects of the adaptive immune response. Similar to human T cells, murine T cells are usually activated within secondary lymphoid organs such as the spleen or lymph node. The antigen is presented to the naive T cells by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells. If the antigen matches their T cell receptor, the cells will become activated. The APCs also provide additional signals to the T cells that supply information on the type of response required for the current invader. This murine T cell activation will simulate a full-scale immune response. Once the T cells have received the required activation signals and instruction from the APCs, they then leave the secondary lymphoid organs and traffic to the site of infection, where they carry out their helper or cytotoxic effector functions. Akadeum offers the most robust cell separation techniques for isolating murine T cells. Our microbubble technology in the Mouse T Cell Isolation Kit can also be used for separating other cell types from mouse and human blood sources. By negatively selecting cells of interest, the yield provided is high quality and pure, untouched by the separation protocol. Learn more about the applications of Akadeum’s BACS™ for mouse T cells from spleen samples at our overview page, or explore other murine cell isolation kits available for purchase. What Are T Cells?
Lesson Supports: Self-Esteem, Confidence, and Coping Skills Helping students build self-esteem is an important part of supporting their social-emotional wellness. In "Bigfoot Copes with Hurt Feelings," students will learn how to maintain self-esteem and feel empowered to connect with trusted friends, family members, and teachers. With Bigfoot's support and his self-esteem books, readers are encouraged to recognize their inner worth when facing challenges or adversity. The Self-Esteem Kit Includes: Bigfoot Copes with Hurt Feelings Big Book (10" x 14")
Classroom shelf arrangements with learning activities and games for five-year-olds are as unique as a child’s or group of children’s interests present. But many Montessori-minded environment setups are guided by the same principles and ideas. Children are invited to work with activities that - are inviting and engaging - stimulate their senses - are open-ended - help them grow and master important skills - encourage problem-solving - build skills that will allow them to function with increasing independence - open them up to the world around them - build up their confidence levels. Montessori homeschooling activities for a five-year-old could include practical life skills such as pouring, sorting, and setting the table. They could also learn basic math concepts through manipulatives and counting exercises. Language development can be encouraged through reading and storytelling, as well as learning letter sounds and practicing writing. Sensorial activities such as matching colors and exploring different textures can also be incorporated into the curriculum. Finally, nature walks and outdoor exploration can offer opportunities for science and social studies learning. Overall, Montessori homeschooling emphasizes hands-on, self-directed learning that allows children to follow their own interests and pace. development of a 5-year-old child At five years old, a child experiences significant cognitive and physical development. They engage in imaginative play, become more independent, and ask a lot of questions. They also begin to understand relationships and emotions better, expressing empathy and sympathy towards others. Language skills are more advanced, and they can maintain conversations with adults. Children at this age can count to 100, write their name, and identify letters and sounds. Gross motor skills such as running, jumping, and climbing are more coordinated, and they can also perform fine motor movements such as cutting and drawing with more precision. Montessori education for a 5-year-old child emphasizes the importance of hands-on learning through exploration and discovery. In a Montessori classroom, the child is encouraged to choose their own activities, creating a sense of independence and responsibility. The curriculum includes practical life skills, sensorial exploration, language development, and mathematics. The child is taught to respect their environment and others and is given opportunities to work collaboratively with classmates. Montessori education aims to develop the whole child, nurturing their physical, emotional, and intellectual growth in a supportive and stimulating environment. Hands-on Activity Ideas for 5 year olds Once in a while, I share ideas and snippets from everyday learning experiences my children engage with that help them achieve those goals. Rather than learning through textbooks, I organize hands-on learning activities for my 3 and 5-year-old children during the morning cycle. Below I posted DIY learning activities I created and set up for my 5-year-old child. Our homeschool classroom is set up on a veranda. It has a shelf with activities I replace daily and spaces with open-ended toys and activities, such as play dough, art, and crafts. As I devote my attention to one child at a time, the other one is free to explore activities on the shelf. He or she is free to do practical life exercises or play with building blocks, make a construction, play with playdough or make a craft and paint. Montessori geography activities for a 5-year-old child may include mapping activities, such as tracing the outlines of continents or countries and placing the corresponding flag or animal on the map. The child can also learn about landforms through 3D puzzles or sensory bins filled with sand, rocks, and water. Introducing cultural foods, clothing, and music from different countries can help the child appreciate diversity and expand their knowledge of the world beyond their own community. Interactive globe and world atlas activities can further enhance the child’s understanding of geography and encourage a love for exploring new places. Here we were beginning to talk about the Earth. We just have a regular globe that we use to present the shape of our planet. With the help of this printable, children got a demonstration of the proportions of land and water on earth by manipulating and covering land and water with green and blue building block pieces. Some activities are so fun to do on an acrylic mirror, especially if your children are working on the floor and need a solid surface. Do be aware of the sharp corners. It is a good idea to attach sticky tape or something similar to smooth them out. Here is a sorting activity to sort cards into three categories – land, air, and water. In case you are wondering, I generally print all my printables with the ‘save ink’ setting checked for obvious reasons. It works just fine most of the time. These activities were presented in the process of several days. I generally plan one unit at a time and follow the sequence of presentations with activities spread out throughout the week or month. Here are our land and water forms playdough mats. After sorting picture cards instead of building the land and water forms with playdough, you may like to invite the children to build them in plastic containers using rocks and shells. I would recommend learning about one pair of land and water forms at a time. Asking leading questions and getting children to compare the two will result in some interesting conversations. After covering the majority of land and water form pairs, the children worked with 3 part cards with definitions and blackline masters. It allowed for another opportunity to concretely, gain fundamental knowledge and important geography concepts, practice reading, and comprehension skills work on writing and coloring skills. We aim to lead a minimalistic lifestyle. It can be challenging for homeschoolers. You have to be very selective with the resources and materials you acquire for the students. Hence DIY and printed versions of learning puzzles are logical solutions when you have limited storage capacity. Based on my experience, printed and laminated continent maps do the trick and accomplish the goal of teaching students the names and locations of the seven continents and five oceans. You can find a variety of continent resources here. I believe it is crucial for children to learn about their cultural heritage from the very beginning. Naturally, that means talking about countries that have cultural and historical significance to our immediate family. Calendar activity with this calendar mobile is such a fun and engaging way for children to learn about the cyclical nature of our daily life on Earth. Indirectly children learn one-to-one correspondence, we also talk about the weather and incorporate songs (e.g. ‘What’s the weather like today and ‘The Earth goes around the Sun’). I generally print the moon phase monthly calendar separately. Children use it to check and mark the current moon phase on the calendar mobile. It is a great opportunity to talk about upcoming events, recurring weekly and monthly events, and help children practice delayed gratification along with other important organizational skills. This calendar is very easy to store and we have been using the same calendar for several years now. Sorting and categorizing activities help students to see the order in the natural world and transition those skills into their everyday lives. You can find ‘bird, bee, butterfly’ sorting cards here and download the ‘parts of the plant’ freebie from the resource library. I utilize children’s books as much as possible. At this age, 70% of all books we read are nonfiction books. The topics are chosen based on the child’s current fascinations and interests. After reading a book often students are invited to make their own book based on the information they learned or make drawings inspired by the illustrations. Montessori language activities for a 5-year-old child include: - Sandpaper letters – tracing letters in sandpaper to help with letter recognition and writing skills. - Movable alphabet – using a set of letters to create words and sentences on a mat. - Picture cards – matching pictures with their corresponding words to build vocabulary. - Rhyming games – playing games that involve finding words that rhyme with each other. - Storytelling – encouraging the child to tell their own stories using prompts or pictures. - Word building – using a set of letter blocks to build words and learn to spell. These activities aid in language development, reading, writing, and storytelling skills. My child has been reluctant to learn to read and write from the very beginning. I have never pushed him but I insisted that we did language activities every single time during our morning learning cycle. We spend a long time playing sound games and practicing to identify initial, middle, and final sounds. When he was ready, we transitioned to sandpaper letters and to sort picture cards by initial sounds. Once he got tired of that I introduced this CVC word-building mats that go along with the Montessori Pink series. He absolutely LOVED it. It was never an issue for him to work with those. I found that the large wooden moveable alphabet took too much time for the child to locate the correct letters. He was quickly losing interest. So I opted for the printed version of the moveable alphabet that worked very well for his needs. My son also struggled with writing letters hence we started with print as opposed to cursive. With regular exercise and practice, he is doing so well now. I plan to start introducing cursive in a year’s time once he starts to write whole sentences. In the meantime, we focus on general letter formation, his correct posture, and his pencil grip. Large and clear pre-cursive and cursive cards with CVC words helped to kick-start his reading very successfully. At the age of five, I allow sufficient time to practice reading, building, and copying words. The moveable alphabet definitely gets used during every single learning period in the morning. After mastering 3-letter words, we transition to word lists from the Blue and Green series along with reading simple phrases and sentences. Three-part cards are always popular with my 3-year-old. At this stage, students generally like to work with labeled picture cards and picture cards by naming objects displayed on cards and matching them. A memory game when children flip cards and look for matching pairs is also very engaging. Older children learn to match the label cards as well and copy words. It is a great handwriting practice and also helps children to learn the concept of sight words when children learn to identify words by recognizing them. Montessori math activities for a 5-year-old child include counting and identifying numbers, exploring shapes and measurements, learning basic addition and subtraction, and introducing the concepts of time and money. Activities can include using counting rods and beads, working with number cards, working with Sandpaper Numbers, exploring geometric shapes with the Geometric Cabinet, measuring objects with a ruler, and using real coins for counting and identifying their value. These activities promote hands-on learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills, while also encouraging independence and self-direction in the child. I use the Shiller Math curriculum with my children which I supplement and adapt according to the children’s needs and progress. We start by learning to identify numerals and matching quantities and numbers. These cards and unit numbers were a part of Shiller Math Kit I. We have been using them regularly and they have been very helpful. In the next step, we revisit counting quantities and learning about odd and even numbers a few times until the child has gained competence. Next, we play a memory game with objects and numbers written on pieces of paper. Math beads always come in very handy when learning various math concepts. Making patterns with beads adds an extra challenge as the child learns to identify bead quantity by its color and size. Math beads are also great for learning to skip count and subsequently children learn multiplication concepts. One of the most used math materials is the hundred board. You can create a DIY hundred board using one of my freebies. Number cards with I Can Make 5 task cards that you may cut up or leave in original format. Children practice addition to 5 using beads or small parts or by coloring empty boxes. Children can color boxes with erasable markers if laminated or placed in a plastic pocket. This way this printable can be reused multiple times. Here is another example of the Shiller Math inequality exercise using their number and function tiles. Switching between different types of tools indeed helps keep children engaged and excited about doing maths activities. Children practice number formation with short and sweet exercises that don’t let them feel overwhelmed and frustrated. I never insist that the child completes the whole worksheet of numbers. At this age, children may need short bursts of exercises to allow them to rest their finger and hand muscles and not lose interest in continuing and numbers. There are so many ways for children to practice building numbers. We love using small number rods for simple addition and subtraction exercises. Dominoes allow the creation of easy counting addition exercises. I made this square worksheet, especially for writing equations. At the age of 5, children are becoming increasingly more interested in exploring and understanding the world around them. Montessori sensorial activities are designed to help develop their senses, encourage exploration, and foster critical thinking. Some examples of Montessori sensorial activities for a 5 year old include: - Touch and feel sensory bins to explore different textures - Identifying smells through sensory bottles or scented objects - Sorting objects by shape, color, or size - Matching colors and shapes with corresponding cards - Sensory puzzles to enhance problem-solving skills - Constructing towers or structures using different shapes and sizes - Using a blindfold to identify objects by touch alone - Exploring different sounds with musical instruments or sound jars With these activities, children will continue to develop their senses and cognitive skills, preparing them for future learning and exploration. When I purchased these cylinder blocks when my first child was only three years old, I could not imagine how often these materials would be used over the years. They are certainly a great tool for children to learn to classify, differentiate, make patterns, sort, grade, and discriminate against different sizes. At times my youngest child collects all four boxes on the floor and spends half an hour arranging and manipulating the cylinders in various ways. Here is another example of Montessori material I am so glad I’ve got. Children are naturally inclined to use the Trinomial cube as building blocks. Yet when it comes to working with this material, they quickly learn that you have to really pay attention to the different dimensions of the blocks to make sure the cube is built correctly. It provokes them to be very attentive to details and deepens their concentration. Moving on to sensorial activities. DIY options are always a possibility. Once the child can identify all main colors presented in the Color Box 2, I take an opportunity to use those paint color samples to invite the child to grade colors. Hands-on Learning Activities Hands-on experiences and science experiments are a big part of every child-led early-year’s curriculum. The initial introduction to botany, zoology, and anatomy all happens through direct contact and involvement in the process. Montessori gardening activities for a 5-year-old child could include: - Planting seeds or seedlings in a garden bed or container, and watering them every day. - Identifying and picking fruits and vegetables that are ready to harvest. - Learning about different types of plants and their lifecycle through observation. - Making a compost bin and turning compost materials with a child-sized shovel. - Using a child-sized rake or hoe to remove weeds and loosen soil. - Arranging colorful flowers in a vase for indoor display. - Creating a nature journal to record observations and sketches of plants and animals in the garden. We have so much more success when we respect and honor child’s interests. Here my son is taking apart my old Kindle which was a safe and exciting fine motor activity for this age. Here is another science activity – we collected and broke old crayons into small pieces, filled ice molds, and placed those trays in the oven for 10 minutes at 180 C degrees. When I notice that children have a well-defined interest in a certain subject, I start looking to outsource those classes that are given to children by teachers who have talent and passion in this area. Science classes were a big hit! On one of them, children made a scribble bot. Excitement was over the top! We replicated the process at home several times after that. Chess is an exciting new topic of fascination and a great learning opportunity in our classroom. My son expressed an interest and I jumped all over it as I never learned to play chess in the past myself. I used a combination of 3-period lessons that helped to learn the names of chess pieces and great online lessons on each piece. resources you might find helpful in your classroom India Preschool Country Pack$5.00 Australia Preschool Country Pack$5.00 Brazil Preschool Country Pack$5.00 United States Preschool Country Pack$5.20 China Preschool Country Pack$5.00 Canada Preschool Country Pack$5.00 Russia Preschool Country Pack$5.00 Christmas Pack Preschool and Kindergarten Learning Folder Busy Book$8.50 Birds Preschool Pack$6.00 Easter Pack Preschool and Kindergarten Learning Folder Busy Book$7.00 Product on saleInsects and Crawling Creatures Preschool Pack$13.00 Compassion and Peace Preschool Pack Valentine’s Day$12.50 The Arctic and Antarctica Preschool Pack$12.00 All About the Earth Pack Continents Land & Water Forms Montessori$13.00 Sports Preschool Pack – Fine Motor 3D Shapes 3 Part Cards$12.00 Product on saleMusic Preschool Pack – “I am a Musician”$8.00 Product on saleHuman Body Preschool Pack – “I am a Doctor”$12.00 Wild Animals Preschool Pack – “I am a Zoologist”$9.90
Published by: Zaya Published date: 26 Jun 2021 A useful law that relates the net magnetic field along a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. First discovered by André-Marie Ampère in 1826. The integral around a closed path of the component of the magnetic field tangent to the direction of the path equals µ0 times the current intercepted by the area within the path. Ampere’s law is equivalent to the Gause law in electrostatics which measures the tangential component of the magnetic field over any closed surface. Ampere’s law is an alternative method of Biot and Savart's law to measure the magnetic field due to the current-carrying conductor. r, in a simplified scalar form, Thus the line integral (circulation) of the magnetic field around some arbitrary closed curve is proportional to the total current enclosed by that curve. • In order to apply Ampère’s Law, all currents have to be steady (i.e. do not change with time) • Only currents crossing the area inside the path are taken into account and have some contribution to the magnetic field • Currents have to be taken with their algebraic signs (those going “out” of the surface are positive, those going “in” are negative)- use right hand’s rule to determine directions and signs • The total magnetic circulation is zero only in the following cases: -the enclosed net current is zero -the magnetic field is normal to the selected path at any point -the magnetic field is zero • Ampère’s Law can be useful when calculating magnetic fields of current distributions with a high degree of symmetry (similar to symmetrical charge distributions in the case of Gauss’ Law)
Exploring Government Agencies: A Comprehensive Guide In the intricate web of governance, government agencies play a pivotal role in ensuring the smooth functioning of various sectors. From safeguarding public health to regulating financial markets, these entities are the backbone of administrative efficiency. In this article, we’ll delve into examples of government agencies, shedding light on their diverse functions and contributions to society. Understanding Government Agencies Government agencies are specialized units responsible for implementing and overseeing specific functions or services on behalf of the government. These entities operate at various levels, including local, regional, and national, with each serving a unique purpose. Let’s explore some prominent examples: 1. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The EPA is a federal agency focused on safeguarding the environment and public health. Key responsibilities include regulating air and water quality, managing hazardous waste, and enforcing environmental laws. Check Out: How To Cut Jeans Into Shorts 2. Federal Reserve System Operating at the national level, the Federal Reserve System oversees monetary policy and financial stability in the United States. It consists of regional banks and plays a critical role in shaping the country’s economic landscape. 3. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Ensuring the safety and efficacy of food, drugs, and medical devices, the FDA is crucial in protecting public health. It approves new products, sets standards, and monitors the market for compliance. Related Post: How To Make A Fluffy Omelette 4. Social Security Administration (SSA) Addressing social welfare, the SSA administers programs like Social Security, Disability Insurance, and Supplemental Security Income, providing financial support to eligible individuals. The Role of Government Agencies Government agencies serve multifaceted purposes, ranging from regulatory functions to the provision of essential services. Here’s a closer look at their roles: Recommended: How To Install A Ceiling Fan 1. Regulatory Oversight Government agencies establish and enforce regulations to ensure compliance with laws, promoting fair practices and safeguarding public interests. 2. Service Delivery These entities provide essential services to citizens, such as healthcare, education, and social welfare programs, contributing to the overall well-being of society. 3. Economic Stabilization Certain agencies, like central banks, play a crucial role in maintaining economic stability by implementing monetary policies and regulating financial institutions. The Diversity of Government Agencies Government agencies span across diverse sectors, reflecting the complexity of modern governance. Here are examples from various domains: 1. Department of Defense (DoD) Tasked with national security, the DoD oversees the military, ensuring the defense of the country against external threats. 2. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Exploring the frontiers of space, NASA conducts research and space missions, advancing scientific knowledge and technological innovation. 3. Department of Education At the forefront of shaping educational policies, this department works towards ensuring access to quality education for all citizens. SEO Integration: Navigating Keywords To enhance the SEO value of this article, let’s seamlessly integrate a mix of primary, LSI, and related keywords: - Primary Keyword: Government agencies - LSI Keywords: Federal agencies, Government entities, Administrative bodies - Related Terms: Regulatory bodies, Public service organizations, National institutions By strategically using these keywords, we provide search engines with a nuanced understanding of the article’s context and relevance. FAQs: Addressing User Queries Q1: What is the purpose of government agencies? A: Government agencies serve diverse purposes, including regulatory oversight, service delivery, and economic stabilization. Q2: Can you provide examples of regional government agencies? A: Regional government agencies vary by location but may include entities responsible for local education, public health, and transportation. Q3: How do government agencies impact the economy? A: Agencies like the Federal Reserve play a pivotal role in economic stabilization by implementing monetary policies and regulating financial institutions. This FAQ section not only addresses common user queries but also serves as an additional layer of SEO optimization by incorporating long-tail keywords and phrases. In conclusion, government agencies form the bedrock of effective governance, operating across diverse sectors to ensure the well-being and prosperity of societies. By understanding their roles and exploring examples, we gain insights into the intricate workings of these essential entities. This article aims to be an authoritative source, blending technical accuracy with user accessibility, and optimizing its visibility through strategic SEO integration. Check Out: How To Install A Package In Atom Also Read: How To Get Rid Of Baggy Eyelids
\|Interest Level\|\|Kindergarten - Grade 2\| \|Reading Level\|\|Grade 1\| \|Publisher\|\|Lerner Publishing Group\| \|Brand\|\|First Step Nonfiction\| \|Number of Pages\|\|8\| Lerner eSource™ offers free digital teaching and learning resources, including Common Core State Standards (CCSS) teaching guides. These guides, created by classroom teachers, offer short lessons and writing exercises that give students specific instruction and practice using Common Core skills and strategies. Lerner eSource also provides additional resources including online activities, downloadable/printable graphic organizers, and additional educational materials that would also support Common Core instruction. Download, share, pin, print, and save as many of these free resources as you like! First Step Nonfiction — Kinds of Plants Vibrant photographs and simple vocabulary introduce students to fruits, vegetables, grains, and flowers. Students learn about different types of plants while improving their reading skills. View available downloads →
Antivirus protection isn’t just a way to block computer viruses, as the name may apply. (Some people think that all intrusions into a computer are called viruses, but that is a misnomer.) For example, here is a list of the ways a good antivirus program can assist in protecting a computer with data on it: - Antivirus – Starting with the obvious, an antivirus program will protect against computer viruses, or attacks that mean to damage a computer. - Rootkit protection – This prevents rootkits, which are imbedded deep inside a computer in order to mask other malware, from establishing in a computer. - Bot protection – This alerts a subscriber when a cybercriminal is attempting to remotely take over a computer to use as a source for automatic spamming and other crimes. Bots are what botnets are based on (groups of ordinary people’s computers that have been - Worm protection – By definition, worms attack networks rather than computers themselves. However, worms can carry payloads of malware that can be deposited onto computers, which will then do damage. Antivirus software can prevent this sort of attack – stop computer worms. - Trojan horses – Antivirus software can’t stop a person from being duped into thinking that a desired downloaded program or file is legitimate. However, antivirus software can warn them when malware is detected within a Trojan horse file. - Spyware – Antivirus software can detect when a computer has been infected with spyware, or software that’s meant to either collect data of usage or steal information, even when the source came from a reputable, legitimate source. - Messaging protection – Whether it’s instant messages or e-mails, antivirus software can warn users when these messages contain dangerous attachments or fraudulent links. Instant messaging security is important today. While having antivirus software protection is an important step in keeping a computer free of malware, there are still some other things a person can do to keep their computer as clean as possible. - Keep computer software updated – Operating system software is one of the key points in which cybercriminals attempt to exploit vulnerabilities in remote computers. However, to keep up with known attacks, operating system producers constantly update their software for free in order to help protect their patrons. These updates are free, and can be set up to happen automatically. - Practice safe Internet habits – There are many ways that cybercriminals can insert malware onto computers, and some of these methods involve fooling ignorant users into accepting the offending software freely. Never open attachments or follow links from unknown sources. Never give out confidential information, such as passwords, even if it appears to come from an administrator. Use strong passwords on a regular base. MSD are partnered with many Antivirus providers. We believe that some solutions may work fine for some businesses but not for others. Can you benefit from a cost saving by hosting your own Antivirus console? Do you need the freedom of a cloud hosted solution which still allows tracking and management of threats no matter where your staff are? MSD can provide a solution to fit your business needs and budget.
Bovine with Mad cow disease. Note the inabiltiy of the infected animal to stand. Image source: USDA. By looking through the eyes of the cattle, one can possibly detect if a bovine animal has a mad cow disease. This is according to a team of scientists. The eyes are not only the window of the soul. They may also serve as indicators that can be used to detect if the animal could be suffering from a prion disease. The eyes of the cattle may tell which ones have prion infections. Prions are the agents of Mad Cow Disease. The eye test that is being developed for this purpose may fill up the need for a test, which can be done with ease and not too costly. By looking through the eyes of the animal and using a special instrument emitting a beam of light, one can identify which bovines are infected with prions. Studies already established that prion infection causes chemical changes in the retina, the innermost light-sensitive membrane of the eye. As a result, the retina renders a characteristic glow, and this could be used to identify infection with the Mad Cow disease agent. This test already proved useful in identifying scrapie in sheep. The eye test would be useful to identify prion infection in bovine. Early detection could prevent the disease from dispersing in the food chain. Jacod Petrich and colleagues contend that certain human disease resembling Mad Cow Disease may be associated with the consumption of beef infected with prions. Developing a test that can be easily applied and not too costly can be truly essential. ~ Aadapted by Vicki Mozo from a press release of United States Department of Agriculture-Research, Education, and Economics entitled "Eyes of cattle may become new windows to detect Mad Cow Disease" on June 2, 2010. For definitions, see:
Themes in Beowulf Honor: Honor and reputation were considered important personal traits to the Germanic and Scandinavian cultures featured in Beowulf. For Beowulf, there is nothing more important than the creation of a legacy. He travels from Geatland to Denmark to kill Grendel out of a desire for personal glory and to defend the allied Danes. Honor is important to the Danes as well. Before even setting out to kill Grendel, Beowulf must prove himself to the Danes, repairing his marred reputation from to a swimming race he lost in his youth. Finally, the elderly Beowulf refuses to flee from the dragon at the poem’s end, even as his best soldiers desert him. Revenge: Revenge drives the heroes and villains in Beowulf. Grendel attacks Heorot Hall because he wants to seek vengeance against mankind for his lineage. Grendel’s mother attacks Beowulf because he killed her son. The narrator suggests that there are multiple feuds and battles going on between the different Germanic tribes. This suggests that revenge was a way of life in this time. Beowulf himself conducts his final battle to seek vengeance against the dragon who burned down his home. Kinship: Kinship, being related by blood, ancestry, or affinity, and loyalty are main driving factors that structure Beowulf’s actions. He owes the old king Hrothgar a debt of gratitude because Hrothgar assisted Beowulf’s father in the past. Loyalty was seen as a way to maintain one’s honor and therefore was extremely important. Tension between paganism and Christianity: England underwent a radical Christianization process in about 597 with the mission of St. Augustine. However, paganism continued to influence patterns of thought and culture. Beowulf is presumed to have been composed between 700 and 1000 CE, but the only surviving copy of the poem was transcribed by Christian monks in the 11th century. It is unknown whether or not these scribes added Christian narratives to the tale during this transcription or if the Christian undertones were already part of the narrative. Inconsistencies throughout the poem suggest that elements were added to the narrative by someone other than the original author. Many have speculated that the poem was written down from a pagan oral tradition which could account for many of the disagreements within the text. Regardless of who added the Christian themes to the poem, Beowulf is an example of the conversion from paganism to Christianity.
Despite being unable to listen to it with our ears, the stars in the sky keep a melodious and constant concert. Large stellar bodies emit low and deep sounds, similar to those produced by terrestrial tubas and double basses. While small stars take pride in their high pitched voices, which resonate like heavenly flutes. But this cosmic orchestra is not limited by the touch of a single note at a time. Instead, stars have thousands of sound waves, different from each other, that bounce in their nuclei at any given time. This fact represents a huge astronomical revolution. Especially when considering that, by “listening” to these sound waves with our telescopes, it is possible to obtain a lot of valuable information, such as: the material, age and size of the stellar bodies studied. These details are obtained from the vibrations or “star earthquakes” that reveal their internal functioning; a process similar to that produced by the seismic waves of the Earth and due to which this technique is named asteroseismology. So, knowing this phenomenon, it is worth asking: how do these waves work? Thanks to the NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope and Exoplanet Probe Satellite (TESS), we know that sound waves move through the interior of a star due to changes in temperature. These begin in the zone of convection of the star, where hot gas arises to then move towards the stellar surface to cool down. But this gas doesn’t remain there, for it soon returns to its original zone in a violent and turbulent fall. Such a movement of heat that rises and falls generates the different waves that bounce off the star. For their part, convection-driven waves cause the entire star to expand and contract; a process that produces a sound similar to that of a bell. In fact, the propagation of these waves is so great that the stellar surface pushes itself like a jelly. Although it is relevant to note that, while this is an abrupt movement, it is also incredibly subtle and, ergo, invisible to the human eye. That is why in images of the Sun we observe the effects of these sound waves as areas of localised brightness; which should not be confused with the dark spots we know as sunspots. Thereafter, certain sound waves spread around the entire circumference of a star just as others furrow its nucleus. The larger the star, the longer its sound waves take to travel inside of it. On the Sun, for example, a typical sound wave completes a cycle in five minutes. But certain sound waves of stars comparable in size to the Sun can take several days to finish their cycles. Red giants, on the other hand, have low frequency waves that can spread over weeks and even months. And since new waves emerge all the time, stars are always vibrating and emitting their particular symphony. This is the reason why the sound waves present in all star acquire their importance in the fields of space physics. Being thanks to them that the secrets that stars keep in their nuclei are revealed to us, eliciting astonishment and sparking our curiosity.
Pneumonia, along with influenza, stands eighth on the list of leading causes of death in the United States, according to the 2011 mortality report of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Pneumonia is an infection which commonly affects Americans, leading to hospitalization due to serious complications, and sometimes even death if the infection has become fatal. It is caused by an infection in the lower and upper respiratory tract, resulting into fluid or pus fill up in the air sacs of one or both lungs due to inflammation. However, one type of pneumonia does not necessarily involve bed rest or hospitalization. It’s called atypical or walking pneumonia. Surprisingly, patients never come to know they are carrying the infection until it’s diagnosed, as it does not affect their daily life. Nevertheless, it still needs to be treated to avoid complications. Walking pneumonia is again categorized into different types and the causes are specific to each of them. The type of germ, whether bacteria, virus, fungus, or parasite, or any other infectious agent through chemicals or inhaled food will decide the seriousness of the infection, its treatment, and who gets infected. Mycoplasma pneumonia may require hospitalization, but very rarely, because it is relatively a milder form of the infection. The type of walking pneumonia that commonly infects school-aged children is chlamydophilia pneumonia. Legionella pneumonia is a highly complicated type which can cause death or at least respiratory failure; however, it does not spread to other people unlike other pneumonia forms. One thing to note about walking pneumonia is that you never catch it, but the germs that cause it, which eventually make you sick with their specific infection. So, it’s actually the pneumonia germs that spread person to person and not the infection. That’s why there are different types of walking pneumonia according to the type of germ. The symptoms are so mild that the infected person may not be able to make out if they are really infected and confuse them with those of common cold. However, there are exceptions with few forms of walking pneumonia—rash in mycoplasma pneumonia and diarrhea in legionella pneumonia. Otherwise, you could expect : appetite loss, low-grade fever, tiredness, muscle pain, persistent dry cough, chills, breathing problems, etc. How to prevent walking pneumonia? Pneumonia can easy affect smokers and people with weak immune system. That self-explains how you should lead your life to dodge the infection. Quit smoking if you do, get treated for any underlying health problems or diseases you’re currently suffering—people with asthma, HIV, cancer, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are at high risk. Make sure you wash your hands at regular intervals, get proper rest, have a well-balanced diet, and exercise regularly. Don’t forget to cover your mouth and nose while sneezing or coughing to avoid others getting infected as pneumonia can be contagious. More by Victor Marchione
5E Lesson Plan \|Subject / grade level:\| \|CCRS Essential Standards and Clarifying Objectives \|Differentiation strategies to meet diverse learner needs: · Describe how the teacher will capture students’ interest. · What kind of questions should the students ask themselves after the engagement? · Describe what hands-on/minds-on activities students will be doing. · List “big idea” conceptual questions the teacher will use to encourage and/or focus students’ exploration · Student explanations should precede introduction of terms or explanations by the teacher. What questions or techniques will the teacher use to help students connect their exploration to the concept under examination? · List higher order thinking questions which teachers will use to solicit student explanations and help them to justify their explanations. · Describe how students will develop a more sophisticated understanding of the concept. · What vocabulary will be introduced and how will it connect to students’ observations? · How is this knowledge applied in our daily lives? · How will students demonstrate that they have achieved the lesson objective? · This should be embedded throughout the lesson as well as at the end of the lesson
The ambassador in Paris, Bismarck was not long, he was soon recalled because of the acute government crisis in Prussia. In September 1862, Otto von Bismarck took over as head of government, and later became minister-president and head of Prussia’s foreign ministry. As a result, for eight years, Bismarck was the permanent head of the Prussian government. All this time he carried out the program, which he formulated in 1850-s and finally determined at the beginning of 1860-s. Bismarck told the parliament, which was dominated by liberals, that the government would collect taxes, taking into account the old budget, because parliamentarians due to internal conflicts could not accept the budget. Bismarck carried out this policy in 1863-1866, which allowed him to carry out military reform, which seriously increased the combat capability of the Prussian army. She was also conceived by the regent Wilhelm, who was unhappy with the existence of the Landwehr - the territorial troops, which in the past had played an important role in the struggle against Napoleon’s army and were the backbone of the liberal public. At the suggestion of Minister of War Albrecht von Roon (it was by his patronage that Otto von Bismarck was appointed minister-president of Prussia) it was decided to increase the number of regular army, introduce 3-year active service in the army and 4-year in cavalry, take measures to accelerate mobilization activities And so on. However, these activities required a lot of money, it was necessary to increase the military budget by a quarter. It met with resistance from the liberal government, parliament and the public. Bismarck, on the other hand, formed his cabinet of conservative ministers and used a “hole in the constitution”, according to which the mechanism of the government’s actions during the constitutional crisis was not determined. Forcing parliament to comply, Bismarck also restricted the activities of the press and took measures to reduce the capacity of the opposition. In a speech to the budget committee of parliament, Bismarck spoke famous words that were included in history: “Prussia must gather its strength and maintain them until an auspicious moment, which has already been missed several times. The borders of Prussia in accordance with the Vienna agreements are not conducive to the normal life of the state; not by speeches and decisions of the majority, important issues of our time are being resolved - it was a major mistake of 1848 and 1849, but with blood and iron. ” This program - "iron and blood", Bismarck consistently conducted in the unification of the German lands. Bismarck's foreign policy was very successful. Great criticism of the liberals was caused by the support of Russia during the Polish uprising 1863. Russian Foreign Minister Prince A. Gorchakov and Adjutant General of the Prussian King Gustav von Alvensleben signed a St. Petersburg convention by which Russian troops could pursue gangs in Prussia, and Prussian Army - in Russia. Victory over Denmark and Austria In 1864, Prussia defeated Denmark. The war was caused by the status problem of the Duchy of Schleswig and Holstein - the southern provinces of Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were in personal union with Denmark. At the same time, ethnic Germans prevailed in the population of the regions. Prussia was already at war with Denmark for the dukedoms in 1848 — 1850, but then retreated under the pressure of great powers — England, Russia, and France — which guaranteed the inviolability of the Danish monarchy. The reason for the new war was the childlessness of the Danish king Frederick VII. In Denmark, inheritance through the feminine line was allowed, and Prince Christian Glucksburg was recognized as the successor to Frederick VII. However, in Germany they inherited only through the male line, and Duke Frederick of Augustinburg made a pretender to the throne of the two duchies. In 1863, Denmark adopted a new constitution, which established the unity of Denmark and Schleswig. Then Prussia and Austria stood up for the interests of Germany. The forces of the two powerful powers and small Denmark were incomparable, and it was defeated. The great powers this time did not show much interest in Denmark. As a result, Denmark waived its rights to Lauenburg, Schleswig and Holstein. Lauenburg for monetary compensation became the property of Prussia. The duchies were declared joint possessions of Prussia and Austria (Gastein Convention). Schleswig was ruled by Berlin, and Holstein by Vienna. This was an important step towards the unification of Germany. The next step towards the unification of Germany under the rule of Prussia was the Austro-Prussian-Italian War (or German War) 1866. Bismarck originally planned to use the intricacies of controlling Schleswig and Holstein for a conflict with Austria. Holstein, who came to the "control" of Austria, was separated from the Austrian Empire by a number of German states and the territory of Prussia. Vienna offered Berlin both dukedoms in exchange for the most modest territory on the Prussian-Austrian border from Prussia. Bismarck refused. Then Bismarck accused Austria of violating the conditions of the Gastein Convention (the Austrians did not stop the anti-Prussian agitation in Holstein). Vienna put this question before the Allied Diet. Bismarck warned that this business is only Prussia and Austria. However, the Diet continued the discussion. Then 8 on April 1866 of Bismarck annulled the convention and proposed to transform the German Union, excluding Austria from it. On the same day, the Prussian-Italian alliance against the Austrian Empire was concluded. Bismarck paid much attention to the situation in Germany. He put forward a program to create the North German Union with the creation of a single parliament (based on universal secret male suffrage), a single armed forces under the leadership of Prussia. On the whole, the program seriously limited the sovereignty of individual German states in favor of Prussia. It is clear that the majority of the German states opposed this plan. The Sejm rejected Bismarck’s proposals. 14 June 1866, the Bismarck declared the Diet "invalid." 13 of the German states, including Bavaria, Saxony, Hannover, Württemberg, opposed Prussia. However, Prussia was the first to mobilize and the Prussians began to push the Austrians from Holstein on June 7. The German Union Sejm decided to mobilize four corps - the contingent of the German Union, which Prussia accepted as a declaration of war. Of the states of the German Union, only Saxony managed to mobilize its corps on time. On June 15, hostilities began between the mobilized Prussian army and the unmobilized allies of Austria. 16 June Prussians began the occupation of Hanover, Saxony and Hesse. 17 June Austria declared war to Prussia, so that it would be beneficial for Bismarck, who tried to create the most favorable political environment. Now Prussia did not look like an aggressor. 20 June Italy entered the war. Austria was forced to wage war on two fronts, which further worsened its position. Bismarck managed to neutralize the two main external dangers - from Russia and France. Most of all, Bismarck feared Russia, which could by one expression of discontent stop the war. However, irritation of Austria, which prevailed in St. Petersburg, played into the hands of Bismarck. Alexander II remembered the behavior of Franz Joseph during the Crimean War and the rude insult inflicted by Buol of Russia at the Paris Congress. In Russia, they looked at it as a betrayal of Austria and did not forget it. Alexander decided not to hinder Prussia, to settle accounts with Austria. In addition, Alexander II highly appreciated the "service" provided by Prussia in 1863 during the Polish uprising. True, Gorchakov did not want to give in so easily to Bismarck. But in the end, the king's opinion took up. With France, the situation was more complicated. The regime of Napoleon III, guarding his power, was guided by foreign policy adventures, which were supposed to distract people from internal problems. Among such “small and victorious wars” were the Eastern (Crimean) War, which led to heavy losses for the French army and did not bring any benefits to the French people. In addition, Bismarck’s plans to unite Germany around Prussia were a real threat to France. Paris was beneficial to a weak and fragmented Germany, where small states are involved in the orbit of the policies of the three great powers - Austria, Prussia and France. To prevent the strengthening of Prussia, the defeat of Austria and the unification of Germany around the Prussian kingdom was a necessity for Napoleon III, which was determined by the tasks of national security. To solve the problem of France, Bismarck visited the courtyard of Napoleon III in 1865, and offered the emperor a deal. Bismarck made it clear to Napoleon that Prussia, in exchange for the neutrality of France, would not protest against the incorporation of Luxembourg into the French Empire. This was not enough for Napoleon. Napoleon III clearly hinted at Belgium. However, such a concession threatened Prussia with serious troubles in the future. On the other hand, outright rejection threatened war with Austria and France. Bismarck answered neither yes nor no, and Napoleon no longer raised this topic. Bismarck realized that Napoleon III decided to maintain neutrality at the beginning of the war. The clash of two first-class European powers, in the opinion of the French emperor, should have led to a protracted and bloody war that would weaken both Prussia and Austria. They did not believe in the “blitzkrieg” in Paris. As a result, France could receive all the fruits of the war. Her fresh army, perhaps even without any struggle, could have been obtained by Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Rhineland. Bismarck realized that this was Prussia’s chance. At the beginning of the war, France will be neutral, the French will wait. Thus, the fast war could radically change the situation in favor of Prussia. The Prussian army will quickly crush Austria, will not suffer serious losses and will come to the Rhine before the French can bring the army to combat readiness and take retaliatory steps. Bismarck understood that the Austrian campaign was lightning, it is necessary to solve three problems. Firstly, it was necessary to mobilize the army before the opponents, which was done. Secondly, to force Austria to fight on two fronts, to spray its forces. Thirdly, after the first victories, to put Vienna on the minimum, the most non-burdensome requirements. Bismarck was ready to confine himself to excluding Austria from the German Union, without presenting territorial or other requirements. He did not want to humiliate Austria, turning her into an implacable enemy who would fight to the last (in this case, the possibility of intervention by France and Russia increased sharply). Austria should not have prevented the transformation of the powerless German Union into a new union of German states under the leadership of Prussia. In the future, Bismarck saw an ally in Austria. In addition, Bismarck feared that a severe defeat could lead to the collapse and revolution in Austria. This Bismarck did not want. Bismarck was able to ensure that Austria fought on two fronts. The newly created Italian kingdom wanted to get Venice, the Venetian region, Trieste and Trento, which belonged to Austria. Bismarck made an alliance with Italy, so that the Austrian army had to fight on two fronts: in the north - against the Prussians, in the south - against the Italians, storming Venice. True, the Italian monarch Victor Emmanuel II hesitated, realizing that the Italian troops were weak to resist the Austrian Empire. Indeed, during the war itself, the Austrians inflicted a heavy defeat on the Italians. However, the main theater of the fighting was in the north. The Italian king and his entourage were interested in a war with Austria, but wanted guarantees. Bismarck gave them. He promised Victor Emmanuel II that Venice would be given to Italy in the general world anyway, regardless of the situation in the southern theater of operations. Victor Emmanuel still hesitated. Then Bismarck went to a non-standard step - blackmail. He promised that he would turn to the Italian people through the head of the monarch and call for help from popular Italian revolutionaries, national heroes - Mazzini and Garibaldi. Then the Italian monarch decided, and Italy became such a necessary Prussia ally in the war with Austria. I must say that the French emperor divined the Italian map of Bismarck. His agents vigilantly observed all the diplomatic preparations and intrigues of the Prussian minister. Realizing that Bismarck and Victor Emmanuel had agreed, Napoleon III immediately informed the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about this. He warned him about the danger of war on two fronts and offered to warn the war with Italy, voluntarily losing to Venice. The plan was reasonable and could deal a serious blow to Otto von Bismarck's plans. However, the Austrian emperor and the Austrian elite did not have the insight and willpower to take this step. The Austrian Empire refused to voluntarily cede Venice. Napoleon III again nearly frustrated Bismarck’s plans when he decisively announced to Italy that he did not want to conclude a Prussian-Italian alliance directed against Austria. Victor Emmanuel could not disobey the French emperor. Then Bismarck again visited France. He argued that Vienna, having refused, at the suggestion of Paris, to cede Venice to Italy, proves its arrogance. Bismarck inspired Napoleon that the war would be heavy and protracted, that Austria would leave only a small barrier against Italy, moving all the main forces against Prussia. Bismarck spoke of his “dream” of connecting Prussia and France with “friendship.” In fact, Bismarck inspired the French emperor with the idea that Italy’s performance in the south against Austria would not help Prussia much, and the war would still be hard and hard, giving France the opportunity to be in the victor’s camp. As a result, the French emperor Napoleon III lifted his ban on Italy. Otto von Bismarck won a great diplomatic victory. 8 April 1866, Prussia and Italy make an alliance. At the same time, the Italians still bargained for 120 million francs from Bismarck. The beginning of the war on the southern front was unsuccessful for Bismarck. The large Italian army was defeated by inferior Austrians in the Battle of Custoz (June 24 1866). At sea, the Austrian fleet defeated the Italian in the battle of Lisse (July 20 1866). It was the first ever naval battle of armored squadrons. However, the outcome of the war was determined by the struggle between Austria and Prussia. The defeat of the Italian army threatened the failure of all hopes of Bismarck. The talented strategist General Helmut von Moltke, who led the Prussian army, saved the situation. The Austrians were late with the deployment of the army. Quickly and skillfully maneuvering, Moltke outstripped the enemy. 27 — 29 June under Langensalza, the Prussians defeated the allies of Austria, the Hanoverian army. On July 3, a decisive battle took place in the area of Sadov - Königgrätz (the battle of Sadov). Significant forces took part in the battle - 220, thousands of Prussians, 215, thousands of Austrians and Saxons. The Austrian army under the command of Benedek suffered a heavy defeat, losing about 44 thousand people (the Prussians lost about 9 thousand people). Benedek withdrew his remaining troops to Olmutsu, covering the way to Hungary. Vienna was left without proper protection. The Prussians had the opportunity, with some losses, to take the Austrian capital. The Austrian command was forced to begin the transfer of troops from the Italian direction. This allowed the Italian army to counter-attack in the Venetian region and Tyrol. The Prussian King William and the generals, intoxicated with a brilliant victory, demanded a further offensive and the capture of Vienna, which should have brought Austria to its knees. They were eager for a triumphal parade in Vienna. However, Bismarck spoke out against almost everyone. He had to endure a fierce verbal battle at the royal headquarters. Bismarck understood that Austria still has the ability to resist. Cornered and humiliated Austria will fight to the end. And the delay of the war threatens major troubles, in particular, from France. In addition, the crushing defeat of the Austrian Empire did not suit Bismarck. It could lead to the development of destructive tendencies in Austria and for a long time to make it an enemy of Prussia. Bismarck needed neutrality in the future conflict between Prussia and France, which he had already seen in the near future. In the proposal for a truce, which followed from the Austrian side, Bismarck saw a chance to achieve the goals he set. In order to break the king’s resistance, Bismarck threatened to resign and said that he would not be held accountable for the pernicious path to which the military carried William. In the end, after several scandals, the king gave up. Italy was also unhappy, wanting to continue the war and seize Trieste and Trento. Bismarck told the Italians that no one bothers them to continue to fight one-on-one with the Austrians. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he would be broken alone, agreed only to Venice. Franz Joseph, fearing the fall of Hungary, also did not persist. July 22 began a truce, July 26 Nicolsburg signed a preliminary world. 23 August in Prague signed a peace treaty. From top to bottom: the status quo before the war, military actions and the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian war 1866 Thus, Prussia won in the lightning campaign (the Seven-week war). The Austrian Empire has retained its integrity. Austria recognized the dissolution of the German Union and refused to interfere in the affairs of Germany. Austria recognized the new union of German states led by Prussia. Bismarck was able to create the North German Union led by Prussia. Vienna refused in favor of Berlin all rights to the duchy of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia also annexed Hanover, the electors of Hesse, Nassau and the old city of Frankfurt am Main. Austria paid Prussian contribution to 20 million Prussian thalers. Vienna recognized the transfer of the Venetian region of Italy. One of the most important consequences of the victory of Prussia over Austria was the formation of the North German Union, which included more than 20 states and cities. All of them, under the 1867 constitution, created a single territory with general laws and institutions (Reichstag, Federal Council, State High Court of Commerce). The foreign and military policy of the North German Union, in fact, was transferred to Berlin. The king of Prussia became the president of the union. The foreign chancellor of the union was in charge of the Federal Chancellor appointed by the King of Prussia. With the South German states were entered into military alliances and customs treaties. It was a big step towards the unification of Germany. It remains only to defeat France, which prevented the unification of Germany. O. Bismarck and Prussian liberals on the cartoon of Wilhelm von Scholz To be continued ...
Reptiles are tetrapod animals comprising turtles, crocodilians, snakes, amphisbaenians, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. Turtles are diapsids of the order Testudines (or Chelonii) characterized by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs and acting as a shield. The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species. The earliest known members of this group date from the Triassic, making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more ancient group than snakes or crocodilians. Of the 356 known species alive today, some are highly endangered. Turtle shells are made up of the carapace (1) and the plastron (2). Turtles have developed special neck vertebrae, allowing them to pull their necks in to the shell (3) Crocodilia is an order of mostly large, predatory, reptiles. They first appeared 95 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous period and are the closest living relatives of birds. Large, solidly built, lizard-like reptiles, crocodilians have long flattened snouts, laterally compressed tails, and eyes, ears, and nostrils at the top of the head. They swim well and can move on land in a "high walk" and a "low walk", while smaller species are even capable of galloping. Their skin is thick and covered in non-overlapping scales. They have conical, peg-like teeth and a powerful bite. They have a four-chambered heart and, somewhat like birds, a unidirectional looping system of airflow within the lungs, but like other reptiles they are ectotherms. The genus Alligator contains two species of robust Crocodilian: The Chinese and American Alligators. Use the models above to see the differences between these two species. Tuatara are reptiles endemic to New Zealand. Although resembling most lizards, they are part of a distinct lineage, the order Rhynchocephalia. The single species of tuatara is the only surviving member of its order, which flourished around 200 million years ago. Their most recent common ancestor with any other extant group is with the squamates (lizards and snakes)
The two kidney bean-shaped organs are about the size of two fists. They are located below the rib cage on both the left and right sides. The primary role of the kidneys include: - Filters blood and excretes waste products. - Regulate sodium, potassium, phosphorus and calcium levels in the bloodstream. - Help control blood pressure. - Produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which signals and stimulates bone marrow cells to produce new red blood cells. Each kidney contains millions of units called nephrons that work to filter waste. If their function becomes compromised, the rest of the body may be too. Most of the concern relates to waste buildup, which can be very dangerous and even fatal. But what actually is renal disease, what causes it, and can it be prevented? What Is Renal Disease? Renal disease is a gradual progression and measured based on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), or estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). GFR serves as a biomarker for how well the kidneys are filtering nitrogenous waste products out of the bloodstream. The five stages are broken down into 5 stages depending on their GFR based on milliliters per minute (mL/min). These include: - Stage 1 (eGFR = 90 to 130): Kidney damage, but normal to increased kidney function - Stage 2 (eGFR = 60 to 89): Mild decrease in kidney function - Stage 3 (eGFR = 30 to 59): Moderate decrease in kidney function - Stage 4 (eGFR = 15 to 29): Severe decrease in kidney function - Stage 5 (eGFR = Less than 15): Kidney failure with treatment necessary, defined as ESRD Clinically recognized as end-stage kidney disease, end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is the final stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Causes & Symptoms of Chronic Kidney Disease Renal disease often passes gradually through the stages. There are two primary causes of renal disease, including uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension (high blood pressure). Regular high blood sugars and pressures can damage the blood vessels and kidney’s anatomy, therefore disrupting its physiology. Age increases the risk for these two conditions, so renal disease often follows on the heels. Other causes and risk factors of ESRD include: - Kidney stones - Congenital abnormalities - Certain types of cancer - Glomerulonephritis (inflammation of the kidney’s filters, known as glomeruli) - Family history of the condition Common symptoms of ESRD include: - Malaise (a general ill feeling) and weakness - Nausea and vomiting - Loss of appetite and weight loss - Muscle cramps - Dry and itchy skin - Metallic taste in mouth - Neurologic impairment The severity of symptoms likewise depends on the stage of renal. For instance, prolonged and uncontrolled CKD can lead to anemia. This is due to lowered erythropoietin hormone levels resulting in fewer red blood cells being produced in bone marrow. Treating & Managing Renal Disease As indicated in stage 5, ESRD requires treatment, as the kidneys are no longer able to function effectively. Primary treatment options include dialysis or kidney transplant while considering diet, psychological support, or palliative care. In ESRD, dialysis is required to filter the blood, excrete the waste products, maintain fluid balance. Without dialysis treatment, the toxic byproducts start to build and are more than likely fatal. When it comes to ESRD, kidney transplantation is the only alternative treatment to dialysis. In fact, a successful kidney transplant can allow you to live the way you previously did prior to kidney disease. Qualifying candidates may further require immunosuppressant therapy to best ensure a successful transplant. Specific diet recommendations are established by the National Kidney Foundation throughout all stages of renal disease. For the most part, nutrients of concern include protein, sodium, phosphorus, and potassium. Monitoring fluids is likewise important, especially when on dialysis. Supplementing with micronutrients also may be warranted. Especially in seniors or chronically ill patients, offering them palliative care may be the best option. The focus of palliative care is to relieve the symptoms and stress of a serious illness. Overall, the ultimate outcome is to improve quality of life. Psychological & Emotional Support End-stage renal disease can be considerably stressful, no matter the decision of treatment. Psychological support may be justified to alleviate stress or reduce the risk of depression. Family members and close friends may also benefit from structured counseling, especially if they assist in the provision of care. How to Prevent Renal Disease About 90 percent of end-stage renal disease patients have chronic diabetes and hypertension. That being said, one can keep the kidneys healthy by preventing or managing conditions that cause kidney damage. Prevention mostly entails adopting a healthy lifestyle such as diet, exercise, and weight management. Other factors, including sleep hygiene and stress management, are helpful as well. Consume a Balanced Diet A balanced diet should offer a variety from whole foods, including: - Whole grains - Fruits and veggies - Beans and other legumes - Nuts and seeds - Fish and shellfish - Lean cuts of animal meats - Low-fat dairy products Likewise reduces the intake of refined foods rich in refined flour, oil, sugar, and salt. These sorts of products mainly supply empty calories and have negative impacts on health if consumed in excess. Regular exercise elevates heart rate, improves blood flow, and manages weight. Being active lowers the risk of disease, too, therefore keeping the kidneys healthy. Aim for at least 30 minutes of aerobic exercise most days of the week. Include two to three resistance training sessions weekly, too. All-in-all, dismiss a sedentary lifestyle and adopt an active one. At the end of the day, some movement is better than going without! Lose or Maintain Weight Carrying excess weight increases the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, and ultimately renal disease. However, reaching and sustaining a healthy weight can prevent or help manage these conditions. Consider Other Lifestyle Factors Diet and exercise are dominant lifestyle factors for sustaining kidney and overall health. But other factors to consider include: - Sleeping for 7 to 9 hours on a nightly basis. - Managing daily stress with positive coping techniques. - Moderating alcohol intake. - Smoke cessation. Overall, consult with a doctor for early detection and management of chronic diseases. They can help layout a lifestyle plan and prescribe any medication if warranted. U.S. National Library of Medicine. End-stage renal disease. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000500.htm. Your Kidneys & How They Work. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/kidneys-how-they-work. Published June 1, 2018.
IceCube is a unique project both in its scope, ambition and location. IceCube is based in part on an already existing project for an underground observatory in the South Pole called Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA). The AMANDA is made out of 19 holes 1300 to 2400 meters in depth filled with detectors. While the AMANDA project was able to generate some scientific data it was essentially an experimental project built to test the concept of deep underground observatory under the ice. IceCube will be a much bigger project expending AMANDA tenfold and occupying about one cubic kilometer and costing 240 million dollars. Drilling to a depth of almost 2.5km beneath the polar ice isn’t a simple task. While digging each of the 19 holes created for the AMNDA project took an average of 100 hours using large quantities of heated water, IceCube will try to complete each of its 80 holes in just about 30 hours, and the project as a whole in about four years. Since 2005 IceCube had been gathering data at an increased rate. Using a NASA satellite called Transfer and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) huge chunks of data are sent to the University of Wisconsin for storage and further analysis. So far over 60 Terabytes of data was stored in an array of over 240 hard drives. The University of Wisconsin is now planning to double this amount in preparation for the new data arriving from IceCube. Each of the 80 holes making the IceCube will have 60 sensors called DOMs whose purpose is to detect neutrinos. Examination of the data from the array of DOMs allows IceCube scientists to determine the direction and energy of the neutrino particles as they pass through earth. This in turn could help them determine the origin of this elusive and important particle.
Reviewed By: Reviewed by Natalie Enright, Chelsea Maradiaga, Bracha Schefres and Angela Yam Article synopsis and core research question In the research article “Examining Factors Predicting Students’ Digital Competence,” Hatlevik, Guðmundsdóttir, and Loi are interested in determining how users process information and to what extent are technological skills acquired. This paper addresses the levels of familiarity and understanding of information and communication technology (ICT) as assessed among Norwegian ninth grade students. Digital competence is defined as “the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that make learners able to use digital media for participation, work, and problem solving, independently and in collaboration with others in a critical, responsible, and creative manner.” (Hatlevik, Guðmundsdóttir, & Loi, 2015, p. 124) Due to the increasing variety of technologies in the daily lives of users around the world, this 2015 study holds an important role in analyzing digital literacy and how people acquire the relevant skillsets. Three factors are identified as shaping the diverse technological experiences of students following the research results: digital competence, mastery orientation, and family background. Mastery orientation refers to how one’s attitude and actions approach learning or performance-related activities, while family background covers cultural, social, and economic demographic indicators. Eight hypotheses were formulated to frame the relationships between cultural capital, language at home, strategic use of information, academic achievements, and predicted digital competence. Global efforts toward advocating and promoting digital competence aim to not only make technological tools more accessible for users to meet information needs, but they also encourage the lifelong development of online equity, self-representation, and exchange of information. Methods used to answer the research question. For this study a cross-sectional survey was used to analyze the data collected from a survey given to one class of 9th graders chosen by each of the 150 schools contacted to participate. The study was conducted in 2013. Potential participating schools were contacted using mail, e-mail, and by phone. “The final sample for this study was made of 852 students from 38 participating schools. The response rate at the school level was 25.3%” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 127). There was no replacement for schools who did not participate. The questions for the survey were comprised of themes based on the learning objectives for the completion of 10th grade. The themes included: “five questions about digital responsibility, three questions about digital communication, eight questions about how to retrieve and handle digital information, and ten questions about how to create and process digital information” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 127). Students were then asked how many books they had at home. The data collected from this part of a self-report questionnaire was used to establish cultural capital. Other answers to the self-report questionnaire were used to determine language integration and mastery orientation for each student. Three questions were asked to measure mastery orientation using Likert-type agree-disagree scale, ranging from Strongly agree to Strongly disagree. Results showed a score of 0.87 suggesting a high level of consistency. “The scale of marks/grades are 1(the lowest mark), 2, 3,4, 5 and 6 (the highest mark)” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 127). The comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis fit index (TLI) are the two indices that were used to evaluate the fit of the model with the hypotheses. In order to estimate the misspecification of the model, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was calculated. (Hatlevik et al., 2015) Finally, www.gsi.udir.no, a national database, indicated that on an average there were 2.19 (sd 0.71) students at each computer in the schools that participated in the study” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 128). Findings and conclusions The study found that 2.5% of students had no books, 10.2% had 1-10 books, 15.9% had 11-50 books, 15.4% had 51-100 books, 22.2% had 101-250 books, 17% had 251-500 books and 16.8% had more than 500 books. For languages spoken at home, studies found that 83.3% of students spoke Norwegian and 16.7% spoke another language other than Norwegian or combined with Norwegian. The results from the theoretical model were statistically significant, however there were two questions which measured digital competence that had to be removed due to the factor loading falling below 0.20 and a new analysis was run. It showed acceptable results with values of CFI = 0.947, TLI = 0.943, and the RMSEA = 0.024 [LO 90 = 0.020 and HI 90 = 0.027]. An analysis of the theoretical model that was developed with eight hypotheses shows that all hypotheses are supported. From the structural equation modelling (SEM) approach, the study found that “students’ cultural capital and language integration at home is positively related“ (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 132) which has a positive forecast to digital competence. Looking at both of the student’s mastery orientation and previous achievements also provides positive outlooks to digital competence. Limitations of this study includes having a response rate of 25.3% at the school level, schools and students with positive interactions towards technology could be overrepresented, and self-selection bias. However, there were variations between students’ digital competence, therefore it seems that there is a diverse sample of student participation. This study’s findings shows diversity amongst the students regarding digital competence which is also supported by many national tests involving reading, mathematics, science and information literacy. It is up to the school leaders and teachers to identify the diversity in their students’ digital competence and take action to improve their student’s digital competence. They have to also take note that a student’s family background, previous achievements in school, and mastery orientation are related to their digital competence. Teachers would need to be aware of these factors when they are planning and conducting teaching, and helping students to develop adaptive methods for information use. “Digital skills and competence requires hard work and persistence as does developing other key competences such as reading, writing, or doing calculations.” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 133). Unanswered questions and an attempt to answer them The design of the test seems to evaluate a 9th grade students’ digital competence without the intervention of classroom instruction since students are tested on end of the year 10th grade material. If the test comprised of questions that were from the 9th grade curriculum or the test comprised of students who had just finished 10th grade, then the study would evaluate classroom instruction. However, to completely rule out the significance of classroom instruction on digital competence, a control group would need to be studied comprising of students who had just completed 10th grade and had been asked identical questions. A second question that arises pertains to the use of quantity of books in the home as a measure of cultural capital. Understandably, the authors of the study wished to align their research that used books “in several other international studies” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 127), it is not considered to be sensitive or private information, and books can be counted fairly easily. However, in the 21st century this gauge may becoming less accurate as more people are moving away from print materials and towards digital books. It was not clear if the study included digital content as well. Perhaps a future study should address this issue and include digital as well as print material. Finally, the study indicates that there is a positive correlation between cultural capital and language integration, factors that can be used as a proxy for student’s family background, as well as a student’s mastery in orientation is a positive prediction of digital competence. As such, the study recommends “more information about how teachers can help students to develop adaptive strategies for information use” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 132). This would suggest that the authors support culturally responsive teaching practices to mitigate factors that contribute to poor digital competence in students. While this may be true, it is important to note that the response rate was 25.3% at the school level. The study did not indicate if some of the schools were culturally diverse, lower academic performing, or were lower socioeconomic schools suggesting a possible poor test sample. The authors addressed this issue in the article noting that “nevertheless, the results from the study give insight into factors predicting digital competence” (Hatlevik et al., 2015, p. 133). Even so, the low response rate begs the question what results from a larger sample that includes all aspects of diversity would look like. It would be worthwhile to address these issues in further studies. Hatlevik, O. E., Guðmundsdóttir, G. B., Loi, M. (2015). Examining factors predicting students’ digital competence. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 14, 123-137. Retrieved from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol14/JITEV14ResearchP123-137Hatlevik0873.pdf
What is Amblyopia? In most children, the brain processes images coming in from the eyes without any problems. However, in some children the brain can't interpret the messages from one or both of the eyes — which is one way to define amblyopia. Also known as "lazy eye," amblyopia basically means that the brain and the eye aren't connecting like they should be. Kids suffering from this disorder have a hard time catching a ball or reading what their teacher is writing on the board. This is why kids who have amblyopia often struggle in school or taking part in sports. Many times, amblyopia goes without diagnosis because parents think that their children's struggles have to do with a lack of talent in the classroom or on the ball field. What are the Types of Amblyopia? Between birth and the age of six, the brain and eyes build important connections between them. If something blurs or conceals vision in one or both eyes, those connections may not develop like they should. This can keep the brain from recognizing the images that the eyes send them later on. Over time, when the brain starts ignoring the images coming from the affected eye(s), that eye begins to weaken — and it becomes "amblyopic." Some amblyopic children have eyes that have crossed or wander. If the eye moves inward, that's called esotropia. Exotropia happens when the eye turns outward. If it moves up, that is hypertropia. An eye moving down has hypotropia. In some cases, you can't tell by looking at a child's eyes that they have amblyopia, because they look straight ahead. In those cases, the amblyopia happens as a result of a structural or anatomical issue, such as a cataract or an eyelid that droops. Other causes can include severe near-sightedness (myopia) or far-sightedness (hyperopia), or a blurry type of vision known as astigmatism. When the brain receives blurry images as a result of these conditions, it learns to ignore them — leading to amblyopia. Not all patients will have symptoms consistent with severe amblyopia. Sometimes, they are more subtle, such as a tilt of the head when watching TV or reading a book. Many times, a child will start to decrease in their school performance or athletics. If you think your child is not using both eyes or you are seeing subtle clues, it's best to have their eyes checked by an optometrist. How is Amblyopia Treated? The general idea behind the treatment of amblyopia is to get the brain to recognize the images coming from the affected eye(s) so that that eye strengthens over time. The options include glasses, eye drops, eye patches and surgery — or a combination. Doctors prescribe glasses when one eye sees more clearly than the other or if there are severe errors in refraction. Glasses help clarify the images that go to the brain, training it to recognize them and "turn the eye on." This teaches the brain to use both eyes, moving toward normal vision. Many kids with amblyopia end up wearing an eye patch over the stronger eye for up to six hours a day for as long as several years. One type of patch attaches like a band-aid, while the other fits over a lens on a pair of eyeglasses. Kids are often resistant to eye patches at first, but they generally adjust quickly. If they simply refuse to wear the patch, then atropine eye drops are an alternative. Like the patch, atropine drops go in the stronger eye, temporarily blurring it, forcing the brain to rely on the images coming from the weaker eye. In rare cases, such as strabismus or the failure of any other remedies to work, surgery on the eye muscle is a possible option. If a drooping eyelid or cataract has caused the problem, surgery is an option as well. The procedure adjusts the muscle(s) that make the eyes wander. It is fairly invasive, but it is also considered effective and safe. Most patients don't have to stay overnight.
Under (Atmospheric) Pressure We've discussed the origins and chemical composition of the air we breathe, so it's time to go ahead and actually enter the Earth's atmosphere. As we slowly slide toward that sphere of swirling clouds, passing the occasional satellite, the obvious question is, "Where does outer space stop and the atmosphere begin?" There's no set boundary between atmosphere and space -- the thin air in the upper atmosphere just eventually thins to nothing at approximately 600 miles (1,000 km) above sea level. This entire atmosphere sits on Earth's surface, held in place -- like everything else on the planet -- by gravity. Despite the phrase "light as air," the atmosphere is anything but, weighing in at a whopping 5.5 quadrillion tons (4.99 quadrillion metric tons). With 14 zeros trailing after it, that's a lot of mass, and it's the driving force behind air pressure. Imagine a squad of cheerleaders forming a human pyramid. The girls on the bottom row have to bear the weight of all the other girls above them, while the girl on the top doesn't have to bear any of the weight at all. A similar situation exists in the atmosphere. The air is least pressurized at the edge of space, where there's little or nothing pressing down on it. The air at sea level, however, is weighed down by all the air on top of it -- like those poor girls shoring up the pyramid. The pressure also presses the molecules in the lower atmosphere closer together. This means that the higher the air pressure, the greater the air density. For this reason, 50 percent of Earth's air exists below an altitude of 3 miles (5 km). Standing at sea level, the atmosphere exerts, on average, a pressure of 14.7 pounds (6.7 kg) against every square inch (2.5 cm) of your skin [source: Vogt]. If you venture above sea level, air pressure and its corresponding density will decrease. This is why it's more difficult to breathe at higher altitudes. The molecules of oxygen your lungs require are spaced farther apart, so you have to inhale more air to get what you need. Gravity is just one force at work on the atmosphere. The primary mover and shaker is none other than the fiery ball of gas at the center of our solar system.
Lamina is a flat layer or thin plate of membrane or other tissue. Lamina may be part of a structure as are the laminae (two broad plates) of the curved bony structures that make up the spine (known as the lamina of the vertebral arch). Surgical removal of the laminae independent of other structures such as the lamina of algae. This is a flattened structure that forms the main body of plants that can be seen with the naked eye. Lamina of the spinal column. It is often developed into organs with special functions such as for floating. In plants, the lamina is often an extension of the stipe, which is a stalk that supports some other structure. Lamina can also refer to the flat part of a leaf. Another type of lamina is the basal lamina, which is a structural support system that lines the outer surface of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells are cells that help absorb, move, and distribute some of the fluids and nutrients in the body. There is also the nuclear lamina, which is a thick network of fibers inside the nucleus (central structure) of certain cells. The plural of lamina is laminae. Lamina is Latin for, "plate," meaning "bone."
Scientists have unravelled the cause of the largest mass extinction in the history of Earth, which wiped out 90 per cent of all life on the planet around 250 million years ago. Dubbed the Great Dying, the catastrophic event was triggered by a massive volcanic eruption that scientists believe ran for up to one million years in what is today Siberia, the Daily Mail reports. Until now, scientists were unsure of how the so-called Flood Basalts eruption was responsible for wiping out such a large proportion of life on Earth, since previous volcanic activity of this scale had not killed anywhere near as many species. Some had suggested the eruption blanketed the Earth in a dense smog that blocked the sun's rays from reaching the planet's surface. However, a new study has revealed how chemicals released by the eruption released a huge reservoir of deadly chemicals into the air that stripped Earth of its ozone layer. This eradicated the only protection Earth's inhabitants had against the sun's deadly UV rays, causing the death toll to skyrocket, compared to other major eruptions. Scientists at the Centre for Petrographic and Geochemical Research in Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France, studied rock from Earth's upper mantle to determine the cause. They analysed the chemical composition of mantle xenoliths, rock sections of the lithosphere – a section of the planet located between the crust and the mantle – that gets captured by passing magma and erupted to the surface during eruptions. Through analysis of the ancient samples, researchers attempted to determine the composition of the lithosphere. They found that before the Flood Basalts took place, the Siberian lithosphere was heavily loaded with chlorine, bromine, and iodine. These chemicals, all elements from the halogen group, seemed to disappear soon after the devastating volcanic eruption. "We concluded that the large reservoir of halogens that was stored in the Siberian lithosphere was sent into the earth's atmosphere during the volcanic explosion," said study lead author Michael Broadley. "This effectively destroyed the ozone layer at the time and contributed to the mass extinction." Around 95 per cent of marine life and 70 per cent of life on land was wiped out in The Great Dying 252 million years ago. All life on Earth today is descended from the roughly 10 per cent of animals, plants and microbes that survived the mass extinction event. Previously it was thought the eruption was so deadly because it blanketed the Earth in thick smog that blocked the sun's rays from reaching the planet's surface. "The scale of this extinction was incredible," said Broadley. "Scientists have often wondered what made the Siberian Flood Basalts so much more deadly than other similar eruptions." WHAT WAS THE GREAT DYING? Around 248 million years ago the Permian period ended and the Triassic period began. The Permian mass extinction has been nicknamed the 'The Great Dying' as nearly all life on Earth was exterminated. A staggering 96 per cent of all life on the planet was destroyed. All life on Earth today is descended from that existing 4 per cent of species. The cause of the mass extinction remains unclear to scientists, although it is thought to have lasted anywhere between 20,000 years to millions of years. Several different events triggering the total collapse of several ecosystems. It is thought that it was a period of time with lots of volcanic activity which may have contributed to the extinction. The eruptions may have depleted the ozone layer - which protects the planet from damaging UV radiation. This high-energy form of radiation can cause significant damage to living things. WHEN WERE EARTH'S MASS EXTINCTIONS? End-Ordovician - c 443 million years ago The third largest extinction in Earth's history saw a severe ice age cause sea level falling by 100m, which wiped out 60-70 per cent of all species - most of life on Earth was in the sea. Late Devonian - c 360 million years ago Three quarters of all species on Earth became extinct after a prolonged climate change event, with shallow seas the worst affected areas. Reefs were also hard hit, which saw nearly all corals disappearing. Permian-Triassic - c 250 million years ago Aptly nicknamed "The Great Dying", the third mass extinction saw 96 per cent of species dying out. Massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia were strongly linked to the savage episode of global warming responsible for the extinction. Triassic-Jurassic - c 200 million years ago Climate change, an asteroid impact and flood basalt eruptions have all been blamed for wiping out three-quarters of the species on Earth. Cretaceous-Tertiary - 65 million years ago The most famous mass extinction, which saw the death of dinosaurs, apparently from a giant asteroid impact.
There is a common misconception among many people that baby teeth do not matter because they will fall out and the permanent teeth will come in. As a pediatric dentist I will often hear “Why do we have to fix the cavity? Isn’t it just going to fall out?” The answer is YES the tooth will fall out, however, most often decay is occurring in a primary molar, which does not exfoliate until 10-12 years old (see tooth eruption chart below). For example, if your child is five years old the decay will continue to worsen until the tooth cracks or infection and pain develop well before the tooth exfoliates. Contrary to popular belief primary or baby teeth are important! Primary teeth contribute to a child’s physical, social, and emotional development. Healthy primary teeth allow for proper chewing which fosters good nutrition, aids in speech development, contributes to a healthy self-esteem by allowing a child to smile, enables a child to focus and learn in school without dental pain, as well as, saves space for proper growth and development of the permanent dentition. By changing the views that baby teeth are important it may be possible to change the fact that childhood caries is #1 chronic childhood disease! Healthy habits should start young. By encouraging your child to brush twice a day and floss daily, you are helping them understand the importance of not only good dental hygiene but overall hygiene as well. Brushing teeth with a toothbrush should begin at the first sign of tooth eruption. However, you can begin taking care of your child’s mouth after birth, by wiping the gums and tongue with a wet washcloth, especially after breastfeeding. Remember to wash the cloth after each daily use. By cleansing the gums of an infant you are reducing the white biofilm that accumulates on the child’s tongue and reducing the bacteria in the mouth for when tooth eruption occurs. You also begin to desensitize your child so they will be more comfortable with tooth brushing in the future. Let’s face it, brushing a child’s teeth can be a difficult task as it is, so beginning early can only help to make it easier, especially if it is part of their routine and something they are already used to. Don’t let oral hygiene and dental health take a back seat to everything else that you do to keep your children safe and healthy. Establish a relationship with a pediatric dentist by the time your child is ONE so they can answer all your questions and educate you on effective ways to help prevent decay in the primary and permanent teeth. Lead by example and get your children excited about their oral health. Here are some tips and resources that will aid you and your family: - Visit the dentist twice a year starting at age 1 - Speak with your children about dental care - Involve your children in a brushing routine and make it fun - Use dental apps and activities for brushing & flossing Toothsavers Brushing Game Brusheez – The Little Monsters Toothbrush Timer Ad Council’s Partnership for Healthy Mouths Healthy Lives: “Brush 2min2x” website – 2 min videos kids can watch while brushing, downloadable app’s http://www.2min2x.org Sesame Street Workshop: “Healthy Teeth, Healthy Me” website – Game, videos, art, and playlists you’re your children’s favorite characters! http://www.sesamestreet.org/parents/topicsandactivities/toolkits/teeth
1 class periods of 60 minutes each Students will use legos or other models of atoms to create molecules. - student sheet (attached) - Even numbers of red and blue legos or other snap together pieces or sticky tabs. Each group should have different amounts of blue and red but the blue and red should be the same in teach bag. - Prepare bags of the "atom" models. Place different ratios of red to blue in each bag. - Tell students that they are going to make water. If you have access to hydrogen gas and wish to show students the real thing, burn some in a balloon or test tube. The test tube shows visible water on the sides of the tube after it burns. - Show student the bags they will using and ask if it makes any difference how much hydrogen they start with to the formula or amount of the water they make. - Allow them to make predictions and then begin with the activitiy. Lesson Design by Jordan School District Teachers and Staff.
Rubella, also known as German measles, is an infection caused by a virus. It can lead to fever, sore throat and swollen glands. Rubella is usually a mild illness in children. It is more severe in teenagers and adults. If a woman is infected with rubella during pregnancy, the virus can infect the fetus and cause “congenital rubella syndrome (CRS)” which results in malformations of the child’s brain, eye, heart and other organs, and even death. The primary goal of the vaccine is to prevent infection in pregnant women. Routine infant immunization programs have significantly decreased the incidence of rubella. Since the late 1990s there have been only isolated clusters of the disease among unimmunized people. Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian Immunization Guide. Evergreen edition. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cig-gci/index-eng.php (external link) Canadian Paediatric Society. Rubella. http://www.caringforkids.cps.ca/handouts/immunization-index (external link) - Before vaccine – In North America, outbreaks of rubella occurred almost every spring; mainly in children aged 6 to 10. Large epidemics occurred about every seven years. In one major epidemic in the United States that began in 1964, nearly 30,000 babies were infected with rubella; more than 8000 died and about 20,000 had CRS. - 1968–69 – Three different rubella vaccines were developed. At first, the vaccine was used in different ways in different countries. Some Canadian provinces followed the “American” approach which focused on widespread immunization. Others followed the “British” model which recommended the vaccine only for girls aged 10 to 12, and susceptible adult women. - 1988 – British authorities changed to the American schedule, recognizing that immunizing girls alone was insufficient to protect them from the virus. - 1996 – A study undertaken in British Columbia and Alberta showed that women vaccinated against rubella had no greater risk of developing such conditions as chronic arthritis, lupus, and chronic fatigue syndrome. The study recommended that rubella-susceptible women of childbearing age continue to be vaccinated. - 2000 to 2004 – From 2000 to 2004, fewer than 30 sporadic cases of rubella and 0 to 3 cases of congenital rubella syndrome were reported each year in Canada.
By Jaclyn Lopez Coastal areas in the United States are already experiencing the effects of sea-level rise, and the best available science predicts significant additional sea-level rise this century. In addition to sea-level rise, storm intensity and storm surge are also increasing. In some coastal areas, continuing population growth is compounding the threats of climate change and sea-level rise. At the same time, one in six of the federally listed endangered and threatened species in the United States is threatened by sea-level rise. Coastal species face displacement, extirpation, and even extinction due to loss of habitat. They are at risk of being trapped between rising sea levels and human development. This threat is exacerbated by unyielding human-made coastal fortifications. This coalescence of factors leads to the phenomenon known as “coastal squeeze”—the loss of transitional habitat between land and sea. For coastal areas this means that some of the most imperiled species will be pushed closer to the brink of extinction. “Assisted migration” refers to one policy prescription to address this problem. The federal government, through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, has the authority—and responsibility—to consider active and passive assisted migration under the Endangered Species Act in managing species threatened with habitat loss due to sea-level rise. The federally protected Florida panther, loggerhead sea turtle, Key tree-cactus, and Lower Keys marsh rabbit inhabit critically imperiled habitat in south Florida and are analyzed to examine this issue from the perspective of species from differing taxa, habitat types, and natural histories. This Article concludes that assisted migration, coupled with preserve and corridor protection and dramatic reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, are necessary for the conservation of imperiled species threatened with sea-level rise. Cite as: Jaclyn Lopez, Biodiversity on the Brink: The Role of “Assisted Migration” in Managing Endangered Species Threatened with Rising Seas, 39 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 157 (2015).
Let’s Calculate Circumference circle calc: find c — Our circumference calculator, requires any one value to be entered and its displays other remaining values. Remember, the input can only be in feet (ft), inches (in), yards (yd), centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm) and metres (m) but never a combination of two different units! Circumference of a Circle = π x d π = 3.142 (Constant value) d = Diameter (drop down ft, in, yd, cm, mm, m) How to find out circumference of the circle? circle calc: find c c refers to the circumference of a circle – that is, the circular length of the line that you draw around a circle with compass. You can calculate it in the following ways: If you know the radius or diameter of the circle: Formula to find circumference : c = 2πr = πd If radius and diameter is unknown, then Formula: c = 2√(πa) Understanding the Circumference Calculator: To understand how to calculate circumference we must first begin with the definition of circumference. Circumference of a circle is linear distance around outer border of a circle. To find out the circumference, we need to know its diameter which is the length of its widest part. The diameter should be measured in feet (ft) for square footage calculations and if needed, converted to inches (in), yards (yd), centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm) and metres (m). Circumference of a Circle = π x d π = 3.142 d = Diameter (drop down ft, in, yd, cm, mm, m) Abbreviations of unit area: ft2, in2, yd2, cm2, mm2, m2 Use of calculators: The calculators of mathematics are very interactive and exclusive. These calculators are ideal used to verify the work, or to solve complex & tricky problems. These calculators are a problem-solving instrument, and should not replace with any old math tricks. Geometry is the branch of mathematics that comprises of the parts of a circle like: - Circumference of Circles - Area of Circles Significance of circle: Circle itself by its definition is a simple & closed shape. It is a set of all points in a plane that are of the same distant from a given point, called as the center. It can also be known as a curve, outlined by a point where the distance from a given point remains same as the point changes. While a circle, symbolically, signifies various things to different people that include the concepts like infinity, persistence, and entirety. What defines the Circumference of a circle? Circumference of a circle is the linear distance that is measured along its sides. It is parallel to perimeter of a geometric figure, but the term ‘perimeter’ is rather used to describe the property of polygons. Circumference is often wrongly spelled as circumfrence. The distance around the outside of the circle is known as circumference of a circle. It is considered as the perimeter of other shapes like squares. Thus, the shapes that are comprise of straight lines, the word perimeter is used and for circle the word circumference is used. The circumference of a circle can be known as the distance around the circle, or the length of a path along the circle. Not just this but there are some significant distances on a circle that needs to be calculated before finding the circumference of the circle. And they are radius (r) and diameter (d). Diameter is the distance from one side of the circle to the other, crossing through the center/ middle of the circle. The radius is half of the diameter. All of these values are linked with the mathematical constant π, or pi, which is the proportion of a circle’s circumference to its diameter, and is nearly 3.14159. Pi or π is an irrational number, means that it cannot be stated accurately as a fraction (though it is often estimated as 22/7). The decimal representation of π never ends or has a perpetual repeating pattern. It is also a moving number, means that it is not the base of any non-zero, polynomial that has rational coefficients. Aspects of the circumference of a circle: Circumference calculator performs in many aspects like: - Circumference to diameter calculator - Circumference to radius - Circumference to area - Radius to circumference - Radius to diameter - Radius to area - Diameter to circumference - Diameter to radius - Diameter to area - Area to circumference - Area to diameter - Area to radius If you are familiar with the diameter or radius of a circle, then you can easily solve out the circumference. To start with, keep in mind that Pi is a number, represented as the symbol π. Pi or π is nearly equal to 3.14. Therefore, the formula for finding out the circumference of the circle is Circumference of circle = π x Diameter of circle, which we typically write in the short form as C = πd. This shows us that the circumference of the circle is three “and a little” times as long as the diameter. You can also find out the circumference if you know the radius. Keep in mind that the diameter is double the length of the radius. This means whatever is the radius, it should be multiplied with 2 in order to find diameter. It is understood that C = πd. And we know that if r is the radius of the circle, then d = 2r. Hence, C = 2πr. Finding the out circumference of the Earth: Using the above calculations, it’s easy to solve the circumference of the Earth! Scientists have founded the diameter of the Earth to be 12,742km. Provided this information, what is the circumference of the Earth? We all know that C = πd, and here the diameter i.e. d = 12,742km. So, we can quickly find out the circumference of the Earth as C = π x 12,742km = 40,030km. - A real-life and original example of a radius is the spindle of a bicycle wheel. - A 9-inch pizza is an example of a diameter: when a person makes the first cut to slice a round pizza pie in half, this cut is the diameter of the pizza. So a 9-inch pizza has a 9-inch diameter. A circle has a diameter of 10cm, what is its circumference? Though we know that C = πd. As the diameter is 10cm, we have that C = π x 10cm = 31.42cm. A circle has a radius of 3m, what is its circumference? We know that C = 2πr. As the radius is 3m, we have that C = π x 6m = C= 18.84. Circumference to diameter: It has been observed that since diameter is twice the radius, the proportion between circumference and diameter is equal to π i.e. Formula to calculate diameter using circumference: C/D = 2πR / 2R = π This proportion of circumference to diameter is the description of the constant pi. It is used in different areas, such as physics and mathematics. The number is the proportion of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. The value of is around 3.14159265358979323846… The diameter of a circle is twice to that of the radius. If the diameter or radius of a circle is given, then we can easily find the circumference. We can also find the diameter and radius of a circle if the circumference is given. We round off to 3.14 in order to simplify our calculations. Circumference, diameter and radii are calculated in linear units, such as inches and centimeters. A circle has many different radii and many different diameters, and each one passes through the center. To convert among square feet, square inches, square yards, square centimetres, square millimetres and square meters you can utilize the following conversion table. \|Square feet to square yards\|\|multiply ft2 by 0.11111 to get yd2\| \|Square feet to square meters\|\|multiply ft2 by 0.092903 to get m2\| \|Square yards to square feet\|\|multiply yd2 by 9 to get ft2\| \|Square yards to square meters\|\|multiply yd2 by 0.836127 to get m2\| \|Square meters to square feet\|\|multiply m2 by 10.7639 to get ft2\| \|Square meters to square yards\|\|multiply m2 by 1.19599 to get yd2\| \|Square meters to square millimetres\|\|multiply the m2 value by 1000000 to get mm2\| \|Square meters to square centimetres\|\|multiply the m2 value by 10 000 to get cm2\| \|Square centimetres to square metres\|\|multiply the cm2 value by 0.0001 to get mm2\| \|Square centimetres to square millimetres\|\|multiply the cm2 value by 100 to get mm2\| \|Square millimetres to square centimetres\|\|multiply the mm2 value by 0.000001 to get cm2\| \|Square millimetres to square metres\|\|multiply the mm2 value by 1000000 to get m2\| Buying new floor fittings? Here’s how you can measure your apartment floor accurately. Many home improvement projects require you to measure the space you will be working in. Renovations such as installing new floori... A guide to calculating how much siding you need for a garage renovation project. Exterior cladding, or siding as it is often called, can change the entire look of a house. It can give it an entirely different l... Metres or feet? Why construction workers around the world utilize two different units to measure length? The age-old conundrum, why do we need two systems of measurements? As you might be aware, there are two major systems for measuri...
The Pileated Woodpecker is the largest woodpecker found in most of North America, although the likely extirpated Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) in the southeastern United States and Cuba and the Imperial Woodpecker (C. imperialis) of western Mexico are larger. Best recognized by its large, dull black body and red crest, the Pileated Woodpecker is a permanent resident of deciduous, coniferous, or mixed forests in southern Canada and in the western, midwestern, and eastern United States. Dead and deteriorating live trees provide favored sites in which to excavate nest cavities, and hollow trees are typically used to roost in at night. Only large-diameter trees have enough girth to contain the nest and roost cavities of this species, so there is concern for populations of this woodpecker where late-successional forests are being converted to younger stands. Availability of suitable habitat is apparently the factor limiting most populations. A pair defends its territory year-round, and a pair member will not abandon a territory even if its mate is lost. Because of its size and strong chisel-shaped bill, this woodpecker is particularly adept at excavating, and it uses this ability to construct nest and roost cavities and to find food. Considered a keystone species, the Pileated Woodpecker plays a crucial role in many forest ecosystems in North America by excavating large nesting, roosting and foraging cavities that are subsequently used by a diverse array of birds and mammals—for shelter and nesting—particularly the larger secondary cavity users (e.g., Boreal Owl ]Aegolius funereus], Wood Duck [Aix sponsa], and American marten [Martes Americana]; Bull et al. 1997, Bonar 2000, Aubry and Raley 2002a). Pileated Woodpeckers accelerate wood decomposition and nutrient recycling by breaking apart snags and logs and may facilitate inoculation of heartwood in live trees with heart-rot fungi. They may also be important in helping control some forest beetle populations because their diet consists primarily of wood-dwelling ants and beetle larvae that are extracted from down woody material and from standing live and dead trees.
Friday, May 23 2008 @ 01:52 am EDT Contributed by: dgrosvold \|Ozone behaves differently at different altitudes in the atmosphere. High in the stratosphere and at mid-troposphere it has positive effects on life at the surface. At the top of the troposphere ozone is a greenhouse gas and at the surface it makes smog.\| Click for larger view. But did you know that ozone also acts as a potent greenhouse gas? At middle altitudes between the ground and the stratosphere, ozone captures heat much as carbon dioxide does. In fact, pound for pound, ozone is about 3000 times stronger as a greenhouse gas than CO2. So even though there's much less ozone at middle altitudes than CO2, it still packs a considerable punch. Ozone traps up to one-third as much heat as the better known culprit in climate change. Scientists now have an unprecedented view of this mid-altitude ozone thanks to an instrument aboard NASA's Aura satellite called the Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer—"TES" for short. Most satellites can measure only the total amount of ozone in a vertical column of air. They can't distinguish between helpful ozone in the stratosphere, harmful ozone at the ground, and heat-trapping ozone in between. By looking sideways toward Earth’s horizon, a few satellites have managed to probe the vertical distribution of ozone, but only to the bottom of the stratosphere. Unlike the others, TES can measure the distribution of ozone all the way down to the heat-trapping middle altitudes. "We see vertical information in ozone that nobody else has measured before from space," says Annmarie Eldering, Deputy Principal Investigator for TES. The global perspective offered by an orbiting satellite is especially important for ozone. Ozone is highly reactive. It is constantly being created and destroyed by photochemical reactions in the atmosphere and by lightning. So its concentration varies from region to region, from season to season, and as the wind blows. Data from TES show that ozone's heat-trapping effect is greatest in the spring, when intensifying sunlight and warming temperatures fuel the reactions that generate ozone. Most of ozone's contribution to the greenhouse effect occurs within 45 degrees latitude from the equator. Increasing industrialization, particularly in the developing world, could lead to an increase in mid-altitude ozone, Eldering says. Cars and coal-fired power plants release air pollutants that later react to produce more ozone. "There's concern that overall background levels are slowly increasing over time," Eldering says. TES will continue to monitor these trends, she says, keeping a careful eye on ozone, the greenhouse gas. Learn more about TES and the science of ozone at tes.jpl.nasa.gov/. Kids can get a great introduction to good ozone and bad ozone at spaceplace.nasa.gov/en/kids/tes/gases. This article was provided by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
From Ian Byrd’s Website: www.byrdseed.com/tickling-curosity/ Ian Byrd’s website has some interesting articles on questioning. In the article link above, he uses the students’ curiosity to teach them how to create questions. This technique could be taught as early as third grade and would work well in middle and high school. Ian Bryd states, “School is often, quite strangely, not a place where students feel comfortable being curious. But you can change that with a determined and consistent effort…by intentionally promoting curiosity as a classroom habit.” In his first step he uses a binder titled ‘The Book of Unanswered Questions’. He wants his students to be actively curious, make them aware that they don’t know everything, and understand that some answers are findable and some are not. Ian goes on to explain that if you just say, “Write your questions in this book,” it’s dead in the water. Like anything complex, we’ve got to scaffold it through modeling and structured participation. Scaffolding is his next step. He starts by demonstrating curiosity by bringing in an image, video, song, or object that is interesting, yet creates authentic questions. He uses questions like; How long….., What else……, I wonder….., Why do you think….. Next he gives students a chance to ask questions and then directs them to the ‘Book of Unanswered Questions’. The book is about questions that he wants them to find out on their own and share the next day in class. At the beginning of this process he expects that one student will come the next day with the answer. Ian suggests that the teacher spends a few minutes on this daily. Step three is connecting the ‘The Book of Unanswered Questions’ to your curriculum: social studies, science, literacy, and even math, etc. Eventually, everyday his students write an unanswered question and put it in the book. His last step in using the ‘Book of Unanswered Questions’ is to help students to ponder which questions have answers and which ones need more pondering. Check out Ian Bryd’s website! www.byrdseed.com His ideas on teaching students to ask interesting questions are engaging and impactful!
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Niobium processing, preparation of niobium ore for use in various products. Niobium (Nb) has a body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure and a melting point of 2,468 °C (4,474 °F). Of the refractory metals, it has the lowest density and best workability; for this reason, niobium-based alloys are often used in aerospace applications. Because of its strengthening effect at elevated temperatures, its principal commercial use is as an additive in steels and superalloys. Niobium-titanium and niobium-tin alloys are used as superconducting materials. Niobium was discovered in 1801 by an English chemist, Charles Hatchett. Since Hatchett’s mineral sample came from New England, he named it columbium (Cb), after Columbia, another name for America. In 1844 Heinrich Rose, a German chemist, announced his discovery of an element that he named niobium, after Niobe, the mythical daughter of Tantalus (who in turn gave his name to tantalum, with which niobium is often associated in minerals). Niobium was later proved to be the same element as columbium, and niobium was accepted as the official name by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950. In 1905 W. von Bolton, a German chemist, succeeded in producing niobium in a pure, ductile state. Niobium was first added to tool steel around 1925 and was first used to stabilize austenitic stainless steel in 1933. Interest in adding niobium to high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel can be traced to the work in 1939 of F.M. Becket and R. Franks, who demonstrated that niobium strengthening reduced reliance on conventional hardeners such as carbon, manganese, chromium, and molybdenum, thereby improving weldability. In 1958 Norman F. Tisdale of Molybdenum Corporation of America added 0.01–0.034 percent niobium to carbon steel as a grain refiner for improving toughness. The development of niobium-based alloys for aerospace applications began in the late 1950s. Niobium occurs mostly as an oxide and has a strong geochemical coherence with tantalum. Major minerals of niobium are pyrochlore [(Na, Ca)2Nb2O6F] and columbite [(Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6], consisting of niobate, tantalate, iron, and manganese. Pyrochlore occurs usually in carbonatites and in pegmatite derived from alkalic rocks, commonly in association with zirconium, titanium, thorium, uranium, and rare-earth minerals. Columbite is normally found in intrusive pegmatite and biotite and in alkalic granites. However, since most such deposits are small and erratically distributed, they are usually mined as a by-product of other metals. There are large pyrochlore mines in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais and Goiás and at Saint Honoré, Quebec, Canada. Large columbite deposits are found in Nigeria and Congo (Kinshasa); also, columbite concentrates are obtained as by-products of tin mining in Nigeria. Mining and concentrating Because of the altered and decomposed nature of overburden and ore materials, the Brazilian deposits are mined by the open-pit method. The ore is generally divided into blocks and processed by ripping, bulldozing, loading, and transporting. Mining in Quebec follows underground methods. Concentration of ore is accomplished by crushing and grinding, magnetic separation to remove magnetite, and then desliming and flotation separation. Extraction and refining Pyrochlore concentrates are commonly reduced to ferroniobium through an aluminothermic process. In this process, the concentrate is mixed with hematite (an iron ore), aluminum powder, and small quantities of fluorspar and lime fluxes in a rotary mixer and then unloaded into steel containers lined with magnesite refractory bricks. Here the charge is placed in circular concave pits made of a mixture of lime, fluorspar, and silica sand, and reduction is initiated by the ignition of a mixture of aluminum powder and sodium chlorate or barium peroxide. The exothermic reaction lasts about 15 to 30 minutes, and the temperature reaches about 2,400 °C (4,350 °F). Most of the gangue impurities from the concentrate, including all the thorium and uranium oxides, enter the molten slag. When the reaction is finished, the slag is tapped off and the vessel is lifted, leaving the metal to solidify in the sand. The ferroniobium alloy is then crushed to particle sizes of 10 millimetres (about three-eighths of an inch) for marketing. The content of this alloy is 62–69 percent niobium, 29–30 percent iron, 2 percent silicon, and 1–3 percent aluminum. Columbite concentrates and tin slags with a high tantalum content (greater than 10 percent) are directly dressed in most cases by a wet chemical process. Low-tantalum tin slags, on the other hand, are first melted in an electric-arc furnace with the addition of a flux material, and the tantalum-niobium content is collected as a ferroalloy. The tantalum-rich ore or ferroalloy is then crushed, ground, and decomposed in hydrofluoric acid. This is followed by a liquid-liquid extraction process, in which the two metals are dissolved in a slightly acidic aqueous feed solution into which an organic solvent, usually methyl isobutyl ketone, is mixed. The tantalum is extracted as a fluoride in the organic solution, while niobium remains in the aqueous residue, or raffinate. The niobium is then precipitated from solution as a fluoride by the addition of ammonium hydroxide, and the filter cake is dried and roasted, or calcined, at 900–1,000 °C (1,650–1,800 °F) to obtain niobium pentoxide. This oxide may be reduced aluminothermically to produce niobium reguli (impure metallic globules), as in the production of ferroniobium. The reguli may be further purified by electron-beam melting into ingots, or they may be put through a hydriding and dehydriding process to produce niobium powder. In the hydriding process, the impure niobium is crushed into chunks and placed in a furnace, which is evacuated and heated to 800–950 °C (1,450–1,750 °F). Hydrogen is then fed to the furnace and passed over the charge for two to four hours. After hydriding, the niobium is crushed and pulverized to fine powder, which is then reheated and dehydrided in a vacuum to produce niobium powder. The powder can be pressed with a mechanical or isostatic press into “green” (that is, unfired) compacts with a density of 60–65 percent of the theoretical maximum and then sintered. Sintering is carried out in a vacuum at 2,100–2,300 °C (3,800–4,150 °F), either by direct-resistance heating or by indirect heating. When direct-resistance is applied, electrical contact is made via water-cooled copper clamps with brazed tungsten facings. The temperature is increased in stages to permit the evaporation of impurities and to prevent the sudden release of gas. During vacuum sintering, a purification of the metal takes place, leading to an improvement of its mechanical properties.
Hemophilia is a genetic blood disorder that affects the way blood clots, which poses risks such as excessive bleeding due to injuries or surgeries and even spontaneous bleeding. So let’s take a look at 5 essential facts about hemophilia. There are many proteins present in our blood, including clotting factors that work to keep bleeding under control. There are 13 clotting factors in the body and they all take part in the healthy clotting of blood. In a sense, hemophilia develops due to a deficiency of clotting factors, most commonly factors VIII or IX. However, the risks and complications associated with hemophilia as well as the severity of its symptoms depend entirely on the how low one’s clotting factor levels are. #1 There are two types of Hemophilia There are two primary types of Hemophilia: Hemophilia A and Hemophilia B. Hemophilia A is caused by a factor VIII deficiency, and Hemophilia B, also known as Christmas disease, occurs due to a factor IX deficiency. #2 A genetic mutation can cause hemophilia Up to 70% of those with hemophilia develop the disease due to a family history. However, hemophilia occurs in those who do not have a family history of hemophilia due to mutated protein-coding genes. #3 Hemophilia A is more common than B About 80% of hemophilia cases are Hemophilia A. There are approximately 20,000 people living with hemophilia in the United States and nearly 500,000 individuals with the disease globally. #4 Hemophilia is incurable While hemobilia does not have a cure, many effective treatment options are available. The most effective treatment involves the lifelong infusion of clotting concentrates. Desmopressin is usually used to treat Hemophilia A, whereas clotting factor transfusions are common in treating Hemophilia B. #5 Hemophilia can be deadly Hemophilia puts people at an increased risk for many health complications, from hepatitis to internal bleeding. Hemophilia can cause bleeding in the joints, which can then result in chronic pain or a chronic disease. Hemophilia can also cause bleeding in the brain, which can sometimes even lead to seizures and paralysis. If excessive bleeding and internal bleeding can’t be stopped or prevented, this can also result in death. Featured Image: depositphotos/vitanovski
Recent research found that kidney stones have many more similarities with real stones than anyone previously thought. The team of both medical students and geologists were able to piece together how kidney stones form, their changes through time, and how they can record the health of a person's kidney. The research, published in Scientific Reports, upends our understanding of how kidney stones grow. Kidney stones grow much like coral reefs or stalagmites grow, adding sequential calcium carbonate layers on top of each other. In between growth cycles, kidney stones can also dissolve slightly, leaving gaps in their structure. In geology, rocks can unlock clues to the environments they were exposed to. For example, a stalagmite grows in size by the slow drip of mineral-rich water in a cave. Each water droplet contains dissolved minerals, which precipitate out to add a tiny amount rock to a stalagmite. As calcium carbonate layers form from the sequential drip of mineral-rich waters, trace elements within the water record changes in Earth's environment. For example, by analyzing the oxygen isotopes within the calcium carbonate layers, scientists can determine the precipitation record in the surrounding region. Much like these rocks, kidney stones grow through time, layer by layer and in doing so record the health of a person's kidneys. Kidney stones are primarily made up of calcium oxalate, which was previously thought to be insoluble within the kidney. However, through analyzing kidney stones using geological approaches, the team was able to identify dissolution zones within the crystals. This indicates that the kidney stones both grow and dissolve as time passes. The breakthrough in understanding could lead to proactive measures to dissolve kidney stones instead of painfully passing or surgically removing the stones. The research team concluded in their paper that kidney stones could be used to read a minute by minute history of a person's health, similar to how geologists read rock layers to understand past environments. Given these rough estimates, each nano-layer may have formed on a sub-daily basis of hours or in some cases even minutes. If correct, kidney stones could be “read” in the future under clinical conditions as an unprecedented ultrahigh-sensitivity record of in vivo human renal function and dynamic biogeochemical reactions. - Scientific Reports paper By investigating kidney stones under X-Ray spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopes, tools typically used in geology, the team was able to see unprecedented detail with resolutions up to 140 nanometers.
john cage´s name contains four different pitches (c-a-g-e), but only two different intervals: minor third and major second. these two intervals constitute the framework for reading the audience as a musical score. its female members are associated with minor thirds, males with major seconds. estimated differences in age between them account for the intervals direction: younger = up, older = down. the resulting pitches are shaped by associating features in the persons look with musical parameters. - place yourself in front of the audience, so that you can overlook it as comfortably and complete as possible. - start with looking at the leftmost person in the first row. play the pitch in the middle of your instruments range. - the duration of the pitch is according to the size of that person, the volume to the persons volume, the sonic qualities according to features in the persons look. - then look at person next to the first. - if it is female, then the next pitch is a minor third from the first, if male, a major second. - if the person seems older then the previous, the interval is downward, if younger, upward. - the other sonic qualities again follow the persons look. - play the audience one member after the other. - looking at the persons and making decisions constitutes pauses between the pitches. - the piece is over, when either -- the last person is reached or -- the intervallic progression leads grossly outside the instruments range.
What is Lazy Eye (Amblyopia)? Amblyopia, commonly known as lazy eye, causes more visual loss in the under 40 age group than all the injuries and diseases combined in this age group. Amblyopia, commonly known as lazy eye, is the eye condition noted by reduced vision not correctable by glasses or contact lenses and is not due to any eye disease. The brain, for some reason, does not fully acknowledge the images seen by the amblyopic eye. This almost always affects only one eye but may manifest with reduction of vision in both eyes. It is estimated that three percent of children under six have some form of amblyopia. - Lazy Eye is an eye condition in which there is blurry or reduced vision that is not correctable by glasses, contact lenses or eye surgery - Lazy eye can cause loss of vision, including loss of depth perception and two-eyed 3D vision. - Lazy eye treatment can yield improvements at any age, but early detection and treatment still offer easier treatment and the best chances for a cure. - Scientific research has proven that lazy eye treatment can be successful in older children, teenagers, and adults. Neuroscience has established that the human brain can change at any age (neuroplasticity). There is no “critical age” for treatment. - Comprehensive vision examinations are needed for infants, toddlers, and pre-school children. A pediatrician’s eye exam or a 20/20 eye chart screening is not adequate for the detection of amblyopia and other visual conditions which are related to or mistakenly called lazy eye.
Higher-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries Nanostructured electrodes and active materials could shrink batteries for portable electronics and electric vehicles. Researchers in France have created lithium-ion battery electrodes with several times the energy capacity, by weight and volume, of conventional electrodes. The new electrodes could help shrink the size of cell-phone and laptop batteries, or else increase the length of time a device could run on a charge. What’s more, the nanotech methods used to make these electrodes could provide a simple and inexpensive way to structure new materials for next-generation batteries for plug-in hybrid and all-electric vehicles. The key advance is the development of an inexpensive and simple way to organize tiny particles into a desired nanostructure, says Patrice Simon, a chemistry professor at the Université Paul Sabatier, who participated in the work along with other researchers at the university and Université Picardie Jules Verne. In a conventional battery electrode, ions and electrons will move quickly into and out of the active material – allowing fast charging and discharging – only if the material is deposited in a very thin film. Thin films, however, limit the amount of active material that can be incorporated into a battery. For high-capacity batteries, engineers typically increase the thickness of the active material, trading off fast charging and high-power bursts for more energy storage. This new nanostructure allows for both high power and high storage capacity. Active materials are applied in a very thin film to copper nanorods anchored to sheets of copper foil. This thin film allows for fast movement of ions and electrons – providing the power. At the same time, the high surface area of the forest of nanorods makes it possible to pack much more active material into an electrode than thin films typically allow, thus increasing energy capacity. The rods provide 50 square centimeters of surface area for every square centimeter of electrode. In addition, the high ion and electron mobility of the thin layer makes it possible to use a new active material and a new chemical reaction for lithium-ion batteries. This new chemistry is attractive because it can accommodate far more lithium ions, and their electron counterparts, than the chemistry used now, thereby potentially storing more energy. The new electrodes, which would be used as the negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries, also showed the ability to retain their high capacity after being charged and discharged many times, suggesting that the electrodes may have a long useable lifetime, Simon says, although more extensive tests are needed to confirm this supposition. Because this advance, described online this week in Nature Materials, applies so far to negative electrodes, the percentage increase in capacity over today’s batteries will depend on the capacity of the positive electrode as well. (See “Battery Breakthrough” for a description of one possible positive electrode candidate cited by the researchers.) The first applications of the technology will likely be extremely small batteries, Simon says. These could be useful for remote sensors or medical implants. Further applications will require increasing the size of the electrodes that the researchers can make, and also optimizing the active material they use. The materials used in reported experiments are not energy efficient – about 20-25 percent of the energy used to charge them cannot be recovered while discharging them. This energy loss is not a big problem with cell-phone batteries, says Gerbrand Ceder, materials science and engineering professor at MIT. “Over the lifetime you probably spend a few pennies in charging the cell phone,” he says. But for larger energy applications, such as electric vehicles, this lack of efficiency could be costly, especially with high electricity prices. For this reason, the researchers are incorporating different high-capacity active materials into their nanostructured electrodes that do not have this energy efficiency problem. In turning to nanotechnology to improve batteries, the French researchers are not unique. At least two companies, A123 Systems, in Watertown, MA, and Altair Nano, in Reno, NV, have made batteries that include electrodes with nanostructured active materials; and numerous research groups around the world are developing such electrodes. Simon describes his group’s process as being simpler and cheaper than many other methods for making nanostructures. It is also versatile, capable of being used with a variety of active materials, he says. It could also be important for another key trend in battery research: the move away from flat layers of electrode materials to positive and negative electrodes that interpenetrate – a three-dimensional architecture that can improve the mobility of ions and electrodes, thereby increasing battery power. The French group is also now working on a three-dimensional battery, says Simon, that will combine their negative electrodes with a high-performance positive electrode. Become an MIT Technology Review Insider for in-depth analysis and unparalleled perspective.Subscribe today
Throughout the entire United States of America, poisonous bites from snakes, scorpions, spiders, and other (creepy, crawly) critters are rare causes of death. However, death can occur from certain poisonous bites and these bites can also cause infections as well as attack the central nervous system and other bodily functions. Although poisonous snakes aren’t running rampant in South Carolina, they do exist and it is well worth your time to familiarize yourself with these creatures and understand their habitats, as well as the results of their bites. There are approximately 38 species of snakes found in South Carolina and only five of these species are considered venomous. These species include the cottonmouth, copperhead, coral snake, pigmy rattlesnake, timber rattlesnake, and Eastern diamondback rattlesnake. All of South Carolina’s venomous snakes (aside from the coral snake) are considered “pit vipers,” which means that they all have infrared heat-sensing organs on their heads. These organs enable the snakes to detect changes in heat around them, making it easy for them to sense when warm-blooded prey is nearby. Out of all five of the venomous South Carolina snake species the copperhead and cottonmouth snakes are the most common. Below we’ve spotlighted the cottonmouth and copperhead snakes of South Carolina, as well as symptoms of bites and tips on how to prevent bites: Copperhead Snake: As South Carolina’s most common venomous snake, the copperhead snake can be found inhabiting the state’s rocky outcrops, swamp edges, streams, and forests, with a diet that consists of small rodents, insects, and frogs. Reaching between two to three feet in length, the copperhead is a fairly long snake with a red- or copper-colored head and body markings. Copperhead snake bites among humans are rarely fatal but can cause death with the onset of infection. The bite can also cause severe tissue damage in the limb that was affected, causing immobilization in that limb. Image above of a copperhead snake taken from National Geographic Cottonmouth Snake: Commonly referred to as the water moccasin, the cottonmouth snake can be found in South Carolina’s swamps, lakes, streams, and wetlands and typically reaches three to four feet in length. These snakes have dark brown bands that span their entire length. The banded water snake is often confused with the cottonmouth as it has similar coloring and markings. The banded water snake, however, is non-venomous. When threatened, the cottonmouth will coil up tightly and open its mouth, displaying its white, cotton-colored mouth. Similar to the copperhead snake, a cottonmouth’s diet typically consists of small rodents, amphibians, reptiles, and insects. Image above of a cottonmouth snake taken from National Geographic Tips for preventing snake bites: Most snake bites occur in wooded areas, tall grass, or areas that have lots of brush and poor ground visibility. Therefore, whenever you are walking in high grasslands or the woods, it’s important to try and stay in areas where you can see the ground clearly and use caution when stepping on areas with poor ground visibility. Also, be sure to wear high boots and long pants when out in the woods, tall grass, streams, and swamps. Do not attempt to touch or move any type of snake, especially if you cannot identify it. All venomous snakes (except for the coral snake) have slit eyes (similar to cat eyes). They also have a triangle-shaped head and a depression between their eyes and nostrils. If bitten by a snake, seek immediate medical attention. If you are unsure if a venomous snake bit you or someone else there are a few signs to look for to determine if it was in fact a venomous snake bite: - Two parallel puncture wounds - Redness, heat, pain, and swelling at the bite site - Nausea, vomiting, difficulty breathing, disturbed vision, the sweats, or tingling / numbness throughout the body
OCR GCSE History- British depth study 1890-1918. The campain for womens suffrage. In Victorian times women were seen as inferier to men, had the status of a child and were not protected under the law. However, during the late 1800s women began to earn more status and many believed they should have the right to vote in national elections. Changing roles of women During the late 1800s womens right began to improve. Examples of this include: - In 1882 parliment passes the married women's property act, allowing married women to own their own money and property. - In 1884 married women were recognised as individuals rather than possesions of their husbands. - It became much easier for a women to get a divorce, and if the marridge broke up women were able to become the childrens' legal guardian. - Eduaction and more desirable jobs such as nursing and teaching became much more widely avalible. The Suffragists (the National Union of Women's Suffrage Society) was formed in 1897 by Millicent Fawcett. It was a national organisation that was made up of mainly middle-class women campaigning for the vote. Their methods were peaceful and included: - Sending petitions to parliment - in 1903 a petition of 67000 workers was sent to parliment. - Holding meetings- in 1911 40000 meeting (30 a day) were held in support of the conciliation bill. - Peaceful demonstations - in 1911 the Suffragists held a peaceful pilgrimage from Carlisle to London, offering free membership for working class women. - Propaganda- produced posters and leaflets to support their cause. The Suffragettes (the Women's Social and Political Union) was formed by Emmeline Pankhurst, and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia. It was a smaller organisation that had approximatley 2000 members in 1914. Their methods were more militant and violent and included: - Smashing windows, chaining themselves to railings outside parliment, heckling MPs, disrupting meetings, arson, destroying paintings. - One Suffragette, Emily Davison, was killed whilst trying to pin a banner to the King's horse in the 1913 derby. - The government responded to the suffragette's violence by inprisioning the offenders. Whilst in prision Suffragettes would often go on hunger strike, the government then force fed them. This was highly critised so in 1913 parliment passed 'the cat and mouse act', where prisioners on hunger strike could be released then re-arrested when…
Neuromyths: Brain Facts and Brain Fiction TRUE and FALSE answers reflect our current understanding of the mind and brain, based on research in psychology and neuroscience. You may be surprised by the answers to some of these questions. In fact, the answers may conflict with information you have learned previously about the brain. This is a very common experience because neuroscience is advancing rapidly. We also note that science is a continual process of evaluating evidence and revising theories. For this reason, we invite you to consult the resources below and form your own impressions of the research evidence. 1. We use our brains 24 hours a day. > TRUE. Our brains are active all of the time, even when we are sleeping. 2. It is best for children to learn their native language before a second language is learned. > FALSE. Children are able to learn multiple languages at the same time without any long-term negative effects on either language. There is even some evidence that learning more than one language in childhood has a positive impact on specific mental abilities. 3. Boys have bigger brains than girls on average. > TRUE. Brain size is related to physical size, so bigger people tend to have bigger brains. Boys tend to be bigger than girls, so boy’s brains also tend to be larger. This average difference in size, however, does not mean that boys are smarter than girls. Brain size is more strongly related to size than intelligence. 4. If students do not drink sufficient amounts of water, their brains shrink. > FALSE. It is important to stay hydrated, but brain size is not related to a living person’s level of hydration. 5. When a brain region is damaged, other parts of the brain can take up its function. > TRUE. The brain has a remarkable ability to adapt to certain forms of brain damage. One of the ways the brain recovers from injury is by taking advantage of areas of the brain that are undamaged. 6. We only use 10% of our brain. > FALSE. A healthy person uses 100% of her / his brain. 7. The left and right hemispheres of the brain work together. > TRUE. The two hemispheres are highly interconnected. Mental operations are coordinated across both hemispheres. 8. Some of us are ‘left-brained’ and some are ‘right-brained’ and this helps explain differences in how we learn. > FALSE. The left and right hemispheres of the brain work together. There is not strong evidence that people’s learning differs in important ways based on one hemisphere being more dominant than the other. 9. The brains of boys and girls develop at different rates. > TRUE. Girls typically develop faster than boys likely due in part to the influence of sex hormones and the timing of puberty. 10. Brain development has finished by the time children reach puberty. > FALSE. Brain development continues well into adolescence and adulthood, especially development of the frontal lobes of the brain, which are important for decision-making. 11. There are specific periods in childhood after which certain things can no longer be learned. > FALSE. There are sensitive periods when it is much easier for a child to learn certain types of information. These periods are not fixed, however, and learning of different types of information continues even outside of these sensitive periods. 12. Information is stored in the brain in networks of cells distributed throughout the brain. > TRUE. Information is not stored in any individual cell, but rather in the pattern of connections across cells. 13. Learning is due to addition of new cells to the brain. > FALSE. Learning arises from changes in the connections between brain cells. 14. Individuals learn better when they receive information in their preferred learning style (e.g. auditory, visual, kinesthetic). > FALSE. This is a controversial topic. At this point, the most rigorous scientific evidence does not support distinct learning styles over and above acknowledged differences in specific cognitive abilities (see Pashler et al., 2008 below). However, not all learning style theories have been rigorously tested, so this answer reflects the current state of the research only. The following link has some Frequently Asked Questions: http://www.danielwillingham.com/learning-styles-faq.html. It is important to note that learning styles are a theory of learning, not teaching. So, even though learning styles may not be a useful way to categorize children’s learning process, it is still the case that multisensory, differentiated instruction is often the most effective teaching practice. 15. Learning occurs through changes to connections between brain cells. > TRUE. The strengthening or weakening of connections between brain cells is thought to underlie learning, memory, and the acquisition of skills. 16. Academic achievement can be negatively impacted by skipping breakfast. > TRUE. Academic achievement tends to be higher in children who regularly eat breakfast. 17. A common sign of dyslexia is seeing letters backwards. > FALSE. People with dyslexia have a specific difficulty with decoding written words. For most individuals with dyslexia, this decoding difficulty relates to the mapping of sounds to letters, rather than the visual appearance of the words. Although some individuals with dyslexia may reverse letters when reading and spelling, it is not a very common occurrence and there are many individuals with dyslexia who do not make such reversals (see link below). 18. Normal development of the human brain involves the birth and death of brain cells. > TRUE. Normal brain development doesn’t just involve growth, but also the selective loss of brain cells and connections that are not being used (also known as pruning). 19. Mental capacity is hereditary and cannot be changed by the environment or experience. > FALSE. Mental abilities do have a genetic component, but they are also heavily influenced by environmental factors, and rely on adequate experience in order to develop. 20. Vigorous exercise can improve mental function. > TRUE. Experiments show that aerobic exercise is beneficial for cognitive functions. 21. Children must be exposed to an enriched environment from birth to three years or they will lose learning capacities permanently. > FALSE. Although early child development is important, the human brain shows potential for learning throughout the life span that is not limited to the period between birth to three years. 22. Children are less attentive after consuming sugary drinks and/or snacks. > FALSE. Excessive consumption of sugary drinks may not be healthful, but there is little evidence that it impacts a child’s concentration ability when rigorous (double-blind, placebo- controlled) intervention studies are examined. Here, the research evidence conflicts with the impressions of parents and teachers and there are several theories for why this might be the case. (see resources below) 23. Circadian rhythms (‘body clock’) shift during adolescence, causing students to be tired during the first lessons of the school day. > TRUE. Young children tend to naturally fall asleep early and wake up early. By adolescence, however, the body clock shifts towards later sleeping and rising times. 24. Exercises that rehearse coordination of perceptual-motor skills can improve literacy skills. > FALSE. Although exercise is good for overall cognitive functioning, there is little evidence that specific perceptual-motor exercises will improve literacy specifically. 25. Extended rehearsal of some mental processes can change the structure and function of some parts of the brain. > TRUE. The way practice makes perfect is by changing the way the brain processes certain types of information. This includes expansion of certain brain areas when they are used extensively. These changes are thought to contribute to increased ability or proficiency. 26. Children have learning styles that are dominated by particular senses (i.e. seeing, hearing, touch). > FALSE. Although children may have preferences for receiving information using specific senses, there is not strong evidence that this preference is related to learning effectiveness. 27. Learning problems associated with developmental differences in brain function cannot be improved by education. > FALSE. Appropriate educational interventions can improve learning even in individuals with developmental learning difficulties. 28. Production of new connections in the brain can continue into old age. > TRUE. Contrary to popular belief, the brain does not stop developing in adulthood. New connections form across the lifespan, allowing us to continue to learn and change. 29. Short bouts of motor coordination exercises can improve integration of left and right hemisphere brain function. > FALSE. Although exercise is good for overall cognitive functioning, there is little evidence that it specifically improves information processing across the right and left hemispheres. 30. There are specific periods in childhood when it’s easier to learn certain things. > TRUE. During childhood, there are periods where the brain is particularly sensitive to different types of information. It is much easier, for example, for a child to gain fluency in a new language than an adult. 31. When we sleep, the brain shuts down. > FALSE. Patterns of brain activity shift when we go to sleep, but the brain is active 24 hours a day regardless of whether we are sleeping or awake. 32. Listening to classical music increases children’s reasoning ability. > FALSE. There is little consistent evidence that classical music has an impact on children’s reasoning ability at any age (the so-called Mozart effect).
Rationale: In order for children to learn how to read by using the alphabetic principle, they must first be aware of and familiar with phonemes that make up the words. This lesson will focuses on the consonant sound /m/ in spoken words. The student’s phoneme awareness of /m/ will develop by giving them instruction and practice on how to form the /m/ sound and practice by identifying the phoneme in spoken words. Primary paper and pencil for each student A set of picture cards for each student, of different foods that contain /m/ (macaroni, mint, muffins, hamburgers, shrimp) A set of pictures of the same food for the teacher to hold up A picture page for each student to identify words that contain /m/ The book: Stand Tall Molly Lou Melon to read to the class. Procedure: 1. Introduce the lesson by explaining that our language is a secret code and today we are going to start breaking the code. We use our mouth to make different sound for each letter. Today we are going to use our mouths to make the sound of the letter m, and we will be able to recognize the words that have the m mouth move in them. 2. Ask the students: “Have you ever said ‘mmmmm’ after you ate something really good?” That is the same mouth move you make when you read a word with the /m/ sound in them. Lets practice making the /m/ mouth move together. Remember to keep your lips together. Very good, lets do it again but this time I want you to hold the /m/ for a longer time and rub your belly in a circular motion, like you do when something taste really good. [Model how you rub your tummy]. Good job, now we know how to make the /m/ mouth move. 3. Now, I am going to give a tongue twister. “Mom makes marvelous mini muffins on Monday mornings.” I want everybody to say it with me three times. Now, when we say the tongue twister I want everybody to stretch the /m/ at the beginning of the words, and do our hand motion. “Mmmom mmmakes mmmarvelous mmmmini mmmmuffins on Mmmonday mmmornings.” 4. Next, we will review how to write the letter m. Everyone will get out their primary paper. To write the letter m you start with your pencil on the fence, move your pencil down to the sidewalk, hump around to the fence, and then hump around to the fence again, so that your pencil ends on the sidewalk. The ‘m’ looks similar to a hump back of a camel. ‘Hump’ back and ‘camel’ both have ‘m’s’ in them so that can help the students remember the shape. 5. Now I will play a game with the group. I am going to hold up pictures of different food we can eat. When I hold up the picture I am going to tell you what food it is. I want the students to repeat the name of the food and if you make the /m/ mouth move when you say the name, I want you to rub your tummy and all together say, “mmmm mmmm.” Then I want you to find the same picture I am holding up on your desk and hold it up. I will look around to see if everyone had the same card. I am will do the first one for you. [Hold up a picture of a muffin and say muffin out loud to the class]. “Muffin, mmmm mmmm, yummy muffin.” [place my picture of the muffin in my mixing bowl.] “I made the mouth move /m/ when I said muffin so it goes in my mixing bowl.” The teacher will hold up numerous different pictures, with and without the /m/ phoneme. 6. Read the story The Big Stew by Ben Shecter. We will talk about the story. Read the story again and have students raise their hand when they hear the words with /m/. List all of the words on the board and the foods with the /m/. Have the students write a sentence about their favorite meals, beverages, and desserts by using inventive spelling, and have them illustrate their meal. 7. Pass out a sheet of paper with pictures. Students must write down what each picture is. Instruct the students to color in each picture whose name has a /m/. Reference: Morgan Montgomery, MMM! Something Smells Good!
How to make Comparators, simple explanation from an op amp circuit Comparator circuits are very handy when you need a visual representation of an adjusting voltage level. My most common application is a volume indicator on an audio source. The output can be shown through a few LED's and give the user a quick and easy to understand volume representation When using the op amp, if you apply a voltage to the negative input pin, and no feedback loop (the output is not connected to the input), the output will only go high when the positive input pin has a higher voltage than the negative input pin. We can use a voltage tree to create the negative pin's input voltages. Example : We have a tree set up with +9 Volts at the top and ground at the bottom using 4 x 100 ohm resistors in series along the tree we get the following tap-voltages from a "tree": 9 V, 6.75V, 4.5V, 2.25V, and 0V (see more detail on voltage trees in my other tutorial: http://www.instructables.com/id/Voltage-Tree/) We can make each one of those an input to a negative input of an op amp (5 op amps total). We will then connect our output of our audio device to all of the positive inputs of the op amps. Finally connect a simple resistor and LED from the output of each op amp to ground. Now what will happen is as the output of the audio device (simulated here as a function generator +-9 V sin wave) rises to and above each of the tree tap voltages, that op amp will go high and turn on the LED at the output. Putting these LED's in a row will show that they will turn on in order as the audio gets louder. And that is a simple way to use Op-amps as comparators for visual representation of an output. This was just one example, but you can use Op-amps almost anywhere. You can replicate this for any voltage-taps you want along the tree, and any max or min voltages. I have images here of one example where i implemented it into an audio device. The voltage values are different, but it is the exact same technique. As the music plays louder, the LED's along the side of the board each light up.
Unit 2 Module 4 The Need For Psychological Science By Snehita Bonthu, Mia Pyankov, Rukmini Waranashiwar, Neha Yerramreddy 4-1 How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense? While both the unconscious and conscious mind drive our thinking, memory, and attitudes, our unconscious mind has a larger influence. Like jumbo jets, we fly mostly on autopilot. We often underestimate the intuition's perils. Experiments have found people greatly overestimating their lie detection accuracy, their eyewitness recollections, their interviewee assessments, their risk predictions and their stock picking talent. A Nobel Prize winning physicist said, “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself-and you are the easiest person to fool” A novelist Madeleine L’Engle once said, “The naked intellect is an extraordinarily inaccurate instrument” Three phenomena—hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events—illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. Hindsight Bias = The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. - Also known as the “I-Knew-It-All-Along” phenomenon Demonstrated through an experiment in which psychologists told one half of a group that “Psychologists have found that separation weakens romantic attraction. As the saying goes, ‘Out of sight, out of mind’. They told the other half the opposite; “psychologists have found that separation strengthens romantic attraction. As the saying goes ’absence makes the heart grow fonder’. Both groups were easily able to imagine both scenarios, and find both views unsurprising. When two opposite findings both seem like common sense there is a problem. Such errors in our recollections and explanations explain why we can’t only rely on our common sense, which is why we need psychological research. Around 100 studies have observed hindsight bias in various countries among children and adults. “good ideas in psychology usually have an oddly familiar quality, and the moment we encounter them we feel certain that we once came close to thinking the same thing ourselves and simply failed to write it down” - Good ideas are like good inventions; once created, they seem obvious. We humans tend to think we know more than we do and we are more confident than correct. Knowing the answers tends to make us overconfident (referring to the unscrambling of anagrams) WREAT- WATER, ETRYN-ENTRY, GRABE-BARGE, we probably would have not been able to answer then as quickly as we think we would have due to hindsight bias (the fact that we have already seen the answers) - Are we better at predicting social behavior? University of Pennsylvania psychologist Philip Tetlock collected more than 27,000 expert predictions of world events, such as whether Quebec would separate from Canada. His repeated finding: These predictions, which experts made with 80 percent confidence on average, were right less than 40 percent of the time. Even those who erred maintained their confidence by saying they were “almost right.” Perceiving Order in Random Events In our natural eagerness to make sense of our world: we are prone to perceive patterns. People see a face on the moon, hear satanic messages in music and more. Even in random data we find order, because “random sequences don’t look random” Consider a random coin flip: If someone flipped a coin six times, which of the following sequences of heads (H) and tails (T) would be most likely: HHHTTT, HTTHTH, HHHHHH Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1972) found that most people believe the HTTHTH would be the most likely random sequence although they are all equally likely and unlikely. More Examples include basketball shooting, baseball hitting, and mutual fund stock pickers’ selections. These sequences often don’t look random and so are overinterpreted. Point to remember: Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition. 4-2 How do the scientific attitudes three main components relate to critical thinking? The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Underlying all science is curiosity, a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled. Often, science becomes society’s garbage disposal, sending crazy-sounding ideas to the waste heap, atop previous claims of perpetual motion machines, miracle cancer cures, and out-of-body travels into centuries past. It requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible in order to differentiate reality from fantasy, sense from nonsense. “To believe with certainty,” says a Polish proverb, “We must begin by doubting” psychologists approach the world of behavior with a curious skepticism, asking two questions: What do you mean? How do you know? Putting a scientific attitude into practice requires not only curiosity and skepticism, but also humility: an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives. Critical Thinking = thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. It examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. A critical thinker asks questions, recognizes multiple perspectives, expose themselves to news sources, challenges their preconceived ideas and helps clear coloured lenses of our biases. Psychology’s critical inquiry has been open to surprising findings massive losses of brain tissue early in life may have minimal long-term effects Within days, newborns can recognize their mother’s odor and voice After brain damage, a person may be able to learn new skills yet be unaware of such learning Diverse groups—men and women, old and young, rich and middle class, those with disabilities and without—report roughly comparable levels of personal happiness Critical inquiry has convincingly debunked popular presumptions Sleepwalkers do not act out their dreams. Past experiences are not all recorded verbatim in our brains; with brain stimulation or hypnosis, one cannot simply “hit the replay button” and relive long-buried or repressed memories. Most people do not suffer from unrealistically low self-esteem. High self-esteem is not all good. Opposites do not generally attract
When a spot of green grass is covered, it takes only a couple of days until all color is gone. When potato sprouts develop in a dark pantry or cellar they are white. Those growing in full light are green. Light causes the difference and is of utmost importance to all green plants. They cannot live without it. The green coloring matter is called chlorophyll. It is produced only in plants or parts of plants exposed to light. A normal plant growing in full light may develop a white stem with white leaves. It is not unusual for the green and white variegated sultana (impatiens) to have albino shoots. This house plant roots easily from cuttings but I have never been able to get the white cuttings to make roots. Lily seeds occasionally send up white instead of green stems, but they wither and die without making bulblets. Plants Feed Different Than Animals There is much we do not understand about plants. We do know that plants require food just as animals do, but they have an entirely different eating system. They feed themselves by absorbing through their roots and leaves certain chemical elements found in water and in the air. Light for plants is the fuel or source of energy that produces the chlorophyll which enables the plant to turn these chemicals into sugar and to store it for future use in the form of starch. We might conclude that plants would make most of their growth during the daylight hours, but we are told that light retards growth that plants do most of their growing at night. Lighting Effects On Plant Growth We know that even though some plants require a great deal of light and others much less, that many, by changing their growth habits, are very adaptable to whatever we can provide them. Take pansies as an example. When planted in a sunny location they are low growing and fairly compact. One fall the pansy plants were set much too close to a vigorous row of bearded irises. The next spring as the irises increased in height, they shaded the pansies more and more. The pansies, reaching for the light, grew tall, leaning on the irises as they grew. The distance between the leaves was much greater than on the pansies growing in stronger light and the stems lacked firmness. Had the irises been cut down, the pansies would have toppled over. Leaf and Stems Adapting To Plant Lighting Violas plant themselves all over the garden. Those that do not have to share light with other plants, grow compact and low. Those planted among taller neighbors grow higher and higher. Thus we can see how plants can adapt themselves to unsatisfactory growing conditions by changing their leaf and stem structures. Those with soft thin leaves and delicate stems in the shade develop smaller and thicker leaves on shorter stems in the sun. Some hardy fall asters growing in full sun have erect stems. The same asters shaded, were flat on the ground as they crept toward light. It is interesting to observe shallow rooted plants like cosmos or marigolds that have fallen over during very wet spells. The stems that develop grow upward practically at right angles to the main stem. This should not indicate that all plants require sunlight. There are plants that perform very unsatisfactorily and even die if planted in direct sunlight. We think of certain ferns as shade loving plants. There are plants which prefer the shade of trees or northern exposures where they receive little if any sunshine. Many plants like a combination of sun and shade especially to be sheltered from the hot noonday sun, or filtered sunshine falling through the trees. Hostas and lilies like Lilium Henryi bleach badly if exposed to full sun all day. In African violets care, watch out for leaves burning if placed next to the glass in a sunny window. The new leaves in the center do not develop normally but remain small on very short stems. Burned spots appear. If blossoms are produced they are likewise small on short stems. On the other hand, if the plants are in too dark a location, the leaf stems become long and straggly and light in color. Buds do not develop. Place an African violet where it can get a bit of morning sunshine and strong direct light the rest of the day and leaves develop normally and you cannot keep the plant from blooming. Artificial Plant Lights Artificial plant lighting may be used to supplement daylight to promote growth of plants that require extra light. But we must not forget that some plants require extra hours of darkness. Outside, we know that chrysanthemums wait until toward fall to make buds when the days are shorter and there are more of the darker hours. Was your poinsettia slow in showing color before the holidays? It may have been because the plant was not in complete darkness from 14 to 16 hours out of every 24 commencing in early November. If the plant was kept in a room where artificial lights were on, it should have been moved into a dark room, or covered with a dark cloth when the lights were on.
Polluted water is a problem if we have to drink it. However, it can also be a problem for the plants, insects and fish that require clean water to survive. Traditionally, we accepted that water can become polluted because we discharge waste into it. Now, we also know that water can be polluted because of waste produced from across whole landscapes (excess fertiliser, animal manure or soil). This type of waste comes from a large number of places (e.g. fields) but in small amounts. It becomes a problem because it gets funnelled into our rivers where the concentrations can be very high. This is called diffuse pollution. Across the world we are trying to improve our rivers and streams for the living creatures that are being impacted upon by diffuse pollution. How can we make our rivers and streams clean again? To make our rivers and streams clean again, we need to be able to work out where the pollution is coming from. Not all fields will be polluting. Two things make a field a problem: - a field that produces lots of pollution; - a field that is easily connected to rivers, lakes, or groundwater. To identify the locations that are a problem, we developed SCIMAP. This project was originally jointly developed between Durham and Lancaster Universities. SCIMAP is supported by the U.K.’s Natural Environment Research Council, the Eden Rivers Trust, the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency. Following this project SCIMAP has been supported by Durham University, the Rivers Trust and the Environment Agency. We hope that SCIMAP will be used to help decision-makers, including governments, non-governmental organisations, land owners etc. to work out where to prioritise activities that protect the water environment, and so make our water clean again. On this web-site, we provide a basic description of the science base that we are developing, we illustrate the SCIMAP approach and how it works, and we provide material for further learning about the approach. You can download the SCIMAP software for Windows or use the web based my.scimap tool. - Predicting diffuse microbial pollution risk across catchments: The performance of SCIMAP and recommendations for future development - Extending SCIMAP to predict E. coli delivery risk to surface waters - my.SCIMAP Training for Trent Rivers Trust by CaBA Support - New SCIMAP paper on fine sediment in the River Esk, North Yorkshire, UK - my.SCIMAP problems - A New Era of Targeted Reforestation for Diffuse Pollution Risk Reduction using SCIMAP and UAV Technology to Determine the Spatial Distribution of Diffuse Pollution Risk in Lake Rawa Pening, Central Java, Indonesia – SCIMAP-UGM16
A common but undervalued South African native plant, Oxalis purpurea can make a most magnificent garden plant that flowers for half the year. Oxalis purpurea is a summer-deciduous winter-growing dwarf geophyte seldom higher than 6 or 7 cm. It forms a small rosette or mound up to 20 cm in diameter of trifoliate (clover-like) leaves which are dark green and not visibly hairy. It is unique amongst dicotyledonous plants in that it forms true bulbs which are often buried deep underground. Each bulb produces a single thin underground stem which gives rise to the above-ground rosette. The bulbs readily proliferate by producing smaller bulbils, each also producing a single stem, often resulting in a posy of plants and flowers in one place. The new shoots emerge from dormant bulbs after the first good autumn rains and will usually stay active until early summer (November in SA) but will go prematurely dormant if water becomes limiting. The flowers usually appear more than one at a time and when flowering en masse are spectacular. Each flower has five petals which flare like a trumpet during the day and furl at night or on overcast days. Flowers are usually pinky mauve to lilac and can be very dark and intensely coloured or very pale. Other less common colour forms include salmon, peach and pure white (albino). Flowers always have a yellow throat. Flowers start to appear from early winter (May in SA) and will usually keep flowering until the plants go dormant. The fruit is small (size of a match head) and contains many tiny seeds which are dispersed by explosive dehiscence. This plant is not currently threatened. Distribution and habitat Oxalis purpurea occurs naturally throughout the winter rainfall parts of South Africa, more specifically from Namaqualand in the northwest to Port Elizabeth in the southeast (Manning & Goldblatt 2000). It is an opportunistic plant that enjoys open soil, space and sunlight and therefore tends to proliferate in disturbed areas like along the edges of paths and roads. It is most commonly found in lawns where its low-growing prostrate habit is well suited to avoiding lawnmower blades! It is most spectacular after fires and is usually one of the first bulbs to bring colour to barren scorched earth in midwinter. It is suspected that the smoke also stimulates better flowering. Derivation of name and historical aspects The genus Oxalis was established by Linnaeus in 1753. The name Oxalis originates from the Greek word oxys meaning sharp, acid, sour, referring to the acidic nature of the plants as they contain oxalic acid. The specific epithet purpurea refers to the “purple” or mauve colour of the flowers. The genus occurs worldwide and most of the 800 species are found in South America. In South Africa the majority of the 200 species occur in the winter rainfall region of the Northern and Western Cape provinces (Du Plessis & Duncan 1989). The flowers of Oxalis purpurea are pollinated predominantly by bees and other generalist pollinators. The bulbs are often eaten by certain mole species. Uses and cultural aspects Because of the toxic oxalic acid these plants are seldom used as a food source, however, the bulbs of a number of species are eaten traditionally in South Africa but only after they have been dried or roasted (Du Plessis & Duncan 1989). Growing Oxalis purpurea Oxalis purpurea makes a magnificent garden plant in winter and spring. It creates a spectacular splash of bright colour at an otherwise dull time of the year. Although this plant often occurs commonly in lawns (not to be confused with clover weed Trifolium pretense) it can be planted in open beds or in rockeries or even in between paving stones in a driveway or path. They are tough and will survive quite happily without any additional water in a winter rainfall area. A regular lawn can be transformed into a dazzling carpet of pink and mauve with minimal effort. Sadly, these gorgeous little plants are often thought of as weeds and some people actively weed them out of their garden or tragically spray them with herbicides! Yes, there are a few exotic species (creeping sorrel O. corniculata from North America and O. latifolia – red garden sorrel from Mexico) which have become weedy in South Africa, but our own Oxalis species should be encouraged and can make superb low-maintenance garden plants. Amongst the various species suitable for cultivation, there is almost no end to the kaleidoscope of colours available, ranging from red, bright shocking pink, purple, orange, lavender, mauve, pale pink, cream, salmon, peach and pure white. Plants are most easily propagated by bulbs and bulbils which can be harvested from the ground as the plants go dormant (as the leaves turn yellow) in early summer. Keep the bulbs in a dry cool place over summer and plant them in a pot or in the ground in early autumn. They make excellent pot plants where the bulbs will proliferate on their own over the years. They have no special soil requirements and will grow in sandy soils or in clay soils. The higher the humic content of the soil the more lush and prolifically the plants will grow. They flower optimally in a full sun position but can take some shade. Remember, the flowers only open in the sunshine. Fertiliser is not required but plants will flourish should it be applied. Oxalis species being dicotyledonous plants do readily grow from cuttings, so don't be disheartened if you can't locate the bulbs which are often deep down in the soil; every little piece of stem will root, provided they are kept moist and cool for the first 2–3 weeks. Thereafter each cutting will start to form its own adventitious roots and bulb. Seed is tricky to harvest when it is ripe as the capsules explode and expel their seed in all directions. They germinate readily in a sandy soil mix sown in autumn but plants will take a few years to mature to flowering stage. This option is therefore not recommended. Apart from predation by the occasional mole, they rarely succumb to any damage from garden pests. References and further reading - Bayer, B. 2000. In P. Goldblatt & J. Manning, Cape plants: a conspectus of the Cape Flora of South Africa. Strelitzia 9: 552–560. Natonal Botanical Institute, Pretoria. - Dreyer, L.L. & Makwarela, A.M. 2000. Oxalidaceae. In O.A. Leistner (ed.), Seed plants of southern Africa: families and genera. Strelitzia 10: 432, 433. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria. - Du Plessis, N. & Duncan, G. 1989. Bulbous plants of southern Africa: a guide to their cultivation and propagation. Tafelberg, Cape Town.Retief, E. 2004. The genus Oxalis. www.Plantzafrica.com Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden
The Haber process or the Haber-Bosch process is a chemical reaction that uses nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to create the chemical compound ammonia. The Haber process uses temperatures ranging from 400°C to 450°C under a pressure of 200 atm. The Haber process uses a catalyst mostly made up of iron. History[change \| change source] The Haber process is named after the German scientist Fritz Haber. Haber was the first person to successfully complete the process. In 1909, Haber's process could produce about one cup of ammonia every two hours. Carl Bosch helped to develop the Haber process for industry. In 1913, the German company BASF started using the Haber process to make ammonia. During World War I, the Haber process was used to make explosives. The Germans kept this a secret until after the war. In 1918, Haber won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and in 1931, Bosch also shared a Nobel Prize. The Haber process is still important today because it produces ammonia, which is needed for fertilizer and for many other purposes. The Haber process produces about 500 million tons (453 billion kilograms) of fertilizer every year. This fertilizer helps to feed about 40% of the world's population. The process[change \| change source] The gases for the Haber process must be prepared before changing them into ammonia. After that is done, ammonia is created by using magnetite (iron oxide) as the catalyst: - N2 + 3H2 2NH3 In this process, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen is changed into ammonia. However, the unused nitrogen and hydrogen is recycled. Overall, 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen can be changed into ammonia. References[change \| change source] - Jim Clark (2002), The Haber Process for the manufacture of ammonia, http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html, retrieved March 14, 2010 - What is the Haber-Bosch Process?, Wisegeek.com, http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-haber-bosch-process.htm, retrieved March 14, 2010
During the Cold War, the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used animals such as ravens, pigeons and cats to perform tasks, including carrying small pieces of equipment or listening in on covert conversations. The CIA spent a goodly sum in the 1960s retrofitting felines surgically in order to spy on foreign officials. The program was called Operation Acoustic Kitty and it was classified as top secret.Continue Reading Acoustic Kitty was a project that was intended to turn cats into living, walking surveillance equipment through the surgical implantation of recording equipment and broadcast antennae into a cat's body. However, this project eventually failed, and some apocryphal stories about the project's failure remain difficult to verify or dispute thanks to the relative lack of information about these projects, which the CIA is willing to release little to no information. While the militaryÕs use of animals for intelligence gathering seems to have reached its peak during the Cold War, the United States Navy still trains marine mammals such as dolphins, sea lions and beluga whales to assist in military and intelligence gathering operations. In these projects, animal trainers use psychological principles based on the work of researchers such as B.F. Skinner and Pavlov in order to condition animals to perform certain behaviors and respond to certain cues. Using these techniques, trainers were able to get ravens to open file cabinets and even deposit small listening devices in desired locations.Learn more about Military
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood itself. Its function is three-fold. Transport, temperature control and protection. Transport - of substances such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Control of body temperature - blood moves towards the skin to cool us down, as excess heat can escape easier Protection - in the form of our immune system. Blood carries white blood cells which help fight disease. Platelets also clot the blood to stop us from bleeding The unique thing about the human circulatory system is that we have a double pump (the heart) and a double circulation! The heart is made of cardiac muscle and has two side, right and left, which is why it is called a douple pump. Overall the heart has four chambers, two on the left and two on the right. This is how it works: - Blood enters the atrium on right side of the heart (deoxygenated) - It moves down into the right ventricle - Blood is pumped out of the heart to the lungs to pick up Oxygen and get rid of Carbon Dioxide - Blood returns to the heart and into the left atrium (oxygenated) - It moves through to the left ventricle - From here the blood is pumped out to the body, via the aorta (largest artery in the body) The cardiac cycle is the process that occurs when the heart beats. There are 2 parts: Diastole - The heart ventricles relax to allow blood to fill the heart Systole - Blood is pumped out of the heart as a result of the ventricles contracting When both these processes are completed, it is known as 1 cardiac cycle. The process is continuous. Cardiac output (CO) is the volume of blood the heart can pump out, usually in litres per minute. CO depends on stroke volume and heart rate. The quicker the heart beats, the higher cardiac output will be as the heart will pump more blood around the body. This is shown as: Cardiac Output (Q) = Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV) There are two circuits within the body through which blood flows. Inbetween each circuit the blood returns to the heart. This circuit takes oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart, around the body. When the blood returns to the right side of the heart, it is deoxygenated, as the oxygen has been mostly used by the muscles and organs in order to make energy. This circuit takes deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs where it can pick up more oxygen. It then returns this newly oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart where the cycle begins again! There are three types of blood vessels within the circulatory system: - Carry blood away from the heart - Carry oxygenated blood (with the exception of the the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs) - Thick, strong, elastic walls - Smaller arteries are called arterioles - Carry blood back to the heart - Carry deoxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart) - Contain valves to make sure the blood travels in the right direction when under lower pressures - Thinner walls - Smaller veins are called venules - The smallest blood vessels which connect veins and arteries - Travel deep inside muscles and organs to supply the nutrients and oxygen - Have walls only one cell thick to allow exchange of these substances Blood has four main components: Red blood cells - These are disc shaped cells which carry haemoglobin to combine with Oxygen White blood cells - These fight against disease by using antibodies and antitoxins - These are fragments of cells which help blood to clot at wounds - This is a straw coloured liquid which carries all the blood cells as well as hormones, waste products and digested foods Blood in under pressure because the when the heart pumps it forces blood into the arteries. As the blood passes through the systemic circulation it decreases in pressure, the further it gets from the heart. This is why the veins contain valves, to prevent the blood from flowing back the wrong way. The reason we have a pulse is because of the changes in pressure when the heart beats and then relaxes. The pressure when the heart beats is known as the systolic pressure and is the higher number. When the heart relaxes the pressure drops and is called the diastolic pressure. This is why blood pressure, when measured using a sphygomomanometer, is shown as two numbers one over the other, like this: Blood pressure can be affected by lots of things. It is not good to have either high blood pressure, or low blood pressure. Both can cause health risks. The following can affect your blood pressure: - Age - blood pressure usually increases with age as the artery walls get furred up, decreasing the space within them - Gender - Men often experience higher blood pressure - Exercise - whilst exercising the heart pumps harder and faster, increasing blood pressure. However, in the long-term, exercise decreases blood pressure - Stress - Stress raises the blood pressure Having an increased blood pressure increases your risk of suffering from angina, heart attack and stroke.
What are some tips for using PhET with homework? PhET simulations are free, online interactive simulations for teaching and learning science. The impact of these demonstrations is greatly increased when students are given the opportunity to interact with the simulations. This can be done in two main ways: In class or lab environment, or on their own in homework problems. This page discusses the use of PhET in homework. Click here to see all Expert Recommendations on the use of PhET. Even without an instructor present to guide them, students can engage in scientist-like exploration using PhET. This is because PhET simulations are designed to help students explore cause-and-effect relationships and make sense of what they see. To accomplish this, simulations are designed to cue students to explore productively by using implicit guidance; i.e., the choice of controls, visual representations, and immediate feedback provided by visual changes as students explore [Paul et al. 2012, Podolefsky et al. 2012, Moore et al. 2013]. Thus, PhET is ideal for use in homework, and homework using PhET can use minimal directions, due to the implicit guidance in the sims. You can find example homework problems on the PhET website, under each simulation page, and on our Teaching Resources page. How can I use PhET in homework? Prior to instruction - Eliciting ideas You can use PhET simulations to elicit student ideas about a phenomenon, and get them to start developing a framework of ideas about what is important -- for example, in projectile motion. Student exploration can then be used as a foundation for discussion in class -- as in Just in Time Teaching, especially when PhET is used within the lecture itself. PhET can also be used to prepare students for a laboratory activity -- see our recommendation on using PhET in a lab setting. After instruction - Going deeper PhET can be used after lecture, or after a lab, to support conceptual reasoning about the science. See the next section for suggestions on writing homework questions which support this kind of reasoning. With auto-graded homework For very large classes, it is often necessary to auto-grade homework. This situation doesn’t preclude the use of simulations, but does require being creative with homework questions. At the University of Colorado, we have used a combination of conceptual multiple choice, true-false, and numeric answer questions. For example, “select all of the actions which will result in X,” or “If I do X, will Y increase/decrease/stay the same?” If you can embed images in your questions, you can show a specific simulation scenario and ask students to predict behavior or interpret the scenario. It’s best to include at least a few short essay questions which require students to explain their reasoning. How do I get my students to explore productively in a PhET-based homework? 1. Keep it short. Keep your questions short, focused on just one or two learning goals. Longer homework questions can lead lead to a focus on just ‘getting through’ the questions. Eliminating any explicit instructions on how to use the simulation often helps to keep the questions concise. 2. Avoid explicit directions. Students don’t need a “how-to” guide to use the simulation. Short questions should guide students about which ideas to focus on, not tell students how they should go about doing things in the sim. Overly detailed directions typically result in students limiting their exploration of the simulation, and focusing on the instructions rather than on understanding what they see. [Chamberlain et al. 2014, Adams et al. 2008] To help students explore, consider starting your homework question with the instructions to explore the simulation first, to see what it can do. This will familiarize students with the controls, and let them focus on your questions rather than understanding the simulation. [Podolefsky et al. 2013] 3. Give open-ended questions and challenges. What types of prompts can we use instead of step-by-step directions? Challenge prompts encourage students to engage with the sim and explore ideas more deeply. [Chamberlain et al. 2014, Adams et al. 2008] To come up with such challenges, sit down and play with the simulation yourself, to see what it can do. Example challenge prompts that encourage targeted inquiry: - Find all the ways to… blow the top off the box. - What’s the biggest… orbit you can make? - How many… collection boxes can you fill in 5 minutes? - List all the essential items to…make a circuit. - What are two ways to…increase the kinetic energy of the skater? - How can you make…the gravity force… bigger? - How can you create… the smallest non-zero acceleration? - Develop a procedure for… identifying an unknown material (e.g., in Density sim). 4. Connect to the real world. Ground your questions and ideas in familiar, real-world experiences. Students learn more when they can see that science is relevant to their everyday life. Where possible, ask questions in the activity that help them relate science to their personal experience. For example, in a simulation exploring color vision, have them relate the ideas in the simulation to how a color television works. 5. Make use of sim features and examples. Find ways to let the questions complement the simulation, so that the two work together, rather than compete for attention: - Students are drawn to games or challenges in the sims. You can use these games in the homework questions, rather than forcing students to choose between what the sim encourages and what the homework asks for. - Use the visual nature of the sim to your advantage, and ask students to explain phenomena with both words and pictures. You can also incorporate sim images and representations into the questions themselves. - Keep your questions focused on the simulation!! Keep conceptual questions focused on the simulation, to encourage students to view the sim as a useful resource. Save extension questions, that reference examples or values from outside of the simulation, for the end of the assignment. 6. Help students check their understanding. Students can check their own understanding using the simulation. For example, ask students them to numerically predict the maximum height of a ball subject to drag, and check it with the PhET Projectile Motion simulation, as in the example. 7. Scaffold with tables Tables help focus students on productive investigations, without needing many directions or overwhelming students with detail. Plus, when students to record responses to open-ended questions in tables, it’s easy for graders to quickly see if students are getting the key ideas. - Keep tables open, with minimal wording and plenty of space for written observations and/or actions. - Think beyond data -- tables can be used to catalog a wide variety of ideas. For more examples of different types of tables, see our recommendation on designing in-class activities for use with PhET. Examine how different photons in the simulation affect each molecule. Record your observations in a few words. 8. Integrate with other aspects of the course As with any homework, students will be able to make the most out of the simulation if they feel that it is clearly connected to other parts of the course. This could include using the simulation as a lecture demonstration and clicker questions before and/or after the homework, and including related questions on quizzes and exams. To leverage the familiar context of the simulation, use screenshots (e.g., on clicker and exam questions). Unless otherwise specified, images and activities are courtesy of PhET Interactive Simulations and/or Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder.
After recent incidents of bumble bee deaths this summer, the Oregon Department of Agriculture issued new pesticide restrictions to protect bees. Metro natural gardening expert Carl Grimm shared tips for helping all of our important pollinators thrive - and encourage the work they do in your garden. Bees, butterflies, birds and even bats carry pollen from flower to flower so plants can produce seeds and fruits. Without pollinators we'd lose one of every three mouthfuls of our food and drink, including nutritious fruits and vegetables like apples, almonds and blueberries. But pollinators like bees are struggling to survive, in part, because of pesticides. If you're concerned by this, you're not alone. A recent social media survey by the Oregon Zoo revealed that local bumblebees are the number one animal respondents "would be most likely to take action to protect." Fortunately there a plenty of things everyone can do to help pollinators while keeping our yards looking great. 1. Avoid pesticides, particularly the ones most toxic to bees. Some insecticides, such as the neonicotinoids that have been temporarily restricted (even for home use), are systemic, meaning they travel inside the plant to all its parts. In some cases this makes the flowers toxic to bees for years after only one application. There are lots of great ways to prevent pests in your yard without pesticides: o Add compost to the soil to help plants build their natural defenses. o Use simple and safe pest control methods like blasting aphids off plants with water, hand-pulling weeds and picking and squishing bugs. o Select pest-and-disease-resistant plants likely to thrive in the sun, soil, and water of the site you plant them in. 1. Plant diverse flowers, especially native ones, so pollinators have the nectar they need. Buy organically grown plants or ones that were not treated with neonicotinoid pesticides so you don't harm the very critters you're trying to help. Plant flowers of different colors, shapes and sizes and plan to have something blooming in each season from early spring to fall. Native flowering plants such as douglas spirea, goldenrod and yarrow are more reliably useful to pollinators, but plenty of nonnative plants, such as sunflowers are great too. For smaller flowering plants, use several of the same variety in a clump so pollinators will notice them more readily. 2. Create and protect nesting sites. Unkempt areas can make great nesting habitat - open sandy ground, small brush piles, old tree stumps and plants left unpruned through the winter all help. You can even make bee homes with bundles of pithy stems. If you see leaves being nibbled by caterpillars, let them be - they'll turn into beautiful, pollinating butterflies later! Ask Metro for free booklets on safe and healthy gardening and a guide to native plants for pollinators at 503-234-3000 or at oregonmetro.gov/nativeplants. For a great collection of factsheets and other resources for protecting pollinators, check out the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation at bringbackthepollinators.org.
Serving Art Educators and Students Since 1994 Submitted by: Justin Kramer, Dakabin State High School, Queensland, Australia. Unit: Ceramics - Mask making - Sculpture Grade Level: High School (may be adapted to middle school) Mask handouts (optional), 9 x12 (23 x 30.5 cm) Newsprint, Drawing Pencils, Scissors, Moist Clay (Air-Dry Clay may be used, too), Newspapers, plastic bags, Canvas Rolls cloth, guide sticks, Rolling Pins, Slip dishes, Clay Clay Modeling Tools, Potters Needles, Fettling Knives, texture gadgets/tools, wood/Masonite boards, moist paper towels, plastic bags. For finishing: Acrylic Paint (brown, black and assorted colors), Paint Markers, Sharpie Fine Point Markers, Brushes, water dishes, Twisteez Wire for hanging (old Twisteez Wire works great), jute, Yarn Assortment, Beads, Raffia, horsehair, boas, other nature things... moss, Feather Assortment, etc - Be creative! Tacky Glue, hot Glue Gun, Hot Glue Sticks. Click on the images for full size. Students will become aware of the purposes of masks in many culture, materials used - form and function -- will see how cultures use readily available materials in the construction of masks. Students will compare and contrast masks from various cultures - comparing medium used - form and function. Students will view contemporary masks and contrast meaning to cultural masks. Students will design a mask using cultural examples for inspiration - changing the meaning - conveying a special message about the times in which we live. Students will integrate planning - use draped slab form of construction along with other hand building techniques. Students will exhibit craftsmanship in forming and finishing their work of art Students will critique their work - determining how well the mask portrays the message it is intended. See also Mexican Mask links on Paper Mache Head lesson plan. See Dance Masks from Mexico; Masks from Nepal, Masks from Java, Masks from Bali (all from a commercial site - but good images) Another Face- Masks Around the World (great web site) Masks by George Ulrich - (Archive) Milwaukee Public Museum - Excellent article Mask Articles by Himalayan Arts - Has a background of masks and more.. Mask images from 22 countries (lots of images) Look for more Mask Resources on Mask Makers Web http://www.maskmakersweb.org 4 2 eXplore has many mask resources. Masks Around the World- From the Anthropology Museum in Missouri. Masks From Around the World - This is a great PowerPoint presentation with lots of wonderful pictures of masks around the world. Behind the Masks: Exploring Culture and Self Through Art and Poetry Masks Around the World - This series explores other countries and cultures through their traditional crafts. Information and maps accompany beautiful photographs of original artifacts. Simple step-by-step illustrations show how you can make similar objects. Masks (Traditions Around the World) - This book features masks from all over the world, such as the shark, crocodile and hippopotamus masks worn in a water spirit ceremony by the Ibo people of Nigeria. It shows how masks are made by the Arawak and Tucano people of Columbia to rive ghosts from the home. African Masks: From the Barbier-Mueller Collection (Art Flexi Series) - The book includes one hundred color plates accompanied by in-depth descriptions, as well as numerous black-and-white photographs of the masks as they are used in religious and secular ceremonies. Interdisciplinary Lesson (Read-Write-Think) In this integrated unit of study, a language arts teacher pairs with an art teacher to introduce high school students to mask making around the world. Students research various cultures, make cultural and personal masks, and compose poetry to reveal the meaning behind their masks. The brief the students are given for this project is that they are to research traditional masks from a variety of cultures - using the Internet or print material.. From this they are asked to replicate its form but to change its meaning. This meaning they must interpret from a 2D image (photograph or digital image) into a 3D form. They are then requested to identify a contemporary issue and work this onto the masks through the use of symbols, icons, text, messages, etc. They are informed about symbolism, juxtaposition of images and the construction of meaning and how the meaning of the original form can greatly impact and add to the meanings that they are trying to generate. The issues addressed in the students work ranged from racism, power and aggression, mental abuse, peace, bush fires, water restrictions and drought, etc. The embellishment came from a garbage recycling business and were off cuts of plastic, vinyl's, etc - we get a lot of great stuff from there - I even got some fake teeth to add to my teaching example. Present a variety of mask images to students - briefly discuss meanings of masks (Encarta article give a nice over view). Internet resources above should generate enough images. Show some examples of contemporary masks. How were these artists inspired by masks of other cultures? What kind of materials did they use? How are the meanings different? How are the purposes different? Instruct students to select a culture to inspire their mask creation - students make sketches. Demonstrate/review steps for slab construction When fired - present a number of different decorating techniques. Collage words can be very effective to help convey meaning. These can be form newspaper clippings or printed from computer. Instruct students on requirements fro written critique. Peer evaluation can be very helpful. The masks are ceramic slab works made using a hump mold that student make using a plastic shopping bag and newspaper. Most of the features are pinched and pressed pieces joined on. All of the masks are made to fit the face and are hollowed out on the reverse side. Students could choose glaze or painted finish - both with additional embellishments - some collage elements to help convey meaning. 1. Following the slide show or PowerPoint - and after personal research through print materials provided, students decide what kind of mask to use for inspiration as a jumping off point. Decide what kind of social issue to represent through the mask - What kind of message should the mask tell? The mask is planned on paper and cut out to use as a template when they cut their clay slabs. 2. Make newspaper hump the size of mask drawing (this should be life size)- tape bottom flat. Shape newspaper into rounded hump inside the plastic bag. Cut out mask drawing (mask should be approximately the size of human head - or slightly larger to allow for shrinkage and forming over hump) 3. Wedge clay to remove air bubbles. Roll out slab of clay between guide sticks (approx 3/8 inch thick). Lay drawing on clay - trace around - trace over details of drawing to make an impression in the clay. Drape cut out clay slab over newspaper hump on Masonite/wood board. Smooth cut edges with damp sponge. 4. Add on details of facial features - build up using coils and added slabs - and pinch methods (score and slip). Carve in lines and shapes. Press in textures/stamps. Use straw to poke holes in sides for hanging (about ¼ inch or so from edge - we usually put the holes at side in line with the eyes) Students are reminded of proper wrapping procedures to keep their project moist between work sessions. Drape with damp paper towels if necessary 5. When finished - Hollow out back side where clay is thickest. Allow to get bone dry - bisque fire. Students work on next project during this time. Following the firing: 1. Paint with acrylics - select colors to help convey a message. Find words for collage - or type up words on the computer and print. - embellish with natural and found materials. Use wire for hanging. 2. Glaze - and fire - finish as above with embellishments. 1. Did students discuss - compare and contrast various masks from around the world? Were they able to speculate on materials used and purposes of masks? 2. Did students create a mask showing characteristics a selected culture? Did they use exaggeration, distortion, simplification of forms - concentric shapes? 3. Did students integrate planning into the creation of a ceramic mask using draped slab method with added coil, slab and pinch relief? Show an understanding of forming techniques? 4. Did students explore a variety of media in the completion of their ceramic mask? Exhibit craftsmanship? Does the decoration help convey meaning? Does mask express a social issue? 5. Did students successfully critique and write about the meaning of their mask for display? Add to or Comment on this Page:
Temporal range: Upper Jurassic \|Diplodocus carnegiei skeleton from the Museum für Naturkunde\| Diplodocus was a huge dinosaur from the same time as the Allosaurus. It lived during the Upper Jurassic period, about 145 to 155 million years ago. It was a vegetarian, eating mostly leaves with its peg-like teeth. Size[change \| change source] Diplodocus was a long-necked, whip-tailed giant and could grow up to 27 m long. It had an 8 m long neck and 14 m long tail. Its weight was approximately 22,680 kg. It had a short 6 ft long head. Its size helped protect it from other dinosaurs. It used its long neck to poke into forests because its body was too big. It is also believed to have knocked the trees down. The longest species is the hallorum, which was thought to be the longest of all dinosaurs (now Amphicoelias). Fossils[change \| change source] Diplodocus skeletons are among the longest dinosaur skeletons ever found. Fossils were discovered in Western North America, particularly in the Rocky Mountains of the western USA. A complete tail has never been found. Seismosaurus[change \| change source] Seismosaurus was the longest animal ever known, but paleontologists found they had misplaced vertebrae, making the body too long. Current length estimates are 33-36 metres long. Weight estimates vary from 40 to 60 tonnes. Weight estimates of other Diplodocus species are much lower: 10 to 17 tonnes. References[change \| change source] - Lucas S. et al 2004. Reappraisal of Seismosaurus, a late Jurassic sauropod dinosaur from New Mexico. The Geological Society of America, 2004 Denver Annual Meeting. - Foster J.R.; et al., eds. (2006). "Taxonomic status of Seismosaurus hallorum, a late Jurassic sauropod dinosaur from New Mexico". Paleontology and geology of the Upper Morrison Formation. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science (bulletin 36). pp. 149–161. ISSN 1524-4156.
Ever heard of CAPTCHA? You probably have, even if you aren’t familiar with the acronym. CAPTCHA (or Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) is a sort of challenge /response test to allow you to prove that your are, in fact, not a computer. The test is simple: a subjective image is displayed, usually including warped or otherwise fuzzy letters, and you’re supposed to tell the system what it is. It turns out that computers aren’t that good at it (less than 80% accurate), but we humans are aces at it (over 99% accurate), so it’s a remarkably simple and effective way to separate the sentient from the not-so-sentient. CAPTCHA is commonly used by millions of web sites that want to block automated programs from exploiting their services. For instance, Ticketmaster uses CAPTCHA to ensure that a scalper-bot doesn’t swoop in and buy up all the good seats. Many blog sites use CAPTCHA to prevent spam in feedback. The list goes on and on. With of millions of web sites relying on CAPTCHA, there are estimated to be over 100 million transactions per day. Now, a project called ReCAPTCHA has found an ingenious way to harness all this hard work for a great cause. ReCAPTCHAs could be used to transcribe the contents of scanned text at the rate of about 160 books per day. Traditional CAPTCHA checks the user’s input against a known value that corresponds to the image, but since OCR can’t translate the scanned text in the first place, ReCAPTCHA doesn’t know what it’s presenting to the user. So how is it supposed to know whether the response is accurate or not? It pairs the unknown word with a known "control" word, and assumes that if you can read one word accurately, then you can read the other one, too. By presenting the same unknown image to several users and indexing the results, ReCAPTCHA eventually "learns" the correct answer. ReCAPTCHA is available to anyone who wants to use it on their site, and the project team has even developed plug-ins for popular blogging engines like WordPress. They even have a tool that obfuscates your e-mail address, so you can confidently provide trackbacks on comments that you leave. Give it a try. You’ll help make countless tomes of wisdom digitally accessible for future generations.
High School (SCI) Earth Space Science Standards [ESS3] Earth and Human Activity SCI-HS.ESS3.06 Use data from computational representations to illustrate the relationships among Earth systems and how those relationships are being modified due to human activity. Clarification Statement:Earth Science/Environmental Science: Examples of Earth systems to be considered are the hydrosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, and/or biosphere. Disciplinary Core Ideas ESS2.D: Weather and Climate -Current models predict that, although future regional climate changes will be complex and varied, average global temperatures will continue to rise for the foreseeable future. ESS3.D: Global Climate Change -Through computer simulations and other studies, important discoveries are still being made about how the ocean, the atmosphere, and the biosphere interact and are modified in response to human activities. Student Learning Targets: Skills (Performance) Targets The Student can ... ... with help, demonstrate a partial understanding of some of the simpler details and processes (Score 2.0 content) and some of the more complex ideas and processes (Score 3.0 content). ... demonstrate no major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes but exhibits major errors or omissions regarding the more complex ideas and processes (Score 3.0 content). “The Standard.” ... demonstrate no major errors or omissions regarding any of the information and processes that were end of instruction expectations. ... demonstrate in-depth inferences and applications regarding more complex material that go beyond end of instruction expectations. Title of website with a URL to open in a new window
Tides driven by the gravitational pull of the moon create a unique marine ecosystem known as the intertidal zone where animals must be able to survive waves and daily dry periods Image by Tetre Images, LLC / Alamy Stock Photo The alternating advance and retreat of seawater along a coastline is called a tide. High tide is when water advances to its furthest extent onto the shoreline. Low tide is when it recedes to its furthest extent. Some freshwater rivers and lakes can have tides, too. A high tide that is significantly higher than normal is called a king tide. It often accompanies a new moon and when the moon is closest to the Earth. The moon’s gravitational pull on the Earth and the Earth’s rotational force are the two main factors that cause high and low tides. The side of the Earth closest to the Moon experiences the Moon’s pull the strongest, and this causes the seas to rise, creating high tides. On the side facing away from the Moon, the rotational force of the Earth is stronger than the Moon’s gravitational pull. The rotational force causes water to pile up as the water tries to resist that force, so high tides form on this side, too. Elsewhere on the Earth, the ocean recedes, producing low tides. The gravitational attraction of the Sun also plays a small role in the formation of tides. Tides move around the Earth as bulges in the ocean. Most shorelines experience two high and two low tides within a twenty-four-hour period, though some areas have just one of each. A coastline’s physical features, such as a wide sandy beach or a rocky cove, along with the depth of the water just offshore, affect the height of the tides. Tides affect marine ecosystems by influencing the kinds of plants and animals that thrive in what is known as the intertidal zone—the area between high and low tide. Because the area is alternately covered and uncovered by the ocean throughout the day, plants and animals must be able to survive both underwater and out in the air and sunlight. They must also be able to withstand crashing waves. For example, plants and animals that can anchor themselves to the rocks along a shoreline can survive the lashing from waves and the less violent movement of the changing tides. On sandy beaches, survival means being able to swim in shallow water or burrow under the sand as the waves arrive and depart overhead. Sand crabs not only burrow to survive, they actually follow the tides to maintain just the right depth in the wet sand. Along many shorelines, tides form tide pools. These small pools of water are often left behind among the rocks at low tide. They can include a diverse population of tiny plants and animals that may serve as food for larger species. The rise in sea levels will affect tides and their impacts, not just on marine ecosystems but on coastal areas that are home to millions of people and animals. The more that is known about how tides work and how they shape our coastlines, scientists say, the better prepared we will be for future changes in the oceans. (singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms, the largest of which are seaweeds. to dig a small hole or tunnel. outer boundary of a shore. community and interactions of living and nonliving things in an area. physical attraction between two massive objects. large coral reef off the northeast coast of Australia. water level that has risen as a result of the moon's gravitational pull on the Earth. region between the high and low tide of an area. water level that has dropped as a result of the moon's gravitational pull on the Earth. object's complete turn around its own axis. base level for measuring elevations. Sea level is determined by measurements taken over a 19-year cycle. beach, or where a body of water meets land. rise and fall of the ocean's waters, caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. small pond created by an ebb tide and submerged by a high tide.
UVic Science Building Sky Camera Keograms See the description section at the bottom of this page for more information about what is shown on this page. Our UVic Science Building Sky Camera Videos are on Youtube. What is a keogram? Keograms were first created by scientists looking at all sky views of the aurora borealis (the northern lights). They are a way of representing the changes that have occurred throughout the course of day in the view of a stationary camera. The way we've implemented them is to use the horizontal axis of the image as a time axis. So, we take single pixel columns from the images taken a different times of the day and then recombine to form a new image. Each column of pixels in the keogram represents a different moment in time. Moving from the left to right, the time starts at 05:00, advances by approximately 40 seconds per pixel, and reaches 22:00 at the right edge. Again, the leftmost column of the keogram corresponds to five AM and the rightmost column to 10 PM. The column in the centre is taken from an image midway between those times, obtained at 13:30 or 1:30 PM. Notice the black bars on the right and left of the images. These represent the times before sunrise (on the left) and after sunset (on the right). The width of these bars changes with the seasons as the relative length of night and day change. Because we are scanning across the source images in time and in space keograms made this way don't reveal every change that occurred in the sky over the course of the day. However, we can use them to make some broad interpretations of the kind of day that occurred. We can tell if it was mostly clear or mostly cloudy. We can detect widespread rain (2012-03-29), snow ( 2012-01-18), or foggy conditions. We can see evidence of smoke in the atmosphere (reddening of the sunrise and sunset times and a brownish tone to the image at others). We can see significant periods of brightening and dimming due to clouds to the south. This is due to the fact that since the camera looks approximately north, clouds to the south, especially in winter, often block the amount of light we see in the camera view significantly. Of course, it's important to remember that the camera is not using a constant exposure as the light varies throughout the day. Instead it modifies the exposure settings to try to get an optimum picture at all times. Noisy looking cumulus clouds indicate that the clouds were present in the same location for a long enough time to register but were quite dynamic in their immediate appearance. That is, the convection processes that creates these clouds is localized over some specific spot on the ground but the clouds appearance changes in outline from moment to moment. A good example of this is the image from 2012-07-28. Finally, because the camera looks up and to the north at an oblique angle, perspective effects distort the individual images that we see. For example, clouds just overhead or otherwise near to the camera look much larger than otherwise similar clouds far to the north. Motion across the field is exaggerated when it occurs near to the camera, in a way similar to what you experience when you look out the windows of a moving ground vehicle. Objects in the foreground appear to move past your field of view more quickly than objects in the distance. These kinds of effects lead to apparent swirls and upward streaks that we see in many of these images. They do indicate motion of the observed clouds but need careful interpretation. Thanks to Jeremy Krogh, the undergraduate summer student in our lab in 2012 who figured out how to make these images.
Biome in a Baggie - 1 Program title - 1.1 Student worthiness - 1.2 Primary biological content area covered - 1.3 Materials - 1.4 Handouts - 1.5 Description of activity - 1.6 Lesson plan - 1.7 Potential pitfalls - 1.8 Math connections - 1.9 Literature connections - 1.10 Connections to educational standards - 1.11 Next steps - 1.12 Reflections - 1.13 Citations and links Biology In Elementary Schools is a Saint Michael's College student project from a course that ran between 2007 and 2010 and fully described in this book chapter. The student-created resources have been preserved here for posterity. Link under 'toolbox' for printer-friendly versions of the exercises. Click on handouts to print full resolution versions. Please see Wikieducator's disclaimer, our safety statement, and the Creative Commons licensing in English and in legalese. Tried and Trusted Primary biological content area covered - The water cycle - Plant growth - Clear cups (enough for each group of students or each individual student.) - Gallon-size resealable storage bags - Potting soil - Bush beans (or substitute whatever seeds you have available; bush beans grow rapidly) - Measuring cup - Eye dropper - Masking Tape This handout (Figure 1) can be used for students to record a hypothesis and how their beans are growing in each biome. Teachers can decide how often they want them to measure and for how long before they answer the last three questions. Description of activity The purpose of this activity is to explore different biomes and the water cycle. Students will create both a desert biome and a prairie biome, and see how the plants survive in both. They will also see how the water cycle works because once the plants are shut in the plastic bags, they will not need water again. - You may want to prepare a demo ahead of time to show the students what may happen in their experiments. (Keep in mind: the handout (Figure 1.) has a section for making a hypothesis, so you may want to show students the example biomes after they make their hypotheses. 1. Start by discussing biomes with the students, and explain that they are going to make their own prairie and desert biomes. 2. Each biome should be done one at a time because they will each need different amounts of water. Give each group a clear cup and have them fill it 3/4 of the way with soil. Students should then be instructed to plant a bush bean in the middle of the soil. 3. Students will add water next. For the prairie biome, they should use the measuring cup to be sure they are putting a certain amount of water in the cup. Students can decide as a group or class how much water should go into the cup. 4. The final step is for students to put the cup in the plastic bag and seal it. They will then use the masking tape to wrap the bag tight around the cup, so the condensation will fall into the cup instead of around it. 5. Repeat all these steps with the desert biome, with the exception of the water. In this biome, the dropper will be used instead of the measuring cup to make sure that it will have less water. Again, students can decide as a class or group how much water to put in. Be sure to use the marker to record which biome is the prairie and which is the desert. 6. After finishing all this, students should discuss why they will not need to water the plants again and how the water cycle works. They will each record their hypothesis about which biome they think will best suit the bush beans. 7. Depending on what the teacher decides, students can measure their beans over a period of time and record the bean growth on the chart provided on the handout (Figure 1.). When they decide to stop measuring, students will answer the last three questions. - When discussing biomes, it may be helpful to have books on hand with pictures showing the two different biomes being discussed during the experiment. We found that many students did not know what biomes were and it would have benefited them to be able to see pictures or hear a story. - This experiment does not take very long. This is because the only hands on part of it in the beginning is planting the seeds. The ongoing experiment is watching the plants grow and measuring them. Do this when you want a simple, short, initial experiment with the potential for a long-term follow-up. - Students will measure the bean growth in the desert and prarie environments over time. A class graph could even be made because this experiment is designed to do in groups. Each group can be assigned a number or letter and have their own spot on the horizontal axis of the graph and the vertical axis can measure the bean growth they each experience. Each biome can have a color. The group will not only be comparing biomes, but also the progress of each group. - Students will decide how much water to put in each biome and measure it with either a dropper or measuring cup. Bracken, Carolyn & Relf, Pat, 1996, The Magic School Bus Wet All Over: A Book About the Water Cycle, Scholastic Paperbacks. - This book can used to begin the lesson because it will either remind students or get them thinking about the water cycle. It could also be used at the end to finish the lesson. Jackson, Kay, 2008, Explore the Desert, Capstone Press. - This is an excellent book to provide extra information about what plants grow in the desert. Students can look at this when making their hypothesis and decide whether bush beans would grow well here. Robinson, Faye, 1995, Where Do Puddles Go?, Children’s Press Chicago. - This is another book about the water cycle that could be used instead of The Magic School Bus. It has less text, so it may be quicker to read if when teaching this lesson there is limited time and the introduction needs to be shorter. Sievert, Terri, 2005, Prairie Plants, Bridgestone Books. Welch, Katherine, 2005, Desert Plants, Bridgestone Books. - These two books can be used at the beginning of the lessons to introduce biomes and get students thinking about what the two different biomes they will be working with look like. This will also provide additional information for them to think about when making their hypotheses. Connections to educational standards 7.3 Students understand the nature of mathematical, scientific, and technological theory. This is evident when students: a. Show understanding that concepts form the foundation for theories; b. Look for evidence that explains why things happen. Vermont Grade Expectations S3-4:48 Students demonstrate their understanding of processes and change over time within Earth systems by… - Describing water as it changes into vapor in the air and reappears as a liquid when it is cooled. - This experiment can easily be part of a longer unit on either the water cycle or biomes. - It can go along with other experiments about the water cycle, such as: Magic Moisture This explores condensation. Water Cycle in a Bottle This explores the water cycle as a whole and might be a good experiment to do before the Biome in a Baggie experiment. - This experiment can also be modified to compare plant growth and something other than amount of water, such as light, temperature, fertilizer, etc. It would be a good idea to allow groups of students to come up with their own ideas for experiments and test them to see how the plants grow. - The biggest problem I found with this experiment is that we didn't have a book to supplement our lesson. I think if the one of the books about biomes had been used, the students would have had a better idea about what they were creating. There are several appropriate books in the literature connections section that would have been excellent for this lesson. - I also think having each student create their own plant is best, but when there are limited materials sometimes it doesn't work out this way. Students seemed to get bored while we were actually putting the plants together, especially when we had a large group of students because only one student could participate at a time. I think even putting the students in pairs and having them create plants together would have helped them to be more engaged. However, when having to work with large groups like we did, it is important to be sure each student gets to participate in some way. I think this is one of the things that worked well with our experiment. Everyone was involved. - The other problem with this experiment that I found was the time it took to make the biomes. In our classroom setting we only had each group for 20 minutes. The bulk of this experiment is the follow up on the worksheets and on watching their plants grow. Most of the excitement will come later on in the experiment when the students get to watch the plants. I found that planting the plants was only exciting because they got to use dirt. http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/sci/biomeinabaggie.html Zoom Science (This is where we got our idea.) http://education.vermont.gov/new/html/pubs/framework.html The Vermont Standards and Grade Expectations http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/kids/flash/flash_watercycle.html The Water Cycle Animation - This website contains a fun animation. Students can use it as a visual and audio aid in learning about the water cycle, either before or after this activity.
Hearing Loss Diagnosis and Treatment Your auditory system consists of many complex parts that function together successfully so that you can hear normally. When any one component of the system isn’t functioning normally, you may experience loss of hearing. To accurately describe the hearing loss, we must determine the following: - Type of hearing loss - The degree of hearing loss - The configuration of hearing loss We will determine these three factors by performing a diagnostic hearing evaluation. Having a diagnostic hearing evaluation is the first step in determining the type, degree, and configuration of your hearing loss. For accuracy, we conduct hearing tests in sound-treated rooms using special earphones and equipment that has been calibrated to national standards. The hearing test begins with a thorough discussion about your symptoms, medical history, and any other concerns you may have. Depending on your hearing loss symptoms and case history, your audiologist will perform several different tests, which may include the following: - Otoscopic examination to evaluate the status of your outer ear, ear canal, and eardrum - Tympanometry/Immittance testing to reveal the status of your middle ear system - Air conduction and bone conduction threshold testing to determine the softest sounds you can hear at different frequencies. This testing also reveals the type, degree, and configuration of your hearing loss. It is more than a hearing screening. - Word recognition testing to assess your ability to understand speech when the volume of the speech signal is adequate for your level of hearing. - Otoacoustic emission testing to differentiate sensory (inner ear) from neural (nerve) hearing loss. - Loudness discomfort testing to measure your ability to tolerate loud sounds and identify the presence of decreased sound tolerance. Following the testing, the audiologist will explain the results to you and answer any questions you may have.
Encouraging children to take down notes helps them to retain attention in class and stops their mind from wandering. In fact, when children are taking notes they are taking note of or paying attention to what is being taught in class. Taking notes is different from making notes .Making notes is an activity in which the children make notes to answer specific questions for the exams and is an activity associated with self study. When your child is taking notes he is in fact taking note of and paying attention to what is being taught in the class and is thinking and assimilating the information in writing. When your child doesn’t takes notes there are greater chances of • his losing interest in the class • him loosing on the intricacies of the topic taught by the teacher • him loosing track of the topics that triggered his thought process • him being able to keep track of the topics that interested him • him not being able to keep track of the topics in which he thought he might be delving into more details later on • loosing on important points which he thought he needs to remember When taking notes the student adds various add-ons such as question marks , exclamation marks, some figures that trigger his memory of the class when he goes through it later. Sometimes some thoughts get triggered during the class that need more clarification .Taking notes helps your child to keep record of such thoughts and points that need more explanation or clarification from the teacher’s side so that he can go to the teacher later and discuss and get more information and better explanation on it.
SAVING THE OZONE: Part five in our series exploring the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer – dubbed “the world’s most successful environmental agreement” – explores the parallels between saving the ozone and fighting climate change. Since the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole more than 20 years ago, scientists have shown that there are no direct links between global warming and the ozone hole. They are due to quite different processes associated with human activities - increasing greenhouse gas emissions on one hand and increasing release of ozone-depleting chemicals on the other. There are a number of common misconceptions about connections between the two, such as the ozone hole allowing more sunshine in to heat the surface and cause global warming. Scientists have tried to combat these misconceptions through more effective communication of the cause of ozone depletion and the cause of global warming. However, the climate system is very complex, with connections between many different parts. Hence, it should come as no surprise to hear that there are some indirect links between the Antarctic ozone hole and changes in surface weather and climate. Ozone absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, warming the stratosphere. The formation of the ozone hole means less UV radiation is absorbed, cooling the stratosphere over Antarctica in spring and summer. This cooling leads to stronger westerly winds in the upper atmosphere, as well as stronger westerly winds in the lower atmosphere in late spring and summer. These stronger winds encircling Antarctica have a number of impacts on the surface climate. They lead to reduced heat transfer from lower latitudes, making most of Antarctica cooler than it would otherwise have been but warming the Antarctic Peninsula (the part that sticks up towards South America). They also lead to three other changes: in Southern Ocean currents; in the gas exchanges between the Southern Ocean and the atmosphere; and in the expansion of sea ice extent. All of these changes have been observed and modelled as responses to the ozone hole, indicating that there really is an indirect link between surface climate change and the Antarctic ozone hole. There is a second connection between global warming and ozone depletion. Ozone-depleting chemicals are also very potent greenhouse gases. The reduction in emissions of ozone-depleting chemicals due to the establishment of the Montreal Protocol 25 years ago has been substantial. Without this reduction, global warming would have accelerated even more. In fact, the reduction in greenhouse gases due to the Montreal Protocol is five times larger than the reduction in greenhouse gases achieved through the Kyoto Protocol. The Montreal Protocol was thus not only a very successful international policy agreement addressing ozone depletion, but has also reduced global warming, if only by a small amount. This is another important reason to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Montreal Protocol! Read more on the Montreal Protocol’s 25th anniversary.
Fracking or hydraulic fracturing is the process of injecting or drilling any fluids into the earth at high pressure to release the gas inside to fissure earth elements to discharge natural gas. More than 600 chemicals use fracking unsolidified components like carcinogens and toxins. Examples of these are lead, uranium, mercury, ethylene glycol, radium, methanol, hydrochloric acid, and formaldehyde. Fraction fluid injects into the ground with pressure through a drilled pipeline. Some companies use fracking waters to resist divulging fracking waters, assuming that being informative is proprietary. Some companies use fracking to remove billions of gallons of crystal clear waters from the water cycle. Fractures can be extended for hundreds of feet away from the water source. The proponents, such as ceramic pellets, sands, and other tiny incomprehensible particles, hold new opened created features. Five hundred thousand active wells in the United States multiplied by 8 million gallons of water per fracking and multiplied by 18 times a gallon can be fractured is equal to 72 trillion gallons of water. Furthermore, 360 billion gallons of chemicals are needed to run the current gas wells. Contamination of Fractured Chemicals in Water Chemicals and toxic methane gas percolates in this process and infects water in adjacent water sources. Concentrations of methane are 17 times higher in drinking water near other fracturing sites than normal drinking water. Contaminated drinking water is used in cities, moreover, nearby towns. According to studies and researches, over 1,000 cases of water are documented. This usually happens next to areas of gas drilling sites. Cases of sensory, respiratory, and neurological damage were also reported due to the indigestion of water contamination. There were also cases in which there were 30-50% of fractured water was recovered. The rest of the fractured water was left behind in the earth, and it is non-biodegradable. The toxic fluid evaporates into thin air to release harmful VOCs or volatile organic compounds. In addition, evaporation occurs when it is left in the open in air depths. When VOCs are released, they cause acid rains, polluted air, and earth-level ozone. The research team from the Institute of Health and the Environment, the University of Missouri, and the Center for Environmental Health conducted studies and research. The studies and research shows that bodies exposed to chemicals released by hydraulic fracturing lead to health risks for men, women, and children. Hydraulic fracturing is harmful to women since it can affect the reproduction of childbirth and its development. The Process of Hydraulic Fracking Hydraulic fracking is a technique usually used in alternative gas productions. Alternative tanks are cost-effective gas producers. It is only used with a special stimulation technique like other special technologies and special processes. Shale gas extraction was produced recently, while the CBM or coalbed methane was produced in 1984. There are three processes of hydraulic fracking. Namely, shale gas extraction, the second is the production of CBM or coalbed methane, and the third is by using tight sands. Berkey Water Filters against Fracking of Chemicals in Water A healthy lifestyle is the topmost priority in today's society. Maintaining a healthy keeps us well and able, especially in fulfilling our daily routines. Most importantly, it is better to secure yourself water worth and safe for drinking. Water is one of the most important necessities in a person's life. A person survives a long period of days without food, given that water is present. In today's generation, there are a lot of things that we can no longer pour our 100% trust, especially in the field of business and marketing. Most companies either exaggerates the details or promises their consumers false facts. And yes, it is disappointing and scary. In that light, you need not worry anymore about looking for a trustworthy water supplier. People around the world trust products of Berkey Water Filters since they are of high quality and promote water safety. Big Berkey Water Filter one of the most popular Berkey models. It is perfect for everyday use in households. This water filter is different from other water filters because of its unique filtration system. This water filter's high and powerful performance system is very unusual as it purifies both untreated and treated water. Why Big Berkey Water Filter is Mostly Used in Households Worldwide The steel features of Big Berkey Water Filter are a huge advantage. Using this Berkey water filter, there's no hose taste because this water filter has no hose attached to its body. The water is clean and safe to drink. It has no medical aftertaste. Big Berkey Water Filter is also known to remove pathogenic bacteria, harmful chemicals, radon, organic solvents, trihalomethanes, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds. It also reduces the presence of unwanted chemicals, such as lead, nitrate, and mercury. This water filter system is so powerful that it can also remove red food coloring in natural water resources without removing advantageous minerals your body needs. This powerful water purifier system will provide you clean and chemical-free water. Therefore, assuring you and your family with the safety and satisfaction that you have been looking for.
- Using PVAAS for a Purpose - Key Concepts - Concept of Growth - Growth Measures and Standard Errors - Growth Standard Methodology - Predictive Methodology - Topics in Value-Added Modeling - Public Reports - Additional Resources - General Help This report enables you to create graphs that display the relationship between two variables. For example, you might choose to view the relationship between entering achievement and growth in sixth-grade math for all schools in an LEA/district. Using the options in this flexible report, you can: - Choose the variable for each axis in the graph - Select the LEA/districts or schools to plot - Customize the way the data is displayed Building scatterplots can be a powerful way to explore the data because it enables users to see whether relationships exist between two variables or types of data, such as achievement and growth. Both achievement and growth must be considered together to get a complete picture of student learning. Achievement information indicates where students are academically, at a given point in time, while growth information indicates the amount of academic progress students have made. The scatterplots enable you to view both pieces of information simultaneously to examine their relationship and identify patterns that can provide insight into the effects of educational practices on student learning. Due to the pandemic's impact on student learning, the 2020-21 reporting might yield patterns between growth and student characteristics that are different from the typical relationships. These trends provide information on students' different learning experiences during the pandemic.For more information about changes to reporting, see What's New in 2021 and the Statistical Models and Business Rules.
Serbian-American inventor and physicist, Nikola Tesla is described as a “genius who lit the world” by the Tesla Memorial Society of New York. He was a visionary in the field of scientific development who was recognised for being far ahead of his contemporaries. Born on 10th July 1856, in Smiljan, Lika – modern-day Croatia – he was the son of a priest, Milutin Tesla, who was skilled at making mechanical appliances and craft tools. His mother, Djuka, invented household appliances. While studying physics and mathematics at the Polytechnic Institute of Graz, Austria and the University of Prague, Nikola specialised in physics and mathematics and became fascinated by electricity. He started work as an electrical engineer for a Budapest telephone company in 1881, when he began to study the rotating magnetic field – the key principle to operating an alternating-current motor. He then joined Paris-based Continental Edison Company, where he designed dynamos. Nikola built a prototype of the induction motor in 1883 in Strasbourg but was unable to gain interest in Europe to develop his device, so in 1884, he moved to New York to work for inventor Thomas Edison. Nikola looked into improving Edison’s line of dynamos, claiming the direct current electrical powerhouses were inefficient. He experimented, using the polyphase alternating current (AC) system instead. He developed the alternating current system of motors, generators and transformers and successfully applied for 40 US patents on the system. Entrepreneur and engineer, George Westinghouse, bought the patents to supply the AC system across America. In 1887, Nikola developed an induction motor that ran on alternating current, creating massive benefits for long-distance, high-voltage transmission. Its polyphase current generated a rotating magnetic field that turned the motor. The electric motor was patented in May 1888, featuring a self-starting design. In 1888, he devised a system to power Pittsburgh’s streetcars and was also hired as a consultant at the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company’s laboratories in the city. In 1889, Nikola travelled to Paris for the Exposition Universelle exhibition, where he learned of Heinrich Hertz’ experiments between 1886 and 1888 into electromagnetic radiation and radio waves. He decided to explore this more thoroughly and in 1891 invented the Tesla coil, which is widely used today in televisions and radios. He also gained United States citizenship the same year. His discoveries also include the fluorescent light, wireless communications, the laser beam, remote control, the wireless transmission of electrical energy, Tesla’s turbines, robotics and the vertical take-off aircraft. It was Nikola’s experiments with thunder and lightning that gained him the reputation of “mad scientist”. In 1899, he began to experiment with high-frequency electricity and other phenomena at a purpose-built station at Colorado Springs. From 1905, Nikola’s friends began to fear he seemed depressed, eccentric and withdrawn. He became secretive about his discoveries and of those that he publicised, some seemed impossible to build. However, in 1917, he described the principals of modern military radar in The Electrical Experimenter magazine. A similar design was successfully used to find aircraft and surface ships during World War II. His final major scientific proposal in 1934 was for a charged particle beam weapon – a weapon of mass destruction. He tried to interest the British government without success. However, decades later, during the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union, both world powers spent time and money trying to develop such a device. After his death at the age of 86, on 7th January 1943, Nikola’s technical papers mysteriously went missing and the FBI impounded the rest of his belongings. At the end of WWII, his papers about particle beam weaponry also disappeared. Mystery surrounds the incident to this day and speculation is rife that he had invented a secret weapon that was kept from the public for reasons of national security because the knowledge of such a weapon was too powerful for anyone to ever possess. Nikola Tesla’s experiments – particularly his spectacular man-made thunder and lightning – are a fascinating piece of history. Today, however, the threat of lightning strikes caused by nature is very real. Lightning Strike supplies and installs reliable lightning defence and electrical earthing systems across the UK. For details of how our fully trained engineers can assure the best lightning protection for your property, please contact us.
Gardening with Wildflowers and Native Plants Echinacea, or purple coneflower, is a native plant that attracts butterflies. In a world dominated by red geraniums, pink begonias and yellow marigolds, wildflowers possess a simple grace and elegance. Most any garden or landscape is enhanced by their presence. Wildflowers have merit not only for their ornamental qualities, but for their toughness and ease of maintenance as well. Once established in their preferred habitat, they usually require very little attention, providing you with years of carefree beauty. Native plants also play a valuable role in preserving biodiversity and ecological balance. Since these plants evolved alongside native insects, birds and other creatures, they're often an important source of food and shelter. Not all plants that grow wild in North America are necessarily natives. Many that we now consider wildflowers have been introduced to the wild, either intentionally or by accident. Some of these garden plants escaped from cultivation and have become widely naturalized over the years, surviving and spreading in the wild. In fact, a few, such as Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) have adapted so successfully that they are now considered weeds, albeit pretty ones. Books on wildflowers often feature maps of North America, with shaded regions indicating where a particular wildflower grows as a native species. This is good to keep in mind, but unless you're a purist, the fact that a given plant isn't native to your region doesn't necessarily mean that you can't grow it successfully. For instance, plenty of gardeners outside of California grow the California poppy (Eschscholzia californica)usually as a hardy annual. In its native range and preferred growing conditions (Zone 8 to 10, well-drained soil, full sun), California poppy self-sows vigorously and is considered a short-lived perennial. In other locations, it performs like an annual and often needs replanting each year. Many species exhibit this kind of "home court advantage"; they are adaptable enough to grow well in other regions of the country, but tend to perform best in the climate and growing conditions found in their native range. So when you are considering which wildflowers to grow in your garden, remember that species that are native (or already well-adapted) to your part of the country will usually have an advantage over other species. Topography, soils and other factors all come into play, but generally speaking, it is easier to create a home for wildflowers that have already proven to be well-suited to your region.Site and Soil Conditions The physical characteristics of your garden or landscape will determine, to a great extent, the specific kinds of wildflowers or native plants that you can grow. Fortunately, there are wildflowers suited to practically every ecological niche, from the bog-loving marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) to the desert marigold (Baileya multiradiata). Before deciding what types of wildflowers to grow, take a walk around your property and observe the different kinds of sites you have. Try to gauge the sunlight on particular locations: does a spot receive full sun for many hours a day, is it shaded part of the time, or does the sun filter down through leaves to create a dappled light shade? If you're observing your yard during late fall or early spring, when trees and shrubs are leafless, picture how much shade wildflowers will get in the summer if planted in their vicinity. Also consider the soils. Are areas dry and parched, or moist and boggy? Are sites protected from the wind or exposed? The amount and quality of sunlight received each day can be crucial for native plants. Wildflowers common to prairies and large, open meadows normally grow in full sun and will do best when they receive half a day or more of direct sunlight. Plants classified as savanna or open woodland species prefer growing in partial shade, with sunlight reaching the ground between trees. Woodland plants grow best in partial to full shade, beneath a more or less solid canopy of trees. Some flowers that grow in shady woods manage to get the sunlight they need by flowering early in the spring. For instance, trillium and hepatica love growing in humus-rich woodland soil; they bloom quite early, while the spring sun shines through the bare trees. Once the weather warms up and the trees leaf out, these plants enjoy growing in filtered shade. Since they can't just pick up their roots and move, they have arranged their flowering schedule accordingly. Other major factors to consider when looking over your property are the types of soil you have, their acidity or alkalinity as measured by soil pH, and the amount of water they retain at various times of the year. Many wildflowers will tolerate drought conditions or relatively poor soils. Yet even these tough customers, such as black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta), will grow taller and more vigorously if planted in richer soil. In fact, you might decide to plant black-eyed Susan in an area with relatively poor soil, simply to curb its enthusiastic nature. Finally, when reading up on wildflowers and the conditions they like, remember that the same plant often prefers different growing conditions in different regions of the country. For instance, many species that grow well in full sun in the North perform best in partial shade when planted in areas that have long, hot summers.Sources of Native Plants Collecting native plants from the wild is at best unethical and often illegal in the case of rare or threatened species like lady's-slippers and pitcher plants. What's more, wild plants are often uniquely adapted to their growing conditions and they frequently do not survive a move from their natural habitat to the confines of the home garden. In other words, you should not dig up a plant in the wild for your garden. Fortunately, there are many reputable nurseries that propagate wildflower plants from seed. Mail-order nurseries typically ship these plants when they are dormant, usually in early spring or fall. Either season is fine for transplanting most wildflowers, although certain species adapt better to fall planting, such as birdsfoot violet (Viola pedata) and violet wood sorrel (Oxalis violacea). Collecting seeds of wildflowers is appropriate, so long as you harvest seeds judiciously, taking only a small sample so the existing plant colonies will be able to reproduce themselves. Today, wildflower seeds are quite widely available from commercial seed suppliers, so you're frequently better off ordering from them. Growing plants from seed is certainly more economical than buying mature plants. The main disadvantage is that many native plants require a long time to mature or even to germinate from seed. Also, the seeds of many species need pretreatment before they can be planted. Most often this involves stratificationplanting the seeds in a pot and then refrigerating them for several months until the seeds are fooled into believing that it's time to break dormancy and germinate. Unless you are patient and have some experienced growing plants from seed, it's probably best to start your wildflower garden by purchasing plants from a reputable nursery. The main exception is growing a wildflower lawn or meadow, in which case you can sow mixed seeds directly on top of the ground in either the fall or spring. (See How to Plant a Wildflower Meadow .)Aggressive Plants As plants that exist happily in the wild without human care, native plants tend to be quite efficient at reproducing themselves through seed dispersal and other means. In most situations, this is a desirable trait. But some native plants take this exuberance to extremes, so it pays to do some research and try to avoid creating problems down the line. Since a plant that's well mannered in one region can act like a thug in another, it's best to get this information from your state Extension Service Office or Natural Resources Department.Integrating Natives Into Your Gardens and Landscape Wildflowers and other native plants don't have to be relegated to areas outside your flower garden. While it would be a mistake to introduce aggressive plants into a formal bed or border, many other wildflowers are well-mannered and perfectly at home in the garden proper. When you're including these plants in a formal garden, try to select ones that will not only complement the rest of the bed in terms of height, bloom time and color, but that will also be compatible partners in their growth habit. The informal habit of a 4 ft. tall New England aster is lovely in a hedgerow or along a fence, but might be all wrong in a formal bed with peonies and clipped boxwood. Creating a little garden of wildflowers, set off unto itself, can be a wonderful way to display wildflowers. This also gives you a chance to get to know the habits and ornamental qualities of various native plants before adding them to your other beds and borders. Rock gardens are a perfect environment for native alpine plants and plants that are native to the arid West or Southwest. All need plenty of sun, good air circulation, and sharply drained soil. Two good examples are the spring-blooming pasqueflower (Anemone patens), with its pretty pastel blue blossoms and fuzzy white seedheads, and the poppy mallow (Callirhoe triangulata), a low, spreading relative of the hollyhock that has deep magenta flowers. Many perennial wildflowers have long stems and showy blossoms that will add interest to both borders and indoor flower arrangements. Some common examples are the purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea, E. pallida, and other species), foxglove, beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis), and the false dragonhead or obedient plant (Physostega virginiana). Native plants and wildflowers have so much to offer. If you want to learn more, the best way to get started is to get a small notebook and a wildflower guidebook, and start identifying the wild plants that grow in your area. Note the growing conditions where you find them (sun, shade, dry, wet, sandy, rocky) and the bloom time. You might even take a digital picture and add that to your notebook as well. Before long, you'll be familiar with dozens of native plants and have a good idea about how they might be incorporated into your home landscape.
Image text transcribed for accessibility: Consider the following circuit. Assume a voltage supply 9 volts (or plusminus 9 volts) is available. Assume transistors (BJTs or FETs) have fT = 640 MHz. Design the amplifier to meet the following specifications: A sigma M = = 3165, Ri 3368 Ohm, R'0 40.0 Ohm fL 600 Hz and fH 1 MHz and each amplifier stage must have IQ = 1 mA (That is : for BJTs IQ = ICQ = = IEQ and for FETs IQ IDQ ISQ) IF you use BJTs then assume rx = re and r0 = infinity IF you use FETs then assume rd 100 k Ohm in your design show all work, the circuit diagram and the value of all circuit components including the transistor parameters For your design, also find A IM = iL / is and A PM = PL / P use spice program to verify the results of your design. Determine the number of stage to be used Determine the type of each stage Design the biasing circuits Using specifications determine all parameters of the circuit and transistors to be used Specify the parameters value of the transistors.
Below are topics for research. Students can write a paper or create a multi-media presentation about one or more of these topics. - Find out more about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and explain why Germany and the Soviet Union signed this treaty on the eve of World War II. - Find out more about the impressions Jews and others had of German society before WWII. How did this impression affect the ways in which they responded to the Nazis when WWII began? - Find out more about the risks that Marek and his brother took by not wearing the armband. What punishments could they have faced? - Find out more about the alliance between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, and explain why Italian troops were stationed in Lvov. - Find out more about the history of the massive deportations from Lvov, and learn more about Belzec, the death camp where many of the Jews of Lvov were murdered. - Find out more about the political changes and the progress of the war in Italy during 1943. - Find out more about Jewish and non-Jewish partisans, and the countries in which they fought. - What were conditions like for Jews who tried to return to their homes after the war? What challenges did they face? - Find out more about the history of Zionism, and explain why it was so important to the survivors.
Poison plays a big role in Hamlet. It is a symbol of betrayal, corruption, deceit, revenge and death. In Act 1 Scene 5, Hamlet follows the ghost of his father, King Hamlet and learns the entire story of how Claudius kills him. King Hamlet says, “…Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial, And in the porches of my ears did pour…” (I.v.61-63). When Claudius pours the poison into Hamlet’s ear and murders him, it demonstrates how much the need for power can corrupt someone. In this case, the need for power motivated Claudius to poison his own brother. Later, when Laertes and Claudius are planning to kill Hamlet for revenge, they also decide to use poison. When the poison actually comes into play, it ends up killing Queen Gertrude (thus betrayal), and eventually leads to the death of Laertes, King Claudius and Hamlet. Yorick’s (Jester’s) Skull The skull represents death and the afterlife. When Hamlet picks up the skull of Yorick and begins to talk to it, he questions death, and what happens after. Hamlet eventually realizes that no matter what kind of a life someone may lead, everybody dies and ends up in the same place after death – as mere dust. He questions the importance of being important while alive, and the importance of being alive in general. He talks about how someone like Yorick could end up in the same position and place as someone such as Alexander the Great, when he says, “as thus: Alexander died, Alexander was buried, Alexander returneth to dust, the dust is earth, of earth we make loam , and why of that loam, whereto he was converted, might they not stop a beer-barrel” (V.i.209-213)? In Act 4, Scene 5, Ophelia has gone mad because of her father, Polonius’ death. She enters the scene, carrying many different types of flowers (however some editors believe that the flowers were just imaginary), and begins to give different flowers to different people. Each of the flowers represents something, and there is a reason behind why Ophelia gives certain flowers to certain people. First, she gives the rosemary to Laertes, which is a symbol of remembrance. She also gives pansies to Laertes, as they represent a symbol of thoughts – particularly thoughts of love. Although she gives both to Laertes, Ophelia most likely has Hamlet in her mind when she says, “There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance; pray you, love, remember; and there is pansies, that’s for thoughts” (IV.v.173-175). She then gives fennel and columbines to King Claudius. Fennel represents flattery, and columbines represent having no faith in marriage. They were both given to Claudius because of his incestuous marriage and betrayal. Next, Ophelia gives daisies to both King Claudius and Queen Gertrude, which represent deceit and lies, because they both lied to the public and betrayed King Hamlet. Finally, violets are a symbol of faith and many people believe Ophelia gives these to Horatio because at this point, he is the only one that she still has faith in. Also, although Ophelia does not realize it, Horatio is the only person Hamlet still trusts and has faith in as well. “There’s fennel for you, and columbines; there’s rue for you, and here’s some for me, we may call it herb of grace o’ Sundays: O, you must wear your rue with a difference, there’s a daisy: I would give you some violets, but they wither’d all when my father died, they say a’made a good end” (IV.v.178-183).
How did a bunch of lifeless molecules transform themselves into living cells, turning the ancient, dead Earth into a planet teeming with life? It's an incredibly difficult question to answer, but a new model might explain part of the story. Before you can have life, complex organic molecules have to start replicating themselves in much the same way that cells reproduce. Molecules that can replicate themselves using only the chemicals around them are what we might call "protocells", a key transitional stage between a fully lifeless world and one dominated by living cells. But explaining how protocells come to be has proven tricky. Even if scientists can come up with a mechanism by which the molecules can reproduce, the process always involves lots of copying errors, or mutations. The occasional mutation will be beneficial for the molecule and increase its ability to reproduce - a rather rudimentary form of evolution, if you will - but the vast majority of these errors are just that, mistakes that leave the molecules unable to replicate properly. There's decades worth of experiments showing that these bad mutations will eventually win out and make impossible any further replication. Obviously that can't be the whole story, or we wouldn't be around today. One theory is that it wasn't one molecule that started reproducing, but a pair of different molecules where each could only replicate if the other was present. That way, any failed mutations would be quickly isolated out, as those defective molecules could no longer stimulate their partners to replicate. But the bad mutations would still accumulate and over time crowd out the working mutations, so there must be still another mechanism that separates the good from the bad. Scientists in the 1970s theorized that the two different types of molecules might come together in protocells, offering some space and protection from the bad mutations. The defective molecules would still exist, but they would have room to die out without bringing down the entire population with it. That's all well and good, but we have absolutely no idea how this was supposed to work. Now two theoretical biophysicists at the University of Tokyo say they might have the answer. Their model holds that one of the two molecules reproduces much more slowly than the other, but this molecule would also last much longer than its counterpart before breaking apart. This means that a single working example of this molecule could sustain generations of the other molecule, providing some security for the system. Indeed, the researchers believe that, when the molecule copies itself, it and its copy slowly drift apart, providing lots of space for the other molecules. These then form a cloud of fast-reproducing molecules around the original, slow-replicating molecule. Between these clouds, space opens up in the solution, segregating the different units and providing a natural mechanism for protocells to emerge. It's just a thought experiment, and there's no real way to test it just yet. But it's the first time we even have a possible working explanation for how Earth's first tentative steps toward life might have happened. From these humble origins, protocells could eventually turn into more complicated structures, and life could begin. It's a long and winding road from there to DNA and RNA, let alone modern life, but we've maybe identified one of the first crucial steps. [Physical Review Letters via Science]
Arctic temperature increases may speed up global warming A new study appearing in the Journal of Arctic and Alpine Research suggests that rising arctic temperatures could significantly increase atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) further speeding up the global warming process. The arctic region, which covers nearly 20% of the earth's surface contains nearly 1/3 of the earth's stored soil carbon in tundra soil. The amount of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere is a key element in the global warming process. Researchers from Ohio State University measured the CO2 emissions in Alaska's moist and dry tundra under various conditions. They found that rising arctic temperatures carbon loss due to respiration of CO2 from plants and micro-organisms, far surpasses the amount taken in by plants during each growing season. The rise in CO2 in the atmosphere is due to its release from tundra soil. Another contribution to the rise in CO2 is the short growing season which does not allow regional plants enough time to convert the CO2 into oxygen. Researchers simulated arctic summer temperatures rises of just 2 degrees centigrade and found increases in CO2 emissions from the soil of more than 27%. In some places when snowfall conditions where added to simulation the CO2 emissions increased by a factor of more than 112%. These results seem to point to significant CO2 increases in the atmosphere due to slight temperature rises. The researchers say that this process, far from being speculative, is already under way in the world's arctic regions.
Rogue waves (also known as freak waves, monster waves, episodic waves, killer waves, extreme waves, and abnormal waves) are unusually large, unexpected and suddenly appearing surface waves that can be extremely dangerous, even to large ships such as ocean liners. Rogue waves present considerable danger for several reasons: they are rare, are unpredictable, may appear suddenly or without warning, and can impact with tremendous force. A 12-metre (39 ft) wave in the usual “linear” wave model would have a breaking pressure of 6 metric tons per square metre [t/m2] (59 kPa; 8.5 psi). Although modern ships are designed to tolerate a breaking wave of 15 t/m2 (150 kPa; 21 psi), a rogue wave can dwarf both of these figures with a breaking pressure of 100 t/m2 (0.98 MPa; 140 psi). In oceanography, rogue waves are more precisely defined as waves whose height is more than twice the significant wave height (Hs or SWH), which is itself defined as the mean of the largest third of waves in a wave record. Therefore, rogue waves are not necessarily the biggest waves found on the water; they are, rather, unusually large waves for a given sea state. Rogue waves seem not to have a single distinct cause, but occur where physical factors such as high winds and strong currents cause waves to merge to create a single exceptionally large wave. Rogue waves can occur in media other than water. They appear to be ubiquitous in nature and have also been reported in liquid helium, in nonlinear optics and in microwave cavities. Recent research has focused on optical rogue waves which facilitate the study of the phenomenon in the laboratory. A 2015 paper studied the wave behavior around a rogue wave, including optical, and the Draupner wave, and concluded that “rogue events do not necessarily appear without a warning, but are often preceded by a short phase of relative order”. A 2012 study confirmed the existence of oceanic rogue holes, the inverse of rogue waves, where the depth of the hole can reach more than twice the significant wave height.
There mare many different objects and people inside the classroom. In this lesson, learn important vocabulary related to this topic: objects in the classroom! A classroom contains many things (and people!). In this beginner Spanish lesson, learn how to identify and say the words for things found in the classroom. What’s your favorite color? After watching this Spanish lesson, you’ll know how to answer this question and talk about light and dark colors of the rainbow! In this lesson, employ your knowledge of talking about colors in Spanish by learning how to ask and answer the question: “What is your favorite color?” Learn a series of Spanish vocabulary in this beginner-level lesson. Students will learn Spanish terms for immediate and extended family members. - Recommended Recommended - History & In Progress History - Browse Library - Most Popular Library Get Personalized Recommendations Let us help you figure out what to learn! By taking a short interview you’ll be able to specify your learning interests and goals, so we can recommend the perfect courses and lessons to try next.Start Interview You don't have any lessons in your history. Just find something that looks interesting and start learning!
Teaching reading in an IRW class: why, what, how “College students already know how to read, don’t they?” Yes, students know how to recognize words on a page. But no, many do not know how to read actively to create meaning and analyze and evaluate the author’s message. Why reading needs to be taught Just as writing needs to be taught, active reading strategies also need to be taught. It may be intuitive to us, as instructors, but it is not for our students. Integrated Reading & Writing (IRW) classes teach these skills fundamental to student success. Many developing college writers have a rudimentary command of basic grammar. They can speak clearly and be understood. They may also possess a massive store of word meanings, but they cannot write coherent paragraphs or essays. Likewise, as readers, many college students can recognize words, understand word meanings, and pronounce and define words, but they do not know how to engage and interact with a text to extract meaning from it. Both reading and writing are essential survival and success strategies for college and the workplace. Both involve critical thinking: interpretation, analysis, and evaluation of ideas. What needs to be taught College reading is built on five approaches and skill sets that can be taught: - Teach that reading is a process that parallels the writing process. Emphasize that it is an active process in which the reader interacts with the writer’s ideas. Reading = recognition of techniques (for example, identifying and understanding topic sentences) Writing = implementation of techniques (for example, drafting and revising topic sentences) Reading = analysis of ideas (for example, analyzing a writer’s tone) Writing = expression of ideas (for example, choosing a tone that suits the audience and purpose) - Explain that reading involves strategies to use before, during, and after reading. Students need to: - preview before reading - think, connect, and anticipate ideas as they read - review and analyze after reading - Teach students to extract meaning from a text. This involves interacting with the text and being able to explain the author’s intended meaning in their own words. - Teach students to think critically, analyzing and evaluating the author’s ideas. Show students how to examine the author’s techniques and assess a work’s accuracy, worth, and value. - Equip students with skills to learn and remember what they read. In their other college courses, students must not only discover meaning, but determine what to learn, and use strategies to retain the material. Skills such as paraphrasing, highlighting, annotating, summarizing, and outlining or mapping are valuable. How to teach reading more effectively Instructors can teach reading more successfully by following these guidelines: - Always prepare students for a reading assignment. Don’t just assign a reading and send students off to complete it. You might pre-teach the reading by: - offering some background on the topic - building interest through a brief classroom discussion - asking students to do a quick Google search of the topic - creating a list of questions about the topic Alert students about trouble spots, and offer some specific purposes for reading. (For example, “Watch how this author uses shocking examples to stir your emotions.”) - Be intentional about teaching reading and writing together. Always remind students that reading is the “flip side” of writing. If you consistently remind students of this connection, they will eventually make the connection themselves and transfer this awareness to new situations. - Teach process not content. Don’t focus on the content of the reading (who did what, when and where). Instead teach how to discover what the author says and means. Strategies for discovering meaning have long-lasting value, while knowledge of a particular reading’s content is far less important. Think of the reading as a vehicle for teaching skills and strategies, not as an end in itself. Show students how to find the important details in a paragraph, for example, but don’t spend time on the details themselves. - Ask students to stretch. They should be asked to engage with challenging material, while you give them help and support to succeed. You might create a reading guide or graphic organizer; or use scaffolded instruction by providing a partially complete outline to guide them through the reading. Students will encounter difficult materials in other courses, so they need to develop strategies to cope. As they complete difficult readings, they will experience growth, a sense of accomplishment, and greater confidence in their abilities. - Teach by showing, not telling. “Walk” students through challenging readings. Demonstrate how to uncover meaning. For example, suggest questions to ask, or use think-aloud protocols. By using these techniques to teach the approaches and skills outlined here, you can help students think more critically, and interpret, analyze, and evaluate ideas more effectively. Those abilities will empower them — in college, at work, and in society. About the author Kathleen T. McWhorter has authored over a dozen textbooks designed to help students succeed in college. Born in a rural farm community in Upstate New York, she went on to receive her EdD from SUNY Buffalo. For 34 years, she taught at Niagara County Community College in Sanborn, NY, where she is a professor emerita of humanities. Through her texts, Dr. McWhorter has helped some 500,000 students improve their reading, writing, and critical-thinking skills. She remains deeply involved in the educational community, and welcomes opportunities to share her expertise, tips, and tricks.
Table of Contents - Common Terminology in Population Genetics - Genotype and Allelic Frequencies - Measuring Genetic Variation - The Hardy–Weinberg Principle - The Punnet Square - Hardy–Weinberg in Autosomal Recessive Disease - Hardy–Weinberg in X-linked Disease - Factors Responsible for Genetic Variation - Cancer Genetics - Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes - Cancer Hereditary and Expression Profiling in Prognosis Common Terminology in Population Genetics - A population can be defined as a group of interbreeding persons that are present together at the same time. - Genetic variation is the degree of differences seen among individuals such as height, color, etc. - Genotype is the term given to particular set of genes carried by an individual. - Gene pool is basically collection of all the genes found in a population. Genotype and Allelic Frequencies There are 23 pairs of chromosomes or a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell of the normal human body. Each chromosome is made of several thousand genes which contain the code for protein synthesis. The genes are located on the chromosome at the genetic locus and each locus has two genes, with one inherited from each of the parents. A variant or alternative form of the gene arising as a result of a mutation is called an allele, which is located at the same position as the gene and controls the same characteristic as the gene. Genotype is the unique permutation and combination of genes in an individual which determines how and which proteins are to be synthesized by that individual’s body. On the other hand, a phenotype determines the external appearance of the individual and is different from the genotype as not all the instructions in the gene are expressed (or synthesized). Measuring Genetic Variation The mean number of alleles (MNA) is calculated manually to indicate the allele frequency for different populations in equilibrium. It is an indicator of genetic variation when calculated over several loci. A low MNA means low genetic variation which is found in populations who are genetically isolated (inbreeding) or as a result of population bottlenecks or associated with founder effects. On the other hand, if the MNA is high, it indicated greater allelic diversity, probably as a result of crossbreeding. Variation in gene frequency amongst loci and different breeds is calculated using chi-square analysis, while contingent chi-square analysis helps to determine independent genotypes in all breeds. The Hardy–Weinberg Principle In a population at equilibrium, allelic and genotypic frequencies in that population will remain constant from generation to generation. Godfrey Hardy & Wilhelm Weinberg, 1908 According to this principle, when the gene and genotype frequencies remain constant over generations, the population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). This presumes: - that the population is large, - that there is no immigration or emigration of individuals in the population, - that there is no mutation, - that there is random mating, and - there is no natural selection. Mutation, migration, and selection with the non-random union of gametes can influence gene and genotype frequencies. Deviation from HWE can occur as a result of inbreeding, genotyping problems or population stratification. Several statistical methods help to calculate the deviation. Genotype frequency calculation Assuming that the total genotype frequency is 1.0, the hypothetical frequency of each genotype is calculated as the number of individuals in the population with that genotype divided by the total number of individuals in the population. \|Genotypes\|\|Number of individuals with these genotypes\|\|Genotype frequency\| Table 1: Calculation of genotype frequency Allele frequency calculation from genotype frequencies: Using genotype numbers, the population allele frequencies can be calculated. The total number of allele copies in the population divided by the total number of all alleles of the gene provides the allele frequency. For example: The total number of dominant A alleles in the population above is the sum of: Number of AA individuals x 2 (number of A alleles per person) = 647 x 2 = 1294 + Number of Aa individuals x 1 (number of A allele per person) = + 134 Since there are 788 individuals in the population and since they are diploid, the total number of alleles will be 2000 So, the frequency of the dominant allele A in the population will be 1428/1576 = 0.906 And. as the total allele frequency is 1.0, and since there are two alleles, A and a Derived recessive allele a frequency = 1.0 -0.906 = 0.094. Genotypic frequency calculation from allele frequencies If the population is in equilibrium, Hardy and Weinberg postulates that it should be possible to calculate genotype frequency from the allele frequencies; if it is presumed that the frequency of dominant allele A = p and recessive allele a = q, then, Frequency of the AA genotype is p2 (homozygous) Frequency of genotype Aa is 2pq (heterozygous) Frequency of genotype aa is q2 (homozygous) And as there are only two alleles and the sum total of three probable genotypes is 1.0, p2+ 2pq +q2 = 1 For example, using values from the example mentioned above in the formula: (0.906)2 + 2 (0.906) (0.094) + (0.094)2 = 1 i.e. 0.821 + 0.170 + 0.009 = 1 The Punnet Square This is a diagram designed by Reginald Punnet to calculate the probability of a couple bearing an offspring with a specific genotype. For example, consider the trait (phenotype) eye color: A = black color, a = brown color If the mother and the father have the genotype Aa = black eyes, then the probability of their offspring having genotype AA = 25%, Aa = 50% and aa = 25% which means that three children born to this couple will have black eyes, while one will have brown eyes. \|Paternal A\|\|Paternal a\| Hardy–Weinberg in Autosomal Recessive Disease In certain genetic disorders, such as autosomal recessive conditions, the allele is rare and there are more heterozygotes compared to homozygotes. This means that 2pq is much greater than q2. For example, the incidence of phenylketonuria (PKU) is 1 in 10,000 live births and it is difficult to calculate the number of heterozygotes but, using the H–W principle, it is possible to calculate the number of heterozygous carriers as follows: q2 = 1/ 10,000, therefore q = 1/100 = 0.01 Since p + q = 1, p = 1 – q = 0.99 Therefore 2pq = 2 x 0.99 x 0.01 = 0.02 is the incidence of heterozygous carriers. Predicting the probability of the progeny having the condition – for example, if the mother has PKU (homozygous) and the father is a carrier (heterozygous and has a 50% chance of passing a recessive allele to his offspring), and then using the above-mentioned calculations, it is possible to calculate the incidence of PKU in their offspring: 0.02 x 0.50 = 0.01 = 1% probability of the couple bearing a child with PKU Conditions like hemophilia and color blindness are inherited as X-linked disorders. The allele frequency in these disorders can be calculated by observing the number of males with the conditions as males have only one X-chromosome (hemizygous). For example, consider color blindness and the following table: \|Male\|\|X+\|\|Normal\|\|p = 0.92\| \|Xcb\|\|Color blindness\|\|q = 0.08\| \|Female\|\|X+/X+\|\|Normal (homozygote)\|\|P2 = (0.92)2 = 0.8464\| \|X+/Xcb\|\|Normal (heterozygote)\|\|2pq = 2 (0.92) (0.08) = 0.1472\| \|Xcb/Xcb\|\|Normal (combined) color blind\|\|p + 2pq = 0.9936 q = (0.08)2 = 0.0064 The incidence of female carriers (heterozygous i.e. 2pq) will be: 2pq = 2 (0.08) (0.92) = 0.1472 which means that approximately 15% of the women will be carriers of the allele. Factors Responsible for Genetic Variation The Hardy-Weinberg principle assumes an ideal equilibrium between the genotypic and allelic frequencies without mutations, or genetic drift or natural selection or random mating in a large freely interbreeding ideal population. However, over time, to enable the population to survive, the population’s gene pool can change and the change depends upon several factors which can be classified as genetic factors, environmental factors, and societal factors. - Genetic factors, e.g. random mating, mutation, genetic drift, natural selection. - Environmental factors, e.g. diversity in the environment. - Societal factors, e.g. population size, migration of populations. Mating can be either: Consanguineous mating, mating between relatives or inbreeding is the most common form of non-random mating. This increases homozygosity, decreases heterozygosity, and deviates from the H-W principles. Inbreeding can be harmful with rare recessive alleles becoming homozygous and manifesting phenotypically. Amongst humans, the commonest type of inbreeding is between first cousins. Stratification occurs when mates are selected from a restricted sub-group. in this type of mating, like attracts like and can actually be beneficial. Mutation is defined as a structural change in the gene and formation of gene variants which are transmitted over subsequent generations. Alterations in the DNA or deletion, insertion, or re-arrangement of genes or chromosomes can lead to mutations which are the main cause of genetic variation. They are usually deleterious, but can sometimes be beneficial too. Random fluctuations during allele transfer from one generation to the next are called genetic drift. This occurs when small populations are formed due to an adverse environment (bottle neck effect) or due to the separation of a subset of the population geographically (founder effect). Genetic drift leads to random changes in allele frequencies over time, but does not lead to deviations from the HW equilibrium like inbreeding. Natural selection is the process whereby genotypes, which promote survival of the species in the existing environment, become more common and increase in frequency among reproducing individuals from one generation to the next. This enables the individuals within the population to adapt to the environmental conditions, survive and reproduce. The effects of natural selection are directional. The allele can either be beneficial and increase within the population’s gene pool, or be deleterious and then disappear from the gene pool. Different population have different habitats, natural selection can create differencesamong populations through different alleles in different areas. The best example of this is sickle cell anemia: Homozygous individuals with two copies of the mutant gene for sickle hemoglobin (HbS/HbS) suffer from the disease, while heterozygous individuals (HbS/HbA) are carriers of the condition. These heterozygous individuals are known to be resistant to malaria, compared to the homozygous individuals or those with the normal gene (HbA/HbA). This natural selective advantage is responsible for the maintenance of the HbS gene in the population. Cancer is a disease caused due to changes in our genes. These changes can be due to mutation in the DNA and can be either: Inherited changes, i.e. they are present in the reproductive cells of the ova and the sperm. These are known as changes in the germ line and are present in every cell of the progeny. Somatic changes, i.e. acquired during the lifetime of the individual due to exposure to carcinogenic chemicals, tobacco, radiation etc. Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes A single mutation rarely causes cancer. Multiple mutations over a lifetime accumulate in the genes which determine cell proliferation and apoptosis leading to the development of cancers. Therefore malignancies are usually observed in the elderly. A majority of the cancers are sporadic, but a few are inherited. Tumor suppressor genes are genes which control the rate of cell growth, monitor cell division and repair mismatched DNA. Mutation of a tumor suppressor gene leads to uncontrolled proliferation of cells leading to the formation of a tumor. For example, tumor suppressor genes are p53, BRCA1, and BRCA2. A majority of the cancers are due to p53 gene mutations and these are usually acquired mutations. Germ cell mutations of p53 are rare and include Li Fraumeni syndrome. On the other hand, mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 are associated with a high incidence of hereditary ovarian and breast malignancies. Oncogenes are genes whose mutations lead to the development of malignancies, for example, ras and HER2. The ras genes control protein synthesis which regulates pathways of cellular communication, cell growth, and apoptosis, while HER2 genes control growth and spread of cancers, especially breast and ovarian cancers. DNA repair genes help to repair the errors during DNA duplication, but mutations in these genes can lead to malignancies, especially if the mutation occurs in a tumor suppressor or oncogene. DNA repair gene mutations can be either acquired or inherited e.g. Lynch syndrome. Cancer Hereditary and Expression Profiling in Prognosis Genetic microarray analysis is the study of variations in genetic transcription between normal and malignant cells. It helps to differentiate between gene expressions amongst hundreds of genes and create expression profiles of the genes for various types of malignancies. It has revolutionized our understanding of the heterogeneity of malignancies, serving as a prognostic indicator and to develop targeted treatments. For example, expression profiling in breast cancer is useful to screen hormone receptors estrogen/progesterone, HER2 oncogene amplification and exclude metastatic lymph nodes.
1. 'Use' of the Target language is key: Both by the students and the teacher. The teacher should speak almost entirely in the target language but at a level understandable to the students so they get that all important 'comprehensible input'. Students need to wrap their mouth around the new words and sounds they are hearing so should speak the language with their peers and teacher in every class. Pair work and group work is a great help here as are things like 'exit tickets'. As I often say to my students: Do you play an instrument? Do you play a sport? Will you improve your guitar or football playing by just watching someone else do it and studying how their feet or hands move? Maybe a little, yes. But how do you really improve? You need to actually play the guitar or kick the ball. It is the same with learning language. 2. The classroom should be Active, Supportive and Cooperative: - Active: Varied tasks that get students up and moving at least once during class to keep them awake and concentrated - Supportive: Everyone should feel comfortable making mistakes and asking questions in the target language - Cooperative: Students should frequently work together on varied tasks using the target language to communicate. If, like me, you are a language teacher trying to find this elusive ‘ideal language-learning environment’ maybe all we need to do is follow the advice we routinely give our students: “If you are unsure, just ‘ASC’”. Below is a paper I wrote entitled "Towards a model for the ideal language learning environment for secondary school adolescent pupils" for anyone who like to read a bit more on this topic. Please do leave your comments below or tweet me @liamprinter.
Child Abuse Prevention Month April marks Child Abuse Prevention Month. With an estimated 906,000 children being abused and neglected every year, Kidzworld thinks it's time for you to get the facts about child abuse. What Is It? Child abuse is the failure to meet the basic needs of children including housing, clothing, food and access to medical care. It can happen to anyone of any age, gender or race. Child abuse comes in many forms, including the following: - Physical Abuse - Any non-accidental injury to a child, such as hitting, slapping, shaking, or choking. - Emotional Abuse - Any behavior that interferes with a child's mental health or social development, such as yelling, screaming, name-calling, making negative comments, or ignoring. - Sexual Abuse - Any sexual act between an adult and a child. - Neglect - Failure to provide a child's physical needs, such as lack of supervision, inadequate food, clothing, or housing, and abandonment. What Are the Causes? There are many causes of child abuse, but common factors are mental illness, or extreme stress due to poverty, divorce, or sickness. As well, studies show that many child abusers were also victims of abuse. What Are the Signs? - Unexplained cuts, bruises, welts, burns, or bite marks on the body - Hostility or stress - Excessive aggression - Fear of adults - Eating disorders - Anti-social behavior Where Can I Get Help? If you or someone you know is a victim of child abuse, make an appointment right away to talk to your school counselor, nurse, or teacher. You can also call an anonymous child abuse hotline such as 1-800-4-A-CHILD. It's available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. As well, the hotline counselors work with translators who speak 140 languages to help callers who speak a language other than English. You also need to report the abuse to the authorities because your life is in danger. As tough as it may be, you need to call the police and/or your local Child Protective Services agency, which you can find listed in your phone book under "Children" or "Health" or "Human Services." Once you contact the authorities, a social worker will investigate your situation and help you by putting you in a safe environment free from abuse and neglect. Did You Know? - Children ages zero to three are the most likely to experience abuse. - Four children in the US die every day from abuse and neglect. Three out of four of these victims are under the age of four. - Three million reports of child abuse are made every year in the US, but experts estimate that the actual number of incidents is three times greater. - A report of child abuse is made every 10 seconds. - One third of abused and neglected children will later abuse their own children. - Dear Dish-It, My Dad Beats Me and My Stepmom Doesn't Care - Dear Dish-It, My Friend Is Being Abused - Suicide Prevention Week - More Health and Body Info!
We hope to give you some idea about what the inside of a mine was like. Ore was loaded into cars that either rolled out of the mine down a gentle incline or were pulled out by mules or burros. Sometimes a mule or burro lived its whole life deep in the earth and eventually lost its sight. When you are in the Mine you will notice the wooden ties which support the track. Some are almost worn through by the repetitive walking back and forth of the animals as they pulled the ore cars. Do you know what a "Tommy Knocker" is? Can you find one here? In the last section of the mine notice the hammers and drills on the wall. Holes had to be drilled to house explosives which would, when activated, fracture the rock making it possible to extract the ore. In the early years, this had to be done by hand. In "single jacking" one man held the drilling steel and hammered it into the rock. In "double jacking" one man held the steel while the other swung a heavy hammer to accomplish the same goal. Imagine this mine lit by only one or two candles. Imagine water dripping constantly making everything slick. Imagine it is nearing the end of a 10 hour shift. Would you rather be the one to hold the steel or the one to strike it? Eventually drills powered by compressed air replaced the hand tools. And even later these power drills had a water supply which helped significantly to keep the finely ground dust, created by drilling, out of the air. Here you see some old compressed air drilling machines. Also, notice the drill pattern on the face of the wall and the dynamite warmer. Behind you is a real "vug" or cavity of crystals which was brought out of the Grizzly Bear, a nearby mine owned and operated by the Zanett family. The crystals are quartz and pink rhodochrosite. On your way out of the mine notice the blue enamel sign telling the bell signals for a hoist. What's your idea of a bad way to die? In 1896, seven days before Christmas, five miners at the Virginius Mine stepped into a lift. The signaling rules weren't followed. The operator didn't speak English and the cable which was supposed to hold the cage had been disconnected. How would it feel to fall 1,100 feet straight down a mine shaft?.......It's time to leave the mine, isn't it?
Voyager 1 Spacecraft Finds Undiscovered Layer NASA’s Voyager 1 spacecraft has discovered a new layer of the solar system that scientists had not known was there, researchers announced Dec. 3. Voyager 1 and its sister probe, Voyager 2, have been traveling through space since 1977, and are close to becoming the first manmade objects to leave the solar system. Scientists have not been sure exactly when that exit would occur, and now say the spacecraft are likely in the outermost region of the solar system, which is defined by the extent of the heliosphere, the large bubble of charged particles the sun puffs out around itself. Voyager 1, in particular, has entered a new region of the heliosphere that scientists are calling a “magnetic highway,” which allows charged particles from inside the heliosphere to flow outward, and particles from the galaxy outside to come in. “We do believe this may be the very last layer between us and interstellar space,” Edward Stone, Voyager project scientist at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif., said during a teleconference with reporters. “This region was not anticipated, was not predicted.” Therefore, he said, it is hard to predict how soon Voyager will leave the solar system altogether. “We don’t know exactly how long it will take,” Stone said. “It may take two months, it may take two years.” The scientists do not think the Voyagers have left the solar system yet because of the orientation of the magnetic field they detect. So far, this field still runs east-west, in agreement with the field created by the sun and twisted by its rotation. Outside the solar system, models predict the magnetic field to be orientated more north-south. As Voyager 1, the outermost of the two spacecraft, gets farther and farther away, it measures more and more of the higher-energy charged particles thought to originate beyond the solar system, compared with the lower-energy particles thought to come from the sun. “Things have actually changed dramatically,” said Stamatios Krimigis, principal investigator of the low-energy charged particle instrument, based at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Md. “The particles from outside have increased a lot and those on the inside … have dropped quite a bit.” The Voyagers are NASA’s longest-running spacecraft, and will keep traveling outward even after they have left the sun’s neighborhood. However, it will be at least 40,000 years before they ever come close to another star, Stone said. Long before that the probes will run out of power to operate their scientific instruments and beam their findings back home. “We will have enough power for all the instruments until 2020; at that point we will have to turn off our first instrument,” Stone said. By 2025 the last instrument will have to be turned off. “We’re very lucky that there seems to be a compatibility between our mission and the extent of the heliosphere,” Stone said.
Most comprehensive survey of genetic diversity in Native Americans to-date settles debate Scientists have found that Native American populations, from Canada to the southern tip of Chile, arose from at least three migrations, with the majority descended entirely from a single group of First American migrants that crossed over through Beringia, a land bridge between Asia and America that existed during the ice ages, more than 15,000 years ago. By studying variations in Native American DNA sequences, the international team found that while most of the Native American populations arose from the first migration, two subsequent migrations also made important genetic contributions. The paper appeared July 11 in Nature. “For years it has been contentious whether the peopling of the Americas occurred by means of a single or multiple migrations from Siberia,” said Andres Ruiz-Linares, professor of human genetics, University College London, who coordinated the study. “But our research settles this debate: Native Americans do not stem from a single migration. Our study also begins to cast light on patterns of human dispersal within the Americas.” In the most comprehensive survey of genetic diversity in Native Americans so far, the team took data from 52 Native American and 17 Siberian groups, studying more than 300,000 specific DNA sequence variations called single nucleotide polymorphisms to examine patterns of genetic similarities and differences between the population groups. The second and third migrations have left an impact only in Arctic populations that speak Eskimo-Aleut languages and in the Canadian Chipewyan who speak a Na-Dene language. However, even these populations have inherited most of their genome from the First American migration. Eskimo-Aleut speakers derive more than 50 percent of their DNA from First Americans, and the Chipewyan around 90 percent. This reflects the fact that these two later streams of Asian migration mixed with the First Americans they encountered after they arrived in North America. “There are at least three deep lineages in Native American populations,” said co-author David Reich, professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School. “The Asian lineage leading to First Americans is the most anciently diverged, whereas the Asian lineages that contributed some of the DNA of Eskimo–Aleut speakers and the Na-Dene-speaking Chipewyan from Canada are more closely related to present-day East Asian populations.” The team also found that once in the Americas, people expanded southward along a route that hugged the coast with populations splitting off along the way. After divergence, there was little gene flow among Native American groups, especially in South America. Two striking exceptions to this simple dispersal were also discovered. First, Central American Chibchan-speakers have ancestry from both North and South America, reflecting back-migration from South America and mixture of two widely separated strands of Native ancestry. Second, the Naukan and coastal Chukchi from northeastern Siberia carry ‘First American’ DNA. Thus, Eskimo-Aleut speakers migrated back to Asia, bringing Native American genes. The team’s analysis was complicated by the influx into the hemisphere of European and African immigrants since 1492 and the 500 years of genetic mixing that followed. To address this, the authors developed methods that allowed them to focus on the sections of peoples’ genomes that were of entirely Native American origin. “The study of Native American populations is technically very challenging because of the widespread occurrence of European and African mixture in Native American groups,” said Ruiz-Linares. “We developed a method to peel back this mixture to learn about the relationships among Native Americans before Europeans and Africans arrived,” said Reich, “allowing us to study the history of many more Native American populations than we could have done otherwise.” The assembly of DNA samples from such a diverse range of populations was only possible through a collaboration of an international team of 64 researchers from the Americas (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and the USA), Europe (England, France, Spain and Switzerland) and Russia. This research was funded by National Institutes of Health (NS043538, NS037484, MH075007, GM079558, GM079558-S1, GM057672, and HG006399) and the National Science Foundation (1032255).
LiDAR technology, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, uses light to map virtually any kind of physical environment. Extremely accurate images can be rendered due to LiDAR technology’s use of very precise laser beams. It is a Remote Sensing technique, using either ground-based (Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS)) or airborne systems (Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS)), and is also referred to as Airborne Laser Swath Mapping (ALSM) 1. Elevation Model Elevation values are used everywhere, in roads, building, bridge and other. It has made it easy to capture the surface height. Before LIDAR, ground survey or photogrammetry method was used to capture the z coordinates but the problem with this method was time consuming. LIDAR has made things easier and quicker. 2. Ecological Land and Classification ELC is short form of Ecological & Land Classification. It is done to provide the biological and physical information of the Landscape which helps in the sustainable management. This helps in building the ultimate map and also provides the correct surveying for any civil engineering works. 3. Exploring Quarries and Minerals Area: For Archaeology it is important to understand human civilization by finding the quarry and minerals site. So LIDAR is used to detect these spots. This also helps in creating an image of the exact construction materials that would need to be used in the quarries. 4. Right to Light: Every house owner has right for the light, other type of construction should not block the light for the individual. As LIDAR data can capture 3D model of the building, GIS analysis can be used to produce shadow map which shows illumination area during particular time of the day. Ground based LIDAR technology can be used to capture the buildings structure. This digital information can be transfer to computer for architecture to design the house model. The design can then be used to create the ideal maps or structure of the house under construction. 6. Recording of Building: Ground based LIDAR can be used to record the inside of the house. It can be used to record the interior design too. This extracted data can be printed on the 3D printer to model it. Or when a building is being rebuilt this recorded information can be used to restore the interior design. This helps in replicating the exact design of the original house. GIS is a valuable tool that helps in the planning, organizing and subsequent growth in the energy and utilities industries. The effective management of energy systems is a complex challenge. GIS has enormous potential for planning, design and maintenance of facility. Also it provides improved services and that too cost effectively. 8. Sewer and Manhole Survey: There are some places in the sewer line where that is not accessible by human being physical. In this situation sensor attached with the robotic machine are sent into the pipe for survey. This information is later feed into computer for analysis. This helps in creating perfect representations of the manholes and even coming out with exact designs of the manhole to be used elsewhere. In geology the combination of LIDAR aircraft and GPS has evolved so much it is used finding the fault and measuring the uplift. The combination of above technology was used to find the Seattle fault in the Washington State, USA. NASA satellite called ICESAT that has LIDAR sensor is used to monitor glaciers and perform coastal change analysis. 10. Urban Municipality: LIDAR is used by urban municipality to survey the city. As LIDAR is accurate and quick to survey, it helps municipality to know where things are and what are the changes happened in the city. City assessment department can use LIDAR to find out what are things build up in the public backyard. 11. Tunnel Surveying: LIDAR is used to measure accurate and detailed measurements, used for analysis, assessment and modelling of the tunnel that is for railway track or road. This might be in the mountain, land or underwater.
Grizzly bears are mammals. An adult grizzly bear can measure 3-4 feet (+/-1 meter) high at the shoulder and 8 feet (2.4 meters) tall standing upright. The foods they eat determine how big each individual will be. In an ecosystem similar to the North Cascades, where bugs and berries are predominant foods, adults weigh between 250 and 600 pounds (113-272 kilograms). The color of the grizzly coat varies from nearly white to variations of brown to reddish to dark brown, even black. The name "grizzly" comes from the grizzled appearance of darker fur with lighter tips. Not all grizzly bears' fur is grizzled, and color is not an indication of species. They have a large hump of heavy muscle on their shoulders, rounded ears, and fore-claws that measure more than two inches in length. The claws act as shovels for digging roots, bulbs, and dens. The shoulder muscles are the "motor" powering the "shovels". Grizzly bears do not defend a territory but live in home ranges large enough to meet all of their needs.Home ranges of related females often overlap, and a male's home range generally overlaps those of several females. Home ranges vary depending on food availability, age, sex, breeding status and population density. The fewer the animals, the larger the home range size, as they must spread out to find each other. Average home range size may be about 100 to 600+ square miles (260 to 1,550 square kilometers). Bears travel wherever they need in order to find enough food, water, shelter, and space to survive. A grizzly bear's home range in the North Cascades likely includes valley bottoms for springtime feeding, high meadows for late summer berries, and steep, north facing slopes for denning. Avalanche chutes are very important for grizzly bears, as they provide a range of foods – and safe cover – through spring and summer. Grizzly bears are omnivores and opportunists. There is no direct information about the grizzly bear diet in the North Cascades. Based on research elsewhere it is expected their diet consists mostly of vegetation –berries, grasses, leaves, roots, corms and bulbs. They also feed on carrion (dead things), insects, fish, small mammals, and will steal kills from other predators. Grizzly bears must gain a lot of weight in a small amount of time and will take advantage of whatever they can find. Both grizzly and black bears spend their winters in what physiologists call "super hibernation"in an existing den or they will dig a new one. Bears enter their dens as early as the end of October and as late as December. This is triggered when more calories are expended per day than are taken in. They emerge from their dens between mid-March and early April. For the entire time they are in hibernation, roughly five months in the North Cascades, they do not eat, drink, urinate, or defecate. They become the ultimate recyclers, preserving bone and muscle mass by reusing the calcium and nitrogen usually disposed of in urine. Bears' energy and water requirements are derived from the ample fat stores gained throughout the rest of the year. Among North American mammals only musk oxen have fewer young over their lifetimes than grizzly bears. Females may not breed for the first time until 6-10 years old, giving birth about once every three years. In areas they have been studied, mortality rates average as much as 50% in bears' first few years of life. Cubs stay with their mother until the third summer, sometimes longer. During this time they learn what to eat, how to find food, and how and where to dig a den. The availability of food resources during a given year determines how often grizzly bears have cubs, and how many cubs per litter. Levels of fat in her blood at the time she enters the den in the fall determines whether a grizzly bear will be able to carry a pregnancy and nurse cubs during hibernation. A female who has been able to gain a great deal of weight over summer can have as many as four cubs; if there isn't adequate food available, she will have none. There have always been grizzly bears in the North Cascades Ecosystem. Some of the best habitat in the contiguous states remains in the North Cascades, some of it less inhabited by people now than during the heyday of mining.Although habitat loss most likely played a role in their decline, this is less true here than in other areas. Direct killing by trappers, miners, and bounty hunters during the 1800s removed most of the population in the North Cascades by 1860. The population was eventually reduced to the extent that the difficulty in finding remaining mates, coupled with their very slow reproductive rate, could maintain only a small, and shrinking, remnant population. No one knows how many grizzly bears remain in the ecosystem, except that there are very few. During the past 10 years (as of 2015), only two have been verified in the Cascade Mountains of British Columbia, Canada, just north of the park.These bears were seen near roads, where they are more easily seen.Superb habitat in the US is so isolated very few people visit per year. The two bears that have been observed are likely "dual citizens", whose home ranges span the border: human boundaries mean nothing to wildlife. Many factors affect grizzly bear populations: they require a large home range;there is increasingly little protected land available to them;their reproductive rate is very slow;and they are vulnerable to poaching and other human-caused mortality. (Note: Black bears, which are relatively numerous in the North Cascades Ecosystem, are relatives of grizzly bears. Black bears are generally smaller than grizzlies. They are to be respected and avoided just like the grizzly.)
BICYCLE SAFETY: THE SMART ROUTE Riding a bicycle is more than just basic transportation — it can be a fun and exciting hobby. When your children ride, remember that they're not alone. They share the road with cars, trucks, pedestrians, and other cyclists. Since accidents can turn a bicycle adventure into a bicycling tragedy, here are some tips to help make your children's ride a safe one. What You Can Do Information Provided by: National Crime Prevention Council - Tell children to wear helmets. Studies have shown that using a bicycle helmet can reduce head injuries by up to 85 percent. Select a helmet that has a snug, but comfortable fit. Look for the helmet labels that show they are recommended by either the American National Standards Institute, www.ansi.org, or the Snell Memorial Foundation, www.smf.org. - Make sure children wear proper clothing. Clothing should be light in color and close fitting to avoid being caught in the bicycle's moving parts. Also, be sure books and other loose items are carried in a backpack. - Teach children to obey the rules of the road. These include all traffic signs, signals, and road markings. Teach children to ride on the right side of the street in single file and to use proper hand signals. Tell children never to hitch rides by grabbing onto moving cars or trucks. - Teach children that before entering a street or intersection to check for traffic and always look left-right-left. Walk the bike across busy streets at corners or crosswalks. - Children's bikes should display both front and rear reflectors. They should ride only in familiar areas and only during the daylight hours. - Make sure children's bikes are adjusted properly. Check to make sure that all parts are secure and working. The handlebars should be firmly in place and turn easily. The wheels should be straight and secure. Check tires for pressure, bulges, and cracks. - Teach children to always lock up their bike. A U-lock should be used, securing both the front wheel and the frame to a stationary object such as bike rack. Help children practice locking up their bike. - Be sure children do not show off on their bikes. Hands should be kept on the handlebars, only one person should be on the bike at a time, and jumping curbs should not be allowed. - Record the serial numbers of your children's bikes and keep them with the sales receipt and a photograph of the bike. Check with local police or the National Bike Registry (NBR) at 800-848-BIKE about bike registration programs. NBR recently partnered with NCPC to help return stolen bikes to their rightful owners. - Mark children's bikes with an engraver to deter thieves and to help in identifying and returning a stolen bike. Use a unique number, such as your driver's license number.
Biodiversity / Animal The Great Himalayan National Park is known to host a wide variety of vertebrate fauna, including several charismatic, Threatened and regionally endemic species. Mammalian fauna is represented by over 31 species belonging to six orders: Primates, Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Insectivora, Rodentia and Lagomorpha. Among these, the Himalayan Musk Deer, and Snow Leopard are endangered species (as per IUCN categorization), while the Himalayan Tahr is endemic to the Western Himalaya. Birds form a significant constituent of the biodiversity of the study area. There were 183 species of birds (both resident and migrant) reported by Gaston et al. (1993). Ramesh (2003) added 26 more species to the list, bringing the total number of species confirmed to 209. Most of the Himalayan fauna has been given protection under the high priority protection category of Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The state government of Himachal Pradesh has banned hunting in the state for more than ten years: The ban continues. A trek of 35 to 45 kms. in any of the Park’s valleys brings one into the high altitude habitat (3,500m and above) of animals such as blue sheep, snow leopard, Himalayan brown bear, Himalayan tahr, and musk deer. Best sightings can be made in autumn (September-November) as animals start their seasonal migration to lower altitudes.
by Carl Strang Today’s collection of notes from the 2013 scientific literature focuses on mammals and their evolution. As the notes reveal, some of these topics are controversial among researchers. Chang-Fu Zhou, Shaoyuan Wu, Thomas Martin, Zhe-Xi Luo. 2013. A Jurassic mammaliaform and the earliest mammalian evolutionary adaptations. Nature 500 (7461): 163 DOI: 10.1038/nature12429 They described a newly discovered Jurassic proto-mammal, Megaconus mammaliaformis, and found evidence that traits such as hair and fur originated well before the rise of the first true mammals. The squirrel-sized Megaconus had a heel spur, similar to poisonous spurs found on modern egg-laying mammals, such as male platypuses. It had mammalian dental features, and legs and feet that point to a gait similar to that of modern armadillos. At the same time it had a reptilian middle ear, ankle bones and vertebral column. O’Leary, Maureen, et al. 2013. The placental mammal ancestor and the post-K-Pg radiation of placentals. Science 339:662-667. Using fossil materials and an extensive character analysis, they conclude that the ancestral placental mammal from which all major surviving groups evolved lived just after the beginning of the Paleocene. This conflicts with molecular clock data that place the appearance of many groups including bats, rodents, and even-toed ungulates back in the Cretaceous. They combine the characters of the early fossils to produce a hypothetical common ancestor, an insectivorous animal resembling a shrew with a long tail. Zhang, Guojie, et al. 2013. Comparative analysis of bat genomes provides insight into the evolution of flight and immunity. Science 339: 456-460. They did whole-genome comparisons of nuclear DNA of a Myotis and a flying fox. Significant sequences were found which may relate to the development of flight ability, and the immune systems also are different from those of other mammals. When compared to the genomes of other mammals, bats fall out most closely related to perissodactyls, then carnivores, with those groups splitting apart at an estimated time in the Cretaceous. Ni, Xijun, et al. 2013. The oldest known primate skeleton and early haplorhine evolution. Nature 498 (7452): 60 DOI: 10.1038/nature12200 They describe a 55mya (early Eocene) Chinese fossil that is in the tarsier line but has features showing it to be close to the branch point leading to the tarsiers in one direction, anthropoids (primates including monkeys, apes and humans) on the other. It is tiny, the animal around 1 ounce in weight. Asia appears to be the likely center of early primate evolution. Cahill JA, Green RE, Fulton TL, Stiller M, Jay F, et al. 2013. Genomic evidence for island population conversion resolves conflicting theories of polar bear evolution. PLoS Genet, 9(3): e1003345; DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003345 This most recent examination of polar bear and brown bear genetics concluded that, on the whole, polar bears have been separate from brown bears for about half the time that brown bears have been separate from black bears. The connections previously noted between the two species in southeast Alaska, and possibly in Ireland, appear to be the result of small polar bear populations being isolated during ice ages, and being swamped then by an influx of male brown bears. The polar bear is a more ancient species than that. Zigouris J, Schaefer JA, Fortin C, Kyle CJ. 2013. Phylogeography and post-glacial recolonization in wolverines (Gulo gulo) from across their circumpolar distribution. PLoS ONE 8(12): e83837. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083837 Their analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes points to a single population of wolverines surviving the glacial maximum in a refugium somewhere in the Old World, then expanding into North America across the Bering Sea land bridge as the glaciers retreated. Subsequently, several North American populations differentiated. The fossil record likewise has them only in Eurasia prior to the late Pleistocene. Andrew M. Minnis, Daniel L. Lindner. 2013. Phylogenetic evaluation of Geomyces and allies reveals no close relatives of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, comb. nov., in bat hibernacula of eastern North America. Fungal Biology, DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2013.07.001 As described in a ScienceDaily article. The closest relatives of the fungus causing white nose syndrome are species that live in European caves. This supports the idea that the fungus is an invasive species here, but one with which European bats coevolved and so have some immunity.
There are 28 different species of bat found here in Arizona, and while most of our bat species are insectivores (insect eaters), two of our bat species are nectarivores (flower nectar drinkers), the endangered Lesser Long-nosed Bat (Leptonycteris curasoae yerbabuenae) and the Mexican Long-tongued Bat (Choeronycteris mexicana). These nectarivorous bats are pollinators of many of our native plants like Palmer's Century Plants (Agave palmeri), Saguaros (Carnegiea gigantea), and Organpipe Cacti (Stenocereus thurberi). Lesser Long-nosed Bats and other nectarivorous bats can be distinguished from insectivorous bats by their larger eyes, smaller ears, and long, nectar-licking tongues (not visible unless they are feeding). Lesser Long-nosed Bats come in varying shades of brown, and some individuals have cinnamon-colored fur. Lesser Long-nosed Bats are members of the Leaf-Nosed Bat Family (Phyllostomidae), and like most other members of this family, they posses a noseleaf (a fleshy protuberance on top of the nose). Lesser Long-nosed Bats look very similar to Mexican Long-tongued Bats, but they are tailless and have noticeably shorter, broader snouts and warmer brown fur. Lesser Long-nosed Bats are found here in southern Arizona in the spring, summer, and early fall, and they will spend the winter in Mexico. The already pregnant females will arrive here in late April, and they will congregate in large numbers in their traditional maternity colonies in caves or old mines in order to give birth and raise their young. Each female gives birth to a single offspring. Saguaro cacti bloom here in the Sonoran Desert in May and June, and the large, nectar-filled flowers of the Saguaro are a major food source for these nectarivorous bats. However, Lesser Long-nosed Bats are not strict nectarivores and will also eat the Saguaro fruits when they ripen. Male Lesser Long-nosed Bats do not arrive here in Arizona until sometime in July, and by this time most of the females and young have already left the maternity colonies and are off feeding on Agave flowers at higher elevations. Flower nectar and cactus fruits are not the only things that Lesser Long-nosed Bats will feed on. Looking for additional food sources to help prepare them for their fall migration (especially in drought years), these clever bats have learned to use hummingbird feeders. Both Lesser Long-nosed Bats and Mexican Long-tongued Bats are annual visitors to my Tucson hummingbird feeders in late August to early October. If you've ever wondered why your southern Arizona hummingbird feeder is mysteriously emptied every night at this time of year, these hungry bats are the likely cause. With their diet of liquid nectar, yellow pollen, and red cactus fruit, the watery, bright yellow or magenta guano that these nectarivorous bats produce is quite unlike that of other bats, and it can be used as a distinctive sign of their presence, either in caves, mines, or under hummingbird feeders (move feeders off of patios during bat season if they are making a mess).
ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about the factors that increase the chance of developing this type of tumor. To see other pages, use the menu on the side of your screen. A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing a tumor. Although risk factors often influence the development of a tumor, most do not directly cause a tumor. Some children with several risk factors never develop a tumor, while others with no known risk factors do. The following factors may raise a child’s risk of developing an extracranial germ cell tumor: Cryptorchidism. If a boy has an undescended testicle, he has a higher risk of developing a testicular seminoma tumor. To learn more, see the full guide to testicular cancer on another part of Cancer.Net. Turner syndrome. Turner syndrome is a genetic condition in which a girl is born with a missing X chromosome. Girls with this condition have a higher risk of developing a gonadoblastoma, a benign tumor that can eventually turn into cancer. Androgen insensitivity syndrome. Androgen insensitivity syndrome is when a person who is genetically male, with one X and one Y chromosome, is resistant to male hormones called androgens. A person with this syndrome has a higher risk of developing a gonadoblastoma or other germ cell tumors. The following factor may raise a person’s risk of developing an extracranial, extragonadal germ cell tumor: Klinefelter’s syndrome. Men with this genetic condition are born with an extra X chromosome. Klinefelter’s syndrome is connected to a higher risk of a germ cell tumor in the chest. To continue reading this guide, use the menu on the side of your screen to select another section.
Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. The planet is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. After the Moon, it is the brightest natural object in the night sky, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast shadows. Above, we see the Venus Transit against an evocative backdrop of the turbulent solar surface with prominences lofted above the Sun's edge by twisting magnetic fields. The thin ring of light seen surrounding the planet's dark silhouette is sunlight refracted by Venus' thick atmosphere. Continue reading for more. 5. A Picturesque Venus Transit Photo credit: David Cortner The rare transit of Venus across the face of the Sun in 2004 was one of the better-photographed events in sky history. Both scientific and artistic images flooded in from the areas that could see the transit: Europe and much of Asia, Africa, and North America. Scientifically, solar photographers confirmed that the black drop effect is really better related to the viewing clarity of the camera or telescope than the atmosphere of Venus. Artistically, images might be divided into several categories. One type captures the transit in front of a highly detailed Sun. Another category captures a double coincidence such as both Venus and an airplane simultaneously silhouetted, or Venus and the International Space Station in low Earth orbit. A third image type involves a fortuitous arrangement of interesting looking clouds, as shown by example in the above image taken from North Carolina, USA. 4. Moon and Venus Over Switzerland Photo credit: David Kaplan Sometimes a morning sky can be a combination of serene and surreal. Such a sky perhaps existed before sunrise this past Sunday as viewed from a snowy slope in eastern Switzerland. Quiet clouds blanket the above scene, lit from beneath by lights from the village of Trubbach. A snow covered mountain, Mittlerspitz, poses dramatically on the upper left, hovering over the small town of Balzers, Liechtenstein far below. Peaks from the Alps can be seen across the far right, just below the freshly rising Sun. Visible on the upper right are the crescent Moon and the bright planet Venus. Venus will remain in the morning sky all month, although it will likely not be found in such a photogenic setting. 3. Venus' South Polar Vortex What's happening over the South Pole of Venus? To find out, scientists have been studying images taken by the robotic Venus Express spacecraft when it passes over the lower spin axis of Earth's overheated twin. Surprisingly, recent images from Venus Express do not confirm previous sightings of a double storm system there, but rather found a single unusual swirling cloud vortex. In the above recently released image sequence taken in infrared light and digitally compressed, darker areas correspond to higher temperatures and hence lower regions of Venus' atmosphere. Also illuminating are recently released movies, which show similarities between Venus' southern vortex and the vortex that swirls over the South Pole of Saturn. Understanding the peculiar dynamics of why, at times, two eddies appear, while at other times a single peculiar eddy appears, may give insight into how hurricanes evolve on Earth, and remain a topic of research for some time. In three months, the European Venus Express spacecraft will be joined around Venus by the Japanese Akatsuki satellite. 2. Mysterious Acid Haze on Venus Why did an acidic haze spread across Venus? The unusual clouds were discovered last July by ESA's robotic Venus Express spacecraft currently orbiting Venus. The bright and smooth haze was found by Venus Express to be rich in sulfuric acid, created when an unknown process lifted water vapor and sulfur dioxide from lower levels into Venus' upper atmosphere. There, sunlight broke these molecules apart and some of them recombined into the volatile sulfuric acid. Over the course of just a few days last July, the smooth acidic clouds spread from the South Pole of Venus across half the planet. The above false-color picture of Venus was taken last July 23rd in ultraviolet light, and shows the unusual haze as relatively smooth regions across the image bottom. The cause of the dark streaks in the clouds is also not yet understood and is being researched. 1. Venusian Surface Venus is classified as a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" owing to their similar size, gravity, and bulk composition (Venus is both the closest planet to Earth and the planet closest in size to Earth). However, it has been shown to be very different from Earth in other respects. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light. It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting mostly of carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth's. With a mean surface temperature of 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F), Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System. It has no carbon cycle to lock carbon back into rocks and surface features, nor does it seem to have any organic life to absorb it in biomass. Venus may have possessed oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to the runaway greenhouse effect. The water has most probably photodissociated, and, because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field, the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind. Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and periodically refreshed by volcanism.
The Mbuti Pygmies live in the Ituri Forest which lies in the Northeast corner of Democratic Republic of the Congo. Survivors of an ancient race that was once dispersed over the African continent, the Mbuti now dwell in scattered bands, which are relatively small in size, ranging from 15 to 60 people, roaming from camp to camp seeking food and shelter. The forest, seemingly inhospitable to outsiders, provides natural protection for the Pygmies. For the Mbuti the forest is sacred. It is the source of their existence – their god, parent and sanctuary. Armed with spears, bows and arrows, and hunting nets, they follow the sharply winding antelope trails in search of game. In addition to their own use, this game is sometimes traded to the agrarian Bantus living on plantations outside the forest, in return for metal for weapons. Both men and women forage for berries, mushrooms, nuts, herbs, fruits, and the most treasured delicacy, honey. A seminomadic people, the Mbuti produce art that is easily portable. Understandably, clothing and body decoration occupy a central position. Bark cloth has traditionally b een the clothing of the Pygmies. It is worn in many ways: wrapped around the waist, or sometimes passed between the legs and held in place by a belt of braided vines. The large pieces were made by women to receive their newborn children. As trees were considered sacred, the bark was assumed to have a protective quality. The cloth is prepared from certain vines. First the bark is stripped from the inner bark of about six different species of trees (from which depending the white, tan, or brown background colors), then is pounded flat with an elephant tusk or wood mallet. The process yields a supple fibrous canvas. This work is done by men. It is the women’s task to soften the material with water or breast milk, and then draw on the cloth with a finger or twig, usually in black or red colors. The red is derived from nkula bark and the black is made from the gardenia plant, kangay. The elaborate process of preparing and painting a barkcloth is a social activity, and Mbuti learn how to make barkcloth from an early age. The Mbuti barkcloth paintings conceptualize their world; they are abstract expressions of the moods and features of the forest. The paintings are evidence of the Mbuti perception of the forest as the spiritual and symbolic core of their culture. The artists combine a variety of biomorphic motifs (e.g. butterflies, birds, leopard spots) with geometric patterns that give an impression of motion, sound and shape within the forest landscape: light filtered through trees, buzzing insects, ant trails, tangled vines. Cross-hatched squares, perhaps represe nting the texture of reptilian skin, are shorthand for turtles, crocodiles or snakes. Visual “silences” or voids in the patterns are especially valued, consistent with Mbuti concepts of sound and silence. Silence in Mbuti thought does not imply lack of sound – for the forest is always “talking” – but quiet (ekimi), the absence of noise. Noise (akami) is conflict. Sound has spiritual and magical properties. This truly primal art is an important remnant from this vanishing people. Source: Adapted from: - “Mbuti design: paintings by Pygmy women of the Ituri forest”, by Gerges Meurant, Robert Farris Thompson – 1996 - “An Eternity of Forest: Paintings by Mbuti Women”, by Vanessa Drake Moraga. Exhibition brochure BAMPFA, University of California, Berkeley. 1996 - “Tapa Mbuti. Antropologia dell’astratto”, by Matteo Meschiari, Archivio Antropologico Mediterraneo, anno X / XI (2007-2008), n. 10/11 - “Art Pictural des Pygmées”, by Werner Schmalenbach, Françoise Fasel, Patrick Claes et Robert Bailey; exposition, Genève , Musée Barbier-Mueller, 1990 - “Pygmy drawing: A collection of rare drawings on barck cloth by the Mbuti Pygmies of the Ituri Forest of Zaire”, by Linda Einfeld, Chicago, Illinois.
Lead: In October 1945, the victorious World War II Allies met in San Francisco to establish the United Nations. It was the 20th century’s second multi-purpose world-wide international organization and emerged from the failures of the first. Intro.: A Moment in Time with Dan Roberts. Content: When the charter members met in spring 1945, they were determined to steer clear of the fatal weaknesses that proved so damaging to the U.N.’s predecessor, the League of Nations. In many ways the failures of the League insured the success of the United Nations. The League came to grief in part because one of its great champions, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, despite a prodigious public relations campaign that probably undermined his health, failed to convince the Senate, led by conservative Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, to ratify the Versailles Treaty (1919) a section of which established the League. That meant the up-and-coming international power during the 1920s and 1930s would not be a full player in League debates or diplomatic efforts. The League also lacked an independent enforcement mechanism, and when Germany, Italy and Japan began their pattern of aggression that ultimately led to World War II, and the major Allies refused to act, the League was powerless and therefore discredited.
Hepatitis C Virus: Hepatitis C is caused by infection with the Hepatitis C virus (HCV). The term ‘hepatitis’ simply means inflammation of the liver. HCV is found in highest concentrations in blood and in lower concentrations in other body fluids (e.g., semen, vaginal secretions, and wound exudates). HCV infection is a major cause of hepatic disease and the leading reason for liver transplantation. Acute HCV infection is often asymptomatic, or associated with non-specific symptoms, and usually goes undiagnosed. However, 60% to 85% of patients develop chronic infection, which is associated with increased risk of cirrhosis, end-stage liver disease, and hepatocellular carcinoma.HCV infection can be self-limited or chronic. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in a pregnant woman poses a serious risk to her infant at birth. Hepatitis C is spread mainly by exposure to infected blood or body secretions. In infected individuals, the virus can be found in the blood, semen, vaginal discharge, breast milk, and saliva. Hepatitis C is not Spread through food, water, or by casual contact. After treatment is initiated, measurement of HCV viral load at specified times helps predict the likelihood of SVR (sustained virologic response) (absence of detectable HCV RNA in serum 24 weeks after end of treatment) and guide treatment decisions. Detection and quantitation of HCV RNA is an important component of diagnosis and treatment monitoring. Methodology: Taqman Real time PCR assay - Assess viral response to treatment as measured by changes in the HCV RNA levels - Predict and monitor response to therapy - Confirm active hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection In patient - assess rapid (RVR) and early (EVR) virology response - Guide duration of antiviral therapy Confirm resolution of infection and sustained virology response (SVR) - Identify HCV viral load quantitation for epidemiologic and prognostic purposes - Viral loads are predictive of future risk of developing cirrhosis and HCC - Monitor patients who were infected with HCV prior to liver transplantation - Injection-drug abusers - All pregnant women - Men who have sex with men - Persons who are sources for exposures (needle-stick, sexual assault) - Persons with elevated ALT/AST of unknown etiology - Persons needing immunosuppressive therapy (transplant, rheumatology and gastroenterology) - HIV-positive persons HCV RNA PCR quantitative test – monitor effectiveness of treatment and perform when treatment is complete - Monthly until week 12 of treatment - Negative result confirms treatment success Specimen Required: Blood, serum, plasma, Collect in: Lavender (EDTA), pink (K2EDTA), or serum separator tube. Stability collection to initiation of testing On Cells: Ambient: 4 hours; after separation from cells: Refrigerated: 48 hours; Frozen at -20°C: 72 hours; Frozen at -70°C: 4 months. Do not thaw avoid repeated freezing and thawing NOTE- Samples should be collected during the viraemic phase for the presence of viruses during the active infection. Specimen Preparation: Separate serum or plasma from cells within 24 hours. Storage/Transport Temperature: Frozen-20 0C. Refrigerate specimens at 2°C-4°C. Unacceptable Conditions: Heparinized specimens, Hemolysis sample, Quantity not sufficient for analysis, specimen grossly contaminated, specimen too old, frozen whole blood specimen, specimen leaky or tube broken. Interpretation: This test can quantitate/detect Hepatitis C Virus RNA over the linear range 30-107 IU/mL. However this does not mean that lower copies or higher copies cannot be detected. The lower copies can be detected in some cases. This is a limitation of the currently available extraction systems. The test is intended for use in conjunction with clinical presentation and other markers as an aid in assessing viral response to antiviral treatment as measured by change in HCV RNA levels. Early changes in plasma/ serum HCV RNA levels may predict long term response to Interferon therapy. A negative result does not preclude the presence of HCV infection because results depend on adequate/proper patient sample storage and transportation as RNA is fragile and thermo labile, absence of inhibitors and sufficient RNA to be detected. Patients suffering from chronic HCV infection typically have intermittent viraemia. Samples collected during the non- viraemic phase may test negative despite the presence of active infection. Hence, in such case’s where HCV PCR is negative despite strong clinical suspicion, a repeat sample collected at an interval of two weeks from the initial sample is strongly recommended to rule out active disease. The result of this test must always be correlated with clinical status and history of the patient and other relevant data and should not be used alone for the interpretation. Note: The test is intended for use in conjunction with clinical presentation and other laboratory markers as an indicator of disease prognosis. This test is also used as an aid in assessing viral response to antiretroviral treatment as measured by changes in HCV RNA levels.
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Fisheries and Habitat Conservation The Natural Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Program THE PROGRAM’S ORIGIN Hazardous substances are a constant threat to our fish, wildlife, and other natural resources. As a result of concern over the influx of contaminants into the environment, and a wish to ensure that the responsible parties—not the taxpayers—pay for the cleanup and restoration, Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (also known as CERCLA or “Superfund”), the Clean Water Act, and the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. These three laws provide trustees the authority to carry out the responsibilities of the Restoration Program. ENTRUSTING OUR NATURAL RESOURCES As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior is trustee for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. These include lands such as National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management; Indian lands and natural resources held in trust by the Federal government; waters managed by the Bureau of Reclamation; and, Federally protected When hazardous substances enter the environment, fish, wildlife, and other natural resources can be injured. The Department of the Interior, along with State, Tribal and other Federal partners, act as “trustees” for these resources. Trustees seek to identify the natural resources injured and determine of the injuries, recover damages from those responsible, and carry out restoration activities. These efforts are possible under the Natural Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Program, goal of which is to restore natural resources injured by contamination. the extent plan and natural resource the plants and animals such as endangered species, migratory birds, and wild horses and burros. The agencies within the Department responsible for the management of trust resources are the Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, and National Park Service. Other Federal agencies with trust responsibilities for our Nation’s natural resources include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Forest Service, Department of Defense, and Department of Energy. Like the Department of Interior, they have responsibility for certain lands, waters, and other specified trust resources and most have active restoration programs. States and Indian Tribes also are trustees with the authority to conduct damage assessments and restoration activities on their own behalf. When there is overlapping trusteeship, trustees benefit from working together. Restoring our natural resources benefits many species of fish and wildlife, including migratory birds. Stefan Dobert/USFWS photo. RESTORING THE RESOURCESTo fulfill the mission of restoring naturalresources that have been injured by oilspills or hazardous substance releases,several steps must be taken. the process works like this:Oil is spilled or a hazardous material isreleased into the environment. these incidents involve discharges intobodies of water--oceans, lakes, andrivers--where the oil or hazardousmaterial has the potential to spread farbeyond the original source.The source of the discharge is containedby the Coast Guard, the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, a State agency, and/or the responsible party.The oil or hazardous material is cleanedup. process for a small oil spill where thecontained oil can be skimmed off thesurface of the water. It can be verycomplicated when dealing with old minewastes or hazardous chemicals whichhave been absorbed into the soil and arecontaminating groundwater and surfacewater.Natural resource trustees determinethe magnitude of the injuries to naturalresources. response and cleanup or afterwards.Generally, however, it cannot be finisheduntil after the cleanup is completedbecause the full extent of the injuriescannot be determined until then.The trustees contact the responsibleparties and attempt to reach asettlement for the cost of therestoration, for the loss of the use of theland or resources to the general public,and for the money the trustees spent toassess the damages. responsible parties agree to do therestoration work themselves, money forrestoration is not collected by thetrustees. If a negotiated settlement cannot bereached, the trustees can take theresponsible parties to court. Most casesare settled out of court.When a settlement is reached, arestoration plan is developed with publicinput that specifies the actionsnecessary to restore the injuredresources. out on the lands where thecontamination occurred or at analternate site which, when restored,provides a suitable replacement for theinjured or lost resources. the responsible party donates land to berestored and protected.Finally, the trustees monitor therestoration projects to assure that theycontinue to be properly operated and toensure the long-term success of therestoration.BENEFITING THE PUBLICThe primary benefit of the RestorationProgram is that injured natural resourcescan be restored at no cost to the Americantaxpayers. for the injuries pay for the restoration.Because of this Program, people across thecountry enjoy rivers and lands that areonce again healthy and teeming with fishand wildlife, and public places that are safefor recreation and other uses. dedication of the Department, and themany other agencies, organizations andindividuals committed to caring for theenvironment, we are making progresstoward a cleaner, healthier environment forall living things.For more information about the NaturalResource Damage Assessment andRestoration Program, contact U.S. Fish andWildlife Service’s Fisheries and HabitatConservation at 202/208-6394 or visit us onthe Internet at http://fisheries.fws.gov/.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service800/344-WILDhttp://www.fws.govFebruary 2005Wetlands can be heavily impacted by industrial development. Generally,Many ofThis can be a fairly straightforwardThis can begin during theWhen theThis is called in-kind work.These actions can be carriedSometimesInstead, the parties responsibleThrough theFrank Horvath/USFWS photo. Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.
Popular Science Monthly/Volume 25/September 1884/How the Dodder Became a Parasite OVER yonder in the corner of a field there grows a mass of yellow threads, looking at a distance like an immense spider's web covering a number of plants. Closer inspection reveals it to be the dodder, poetically called by some the golden-thread. Though beautiful in the abstract, handsome in its golden color, it is yet a vile and pernicious weed—one that in the flax-fields of Europe in one form, and in the alfalfa-fields of California in another, has done a vast deal of harm. Yet it is, to look at, beautiful. The flexuous stem of golden yellow, adorned with clusters of white, bell-shaped flowers, twining among and over other plants, forms a striking contrast with their green stems and leaves. And it is no wonder it has been sometimes cultivated for its beauty. Why, then, should we call it a pernicious weed? Look closer, and you will see that at intervals along the stem, where it clings closely to other plants, it has sent out bunches of little rootlets, which, not content with performing the office of hold-fasts, force their way through the bark, penetrate the tissue, and take the matter found there into their own systems. Still closer examination will reveal other features. In the first place, there are none of the green leaves usually found on plants. Secondly, there is no root fastening the plant to the soil. Why is this? What is the reason that this plant grows and flourishes like other plants, and has yet neither root nor leaves? Let us see. What is known as parasitism in plants is not confined to any one family or class. Various orders have one or more genera with species which take their nourishment in a complete or partly elaborated form from other plants. Sometimes they are perfect parasites, and take everything they need from other vegetable forms. Sometimes, as in the mistletoe, they take the partially made sap, and complete its transformation within their own tissue; while in still other instances only a very little of the sap is taken, and the other nourishment is absorbed from the soil by the roots proper. Our dodder is an example of a perfect parasite. All the material necessary for its growth it takes ready made from the plants upon which it grows. As the purpose of leaves in all plants is to prepare from the crude materials in the air and soil the matter necessary for its growth, and as the dodder finds and appropriates this material already made, the absence of leaves is at once accounted for. There was no need for them, and they ceased to be. The want of a root is another matter. When the seed of the dodder is examined, it is found that there is simply a coiled embryo, with very little albumen. The usual seed-leaves are absent; so that, for its first growth, it must depend entirely upon the albumen in the seed. When this seed first germinates, a little rootlet penetrates the ground. Owing to the deficiency of food, it only exists long enough to enable its stem to grow till it reaches some plant upon which it can fasten. When this is accomplished, the young plant will grow rapidly, and soon sever its connection with the ground; but, if not able to reach some support, it dies entirely. In order to comprehend the reasons for the peculiarities of the dodder, and understand how it came to assume its habit of complete parasitism, it will be necessary to notice the probable rise and progress of the habit. We can do this by looking at some of those plants which are not yet such complete pensioners on the bounty of others. For it very seldom happens that all the steps leading from a normal to an out-of-the-way mode of living are lost. Some few will remain, to indicate the line along which the plant has proceeded. Imperfect adaptations point surely the path leading to perfect development. The modes of living of the dodder and the Indian pipe may be considered as the two extremes of one line of development. The first is a complete parasite, and the second has gone so far as to become a saprophyte. The central point from which sprang the two branches is probably represented in certain species of Gerardia. Here is found the first indication of the parasitic habit. While the roots are attached to those of other plants, its green leaves are well developed, and it takes only the crude material into its system and there elaborates it; and at the same time it absorbs matter by means of the other roots with which it is provided. The mistletoe comes second. In this plant we find the root absorbing nourishment from the branch on which it has located; the stem provided with green leaves, to which it can bring the sap to a proper state for assimilation, but no connection with the soil. The next step would be for the plant to loose its connection with earth or branch, take the fully elaborated sap, and by gradual stages lose all its foliage organs. Then the fully formed parasitic dodder results. Proceeding in the opposite direction we find the beech-drop, a plant which lives in the rich mold of beech-woods, taking part of its food from the decaying leaves, and part from the roots of the beech-trees which it penetrates with its own rootlets. This plant is entirely destitute of green leaves, is of a brownish color, and may be considered one step on the road taken by the Indian pipe. The Indian pipe, again, is a little plant which lives in the débris of forests, finding its food in the mass of decaying vegetable mold. While it is not probable that its roots are connected with those of the trees under which it grows, it is certain that the rich matter there found contains the constituents it requires for its growth. It, like the dodder, is destitute of green leaves, and for the same reason, namely, because it finds its food already prepared for it and has only to absorb it. But it differs in taking the food from the dead and decayed matter, instead of from the living. Plants of this kind are known as saprophytes, and are most common among the fungi. Here, then, in the saprophytic Indian pipe we have one end of a line of habit of living which has its other end in the perfect parasitism of the dodder. In attempting to trace the origin of any particular habit peculiar to any one species, it is always necessary to examine the near relatives and see in what respects they resemble and in what ones they differ from the plant under consideration. The dodder belongs to the Convolvulaceæ, or the morning-glory family, and one of the most striking features of this family is found in their habits of twining. But what a vast difference there is in appearance between the morning-glory, with its large leaves, its root, and its conspicuous flowers, and the dodder, with its yellow stem, complete absence of green leaves, and lack of root! How is the change to arise which will bring the dodder to its present condition? Evolutionists acknowledge that all changes in either plants or animals are the results of changes in conditions or surroundings. When once a change has occurred which is beneficial in a certain way, the probability is, that the plant or animal will continue to develop in that direction till it diverges widely from the original form. The struggle for existence will cause all the imperfect forms to be killed off, and only those will survive which are best suited to the altered conditions of life. Once let an organism begin to vary in any one direction, and there is no telling where or when it will stop. This much is certain, that it never ceases until the best results possible have been attained. The chief characteristic, then, of the convolvulus family is the climbing habit. The origin of this habit is found in the fact that sunlight and air are two things needful for a plant's proper growth and development. In situations where these two things are found in limited quantities, plants with climbing habits and animals with arboreal instincts will abound. In Brazil, for instance, where immense tracts are covered with a dense forest-growth, it is noticed that all forms of animal life have become adapted to residence in trees. Many of them live there entirely. Monkeys seldom leave the tree-tops. Lizards and snakes and insects are there, and even man himself is often found living among the branches. So, too, plants form immensely long stems, reaching in many cases to the tops of trees a hundred feet high. The extraordinary development of climbing powers has been gradually acquired in the course of ages. In times and places where vegetation was not dense, and where the struggle for light was not great, plants of erect habit succeeded well. Then it was a conflict to see which could grow tallest. But when a weak plant found that, by taking hold of its tall and erect neighbor and by clinging to it, it could reach the sunlight much easier and by an expenditure of much less material than by growing erect itself, it was a great step on the road. This habit, being transmitted from one generation to the next, kept on improving. Less and less rigid, more and more flexuous stems ensued, and the delicate climbing vines of modern times are the results of this necessity of reaching sunlight with as little waste of material as possible. There are many methods adopted by plants to climb. While some of them reach upward by means of tendrils developed at the ends of stems or leaves, others twist their petioles round the support, and still others twine their stems round other stems that may come in their way. This last is the method adopted by those of the Convolvulaceæ which climb at all. For even in this family there are some species which are erect in growth. The Calystegia spithamœa is one of them. Others do not grow up into the air, but trail along the ground or over low plants, and thus secure their due share of sunlight. Others, again, climb freely, and this is the case with the dodder. The climbing bitter-sweet is said to sometimes strangle the trees upon which it grows. The constriction caused by its growing stem is so great as to cut off the supply of sap from the roots, and cause the death of the tree which has supported it. The original ancestor of the dodder was a plant with a well-developed root, green stem and leaves, and a twining habit. If its clasping killed the stem which supported it, the effect would be disastrous, for then it would not accomplish the purpose of its climbing. If the twining stem sank into the supporting one, it might cause decay along the line. This decaying would tend to develop rootlets from the side of the climber. The rootlets, used at first merely to assist in climbing, might and must have become modified so as to penetrate the bark to the tissue beneath. A minute absorption of the sap from this would be an assistance. Gradual increase of the amount absorbed would lead to gradual increase in the number of rootlets. And, this continuing, less and less need would be felt for the leaves. As needless organs are sure to degenerate, the leaves would become smaller and smaller, lose more and more of their green color, and finally become the yellow scales and bracts they now are. Along with the loss of the leaves would go the root. Becoming less necessary, it would get smaller, until finally it would retain only enough of its original character to give the plantlet a start in life, and transmit its qualities to its progeny. Of course, all these changes would be made slowly; but they would come surely. If each succeeding generation of rooting stemmed plants throve better in any way, perfected seed in any greater abundance, or were enabled to crowd out competitors in the struggle for life, we may be sure that the descendants of the favored plants would inherit these good traits, and would send more and more rootlets into the enveloped stem, until at last the habit would become firmly fixed. Thus would be formed a leafless, rootless parasite, so well adapted to hold its own that it would probably exterminate some of the less favored forms. The commencement of the habit of sending rootlets into stems has been observed in occasional specimens of the convolvulus. Let but this habit grow and be improved upon, as it surely will be if it is found beneficial, and from this small beginning we can look for just such a development as has been found in the dodder. It can not be said that there is always an upward progress in Nature. Degenerate forms exist and thrive as well as regenerate ones. The truth is, that when a plant or an animal can fill a vacant space in the world better by going backward than by going forward, the retreat is sounded. Progress or retrogression, it is the same. The direction best suited to Nature's needs is the one taken; so that, while on the one hand there may be a wonderfully complex organism, perfectly fitted for the struggle for life, on the other hand there may be a very degenerate one equally fitted into its place.
In microeconomics, the theory of consumer choice relates preferences (for the consumption of both goods and services) to consumption expenditures; ultimately, this relationship between preferences and consumption expenditures is used to relate preferences to consumer demand curves. The link between personal preferences, consumption, and the demand curve is one of the most closely studied relations in economics. Consumer choice theory is a way of analyzing how consumers may achieve equilibrium between preferences and expenditures by maximizing utility as subject to consumer budget constraints. Preferences are the desires by each individual for the consumption of goods and services that translate into choices based on income or wealth for purchases of goods and services to be combined with the consumer's time to define consumption activities. Consumption is separated from production, logically, because two different consumers are involved. In the first case consumption is by the primary individual; in the second case, a producer might make something that he would not consume himself. Therefore, different motivations and abilities are involved. The models that make up consumer theory are used to represent prospectively observable demand patterns for an individual buyer on the hypothesis of constrained optimization. Prominent variables used to explain the rate at which the good is purchased (demanded) are the price per unit of that good, prices of related goods, and wealth of the consumer. The fundamental theorem of demand states that the rate of consumption falls as the price of the good rises; this is called the substitution effect. Clearly, if one does not have enough money to pay the price, then they cannot buy any of that item. As prices rise, consumers will substitute away from higher priced goods and services, choosing less costly alternatives. Subsequently, as the wealth of the individual rises, demand increases, shifting the demand curve higher at all rates of consumption; this is called the income effect. As wealth rises, consumers will substitute away from less costly inferior goods and services, choosing higher priced alternatives. Economists' modern solution to the problem of mapping consumer choices is analysis. For an individual, indifference curves and an assumption of constant prices and a fixed income in a two-good world will give the following diagram. The consumer can choose any point on or below the budget constraint line BC. This line is diagonal since it comes from the equation . In other words, the amount spent on both goods together is less than or equal to the income of the consumer. The consumer will choose the indifference curve with the highest utility that is within his budget constraint. Every point on I3 is outside his budget constraint so the best that he can do is the single point on I2 that is tangent to his budget constraint. He will purchase X* of good X and Y* of good Y. Indifference curve analysis begins with the utility function. The utility function is treated as an index of utility. All that is necessary is that the utility index change as more preferred bundles are consumed. Indifference curves are typically numbered with the number increasing as more preferred bundles are consumed. However, it is not necessary that numbers be used - any indexing system would suffice - colors for example. The advantage of numbers is that their use makes the math simpler. Numbers used to index indifference curves have no cardinal significance. For example if three indifference curves are labeled 1, 4, and 16 respectively that means nothing more than the bundles "on" indifference curve 4 are more preferred than the bundles "on" indifference curve I. The fact that the index number is a multiple of another is of no significance. For example, the bundles of good on 4 does not mean that they are four times more satisfying than those on 1. As noted they merely mean they are more satisfying. Income effect and price effect deal with how the change in price of a commodity changes the consumption of the good. The theory of consumer choice examines the trade-offs and decisions people make in their role as consumers as prices and their income changes. The substitution effect is the effect observed with changes in relative price of goods. This effect basically affects the movement along the curve. These curves can be used to predict the effect of changes to the budget constraint. The graphic below shows the effect of a price increase for good Y. If the price of Y increases, the budget constraint will pivot from BC2 to BC1. Notice that because the price of X does not change, the consumer can still buy the same amount of X if he or she chooses to buy only good X. On the other hand, if the consumer chooses to buy only good Y, he or she will be able to buy less of good Y because its price has increased. To maximize the utility with the reduced budget constraint, BC1, the consumer will re-allocate consumption to reach the highest available indifference curve which BC1 is tangent to. As shown on the diagram below, that curve is I1, and therefore the amount of good Y bought will shift from Y2 to Y1, and the amount of good X bought to shift from X2 to X1. The opposite effect will occur if the price of Y decreases causing the shift from BC2 to BC3, and I2 to I3. If these curves are plotted for many different prices of good Y, a demand curve for good Y can be constructed. The diagram below shows the demand curve for good Y as its price varies. Alternatively, if the price for good Y is fixed and the price for good X is varied, a demand curve for good X can be constructed. Another important item that can change is the money income of the consumer. The income effect is the phenomenon observed through changes in purchasing power. It reveals the change in quantity demanded brought by a change in real income (utility). Graphically, as long as the prices remain constant, changing the income will create a parallel shift of the budget constraint. Increasing the income will shift the budget constraint right since more of both can be bought, and decreasing income will shift it left. Depending on the indifference curves, as income increases, the amount purchased of a good can either increase, decrease or stay the same. In the diagram below, good Y is a normal good since the amount purchased increased as the budget constraint shifted from BC1 to the higher income BC2. Good X is an inferior good since the amount bought decreased as the income increases. is the change in the demand for good 1 when we change income from to , holding the price of good 1 fixed at : Price effect as sum of substitution and income effects Every price change can be decomposed into an income effect and a substitution effect; the price effect is the sum of substitution and income effects. The substitution effect is a price change that alters the slope of the budget constraint but leaves the consumer on the same indifference curve. In other words, it illustrates the consumer's new consumption basket after the price change while being compensated as to allow the consumer to be as happy as he or she was previously. By this effect, the consumer is posited to substitute toward the good that becomes comparatively less expensive. In the illustration below this corresponds to an imaginary budget constraint denoted SC being tangent to the indifference curve I1. Then the income effect from the rise in purchasing power from a price fall reinforces the substitution effect. If the good is an inferior good, then the income effect will offset in some degree the substitution effect. If the income effect for an inferior good is sufficiently strong, the consumer will buy less of the good when it becomes less expensive, a Giffen good (commonly believed to be a rarity). In the figure, the substitution effect, , is the change in the amount demanded for when the price of good falls from to (increasing purchasing power for ) and, at the same time, the money income falls from to to keep the consumer at the same level of utility on : The substitution effect increases the amount demanded of good from to . In the example, the income effect of the price fall in partly offsets the substitution effect as the amount demanded of goes from to . Thus, the price effect is the algebraic sum of the substitution effect and the income effect. The behavioral assumption of the consumer theory proposed herein is that all consumers seek to maximize utility. In the mainstream economics tradition, this activity of maximizing utility has been deemed as the "rational" behavior of decision makers. More specifically, in the eyes of economists, all consumers seek to maximize a utility function subject to a budgetary constraint. In other words, economists assume that consumers will always choose the "best" bundle of goods they can afford. Consumer theory is therefore based around the problem of generate refutable hypotheses about the nature of consumer demand from this behavioral postulate. In order to reason from the central postulate towards a useful model of consumer choice, it is necessary to make additional assumptions about the certain preferences that consumers employ when selecting their preferred "bundle" of goods. These are relatively strict, allowing for the model to generate more useful hypotheses with regard to consumer behaviour than weaker assumptions, which would allow any empirical data to be explained in terms of stupidity, ignorance, or some other factor, and hence would not be able to generate any predictions about future demand at all. For the most part, however, they represent statements which would only be contradicted if a consumer was acting in (what was widely regarded as) a strange manner. In this vein, the modern form of consumer choice theory assumes: - Preferences are complete - Consumer choice theory is based on the assumption that the consumer fully understands his or her own preferences, allowing for a simple but accurate comparison between any two bundles of good presented. That is to say, it is assumed that if a consumer is presented with two consumption bundles A and B each containing different combinations of n goods, the consumer can unambiguously decide if (s)he prefers A to B, B to A, or is indifferent to both. The few scenarios where it is possible to imagine that decision-making would be very difficult are thus placed "outside the domain of economic analysis". However, discoveries in behavioral economics has found that decision making is affected by whether choices are presented together or separately through the distinction bias. - Preferences are reflexive - Means that if A and B are in all respect identical the consumer will consider a to be at least as good as (is weakly preferred) to B. Alternatively, the axiom can be modified to read that the consumer is indifferent with regard to A and B. - Preference are transitive - If A is preferred to B and B is preferred to C then A must be preferred to C. - This also means that if the consumer is indifferent between A and B and is indifferent between B and C she will be indifferent between A and C. - This is the consistency assumption. This assumption eliminates the possibility of intersecting indifference curves. - Preferences exhibit non-satiation - This is the "more is always better" assumption; that in general if a consumer is offered two almost identical bundles A and B, but where B includes more of one particular good, the consumer will choose B. - Among other things this assumption precludes circular indifference curves. Non-satiation in this sense is not a necessary but a convenient assumption. It avoids unnecessary complications in the mathematical models. - Indifference Curves exhibit diminishing marginal rates of substitution - This assumption assures that indifference curves are smooth and convex to the origin. - This assumption is implicit in the last assumption. - This assumption also set the stage for using techniques of constrained optimization. Because the shape of the curve assures that the first derivative is negative and the second is positive. - The MRS tells how much y a person is willing to sacrifice to get one more unit of x. - This assumption incorporates the theory of diminishing marginal utility. - The primary reason to have these technical preferences is to replicate the properties of the real number system so the math will work. - Goods are available in all quantities - It is assumed that a consumer may choose to purchase any quantity of a good (s)he desires, for example, 2.6 eggs and 4.23 loaves of bread. Whilst this makes the model less precise, it is generally acknowledged to provide a useful simplification to the calculations involved in consumer choice theory, especially since consumer demand is often examined over a considerable period of time. The more spending rounds are offered, the better approximation the continuous, differentiable function is for its discrete counterpart. (Whilst the purchase of 2.6 eggs sounds impossible, an average consumption of 2.6 eggs per day over a month does not.) Note the assumptions do not guarantee that the demand curve will be negatively sloped. A positively sloped curve is not inconsistent with the assumptions. In Marx's critique of political economy, any labor-product has a value and a use value, and if it is traded as a commodity in markets, it additionally has an exchange value, most often expressed as a money-price. Marx acknowledges that commodities being traded also have a general utility, implied by the fact that people want them, but he argues that this by itself tells us nothing about the specific character of the economy in which they are produced and sold. Someone can also use consumer theory to analyze a consumer's choice between leisure and labor. Leisure is considered one good (often put on the horizontal-axis) and consumption is considered the other good. Since a consumer has a finite and scarce amount of time, he must make a choice between leisure (which earns no income for consumption) and labor (which does earn income for consumption). The previous model of consumer choice theory is applicable with only slight modifications. First, the total amount of time that an individual has to allocate is known as his time endowment, and is often denoted as T. The amount an individual allocates to labor (denoted L) and leisure (l) is constrained by T such that: A person's consumption is the amount of labor they choose multiplied by the amount they are paid per hour of labor (their wage, often denoted w). Thus, the amount that a person consumes is: When a consumer chooses no leisure then and . - Convex preferences - Consumer sovereignty - Important publications in consumer theory - Indifference curves - Opportunity cost - Supply and demand - Utility maximization problem - Silberberg; Suen (2001). The Structure of Economics, A Mathematical Analysis. McGraw-Hill. - Böhm, Volker; Haller, Hans (1987). "Demand theory". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 1. pp. 785–92. - Hicks, John R. (1946). Value and Capital (2nd ed.). - Binger; Hoffman (1998). Microeconomics with Calculus (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. pp. 141–43. Matthew P., Quinten M., Randy R. Champion Consumer Decision Makers
Students will review and gain an in depth understanding of the usage of the definite and indefinite articles in Spanish. They will hear this tutorial in the target language with English used for clarification purposes. In this tutorial, students will review the definite and indefinite articles in Spanish. They will learn when to use them and when not to use them. The majority of this tutorial is spoken in Spanish with English used for clarification. Source: Power Point created by K. Pontarelli Sophia college courses cost up to 80% less than traditional courses*. Start a free trial now.
When Things Go Awry On Wednesday, March 28, 1979, the residents of Middleton, PA woke up to a very scary situation. A nuclear power plant near the town had experienced a series of malfunctions that led to the release of some radioactive gases into the atmosphere, along with a partial meltdown of the reactor core. Fortunately, follow-up studies have shown that there were no health effects on workers or the general public. A thorough investigation was conducted that led to significant improvements in safety and operations of these power plants. One of the two reactors was shut down completely, but the other one is still in operation and will be permanently deactivated in 2014. Nuclear Power Generation The generation of electricity is critical for operation of businesses, health care delivery, schools, homes, and other areas requiring the use of electrical power. According to 2011 statistics, coal is used for 42% of the total power generated, with natural gas being employed for another 25%. Nuclear power plants are employed in about 19% of the cases, with renewable energy sources supplying the last 13%. All of these fuels are used to heat water to generate steam. The steam then turns a turbine to generate electricity. The diagram below shows the layout of a typical nuclear power plant. The radioactive rods are in the red container along with water, which is heated to steam. The energy for this heat comes from fission reactions of uranium. The steam passes through the turbine and causes the turbine to spin, generating electricity. As the steam condenses, it is run through a cooling tower to lower its temperature. The water then recirculates through the reactor core to be used again. The control rods play an important role in the modulation of the nuclear chain reaction (usually a collision of a neutron with uranium). Each collision produces more neutrons than were present initially. If left unsupervised, the reaction would soon get out of control. Rods are commonly made of boron or a number of metals and metal alloys. The purpose of the control rods is to absorb neutrons to regulate the rate of the chain reaction so that the water does not overheat and destroy the reactor. Schematic for a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power is also used to propel ships. The turbine can be connected to a propeller system. The rotating turbine shaft will turn the propeller to move the ship. - The importance of nuclear power in generating electricity is described. - The operation of a nuclear power plant is described. Read the material at the link below and answer the following questions: - How hazardous is enriched uranium? - How is spent nuclear waste stored? - Why are people who live near nuclear power plants issued potassium iodide tablets? - How much of our nation’s electricity is provided by nuclear power? - What heats the water to generate steam in a nuclear power plant? - What is the function of the control rods?
MCAT General Chemistry Review Chapter 2: The Periodic Table 2.2 Types of Elements When we consider the trends of chemical reactivity and physical properties together, we can begin to identify groups of elements with similar characteristics. These larger collections are divided into three categories: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids (also called semimetals). Metals are found on the left side and in the middle of the Periodic Table. They include the active metals, the transition metals, and the lanthanide and actinide series of elements. Metals are lustrous (shiny) solids, except for mercury, which is a liquid under standard conditions. They generally have high melting points and densities, but there are exceptions, such as lithium, which has a density about half that of water. Metals have the ability to be deformed without breaking; the ability of metal to be hammered into shapes is called malleability, and its ability to be pulled or drawn into wires is called ductility. At the atomic level, a metal is defined by a low effective nuclear charge, low electronegativity (high electropositivity), large atomic radius, small ionic radius, and low ionization energy. All of these characteristics are manifestations of the ability of metals to easily give up electrons. Many of the transition metals (Group B elements) have two or more oxidation states (charges when forming bonds with other atoms). Because the valence electrons of all metals are only loosely held to their atoms, they are free to move, which makes metals good conductors of heat and electricity. The valence electrons of the active metals are found in the s subshell; those of the transition metals are found in the d subshell; and those of the lanthanide and actinide series elements are in the f subshell. Some transition metals—copper, nickel, silver, gold, palladium, and platinum—are relatively nonreactive, a property that makes them ideal for the production of coins and jewelry. Alkali and alkaline earth metals are both metallic in nature because they easily lose electrons from the s subshell of their valence shells. An example of a metal is shown in Figure 2.1 with an indium wire. The wire exhibits luster, malleability, and ductility. It is used as a wire because it also exhibits good heat and electrical conductivity. Figure 2.1. Indium (In) Metal Wire Nonmetals are found predominantly on the upper right side of the Periodic Table. Nonmetals are generally brittle in the solid state and show little or no metallic luster. They have high ionization energies, electron affinities, and electronegativities, as well as small atomic radii and large ionic radii. They are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity. All of these characteristics are manifestations of the inability of nonmetals to easily give up electrons. Nonmetals are less unified in their chemical and physical properties than the metals. Carbon, shown in Figure 2.2, is a stereotypical nonmetal that retains a solid structure but is brittle, nonlustrous, and generally a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Figure 2.2. Activated Charcoal, Composed of the Nonmetal Carbon (C) Separating the metals and nonmetals are a stair-step group of elements called the metalloids. The metalloids are also called semimetals because they share some characteristics with both metals and nonmetals. The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids lie between those of metals and nonmetals. Their physical properties—densities, melting points, and boiling points—vary widely and can be combinations of metallic and nonmetallic characteristics. For example, silicon (Si) has a metallic luster but is brittle and a poor conductor. The reactivities of the metalloids are dependent on the elements with which they are reacting. Boron (B), for example, behaves like a nonmetal when reacting with sodium (Na) and like a metal when reacting with fluorine (F). The elements classified as metalloids form a “staircase” on the Periodic Table and include boron, silicon, germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), polonium (Po), and astatine (At). While there is debate over polonium and astatine’s status as metalloids, most sources (including the MCAT) will label them as such. Figure 2.3 color-codes the major classifications of elements on the Periodic Table. Figure 2.3. Periodic Table, Coded by Element Type Metalloids share some properties with metals and others with nonmetals. For instance, metalloids make good semiconductors due to their partial conductivity of electricity. MCAT Concept Check 2.2: Before you move on, assess your understanding of the material with these questions. 1. Based on their location in the Periodic Table, identify a few elements that likely possess the following properties: · Poor conductivity of heat and electricity: · Good conductivity but brittle: 2. Classify the following elements as metals (M), nonmetals (NM), or metalloids (MO):
In ethology, a fission–fusion society is one in which the size and composition of the social group change as time passes and animals move throughout the environment; animals merge (fusion)—e.g. sleeping in one place—or split (fission)—e.g. foraging in small groups during the day. For species that live in fission–fusion societies, group composition is a dynamic property. Species in fission–fusion societies This form of social organization occurs in several species of primates (e.g. common chimpanzees and bonobos, hamadryas baboons, geladas, orangutans, spider monkeys, and humans), African elephants, most carnivores including the spotted hyena, African lion, and cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins, ungulates such as deer, and fish such as guppies. These societies change frequently in their size and composition, making up a permanent social group called the "parent group". Permanent social networks consist of all individual members of a faunal community and often varies to track changes in their environment and based on individual animal dynamics. In a fission–fusion society, the main parent group can fracture (fission) into smaller stable subgroups or individuals to adapt to environmental or social circumstances. For example, a number of males may break off from the main group in order to hunt or forage for food during the day, but at night they may return to join (fusion) the primary group to share food and partake in other activities. Overlapping of so-called "parent groups" territorially is also frequent, resulting in more interaction and mingling of community members, further altering the make-up of the parent group. This results in instances where, say, a female chimpanzee may generally belong to one parent group, but encounters a male who belongs to a neighboring community. If they copulate, the female may stay with the male for several days and come into contact with his parent group, temporarily "fusing" into the male's community. In some cases, animals may leave one parent group in favor of associating themselves with another, usually for reproductively motivated reasons. - van Schaik, Carel P. (1999). "The socioecology of fission-fusion sociality in Orangutans" (PDF). Biomedical and Life Sciences 40 (1): 69–86. doi:10.1007/BF02557703. - Ramos-Fernández, Gabriel; Denis Boyer; Vian P. Gómez (August 2006). "A complex social structure with fission–fusion properties can emerge from a simple foraging model" (PDF). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology (Springer-Verlag) 60 (4): 536–549. doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0197-x. - Archie, Elizabeth A.; Cynthia J. Moss; Susan C. Alberts (March 2005). "The ties that bind: genetic relatedness predicts the fission and fusion of social groups in wild African elephants". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273: 513–522. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3361. - Smith, Jennifer E.; Sandra K. Memenis; Kay E. Holekamp (March 2007). "Rank-related partner choice in the fission–fusion society of the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)" (PDF). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology (Springer-Verlag) 61 (5): 753–765. doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0305-y. - Lion Research Center. "Social Behavior > Group Living". University of Minnesota. Retrieved 23 August 2012. - Lusseau, David; Karsten Schneider; Oliver J. Boisseau; Patti Haase; Elisabeth Slooten; Steve M. Dawson (2003). "The bottlenose dolphin community of Doubtful Sound features a large proportion of long-lasting associations: Can geographic isolation explain this unique trait?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 54 (4): 396–405. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0651-y. - Isbell, L.A. & Young, T.P. (1996). "The evolution of bipedalism in hominids and reduced group size in chimpanzees: alternative responses to decreasing resource availability." Journal of Human Evolution. 30:389-397 - Smith, J. E., Kolowski, J. M., Graham, K. E., Dawes, S.E., and K. E. Holekamp.(2008). "Social and ecological determinants of fission-fusion dynamics in the spotted hyaena." Animal Behaviour 76:619-636.
In recent years, we have seen a global surge in standardised testing as nations attempt to improve student outcomes. Rich nations, as well as many middle- and low-income nations, have participated in international assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and also developed their own national standardised assessments. But can such assessments improve student outcomes? Information from standardised tests is too limited to improve outcomes The National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) was introduced in Australia in 2008. It is a standardised test administered annually to all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. These tests are supposed to perform two functions: provide information to develop better schooling policies, and provide teachers with information to improve student outcomes. However, a decade on and many millions of dollars later, student outcomes on NAPLAN have shown little improvement. Australia’s performance on international assessments such as PISA has actually fallen over these years. Standardised testing has not produced a positive effect on student learning outcomes. Supporters of standardised testing see NAPLAN as necessary to know which schools and school systems are doing well and which ones are not. It is undoubtedly useful to know if certain parts of the country (such as regional or rural areas), or certain student populations (for example, students with an immigrant or low-SES background), are underperforming. Such information is also crucial when it comes to arguing for resource redistribution, as we see in debates about Gonski. However, there are clear limits to what NAPLAN can tell us. While it helps us understand schooling at the system level, the information gained from NAPLAN about individual students, classrooms and schools is too limited and error-prone to be of use. For instance, there is a limit to the number of questions NAPLAN can ask to assess a particular student’s skill or understanding. It may determine that a student cannot perform addition using “carrying over” based on their performance on one or two such items on the 40-item test. This means the error margins in these assessments are very high. Such errors may be neutralised at a system level, when the test is performed at a sufficiently large scale and with a large sample of students, but when used at the level of individual students, classrooms or schools, NAPLAN assessment data is seriously flawed. Assessment versus standardised testing Assessment is integral to the teaching process and occurs almost constantly in good classrooms. Teachers have a range of assessment techniques, including questioning during the course of a lesson, setting assignments, using data from standardised testing, and developing more formal exams. These different assessment techniques fulfil a variety of different purposes: diagnosing student knowledge, shaping student learning and assessing what has been learned. Increasingly, teachers are encouraged to individualise their teaching in order to accommodate the needs of individual students. This focus on “inclusion” extends to assessment, and teachers are expected to provide a variety of formats and opportunities for students to demonstrate their learning. Education policy statements, such as the 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, emphasise the valuing of student diversity. Standardised assessments, on the other hand, assume that particular levels of achievement are expected of certain ages or year levels. Students are then classified as meeting, exceeding or being below these expectations. This flies in the face of the realities that teachers observe daily in their classrooms: students do not present themselves as “standardised” humans. Some Year 9 students perform at the same level as some Year 5, and possibly some Year 3, students. By this logic, the notion of providing a standardised NAPLAN test for all Year 3, 5, 7 and 9 students is inappropriate. Teachers who see their students all year long will always have a deeper knowledge of their students than point-in-time standardised tests can offer. Teachers can make better, more nuanced, more useful and more timely assessments of their students. They may choose to include standardised assessments in the suite of approaches they use, but NAPLAN should not be solely privileged over teacher assessments. Despite this, enormous amounts of money and time have been spent training teachers to use NAPLAN results to inform their teaching. This not only provides an unnecessary and misleading distraction to already over-burdened teachers but it undermines their own professional knowledge and judgement. Stepping up accountability doesn’t necessarily translate to better outcomes One of the goals of NAPLAN was to enhance accountability. By judging all schools on the same measure, comparing schools with similar populations, and then making these comparisons public, it was expected that all schools would lift their game. This strategy assumed that schools could improve but were choosing not to, and that the inducement of market logics (such as school choice) would motivate all schools to do better. It also ignored the many out-of-school factors, such as poverty and geography, that affect the ability of teachers and schools to improve student outcomes. The other logic was that schools that performed worse could learn from schools that were doing better. Besides minimising the importance of local factors to student learning and suggesting there are universal “silver bullets”, setting schools in competition with one another hardly provides incentives for better performing schools to share their knowledge. Blame alone is not the answer Accountability is important and standardised testing can inform policies and improve accountability. But to function as an instrument of accountability, these tests should not be high-stakes, high-stress or high-visibility, particularly since they are so error prone at the student, classroom and school levels. The use of sample-based tests, such as the United States’ National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), may instead provide useful information by state and territory, as well as by categories such as social capital, ethnicity and gender. This information could highlight problematic areas, and trigger closer and more targeted explorations. To get this type of information, the tests need not be conducted every year, since effects of any reforms are seldom evident in one year. The error margins also make year-on-year comparisons of limited value. Sample-based tests will also remove the pressures placed on schools and students, which have proven so detrimental. As recent NAPLAN results have shown, “blame and shame” alone does not improve student learning. Indeed, focusing solely on NAPLAN scores distracts from broader efforts to provide teachers, schools and school systems with the support needed to ensure all students are given the best chance to learn and succeed. To date, NAPLAN has been largely used by politicians and the education system to hold teachers and schools accountable. But accountability can work both ways. If NAPLAN is to be used, we should also use it to also hold the education system and politicians accountable for the resources and funding they provide to schools and to the local communities they serve. Perhaps then we would see some real and sustained improvements in student outcomes. This article was written by Radhika Gorur, DECRA Fellow and Senior Lecturer In Education, Deakin University; Steven Lewis, Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Deakin University. The piece first appeared on The Conversation.
UEN Security Office Technical Services Support Center (TSSC) Eccles Broadcast Center 101 Wasatch Drive Salt Lake City, UT 84112 (801) 585-6105 (fax) Discovering Mathematics with the TI-73: Activities for Grades 5 and 6, by Melissa Nast; Background For Teachers: Each composite number can be renamed as a product of prime numbers. This is known as prime factorization. Understanding prime factorization helps students understand the composition and decomposition of numbers. Prime factorization is a strategy students may employ to find the Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of two or more numbers. Students may also use prime factorization to find the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers. It may be interesting to note that the product of the LCM and the GCF of two numbers is equal to the product of the two numbers themselves. Pretend you are a detective. What is one piece of evidence that would help you to identify suspects from a crime scene? Fingerprints would be one type of evidence. Every person has a one-of-a-kind fingerprint. Have students make a fingerprint of their right index finger on a Post-itฎ note. Have students place their Post-itฎ note on the line plot, matching their fingerprint with one of the nine main patterns pictured on a teacher-made categorical line plot poster. Even though there are nine fingerprint patterns, allow students time to notice that each individual fingerprint is still one-of-a-kind. Write the following analogy on the board: human is to fingerprint as number is to factorprint. Tell students that just as each human has a one-of-a-kind fingerprint, we will learn that each number has a one-of-a-kind factorprint. (The activities listed below are intended to be taught sequentially. They will take several lessons/days to complete with students.) Gerlic, I., & Jausovec, N. Multimedia: Differences in cognitive processes observed with EEG. Educational technology research and development, September 1999, Vol. 47, Number 3, p5-14. This study investigated the cognitive processes involved in learning information presented in three different methods: with text; with text, sound, and picture; and with text, sound, and video. Students brain activity was measured using an EEG in each format. Less mental activity was found using the text only presentation. The results showed higher mental activity with the video and picture presentations, confirming the assumption that these methods induced visualization strategies on the part of the learners. Zazkis, R., & Liljedahl, P. Understanding primes: The role of representation. Journal for research in mathematics education, May 2004, Vol. 35 Issue 3, p164-186. The authors of this article investigated how preservice elementary teachers understood the concept of prime numbers. They attempted to describe the factors that influenced their understanding. The authors suggested that an obstacle to a full conceptual understanding is a lack of a representation for a prime number. The importance of representations in understanding math concepts is examined. Created Date :
In computer graphics, sphere mapping (or spherical environment mapping) is a type of reflection mapping that approximates reflective surfaces by considering the environment to be an infinitely far-away spherical wall. This environment is stored as a texture depicting what a mirrored sphere would look like if it were placed into the environment, using an orthographic projection (as opposed to one with perspective). This texture contains reflective data for the entire environment, except for the spot directly behind the sphere. (For one example of such an object, see Escher's drawing Hand with Reflecting Sphere.) To use this data, the surface normal of the object, view direction from the object to the camera, and/or reflected direction from the object to the environment is used to calculate a texture coordinate to look up in the aforementioned texture map. The result appears like the environment is reflected in the surface of the object that is being rendered. In the simplest case for generating texture coordinates, suppose: - The map has been created as above, looking at the sphere along the z-axis. - The texture coordinate of the center of the map is (0,0), and the sphere's image has radius 1. - We are rendering an image in the same exact situation as the sphere, but the sphere has been replaced with a reflective object. - The image being created is orthographic, or the viewer is infinitely far away, so that the view direction does not change as one moves across the image. At texture coordinate , note that the depicted location on the sphere is (where z is ), and the normal at that location is also . However, we are given the reverse task (a normal for which we need to produce a texture map coordinate). So the texture coordinate corresponding to normal is . - Cube mapping - Skybox (video games) - Reflection mapping - HEALPix, mapping with little distortion, arbitrary precision, and equal-sized fragments \|This computer graphics–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
Sleeping is a Matter of Survival It is often said that proper sleep makes for good health. In fact, along with oxygen, water and food, sleep is also required to survive. How you feel while awake is a direct result of your sleep habits. Getting enough sleep can improve your physical and mental health because while you slumber, your body is working to restore itself. The average adult operates best with seven to nine hours of sleep. Older adults need less and children need more. The results from not sleeping enough can be chronic health problems, slow reaction time, impatience and depression. A normal sleeper will cycle between two categories of sleep every 90 minutes. One is the “quiet” sleep, where body temperature drops, muscles relax and heart and breathing rates become slower. This stage of sleep allows the body to make necessary physiological changes or repairs. REM (rapid eye movement) is the last stage of sleep. This is when dreaming occurs. During this stage, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure and breathing are less closely regulated and can be more erratic. Memory and learning are enhanced and emotional health is maintained while in REM. What Effects Does Sleep Have? Sleeping is a time when your brain can recover from the previous day and prepare for the next. Being well rested enhances problem solving and improves learning. The benefits of sleep for your brain are a better ability to pay attention, be creative and make decisions. It used to be that sleep disorders were a symptom of mental illness. Scientists now know that sleep deficiency may put you at risk for and even contribute to developing psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorder or bipolar disorder. Sleep deficiency may alter brain activity. This can lead to difficulty controlling your emotions, making decisions and coping with change. Lack of sleep has been linked to poor risk-taking behavior, depression and suicide. Sleep is the time when the body can devote unused resources to healing, especially your heart and blood vessels. Those who do not get enough sleep increase their risk of stroke, kidney disease and high blood pressure. Other chronic problems that may arise are obesity, diabetes and a weakened immune system. After several nights of losing just an hour or two of sleep, the body functions as if it hasn’t slept for one or two days. The result of this is microsleep, brief moments of sleep when you should be awake and alert. This can often happen at work, resulting in poor performance or when operating a vehicle, leading to an accident. It is estimated that 100,000 accidents and 1,500 deaths each year are caused by sleep-deprived drivers. If you suffer from the inability to sleep, simple lifestyle changes may make a big difference. Getting the rest your body needs is much more important than enhancing your mood or eliminating bags under your eyes. Adequate sleep is critical for optimal health, so make sure you set aside the About the Author Clinton Young, MD is the Medical Director for the Cone Health Sleep Disorders Center
- Volcano List - Learn More - All About Volcanoes - Kids Only! - Adventures and Fun - Sitemap (Under Construction) Lava domes demonstrate a large variety of textures and features, depending largely on composition and the ability of the lava dome to deform and flow. Listed below are a few of these features and breid descriptions of each. Lava domes are often seemingly just a pile of loose and sharp blocks divided by large cracks and spaces between the blocks. Indeed, due to the composition of the lavas that form the domes (typically viscous and high in silica), the lava tends to form and cool into large blocks, varying in size from less than a centimeter to well over 5m. And although blocks may appear randomly placed, their distribution probably reflects eruption dynamics (Fink and Anderson, 2000). These blocks are often unstable and form a field of talus surrounding the lava dome. Photo credit: Shan de Silva. Large lava blocks near the edge of Chillahuita lava dome in the Andes. In the distal regions of the lava dome, always from the primary vent, explosion pits are often found. These pits can be many meters deep and disrupt the surface of the lava dome. They are probably caused by high water content releasing and trapping steam beneath the surface of the lava dome. Eventually the pressure builds to high and a small explosion occurs (Fink and Anderson, 2000) Ogives are commonly found on lava flows, and often resemble the pahoehoe ropes sometimes seen on basaltic lava. These ridges can also be found on some lava domes known as coulées, sometimes found to as much as 30m high. The ridges are formed as a result of compressional forces, parallel to flow of the coulée. The outer surface of the coulée must have a viscosity that is higher than the interior but also must be able to deform in a ductile manner. The spacing and height of these features depends largely on composition. Chao, as seen in this satellite image, is an excellent example of a coulée. Note the large pressure ridges visible on the surface of the lava. The ridges on Chao can be over 30m high. Another common feature seen on lava domes and flows are crease structures. These features develop where lava is allowed to spread laterally as the outer part of the lava flow cools and lava from the interior is still plastic. The processes of creating larger cracks often occurs in multiple episodes of cooling and subsequent fracturing. Often, new extrusions of lava will emerge from these cracks. Size of the cracks can vary from less than a meter to almost 250m (Fink and Anderson, 2000) Photo credit: Shan de Silva. Note volcanologist, Casey Tierney, for scale! This picture is of a large crease structure found in a lava flow in the Andes. Fink J. H., Anderson, S.W. 2000. Lava domes and Coulees, In: Sigurdsson et al., eds., Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, 307-319.

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