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... contains important information and a detailed explanation about higher level thinking questions for preschoolers ... which is also related with , higher order thinking questions - edutopia, question & review: higher order questions games, 81 fresh & fun critical-thinking activities. Higher Level Thinking Questions For Preschoolers Higher order questions encourages higher order thinking Based on Blooms Taxonomy Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products 2 How to Design Questions and Tasks to Assess Student Thinking WHO Is Likely to Benefit from Assessment of Higher-Order Thinking? The Blooms Critical Thinking Cue Questions Description Cue questions related to the six thinking skills in Blooms Taxonomy are purposely constructed to Higher-order thinking is another instructional strategy supported by research. Often referred to as critical thinking skills, it is more than simple recall of facts ... Language Arts Levels of Depth of Knowledge Norman L. Webb Level 4 . Higher order thinking is central and knowledge is deep at Level 4. The standard or What is critical thinking? Structure: organising your thoughts and materials Generating critical thinking Critical questions a linear model Past Exam Questions on Light . Q5 ... The diagram shows a simplified version of the electromagnetic spectrum. . Can a diffiactlon grating which diffracts light also . A3 Thinking Intent 1. Focus on some of the thinking patterns inside Toyota 2. Help foster critical thinking and communication skills 3. Stay away from tools (of ... Critical Thinking Math 9 Sample Questions. 8) Using the accompanying graph, determine the rate of change of y with respect to x. A) B) * C) * D) Higher Ed Interview Questions ... How would you prepare your performance majors for a career in music . Describe several attributes of a successful studio teacher.
The Cretaceous aquifer is used principally in northwestern Iowa and southwestern Minnesota (fig. 42) where it generally is the only source of ground water; however, it extends northward along the western Minnesota border as outliers and southward into southern and central Iowa (fig. 42). The aquifer consists of thick to thin, discontinuous sandstone beds overlain in places by limestone and shale beds that confine the aquifer. In other places, the aquifer is directly overlain by glacial deposits. In its principal area of use, the Cretaceous aquifer ranges from about 90 to 170 feet in thickness. Although the aquifer contains gypsum, which, when dissolved, markedly increases sulfate concentrations in the ground water, the aquifer is extensively pumped to supply domestic, small-community, and agricultural needs. The Cretaceous aquifer is part of a sequence of sandstone, limestone, and shale deposited during the Cretaceous Period by five major transgressive-regressive marine cycles that inundated Minnesota, Iowa, and western Wisconsin from the west. These rocks were deposited on an irregular erosional surface that had a maximum relief of about 1,400 feet. They were deposited primarily as fluvioldeltaic deposits on crystalline and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian and Paleozoic ages. A pre-Cretaceous regolith, which developed on the underlying rocks, ranges in thickness from a feather edge to 200 feet. The surface of the Cretaceous sequence was deeply eroded prior to glaciation, and the Cretaceous rocks have been removed completely in some areas. Similarly, these rocks are thin or missing over highs on the underlying unconformity, such as the Sioux Quartzite Ridge and the Transcontinental Arch (fig. 42) of southwestern Minnesota. Cretaceous rocks are present primarily in the western parts of Minnesota and Iowa and as minor outliers in other parts of those States (fig. 42). The area where Cretaceous rocks yield sufficient water to wells for water supplies is in southwestern Minnesota and northwestern Iowa as shown in figure 42. The Cretaceous aquifer consists of discontinuous sandstone beds in the Dakota Formation. Although some water is obtained locally from the Codell Sandstone Member of the Carlile Shale (fig. 43), this unit is not considered to be part of the Cretaceous aquifer. Water in the Dakota Formation is confined by the overlying Graneros Shale and locally by fine-grained glacial deposits that overlie the eroded surface of the Cretaceous rocks (figs. 43, 44). The potentiometric surface of water in the Cretaceous aquifer is above the top of the aquifer in most places. The vertical hydraulic gradient in the overlying glacial deposits, however, is downward, and recharge to the Cretaceous aquifer is from the surficial aquifer system, mostly through the confining beds (fig. 44). Locally, the Cretaceous aquifer also is connected hydraulically to underlying aquifers in Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks. Water moves downward to these aquifers from the Cretaceous aquifer in highland areas. However, the hydraulic gradient is reversed, and water moves upward into the Cretaceous aquifer from the deeper aquifers at major points of discharge, such as the Big Sioux River (fig. 44). Regional water movement in the Cretaceous aquifer primarily is from a potentiometric-surface high on the Sioux Quartzite Ridge in Minnesota northeastward to the Minnesota River and southwestward to the Big Sioux River (fig. 45) in Iowa where the water is discharged. The Cretaceous aquifer in parts of southwestern Minnesota and northwestern Iowa is the most extensive source of ground water in these areas, and it is intensively used even though there are limitations on its use imposed by quality, well-yield, and depth factors. The water tends to contain large concentrations of dissolved solids, especially because sulfate concentrations commonly exceed 1,000 milligrams per liter; in some areas, wells have small yields of less than 2 to 10 gallons per minute; and the aquifer is buried by glacial deposits to depths of 700 feet or more near the southern Minnesota border. In spite of limitations, many wells have been completed in the aquifer for domestic and stock supplies, and 36 communities in Minnesota have used or are presently using the aquifer for municipal supplies. Estimated well yields from the Cretaceous aquifer where it is extensively used in Iowa are shown in figure 46. Here, estimated well yields range from less than 100 to slightly more than 1,000 gallons per minute; the range of estimated well yields probably is similar in Minnesota. Hydraulic-conductivity, transmissivity, and thickness values for the Cretaceous aquifer at five sites in Iowa are listed in table 2. Hydraulic-conductivity values ranged from 37 to 50 feet per day; transmissivity values ranged from 3,900 to 7,600 feet squared per day; and thickness values ranged from 89 to 162 feet. Water from the Cretaceous aquifer generally can be characterized as a calcium magnesium sulfate type. The water typically is very hard (hardness greater than 180 milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate); hardness ranges from 22 to 1,600 milligrams per liter (table 3). Dissolved-solids concentrations (fig. 47; table 3) range from 251 to 3,540 milligrams per liter. Many samples contain concentrations of radionuclides (radium-226, radium-228) in excess of the 5 picocuries per liter allowed in public water supplies. Dissolved-sulfate concentrations in water from the Cretaceous aquifer (fig. 48) exceed 1,000 milligrams per liter in large areas of Minnesota and Iowa and range from 0.5 to 1,700 milligrams per liter (table 3). Sulfate concentrations are generally greatest near recharge areas; this is the result of leaching of gypsum and other sulfate-bearing rocks by water entering the aquifer. Sulfate concentrations, which generally are least in areas of discharge, such as along the Big Sioux River in the southwestern part of the aquifer (fig. 45), might be a result of reduction of sulfate by anaerobic bacteria. Iron and manganese also generally are present in large concentrations in water from the Cretaceous aquifer. Iron concentrations exceeded 300 micrograms per liter in about 80 percent of 28 samples collected in Iowa; manganese concentrations exceeded 50 micrograms per liter in about 56 percent of the same 28 samples. Sodium concentrations in water from the Cretaceous aquifer are sufficiently small in Iowa to make the water generally acceptable for irrigation. Sodium concentrations range from 4.5 to 1,200 milligrams per liter (table 3). Water that has extremely large concentrations of sodium can only be applied to crops on well-drained soils and when there is adequate leaching time. Sodium concentrations in water from the Cretaceous aquifer in Minnesota range from 100 to 1,000 milligrams per liter. Large concentrations are attributed to ion exchange and the influx of saltwater from Cretaceous rocks in North and South Dakota. FRESH GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS Fresh ground-water withdrawals from the Cretaceous aquifer during 1985 totaled 87 million gallons per day (fig. 49). Of the total, 10 million gallons per day was withdrawn in southwestern Minnesota, and 77 million gallons per day in northwestern Iowa. Withdrawals from the Cretaceous aquifer eceeded those from the Mississippian aquifer in Segment 9 (67 million gallons per day) and were nearly equal to the 88 million gallons per day withdrawn from the Pennsylvanian aquifer (fig. 25). About 50 percent of the water withdrawn from the Cretaceous aquifer was used for agricultural purposes (fig. 49), including irrigation. Public-supply use accounted for about 30 percent, and domestic and commercial uses accounted for about 14 percent. Only about 7 percent of the withdrawals was used for industrial, mining, or thermoelectric-power purposes.
Scientists have used NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope to make the most precise measurements of the expansion rate of the universe since it was first calculated nearly a century ago. Intriguingly, the results are forcing astronomers to consider that they may be seeing evidence of something unexpected at work in the universe. The Hubble Constant (how fast the universe expands with time) was predicted by the European Space Agency’s Planck observatory to be 67km per second per megaparsec (3.3 million light-years), shortly before the spacecraft was deactivated after a successful four-year mission. While Planck’s mission used leftover cosmic microwave background radiation to map the sky just after the big bang, the Hubble team took a different approach. Boffins spent six years using Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 to refine the measurements of distances to galaxies using yardsticks such as supernovae or pulsating stars. The new study, led by boffin-in-chief Nobel Laureate Adam Reiss, improved on previous Hubble results by including more stars and peering 10 times farther into space. The finding from Reiss’s team, at 73km per second per megaparsec, differs from Planck’s by 9 per cent – something that boffins have been unable to explain away through instrumentation or measurement errors. The results indicate that galaxies are moving at a faster rate than implied just after the beginning of the universe. With a one in 5,000 chance that the discrepancy between the values is a coincidence, Reiss explained that “it is increasingly unlikely that this is not a bug, but a feature of the universe”. Such an explanation will likely soon be used by programmers everywhere as a reason for code blowing up with a ferocity not far off that of the big bang itself. With a 2011 Nobel prize under his belt for the discovery of the expanding universe, Reiss is well-placed to theorise on this latest discrepancy, pointing at that favoured bogeyman of cosmologists: dark matter, which may be interacting differently with normal matter than previously thought. Other options include the effects of a new class of sub-atomic particle (known as dark radiation) travelling close to the speed of light and affected only by gravity, or dark energy shoving galaxies away from each other with growing strength rather than a constant rate of acceleration. Any of the above theories would result in some rewriting of theoretical models concerning the behaviour of the universe and updates to the physics canon. The Register is prepared to bet a delicious pint of beer that the word ‘dark’ will be involved in whatever scientists come up with. The team plans to continue using the Wide Field Camera 3 on the Hubble Space Telescope to further refine the discrepancy along with data from the European Space Agency’s Gaia satellite to achieve even greater precision. The Wide Field Camera 3 was replaced during the first spacewalk of the final Hubble servicing mission, STS 125, in 2009, and NASA fervently hopes that it will last until the veteran space telescope finally meets its end, some time in the 2020s.
First and Third Person are the most common form of perspective in writing. In this article I will be breaking down the differences between them. 1st vs 3rd Person Points of View Point of view is a narrative mode. Points of view, like 1st and 3rd person are common methods of telling the story (or narrative) to the reader. These methods are very different and accomplish many different effects. To understand more fully lets talk about them more. Using the 1st person point of view pronouns like “I” (Singular), “We” (Plural) or “We’re” (Plural possessive) are used. This can be used for any number of reasons. Often times, first person is used to directly describe the main characters exact feelings or thoughts in a circumstance, fictional or non-fictional. The effect of writing in 1st person is that it talks directly to the reader. As though the reader is an acknowledge part of the story that needs to understand the character(s) at hand. It sounds like a person talking to their friend. For example, “I felt a little odd when I walked into the room”. Using the 3rd person point of view pronouns like “He” (Singular), “Hers” (Singular Possessive) or “They” (Plural). This form of narration is often used in fiction books to sound more objective. The objectivity allows readers to buy into the imaginary history or circumstance surrounding the events taking place in the writing because they appear as facts. The effect of writing in 3rd person is it objectifies the story. This proves hard when making characters seem more realistic. The challenge comes when you have to develop a whole character without directly telling the reader what that character wants to say. Third person looks like, “Michael, after a hard days work, laid down for bed. The following day, he arose and started working again”. Since The Story of Michael is a fiction novel I never wondered about writing in 1st person. However, my personal challenge was to make the 3rd person so descriptive that it seemed like 1st person. Good story telling allows the audience to predict a certain actions characters because, over the course of the writing, the audience has learned how this character reacts, performs and contributes to the book over all. Subscribe, follow, and ‘like’ to get the latest on The Story of Michael.
How organisms process sensory stimuli What happens at the molecular level when we smell, see and hear? At the University of Oldenburg the Research Training Group "Molecular basis of sensory biology" has been studying these processes since 2013. The German Research Foundation (DFG) has now approved funding for the group for another four and a half years. The research training group currently comprises thirteen doctoral candidates from different disciplines working with Oldenburg scientists from the natural sciences biology, chemistry and physics. The key focus of their research is to find out whether sensory processes like seeing, smelling, hearing, the detection of the Earth's magnetic fields in birds or the detection of chemical substances in bacteria are all based on common molecular principles. If the molecular principles are the same for all these processes this could serve as inspiration for new technical systems, for example in the field of biomedicine. "With its decision the DFG has once again acknowledged the achievements of the university's research in the field of molecular sensory physiology and the quality of its training for doctoral researchers," said the President of the University Prof. Dr. Dr. Hans Michael Piper. The research training group is characterised by a high level of hands-on interdisciplinarity, he added. "The collaboration between chemists, physicians and biologists has visibly advanced the research in this field. Now the goal is to build on this success." A better understanding of sensory systems The scientists of the research training group are focussing on a variety of projects within the group, but they all have a common goal: to develop a better understanding of the cellular and molecular processes in sensory systems – or in other words those parts of an organism that are responsible for the perception and processing of sensory stimuli. It is known that organisms are highly sensitive to signals – for instance physical or chemical stimuli – from their environment, and perceive such stimuli with a high degree of precision. Special proteins, so-called receptor molecules, play an important part in this process: they translate external signals into information that is "readable" for the cell. The information is then transmitted within the cell via special signal paths, so that if necessary a certain reaction can be triggered – for example metabolism may be boosted to ensure survival in an altered environment. In order for these complex processing mechanisms to function precisely everything must work in harmony. Molecular switch mechanisms ensure that this is the case. "If we want to gain a better understanding of the connections at the molecular level, interdisciplinary research will continue to be indispensable," Prof. Dr. Karl-Wilhelm Koch, head of the Biochemistry work group and coordinator of the Research Training Group stressed. "In the first funding period we used cellular and molecular biology methods in almost all the doctoral projects – often in combination with biophysical techniques," Koch explained, adding that other interdisciplinary methods were also used which will continue to be applied in the second funding period. Researching malfunctions caused by genes In addition, the researchers will focus on malfunctions of the visual and auditory system caused by genes. Koch explained that this will enable the young researchers to gain background knowledge and practical experience in the application of different scientific theories and methods. "We anticipate that physical model systems will help improve our understanding of sensory phenomena in organisms." Biological concepts could also serve as inspiration for the development of new technical systems, for example in the field of biomedicine, he noted. DFG Research Training Groups are institutions set up at universities to promote young researchers. The DFG's goal is to qualify doctoral researchers, support their scientific independence and prepare them for the complex labour market of "science". The "Molecular basis of sensory biology" group is one of six research training groups funded by the DFG at the University of Oldenburg.
Astronomers have found a "hotspot" beneath the Big Dipper emitting a disproportionate number of the highest-energy cosmic rays, a discovery which may move physics toward identifying the mysterious sources of the most energetic particles in the universe. Many astrophysicists suspect ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays are generated by active galactic nuclei, or AGNs, in which material is sucked into a supermassive black hole at the center of galaxy, while other material is spewed away in a beam-like jet known as a blazar. Another popular possibility is that the highest-energy cosmic rays come from some supernovas (exploding stars) that emit gamma rays bursts. Lower-energy cosmic rays come from the sun, other stars and exploding stars, but the source or sources of the most energetic cosmic rays has been a decades-long mystery. The study was conducted by 125 researchers in the Telescope Array project. "This puts us closer to finding out the sources – but no cigar yet," says University of Utah physicist Gordon Thomson, spokesman and co-principal investigator for the $25 million Telescope Array cosmic ray observatory west of Delta, Utah. It is the Northern Hemisphere's largest cosmic ray detector. All we see is a blob in the sky, and inside this blob there is all sorts of stuff – various types of objects – that could be the source. Now we know where to look." Particles from Beyond Our Galaxy Cosmic rays, discovered in 1912, really are particles, not rays: either bare protons (hydrogen nuclei) or the centers or nuclei of heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen or iron. Thomson and many physicists believe ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays are just protons, though some suspect they include helium and nitrogen nuclei. Besides active galactic nuclei and gamma ray emitters, possible sources include noisy radio galaxies, shock waves from colliding galaxies and even some exotic hypothetical sources such as the decay of so-called "cosmic strings" or of massive particles left over from the big bang that formed the universe 13.8 billion years ago. Ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays are considered those above about 1 billion billion (1 times 10 to the 18th power) electron volts. If an ultrahigh-energy cosmic ray could penetrate the atmosphere and hit someone in the head, that single subatomic particle would feel like a fast-pitch baseball to the skull. Ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays come from beyond our galaxy, the Milky Way, which is about 100,000 light years wide (588 million billion miles). But 90 percent of them come from within 300 million light years (1,764 billion billion miles) because powerful cosmic rays from greater distances are greatly weakened by interaction with cosmic microwave background radiation – the faint afterglow of the big bang, says Charlie Jui, a University of Utah professor of physics and astronomy. The most powerful or highest-energy cosmic ray ever measured was detected over Utah in 1991 by the University of Utah's Fly's Eye observatory at the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground – a predecessor to the Telescope Array. That cosmic ray particle carried energy of 300 billion billion electron volts (3 times 10 to the 20th power). The Telescope Array uses two methods to detect and measure cosmic rays. At three locations spread across the desert, sets of mirrors called fluorescence detectors watch the skies for faint blue flashes created when incoming cosmic rays hit nitrogen gas molecules in the atmosphere. Those collisions create a cascade of other collisions with atmospheric gases, resulting in "air showers" of particles detected by 523 table-like scintillation detectors spaced over 300 square miles of desert. In the new study, 507 of the scintillation detectors were used to study the ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays, says John Matthews, a University of Utah research professor of physics and astronomy. The fluorescence detectors helped determine the energy and chemical makeup of the cosmic ray particles. A Cosmic Ray Hotspot The new study by the Telescope Array research team looked at ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays above 57 billion billion electron volts (5.7 times 10 to the 19th power). Thomson says that high cutoff was picked because the highest-energy cosmic rays are bent the least by magnetic fields in space – bending that obscures the directions from which they came and thus the directions of their sources. These very powerful cosmic rays were recorded by the Telescope Array between May 11, 2008, and May 4, 2013. During the five years, only 72 such cosmic rays were detected, confirmed and analyzed for their energy and source direction. But 19 of those cosmic rays were detected coming from the direction of the hotspot, compared with only 4.5 that would have been expected if the cosmic rays came randomly from all parts of the sky, Jui says. The hotspot is a 40-degree-diameter circle representing 6 percent of the northern sky. "We have a quarter of our events in that circle instead of 6 percent," Jui says. Thomson says the hotspot is centered in the southwest corner of the constellation Ursa Major, which includes the arrangement of stars known as the Big Dipper. "The hotspot is a couple of hand widths below the Big Dipper's handle," he says. More precisely – although it is not visible through regular telescopes – the hotspot is centered at right ascension 146.6 degrees and declination 43.2 degrees. The hotspot is near the "supergalactic plane" – the rather flattened Virgo supercluster of galaxies. Our Milky Way galaxy is on the outskirts of the supercluster. The odds that the hotspot is a statistical fluke rather than real are only 1.4 in 10,000, the researchers calculated. Observations by the Pierre Auger cosmic ray observatory in Argentina provide evidence for a weaker Southern Hemisphere hotspot. If that proves real, Thomson says cosmic rays in the northern and southern hotspots must come from different sources. Expanding the Search Jui says a separate study now in progress suggests the distribution of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays in the northern sky is consistent with the "large-scale structure" of the universe, which means the cosmic rays tend to come from areas of the universe where matter is concentrated in clusters and superclusters of galaxies. "It tells us there is at least a good chance these are coming from matter we can see as opposed to a different class of mechanisms where you are producing these particles with exotic processes" such cosmic strings, he says. "It points us to the next logical step in the search: building a larger detector that collects four times as many [ultrahigh-energy cosmic ray] events per year. With more events, we are more likely to see structure in that hotspot blob and that may point us toward the real sources." Physicists want to expand the size and thus sensitivity of the Telescope Array, doubling the number of table-shaped scintillation detectors to about 1,100 but spacing them farther from each other and thus quadrupling the area across which they are scattered. All the land for the expansion is located north and south of the present observatory and is owned by the federal Bureau of Land Management and the Utah School and Institutional Trust Lands Administration, Thomson says. He adds that researchers hope to obtain $6.4 million needed for the expansion from U.S. and Japanese governments later this year, then finish the expansion in 2016. The Telescope Array, built for $17 million, started operations in 2008 and later was upgraded, bringing the cost to about $25 million, of which Japan financed about two-thirds and the United States about one-third, mainly through the University of Utah, Matthews says. Source: University of Utah
Teaching kiddos simple math concepts is definitely something you want to do long before they enter the classroom. There are so many ways we can embed math concepts in their daily lives like counting, measuring, identifying differences like more and less, and so many other activities which we can enjoy with our children alongside them. I am going to share some quick and easy-to-set-up activities that help you introduce your child to some simple math concepts! We are going to start with NUMBERS and OPERATIONS! WHAT ARE NUMBERS & OPERATIONS? “I have more crackers than you do. See, I have 1, 2, 3, and you have 1, 2. I’m going to eat one of mine. Now I have the same as you!” “That’s the third time I’ve heard you say mama. You’ve said mama three times!” WAYS WE CAN TEACH KIDS ABOUT NUMBERS & OPERATIONS - count forward and backward - recognize what a number looks like and name it - understand one-to-one correspondence (each number corresponds to one specific quantity) When we are exploring numbers with toddlers it is all through PLAY and everyday experiences and interactions! This is not the time to break out flashcards or do drill and kill rote learning activities. - They understand “more” and “enough” and “no more.” - They also may understand the words one and two or “pick two.” - Many two-year-olds can hold up two fingers to show you. - Some two-year-olds will be able to recite numbers words in sequence or may be able to identify some numbers. - Many will still recite numbers out of order. There is a broad spectrum of abilities during the toddler years. Each toddler will be different. I encourage you to focus on exploring these math concepts and not worry about comparing your toddler with their peers or trying to rush them to mastery of these skills. 5 WAYS WE CAN EXPLORE NUMBERS WITH TODDLERS 1. Match Numbers Matching numbers is a simple way to teach kids to recognize numbers and be able to say their names. These activities are great for helping kids learn to recognize, name, and match numbers. Number Pocket Matching Game– Take a pocket made out of just about any material such as cloth, paper, foil, plastic, etc. and make it colorful and feel free to decorate it to entice our busy little ones to play this game, put a number on the outside of it, then use a tongue deppressor from the store and use a colorful marker to write a matching number on it. The object of the game is to place the stick with the appropriate number in the matching pocket. This game is one I got from Toddler Approved Leaf Number Movement Game by, Toddler Approved Car Parking Match Game by Housing a Forest Cup Number Matching Game by Laughing Kids Learn Sticky Number Match Activity by Busy Toddler Number Dig and Match– Happy Toddler Playtime 2. Sing rhymes and counting songs 3. Count together These simple, but fun activities are great for helping kids count from 1-10 and even higher in a playful way! Race to Lose a Tooth Counting Game by, Toddler Approved Boat Sink Challenge by, Toddler Approved Candy Cane Hunt and Match by, Toddler Approved Number Toy Hunt by, Toddler Approved Counting Croquet by, Toddler Approved Pipe Cleaner Pick Up Sticks Game by, Toddler Approved 4. Read books about numbers 5. Play with numbers These number activities are great for helping your toddler explore numbers while also moving, exploring, and playing! EVERY DAY WAYS TO EMBED MATH INTO YOUR DAY - Count cars as you are driving - As you collect items at the grocery store, count them up - Go on a number hunt at the store, on a walk, or while you are driving - Count together and count the eggs that are added, tablespoons, etc. - Play “pick up 5” and see if everyone can pick up 5 toys in a messy room and put them away - Hunt for specific numbers on license plates - Workout together! Count jumping jacks, laps around the kitchen, and push-ups! - Build with blocks- work together to create a tower with a specific number of blocks and then count them together - Count when you are having a snack! Encourage your child to eat 5 raisins or 3 slices of apples. Count them up together. *As a teaching resource, I based a great deal of this post on the teachings of Kristine from Toddler Approved. I find that so much of what I have to say is duplicate that of her website or taken directly from her website for purpose of teaching my moms and dads out there and I just wanted to give her credit where it is due! She is awesome!O:) ABOUT KELLI RIEBESEHL Kelli is the creator of Shooting Stars And Little Toy Cars, a blog full of family, fabulous finds, and simple fun and learning. She is the mother of 4 children 3 girls and 1 boy, loves learning and playing even more. She was a teacher before staying home with her baby bunch. She believes that family activities, especially kid’s, don’t have to be difficult to have fun and that learning is always more memorable when introduced with play. Some of the links in this post are our referral links (to products we not only believe in but also very happily use ourselves), meaning, at no additional cost to you, we will earn a commission if you make a purchase. The commission we earn helps us to keep our blogs up and running smoothly. We thank you! O:)
Histamine is a substance released by the body's immune system from cells called mast cells. This occurs in response to injury or allergies. Histamine receptors are the proteins on cells found in the brain, blood vessels, lungs, skin and stomach that bind to histamine in order to produce an inflammatory response. The symptoms of the inflammatory response are red and watery eyes, swelling of the body, itching, rash or wheal and flare of the skin, stomach upset, congestion and runny nose, along with sneezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. Histamine blockers, or antihistamines, are medications that prevent the binding of histamine to its receptors within the body, and thereby inhibit or lessen these symptoms. Three types of histamine receptors are affected by these drugs called H1-, H2-, and H3--receptors. While H1-receptors are more widespread in the body, H2-receptors are found largely in the stomach and H3-receptors are in the brain. H1-blockers prevent or reduce severe allergic reactions, allergy-induced runny nose called allergic rhinitis, sinus congestion, and rash. H2-blockers decrease heartburn-related conditions like acid reflux called gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD, where acid or food regurgitates back from the stomach into the throat, and peptic ulcers, which are sores in the stomach's lining resulting from excessive secretion of stomach acid. H3-blockers are still being studied in conditions involving the brain and sleep. (see references 5, 7 and 9). First-generation Histamine H1-receptor Blockers In order to alleviate allergy symptoms, the first-generation H1-blockers were developed, beginning with the drug diphenhydramine (Benadryl). Other medications in this class include chlorpheneramine (Chlor-trimeton) and hydroxyzine (Vistaril). H1-receptor blockers work on preventing sinus congestion, seasonal allergies, nausea, itching, and the wheal and flare reaction of the skin.In addition, intravenous or injectable diphenhydramine is often used in the hospital-setting to treat severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis. The side effects of these medications include drowsiness, stomach upset, increased heart rate, dry mouth, blurred vision, and confusion. Another class of drugs that block H1-receptors are the tricyclic antidepressants or TCAs, typically used to treat depression. For example, doxepin (Silenor) is a TCA that due to its side effect of sedation is often used to treat insomnia. (Ref 3, 4 and 6) Second- and Third-generation Histamine H1-receptor Blockers The second-generation of H1-receptor antagonists were developed in order to avoid the drowsy effects of the first class. These antihistamines have the same actions as the first-generation but are known for less daytime drowsiness, dry mouth, and confusion. Used to treat daytime seasonal allergy symptoms, members of this class are loratidine (Claritin), cetirizine (Zyrtec), and the eye drops olopatadine ophthalmic (Pataday). According to an article published in the "Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology" in April 2004, the third-generation of H1-blockers have even less effects on the brain then even the second-generation and greater blockage from histamine release from mast cells. This class of drugs are made from the second-generation in forms called metabolites, which is easier for the body to use. Metabolites are by-products of medications that have been broken down by the body in the cells. Some of the medications in this class are levocetirizine (Xyzal) which comes from cetirizine, desloratadine (Clarinex) the metabolite of loratadine, and fexofenadine (Allegra) which was developed from terfenadine which is no longer on the market. (See ref 2,3, 4, 6, 9) Histamine H2-receptor Blockers While H1-receptors are in the brain, blood vessels, skin and air passages, H2-receptors are found largely in the stomach lining. Stimulation of H2-receptors signals cells in the stomach walls to secrete gastric acids. H2-blockers were specifically designed to lower the secretion of these acids and help alleviate heartburn symptoms as well as prevent GERD or stomach ulcers from forming. Not having immediate effects, these drugs can take 60 to 90 minutes before they work, and even then symptoms may not begin to resolve for 2 weeks. (Ref 5 and 9). Included in this group are the drugs ranitidine (Zantac), nizatidine (Axid AR), cimetidine (Tagamet), and famotidine (Pepcid AC). (See ref 5 and 9). Side effects of these medications consist of headache, diarrhea, and dizziness. (See ref 5). Histamine H3-receptor Blockers H3-receptors are located within the brain and have been found to be associated with wakefulness. Thiaperamide was the first H3-blocker created but was shortly found to be toxic to the liver and became replaced by pitolisant. According to an article published in the "British Journal of Pharmacology" in January 2011, this class of drugs have great potential for use in conditions affecting the sleep-wake cycle such as narcolepsy, a sleep disorder characterized by daytime sudden attacks of sleep, and Parkinson disease which is a progressive degenerative disorder of the brain that affects movement, fatigue, and memory. (See ref 7). These drugs are still being studied in further detail. Warnings and Precautions If a woman is breastfeeding or pregnant, she should contact her doctor before taking any of these medications. Caution should be used in people with kidney and liver problems before taking antihistamines. If any symptoms of allergies such as rash, chest pain, swelling of the throat or face, and shortness of breath occur upon taking these medications, a person should contact their healthcare provider immediately.
What is Panic Disorder? Panic Disorder involves experiencing repeated panic attacks and being preoccupied with the fear of future panic attacks. Panic attacks can occur unexpectedly and “out of the blue,” sometimes even during sleep, or they can occur in situations where you expect them to happen. A panic attack is thought of as the body’s “alarm reaction.” In a truly dangerous situation, the physical changes that happen during the “alarm reaction” help protect us and cope with the situation. In a panic attack, the alarm is a “false alarm” – there is no external danger, but the alarm has been triggered nonetheless. A panic attack is defined as a sudden rush of intense fear or dread, which is usually accompanied by several of the following symptoms: racing or pounding heart, shortness of breath, chest pain or discomfort, dizziness, feeling faint or unsteady, trembling or shaking, sweating, choking sensations, nausea or abdominal distress, numbness or tingling sensations, hot flashes or cold chills, feelings of being detached or things seeming unreal, fears of going crazy, fears of losing control, and fears of dying. In a true panic attack, these physical symptoms are not caused by a medical condition or physical illness. Typically, a physician can rule out a physical cause for the symptoms experienced during a panic attack. If a medical condition or physical illness can be ruled out, then a diagnosis of Panic Disorder might be applied. How is Panic Disorder Treated? Medication: There are a variety of anti-anxiety medications available for people with Panic Disorder. One common type of anti-anxiety medication is Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax, Ativan, Klonopin). A significant problem with repeatedly using a Benzodiazepine to treat symptoms of a panic attack is that the underlying cycle that causes panic is not addressed. That is, the Benzodiazepine is more like a “Band-Aid” covering up the problem, rather than a long-term solution to the problem. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT is a widely used treatment for people with Panic Disorder. Based on the theory of CBT, fear is reinforced and maintained by negative thoughts and avoidance of situations. Thus, common interventions include changing thoughts and behavior. The four primary components of CBT for Panic Disorder include: - Re-education about the physical symptoms of anxiety and panic, to correct misinterpretations of them as being harmful or dangerous - Training in methods for reducing physical tension, usually by breathing retraining or relaxation - Repeated exposure to feared and avoided situations - Repeated exposure to feared and avoided physical sensations Given the propensity for negative automatic thoughts, CBT therapists educate clients about panic attacks as a “false alarm” of the body’s important alarm system. Therapists explore clients’ specific fears about panic (e.g., “I’m going to die,” “I’m having a heart attack,” “I’m going to lose control”) and provide important information about the scientific evidence about panic attacks. Therapists also help clients with Panic Disorder test some of these fears and assumptions. CBT therapists also train clients to use relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing and muscle relaxation. These are not intended as ways to completely control the fear and physical sensations during a panic attack, but as a way to maintain a sense of control of one’s body. CBT for Panic Disorder also involves exposure to feared situations and physical sensations. Systematic exposure to these situations and sensations reduces the person’s fear of them, and teaches the person that the situations and sensations are not dangerous. After repeatedly experiencing feared situations, clients realize that their fears rarely (if ever) come true, and anxiety related to these situations is reduced. Exposure to specific body sensations is designed to help clients experience these sensations while realizing they are not in fact dangerous. When fear of the body sensations is lessened, so is the fear of the return of a panic attack. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): ACT is a new therapy that has been applied to many disorders, including Panic Disorder. ACT focuses not on reducing symptoms, but on accepting symptoms and moving in the direction of things that the client values in life. In an ACT model, the problem is not the symptoms, but the way in which individuals respond to those symptoms. In treatment for Panic Disorder, ACT focuses on decreasing avoidance of the physical symptoms of panic attacks and the feeling of intense fear. Avoiding these things often keeps the person from obtaining goals and acting in line with his or her values. ACT interventions include discussion of attempts to control thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations, and the alternative strategies of willingness and acceptance. Through use of metaphors, therapists help clients to see what their true values are and how they can more effectively move in that direction with their lives, along with any negative emotions and experiences. Many of the aforementioned CBT techniques can be used in the ACT intervention as well. Where can I get more information about Panic Disorder? - Anxiety Disorders Association of America (http://www.adaa.org/) - Association for Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies (http://www.abct.org/) - Freedom from Fear (http://www.freedomfromfear.org/) - Academy of Cognitive Therapy (http://www.academyofct.org/) Books for Patients: - CBT: Mastery of Your Anxiety and Panic: Workbook (Barlow & Craske, 2006) - ACT: Mindfulness and Acceptance Workbook for Anxiety (Forsyth & Eifert, 2008) - Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life: The New Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (Hayes, 2005)
ADHD presents itself in a variety of forms. In addition to the conventional diagnostic categories of Inattentive type, Hyperactive/Impulsive Type, and Combined Type, there are the new diagnostic categories of ”Specified” and “Unspecified” ADHD that do not require the full complement of symptoms for a diagnosis. But it is not easy to fit all kids with symptoms of ADHD into these 5 categories. Leading psychologists have posited that there are more than 250,000 possible variants of ADHD based upon the combination of symptoms in the DSM-V diagnostic system. Obviously, one type of intervention will not fit all of these kids. Teachers in traditional classrooms typically have at least one or two kids who are diagnosed with ADHD. Some of these kids are easy to manage and teach, but all you need is one child with severe symptoms of ADHD to disrupt the entire classroom. Working with such children requires effective intervention strategies so that every student can learn and so you do not have to spend your entire day managing this child’s behaviour. Here are some of the most effective intervention strategies for ADHD in the classroom: Address problem classroom behavior as soon as possible. Youngsters with disruptive behavioral issues such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder do best when expectations and rules are clear and there is close monitoring and supervision. Post classroom rules in a conspicuous place to provide concrete and visual examples of appropriate behavior. Role playing appropriate behavior could also be beneficial. Teachers may need to redirect children to more appropriate behavior at the first sign of any inappropriate behavior. Positive behavior should be praised frequently, with rewards for appropriate behavior in the classroom such as being the teacher’s helper, running an errand, earning a homework pass, or helping the teacher grade papers. Some children may prefer that their good behavior be acknowledged in private, rather than publicly. Intervention strategies for ADHD include: Provide additional structure to help with inhibitory control. Explicit and clear sets of rules and expectations are very important to help children with ADHD, Combined Type delay impulses and display appropriate behavior. Teach techniques for response delay. Use counting strategies, stop and think approaches, and cognitive behavioral methods in which children instruct themselves to stop and think in the classroom. Schedule the most difficult tasks for the best attention times. Students with attention problems who have difficulty staying focused on activities tend to perform best when they have the most energy for attention, typically in the morning. Students may also pay better attention when they have the opportunity to move and then are able to sit. Develop private signals to help childen refocus. Teachers could work with students to develop a private visual signal or phrase to use to help them refocus and follow directions more effectively. This could include things such as placing a hand on a child’s shoulder or the teacher putting a finger to her/his lips. These signals could serve as reminders for children to return to the task at hand. Featured image: Flickr user US Department of Education
Question Paper (Section wise) For a uniformly charged ring of radius R, the electric field on its axis has the largest magnitude at a distance h from its center. Then value of is: Two coherent source produce waves of different intensities which interfere. After interference, the ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum intensity is 16. The intensity of the waves are in the ratio: Temperature difference of 120°C is maintained between two ends of a uniform rod AB of length 2L. Another bent rod PQ, of same cross-section as AB and length, is connected across AB (see figure). In steady state, temperature difference between P and Q will be closed to: Two vectors have equal magnitudes. The magnitude of is ‘n‘ times the magnitude of. The angle between is: The eye can be regarded as a single refracting surface. The radius of curvature of this surface is equal to that of cornea (7.8 mm). This surface separates two media of refractive indices 1 and 1.34. Calculated the distance from the refracting surface at which a parallel beam of light will come to focus. A closed organ pipe has a fundamental frequency of 1.5 kHz. The number of overtones that can be distinctly heard by a person with this organ pipe will be: (Assume that the highest frequency a person can hear is 20,000 Hz). The equilateral triangle ABC is cut from a thin solid sheet of wood. (See figure) D, E and F are the mid points of its sides as shown and G is the centre of the triangle. The moment of inertia of the triangle about an axis passing through G and perpendicular to the plane of the triangle is I0. If the smaller triangle DEF is removed from ABC, the moment of inertia of the remaining figure about the same axis is I. Then: Ice at –20° C is added to 50 g of water at 40° C. When the temperature of the mixture reaches 0° C, it is found that 20 g of ice is still unmelted. The amount of ice added to the water was close to (Specific heat of water = 4.2 J/g/°C) Heat of fusion of water at 0°C = 334 J/g) A gas mixture consists of 3 moles of oxygen and 5 moles or argon at temperature T. Considering only translational and rotational modes, the total internal energy of the system is: In the figure, given that VBB supply can vary from 0 to 5.0 VCC = 5 V, βdc = 200, RB = 100 kΩ, Rc =1kΩ an VBE = 1.0 V, The minimum base current and the input voltage at which the transistor will go to saturation, will be respectively: A long cylindrical vessel is half filled with a liquid. When the vessel is rotated about its own vertical axis, the liquid rises up near the wall. If the radius of vessel is 5 cm and its rotational speed is 2 rotations per second, then the difference in the heights between the centre and the sides, in cm, will be: A particle of mass 20 g is released with an initial velocity 5 m/s along the curve from the point A, as shown in the figure. The point A is at height h from point B. The particle slides along the frictionless surface. When the particle reaches point B, its angular momentum about O will be: [Take g = 10 m/s2] A damped harmonic oscillator has a frequency of 5 oscillations per seconds. The amplitude drops to half its value for every 10 oscillations. The time it will take to drop to of the original amplitude is closed to: The temperature, at which the root mean square velocity of hydrogen molecules equals their escape velocity form the earth is closest to: [Boltzman’s Constant kB = 1.38 × 10-23 J/k Avogadro number N˄ = 6.02 × 1026 / kg Radius of Earth: 6.4 × 106 m Gravitation acceleration on Earth = 10 ms2] In the figure shown, what is the current (in Ampere) drawn from the battery? You are given R1 = 15Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 20Ω, R4 = 5Ω, R5 = 25Ω, R6 = 30Ω, E = 15V A uniform cable of mass ‘M’ and length ‘L’ is placed on a horizontal surface such that its part is hanging below the edge of the surface. To lift the hanging part of the cable up to the surface, the work done should be: A ball is thrown vertically up (taken as + z-axis) from the ground. The correct momentum height (p-h) diagram is: A wire of resistance R is bent to form a square ABCD as shown in the figure. The effective resistance between E and C is: (E is mid-point of arm CD) A solid sphere of mass M and radius R is divided into two unequal parts. The first part has a mass of and is converted into a uniform disc of radius 2R. The second part is converted into a uniform solid sphere. Let l1 be the moment of inertia of the disc about its axis and l2 be the moment of inertia of the new sphere about its axis. The ratio of l1/l2 is given by: A metal coin of mass 5 g and radius 1 cm is fixed to a thin stick AB of negligible mass as shown in the figure. The system is initially at rest. The constant torque, that will make the system rotate about AB at 25 rotation per second is 5 s is close to The figure shows a square loop L of side 5 cm which is connected to a network of resistances. The whole set up is moving towards right with a constant speed of 1 cms-1 At some instant, a part of L is in a uniform magnetic field of 1 T, perpendicular to the plane of the loop. If the resistance of L is 1.7 Ω, the current in the loop at that instant will be close to _____ μA. A magnetic compass needle oscillates 30 times per minute at a place where the dip is 45°, and 40 times per minute where the dip is 30°. If B1 and B2 are respectively the total magnetic field due to the earth at the two places, then the approximate value of B1 is _____ T, when B2 is 50 T. The trajectory of a projectile near the surface of the earth is given as y =x – 9x2. For the given case the angle of projection with respect to ground is _____ °. A load of mass M kg is suspended from a steel wire of length 2 m and radius 1.0 mm in Searle’s apparatus experiment. The increase in length produced in the wire is 4.0 mm. Now the load is fully immersed in a liquid of relative density 2. The relative density of the material of load is 8. The new value of increase in length of the steel wire is ______ mm. An alpha-particle of mass m suffers 1-deminisional elastic collision with a nucleus at rest of unknown mass. It is scattered directly backwards losing, 64% of its initial kinetic energy. The mass of the nucleus is ______×m.
Media such as newspapers and television can mislead and color reality. Colored or manipulated messages can also be found on the internet, such as on social media or news websites. Being media literate means, among other things: understanding how media portray reality, in order to be able to form a conscious judgment on that basis. What should you pay attention to and what influence do you have yourself? How Can Media Reports Affect? Media messages can become guiding – or even guiding. Public opinion is then determined by the way in which news is presented, both in terms of content and form. It is important to delve into the variety of views and the way you interpret messages. Requires literacy more important. Media messages influence the information that is given, but also how it is given: what is the tone of the message? Where and at what time was the message created and posted? A media message also has a greater impact when it is often shared. If a message is copied en masse by other media, there is a media hype. The factors that play a role in the way in which media makers interpret and present current affairs are also referred to as media logic. The media portrays fact from a certain point of view. Someone of a particular interest or point of view creates media reports. As a result, it appears nearly impossible to formulate messages completely objectively. Sometimes, the point of view is obvious, just as in a commercial where you can see the manufacturer wants to sell something. However, this is not always the problem . Anyone might post anything on the internet, although it is not always clear from which point of view it was posted. What should you be careful for When you see or hear a letter in the media, always ask yourself the following questions: - Who provides this information? - What is the specific message? - Who is this message for? - Is the information correct? Always use many sources including a certain website, a book, or social media. - Is there a filter bubble ? Also teach children to develop a critical attitude, for example in the field of fake news and looking critically at images. A few tips: - Media logic in the classroom of Human, SchoolTV and Sound and Vision - View relevant teaching material in the Teaching material file - Well-known YouTubers also have an increasing influence on children. Discover the YouTube file - Learn to look critically at images from an early age - The files fake news and Deep Fake offer tips to recognize hoaxes - Learn to find the right information, with the tips in the Information Literacy file Watching is interesting, but it is obviously more fun to see if your environment is perfect, but did you ask yourself sometimes, such as where can I find a “residential painting near me?”. Beautifying your home is a great way to enjoy watching like news on televisions but you should not always believe everything in the news because not not everything is realistic.
Dr. Colin Dundas of the USGS’s Astrogeology Group based in Flagstaff spotted these buried ice cliffs during his daily scan of the regularly collected images taken by the HiRISE camera onboard Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) currently circling Mars. (The camera itself is pretty stunning – it produces orbital images of Mars at high enough resolution that you could almost read the headline on a martian newspaper, assuming they had newspapers.) In scanning through the daily haul of images, Dundas spotted striking blue strata in the walls of steep cliffs just a few meters below the dusty martian surface that sure look like water ice. Follow-up spectral observations by CRISM instrument on MRO confirmed the cliffs were indeed almost completely pure water ice, with no more than with less than 1% dust. Ice on Mars isn’t particularly surprising – astronomers have known (or at least suspected) there is water ice at the poles of Mars for more than 100 years, and a mountain of data has indicated vast stores of ice in Mars’ subsurface, especially near the poles. But key questions about this ice have persisted: Was the ice recently deposited, and how much dust is mixed in? Since these newly discovered cliffs are so pure, though, Dundas and colleagues suggest that they were probably deposited as snow before being buried. Mars’ current climate isn’t really conducive to water snow, and so the ice was probably deposited millions of years ago, when Mars’ axis had a very different tilt resulting a very different climate from now. The fact that the ice cliffs occur much nearer to the equator than might be expected also points to formation during a previous climatic epoch. The implications of these cliffs for Mars’ climate history aren’t entirely clear, but their importance for exploration of Mars is hard to overstate. As Dundas et al. say in their paper, the cliffs would very likely serve as a resource for future human visitors. The water could be combined with gases in the martian atmosphere to make rocket propellent and even oxygen. So there are large deposits of ice in the subsurface of Mars? Maybe “Total Recall” wasn’t so much science fiction as science prophesy.
The COVID-19 pandemic has undoubtedly had a sizeable impact on the health and day and night time behaviours of populations around the world. In the UK, lockdown and social distancing measures vastly reduced mobility as citizens worked from home and the clinically vulnerable begun shielding indoors. Compared to pandemics of old, large datasets now exist which give fascinating insight into pandemic-related behavioural change. This paper investigates how publicly available data from technology companies can be examined to build up a picture of how sleep and circadian rhythm changes in locked down populations. The social distancing measures introduced by governments around the world in response to the covid-19 pandemic has brought about sudden and massive change to the lives of entire populations.1 The lockdown has inevitably had an effect on the behaviours and quality of life of the general public, from employment rates to mental health.2 A symptom of this change was seen in late March when media giants Netflix and YouTube reduced the quality of their streaming services to cope with increased demand.3,4 In response to the coronavirus pandemic, Netflix experienced 15 million new subscribers, and Spotify 6 million new Premium users.5 Few physiological processes are as influenced by our behaviour as sleep. Given the sudden and extreme rift in the behaviour of society, it is reasonable to assume that the lockdown has had some impact on how the population is now sleeping. This paper examines ways in which big data can be used to understand shifts in behaviour and sleeping patterns. The role of structure in entraining the circadian rhythm The circadian rhythm, in the absence of zeitgebers (light, food, temperature) usually spans longer than 24 hours. When light is received by the retina, a signal travels to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) causing the pineal gland to stop releasing melatonin, encouraging the sleeper to wake and entraining the rhythm to 24-hours.6 This negative feedback loop is also triggered by artificial light from phones and TV screens.7 The social zeitgeber theory proposes that social changes also act as zeitgebers, with disruption negatively affecting circadian synchronicity, disrupting biological processes and predisposing individuals to insomnia and depression.8 Combined with the effect of artificial light on sleep times, circadian disruption is therefore likely in a pandemic.9 What the Big Data Giants tell us about behavioural change Google Trends (figure 1) shows a sharp increase in ‘coronavirus’ searches over the course of the pandemic. The music streaming giant commented “morning routines have changed significantly. Every day now looks like a weekend.” Streaming via mobile devices decreased, whilst streaming via static devices increased by over 50%, indicating more from home listening. ‘Chill’ and ‘ambient’ genres were sought after whilst rap and rock music were less so (figure 2).10 This may indicate listeners were streaming music for calming effect, including managing anxiety and insomnia. European data from Fitbit (figure 3) showed an increase in the average number of minutes slept per night since the lockdown took place in each city.11 The London INternet eXchange (LINX) is a network of internet routers in London.12 Although this data is not representative of total UK internet usage, it is likely to shadow national usage. A significant change was seen in the LINX LON1 internet traffic throughout 2020. In the 10 days preceding the lockdown, a rise in the baseline of internet traffic can be seen. The structure of internet traffic over time changes too, with clear troughs in total daily traffic at weekends, and daily consumption higher on weekdays (figure 4). This may indicate those in lockdown working from home and turning to streaming services for entertainment. The network traffic has a circadian-like cycle, peaking in the day and dropping to nadir overnight (figure 5). Comparing an average 24-hour period before lockdown versus one immediately after (controlling for weekday), greater traffic can be seen at every hour of the 24hour period following lockdown. Three months later as lockdown measures ease, internet traffic throughout the day resembles more the pre-lockdown figures, whilst late night and small-hours traffic remains almost exactly the same. Orange area 18/02/20 – 19/02/20 (before lockdown) Grey area 24/03/20 – 25/03/20 (after lockdown) Blue area 29/06/20 – 30/06/20 (lockdown measures easing) At around midnight each night, traffic falls below 2Tbps until around 7:30am the following day. Using this as an estimate for the sleep and wake times of the population, changes to internet traffic may indicate changes to circadian rhythms. The data was extracted from each 24-hour period of LINX LON1 network data at points where the internet traffic falls below 2Tbps (estimated population sleep point) and rises above 2Tbps (estimated population wake point) for the time period 01/01/20 – 30/06/20 (Figure 6). A clear change can be seen around the time of the lockdown. Greater traffic post-lockdown indicates increased use of technology until later into the night, and likely a later bedtime by an extra 1-2 hours. A small delay (~30 minutes) was seen in the increase in morning traffic post-lockdown, indicating that people are sleeping in for longer. Overall total sleep time has reduced. This contrasts with Fitbit data presented earlier in this article. Those using Fitbit may be more sleep aware and capitalise on extra sleep opportunities in lockdown. Post-lockdown a clearer distinction is evident between weekdays and weeknights: every five weekdays is followed by two later weekend points. This would suggest that the population are treating their evenings more like weekends and staying up later, yet waking at a similar time to pre-lockdown (possibly due to working from home), and experiencing greater social jetlag at weekends because of this self-inflicted sleep compression. This paper highlights the potential to derive inferences about population level circadian rhythm from big data. Internet traffic data is identified as an indicator for population level sleep disturbances. Lockdown has caused a transient shift in sleeping patterns, delaying the circadian phase of the population through loss of circadian entrainment as daily routines have dissolved. Whilst staying at home and saving lives, the UK population went to bed later, woke slightly later on weekdays and later still on weekends suggesting that paradoxically, social distancing increased social jetlag. Perhaps rather than a month of Sundays, lockdown has created a month of Saturday nights followed by Monday mornings. - Elmer T, Mepham K, Stadtfeld C. Students under lockdown: Assessing change in students’ social networks and mental health during the COVID-19 crisis 2020. doi:10.31234/osf.io/ua6tq. - Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. e13074. doi: 10.1111/jsr.13074 - Gold H. Netflix, YouTube slow down streaming in Europe [Internet]. CTVNews. 2020 [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: https://www.ctvnews.ca/entertainment/netflix-youtube-slow-down-streaming-in-europe-1.4861059 - Netflix to slow Europe transmissions to avoid broadband overload [Internet]. the Guardian. 2020 [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2020/mar/19/netflix-to-slow-europe-transmissions-to-avoid-broadband-overload - Spotify Technology S.A. Announces Financial Results for First Quarter 2020 [Internet]. [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: https://investors.spotify.com/financials/press-release-details/2020/Spotify-Technology-SA-Announces-Financial-Results-for-First-Quarter-2020/default.aspx - Arendt J, Broadway J. Light and Melatonin as Zeitgebers in Man. Chronobiol Int. 1987 Jan 1;4(2):273–82. - Stevens RG, Zhu Y. Electric light, particularly at night, disrupts human circadian rhythmicity: is that a problem? Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 2015 May 5;370(1667). - Ehlers CL, Frank E, Kupfer DJ. Social Zeitgebers and Biological Rhythms: A Unified Approach to Understanding the Etiology of Depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988 Oct 1;45(10):948–52. - Erren TC, Lewis P. SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 and physical distancing: risk for circadian rhythm dysregulation, advice to alleviate it, and natural experiment research opportunities. Chronobiol Int. 2020 Jun 5;0(0):1–4. - Joven J, Rosenborg RA, Seekhao N, Yuen M. COVID-19’s Effect on the Global Music Business, Part 1: Genre [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: https://blog.chartmetric.com/covid-19-effect-on-the-global-music-business-part-1-genre/ - The Impact Of COVID-19 On Global Sleep Patterns [Internet]. Fitbit Blog. 2020 [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: https://blog.fitbit.com/covid-19-sleep-patterns/ - LANs Flow \| LINX Portal [Internet]. [cited 2020 Jun 30]. Available from: https://portal.linx.net/lans_flows
Mathematics Redefined: The Impact of GAP on University Assignments GAP, short for Groups, Algorithms, and Programming, emerges as an invaluable companion in the world of university math assignments. Mathematics courses often present students with intricate problems that require a combination of theoretical knowledge and computational skills. GAP bridges this gap by providing a robust computer algebra system specifically tailored for algebra and discrete mathematics. Its open-source nature ensures accessibility for all, making it an indispensable tool for both students and professionals alike. Whether it's verifying group properties, solving complex linear equations, taking help with GAP Assignment Helper or developing custom algorithms, GAP's diverse features cater to a wide array of mathematical challenges, simplifying tasks and enhancing problem-solving efficiency. In the realm of group theory, GAP shines by allowing users to effortlessly define and manipulate groups, verify their properties, and delve into subgroup analysis. In the context of linear algebra, it empowers students to solve systems of equations, perform matrix operations, and calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Furthermore, GAP's number theory capabilities extend to tasks such as integer factorization, modular arithmetic, and algebraic number field computations. With its high-level programming language, GAP opens up a world of customization, enabling students to create custom functions, integrate specialized packages, and automate repetitive calculations. In a nutshell, GAP is not merely a tool; it's a mathematical ally that simplifies complex assignments, fosters a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts, and accelerates academic and research pursuits. What is GAP? Before delving into the specific features of GAP, it's essential to understand what GAP is and how it operates. GAP is a computer algebra system designed for computations in algebra and discrete mathematics. It provides a high-level programming language tailored to algebraic problems and offers a wide range of mathematical functions and algorithms. GAP is open-source, which means it's freely available for anyone to use and modify, making it an accessible tool for both students and professionals. The Power of GAP in Mathematical Problem Solving GAP is renowned for its capabilities in various branches of mathematics, making it an indispensable tool for solving university math assignments. Here are some of the key features of GAP and how they assist in mathematical problem-solving: Group Theory Computations Group theory is a fundamental area of mathematics with applications in various fields, including physics and cryptography. GAP excels in group theory computations, allowing users to define and manipulate groups easily. Exploring Group Properties GAP can verify group properties by examining closure, associativity, identity element, and inverses. For students, this means they can quickly check if a given set with an operation is indeed a group, an essential step in many algebra assignments. Students can use GAP to find subgroups of a given group and analyze their properties. This is invaluable for understanding the structure of groups, especially when dealing with complex algebraic structures. Order Calculation and Costs GAP can compute the order of a group and its costs. This functionality aids in the study of group properties and group actions, which is crucial in various mathematical contexts. For advanced assignments, GAP can help factorize groups into simpler components. This is particularly useful when dealing with intricate group structures and decomposition problems. Linear algebra is another crucial branch of mathematics commonly encountered in university assignments, especially in courses like linear algebra and differential equations. GAP supports linear algebra computations, enabling students to: System of Linear Equations GAP can solve systems of linear equations, providing solutions to problems involving matrices and vectors. This is immensely helpful in physics, engineering, and computer science assignments. Students can perform various matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and inversion, using GAP. These operations simplify tasks related to matrix algebra, which is fundamental in many mathematical and scientific disciplines. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors GAP can calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices. These values are crucial for understanding the behavior of linear transformations and are widely used in physics, engineering, and data analysis. Number theory is the study of integers and their properties, with applications in cryptography, coding theory, and more. GAP offers tools for number theory computations, allowing students to: GAP can factorize integers into their prime factors, aiding in number theory assignments and problem-solving. This is particularly useful in cryptography and coding theory, where prime factorization plays a crucial role. Students can perform modular arithmetic operations with ease, including modular exponentiation and modular inverses. These operations are fundamental in cryptography and modular number systems. Algebraic Number Fields GAP supports computations in algebraic number fields, making it suitable for advanced number theory problems. This feature is valuable for students and researchers exploring more abstract mathematical concepts. Programming and Customization One of the standout features of GAP is its high-level programming language designed for algebraic computations. This feature is invaluable for tackling complex assignments that require custom algorithms or specialized computations. Students can: Custom Functions and Procedures GAP allows users to define their own functions and procedures, making it possible to implement specific algorithms for unique mathematical problems. This level of customization enables students to tailor GAP to their specific needs. The GAP community has developed numerous packages that extend its functionality for specific mathematical areas. Students can easily integrate these packages into their assignments to access specialized tools, further enhancing their problem-solving capabilities. Automation of Tasks GAP's programming capabilities can be used to automate repetitive calculations, saving time and reducing the risk of errors. This is particularly helpful for assignments that involve extensive calculations. GAP is a versatile and powerful tool for solving university math assignments across various mathematical disciplines. Its capabilities in group theory computations, linear algebra, number theory, and programming make it an essential companion for students and researchers alike. Incorporating GAP into your mathematical toolbox can lead to more profound insights, quicker problem resolution, and a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. So, next time you're faced with a challenging math assignment, consider harnessing the power of GAP to unlock new avenues of exploration and discovery in the world of mathematics. With GAP, you have a reliable and versatile ally in your mathematical journey, whether you're a student working on algebraic equations or a researcher delving into abstract mathematics. The power of GAP is at your fingertips, ready to assist you in conquering even the most daunting mathematical challenges.
War can have a devastating impact on wildlife populations across the globe. War can have devastating impacts on local people, cultures and economies. And as war ravages and destabilizes countries, wildlife can get caught in the cross-hairs. Although war is often left out of the conversation on wildlife conservation, it presents an urgent threat to a number of threatened species. War impacts wildlife both directly and indirectly. Wild animals may be exploited by soldiers for bushmeat or their parts can be sold to finance operations. War can also exacerbate local poverty causing communities to turn to poaching and the bushmeat trade to survive. Large numbers of people fleeing the country as refugees may need to travel through wildlife habitat in order to avoid detection. Animals are often incidentally killed by guns, landmines or chemicals used in conflicts. Civil unrest also makes it difficult for conservationists to protect animals on-the-ground. War can have a devastating impact on wildlife populations across the globe In a 50-year period, more than 80% of wars overlapped with biodiversity hotspots. Sadly, our planet has not been becoming more peaceful. In actuality, the frequency of wars has risen significantly in the last 50 years. The threat to wildlife may become more severe as wars become increasingly militarized and climate change continues to deplete our natural resources. Complicating this issue further, war does not always have deleterious effects on wildlife. In stark contrast to the intense conflicts wreaking havoc on countries, some wildlife populations prosper during wartime. During Zimbabwe’s civil war, elephant populations surged to the highest rate in 40 years as the war kept poachers away from elephant habitats within the conflict zone. And as we recently reported, wildlife is currently thriving in the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Korea due to the lack of human disturbance. Although the threat of war is not universal, the overall trend indicates that war is largely detrimental to wildlife. Just like war itself, wildlife conservation during wartime is nuanced and multi-faceted. In Africa, the frequency of conflict was found to be the single most important predictor of wildlife population trends for large mammals, with populations declining significantly during wartime. The effects of war are not isolated to Africa. An estimated 10 million landmines have been scattered throughout Afghanistan threatening the elusive snow leopard. Soldiers also hunt goats and sheep for food in the mountain, reducing the snow leopard’s access to prey. During the Vietnam war, the U.S. routinely bombed Asian elephants as they were believed to be used to transport supplies for the opposition. Perhaps the most vulnerable wild animals in war zones are those who have no way to escape. Animals living in zoos may be left to languish during wartime. When the Syrian war broke out, wild animals living at a theme park became trapped in the conflict. The zoo was situated in an area controlled by rebel forces and the animals slowly began to die off from disease, starvation and bombings. The zoo had an estimated 300 animals before the war but the population dwindled to just thirteen. These remaining animals were successfully relocated out of the conflict zone by animal welfare group Four Paws, National Geographic reports. During the Iraq war, the situation became so dire that locals began to kill the zoo animals for food. Whether in captivity or in the wild, war has the power to devastatingly impact the welfare and conservation of wildlife. Often the most profound effect of war is the social and economic instability that can impact a country years after the conflict has ceased. Citizens may remain impoverished and continue to rely on wildlife for food and income. Governments likely see wildlife conservation as low priority as they work to rebuild the country. Despite the pervasive nature of wars, war has rarely resulted in a total population collapse. Even Gorongosa National Park, which lost over 95% of its wildlife during Mozambique’s civil war, has rebounded. Post-war efforts to alleviate civil unrest and poverty can also benefit wildlife by controlling the flow of weapons in a country and reducing peoples’ reliance on wildlife for income. World peace is a noble but unlikely goal. Conservation programs will have to learn how to mitigate the damage to wildlife under a hostile environment. By Brianna Lynne, Earth.com Contributing Writer
The hunting horn change Horns were often used during hunting. These early brass instruments were round so that the hunter could put his arm through it and carry it on his shoulder and blow it while riding a horse. The riders could send messages to one another by blowing particular notes. The horn in the orchestra change In the 17th century the modern orchestra was developing. Orchestras played for operas. Opera stories in those days were usually about gods and goddesses or kings and queens. There was often a hunting scene in the story. Hunters were asked to come and play their horns in the orchestra for these scenes. This is how the horn became an orchestral instrument. A brass instrument gives one basic note. Changing the pressure with the lips produces a few other notes. Gradually horn players discovered that if they put their right hand in the bell they could change the basic note. This made it possible to play lots of different notes. When Mozart wrote his horn concertos he was writing for a hand horn. When a note is played using the hand in the bell it makes the note sound different: more muffled (a bit like speaking while covering your mouth with your hand). A Mozart horn concerto sounds very different when played on a modern horn. Another way to change the notes on a horn was to use crooks. These are like extensions to the horn. The longer the tube the lower the note, so adding a crook (an extra circle) would give a lower basic note. The modern horn change By the 1830s the modern horn with three valves had been invented. These valves change the length of the tube, so that the horn had now become chromatic i.e. it could play all the notes including sharps and flats. Composers like Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss wrote complicated music for the horn which would never have been possible on the natural, valveless instruments. However, some composers preferred the sound of the natural horn. Brahms wrote for the natural horn when he wrote his Horn Trio for piano, violin and horn. Benjamin Britten, in his Serenade for tenor, horn and strings, asks for the horn to played naturally (without valves) for the fanfare at the beginning to make it sound like a hunting horn. The horn has a conical bore. This means that the tubing gradually becomes wider (a trumpet and trombone have a cylindrical bore): the tubing is the same thickness all the way along. The modern horn has 6.4 metres of tubing. It makes a beautiful, warm sound, but it is quite hard to play because the mouthpiece is small and the harmonics (the notes that can be played by changing the lip pressure) are very close together. The horn is a transposing instrument, usually in F (a written C sounds like the F below). At the end of the 19th century the so-called “double horn” was invented, which was like a combination of a horn in F and a horn in B flat. In the 18th century there were generally two horns in an orchestra. This became three or four in the 19th century, and some large orchestras now may have up to eight horns.
Hello, I’m Sarah Cornell from the Stockholm Resilience Centre. And I’m going to explain why we’re concerned about the global human impact on atmospheric aerosols. Aerosol is a rather technical term to describe the phenomenon of liquid droplets or particles, very small particles, that are held suspended in the atmosphere. Aerosols play many very important roles in the atmosphere and in the Earth system. They can both absorb and reflect light, so they’re important in Earth’s heat balance, and in the climate system. They provide condensation nucleus points; water condenses on aerosol particles and affects where clouds are formed and where rainfall happens. And they also provide microsurfaces for chemical reactions in the atmosphere. So, they influence atmospheric chemistry. For example, the reactions leading to stratospheric ozone depletion, or the ozone hole, happened on polar clouds that formed on stratospheric aerosols in the upper atmosphere. To understand atmospheric aerosols, and the additional loading that humans are creating, we take physical and chemical measurements of gases, of particles, and of rainfall. A lot of this work is done in particular locations in different ecosystems, especially in urban ecosystems where the particulate loading is highest. But we can also measure aerosols from space. Aerosols can be emitted directly into the atmosphere and they can also be formed through chemical processes in the atmosphere. That’s what we call secondary aerosol. One of the main natural sources of aerosol is actually the world’s oceans, waves and bubble bursting eject saltwater directly into the air and the water evaporates and leaves little microcrystals of salt. Other natural primary sources include fire, volcanoes, and air-blown dust. There are natural sources for secondary aerosol too. For example, plankton and land vegetation emit organic compounds that react in the atmosphere to make very small particles. These reactions that create aerosols that affect the distribution of clouds over forests and coastal zones. We also see human impacts in both direct and secondary aerosols. Land use change and combustion processes change the global patterns of dust and smoke emission. And together with transport and industrial processes we are currently changing the emissions of a very large number of chemical precursor gases that become aerosols in the atmosphere. You’re probably familiar with some aerosol systems already. Smoke is a suspension of carbon particles in the air; fog is a suspension of water droplets; and the gas emissions associated with human activities, interact with each other and with these natural systems, creating really much more complex aerosol systems like smog and photochemical haze. In the last century killer smogs, or pea soupers, were a severe environmental problem, so industrial smoke emissions are very tightly controlled in many cities of the world. But however industrial and urban emissions are still the cause of many problem aerosols in other parts of the world. Photochemical haze plagues cities like Shanghai and Los Angeles and many other mega-cities in the world. These aerosol systems are complex. They involve both natural and anthropogenic sources, they involve many different kinds of chemical substances, they involve direct emissions and reactions that happen in the atmosphere, and these reactions involve solids, and liquids, and gases. In other words, the composition and the ultimate fate of aerosols depend on many different geographic and meteorological conditions. This presents a major challenge to us when we’re trying to find a global measure for what is acceptable or not acceptable in terms of aerosol changes in the Earth system. On top of that the world’s ecosystems on land and in the oceans have evolved and adapted to the biogeochemical flows that aerosols provide. The human impact isn’t just as simple as an increase in aerosol loading. In some instances human activities are removing or relocating aerosols. We risk setting off physical and ecological tipping points when we change atmospheric chemistry in this way. This animation shows the global patterns and total aerosol loading of the atmosphere. It’s clear that aerosols are a vital part of the Earth system, and a dynamic part, and also that there’s a huge amount of variability in their local and regional patterns. This figure is from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and it shows the complex effect of atmospheric precursor gases in the top of the red box, and aerosols in the lower part of the red box. It shows the effects of aerosols and gases on Earth’s radiative balance. Some have a positive effect on radiative forcing, leading to warming of the atmosphere; and others have a negative forcing, in other words they lead to cooling. The net global effect is a cooling, at the moment. The climate planetary boundary already addresses the radiative forcing effect of aerosols. But there are good reasons to address anthropogenic aerosol directly in the planetary boundaries concept, in ways that address their physical and biogeochemical impacts, not just their effects on the global energy balance. In this context it’s really important to recognize the regional complexity of aerosols. One example where humans are causing regime shifts that might affect the whole Earth system is the change to the Asian monsoon system caused by the intense brown cloud of atmospheric pollution over south Asia and the Indian Ocean. Another is the change in tropical rainfall patterns caused when deforestation reduces the natural aerosol emissions from trees and its interaction with the water cycle. This change can trigger climatic and water cycle feedbacks that would accelerate regime shifts or tipping points from forest to grasslands. And yet another example that can trigger climate and ecosystem feedbacks is the deposition of dark aerosol particles, soot, or black carbon, on ice sheets and glaciers, accelerating their melting. These kinds of pollution changes affect the regional albedo, and result in shifts in weather patterns, and biogeochemical flows, and ecosystems and the biodiversity within them. In summary, although there is no single value for a planetary boundary that incorporates all kinds of aerosols all around the world, there’s a very strong case for specific sub-boundaries to be defined for particular aerosol systems in order to maintain the functioning of global earth system processes.
Implementing VEX GO STEM Labs STEM Labs are designed to be the online teacher’s manual for VEX GO. Like a printed teacher’s manual, the teacher-facing content of the STEM Labs provides all of the resources, materials, and information needed to be able to plan, teach, and assess with VEX GO. The Lab Image Slideshows are the student-facing companion to this material. For more detailed information about how to implement a STEM Lab in your classroom, see the Implementing VEX GO STEM Labs article. Goals and Standards Students will apply - Using Drivetrain blocks with [Repeat] or [Forever] blocks correctly to create a VEXcode GO project to solve a challenge. Students will make meaning of - How to code the Code Base to solve a challenge, such as driving to detect multiple obstacles. Students will be skilled at - Using build instructions to build the Code Base - Eye Forward. - Connecting a Brain to a tablet or computer in VEXcode GO. - Saving and naming projects in VEXcode GO. - Adding VEXcode GO blocks to a project. - Sequencing blocks in a project. - Using Drivetrain blocks in a project to have the Code Base drive to a specific location. - Changing parameters in VEXcode blocks. - Starting and stopping a project in VEXcode GO. Students will know - How to use the [Forever] or [Repeat] block in a project to have the Code Base repeat a behavior, or group of behaviors. - That the <Found object> block in VEXcode GO works with the Eye Sensor to detect an object in its field of view. - How to use the [Wait until] block with the <Found object> block in a project to have the Code Base robot drive until it detects an object. - Students will identify that the [Forever] block repeats the behaviors inside the block forever. - Students will develop a project in VEXcode GO using a loop to solve a challenge. - Students will communicate behaviors, through words and gestures, that the Code Base will need to complete in order to solve a challenge. - Students will discuss the [Forever] block in the Engage section, and be introduced to the concept of a loop to repeat behaviors. In the Mid-Play Break, students will identify that the [Forever] block can be used in their projects to have the Code Base detect all the objects in the Mars landing area. - In Play Part 1, students will iterate on the project from Lab 1, adding blocks and changing parameters to have the Code Base detect multiple obstacles on the Mars Landing area (GO Field). In the Mid-Play Break, they will identify that a loop can be used to repeat sequences in their projects to have the Code Base continuously check for obstacles in order to solve the challenge. - In the Play sections, students will describe how they want the Code Base to move as they create their projects. - In the Mid-Play Break and Share sections, students will be able to communicate how the blocks inside the [Forever] block are repeated in a forever loop until the Code Base is instructed to stop. - In Play Part 2, students will continue to work on their VEXcode GO project using Drivetrain blocks and the [Repeat] or [Forever] block so the Code Base can locate all of the obstacles on the Mars landing area, even if the location of the obstacles change. - During Share, students will explain the projects they created, and describe how the Code Base moves after their projects are started. They will use these descriptions to discuss how projects varied between groups. Connections to Standards Computer Science Teaching Association (CSTA) CSTA 1A-AP-10: Develop programs with sequences and simple loops, to express ideas or address a problem. How Standard is Achieved: In the Play section, students will build a VEXcode GO project that has the Code Base examine the entire landing area to make sure it is clear of obstacles so that the next Mars rover can land. Students will create a project that uses Eye Sensor with a [Forever] or [Repeat] block to have the Code Base drive to and detect all objects on the landing area. In Play Part 2, students will edit their projects to make have the Code Base drive to and detect all obstacles on the Field, even if the location of the obstacles change. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.L.3.6: Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate conversational, general academic, and domain-specific words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships. How Standard is Achieved: During the Play section, students will create a VEXcode GO project where the Code Base drives until it detects multiple obstacles on the Mars landing area. As they build their project, students will use spatial language and gestures to describe how they want the Code Base to move and turn on the Field in relation to the obstacles. After building and testing their projects, students will reflect in the Mid-Play Break and Share sections on how the [Forever] block, [Repeat] block, and changing the parameters of other blocks affected the movement of the Code Base. They will use spatial language, gestures, and relational words to describe how the movement changed.
Recently, the Delhi Government has initiated the spraying of a Bio-Decomposer to tackle Stubble Burning. However, the effectiveness of the microbial solution largely depends on its timing of application, according to farmers. GS III: Environment and Ecology Dimensions of the Article: - What is stubble burning? - Bio-Decomposer to Address Stubble Burning What is stubble burning? - Stubble burning is intentionally setting fire to the straw stubble that remains after grains, like paddy, wheat, etc., have been harvested. The practice was widespread until the 1990s, when governments increasingly restricted its use. - The burning of stubble, contrasted with alternatives such as ploughing the stubble back into the ground or collecting it for industrial uses, has a number of consequences and effects on the environment. Effects of Stubble Burning: - Kills slugs and other pests - Can reduce nitrogen tie-up - Loss of nutrients - Pollution from smoke - Damage to electrical and electronic equipment from floating threads of conducting waste - Risk of fires spreading out of control - The main adverse effects of crop residue burning include the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) that contributes to the global warming, increased levels of particulate matter (PM) and smog that cause health hazards, loss of biodiversity of agricultural lands, and the deterioration of soil fertility Alternatives to Stubble Burning: - In-Situ Treatment of Stubble: For example, crop residue management by zero-tiller machine and Use of bio-decomposers. - Ex-Situ (off-site) Treatment: For example, Use of rice straw as cattle fodder. - Use of Technology– For example Turbo Happy Seeder (THS) machine, which can uproot the stubble and also sow seeds in the area cleared. The stubble can then be used as mulch for the field. Bio-Decomposer to Address Stubble Burning - A bio-decomposer is developed to expedite the natural decomposition of crop residues. - Typically, it comprises a mixture of various microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria, and enzymes working together to break down plant material into enriching organic matter for the soil. Examples of Microorganisms: - Bacteria: Bacillus, Clostridium, E. coli, Salmonella - Fungi: Mushrooms, Molds, Yeasts - Other Organisms: Earthworms, Insects (Beetles, Flies, Ants, Maggots), Arthropods (Millipedes, Woodlice) - Pusa-Biodecomposer is a fungi-based liquid solution designed to soften tough crop residues, making them easily mixable with soil to act as compost. - The fungi thrive at temperatures around 30-32 degrees Celsius, coinciding with the conditions during paddy harvesting and wheat sowing. - It produces enzymes that break down cellulose, lignin, and pectin in paddy straw. - Developed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and named after ICAR’s Pusa campus in Delhi. - Besides crop residues, it rapidly converts animal waste, dung, and other waste into organic manure. - Enhances soil fertility and crop productivity by turning stubble into manure and reducing the need for future fertilizer use. - An efficient, cost-effective, and practical solution to combat stubble burning. - Environmentally friendly, aligning with the Swachh Bharat Mission’s goals. Efficacy and Considerations: - Application of the microbial solution is aimed at decomposing paddy straw left in the field post-harvest. - It requires spraying after harvest, plowing into the soil, and light irrigation over 20-25 days for effective decomposition. - Timely application aligning with the harvest is crucial for maximizing its effectiveness. - Various factors such as crop rotation, labor availability, and crop type impact its relevance for farmers. - Weather conditions, particularly rain during September and October, play a role in its application and effectiveness. -Source: Indian Express
The European range of distribution of the gypsy moth extends from North Africa, over Western Europe, Southern and Central Europe and following east over Russia up to Japan. In the North, the moths are reaching Central Sweden and Southern Finland. In Central Europe, the moths live in warm and dry habitats and prefer the light, sunny forest stands of forest edges, as well as parks and fruit orchards. The population development is favored by warm summers and continuing drought. Therefore, the origin of extension lies in warmer regions such as the Ticino, Wallis, the area around Geneva and the lake of Biel. In the central lowlands, the moth was found only occasionally, in particular in the eastern part of Switzerland. The larvae of the gypsy moth do not feed from one particular plant species but instead from approximately 400 different plant species: broad-leaf trees such as oak, hornbeam, European beech, sweet chestnut, pip- and stone-fruit species. In , it is mainly the sweet chestnut which is affected by outbreaks. The populations overwinter within the egg shells as fully developed, only a few millimeters small caterpillars. They hatch in spring during bud-break and start to feed instantaneously. With the help of long hairs which allow them to float in the air, the young caterpillars are transported over kilometers by the wind. In contrast, the adult females do not contribute significantly to the spatial dispersion. At the beginning of their development, the caterpillars feed during daytime while they become active during night, once they grow bigger. During its development period of 6 to 12 weeks, each caterpillar consumes approximately one square meter of foliage. After the pupation the moths emerge between July and the end of September. While the white females are almost flightless, the brown colored males, which are active during the day, fly in a restless zigzag pattern. After mating, the female produces a single egg mass consisting of several hundred eggs embedded in abdominal hair. In German, the gypsy moth was called after this sponge-like cluster. The gypsy moth has a large number of natural predators of which many contribute to put an end to an outbreak in a natural way: - Pathogens (viruses, bacteria and fungi) - Parasites (mainly tachinid flies and braconid wasps) - Predators (ground beetles, stink bugs, soldier beetles, ants, toads, lizards, birds, shrews). Most of the broad-leaf tree species respond with a quick new flush of leaves within the same summer period. A singular gypsy moth attack normally has no negative effects on the tree. If the Lymantria-caterpillars feed on the same tree over several years, significant effects such as water shoots, suppressed growth rates and reduced seed production may occur. The caterpillars may be dispersed by wind from the forest to a nearby fruit orchard, where they can cause significant damage. A gypsy moth outbreak may become a significant social problem. The thousands of caterpillars may become a nuisance if the hyperactive insects spread over gardens while searching for a food sources, or entering houses through open windows and doors. With sensitive persons, the hair of a caterpillar may cause skin irritation. But the hair from the gypsy moth is far less aggressive than, for example, the hair from the gold-tail (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) or from the pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa).
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Just as most diodes are essentially variations of a single P-N junction, a simple transistor can be made by using just two P-N junctions, which is known as a Bipolar Junction Transistor. Bipolar junction transistors are a type of transistor that is made from three doped regions, in an PNP or NPN configuration, and which use both electrons and holes as charge carriers. BJTs have three terminals, one for each doped region. The three terminals are called the emitter, base, and collector. The main function of a BJT is that a small voltage across (or current through) the base and emitter can control a relatively large current between the emitter and collector. This is why transistors are sometimes considered synonymous with amplifiers. However it may be better to think about them as critical components within an amplifier circuit. - What Makes a Transistor Bipolar? - Two Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor - PNP Transistor - NPN Transistor - The Two Diode Model - Bipolar Junction Transistor Modes of Operation - Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers What Makes a Transistor Bipolar? Bipolar junction transistors are called bipolar because they use both electrons and holes to conduct. As current passes through the transistor, both n-type and p-type materials contribute to electric current. This is in contrast with unipolar devices like field effect transistors (FETs), which use only one type of charge carrier (either electrons or holes) and move through a channel that is either n-type or p-type. Two Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) can be thought of as two PN junctions that are placed back to back. Since there are two sides of a P-N junction, there are two ways that a BJT can be arranged; PNP and NPN. PNP and NPN transistors are very similar in theory of operation and construction, but there are a few fundamental differences: - In NPN transistors, current flows from the collector to the emitter. In PNP transistors, current flows from the emitter to the collector. - In NPN transistors, the primary charge carriers are electrons. In PNP transistors, the primary charge carriers are holes. A PNP transistor can be though of as two PN junction diodes, with the p-doped sides of each facing outwards and having a shared n-type region between them. If two P-N junction diodes were used for the construction, the n-type region of the first diode would be directly connected with the n-type region of the second diode. Therefore the action is the same as a single n-type region, which in this case would be the width of two ‘standard’ n-type regions. Illustration of PNP transistor. Note the narrow width of the base and high doping of the emitter region. There are three doped regions in a PNP transistor: two p-type regions surrounding an n-type region. The p-type regions have an excess number of holes due to the addition of dopant atoms with less electrons than the substrate (usually silicon). The n-type regions have an excess number of electrons due to the addition of dopant atoms with more electrons than the substrate. In real-life PNP diodes, the n-type base is made smaller than the n-type region in a standard P-N junction. In addition, the emitter is much more highly doped than the base and collector. The base itself is typically more highly doped than the collector. This reduces electron-hole recombination in the base, ensuring that most of the holes are swept into the collector. How a PNP Transistor Works In a PNP transistor, the emitter has an excess number of holes available for conduction. When a positive potential is placed across the base and emitter, these holes move toward the n-type base where a small amount of carrier (electron-hole) recombination occurs. However, unlike a traditional P-N junction, the n-type base region in the transistor is narrow and only lightly doped. As a result, most of the holes are pulled through the base region without recombining with electrons. At the same time, a negative potential is placed on the p-type collector (the third region in the PNP transistor). This negative potential then pulls the positively charged free holes through the p-type collector. The holes are swept into and through the collector. This isn’t quite the entire story, however. A small number of holes do combine with electrons in the base, and a small number of electrons are pulled from the base toward the emitter. These carriers also contribute a small amount to conduction. This is why bipolar junction transistors are classified as using both electrons and holes for conduction. Hence the term ‘bipolar’. NPN transistors are very similar to PNP transistors, but operate using electrons as the primary charge carriers. They can be modeled as two diodes with a shared/connected p-type base. Like PNP transistors, NPN transistors are comprised of three doped regions of a semiconductor crystal. In an NPN transistor, there are two n-type semiconductors surrounding a p-type region. The n-type semiconductors have an excess number of electrons. The p-type region (in the middle) has an excess number of electron holes because it is doped with atoms that have less atoms than the substrate. How an NPN Transistor Works In an NPN transistor, the main charge carriers are electrons, which are supplied by the n-type emitter. The action is fundamentally the same as with the PNP transistor, but current always travels opposite the direction of electron flow. In a PNP transistor, hole flow is in line with the current, because holes are modeled as positively charged particles. Since electrons flow from the emitter to the collector in NPN transistors, this means that current flows in the opposite direction; that is, from the collector to the emitter. A negative potential is placed across the base and emitter. The excess free electrons in the emitter are pushed toward the base, where a small percentage recombines with a small number of holes. The doping level of the emitter is much higher than that of the base however, so there are far more free electrons than holes. Instead, the majority of the electrons are pulled through the base into the collector. A small number of holes also makes its way from the base into the emitter, aiding in emitter-base current. The Two Diode Model Testing a Bipolar Junction Transistor With a Multimeter Using the example of two diodes to model a bipolar junction transistor is useful not only for comprehension, but also for testing BJTs. A multimeter can be used to test basic functionality as long as it has an integrated diode tester. In this case, you can simply use a multimeter to check each ‘diode’, with an additional check to ensure that the transistor does not have a short circuit. Testing a PNP Transistor With a Multimeter - Using the multimeter in ‘diode testing mode’, perform two tests: one from the emitter to the base, and one from the collector to the base. If the multimeter does not have a diode testing function, you can also use a resistance function. - Check the resistance from the emitter to the collector. This resistance value should be high. Testing an NPN Transistor With a Multimeter - Using the multimeter in ‘diode testing mode’, perform two tests: one from the base to the emitter, and one from the base to the collector. If the multimeter does not have a diode testing function, you can also use a resistance function. - Check the resistance from the emitter to the collector. This resistance value should be high. The Two Diode Model Isn’t Perfect Although the ‘two diode model’ is good starting point for understand BJTs, it does have some limitations. In particular, the base of both PNP and NPN diodes is very different from the ‘middle region’ of the two diode model. First, the base is one single region, whereas the middle region of the two diode model is two distinct regions connected by a conductor. Second, the base is much narrower than the n-type region in a standard P-N junction diode. Third, the base is very lightly doped compared with the emitter, which is the most heavily doped region of a BJT. These factors reduce carrier recombination in the base. They allow the BJT to function primarily via minority carrier diffusion from the base to the collector. The term ‘minority carrier’ means that the primary contributor to current is the charged particle with the opposite polarity of the free charges in the base. For instance, a PNP transistor functions by injecting holes into the base, where they are the minority carrier whereas an NPN transistor injects electrons into the base. Holes are a minority carrier when they are in an n-type material, and electrons are a minority carrier when they are in a p-type material. Bipolar Junction Transistor Modes of Operation There a four modes of operation for bipolar junction transistors: forward-active, saturation, reverse-active, and cut-off. This is the standard mode of operation for most BJTs. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse biased. A small change in the base-emitter bias yields a large change in emitter-collector current, called gain. In saturation mode, both junctions are forward biased. This allows a maximum emitter-collector current, but the transistor does not function as an amplifier. If the bias of the forward-active mode is reversed (or the transistor reversed), the transistor can be made to operate ‘backwards’, with the emitter functioning as collector and vice versa. In this case, the gain is much smaller than in the forward-active configuration. With both junctions reverse-biased, emitter-collector current will be very low. Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers BJTs can be configured by placing them into an amplifier circuit in one of three different ways. These are called common base, common emitter, and common collector configurations.
Students will start this activity by observing an interesting property related to the graph of a tangent to y = ex. This property will allow them to readily see that the derivative of y = ex is itself. This result will be confirmed using limits. Students will then determine that the limit as h approaches 0 of (eh1)/ h equals 1 and use this fact to evaluate this derivative analytically. Before the Activity Download the attached PDF and look over the information on the first page. Download and distribute the attached .tns file and Student Worksheet for use during the activity. During the Activity Discuss the material from the activity pages and worksheet with students as needed. After the Activity Encourage students to summarize what they have learned from completing the activity.
The million-processor SpiNNaker machine, the ‘human brain supercomputer,’ the world’s largest neuromorphic supercomputer, has been switched on for the first time. Engineers have designed and built it to work in the same way as the human brain. The SpiNNaker machine can complete over 200 million million actions per second. Each of its chips has 100 million transistors. SpiNNaker stands for Spiking Neural Network Architecture. According to a University of Manchester press release: “To reach this point it has taken £15million in funding, 20 years in conception and over 10 years in construction, with the initial build starting way back in 2006. The project was initially funded by the EPSRC and is now supported by the European Human Brain Project.” The SpiNNaker machine, which engineers from the School of Computer Science, the University of Manchester, built, can model more biological neurons than any other machine on Earth. And that is in real time. Biological neurons are basic brain cells. They are present in the nervous system. They communicate primarily by emitting ‘spikes’ of pure electro-chemical energy. Neuromorphic computing utilizes large-scale computer systems that contain electronic circuits that mimic these spikes in an artificial device. SpiNNaker is unique SpiNNaker is unique because it doesn’t communicate by sending large amounts of data from point A to B through a standard network. This is what traditional computers do. Instead, SpiNNaker mimics our brain’s massively parallel communication network. It sends billions of small amounts of data simultaneously to several thousand different destinations. Stever Furber said: “SpiNNaker completely re-thinks the way conventional computers work. We’ve essentially created a machine that works more like a brain than a traditional computer, which is extremely exciting.” “The ultimate objective for the project has always been a million cores in a single computer for real-time brain modelling applications, and we have now achieved it, which is fantastic.” Furber is an ICL Professor of Computer Engineering at the University of Manchester. Prof Furber conceived the initial idea for such a computer. One billion biological neuron target The supercomputer’s creators eventually hope to model up to one billion biological neurons in real time. They say that now they are a step closer. To give an idea of scale, a mouse brain, for example, consists of approximately 100 million neurons. The human brain is one thousand times bigger than that. One billion neurons represent merely 1% of the scale of our brains. The human brain consists of nearly 100 billion neurons or brain cells. They are highly interconnected via about one quadrillion synapses. One quadrillion = 1,000,000,000,000,000. What is SpiNNaker for? So, why do we want a million-core processor computer that mimics the way our brain works? For a start, neuroscientists can gain a better understanding of how the human brain works. SpiNNaker runs incredibly large-scale real-time simulations which other machines simply cannot do. For example, researchers have used SpiNNaker to stimulate high-level real-time processing in several different isolated brain networks. This includes a model of a segment of the cortex consisting of 80,000 neurons. This part of the brain – in the outer layer – receives and processes data from the senses. SpiNNaker has also simulated the Basal Ganglia, a region of the brain that Parkinson’s disease affects. The supercomputer, therefore, has massive potential for neurological breakthroughs. It could be used, for example, in pharmaceutical testing. Using SpiNNaker to control a robot Engineers have even harnessed SpiNNaker’s processing power to control the SpOmnibot. According to TUM (Technische Universität München – Technical University of Munich): “The “SpomniBot” is a small holonomic robot with various on-board sensors and actuators, equipped with on-board neuronal computing abilities.” The SponmniBot uses the SpiNNaker system to interpret visual information in real time. The system allows it to navigate towards specific objects while ignoring others. A robot is a device or machine that we usually program to do things. Most robots today have AI (artificial intelligence). Some robots are humanoid. In other words, they have arms, legs, a torso, and what looks like a head. However, most are not humanoid. Regarding the potential uses of SpiNNaker, Prof. Furber added: “Neuroscientists can now use SpiNNaker to help unlock some of the secrets of how the human brain works by running unprecedentedly large-scale simulations.” “It also works as real-time neural simulator that allows roboticists to design large-scale neural networks into mobile robots so they can walk, talk and move with flexibility and low power.”
By Dr. Stephanie A. Leonard Many types of adverse food reactions are often confused with food allergies. Allergists consider a true food allergy to be an abnormal response of the immune system to food protein. These abnormal responses are mediated by immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE-mediated) or by immune cells (non-IgE-mediated). The IgE-mediated food allergies are the kind that may result in immediate hives and swelling or anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening reaction with multiple symptoms. Common food allergies in children include allergies to egg, milk, peanut, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, soy and wheat; however, children can develop an allergy to almost any food. Symptoms develop typically within 30 minutes, but can occur up to two hours after ingestion, and may include hives, lip and/or eye swelling, mouth itching, throat discomfort, coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, vomiting, diarrhea and a drop in blood pressure, which may be lead to dizziness or fainting. These symptoms are the result of chemicals, such as histamine, which are released in the body when IgE binds to a particular food protein. Non-IgE-mediated food allergies typically cause gastrointestinal symptoms. These symptoms may include repetitive vomiting, chronic diarrhea, blood in the stool, weight loss or difficulty swallowing. These gastrointestinal food allergies are often diagnosed either by history alone or with endoscopy by a gastroenterologist. Food intolerance is a more accurate term when referring to adverse food reactions that do not involve the immune system and are typically not a result of food protein. For example, lactose intolerance is a metabolic disorder where the body does not have the enzyme called lactase to digest the sugar lactose present in cow’s milk. This condition results in bloating, abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Lactose intolerance is diagnosed by history alone or with a breath test performed by a gastroenterologist. Treatment includes replacement of the enzyme lactase. Other foods may have a pharmacologic effect due to certain chemicals. This includes sensitivities to chemicals in chocolate, tyramine, aspartame, MSG, nitrates/nitrites, alcohol and caffeine, which may trigger migraines, or symptoms such as fatigue or mood changes in susceptible individuals. These reactions are not life-threatening and there are no tests available to confirm sensitivity. A sensitivity is likely if symptoms disappear when the substance is avoided and reappear when the substance is ingested again. Adverse food reactions may also be the result of a toxic effect, for example from mishandled or spoiled food. Gastrointestinal symptoms caused by food poisoning may appear similar to those seen in allergic reactions. However, food poisoning reactions often affect more than one individual and symptoms do not occur if the individual eats the food again. Food allergies are best diagnosed by our food allergy center to avoid confusion with food intolerance using skin and blood testing. Treatment includes avoiding the trigger food and if IgE-mediated, treating accidental ingestions with antihistamines and injectable epinephrine. New therapies for IgE-mediated food allergy are currently in research. Dr. Stephanie A. Leonard is a food allergy specialist at Rady Children’s Hospital-San Diego and an assistant professor of pediatric allergy and immunology at UC San Diego.
Using Mathematics is one of the three Cross-Curricular Skills at the heart of the curriculum. It is the skill of applying mathematical concepts, processes and understanding appropriately in different contexts. Ideally, teachers will use relevant, real-life situations that require mathematical thinking. Pupils are likely to acquire and consolidate their mathematical knowledge and skills within the Mathematics and Numeracy Area of Learning. Teachers should also give them opportunities to transfer their understanding, as appropriate, to other contexts across the curriculum. Pupils can demonstrate their mathematical knowledge, understanding and skills in a variety of ways to communicate, manage information, think critically, solve problems and make decisions. Across the curriculum, at a level appropriate to their ability, pupils should be enabled to: - choose the appropriate materials, equipment and mathematics to use in a particular situation; - use mathematical knowledge and concepts accurately; - work systematically and check their work; - use mathematics to solve problems and make decisions; - develop methods and strategies, including mental mathematics; - explore ideas, make and test predictions and think creatively; - identify and collect information; - read, interpret, organise and present information in mathematical formats; - use mathematical understanding and language to ask and answer questions, talk about and discuss ideas and explain ways of working; - develop financial capability; and - use ICT to solve problems and/or present their work. Teachers can measure standards of pupil competency in numeracy through the Cross-Curricular Skill of Using Mathematics. Depending on the pupil’s ability, they will demonstrate their competency through structured activities, activities with some structure and activities that require increasing independence. Teachers can use the Levels of Progression for Using Mathematics as a progression framework for all Areas of Learning. This can help pupils to develop their numeracy skills across the curriculum and acquire the mathematical skills relevant to other Areas of Learning. Assessing the Using Mathematics skills across the curriculum in a systematic and consistent way can help pupils to manage their own learning and to identify learning targets. It also helps pupils to connect learning from different areas of study. This will embed the independent learning that is desirable at Key Stage 4 and post-16. See Assessment and Reporting at Key Stage 3 for more details. For more information on Using Mathematics, contact:
What is Structured Literacy? The goal of Kentucky’s Senate Bill (SB) 9 (2022), the Read to Succeed Act, is to ensure "all children learn to read well before exiting grade three (3) and that all middle and high school students have the skills necessary to read complex materials in specific core subjects and comprehend and constructively apply the information," (KRS 158.791(1)). The Kentucky Department of Education (KDE) is required to support “local school districts in the identification of professional development activities, including teaching strategies to help teachers in each subject area to: 1. Implement evidence-based reading, intervention, and instructional strategies that emphasize phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and connections between reading and writing acquisition, and motivation to read to address the diverse needs of students,” (KRS 158.791(2)(c)). When understanding how the brain learns to read, educators implement Structured Literacy (SL) practices to ensure that all students are supported in becoming skilled readers. Structured Literacy Defined Structured literacy (SL) is an approach that emphasizes highly explicit and systematic teaching of all essential components of literacy. These components include foundational skills (e.g., decoding, spelling) and higher-level literacy skills (e.g., reading comprehension, written expression). SL also emphasizes oral language abilities essential to literacy development, including phonemic awareness, sensitivity to speech sounds in oral language, and the ability to manipulate those sounds (Spear-Swerling, 2019). SL prepares students to decode words explicitly and systematically. This approach not only helps students with dyslexia but there is substantial evidence that it is effective for all readers (IDA, 2021). Learning to read is a complex process. Scientific research collected over the past four decades reveals what happens in the brain to enable skillful reading. Reading is not hard-wired in the brain. The neuropathways must be developed through explicit, systematic instructional experiences (Lexia, 2022). People who become experienced readers use and integrate several regions of their brain, primarily in the left hemisphere including (Cunningham & Rose; Eden; Hudson et al., 2016): The parietal-temporal region (towards the back) which does the job of breaking a written word into its sounds (i.e., word analysis, sounding out words). The occipital-temporal region (at the back) where the brain stores the appearance and meaning of words (i.e., letter-word recognition, automaticity, and language comprehension). This is critical for automatic, fluent reading so that a reader can quickly identify words without having to sound each one out. The frontal region (at the front) which allows a person to speak (i.e., processing speech sounds as we listen and speak). Despite common misconceptions, SL is not just about phonics; it includes much more. The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) and Scarborough’s Rope Model (Scarborough, 2001) serve as frameworks for understanding and identifying SL. The Simple View of Reading The Simple View of Reading is a theoretical framework proposed by Gough and Tunmer (1986) that simplifies the complex process of reading into two essential components: Decoding (word recognition) and language comprehension (background knowledge, vocabulary). According to this model, reading comprehension is the product of an individual’s ability to decode and comprehend. The Simple View of Reading suggests that reading comprehension is improved by strengthening both word recognition and language comprehension. This framework allows educators to identify and address specific areas of difficulty in students' reading development, aiming to produce students who can proficiently read. Scarborough’s Reading Rope The “Reading Rope” model developed by Hollis Scarborough (2001) provides a comprehensive view of the multiple components involved in reading. It highlights the interconnectedness of various skills and processes required for proficient reading. The model emphasizes the importance of both word recognition (phonological awareness and phonics) and language comprehension (vocabulary, background knowledge, and verbal reasoning) as essential strands of the “rope” that contribute to reading proficiency. Scarborough’s model helps educators and researchers understand the complexity of reading development and guides effective instructional approaches to support students’ literacy skills. Structured Literacy Is SL practices are explicit and systematic in nature. Concepts are taught using direction instruction and modeled when necessary. The elements of language are taught sequentially with intensive practice and continual feedback. Reading instruction using the SL approach should be cumulative, that is, lessons build on previous knowledge, moving from simple to more complex concepts. Frequent assessments and progress monitoring are used to inform instruction and corrective feedback is provided. During each lesson, meaningful interactions with language must occur and students are given multiple opportunities to practice tasks. Lesson engagement is crucial during teacher-led instruction and independent practices are monitored. Lastly, a supportive learning environment where student effort is encouraged allows students to gain the self-confidence and motivation needed to gain mastery of skills. Structured Literacy is Not Instruction that is not aligned with SL does not place emphasis on phonemic awareness, decoding and spelling, even for beginning readers. There is no systematic grapheme-phoneme level approach for initial instruction and emphasis may be placed on larger units, such as word families, before students are ready (IDA, 2019). In early grades, children generally read predictable or leveled texts, which often contain many words that children cannot decode and tend to encourage guessing based on pictures or sentence context rather than facilitating application of previously learned phonetic patterns in decodable texts. Leveled or predictable texts are common in some interventions, even for poor readers (Clay, 1994; Fountas & Pinnell, 2009). Instructional time spent in direct teacher-student interaction may be limited, leaving children to work in cooperative groupings or independently instead of engaging in direct instruction from the teacher (IDA, 2019). When children read texts, even with a teacher, inaccuracies in decoding may be overlooked in the belief that errors are unimportant if they do not change the meaning (reading horse for pony). However, inaccurate reading prevents students from building fluency and often causes an overreliance on pictures. Relying on context does not work well for more advanced texts and can become a difficult habit to break (Floorman et al., 2016). This chart shows the differences between typical literacy practices and structured literacy practices. The Essential Components of Universal Tier 1 Reading Instruction In its seminal report, the National Reading Panel (2000), concluded that comprehensive reading programs should include five essential components. The five components, which are integrated into the most effective approaches for teaching reading to both proficient and struggling readers, are: - Phonemic awareness: The ability to distinguish, produce, remember and manipulate spoken words' individual sounds (phonemes). - Phonics: Knowledge of the predictable correspondences between phonemes and graphemes (the letters or letter combinations representing phonemes) and correspondences between larger blocks of letters and syllables or meaningful word parts (morphemes). - Reading fluency: The ability to read text with sufficient speed and accuracy to support comprehension. - Vocabulary: Knowledge of the individual word meanings in a text and the concepts that those words convey. - Reading comprehension: The complex process of understanding and making sense of written text through decoding, background knowledge and verbal reasoning, all of which are utilized by good readers to understand, remember and communicate what has been read (Montgomery et al., 2013). Fluency, vocabulary and comprehension should emphasize knowledge-building and access for ALL to complex grade-level text. How does Structured Literacy Support Universal Tier 1 Reading Instruction? The Kentucky Academic Standards for Reading & Writing work with SL to ensure vibrant student experiences in literacy. SL is particularly beneficial for all students in universal Tier 1 instruction, which refers to the general education classroom where most students receive their grade-level reading instruction. Through SL instruction, emphasis is placed on systematic and explicit instruction in phonics and phonemic awareness. Additionally, SL uses modeling and guided practice for each skill or strategy taught in tandem with vocabulary development to build background knowledge. Further, reading fluency and comprehension instruction are integral parts of SL that provide students with a strong foundation in decoding, phonics, and vocabulary (Foorman et al., 2016). Substantial evidence (ESSA Level I) supports student instruction in phonemic awareness, decoding and phonics for developing awareness of segmenting sounds in speech and the ability to decode words and analyze word parts (Foorman et al., 2016). SL instruction prepares students to engage in higher-level reading tasks, such as understanding and analyzing texts, making inferences, and synthesizing information (Foorman, et al., 2016) (ESSA Levels I and II). By implementing SL practices in Tier 1 instruction, schools can ensure that all students receive comprehensive and effective literacy instruction. This approach benefits struggling readers by addressing their specific needs, and it also supports the overall literacy development of all students, preparing them for success in reading and beyond (Cunningham & Rose, 2013; Lexia, 2022; NRP, 2000; Montgomery et al., 2013). How does Structured Literacy Support Reading Interventions in Grades 4-9? Understanding that some students may need individual literacy support beyond grades K-3, the importance of reading interventions in grades four and beyond must be considered. The 2019 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reported that over a third of fourth-grade students and a quarter of eighth-grade students read at a level below NAEP Basic. Low reading scores in these grade levels are particularly troublesome when considering that so much of the curriculum in grades 4–9 (and beyond) requires the ability to read and understand increasingly complex texts. To understand the content taught in subject-area classes, students need to engage with and gain information from complex texts (Vaughn et al., 2022). Recent research has demonstrated success in improving the reading level of students in grades 4–9 with reading difficulties. Reading interventions include both supplemental programs provided in addition to regular classroom literacy instruction as part of a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS). Through a five-year longitudinal study, literacy researchers have identified four recommendations for providing students in grades 4-9 with effective reading interventions. These recommendations and implications for teacher use can be found at Educator’s Practice Guide for Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4-9 (Vaughn et al., 2022). For more information about KyMTSS, please visit KyMTSS.org Structured Literacy Webpage References Please reach out to Ashley Hill, Assistant Director of Early Literacy, at [email protected] with any questions.
The thyroid gland is the “master controller” of metabolism. How to recognize a goiter A goiter forms when the thyroid gland attempts to compensate for iodine deficiency and the associated low and/or failed production of thyroid hormones. In this process, it gradually grows from its normal size.1 A person with an immensely enlarged thyroid may have problems swallowing and breathing.3 The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists recommends the so-called “neck check” to help people recognize a possibly enlarged thyroid.4 Simple visual classification can be inaccurate — primarily due to the possibility of human error and variations in individual anatomy (e.g. a muscular neck can conceal an enlarged thyroid) — and should by no means serve as a substitute for a specific diagnosis by a doctor. How to recognize a nodule Thyroid nodules are abnormal overgrowths of tissue in the thyroid gland.5 Some people develop one nodule while others develop many.5 Thyroid nodules are relatively common, with as many as half of all people having at least one nodule by the time they reach the age of 60.5 Just as with goiter formation, the formation of thyroid nodules can be caused by insufficient iodine in the diet.6 Thyroid nodules are classified by scans as “hot”, “warm” or “cold”. If a nodule does not produce iodine then it will appear “cold” on the scan. Those that do produce iodine will show up darker and are called “hot”. Approximately 85% of nodules are cold, 10% are warm and 5% are hot. Of these, 85% of cold nodules are benign (non-cancerous), as are 90% and 95% of warm and hot nodules, respectively.7 Initially, most thyroid nodules do not cause any noticeable symptoms.6 They often go undiscovered until the next routine medical examination or on imaging tests such as computed tomography (CT) scans or neck ultrasound, done for unrelated reasons.6 As the thyroid nodules grow further, the following symptoms can occur (although this is rather rare): Upon the onset of breathing difficulties, , a doctor should be consulted immediately. If you believe that a nodule has formed in your own thyroid gland, you can perform the so-called “neck check”, as set forth by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.4 Diagnosis and treatment Following a simple physical examination by a doctor, a blood sample is taken to determine whether there is a sufficient amount of TSH in the bloodstream.1 This hormone is an indicator of whether the thyroid gland is functioning normally. Ultrasonography (an ultrasound scan) is performed to determine the actual size of the nodules and thyroid gland.1 This scan is completely painless. Other methods for examining nodules include a radioactive iodine scan and fine-needle biopsy.1 How are goiter and nodules treated? Not every goiter and nodule requires treatment.3 Depending on their type and size, their development might merely be regularly observed. In general, there are three treatments. The choice of therapy depends on each individual patient’s diagnosis. The primary aim of treatment is to shrink the enlarged thyroid gland and the nodules. Treatment with medication(s) For goiters and nodules that occur due to an iodine deficiency, iodine supplementation can be given.1 If the goiter is due to Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and you have hypothyroidism, you will be given the appropriate medication to restore your thyroid hormone levels to normal.1 When goiters and nodules are accompanied by hyperthyroidism (e.g. as in the case with “hot” nodules), additional medications are prescribed.1,7 Radioiodine is administered on a one-off basis, in the form of a pill. It enters the thyroid gland via the bloodstream, where it is stored — and prompts the shrinkage of the thyroid tissue due to short-range radiation.3 If a thyroid nodule is detected, one treatment involves removing the whole thyroid gland via surgery. In addition, the thyroid gland can be partially or completely removed if a goiter or nodules are causing immense discomfort. Following such a procedure, treatment with substitution therapy is required to replace thyroid hormone production.3 Regardless of the particular therapy — and also to help prevent thyroid disorders — you should always ensure adequate iodine intake in your diet. Date of preparation: February 2022
NAPLAN online reading, numeracy and conventions of language use a tailored test design. The tests automatically adapt to a student’s test performance and ask questions that match the student’s achievement level. Tailored testing allows all students to demonstrate their knowledge and encourages students to stay engaged with the test. Tailored testing also provides teachers and schools access to more targeted and detailed information on students’ performance in the assessment. Reading and numeracy test design Students at each year level start with the same set of questions (testlet A). Each student’s answers in testlet A will determine the questions they see in the second testlet. These may be less complex (B) or more complex (D). The student’s answers in the second testlet will determine the difficulty of questions in the final testlet: highest complexity (F), average complexity (E), lowest complexity (C). Students who receive a low score for testlet A move directly to testlet C and then complete testlet B. NAPLAN results for each student are based on both the number and difficulty of the questions the student answered correctly. A student who completes a more complex set of questions is more likely to achieve a higher score, while a student who answers the same number of questions correctly, but follows a less complex pathway, will achieve a lower score. Within the 3 testlets, the Years 7 and 9 numeracy test includes 2 sections: non-calculator and calculator. The online calculator is available to students after completing the non-calculator section of the test. Students will be advised that they cannot return to the non-calculator section once they move to the calculator section. Conventions of language test design The conventions of language test includes a spelling section and a grammar and punctuation (G&P) section, each with 2 branching points. A message will inform students that they cannot return to the spelling section once they move to G&P. In reading, numeracy and conventions of language, branching messages (PDF 2 MB) between testlets advise students whether they may go back to previous testlets to change their answers, or not. Changing answers will not affect their branching but will affect their final score. Benefits of tailored testing: more precise measurement of student performance and greater differentiation of students, achieved by asking a wider range of questions without adding to the length of the test for each individual student increased student engagement because the tests adapt to the student’s test performance lower levels of discouragement among students who experience difficulty early in the test, as they are given questions of lower complexity, more suited to their performance. High-achieving students are given more challenging questions potential to reduce anxiety in students who find NAPLAN challenging a wider range of aspects of the curriculum can be tested. While each student will answer the same number of questions as in the paper tests, the number of questions that may be presented to students is larger.
“Let’s make sure women and girls can shape the policies, services and infrastructure that impact all our lives. And let’s support women and girls who are breaking down barriers to create a better world for everyone.” — UN Secretary-General, António Guterres International Women’s Day is an opportunity to consider how to accelerate the 2030 Agenda, building momentum for the effective implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, especially goal number 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls; and number 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning. Some key targets of the 2030 Agenda - By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes. - By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education. - End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere. - Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation. - Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation
How to delete a variable in Python In this tutorial, we will show you how to delete a variable in Python using different methods. Hello and welcome to this beginner’s tutorial on how to delete a variable in Python. Deleting a variable can be useful in order to free up memory and avoid naming conflicts. In this tutorial, we will show you how to delete a variable in Python using different methods. Method 1: Using the del statement The most common way to delete a variable in Python is to use the del statement. The del statement removes the reference to the object, which can then be garbage collected if there are no other references to it. To delete a variable using the del statement, simply specify the name of the variable that you want to delete, like this: x = 5 del x This will delete the variable x from the current namespace. You can also delete multiple variables at once by separating them with commas: x = 5 y = "hello" del x, y This will delete the variables x and y from the current namespace. Method 2: Using the globals() or locals() functions Another way to delete a variable in Python is to use the globals() or locals() functions. These functions return a dictionary of the current global or local namespace, respectively. To delete a variable using globals() or locals(), you can use the del statement on the dictionary, like this: x = 5 globals()['x'] = None This will set the variable x to None in the global namespace, effectively deleting it. In this tutorial, we have shown you two different ways to delete a variable in Python. Remember that deleting a variable can have unintended consequences, so make sure you are not deleting a variable that is still needed by your code. As always, test your code and make sure it works as expected. Keep practicing and have fun with Python programming!
REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS General comment No. 25 - Chapter IX: Children with disabilities and chapter X: Health and welfare IX. Children with disabilities The digital environment opens new avenues for children with disabilities to engage in social relationships with their peers, access information and participate in public decision-making processes. States parties should pursue those avenues and take steps to prevent the creation of new barriers and to remove existing barriers faced by children with disabilities in relation to the digital environment. Children with different types of disabilities, including physical, intellectual, psychosocial, auditory and visual disabilities, face different barriers in accessing the digital environment, such as content in non-accessible formats, limited access to affordable assistive technologies at home, school and in the community and the prohibition of the use of digital devices in schools, health facilities and other environments. States parties should ensure that children with disabilities have access to content in accessible formats and remove policies that have a discriminatory impact on such children. They should ensure access to affordable assistive technologies, where needed, in particular for children with disabilities living in poverty, and provide awareness-raising campaigns, training and resources for children with disabilities, their families and staff in educational and other relevant settings so that they have sufficient knowledge and skills to use digital technologies effectively. States parties should promote technological innovations that meet the requirements of children with different types of disabilities and ensure that digital products and services are designed for universal accessibility so that they can be used by all children without exception and without the need for adaptation. Children with disabilities should be involved in the design and delivery of policies, products and services that affect the realization of their rights in the digital environment. Children with disabilities may be more exposed to risks, including cyberaggression and sexual exploitation and abuse, in the digital environment. States parties should identify and address the risks faced by children with disabilities, taking steps to ensure that the digital environment is safe for them, while countering the prejudice faced by children with disabilities that might lead to overprotection or exclusion. Safety information, protective strategies and public information, services and forums relating to the digital environment should be provided in accessible formats. Digital technologies can facilitate access to health services and information and improve diagnostic and treatment services for maternal, newborn, child and adolescent physical and mental health and nutrition. They also offer significant opportunities for reaching children in disadvantaged or vulnerable situations or in remote communities. In situations of public emergency or in health or humanitarian crises, access to health services and information through digital technologies may become the only option. Children reported that they valued searching online for information and support relating to health and well-being, including on physical, mental and sexual and reproductive health, puberty, sexuality and conception. Adolescents especially wanted access to free, confidential, age-appropriate and non-discriminatory mental health and sexual and reproductive health services online. States parties should ensure that children have safe, secure and confidential access to trustworthy health information and services, including psychological counselling services. Those services should limit the processing of children’s data to that which is necessary for the performance of the service and should be provided by professionals or those with appropriate training, with regulated oversight mechanisms in place. States parties should ensure that digital health products and services do not create or increase inequities in children’s access to in-person health services. States parties should encourage and invest in research and development that is focused on children’s specific health needs and that promotes positive health outcomes for children through technological advances. Digital services should be used to supplement or improve the in-person provision of health services to children. States parties should introduce or update regulation that requires providers of health technologies and services to embed children’s rights within the functionality, content and distribution thereof. States parties should regulate against known harms and proactively consider emerging research and evidence in the public health sector, to prevent the spread of misinformation and materials and services that may damage children’s mental or physical health. Measures may also be needed to prevent unhealthy engagement in digital games or social media, such as regulating against digital design that undermines children’s development and rights. States parties should encourage the use of digital technologies to promote healthy lifestyles, including physical and social activity. They should regulate targeted or age-inappropriate advertising, marketing and other relevant digital services to prevent children’s exposure to the promotion of unhealthy products, including certain food and beverages, alcohol, drugs and tobacco and other nicotine products. Such regulations relating to the digital environment should be compatible and keep pace with regulations in the offline environment. Digital technologies offer multiple opportunities for children to improve their health and well-being, when balanced with their need for rest, exercise and direct interaction with their peers, families and communities. States parties should develop guidance for children, parents, caregivers and educators regarding the importance of a healthy balance of digital and non-digital activities and sufficient rest. X. Health and welfare The whole document is available as a pdf-file herePrevious chapter Table of content
Why Cats Can See So Well In The Dark And We Can’t For those of us who have cats in our lives, it doesn’t take much to understand just how well they can see in the dark. Has anyone else been woken before sunrise by the sound of earrings being delicately nudged off their bed stand by a certain bored feline, or more recently by the sound of Christmas ornaments jangling on the tree in the middle of the night? It’s no secret that cats do well in the dark, but why? And why do we need to feel around blindly for our beds when we turn off the lights, while our cats can do parkour off every piece of furniture in pitch black? To start, let’s talk about the core differences between what cats see and what humans see. Simply put, humans can see more vibrant colors and further distances during the day, while cats have a wider field of view, wider peripheral vision, and of course, much better night vision than their human counterparts. Now let’s get into why. When it comes to night vision specifically, cats have six to eight times more rod cells, which are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are more sensitive to light. The elliptical shape of the cat eye, as well as its large corneas and tapetum help cats gather more light information in the dark. We’ve all heard of corneas, which are the clear surfaces at the front of the eye that allow light into the eye, but in case “tapetum” is not part of your everyday vernacular, tapetum cells reflect light back to the photoreceptors, creating a second pass at picking up small amounts of light available in dark settings. It is the tapetum that gives the cat eye the appearance of a reflector at night. All of these specialized features evolved to aid our feline friends in expertly hunting small prey when they are at their most active - at dusk and dawn when lighting is not at its prime. But this advantage comes at a price. Cats may have more rod cells helping them see clearly at night, but humans have more (and varied) cone cells, which are photoreceptor cells that work best in light. This means humans can see further distances much more clearly and vibrantly during the day. So while cats may (literally) run circles around us at night, at least we can console ourselves with the fact that the human eye can behold vibrant colors and see for great distances. That’s something I’m sure few of us would opt to give up in exchange for a little night vision.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder, Colorado is home to the world’s most accurate clock — but not for long. Chinese inventors recently announced they have created their own Cold Atomic Clock that would be both smaller and three times more accurate than the clock at NIST. Designed for space, the new Chinese clock fits comfortably in the trunk of a car and would only lose a second every billion years. The U.S. clock stands more than 2.5 meters high and loses just one second of accuracy every 300 million years. Atomic clocks use the vibrations of molecules to track time at a precise interval. However, clock precision tends to deteriorate after a few hours because atoms are dispersed in the high-pressure gas, altering their frequency. Cold atom clocks don’t use gases, making them up to 1,000 times more accurate. The cold atomic clock at NIST uses one million rubidium atoms, cooled with lasers and trapped in a magnetic field. The atoms are then stimulated by near-infrared lasers above and below. The two frequencies of light generated by the lasers cause the atoms to oscillate between energy states. But atoms are also distracted by gravity. By launching its clock into space, the Chinese clock will avoid the negative pull exerted by gravity, increasing the accuracy of the clock dramatically. “It is the world’s first cold atomic clock to operate in space … it will have military and civilian applications,” Professor Xu Zhen, a scientist involved with the Cacs project, told South China Morning Post. China’s satellite navigation network has lagged by U.S. GPS systems in precision for years, but the space clock would dramatically increase its performance. The technology will be essential to the launch of its Tiangong-2 Space Lab. Federal budget cuts killed plans in the U.S. for a similar project. China’s ambitious plans (and funding) to be the new leader in space exploration has drawn an increasing number of foreign scientists, Professor Wu Bobing, a researcher with the Institute of High Energy Physics in Beijing, told South China Morning Post. While the advancement has important implications for China’s quickly growing space program, the country is still far behind its European peers in space travel. The country plans to launch its first full-sized international space station by 2022.
We've covered a lot of ground, so it's worth taking some time to review. We'll look here at a few applications of probability drawn from physics, meteorology, and even tennis! The problems in this quiz put the concepts of conditional probabilities, equally likely events, and counting outcomes to good use. As our intro to probability winds down, we'll also get a sense of what things are coming up in the future. Most scientists reject the status quo if a test result deviates from the mean by more than standard deviations. In other words, if a result is at least two standard deviations away from the mean, it is deemed as significantly far from the mean. The result can be rejected on the basis that it is a "bad" sample. The probability of a good sample significantly far from its mean (at least 2 standard deviations away) is Physicists working with particles at the Large Hadron Collider, however, have stricter requirements. They only reject the status quo if a test result deviates from the mean by more than standard deviations. If the status quo is actually correct, the probability of this occurrence by chance in the normal distribution is approximately . Physicists at the Large Hadron Collider are how many times less likely to incorrectly reject the status quo compared to most scientists? A weather forecast model predicts a 60% chance of rain in a specific area for a certain day. It does not rain in that area during that day. Which of these conclusions about the forecast model is the most reasonable? A: With a 60% chance of rain, it should have at least rained a little bit. B: The weather forecast model was flawed, and needs to be corrected for the future. C: It cannot be concluded from a single day of data whether the forecast model is accurate or not. In WWII, enemies would engage in plane-to-plane aerial combat. Unsurprisingly, many planes were lost to crashes; if a bullet strikes a plane in a sensitive area, it's very hard to make it back to base. For the planes that did come back, the mechanics kept track of the location of bullet holes in the fuselage, so that they could reinforce the planes in the most vulnerable locations. For American planes, the bullet holes on returning planes were distributed as follows: (Assume all parts are shot at with roughly equal frequency.) Where should the mechanics reinforce planes so that more of them come back safely? In a certain game of tennis, Alex has a 60% probability to win any given point against Blake. The player who gets to 4 points first wins the game, and points cannot end in a tie. What is Alex's probability to win the game? Try to use your intuition, rather than making a calculation. Which of the following statements is the best comparison between the probabilities used in weather forecasting and the probabilities used to describe dice rolls and coin flips? A: Weather probabilities are completely subjective measures of likelihood, while the probabilities of dice rolls and coin flips are completely objective measurements of likelihood. B: Weather probabilities, like the probabilities of dice rolls and coin flips, are based on objective methods and measurements. However, the probabilities of dice rolls and coin flips can be tested over many trials of the same controlled experiment, while weather probabilities cannot be tested in the same way. C: The outcome of future weather behaves just like the outcome of the roll of a die. There are a set of weather outcomes that are each equally likely, and one of those outcomes is chosen at random. Real life is random, and we often have to make decisions and judgments based on limited information. Probability is one of the best mathematical tools available for navigating our uncertain world. We touched on some of the fundamental ideas, but we need to put probability on firm ground. In the next series of quizzes, we'll learn all the basic rules at the heart of probabilistic calculations.
Geothermal fields are formed when water from Earth’s surface is able to seep through faults and cracks within rock, sometimes to depths of several kilometers, to reach hot regions within the crust. As the water is heated is rises naturally back toward the surface by a process of convection and may appear there again in the form of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, or hot mud holes. These are particularly common along tectonic plate boundaries. Sometimes the route of the ascending water is blocked by an impermeable layer of rock. Under these conditions the hot water collects underground within the porous rock beneath the impermeable barrier. This water can reach a much higher temperature than the water that emerges at the surface naturally. Temperatures as high as 350 oC have been found in such reservoirs. This geothermal fluid can be accessed by boring through the impermeable rock. Steam and hot water will then flow upwards through the borehole under pressure and can be used at the surface. Most of the geothermal fields that are known today have been identified by the presence of hot springs. In the United States, Italy, New Zealand, and many other countries the springs led to prospecting using boreholes drilled deep into the earth to locate the underground reservoirs of hot water and steam that were feeding them. More recently, geological exploration techniques have been used to try and locate underground geothermal fields where no hot springs exist. Sites in Imperial Valley in southern California have been found in this way. Some geothermal fields produce simply steam, but these are rare. Larderello in Italy and the Geysers in California are the main fields of this type in use today though others exist in Mexico, Indonesia, and Japan. More often the field will produce either a mixture of steam and hot water or hot water alone, often under high pressure. All three can be used to generate electricity. Deep geothermal reservoirs, as much as 2 km or more below the surface, produce fluid at the highest temperature. Typically, they will produce water with a temperature of 120–350 oC. High-temperature reservoirs of this type are the best for power generation, and the higher the temperature, the more energy can be extracted by a turbine. Shallower reservoirs may be a little as 100 m below the surface. These are cheaper and easier to access but the water they produce is cooler, often less than 150 oC. This can still be used to generate electricity but is more often used for heating. The fluid emerging from a geothermal reservoir, at a high temperature and usually under high pressure, contains enormous quantities of dissolved minerals such as silica, boric acid, and metallic salts. Quantities of hydrogen sulfide and some carbon dioxide are often present too. The concentrated brine from a geothermal borehole is often corrosive and if allowed to pollute local groundwater sources can become an environmental hazard. This problem can be avoided if the brine is reinjected into the geothermal reservoir after heat has been extracted from it. Geothermal reservoirs are all of limited extent and contain a finite amount of water and energy. As a consequence, both can become depleted if over- exploited. When this happens either the pressure or temperature (or both) of the fluid from the reservoir declines. In theory, the heat within a subterranean reservoir will continuously be replenished by the heat flow from below. This rate of replenishment may be as high a 1000 MW, though it is usually smaller. In practice, geothermal plants have traditionally extracted the heat faster than it is replenished. Under these circumstances the temperature of the geothermal fluid falls and the practical life of the reservoir is limited. Reinjection of the brine after it has passed through the power plant helps maintain the fluid in a reservoir. However, reservoirs such as the Geysers in the United States where fluid exiting the boreholes is steam have proved more difficult to maintain since the steam is generally not returned after use. This has led to a marked decline in the quantity of heat from the Geysers. In an attempt to correct this, waste water from local towns has been reinjected into the reservoir. Some improvement has been noted. Estimates for the practical lifetime of a geothermal reservoir vary. This is partly because it is extremely difficult to gauge the size of the reservoir. While some may become virtually exhausted over the lifetime of a power plant, around 30 years, others appear able to continue to supply energy for 100 years or more. Better understanding of the nature of the reservoirs and improved management will potentially help maintain them for longer in the future.
Drowning and drowning prevention: what you need to know Drowning can occur quickly and quietly, without any warning noises. Drowning is one of the major causes of death for children under five years. Babies and toddlers are top-heavy, which puts them at higher risk of drowning. If a baby falls into shallow water, they can’t always lift themselves out. In Australia, children under five drown in: - swimming pools - baths and spa baths - rivers, creeks and streams - dams, lagoons and lakes. Children also drown in less obvious locations, like nappy buckets, water tanks, water features and fish ponds – even pets’ water bowls. For every toddler who dies from drowning in Australia, approximately seven other children are hospitalised from drowning incidents. Some of these incidents result in severe brain damage. To stay safe around water, your child needs close and constant adult supervision. It’s also vital to teach your child about water hazards as well as how to swim. Water safety for kids: the basics It’s important to always stay with your child and watch closely whenever they’re near water – even when your child can swim. Supervision means constant visual contact with your child and keeping your child within arm’s reach at all times. You should be in a position to respond quickly, whether you’re at the beach or the swimming pool, near dams, rivers and lakes, or at home near the bath or spa. Hold your child’s hand when you’re near waves or paddling in rivers. Supervision is not an occasional glance while you nap, read or do household chores. It’s not watching your children playing outside while you’re inside. It’s always best for an adult, not an older child, to supervise. You should also teach your child about water safety and how to swim from a young age. Many children can learn to swim by the time they’re four or five. First aid is an essential skill for the entire family to learn. If you know how to do CPR and what to do in an emergency, it could save your child’s life. Check out our illustrated guide to CPR for babies under 12 months and our illustrated guide to CPR for children and teenagers. You could print them out and stick them up for easy reference. Water safety around the house The majority of drowning deaths in Australia result from a child falling or wandering into water, particularly into a backyard pool. But a young child can drown in just a few centimetres of water. Here are some tips to prevent drowning and improve water safety around your house: - Remove any containers with water in them from around the house and make sure your child can’t get to any bodies of water, including the bath, on their own. - Use a nappy bucket with a tight-fitting lid and keep the bucket closed, off the floor and out of your child’s reach. - Always empty the baby bath as soon as you’re finished with it so older siblings can’t climb in. - Empty sinks, tubs, buckets, baths, basins, troughs and paddling pools immediately after use. - Secure covers to ponds and birdbaths and cover other water features with wire mesh, or keep them empty until your child is at least five years old. - Keep aquariums and fishbowls out of reach of small children. By law, in most states and territories, all private swimming pools or spas that are 30 cm deep or deeper must have a swimming pool safety fence. This includes inflatable pools that can hold more than 30 cm of water. All swimming pool safety fences must meet Australian Standard 1926 (AS 1926) safety requirements. Remove any objects from your yard that could be used to climb over the swimming pool fence. Water safety around dams, creeks, ponds and tanks Children don’t always understand, apply or remember rules, especially when they’re distracted by play. So a securely fenced, safe play area can be an effective barrier between small children and water hazards. Here are tips to improve water safety around your property: - Fence off the area between the house and any bodies of water. - Teach your child to not go near the dam, creek or water tank without you. - Secure a toddler-proof lid over any water tanks. - Fence off, drain or seal ponds if your children or visiting children are less than five years old. - Make sure there are no trellises, ladders, windows or trees that your child could climb to get into the water tank. On rural properties, a secure play area can prevent your child from wandering near dams, creeks or other bodies of water. FarmSafe Australia recommends a ‘safe play’ area, plus family rules and supervision, as the most effective way to prevent serious injury and death to small children on rural properties. Water safety around beaches, lakes and rivers Here are tips to improve water safety near the ocean, lakes or rivers: - Always stay with your child when they’re playing in or near the sea, lakes or rivers. Hold your child’s hand near waves and when paddling in rivers. - Take your child only to patrolled beaches where surf lifesavers are present, and swim only between the red and yellow flags. - Teach your school-age child what to do if they need help – stay calm, float and raise an arm to signal to a lifeguard or lifesaver.
Jan. 10 (UPI) -- Sangiran, a World Heritage archeological site on the island of Java, is home to dozens of hominin fossils, comprising three different species, including evidence of the earliest hominid migration to Southeast Asia. Until now, scientists have struggled to figure out the precise timing of the hominin migrations that populated Java. New estimates, based on a unique fossil dating survey, suggest Homo erectus, the most successful archaic human, first arrived at Sangiran between between 1.3 and 1.5 million years ago -- some 300,000 years later than previous estimates. Sangiran is one of the most important hominin fossil sites in Southeast Asia, but the site's uncertain chronology has made it hard for scientists to understand the movement of early humans across the region. To more precisely date the arrival of Homo erectus on Java, scientists use a combination of two dating techniques, fission-track and uranium/lead, FT and U/Pb, to determine the age of volcanic zircons located above, below and within the layers containing hominin remains. Both of the methods measure chemical changes inside of zircons, tiny silicon crystals. But because the dating methods are unique, each help ensure the accuracy of the other, narrowing the precision of the final dating estimate. "Zircon U-Pb dates of a volcanic ash layer represent ages when zircon grains had a closed system (around or higher than 900 degrees Celsius) in a magma chamber, that have a range depending on the life of a magma chamber," Masayuki Hyodo, researcher at Kobe University in Japan, told UPI in an email. "Therefore the youngest age of zircon grains provides a constraint to the eruption age of a volcanic ash. On the other hand, fission-track dates of zircon represent an eruption age (this clock starts to work at about 240 degrees Celsius, during cooling after eruption). Therefore U-Pb dates of a volcanic ash layer must be older than or equal to a FT-date." The results of the new dating survey, published this week in the journal Science, suggests Java Man -- the name given to one of the first Homo erectus fossils to be unearthed -- originally came to Sangiran some 1.3 million years ago, 1.5 million years ago at the earliest. Previously, scientists estimated Homo erectus arrived 1.7 million years ago, which complicated attempts to reconcile Sangiran chronology with the dates of other hominin sites in Asia. "Our study revealed the time of beginning of human history in Java," Hyodo said. "Our findings revealed another important thing. Homo erectus fossils in Sangiran are divided into two groups; the older (more primitive) and younger hominin assemblages. The younger assemblage arrived in Java at about 0.9 million years ago." More than just helping researchers understand the movement of archaic hominins through Asia, the latest findings have implications for the evolutionary origins of Homo erectus. The previous date for the species early arrival on Java led some scientists to argue Homo erectus first emerged in Asia. The latest study undermines such a theory. Instead, the new research suggests the species emerged in Africa nearly 2 million years ago, and made its way into Asia over a few hundred thousand years. Moving forward, authors of the new study suggest the revised Sangiran chronology will help scientists better understand the morphological adaptations that characterize different Homo erectus populations. "It would be interesting for paleoanthropologists [to determine] whether the comparative primitive morphology of the Javanese H. erectus of the older chronological group represents primitive retentions or derived features independently acquired in this hominin lineage," Shuji Matsu'ura, researcher at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Japan, told UPI.
Scientists from the Institute of Cancer Research in London and the University of Nice in France have joined together to research new treatments for cancer and they have discovered how cancer spreads. When a protein called JAK becomes switched on, it triggers contractions in tumors which allow cancer cells to squeeze through tiny spaces and spread. Tumors are made up of cancer, tumor-associated healthy cells and a glue that sticks everything together called the cell matrix. After JAK has been activated, a force is produced that is similar to a muscle contraction. This can then move them through the matrix and into other areas. The tumor-associated healthy cells can also use this same force to create tunnels that the tumor cells can move down. The study authors wrote, “Proinflammatory cytokines are frequently observed in the tumor microenvironment, and chronic inflammation is involved in cancer initiation and progression. We show that cytokine signaling through the receptor subunit GP130-IL6ST and the kinase JAK1 generates actomyosin contractility through Rho-kinase dependent signaling. This pathway generates contractile force in stromal fibroblasts to remodel the extracellular matrix to create tracks for collective migration of squamous carcinoma cells.” There are already drugs that block the action of JAK that are currently in development so the researchers’ idea is to formulate a new treatment that will stop JAK’s ability to cause contractions and thereby halt the spread of cancer. Lead author Professor Chris Marshall, from the Institute of Cancer Research said, “There’s an urgent need to understand how tumours can spread from their site of origin, for example the skin, to other tissues, such as the lungs, liver and bone where the disease becomes more difficult to treat successfully. “We’ve shown that the same protein called JAK triggers tumour spread via two different routes – it generates the force needed for cancer cells to move around the body and also for triggers healthy cells in tumours to create furrows in tissues down which cancer cells move. “Encouragingly drugs that block JAK are already in development to stop the growth of tumours. Our new study suggests that such drugs may also stop the spread of cancer.” 90 percent of cancer deaths occur when cancer spreads to other areas of the body, in a process known as metastasis, and the body is then overwhelmed. Finding out how the cancer spreads is an important breakthrough because it makes it easier to stop. Dr Lesley Walker, from Cancer Research UK, said, “Discovering how cancer cells can funnel grooves though tissues, to squeeze away from primary tumours and spread to new sites, gives scientists fresh understanding of ways to stop cancer spread - literally in its tracks.” Scientists discover how cancers generate muscle-like contractions to spread around the body, Cancer Research UK. Web. 20 August 2011. http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/news/archive/pressrelease/2011-08-15-cancer-cell-spread?view=rss Cancer Cell - ROCK and JAK1 Signaling Cooperate to Control Actomyosin Contractility in Tumor Cells and Stroma, Cancer Cell. Web. 20 August 2011. http://www.cell.com/cancer-cell/abstract/S1535-6108%2811%2900230-3 Reviewed August 22, 2011 by Michele Blacksberg R.N. Edited by Jody Smith
Forest types may be defined as:- “Unit of vegetation which possesses broad characteristics in physiognomy and structure sufficiently pronounced to permit of its different from other such units”. Important Note: The Spellings of Botanical Names of Species need careful consideration. To check any correct spelling, just type it in google and you will see the correct spellings in Google Suggestions. Temperature is a very important factor of climate in relation to forest types and it can be related to latitude giving a rough differentiation into four zones:- i. TROPICAL:- Very hot and winterless ii. SUB-TROPICAL:- Hot with cool winter iii. TEMPERATE: – Warm summer and a pronounced winter. iv. ARTIC: – Short summer and long winter. On the basis of temperature data Pakistan can be divided into the following zones:- TEMPERATURE ZONES OF PAKISTAN: M.A. JANUARY TEMPERATURE OVER 75 F Over 60 f None no frost DEFINITE BUT NOT SEVER, FROST RARE PRONOUNCED WITH FROST SOME SNOW UNDER 50 F UNDER 30 F SEVERE WITH MUCH SNOW CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST TYPES:- The possible bases for classification put forward by FOSBERG 1958 are least seven viz; It is ordinarily taken to include characters such as Evergreen or Deciduous habit and such structural or functional features as are associated with very dry (XEROMORPJIC) or very wet (HYDROMORPHIC) sites. It means three factors; Stratification indicates single storey, two storey or three storey forests. Dimension means classification according to height and diameter of trees. Spacing stands for dense forest and open forest. Common morphological characters of species occurring together with some being evidently related to site conditions e.g. Lifeform, Buttressing, Bark Form, Leaf size, and Cauliflory. This basis as most objective and definite. But apart from difficulties of identification, it observes the relationships between the vegetation of different floristics region. However, floristic characters are useful for designation of subordinate units within a type and are often used for the ultimate units of classification. It deals with the plant succession. This means a change of vegetation from unstable to stable form with a change of soil and climate even when an equilibrium appears to have been reached, it only applies to the community as a whole. Changes occur due to the soil, climate and climax types i.e. Pioneer types, Seral types, Sub-climax and climax types. The climax type may be Edaphic, climax, (Men and animals action), pyric climax (due to fire). Climate and soil moisture are part of nearly all classifications no classification has yet been put forward based solely on habitat factors. The moisture of the soil and reaction between it and the vegetation it supports obviously play an important role e.g. Physiography is patently important in the occurrence and distribution of forest types. The vegetation is the best and usually the only obtainable indication of the climate. The history of a site and vegetation on it are often of the present importance in determining its resent condition and potentialities. DANSEREAUI, 1951 have developed method “collection of data for classification” recording the features of vegetation. These of such methods facilities comparisons and mapping. In 1964 SKS introduced Qualitative methods of studying Forest Types of Pakistan. History tells us the status of forests on any particular sites e.g. i. In Attock, there were thick Olea cuspidate and Acacia modesta forests but there are no such Forests except Prosopis and Acacia modesta. ii. In Kashmir, there was Oak Forest but now there is Chir pine. WHY IS CLASSIFICATION NECESSARY? NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION WHY ARE FORESTS CLASSIFIED? Classification of vegetation is important for the following needs and reasons; 1. It is an aid to recognize soil type. 2. It helps in the choice of species for afforestation. 3. It is an aid to recognize Climatic conditions. 4. It facilitates the selection of Silvicultural systems. 5. It is easy for controlling and administrating the Forest area for protection and production. 6. It facilitates the Watershed Management. 7. It helps us to understand the Evolutionary trend. 8. We should be able to correlate the vegetation with climate. 9. It facilitates the selection of Silvicultural operations. FOREST TYPES OF PAKISTAN:- 1. Tropical Littoral and Swamp Forest (Mangrove Forest). 2. Tropical Thorn Forest. 3. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest. 4. Sub-Tropical Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forest. 5. Sub-Tropical pine forest. 6. Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest. 7. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest. 8. Sub-Alpine Forest. 9. Alpine Scrub Forest. 10. Riverain Forest. 11. Irrigated plantations 12. Linear Plantations i. Roadside Plantations. ii. Railway track Plantations. iii. Canalside Plantations. I. TROPICAL THORN FOREST:- 1) Forests in which thorny usually HARDWOOD species predominate. 2) Trees have short bole and low branching crowns and usually, height is up to 20-30 feet. 3) The leaves are small except Salvadora and caloptropis. 4) There is a lower story of smaller trees and large shrubs. 5) Heavy browsing, especially by Goat and Camel, is universal. 6) Cutting of trees for fuelwood has reduced the vegetation to scrub form with scattered lopped trees. 7) Regeneration by root suckers is common. 1) Mean annual temperature varies from 750F to 800F. 2) Mean annual rainfall is from 30″ down to 5″ with variation from year to year. 3) Even this small quantity tends to come in the form of heavy showers and most of it lost as surface run-off. 4) Forest occurs as far south as sakrand. 1) The species belong to “XEROPHYTE FAMILY” which survive in the shortage of water in desert regions 2) They produce very deep and extensive roots they penetrate in the soil up great distance and get some moist in the dry seasons 3) In the dry season, they shed their leaves for reducing the water losses. SOME SPECIES OF THE XEROPHYTE:- 1) Acacia nilotica 2) Zizyphus mauratina 3) Zizyphus nummularia 4) Tamrix aphylla 5) Tamrix articulate 6) Prosopis spicigera 7) Prosopis cineraria 8) Salvadora oleoides 9) Acacia modesta 10) Acacia Senegal 11) Capparis aphylla (shrub) 12) Tecoma undulate 13) Acacia leucophlea 14) Acacia leucophlea 15) Calatropis Spp. 16) Spicara Spp. SAND DUNAL TRACTS ARE OVERGROWTH BY SPECIES (shrubs):- PREVALENT GRASSES ARE:- 1) The Tropical Thorn forests of Pakistan are located in the desert areas 90 percent plants of Punjab and Sindh are arid or semi-arid and having tropical thorn forests 2) These forests in the deserts of: 3) Thal deserts 4) Cholistan Nara desert 5) Thapparker desert Kharan deserts are found THE THAL DESERT Present between the planes of river Indus and river Jehlam this area is known is Sindh sagar doab Areas included are: 5) Sands are found everywhere 6) Rainfall is drastically low 7) Dust storms are frequent 8) A huge percentage of this area has been irrigated with canal water but still a vast area is barren land THE CHOLISTAN DESERT Found along the southern border area of Bahawalnagar It is the part of Rajistan district which is situated adjacent to it in India Thorny bushes and scattered dunes can be seen everywhere THE NARA DESERT The southern border area of Khanpur is Sindh is having a desert region known as Nara The driest part of Pakistan Sand dunes and thorny bushes scattered everywhere THE THARPARKER DESERT Located at the border area of Mirpurkhas and sanshar Is also the part of Rajistan desert in India. Categorized as the driest part of Pakistan The problem of salinity is at peak Huge sand dunes and thorny bushes nothing can be seen there Nomads living 22000 families Rs 3per cattle per annum for grazing known “TIRNI” THE KHARAN DESERT Located in the province of Balochistan Kharan desert is very near to the Afghan border so many afghan along with their sheep, goats, cattle enter in these areas A severe shortage of rainfall in barren land under climatic conditions are very severe Faced with droughts Having severed and long summer No irrigation facilities Very low percentage of the total area is under management i.e. only 3.5% These forests are managed under Clear felling silvicultural system The whole of the trees in the specified block for felling and regeneration are felled in one installment and is followed by obtaining natural or artificial regeneration Nomads should be controlled Sand dunes stabilization is a must II. TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS:- 1) An open rather low forest 2) Composed almost entirely of deciduous trees and a few trees of the thorn forest type with a predominantly deciduous shrub layer 3) There is no extensive occurrence of forests in Pakistan 4) The forest is subjected to repeated ground fires 5) Grazing and browsing are heavy, close to habitation 6) The forest adjoins the dry subtropical and also the subtropical pine forest 1) Elevation 1500_3000 foothills 2) The MAT is about 70F 3) MA Rainfall is between 20_40 inches 4) The forest is borne on sandstone, shale, and limestone 5) The forest occurs at suitable elevation merging Downwards with the tropical thorn forest and Upward with the subtropical Pine forest 6) Precipitation receive in July and August and again in the January and February but erratic 7) There is a long period of drought 1) Scrub forests of Pabbi hills (KPK) 2) Kharian (Gujrat) 3) Margalla hills (Islamabad) 4) Kalachitta (Attock) hills 5) Also located in patches on small hills in KPK, AJK and Balochistan==Quetta. Kalat division 7) Lower slopes of Himalaya 8) Salt range 9) Suleman range 10) Hazara hills 1) Acacia modesta and Olea cuspidate are the dominant trees of this type of forest 2) Olea ferruginea 3) Ziziphus mauritiana III. DRY SUB-TROPICAL BROAD-LEAVED FOREST: 1. Commonly these are known as scrub forest 2. These scrub forest occur at height of 1500 to 3000 feet 3. Sub-humid, subtropical climate 4. The terrains of these forests are hilly 5. The trees and shrubs are mostly thorny and evergreen but some are not thorny e.g. 6. Olea cuspidate 7. Pome granata 8. They produce small timber, fuelwood, and fodder, roof, Handicraft, Handles Tools and Rural cots 9. Conspicuous erosion, Gullies and deep ravines. 1. M.A.T is 700 up to 800F with high summer temperature reaching 110F or even more than marked cold season 2. Forest is usual but may occur 3. The annual rainfall is about 35″ or less 4. Short monsoon period of only three months. - Soil==> Recent deposit at the foothills with light sandy soil. 1. Acacia modesta 2. Acacia catechu 3. Bauhinia verigata 4. Cacia fistula 5. Bombox ceiba 6. Zizypus mauritiana 7. Sterculia villosa 8. Terminalia beterica 9. Flecourtia indica 10. Punica granatum 11. Ficus carica 12. Dalbergia sissoo 14. Dondonea viscosa 1. Rawalpindi foothills 2. Murree= Kuhuta hills 3. Jhelum valley 4. Outer Mangla hills 5. Lehtar and Nurpur Shahan IV. SUB-TROPICAL CHIR PINE FORESTS SUB-TROPICAL CHIR FORESTS 1. Open inflammable pine forests are evergreen 2. There is heavy Neel fall in the may 3. Chir forests occupy generally between 3000-5500 feet 4. The forest occurs on slopes of rocky mountains, hence its soils is well drained and often dry 5. The tree are mostly needle heaving high rate of transpiration 6. Some broad-leaved species are also associated 7. Chir from the top major parts of the top canopy 8. It normally attains the height of 120 feet, heaving girth of 7-8 feet 9. Pine canopy has an even-aged cover 10. Usually catch fire in summer 11. In depression, evergreen Quercus incana (oak) and some deciduous plants grow 12. Shrubs are few 13. Herba and greenness occur in monsoon 1. Mean annual temperature lies between 600 F – 700F 2. Rainfall varying 30-50 mainly derived from the southwestern monsoon, falling in July and August but there is appreciable spring falling as well 3. Sandstone and limestone are abundant in soil 4. There is small overlap with Pinus wallichiana at the upper limit 1. Chir form the major canopy i.e. Pinus roxburgii 2. Quercus incana 3. Pyrus pashia 4. Pistacia integrima 5. Lyonia ovali 6. Rhododenron arboretum 7. Zyzygium cummini 8. Xylosoma longifolium 9. Quercus glauca 10. Mallotus philippinesis 11. Ficus spp 12. Olea cuspidate 13. Grevea oppositifolia SHRUBS GROWTH ARE: 1. Myrsine Africana 7. Wood fordia 8. Berberis lysium Ø Hetropogon contortous PROBLEMS IN THESE FORESTS: 1. Summer heavy fire 2. Uncontrolled continuous grazing/browsing 3. Excessive fuelwood collection 4. Shifting cultivation 9. Dir lower 11. Lower hills of Murree and Kahuta 12. Valley of Azad Jammu Kashmir 13. Gadoon Mardan District 1. PRODUCTIVE ROLE Ø Timber, fuelwood, fodder 2. ENVIRONMENTAL ROLE Ø Produce oxygen Ø Sink CO2 Ø Making environment fresh and healthy Ø Reduce global warming 3. PROTECTIVE ROLE Ø Soil and water conservation 4. STRATEGICAL ROLE Ø Forest belt stretched in A.J.K, Army commandos hide in it and have a strict eye on an enemy army Ø Aesthetic role § It extends along the Himalayas between the chir pine forests and alpine forests § It is divided into two types i. Himalayan Moist temperate forests ii. Himalayan Dry temperate forests V. HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FOREST CHARACTERISTICS AND LOCALITY FOREST 1. It is found on hills at an altitude between 4500 to 10,000 feet. 2. It is coniferous forests with tree varying from 100 to 150 feet in height. 3. The mat is 560F. 4. M.A. rainfall in 57 inches. 5. Precipitation is derived from the south-west monsoon (July – September) while winter rainfall is due to northwestern disturbance. Mostly the winter precipitation is in the form of snow. Ø These forests are the Pakistan’s most important watersheds of Mangla and Tarbela lakes. 6. The soil is loamy and acidic due to being humus rich. 7. Conifers mostly occur on the slopes and tend to avoid hot southern exposures. Growth rate is satisfactory. 8. Moist depression, steep cool slopes and the flatter deep soil carry deciduous broadleaved species. 9. All species are capable of attaining considerable girth of 4.5 meter or more. 10. Winters are long and severely cold. Summers are short. 11. Snow and hail storms during winters are common. 12. The forest vegetation is dense. * Kail and deodar are typical dominant coniferous trees. The chief coniferous species in Moist Temperate Forests are:- 1. Pinus wallichina 2. Cedrus deodara 3. Picea smithiana 4. Abies pindrow 5. Taxus bacata * Broadleaved species are: 1. Quercus incana 2. Quercus dilatata 3. Quercus semicarpifolia 4. Quercus ilex 5. Juglans regia (Walnut) 6. Acer caesium (Maple) 7. Aesculus indica (Horse Chestnut) 8. Populous ciliata 9. Salix babylonica 10. Alnus nitida 11. Ulmus wallichina 12. Pyrus pPashia 13. Pyrus malus 14. Pyrus communis 15. Farxinuls Spp. 16. Prunus padus * Shrubs => Common shrubs are: 1. Berberis lysium 2. Indigofera spp. 3. Viburnum spp. 4. Rubus spp. 5. Rhododendron arboreum 2. Hedera Nepalensis. * Ferns, on the moist soil and rocks. DISTRIBUTION/ LOCATIONS/ AREAS: These forests occur in: 1. Tehsil Murree. 2. Abbottabad District. 3. Mansehra District. 4. Gallies e.g. Ayubia. 5. Kaghan valley. 6. Swat District. 7. Dir-Upper District. 8. A.J.K => Leepa Valley 11. Shangla District => Alpuri Tehsil 12. Tribal Areas (FATA) VI. THE HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS: 1. These are found in mountain ranges beyond the effective reach of the summer monsoon. 2. Elevation ranging from 5000 to 10,000 feet extending to 11,000 on southerly aspect. 3. The foliage is grayish and small-leaved aromatic shrubs predominant notably: i. Artemisia spp. ii. Rosa spp. iii. Ephedra is highly aromatic. iv. Caragana spp. v. Prunus spp. 4. Receive winter precipitation in the form of rain and snow. 5. Mean annual temperature is 600F or 60C to 160C. 6. The mean annual rainfall varies from 13 to 20 inches. 7. The depth of snowfall lays between 1.5 to 6.2 meter. 8. The summers are mild and short. 9. Winters are long and severely cold. Snow and hail storms are common. 10. Rock avalanches and snow slides are common occurrence. Ø These forests are coniferous forests. Ø The vegetation of this forests is if small to medium height predominately on drier sites. Ø The ground vegetation of this forest is also found there in aromatic fashion. * Species are: 1. Cedrus deodara 2. Pinus geradiana 3. Juniperous macropoda (pencil juniper) 4. Juniperous excelsa 5. Pinus wallichina 6. Picea smithana 7. Quercus ilex 8. Fraxinus spp. 9. Acer spp. * The common shrubs are: 1. Artimisia spp. 2. Aphedra spp. 3. Astralgus spp. 4. Berberies Iysium 5. Punica spp. 6. Rosa spp. 7. Prunus spp. 8. Daphne spp. 9. Lunicera spp. These dry temperate forests are found in locations/ areas: 2. Kaghan Valley 3. Nelum valley (A.J.K) 7. Zhob and district Lora Lai 9. Waziristan (FATA) 10. Diamer – Northern Areas VII. SUB-ALPINE FORESTS: 1. It occurs between 3350 – 3800 meters Throughout the Himalayas from about 11,000 feet to the timber limit or tree limit. 2. M.A.T is 100C or below 00C for 5 to 6 months. Maximum temperature does not exceed than 15.60C. 3. Rainfall ranges between 660mm and 9mm. 4. Snowfall is of greater importance for which a depth of 2 meter and over. 5. Evergreen conifers. 6. The conifers rarely exceed 8 meter in height and broadleaved trees reach about 9 meter. 7. There is a spring flush of herbaceous flowers. 1. Abies spectabilis (High-level form) and Betula utilis are the typical tree species. 2. High-levell Pinus Wallichina may occur on landslips or abandoned clearings. 3. Salix and Pyrus in depressions. (B) Tall shrubs 1. Virurnum and Salix. 2. Evergreen Dwarf Junipers are often abundant communis. 3. Rhododendron Anthopogon. 3. Sorbus Trianshanica. (D) Spring Herbaceous Flowers: DISTRIBUTIONS/ LOCATION/ AREAS: 1. Naltar valley – Gilgit at 12000 feet 2. Kaghan valley – Hazara 3. Thajwas, sonamarg => Kashmir VIII. ALPINE SCRUB: 1. The type ascends normally to 150 meters or more above the sub-alpine forests (About 500 feet or more). 2. Climate must be similar but more severe than in sub-alpine forests. 3. Shrubs formation often forming a quite dense cover 0.6 to 1.8 meter high. Mostly deciduous and small leaves. 4. The stems are generally flexible and adaptive to snow pressure. 5. Due to heavy grazing and browsing a scrub formation in summer. 6. Heavy snowfall is the predominant climatic factor. 7. Heaving alpine pastures/ Meadows. (A) The characteristics genera are: 1. Salix spp. 4. Occasionally Junipers dwarf Rhodendron or Ephedra. (B) Grasses includes: 1. Poageus spp. 2. Draba Trineriva. 3. Polygonum Affine. 4. Saxifrage Sibirica 1. Kashmir (A.J.K) => Dras, Aparwat, Pirpanjal (12000 to 12500 ft). 5. Gilgit => Astor valley 6. Hazara Division. MOIST ALPINE PASTURE 1. Appear natural and extended by heavy summer grazing and are continuous with those of the Sub-Alpine Zone. 2. Shorter growing season. 3. The meallows carry a fairly sward of grasses and other herbs. iii. Fartillar gud IX. RIVERAIN, RIPARIAN, BELA OR INUNDATION FORESTS: 1. These forests are located in the floodplains of major rivers of Pakistan. 2. These forests grow on river banks and land subject to periodical overflow to percolate from rivers. 3. The width of the flooded belt varies from 5 to 10 miles. 4. It is an important serial stage of tropical thorn forest type. 5. Proper management and existence of these forests depends upon on a regular inundation and recharging of sub-soil water. 6. Erosion and deposition are common features => erosion strips. 7. Water is available at shallow depth. 8. Flood water spills over the river banks. The river begins to rise in May and keeps rising up to the end of September. 9. These are restricted on both sides of the river by two continuous earthen embankments (Bunds). Ø In these Bunds, Gates are provided. Ø The area outside the Bunds is called inland while the area inside is termed riverain. 10. Erosion and deposition are constantly in progress. It is estimated that nearly 1/15th of the total area between the banks is eroded and redeposited annually which is known as erosion strips. It is an elongated strip of land which is likely to be eroded in the current year. 1. The vegetation is generally dense and tall. 1. Climate is hot throughout the year. 2. The soil is deep and loamy. 3. Climate is sub-tropical arid. 4. The soil is moist, deep, sandy/silty alluvial. 1. These forests cover about 7% of total forests area of the country. 2. These forests cover an area of almost 3,04,200 hectare in Sindh and Punjab. 3. Ding forest, Sukkur, Sindh. 4. Kabrani forests, Hyderabad Sindh. 5. Riverian tract of the Indus between Muzaffargarh and Hyderabad. a) Flora of Riverian Forests of Punjab: 1. Dalbergia sissoo. 2. Morus alba. 3. Prosopis cineraria. 4. Cannabis sativa. b) Flora of Riverian Forest of Sindh: 1. Acacia nilotica 2. Prosopis spicigera 3. Populous euphratica 4. Tamarix aphylla 5. Tamarix articula 6. Salvadora oledides 7. Zizyphus muratiana 8. Capparis decidua (kareer) 1. Tamarix Dioca. 2. Tamarix Troup 1. Saccharum Munja (Clumps) RIVERIAN FOREST IN PUNJAB SUCCESSION: - The Riparian forest of Punjab is inhabited by: i. Dalbergia sissoo ii. Acacia nilotica iii. Populous euphratica - As we move away from the rivers these trees gradually disappear and replaced by: i. Tamarix dioca ii. Prosopis spicigera iii. Salvadora oledides - Further away the leafless Cappris aphylla appears. - Presently tree becomes sparse and bush like and the landscape gradually merges into Desert. RIVERIAN FOREST, HYDERABAD, SINDH: i. The first stage on new alluvium is Saccharum spontaneum with Erianthus munja. ii. This is followed by: a) Tamarix dioca b) Tamarix troup c) Acacia nilotica iii. This stage is finally succeeded by: a) Prosopis spicigera b) Salvadora oleodies c) Capparis decidua OBJECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF RIVERIAN FORESTS: Production of timber, fuelwood, and Charcoal. These forests are managed under “CLEAR FELLING SILVICULTURAL SYSTEM” accompanied with artificial seeding and regeneration from root-suckers or root-shoot cuttings. REGENERATION OF RIVERIAN FORESTS: (a) In Punjab (b) In Sindh REGENERATION IN PUNJAB: 1. Shisham is the principal species in the Riverian forest of Punjab. 2. Usually, the groundwater is available near the surface. 3. Natural regeneration from root-suckers supplemented by artificial planting blanks stable areas are planted under well known “BELA PLANTING TECHNIQUES” where the water table is high. i. Planting of Shisham stumps at 5×5 meter to 3×3 meter spacing in boat-shaped pits is planted with hand watering from Kacha wells dug in the centre of each 0.4-hectare plot. ii. Rotation is fixed for 60 years. iii. Thinning are done at an interval of 5-6 years up to the age of 30 years and after that thinning cycle is 10 years in good block Bela plantation. REGENERATION OF RIVERAIN FORESTS IN SINDH: 1. The main species in Sindh Reverain forests is Acacia nilotica. 2. Natural Regeneration is supplement by artificial regeneration by broadcasting seeds of Acacia nilotica during the rainy season or in receding flood water. 3. This manual broadcasting of seeds is made through boats by the workers of the forest department with help aerial sowing by the following methods:- i. Pre-Abkalani Sowing ii. Mid-Abkalani Sowing iii. Post-Abkalani Sowing Ø When less quantity of water is expected to be available Ø Sowing is done before floodwater engulfs the area Ø Flood water is expected to remain for a longer period. Ø Strips of 20Km width are marked. Ø When flood waters are receding boats are used to spread out the seed form the boats. Ø Keeping the boat at the centre of the strip the seeds are thrown on either side. Ø Ariel sowing is also done. Ø In those areas where the flood water has left the area completely. Ø Particular areas which are categorized as “KHAUF” area. Ø The width of this belt normally varies from 5 to 10 Km. Ø It is a word of local language means “FEAR” which is supposed to be eroded in coming rainy season by river Indus due to turbulent flow. Here the river flows like a wild Elephant. Ø The width of this belt normally varies from 5 to 10 Km. Ø The government trickily advised the people living in these regions along with the river banks to shift their residences from ‘KHAUF’ areas to avoid damages not only to their valuables but also their lives. PROBLEMS IN RIVERAIN FORESTS: The Riverain forests of Pakistan, in general, those in Sindh has particularly little future due to facing the following problem: Ø Due to the construction of Tarbela dam and a large number of barrages on river Indus and its tributaries have deprived the riverain forests of Sindh for their regular annual flood watering. Ø At present these forests receive floodwater once in a while whenever unusually continuous heavy rains are received in their northern catchments. Ø The presences of a large number of dacoits and outlaws in their forests have brought down forest management to low and stand still level. Ø Timber mafia has also serious threats to the survival of these forests. Ø The ruthless cutting of trees for fuelwood, due to lack of awareness. X. IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS: 1. These forests are outcome of human efforts on sub-marginal lands where irrigation water could be made available. 2. These irrigated plantations were created after clearing 23,000,000 acres of the tropical thorn forests. 3. Irrigated plantation was first started in 1866, 4860 hectares. 4. These plantations are raised over the plains of Pakistan primarily in Punjab and Sindh. 5. Size of such plantations varies from just 200 hectares to 800 hectares. 6. An irrigated plantation depends upon artificial substance from irrigational canals. 7. Man-made forests were established for providing timber, fuelwood for railways, population and sports good. 8. The man-made forests of Punjab alone cover about 3,67,200 acres of land and constitute about 29% of the total forest area of the province. 1. The climate of this plantation in plains is extremely dry and hot. 2. The max temp during summer rises to 1200F. 3. M.A. rainfall is below 10″. 4. Hot, dry, dust-laden winds are a common feature during summer. 5. The soil varies from shifting sand dunes to heavy clay. 6. Kanker pans occur in places, the pH is always well over 7 and the soils are mostly saline often with high sodium content especially in the Bahawalpur and Ghulam Muhammad Barrage areas. 7. The water table remains as follows: Name of Plantation Depth of Ground Water Table When Plantation Was Started Depth of Present ground Water Table 50’ – 57’ ft (1889) 56’ – ft (1913) 26 – 29 ft 50 – 60 ft (1908) 7 – 125 ft 30 ft (1979) 8. In Daphar plantation waterlogged conditions have developed. 9. Inmost plantations irrigation water is available from April to May to the Middle of October. 10. The depth of irrigation requires 9″ deep trenches. 11. The first irrigation to 1foot delta requiring 12 cusecs per acre for an hour should be given to the entire plantation. 12. 12 cusecs is the minimum discharge required for raising 1000 acre of Shisham plantation. This corresponds to about 50″ of rainfall. i. Dalbergia sissoo ii. Acacia nilotica iii. Morus alba iv. Populus deltoides v. Bombox ceiba vi. Melia azedarach vii. Azidrachta indica viii. Leeucaena leucdephala ix. Sesbbania sesbans x. Eucalyptus camaldulensis xi. Populous euramericiana xii. Ailanthus excelsa/Altisima xiii. Albizzia lebbek xiv. Cedrela toona 1. Changa Manga national park 2. Gatwala national park 3. Lal Sohra national park PROBLEMS/ HURDLES OF IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS: 1. Lack of canal water => inadequate water 2. Depictive irrigation system 3. Deposition of silt in channels, reduced water flow and continuous lost to seepage and evaporation. 4. Lack of financial resources i.e. fund => insufficient funds. 5. Deteriorated site conditions due to waterlogging and alkalinity => semi-productive sites. 6. Improper selections of species. 7. Gender mismanagement. 8. The water budgets for irrigated plantations have been erratic and insufficient for normal tree growth. 9. Political interference. 10. The future of these plantations is dark in the 21st Century if managed in the present way. 11. An economic analysis of Chichawatni irrigated tree plantation shows that the total cost of growing trees was Rs. 5456 per Acre and the total income received was Rs. 1659 per acre which made pure high timber forestry an unproductive enterprise. 12. Similar results have been concluded in an economic analysis of kamalia irrigated tree plantation. 13. The Punjab forest department is spending three times more (Rs. 120.6 million) than its earnings to maintain the resources of the meager forest and to pay staff salaries. 14. The productivity is on decline and minus internal rate of return and minus net present value. 15. High degree of theft, illicit grazing and browsing. 16. Cattle trample irrigation channels and young trees. 17. People cut and damage young timber trees for firewood and steal valuable timber. 18. Inability of local staff to act promptly at critical situation. 19. Scattered small 300 irrigated plantations including Chak (village) plantations do not make economic units for intensive management. 20. There is no justification to continue keeping such irrigated forest plantations and riverain forests with minus internal rate of return and minus net present value. IMPROVEMENT / DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS: 1. The Justification to keep such plantations would be for (a) Parks and recreation (b) Growing special purpose wood for the production of industrial product (c) Defense needs 2. Farm forestry/agroforestry should be considered as agroforestry give almost 200 to 300 percent return 3. Call for a complete overhaul of irrigation system 4. Reclaiming saline / water logged soils by planting suitable species 5. Tube wells should be installed 6. Land should be leveled 7. Encouraging active participation of local small farmers in the early stage 8. The scattered small irrigation including Chak plantation should be consolidated 9. The planting of valuable as well as fast-growing species (a) Eucalyptus camaldulensis (b) Populous deltoid (c) Bombax ceiba On 5 – 6 to 12 years rotation can make these forest high profitable It is conservatively estimated that these private irrigation plantations can make form Rs. 20,000 to 50,000 per acre per annum without pail 10. Broadening and scattering marketing system to encourage large number of timber buyer to ensure healthy competition 11. Inspiring dynamism and competence in the field staff / formation 12. Restructuring the whole management system on economic foundation. TROPICAL TIDAL SWAMP FORESTS 1. Mangrove forests grown inter-tidal coastlines, meaning every 24 hours, they are inundated by sea water. 2. The trees have high salt tolerance, Fosses aerial Roots to collect-oxygen. 3. Live in the harsh and unpredictable interference between Land and Sea. 4. Vivipary is usual. 5. Moreover less dense evergreen Forests. 6. Very low average height, often only 2-3 meter. 7. The best patches reach 6-7 height. 8. Mangroves have specially adapted Aerial and Salt filtering Roots and salt existing leaves that enable them to occupy the saline wetlands where other plant cannot survive. 9. The accessible parts are much grazed and topped for fodder and firewood. 10. Lenticels are present on the stem and PNEUMATOPEHORES on the Roots to make the desired oxygen for the growth of mangrove Forests being growing in salty sea water. 11. The Mangrove Forests litter consisting mainly of fallen leaves and branches provide Nutrients for marine Environment and nursery ground for Juvenile Fish, Crabs, Shrimps and mollusks. 12. Mangrove forest are also prime nesting and migratory sites for hundreds of birds and animals species. 13. Mangroves are also useful in treating effluent as the plant absorb excess nitrates and phosphates thereby preventing contaminated of nearshore waters. 14. Mangroves are principal coastal features of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Climates. 15. Mangrove are currently characterised as on open Ecosystem. 16. The Coastal track in Pakistan carries mangrove forests in varying densities of qualities. 1. Mangrove soils are also usually waterlogged and poorly oxygenated. 2. The soft, silty and shall soils provide very little support for a plant to establish itself. 3. They consist mainly of limestone and clay. 4. The soil of the mangrove islands is Alluvium with plenty of clay derived from land drainages and River discharge. It is reach is slats like sodium chloride, sodium carbonate and nitrates with some calcium. 5. The muddy clayey soil is very poor in other mineral substances. 6. The tidal action of sea causes erosion on one side of the creek and Accretion on the other. 7. The soils generally are silty clays, silty clay loams, and very fine sandy loams and usually dark grayish brown, greyish brown or brown. 8. The soils are sticky to very sticky when WET, firm to very firm when moist and hard to very hard when DRY. 9. The pH ranges from 8 to 8.2 and the organic matter content is less then one percent. 10. The entire coastal area of Sindh is included in the warm monsoon climatic region. 11. Average rainfall is 221.2 mm falls in Monsoon season from April to September. 12. January is a cooler month with minimum temperature of 9.50c. 13. Humidity is an important factor in Coastal Region. It is generally higher in morning then in the afternoon. 14. The wind is another important factor of Coastal Region. The speed increases during the day from morning to evening. 15. Salinity of sea water is Relatively high due to Arid climate and less influence of River water.e.g. i. Chin Creek 3.6% observed in July, 1981. ii. Korangi Creek 3.6% observed in October, 1985. iii. Ket Bunder 4.3% observed in July, 1981. iv. Shah Bunder 3-3.60% observed in October, 1985. 1. The mangrove forests 2,57,500 hectares are found in Pakistan, out of which 6,93,032 Acres are in Sindh. They are protected forests having no right. 2. Pakistan is the Seventh largest mangrove forest in the world. 3. The Indus deltic swamp forests are situated: i. From Korngi to chan creek, near Keti Bunder. ii. From mal to seer creek, touching the Indian Border in the Runn of Kuch. 4. Coast of Gawadar 1. Mangroves are considered a Tidal swamp forests by Ecologists and are comparable TROPICAL RAIN Forests on small scale. 2. They are natural forests propagated by PROPAGULES which are dispersed over the area of Islands accessible to Tidal water. 3. There are about 30 species of true mangrove trees and approximately 60 species of associated mangrove plants worldwide. 4. In Indus delta, so far only Eight species have been reported listed below:- i. Arecinnia marina ii. Rhizophora mucronata iii. Ceropes tagal iv. Bruguiera conjugate v. Ceriops roxburghiana vi. Rhiozophara apiculata vii. Aegiceras cerinculata viii. Sonneratia caseolarix 1. Mangrove Forests of Sindh was brought under the management, working plan by Mr. S.A. Khan in the year 1961. 2. All Forests were divided into three working circles namely:- i. Selection-cum Improvement working circle ii. Afforestation working circle iii. Lopping, Grazing, and Browsing working circle’ 3. W.P. 1985-86 to 2004-05:- (M.Tahir Qureshi). i. No intensive management of coastal forests is prescribed. ii. No Regular fellings would be carried out. iii. No particular system of working is prescribed in this plan. Only Dead, dying and fallen tree world continue to be Removed on permit Royalty system unless the Research work on Avicennia suggests otherwise. XI: AMENITY PLANTING (a) Liner Plantations i. Roadside plantation ii. Canalside plantation iii. Railway track plantation (b) i. City Parks ii. Air Ports ii. New Townships (A) OBJECTIVE OF ROADSIDE PLANTATION 1. To provide shade and protection to the traffics users against scorching heat of the summer, torrential rains of monsoon. 2. Block the dazzling lights of vehicles confronting drivers on opposite direction at night. 3. Reduce crazy notice of the fast-moving traffic. 4. Absorb carbon emitting from vehicular movement. 5. Protect Road surface from drifting sand and dust by reducing soil erosion and extreme exposure to heat and cold in order to prolong highway life and Reduce Maintenance Cost. 6. Accentuate visibility of Road curvatures thus enhancing Road safety. 7. During national emergency helps in concealment of troops deployment and camouflage. 8. Providing habitat for wildlife. 9. Establishment and strengthening the state of Encroachments. 10. Provide relief to the drivers and passengers by having developed a severe and pleasant environment through Raising ornamental and shade trees of Aesthetic value. 11. Enhance the Forest Resource base of the country by promoting vegetation cover. 12. Combating global warming by reducing greenhouse effects. 13. Sometimes provide income to the state. Ø The choice of species is made by the Ecological zones and availability of water. The following Criteria should be used in making the selection:- 1. The use of thorny trees should be avoided as they are liable to damage car, cycle and feet of pedestrians. 2. The planting of fruit trees is not recommended on the high way roadside. Fruit trees need lot of attention. The fallen trees are conducive to suiting of fast traffic. Fruit trees also attract urchins who are likely to be run by fact traffic. Similarly for wild and domestic animals. 3. It should have a moderately fast rate of growth trees. 4. It should be wind firm and its limbs should not unduly liable to breakage by wind. 5. It should preferably be of economic importance. 6. Where space permits the trees should have a spreading shady crown where space is limited, trees of more pyramidal or columnar form are preferable and cultivars. 7. Planning should be avoided in the following situations:- i. Inside of the curves and near crossroads. ii. Failure chances in extremely Arid, very saline and waterlogged areas, be avoided. iii. To obscure a pleasant view from the Roadside. iv. Failure near Gas pipelines as they frequently leak. 8. Length of plantation is usually given in Avenue Kilometer. 9. To plant pure avenues of a single species for considerable length. 10. The extension of single or double line avenues at interval of a kilometer in the form of a wider plot may be recommended to provide resting spots and camping places, shady & branchy trees most suitable (Mango). 11. The vicinity of dangerous curves or crossroads can be indicated to traffic by planting white-stemmed trees e.g. Albizia procure or Terminalia arjuna. (C) SILVICULTURAL SYSTEM 1. Regular felling is not done only for Removal of dead, dying, diseased, dry and wind-fallen trees are harvested. 2. However, over nature/enlisted silvicultural thinnings are carried out. Usually these species are planted:- 1. Dalbergia sissoo 2. Albizzia procora 3. Albizzia lebbek 4. Azadrachta indica 5. Melia azedaracha 6. Morus alba 8. Bauhina verigate 9. Cassia fistula 10. Plantnus orientalis 11. Sterculia alata 13. Polyathia longifolia 14. Cupresus sempervirness 16. Baurina purpurea 18. Poplar spp. 19. Eucalyptus camaldulensis 20. E. Citrodora 21. E. toroliana 22. Magrifera indica 23. Jacarandu spp. 24. Terminalia arjuna (II) CANALSIDE PLANTATION 1. Growing of trees in strips available along main canals, branches and in avenues along distributaries and minors due to ease of getting water supply. 2. These plantations act as windbreaks. 3. They save canals and adjoining Agricultural fields from the ranges of wind storms. 4. Serve as shade for service roads. 5. Also provide Timber, firewood, and tanbark to the market. 1. Dalbergia sissoo 2. Acacia nilotica 4. Bombox ceiba 5. Moras alba 6. Albizzia lebbek 7. Syzygium cumini 8. Azadirachta indica 9. Eucalyptus spp. Note: Roadside and Railway tract are almost the same Silvicultural system. For Correction and Improvements please use the comments section below.
字幕列表影片播放列印英文字幕 You've probably heard it before how important it is to consume enough protein if you want to build muscle. But how does it is actually work? Protein is one of three energy sources of your body known as macronutrients, the other two being carbohydrates and fats. It is made up of little organic compounds known as amino acids. Besides water, 75% of your body is made up of amino acids. Want healthy brain function? You'll need amino acids. Build muscle? Amino acids. Maintain immune system? Amino acids. Healthy heart, regulate stress, prevent certain diseases, produce cells. Amino acids. Ehh, you probably get the point. Amino acids are pretty important. There are over 500 different types of amino acids, but the human body only uses 21 known as proteinogenic amino acids. Of the 21, the body can create 12 of them by restructuring other amino acids. The other 9, known as essential amino acids, can only come from food you eat, specifically from protein. And unlike fats and carbs, your body cannot store these essential amino acids away. When it comes to building muscle, providing the body with enough leucine, isoleucine and valine, which are essential amino acids, is pretty important. These 3 are known as branched-chain amino acids, or BCAAs for short. And of these 3 BCAAs, by the far the most important is leucine. It's directly linked to the activation of mTOR, which activates multiple enzymes in the body that promotes muscle protein synthesis. Wonder how muscles become stronger? When your muscle fiber proteins actin and myosin act on one another, muscle contraction is produced. The more actin and myosin protein filaments you have, the stronger the muscle becomes. And this is where getting enough protein in your diet becomes important to not only maintaining or building muscle, but also preventing your body from breaking muscle down. But how much is enough? It's typically recommended to get about .8 grams of protein per kilogram of bodyweight per day. That's roughly 65 grams for men and 50 grams for women. If you're an athlete, add about 20 grams more. Take this with a grain of salt, though, since there's no absolute consensus on the right amount of protein intake. But regardless of the actual amount, it doesn't take away the importance of having protein in your diet. And continuing with macronutrients, the following video will be covering another vital energy source, carbohydrates. Have lingering fitness questions you want answered? Please leave a comment below! If you enjoyed this video, please click the like button to help support Picture Fit and click subscribe if you want to check out more videos in the future.
1 The Greek philospher Aristotle pointed out that a tragedy needed to observe three unities: protagonist, antagonist, agon (argument) conflict, enactment, and financial gain time, place, and action 2 The performance contract: is destroyed by pretense cannot be broken by either party 3 Conflict is: never present in character to character interactions 4 The following are aspects of actor-audience interaction: whether or not the actors like each other offstage reviews online by a theatre critic the social prestige of attending an opening night performance 5 Films and theatre are different in that films do not: have character-character interactions have actor-actor interactions have immediate actor-audience interaction 6 The major characteristic of a proscenium theatre is: clear separation of the space between actors and audience on either side of a “fourth wall” audience surrounding three sides of the performance space the orientation of all audience seats around the stage 7 Directors may encourage spontaneity in a scene through: encouraging talks and lectures asking the playwright to rewrite a scene 8 If the audience responds enthusiastically to a play which the critic believes is of very poor quality, s/he should: blast the audience stand by his or her opinions, but note that others did like the play correct rethink his or her responses and possibly change them 9 The use of the suffix -wright suggests that the playwright should be: someone who writes plays a crafter or builder of plays 10 Stage directions are always given: from the point of view of a director watching the play from the audience from the point of view of an actor standing on stage and facing the audience from the point of view of an actor standing on stage facing away from the audience 11 The overall function of the critic is: to make the audience more critical of what they see in the theatre to improve playwriting to enrich the theatre experience for the audience 12 Empathy is important in audience response because: the purgation of pity and terror is an important goal of comedy the capacity to identify with other people is required in many plays only empathy can force the “unwilling suspension of disbelief” 13 The influence of the audience is felt in multiple ways in the theatre. indirectly as the production company anticipates their reaction both answers are correct directly during the performance of the play 14 A playwright may begin by trying to understand and describe the characters that s/he will create and use. A typical way of beginning work on character is to: search for good names online use only members of one’s own family create profiles on each one as if the playwright were a detective searching for a missing person 15 A tetralogy is: a tragedy, a comedy, and a satyr play a trilogy and a satyr play an outdoor theatre festival 16 Because theatre is such a social art: tickets must be provided when audience members have forgotten theirs audience crowding is to be avoided at all costs the seating density of an audience is important 17 The costume designer has the power to communicate character through: individual touches like wear patterns and accessories both answers are correct choice of color and fabric 18 The lighting designer uses gels to create a range of colors to achieve one of her/his primary goals of: 19 The Festival of Dionysus awarded the best playwright with: a gold trophy a feast in his honor 20 Actor-actor interaction is similar to actor-audience interaction in that: both need a script both participants must pretend to believe both depend upon the inspired soul of the actor 21 It is important for audiences to be demonstrative because: appropriate audience response is an expected part of the actor-actor interaction feedback is essential for the actor-audience interaction disruptive behavior gives the actors more of a challenge 22 Identify the character who says: Listen to me. You mock my blindness, do you? But I say that you, with both your eyes, are blind. 23 Which of the following was NOT one of Stanislavski’s five questions? Who am I? What do I want? Who is my most important relationship? 24 Identify the character who says: I pitied the baby, my King, And I thought that this man would take him far away To his own country. 25 Identify the character who says: The full horror of what happened you can not know. For you did not see it; but I, who did, will tell you As clearly as I can how she met her death. 26 Stanislavsky developed a technique to connect actors to the emotional life of their characters. 27 Empathy is the unfortunate condition of some people who cannot relate to the feelings of others. 28 One major function of the director is to stand in for the audience in rehearsal. 29 “Blocking” occurs when one actor stands in front of another, obstructing the audience’s view. 30 A scenic designer creates the environment(s) of a play and shares his/her ideas with the director using elevations, ground plans, and scale models. 31 The “willing suspension of disbelief” refers to the readiness of the audience to suspend its usually skeptical attitude. 32 Retrospective exposition is a way of letting the audience know what has happened in the backstory before the point of attack. 33 An actor cannot be expected to communicate with his or her body. 34 The crucial element which films do not have in common with theatre is the performance contract. 35 A representational play openly acknowledges the presence of the audience. 36 An element of a theatre experience which appeals to many people is the absolute predictability of the experience. 37 Only the rich male Athenian citizens attended the plays at the Festival of Dionysus. 38 Stanislavski dismissed the idea of inspiration. 39 Scripts are essential for theatre. 40 Jerzy Grotowski wrote Towards a Poor Theatre. 41 Apparently hidden action may be detected in the subtext. 42 It is unusual nowadays for a professional playwright to be a full-time member of a production company. 43 Stichomythia are highly emotional speeches by the protagonist dealing with inner conflict or torment. 44 Thespis is considered the first actor as he was said to step out of the chorus and impersonate a character. 45 Dithyrambs were the prizes awarded to the best actors at the Festival of Dionysus. 46 The stasis occurs both at the beginning and again at the ending of the play. 47 The primary function of Greek tragedy was religious observance and devotion. 48 H2O is considered a connotative symbol. 49 Peter Shaffer was inspired to write Equus because of an experience he had with horses as a boy. 50 Oedipus is an example of an early point of attack.
Listening to Music Engages a Wide Range of Brain Components It was originally believed that music perception was specific to the right hemisphere of the brain. Evidence that has since coming to light through brain-imaging technology and lesion studies (in which conclusions are drawn about the function of specific parts of the brain based on the effect damage to that area has on human behavior) that has resulted in this model being discarded in favor of one that is much more complex. We now know that music engages both the left and right hemispheres as well as sub-cortical regions and the hindbrain. Because music is a complex stimulus with many elements, it is not processed in a single area of the brain. The various aspects of musical stimuli are processed by a number of localized brain regions. Components of music include rhythm, tempo (the rate of speed of a musical piece), harmony (the combination of simultaneous musical notes), pitch (the highness or lowness of sound), timbre (the quality of a sound due to its overtones—often distinct to an individual voice or instrument), contour (general form or structure), loudness, and melody (arrangement of successive sounds). When we listen to music, all of these brain regions process different aspects of the stimuli simultaneously to produce the overall effect that music has on humans. This modular conception of music perception is supported by the fact that it is almost impossible to lose all aspects of music perception. Acquired amusia is the loss of musical ability due to a traumatic event such as brain damage. Symptoms of amusia are determined by the location and nature of the lesion, which indicates that a multiplicity of brain regions are responsible for processing different aspects of music. For example, amusiacs with lesions to the temporal/parietal regions of the left hemisphere tend to experience an inability to produce or conceive of rhythmic patterns, while damage to the left superior temporal gyrus disturbs the recognition and production of melodic sequences.
Theories of value are often classified in terms of the subjective-objective distinction. Subjectivist theories hold that value is dependent on producing pleasure, being desired, or preferred, or more abstractly, on what would be preferred in certain ideal conditions. Utilitarianism theories of value, such as hedonism and its descendents, desire and preference satisfaction theories, are paradigmatic subjectivist accounts of value. By contrast, objectivist theories of value say that certain things and states are valuable independently whether they produce pleasure, are desired, or preferred. Perfectionism is an objectivist theory of value according to which goodness depends on the actualization or perfection of human nature. According to Aristotle , for instance, fulfilling the function (ergon) of a human being involves the exercise and perfection of its rational capacities. It follows that the good life for man involves the attainment of virtue or excellence (arête) in reason.
Counting bubbles might seem to be a pointless activity but it is actually a reliable way to measure very small gaseous flows. We have seen in a [»] previous post that we could read flow rates by measuring the pressure drop due to the friction of the fluid on a tiny hole. However, because gas have much smaller viscosity than liquids, measuring flow rate for gas require very large flow rates to compensate for the small viscosity. Also, such measurements are not linearly proportional to the actual flow rate and some processing of the data should be done before inferring any figures. On the other hand, bubble counting allows precise and accurate measurements of small gaseous flows. The idea is to bubble the gas using a capillary (or simply tubing) into a solution where it is insoluble and to rely on the assumption that all bubbles have roughly the same volume. There are different ways to count bubbles, such as using an optical bridge, but here I will present a method based on Laplace pressure. I have developed the technology during my PhD and, to my knowledge, there have been no apparatus that use Laplace pressure to count bubbles so far. I would also like to acknowledge my colleague, Carlo, who introduced me to the theory of Laplace pressure which led me to the development of the counting procedure presented here. Because of the surface tension between two immiscible fluids, every bubble has an internal pressure slightly above the surrounding medium. This phenomenon is known as the Laplace pressure (∆P) and is proportional to the surface tension constant between the two fluids (γ) and inversely proportional to the radius of the bubble (R): The effect is therefore greater for small bubbles than for larger ones. To give some scale, a 1 mm air bubble in water has an internal pressure about 2.8 mbar above the surrounding water. A classical way to measure the pressure is to grow a bubble on the mouth of a capillary tube by slowly injecting gas into the capillary as illustrated on Figure 1. When the bubble is flat, its curvature is extremely large (almost infinite) and the Laplace pressure inside the capillary is null. As the bubble grows the pressure keep increasing until it reach a maximum where the bubble has a curvature equal to the capillary mouth radius. Then, and this is not always mentioned in the theory but often observed experimentally, the bubble tends to tear off a fraction of air from the capillary, leaving a negative curvature and we therefore observe a small negative Laplace pressure. Repetitive bubbles lead to a record such as on Figure 2. The three successive pressure discussed above clearly appear on the graph. There is, however, one small trick that ought to be discussed. When we are measuring the pressure in the capillary we are not only measuring the Laplace pressure but also the pressure drop due to friction in the capillary and the hydrostatic pressure due to the column of water above the capillary mouth. This has two major consequences as large flows will add a pressure term that we would like to be smaller than the measured signal (if it were larger then we could use the pressure drop as in the [»] flow sensor post) and varying water level also produces small pressure changes. To avoid interaction between water-height motions due to bubbles with the measurement, it is often a good idea to use a second capillary placed at about the same depth and to record the pressure difference between the two capillaries. Hopefully, our [»] 24PCEFA6D sensor is a good match for this. If you don't find capillaries on e-bay, you can use medical syringe needles or small silicon tubing with 1 mm internal diameter or less (the results given on Figure 2 were actually obtained using 1 mm silicon tubing in a first place). To count the number of bubbles we have to track every peak in the pressure graph. But because of the varying pressure due to friction, we cannot simply use a threshold. The idea is to first pass the pressure into a band-pass filter to select an approximated time-scale of a peak event. From Figure 2 we see that a peak can be roughly assimilated to a sine wave of period 0.25 sec so I have used a second order high-pass filter with a cut-off of about 4 Hz. Also, because we do not want noise from the sensor output, we should remove all frequencies above 1 kHz. The band-pass filtered signal can then be thresholded to detect the peaks and send the signal to a microprocessor (or you may also send the output to a low-pass filter to have an analog reading of the flow rate). A typical result is given on Figure 3. So far we have been measuring the number of bubbles, to convert it to a flow rate we should count the number of event during a finite time period. This may be done either through a computer or using a RC low pass filter. In the experiments I have been doing, I was reading the number of bubbles produced per minute using a computer. This gives a rather interesting tool to study kinetics phenomenon that you can read [»] here. As a conclusion, the sensor works quite well and is relatively cheap (less than 100 euros for the digital version with a micro-controller). The only down-side I found was that it required a bit of tuning for each kind of experiment you are running. Also, take care to corrosion of your needles (if you are using them) as clogging induced over-pressure in one of my experiment which could have ended in dramatic conditions with culture medium splashing all over the place... Hopefully, I manage to save everything before the apocalypse took place :) I would now recommend always operating using some kind of safety valve to avoid over-pressure with that kind of systems. Don't forget to have a look at some [»] experimental results![⇈] Top of Page You may also like:
Third grade is really right on the cusp of early elementary and later elementary. Therefore, while children are starting to increase the number of words they can read and move away from picture books, they still have certain educational values at this level. There are several ways that picture books can be a key focus in a lesson plan. Prepared picture books can be used as a focus point to explain the parts of a story - the beginning, the middle and the end. Students can also create their own picture books to illustrate stories. Here are some suggestions on how to use these ideas in your classroom. Figuring out what happens next in a story is helpful for understanding the elements of foreshadowing which often appear earlier on. However, "foreshadowing" is a bit of a hefty word for third graders. Read a picture book out loud to students, and ask them to guess what is going to happen in the following pages based upon the pictures they see. Here we have a project that might last for a few weeks or for an entire quarter, depending upon how in depth of a creation you want. Writing a regular book is going to be overwhelming for this age group. Therefore, ask them to create a picture book about an assigned topic, such as a favorite pet or best memory from vacation. Read the same book twice, once with showing the pictures and once without. If you're going to read it without the pictures first, ask the students to envision what images the author had in mind before showing the students. If you're going to read it with the pictures first, you can ask the students what they need to do for themselves when there are no pictures. Figuring out the main idea of an entire work can be challenging. Teach students to turn to illustrations for help. Perhaps you have some students who have learning disabilities or who simply cannot read at the same level as the other third graders at this point. Include both picture and non-picture books in your classroom library, so that students have different varieties to select from. Encourage struggling readers to start with more basic books, such as the picture books, in order to help build vocabulary and learn about the structure of such works. Students should learn what the connection is between the written word and the picture in order to help them later on when they have to understand the connection between the written word and the image that they create in their mind. Hand a series of pictures out to them and ask them to add a story line to these illustrations, or give them a written story and ask them to draw illustrations to go along with it. You could divide the class up into groups for this project and each student could be responsible for a different segment of the story. Create and save customized word lists. Sign up today and start improving your vocabulary! Please set a username for yourself. People will see it as Author Name with your public word lists.
What Is an Organism? Students begin their investigation of living things with an introduction to the differences between living and nonliving things. They also begin to consider the wide variety of plants and animals. Learn by Reading For additional content-area reading, check out the Houghton Mifflin Science eBook: Grade 1, Unit B, pages 8–11.
In the days of this country’s Founding Fathers, colonialists used copper as standard currency. These coins include Colonials, half cents, large cents, and Hard Times Tokens. Large and half cents were the first coins produced by the United States Mint in Philadelphia under the authority of our federal government. They are very rare due to their intermittent minting between 1793 and 1857. Half cents also have the notoriety of being the smallest face value for a coin in our nation’s history. In 1857, the United States Mint stopped producing half cents and replaced large cents with more manageable small cents.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is an evidence based treatment designed to alter the damaging negative thought patterns people may have developed about themselves, the world and or people in their lives. These thought patterns have resulted in fueling maladaptive behavior such as alcohol or drug use, isolation, anger or self harm. In addition, thoughts that are self defeating may also reinforce co-occurring issues with depression and anxiety that often accompany Substance Use Disorder (SUD). Unwelcome thoughts that lead to negative feelings of self worth or destructive patterns of behavior CAN BE changed through the use of CBT. Specifically, CBT helps patients look at how their thoughts, emotions, and actions relate to each other, and how they behave as a result. Destructive and irrational belief systems change as patients learn to understand where they come from and how their beliefs may fail to measure up to reality. CBT helps people analyze negative thought patterns and improve coping skills. How Does Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Work? Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has revolutionized the fields of mental health and addiction because unlike treatment modalities before it, CBT is ACTIVE therapy in that it requires an intense level of participation from both the patient and the therapist Specifically, therapists teach patients healthy coping skills and more appropriate emotional responses to people, places and things in their lives. Patients will often have to complete homework assignments on their own time in order to take full advantage of the therapeutic opportunity. CBT helps patients to recognize when involuntary negative thoughts or automatic thoughts enter their mind and the triggers that bring them on. Through this process, patients learn how to anticipate triggers and their reactions to those triggers so that they can better prepare themselves for how to better manage their reactions and feelings in the future. CBT relies on the therapeutic relationship between the patient and the therapist that is built on a strong alliance enabled by empathy. Therapists engage in active listening to appreciate the patient’s perspective and understand their thoughts and feelings as they relate to life events and past relationships. Once the therapeutic alliance is strong, patients trust the therapist to mentally and emotionally organize their life events to explain their current mental health. This is accomplished by therapists slowly moving patients through the process by questioning and examination their unique experiences. Eventually, patients gain insight into the relationship between emotional distress and a distorted belief system or thoughts. What Is the Evidence Behind Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)? A comprehensive study published by the National Institutes of Health in the United States examined the efficacy of CBT across groups of patients suffering from a wide range of mental health issues including Substance Use Disorder (SUD). The study showed very strong evidence for the benefits of CBT establishing that greater improvement was seen in the groups that underwent CBT than those that did not. Studies have also shown that CBT can be as effective in treating depression as prescription antidepressants are. As such, CBT is used in treating a variety of mental disorders such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders, personality disorders, eating disorders, substance abuse, and impulsivity. CBT is also used in the treatment of phobias and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD).
The most common route of transmitting HIV is through unprotected sex with an infected person or sharing needles or syringes with an infected person. Transmission of the virus can also occur through contact with infected blood, but thanks to improved screening and heat treatments, infection through a blood transfusion is now rare. Casual contact or insect bites are not means of transmitting the virus. HIV Transmission: An Overview HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) can be spread in a number of ways. For example, it can be transmitted: - Through unprotected sex - Through infected blood - Through contaminated needles - From mother to child. HIV is spread most commonly by having unprotected sex with an infected partner. The virus can enter the body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum, or mouth during sex. HIV can infect anyone who practices risky behaviors, such as: - Sharing drug needles or syringes - Having sexual contact, including oral sex, with an infected person without using a condom - Having sexual contact with someone whose HIV status is unknown. HIV transmission also occurs through contact with infected blood. Before donated blood was screened for evidence of HIV infection and before heat-treating techniques to destroy HIV in blood products were introduced, HIV was transmitted through transfusions of contaminated blood or blood components. Today, because of blood screening and heat treatment, the risk of getting HIV from such transfusions is extremely small. HIV is frequently spread among injection drug users by the sharing of needles or syringes contaminated with small quantities of blood from someone infected with the virus. It is rare, however, for a patient to transmit HIV to a healthcare worker or vice versa by accidental sticks with contaminated needles or other medical instruments.
Baleen vs Toothed Whales Whales are amongst the most interesting creatures in the world, which has a great contribution from their enormous body sizes and masses. These mammals have been classified into two major groups depending on what they have in their mouths, baleen whales and toothed whales. The interesting characteristics and differences between them should be worth take a look even for those who are known of these fascinating creatures. Members of the Suborder: Mysticeti of Order: Cetacea are the baleen whales. There are 15 identified species of baleen whales in the world. They are so named due to the presence of baleen plates in their mouth to filter their food. Baleen whales are one of the two types of whales in the world, the other type being toothed whales. Baleen whales do not have teeth except during their embryonic periods. The largest animals of the Earth are the baleen whales; especially the females are larger than males. Some good example for famous baleen whale species would be Blue whale and Humpback whale. A well-grown baleen whale could be almost 34 metres long and usually weighs about 190,000 kilograms. They cause a great fascination among people, not only because of the enormous body, but also due to the acrobatic abilities. Baleen whales can completely leap out and fall onto the water surface, which would be undoubtedly wonderful to watch. Since males break out of water frequently, scientists believe that it would be a display to attract females for mating. However, leaping out of water possibly could help them get rid of external parasites. One of the characteristics of baleen whales is the presence of two blowholes, which cause a V-shaped blow when they exhale. The earliest known baleen whale dates back to late Eocene, which is 29 – 39 million years before. Most of their species have gone extinct, but only six Families with 15 species live in today’s world. As the name depicts, toothed whales have teeth in their mouth. With more than 70 species including sperm whales, beaked whales, killer whale, dolphins, etc. they are the mostly diversified group of the Order: Cetacea. Toothed whales are taxonomically classified in the Suborder: Odontoceti. Toothed whales, as they have only one blowhole, can be identified from a distance by observing a single line of blow when they exhale. Sperm whale is the largest of all the toothed whales, but others are relatively small. The number of teeth in the mouth can be as large as 100, but it varies considerably with the species. However, the Narwhale does not have teeth, yet there is a long and straight tusk. The head of toothed whales is not usually symmetrical, and there is only a limited connection of the two hemispheres of the brain. Toothed whales are usually active feeders that mainly depend on fish. They can swim fast, but some prefer to ride on waves. Toothed whales communicate with each other using sound waves of low frequencies around 50 Hz. However, most of them use click sounds to locate the surroundings through the echolocation. What is the difference between Baleen and Toothed Whales? • The presence of baleen plates and teeth in the mouths mainly distinguish the two groups, and they are so named. • Baleen whales are larger than toothed whales. • There are more species of toothed whales than baleen whales. • Toothed whales can swim faster than baleen whales. • Baleen whales are filter feeders, but toothed whales are active predators.
What is ocean acidification? The burning of fossil fuels has increased the amount of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the earth's atmosphere and the oceans absorb about a quarter of this excess CO2. Over the last decade, scientists have discovered that this excess CO2 is actually changing the chemistry of the oceans and proving harmful for many forms of marine life. This process is known as ocean acidification because the increasing CO2 is lowering the pH of the oceans and making them more acidic. What is being done about it? The National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Ocean Acidification Program and Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) are working closely with other federal agencies to monitor and research ocean acidification. Their efforts will help our nation begin to understand how to address this problem on a global scale and how to help reverse it. The Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (NERACOOS) receives funding through the NOAA Ocean Acidification and IOOS programs to help monitor ocean acidification in Northeast ocean waters. - World Oceans Day Celebration 2013 - World Oceans Day Ocean Promise - Data from the OA buoy in the Gulf of Maine - State of the Science Fact Sheet: Ocean Acidification (NOAA) - NOAA Ocean Acidification Program - Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) - Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary - NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory Ocean Acidification page - NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory Ocean Buoys page - Ocean Acidification: NOAA IOOS - Watch: "Acidity on the Half Shell" 5 minute presentation by Libby Jewett - Deployment of Ocean Acidification buoy in the sanctuary 2011 - World Oceans Day Introduction - One World Ocean Ocean: Why the Ocean? - One World One Ocean: The ocean we want to know - One World One Ocean: The dolphins call for help - One World One Ocean: Sylvia Earle - World Oceans Day Videos - What is Climate Change Animation - The Otheer CO2 Problem Student Made Video - Ocean's Recipe for Success: Ocean Acidification Demonstration - An Ocean Acidification Experiment: Your breath acidifies water - Ocean Food Web Game - Experiments with CO2 and pH - Build a Coccolithophore
the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics the Annenberg Channel This small collection from Learner.org provides a unique digital lab for teachers to explore new ideas in learning. The activities are designed around four strands: patterns in mathematics, seasonal changes and moon phases, geometry, and the nature of light. Each section features interactive exercises to challenge teachers' thinking about logic, pattern recognition, shape and structure, symbolic relationships, and mathematical reasoning. The authors then delve into the learning theory behind the activities and how it can be extended to learners of different ages and abilities. Each module provides links to hands-on activities for the classroom. Please note that this resource requires Java Applet Plug-in. Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
If you follow football, hockey, soccer, or boxing, then you know that athletes in these and other contact sports are at constant risk for a concussion. Every season several football players miss a number of games after absorbing vicious blows to the head. Blow To The Head A concussion is a blow to the head that can result in temporary confusion, amnesia, nausea, dizziness, blurred vision, and loss of consciousness. Although a single concussion does not appear to result in structural brain damage or swelling of the brain, repeated concussions can cause both. What Causes A Concussion? Concussions are caused in one of two ways: either by the head hitting a hard surface, or by the head spinning suddenly. Take, for example, a common incident during a football game. The quarterback is hit, falls backwards, and bangs his head on the turf. Although his skull stops suddenly upon impact, his brain, floating in cerebral fluid, keeps moving and hits the skull. Similarly, when a boxer gets hit in the head with a right hook, his head twists violently. The skull stops moving, but the brain keeps shaking for a few moments and may brush the skull. The result is a chemical imbalance in the brain. All the neurotransmitters in the damaged area fire simultaneously, causing an overload of chemicals that impair receptors involved in learning and memory. The flood of chemicals also constricts arteries, making it difficult for the damaged cells to get the nutrients they need to recover. Because the brain can take as long as several weeks to recover from a concussion, it's a good idea to take a break from contact sports if you've had one.
Astronomers have long believed that Saturn’s rings were formed when a moon or comet about 200 km across was shattered by an impact close to the planet, leaving a mass of debris. This impact, it is suggested, happened no more than 100 million years ago.2 It was in 1852 that Otto Struve noted in the Memoirs of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences3 there had been changes in the widths of the rings and a progressive decrease in the width of the gap between the planet and the inner edge of ring B, relative to the combined width of ring A. Old drawings and descriptions were used to evaluate this ratio—Huygens (1657), Huygens and Cassini (1695), Bradley (1719), Herschel (1799) and W. Struve (1826)—results indicating a rapid approach of the inner edges of the rings toward Saturn, while the outer edge of the outermost ring (ring A) had changed little. Now an international team of scientists (French, US and Canadian) using the Hubble Space Telescope have shown that the innermost rings are losing water ‘relatively rapidly’. Indeed, the water is disappearing ‘so fast’, the team believes that it would all have gone already if the rings were more than about 30 million years old.4 News of the rings’ mortality didn’t come as a surprise to the scientific community.5 Astronomers had suspected that the rain of microscopic meteorites that pelts every body in the Solar System was rapidly eroding the rings, and they already had the indirect evidence that ring debris is falling into the planet. But this first direct evidence of the infall could tell astronomers just how fast the rings are eroding, placing direct bounds on the lifespan of Saturn’s rings—and, by extension, the less showy rings of the other giant planets. Thus, astronomers now believe that water evaporates from the particles making up the rings when micrometeorites crash into them. The fate of the water molecules depends upon their charge and distance from the planet. Neutral molecules fall back onto the rings’ surfaces, but charged (ionised) particles spiral along magnetic field lines. Beyond the outer edge of the inner ring, the field lines carry them away from the planet, but at lower altitudes the field lines guide them down to Saturn. ‘This result is the first evidence of significant water precipitation flux from the rings of Saturn onto its atmosphere’.6 Determining just how fast ring water is streaming into Saturn and thus how long the rings have been around will take more work and some calculations of how fast the water is being removed from the stratosphere.7 A high flux would be the most direct evidence that Saturn’s rings are ‘short-lived’. If Saturn’s spectacular rings are ‘very young’8 and ‘short-lived’, then it’s ‘only by luck’, they say, that they are around for us human beings to marvel at. Furthermore, the ‘catastrophic event’ needed to make rings as massive as these—the shattering of a small moon by a comet or the disruption of a passing giant comet by Saturn’s gravity—is only likely to happen just once in the planet’s life-time, say the scientists. This realization that the dazzling rings of Saturn could be a ‘rare sight’9 does not bother us. The evidence is increasingly mounting that the Genesis Flood was accompanied by catastrophism throughout the Solar System (for example, impact cratering), and thus we would expect Saturn’s rings to be ‘very young’. So it isn’t by ‘luck’ that we are here to see them, since they are a spectacular reminder of God’s judgment of His creation.
TenMarks teaches you everything you need to know about fractions and mixed numbers. Read the full transcript » Learn about Mixed Numbers In this lesson let’s learn about mixed numbers and how we write them. We’ll do two problems, before we start lets understand what a mixed number is. A mixed number is made up of a whole number and a fraction part. It's a whole number part and a fraction part, the whole number part could be 3, and the fraction could be 3/4, write the whole number first, then write the fraction. This is the same as 3+3/4, so another way to explain it or actually do it using the problem; we need to write 3 and 1/2 as a mixed number right, so the easy way to do is we write the whole number first which are 3 and the fraction 1/2. Another way of doing this is let’s imagine I have three rulers and then half a ruler. How many whole rulers do we have? Three, and half the ruler is the fraction so we write 1/2 as half. Let’s do another problem, it says write a mixed number for the picture given below, well this is the whole part. It's covered, colored and it's entirely the whole, how many holes do we have? We have just one that is whole right? And the fraction part, well if this represents the fraction we have 4 parts of which 3 are shaded, so 3 parts out of 4 are shaded. So the whole number part is 1, the fraction part is 3 parts out of 4 so what’s the mixed number, 1 3/4. Copyright © 2005 - 2015 Healthline Networks, Inc. All rights reserved for Healthline.
The word "acid" comes from the Latin acidus meaning "sour." In chemistry, however, the term acid has a more specific meaning. An acid (often represented by the generic formula HA) is any substance that in solution tastes sour, produces a prickling or burning feeling on contact with the skin, changes the color of indicators (e.g. reddens blue litmus paper), reacts with some metals to liberate hydrogen, reacts with bases to form salt and water, promotes certain chemical reactions (e.g. A chemical reaction accelerated by the addition of an acid; the acid itself not being consumed in the reaction, called acid catalysis), and gives a solution with a pH of less than 7.0. Acids and bases complement each other. When combined, they neutralize each other to form salts. Acids and bases and the reactions between them exemplify the ubiquitousness of complementary pairs in the natural world—plus and minus, male and female (the "yang" and "yin" of oriental philosophy)—whose interactions produce the dynamism and multiform existences populating the universe. Acids are essential for life, and many occur naturally. For example, our stomach produces hydrochloric acid (HCl) to help digestion. Acids are also widely used in industries and are in a large number of foods and beverages. However, many acids are poisonous, and can cause severe burns. Examples of acids include the inorganic substances, also known as mineral acids—compounds composed of hydrogen and a nonmetal element or radical that does not contain carbon atoms.(e.g. sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and phosphoric acids)—and the organic acids which are present in most fruits and other foods (e.g. citric acid in lemons, oranges, and grapefruits; malic acid, in apples; lactic acid, in sour-milk products; and acetic acid, in vinegar). Acids and bases form complementary pairs, so their definitions need to be considered together. There are three common groups of definitons: the Arrhenius, the Brønsted-Lowry and the Lewis definitions, in order of increasing generality. The Brønsted-Lowry definition, although not the most general one, is the most widely used definition. The strength of an acid may be understood using this definition by the stability of hydronium and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation. Increasing stability of the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound. This concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as acetic acid. The molecular orbital description, where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair, is connected to the Lewis definition. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions, that is a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resist change in pH. Generally, acids have the following properties: Acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. \|Anion Prefix\|\|Anion Suffix\|\|Acid Prefix\|\|Acid Suffix\|\|Example\| \|per\|\|ate\|\|per\|\|ic acid\|\|perchloric acid (HClO4)\| \|ate\|\|ic acid\|\|chloric acid (HClO3)\| \|ite\|\|ous acid\|\|chlorous acid (HClO2)\| \|hypo\|\|ite\|\|hypo\|\|ous acid\|\|hypochlorous acid (HClO)\| \|ide\|\|hydro\|\|ic acid\|\|hydrochloric acid (HCl)\| In water, the following equilibrium occurs between an acid (HA) and the water, which acts as a base: The acidity constant (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant that indicates the degree to which hydrogen ions dissociate from an acid. Strong acids are those that almost completely dissociate in water. They have large Ka values; hence, the acid dissociation equilibrium lies 100% to the right, which means that there are mostly H3O+ and A- ions in solution with a very minute amount of undissociated HA molecules. Common strong acids are perchloric acid (HClO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI), nitric acid (HNO3), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). For example, the Ka value for hydrochloric acid (HCl) is 107. Weak acids are those that partially dissociate in water. They have small Ka values; therefore, only a small percent of protons are donated to water, keeping the acid dissociation equilibrium to the left. The solution mainly contains undissociated HA molecules with very little H3O+ and A- ions. Common weak acids are nitrous acid (HNO2), hydrofluoric acid (HF), and acetic acid (CH3CO2H). For example, the Ka value for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10-5. Note on terms used: Polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A monoprotic acid can undergo one dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above: A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2. The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., Ka1 > Ka2 . For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO4−), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO42−), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO3−) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO32−). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3 . An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO4−, then HPO42−, and finally PO43− , the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive Ka values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and water; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows an equivalence point when the same number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. In order to lose a proton, it is necessary that the pH of the system rise above the pKa of the protonated acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form, or to protonate its conjugate base (the deprotonated form). Acidification is the process whereby a compound is added to a solution, leading to a drop in the pH of the solution. One example is when the pollution of air—mainly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides—is converted into acidic substances. This "acid rain" is best known for the damage it causes to forests and lakes. It also damages freshwater and coastal ecosystems, soils, and even ancient historical monuments. Sulfur dioxide and the nitrogen oxides are mainly emitted by burning fossil fuels. The 1990s saw these emissions drop substantially, thanks to a combination of European Directives forcing the installation of desulfurisation systems, the move away from coal as a fossil fuel, and major economic restructuring in the new German Lander. Acidification is nevertheless still a major environmental problem in Europe. It is a cross-border issue, requiring coordinated initiatives across countries and sectors. This section brings together the EEA’s reports on the scale of the problem and the effectiveness of the solutions tried to date. All links retrieved February 10, 2016. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Good Questions: Great Ways to Differentiate Mathematics Instruction We know that differentiated instruction helps all students to learn. Yet DI challenges teachers, and nowhere more than in mathematics. Now math education expert Marian Small cuts through the difficulties with her explanation of how to differentiate with two powerful and universal strategies across all math content: Open questions and Parallel tasks. She shows teachers how to start and become expert with these strategies. She also demonstrates more inclusive learning conversations that promote broader student participation. Specific strategies and examples for each grade band are organized around the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) content strands: Number and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, and Data Analysis and Probability. What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. What It Means to Meet Student Needs Creating a Math Talk Community Open Questions for Grades 35 20 other sections not shown Other editions - View all algebra allows students answer appropriate asking students bar graph base ten blocks benchmarks beneﬁt BIG IDEA calculate Chap choice circle classroom color combinations comfortable complex concept create cubes decimal dents describe differentiated instruction DIFFERENTIATING MATHEMATICS difﬁcult diﬁerent digits draw easier equations estimate example ﬁgure ﬁnd ﬁrst ﬁt ﬁve ﬂexibility ﬂip focus follow-up discussion fractions geoboard geometry grade band greater grid groups inches length less math mathematical measurement multiplication NCTM Number and Operations number line object open questions parallel tasks parallelogram pattern blocks pattern rule picture place value possible PREKINDERGARTEN-GRADE prism problem Pythagorean theorem Qption questions and parallel questions and tasks recognize rectangle reﬂection relationships require students sides simple situations solve sorting rule speciﬁc spinner square strategies struggling students students need students to choose subtraction surface area tangram teacher could ask TEACHING TIP tell tion tree diagram triangle types understanding units whole numbers
Caring for a child means providing more than food and shelter, it also means helping the child develop and gain an education. Many parents rely on public school systems to teach their children, but there are some important concepts kids can master before they ever step foot in the classroom. Here are three simple things that your toddler needs to know before kindergarten to ensure that he or she will have every opportunity to excel academically in the future: 1. How to utilize gross motor skills. Many of the tasks performed in the classroom require children to have finely-honed motor skills. Holding a pencil, drawing a picture, and even using flash cards are all tasks that require a child to use his or her motor skills. While your toddler might not be ready to master proper pencil positioning, he or she can begin to master gross motor movements in preparation for fine tuning in the future. Be sure that your toddler has the opportunity to fit blocks into holes, move beads along a wire, and engage in other tasks that require the use of gross motor skills. 2. How to practice self-control. Classrooms represent a structured environment. Children are not able to do whatever they want, they need to adhere to a schedule prepared by their instructors. You can begin to prepare your toddler for the rigors of a school schedule by teaching him or her self-control. Allow your child to practice being patient by serving snacks only at certain times throughout the day. You can also help your toddler learn to adhere to a schedule by setting time limits on the use of certain toys. Using these types of tasks to teach your toddler self-control will help him or her better cope with the demands of a classroom setting in the future. 3. How to interact appropriately with peers. If your toddler has siblings, finding opportunities to interact with peers can be easy. If your toddler is an only child, you will need to be more proactive in finding a playgroup your toddler can participate in. Interacting with peers starting at a young age helps to prepare children for the social demands of school. Through constructive interaction, your child will be able to learn conflict resolution and sharing skills that will easily transition to a school setting. Preparing your toddler for kindergarten properly is important if you want to maximize his or her learning opportunities. Be sure that you are teaching your toddler mastery over gross motor skills, self-control, and appropriate peer interaction techniques to prepare him or her to successfully tackle kindergarten in the future. Contact a company like The Cottage School for more information and assistance.
In the last lesson we showed that the set For a set A, let A be the complement of A, i.e., all of the strings of Σ* not in A. If A is computable then A is also computable--at the end if we accepted then we reject and vice-versa. Note this does not work in general for computably enumerable; switching reject and accept does not affect whether a machine halts on a given input. Now consider the set Note the LA is computably enumerable as we can just simulate M on <M>. If LA were computable then so would LD which we know is not even computably enumerable. Thus we have LA as our first example of a noncomputable computably enumerable set. Besides languages we can also consider computable functions. Consider a Turing machine with an output tape. We can view it as computing a function f from Σ* to Σ* where the value of f is the contents of the output tape after the machine enters a specified halting state. We say a total function f is computable if there is such a Turing machine computing f. We can also consider partially computable functions where f(x) may not be defined for some inputs x. On these inputs the corresponding machine does not halt. In the next lesson we will use computable functions to show that other languages are not computable or computably enumerable.
Read an article the other day in MIT’s Technical Review, Google’s new chip is a stepping stone to quantum computing… about Google’s latest endeavor to create quantum computers. Although, digital logic or classical electronic computation has been around since mid last century, quantum logic does things differently and there are many problems that are easier to compute with quantum computing that take much longer to solve with digital computing. Qubits are weird Classical or digital electronic computation follows the more physical mechanistic view of the world (for the most part) and quantum computing follows the quantum mechanical view of the world. Quantum computing uses quantum bits or Qubits and the device that Google demonstrated has a 2X3 matrix of qubits, 6 in total. Unlike a bit, which (theoretically)is a two state system that can only take on the values of 0 and 1, a qubit is a two level system but it can take on an infinitely many number of different states in reality. In practice, with a qubit, there are always two states that are distinguishable from one another but they can be any two states of the infinitely many states they can take on. Also, reading out the state value of a qubit can be a probabilistic endeavor and can impact the “value” of the qubit that is read out afterwards. There’s more to quantum computing and I am certainly no expert. So if your interested, I suggest starting with this Arxiv article. Faster quantum algorithms In any case some difficult and time consuming arenas of classical computation seem to be easier and faster with quantum computation. For example, - Factoring large numbers – in classical computation this process takes an amount of time that is exponential to the number of bits in the “large number”, where “B” is number of bits and “E” epsilon is a constant >0, the best current algorithms take O([1+E]B) time. But Shor’s quantum factorization algorithm takes only O(B3) time, which is considerably faster for large numbers. This is important because RSA cryptography and most key exchange algorithms in use today, base their security on the difficulty of factoring large numbers. (See Wikipedia article on Integer Factorization for more information. - Searching an unstructured list – in classical computation for a list of N items, it takes on the O(N). But Grover’s quantum search algorithm only takes O(sort[N]) which is considerably faster for large lists. (See Arxiv paper for more information.) Using the Shor factorization algorithm, they were able to factor the number 15 with 7 qubits. There are many quantum algorithms available today (see the Quantum Algorithm Zoo at NIST) with more showing up all the time. Suffice it to say that quantum computing will be a more time efficient and thus, more effective approach to certain problems than classical computing. Quantum computers starting to scale Now back to the chip. According to the article the new Googl chip implements a 2X3 matrix of qubits. For those old enough to remember, this was called an Octal or 3-bit number, ranging from 0 to 7, and two octals can range from 0..64. Octals were used for a long time to represent digital information for some (mostly mini-computers) computers. This is in contrast to most computing nowadays ,which uses Hexadecimal numbers or 4-bit numbers ranging from 0..15, and with two hexadecimal numbers ranging from 0..255. Why are octals important? Well if quantum computing can scale up multiple octal numbers, then they can start representing really large numbers. According to the article Google chose 2X3 qubit structure because it’s more easy to scale. I assume all the piping surrounding the chip package in the above photo are cooling ports. It seems that quantum computing only works at very cold temperatures. And if this is a two octals computer, scaling these up to multiple octals is going to take lots of space. How quickly will it scale? For some history, Intel introduced their 4004 (4-bit) computing chip in 1971 (Wikipedia), their 8-bit Intel 8008 in 1972 (Wikipedia), their 16-bit Intel 8086 between 1976-78. So in 7 years we went from a 4-bit computer to a 16 bit computer whose (x86) architecture continues on today and rules the world. Now the Intel 4004 had 16 4-bit registers, had a data/instruction bus that could address 4096 4-bit words, 3-level subroutine stack and was a full fledged 4 bit computer. It’s unclear what’s in Google’s chip. But if we consider that this 2×3-qubit computer, which has multiple 2×3 qubit registers, a qubit storage bus, multi-level qubit subroutine (register) stack, etc. Then we are well on our way to quantum computing being added to the worlds computational capabilities in less than 10 years. And of course, Googles not the only large organization working on quantum computing. So there you have it, Google and others are in the process of making your cryptography obsolete, rapidly speeding up unstructured searching and doing multiple other computations lots faster than today. Photo Credit(s): from the MIT Technical Review article.
To prevent injuries, illnesses and Fatalities during winter storms. It is important for employers to know the wind chill temperature so that they can gauge workers’ exposure risk better and plan how to safely do the work. It is also important to monitor workers’ physical condition during tasks, especially new workers who may not be used to working in the cold, or workers returning after spending some time away from work. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio is a nationwide network of radio stations broadcasting continuous weather information from the nearest NWS office. It will give information when wind chill conditions reach critical thresholds. A Wind Chill Warning is issued when wind chill temperatures are life threatening. A Wind Chill Advisory is issued when wind chill temperatures are potentially hazardous. Environmental cold can affect any worker exposed to cold air temperatures and puts workers at risk of cold stress. As wind speed increases, it causes the cold air temperature to feel even colder, increasing the risk of cold stress to exposed workers, especially those working outdoors, such as recreational workers, snow cleanup crews, construction workers, police officers and firefighters. Other workers who may be affected by exposure to environmental cold conditions include those in transit, baggage handlers, water transportation, landscaping services, and support activities for oil and gas operations. Risk factors for cold stress include: What constitutes cold stress and its effects can vary across different areas of the country. In regions that are not used to winter weather, near freezing temperatures are considered factors for "cold stress." Increased wind speed also causes heat to leave the body more rapidly (wind chill effect). Wetness or dampness, even from body sweat, also facilitates heat loss from the body. Cold stress occurs by driving down the skin temperature, and eventually the internal body temperature. When the body is unable to warm itself, serious cold-related illnesses and injuries may occur, and permanent tissue damage and death may result. Types of cold stress include: trench foot, frostbite, and hypothermia. For more information, see OSHA's Cold Stress Safety and Health Guide. Although OSHA does not have a specific standard that covers working in cold environments, under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970, employers have a duty to protect workers from recognized hazards, including cold stress hazards, that are causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm in the workplace. Trench foot is a non-freezing injury of the feet caused by prolonged exposure to wet and cold conditions. It can occur in temperatures as high as 60°F if feet are constantly wet. Injury occurs because wet feet lose heat 25-times faster than dry feet. What are they symptoms of trench foot? Reddening skin, tingling, pain, swelling, leg cramps, numbness, and blisters. Frostbite is caused by the freezing of the skin and tissues. Frostbite can cause permanent damage to the body, and in severe cases can lead to amputation. The risk of frostbite is increased in people with reduced blood circulation and among people who are not dressed properly for extremely cold temperatures. What are the symptoms of frostbite? Reddened skin develops gray/white patches in the fingers, toes, nose, or ear lobes; tingling, aching, a loss of feeling, firm/hard, and blisters may occur in the affected areas. Hypothermia occurs when the normal body temperature (98.6°F) drops to less than 95°F. Exposure to cold temperatures causes the body to lose heat faster than it can be produced. Prolonged exposure to cold will eventually use up the body’s stored energy. The result is hypothermia, or abnormally low body temperature. Hypothermia is most likely at very cold temperatures, but it can occur even at cool temperatures (above 40°F) if a person becomes chilled from rain, sweat, or immersion in cold water. What are the symptoms of hypothermia? An important mild symptom of hypothermia is uncontrollable shivering, which should not be ignored. Although shivering indicates that the body is losing heat, it also helps the body to rewarm itself. Moderate to severe symptoms of hypothermia are loss of coordination, confusion, slurred speech, heart rate/breathing slow, unconsciousness and possibly death. Body temperature that is too low affects the brain, making the victim unable to think clearly or move well. This makes hypothermia particularly dangerous because a person may not know what is happening and won’t be able to do anything about it. Co-workers trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may help a person suffering from hypothermia that has no pulse or is not breathing: *Chest compression are recommended only if the patient will not receive medical care within 3 hours. Outdoor workers exposed to cold and windy conditions are at risk of cold stress, both air temperature and wind speed affect how cold they feel. Wind Chill is the term used to describe the rate of heat loss from the human body, resulting from the combined effect of low air temperature, and wind speed. The Wind Chill Temperature is a single value that takes both air temperature, and wind speed into account. For example, when the air temperature is 40°F, and the wind speed is 35mph, the wind chill temperature is 28°F; this measurement is the actual effect of the environmental cold on the exposed skin. National Weather Service (NWS) Wind Chill Calculator: With this tool, one may input the air temperature and wind speed, and it will calculate the wind chill temperature. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) developed the following Work/Warm-up Schedule for a 4-hour shift takes both air temperature and wind speed into account, to provide recommendations on scheduling work breaks and ceasing non-emergency work. Blizzard Warning: Issued for sustained or gusty winds of 35 mph or more, and falling or blowing snow creating visibilities at or below 1/4 mile; these conditions should persist for at least 3 hours. Wind Chill Advisory: Issued when wind chill temperatures are expected to be a significant inconvenience to life with prolonged exposure, and, if caution is not exercised, could lead to hazardous exposure. Wind Chill Warning: Issued when wind chill temperatures are expected to be hazardous to life within several minutes of exposure. Winter Storm Warning: Issued when hazardous winter weather in the form of heavy snow, blizzard conditions, heavy freezing rain, or heavy sleet is imminent or occurring. Winter Storm Warnings are usually issued 12 to 24 hours before the event is expected to begin. Winter Storm Watch: Alerts the public to the possibility of a blizzard, heavy snow, heavy freezing rain, or heavy sleet. Winter Storm watches are usually issued 12 to 48 hours before the beginning of a Winter Storm. Winter Weather Advisories: Issued for accumulations of snow, freezing rain, freezing drizzle, and sleet which will cause significant inconveniences and, if caution is not exercised, could lead to life threatening situations. For a printable version of the Work/Warm-up Schedule, please print the PDF version that is available as a separate button/link on the web page. 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“The noblest pleasure is the joy of understanding.” – Leonardo da Vinci Welcome to part one of the Ultimate VBA Tutorial. If you are brand new to VBA, then make sure that you have read the post How To Create a Macro From Scratch in Excel so that your environment is set up correctly to run macros. In this tutorial you will learn how to create real-world macros. The focus is on learning by doing. This tutorial has coding examples and activities to help you on your way. You will find a quiz at the end of the tutorial. You can use this to test your knowledge and see how much you have learned. In part one of the tutorial we will concentrate on the basics of creating Excel macros. See the next sections for the learning outcomes and for tips on getting started with VBA. - 1 Learning Outcomes - 2 6 Tips For Learning VBA - 3 Basic Terms and What They Mean - 4 Tip for the Activities - 5 Creating a Module - 6 How to Use Subs - 7 Writing values to cells - 8 Cells in Different Sheets - 9 The Code Name of the Worksheet - 10 The With keyword - 11 Copying values between multiple cells - 12 How to Use Variables - 13 End of Tutorial Assignment - 14 Tutorial One Quiz - 15 Conclusion of Tutorial One When you finish this tutorial you will be able to: - Create a module - Create a sub - Understand the difference between a module and sub - Run the code in a sub - Write a value to a cell - Copy the value from one cell to another - Copy values from one range of cells to another - Copy values between difference worksheets - Test your output using the Immediate Window - Write code faster using the With Statement - Create and use variables - Copy from a cell to a variable and vice versa Before we get started, let’s look at some simple tips that will help you on your journey. 6 Tips For Learning VBA - Practice, Practice, Practice – Don’t try to learn by reading. Try the examples and activities. - Type the code examples instead of copying and pasting – this will help you understand the code better. - Have a clearly defined target for learning VBA. One you will know when you reach. - Don’t be put off by errors. They help you write proper code. - Start by creating simple macros for your work. Then create more complex ones as you get better. - Don’t be afraid to work through each tutorial more than once.The more times you do it the more deeply embedded the knowledge will become. Basic Terms and What They Mean Excel Macros: A macro is a group of programming instructions we use to create automated tasks. VBA: VBA is the programming language we use to create macros. It is short for Visual Basic for Applications. Line of code: This a VBA instruction. Generally speaking, they perform one task. Sub: A sub is made up of one or more lines of code. When we “Run” the sub, VBA goes through all the lines of code and carries out the appropriate actions. A macro and a sub are essentially the same thing. Module: A module is simply a container for our subs. A module contains subs which in turn contain lines of code. There is no limit(within reason) to the number of modules in a workbook or the number of subs in a module. VBA Editor: This is where we write our code. Pressing Alt + F11 switches between Excel and the Visual Basic Editor. If the Visual Basic editor is not currently open then pressing Alt + F11 will automatically open it. The screenshot below show the main parts of the Visual Basic Editor Tip for the Activities When you are working on the activities it is a good idea to close all other Excel workbooks. Creating a Module In Excel, we use the VBA language to create macros. VBA stands for Visual Basic for Applications. When we use the term Excel Macros we are referring to VBA. The term macro is essentially another name for a sub. Any time you see the terms Excel Macros or VBA just remember they are referring to the same thing. In VBA we create lines of instructions for VBA to process. We place the lines of code in a sub. These subs are stored in modules. We can place our subs in the module of the worksheet. However, we generally only place code for worksheet events here. In VBA, we create new modules to hold most of our subs. So for our first activity let’s go ahead and create a new module. - Open a new blank workbook in Excel. - Open the Visual Basic Editor(Alt + F11). - Go to the Project – VBAProject window on the left(Ctrl + R if it is not visible). - Right-click on the workbook and click Insert and then Module. - Click on Module1 in the Project – VBAProject window. - In the Properties window in the bottom left(F4 if not visible), change the module name from module1 to MyFirstModule. End of Activity 1 The module is where you place your code. It is simply a container for code and you don’t use it for anything else. You can think of a module like a section in a bookshop. It’s sole purpose is to store books and having similar books in a particular section makes the overall shop more organised. The main window(or code window) is where the code is written. To view the code for any module including the worksheets you can double-click on the item in the Project – VBAProject window. Let’s do this now so you can become familiar with the code window. - Open a new workbook and create a new module like you did in the last activity. - Double-click on the new module in the Project – VBAProject window. - The code window for this module will open. You will see the name in the title bar of Visual Basic. End of Activity 2 You can have as many modules as you like in a workbook and as many subs as you like within a module. It’s up to you how you want to name the modules and how you organise your subs within your modules. How to Use Subs A line of code is the instruction(s) we give to VBA. We group the lines of code into a sub. We place these subs in a module. We create a sub so that VBA will process the instructions we give it. To do this we get VBA to Run the sub. When we select Run Sub from the menu, VBA will go through the lines of code in the sub and process them one at a time in the order they have been placed. Let’s go ahead and create a sub. Then afterwards, we will have a look at the lines of code and what they do. - Take the module you created in the last activity or create a new one. - Select the module by double-clicking on it in the Project – VBAProject window. Make sure the name is visible in the title bar. - Enter the following line in the code window and press enter. - VBA will automatically add the second line End Sub. We place our code between these two lines. - Between these two lines enter the line - Click in the sub to ensure the cursor is placed there. Select Run->Run Sub/Userform from the menu(or press F5). Note: If you don’t place the cursor in the sub, VBA will display a list of available subs to run. - Open Excel(Alt + F11). You will see the value 5 in the cell A1. - Add each of the following lines to your sub, run the sub and check the results. - Create a new Excel workbook. - Manually add values to the cells in sheet1 as follows: 20 to C1 and 80 to C2. - Create a new sub called Act4. - Write code to place the value from C1 in cell A1. - Write code to place the result of C2 + 50 in cell A2. - Write code to multiply the values in cells C1 and C2. Place the results in cell A3. - Run the code. Cells should have the values A1 20, A2 130 and A3 1600 - Add a new worksheet to the workbook from the last activity. You should now have two worksheets called which are called Sheet1 and Sheet2. - Create a new sub call Act5. - Add code to copy the value from C1 on Sheet1 to cell A1 on Sheet2. - Add code to place the result from C1 + C2 on Sheet1 to cell A2 on Sheet2. - Add code to place the result from C1 * C2 on Sheet1 to cell A3 on Sheet2. - Run the code in the sub(F5). Cells on Sheet2 should have the values as follows: C1 20, C2 100 and C3 1600 Sheet1.Range("A1") = 5 You have created a sub! Let’s take it for a test drive. Sheet1.Range("B1") = "Some text" Sheet1.Range("C3:E5") = 5.55 Sheet1.Range("F1") = Now You should see “Some text” in cells B1, 5.55 in the cells C3 to E5 and the current time and date in the cell F1. End of Activity 3 Writing values to cells Let’s look at the line of code we used in the previous section Sheet1.Range("A1") = 5 We can also write this line like this Sheet1.Range("A1").Value = 5 However in most cases we don’t need to use Value as this is the default property. We use lines of code like these to assign(.i.e. copy) values between cells and variables. VBA evaluates the right of the equals sign and places the result in the variable/cell/range that is to the left of the equals. The line is saying “the left cell\variable\range will now be equal to the result of the item on the right”. Let’s look the part of the code to the left of the equals sign Sheet1.Range("A1") = 5 In this code , Sheet1 refers to the code name of the worksheet. We can only use the code name to reference worksheets in the workbook containing the code. We will look at this in the section The code name of the worksheet. When we have the reference to a worksheet we can use the Range property of the worksheet to write to a range of one or more cells. Using a line like this we can copy a value from one cell to another. Here are some more examples Sub CopyValues() ' copies the value from C2 to A1 Sheet1.Range("A1") = Sheet1.Range("C2") ' copies the value from D6 to A2 Sheet1.Range("A2") = Sheet1.Range("D6") ' copies the value from B1 on sheet2 to A3 on sheet1 Sheet1.Range("A3") = Sheet2.Range("B1") ' writes result of D1 + D2 to A4 Sheet1.Range("A4") = Sheet2.Range("D1") + Sheet2.Range("D2") End Sub Now it’s your turn to try some examples. Copying between cells is a fundamental part of Excel VBA, so understanding this will really help you on your path to VBA mastery. Sub Act4() Sheet1.Range("A1") = Sheet1.Range("C1") Sheet1.Range("A2") = Sheet1.Range("C2") + 50 Sheet1.Range("A3") = Sheet1.Range("C1") * Sheet1.Range("C2") End Sub End of Activity 4 Cells in Different Sheets We can easily copy between cells on difference worksheets. It is very similar to how we copy cells on the same worksheet. The only difference is the worksheet names which we use in our code. In the next activity we are going to write between cells on different worksheets. Sub Act5() Sheet2.Range("A1") = Sheet1.Range("C1") Sheet2.Range("A2") = Sheet1.Range("C1") + Sheet1.Range("C2") Sheet2.Range("A3") = Sheet1.Range("C1") * Sheet1.Range("C2") End Sub End of Activity 5 The Code Name of the Worksheet In the activities so far, we have been using the default names of the worksheet such as Sheet1 and Sheet2. It is better practice to give these sheets more meaningful names. We do this by changing the code name of the worksheet. Let’s look at the code name and what it is. When you look in the Project – VBAProject window for a new workbook you will see Sheet1 both inside and outside of parenthesis. - Sheet1 on the left is the code name of the worksheet. - Sheet1 on the right(in parenthesis) is the worksheet name. This is the name you see on the tab in Excel. The code name has the following attributes - We can use it to directly reference the worksheet as we have been doing e.g. - If the worksheet name is changed our code will still work if we are using the code name to refer to the sheet. Note: We can only use the code name if the worksheet is in the same workbook as our code. The worksheet name has the following attributes - To reference the worksheet using the worksheet name we need to use the worksheets collection of the workbook. e.g. - If the worksheet name changes then we need to change the name in our code. For example, if we changed the name of our sheet from Sheet1 to Data then we would need to change the above code as follows We can only change the code name in the Properties window. We can change the worksheet name from both the worksheet tab in Excel and from the Properties window. In the next activity we will change the code name of the worksheet. - Open a new blank workbook and go to the Visual Basic editor. - Click on Sheet1 in the Project – VBAProject Window(Ctrl + R if not visible). - Go to the Properties window(F4 if not visible). - Change the code name of the worksheet to shReport. - Create a new module and call it modAct6. - Add following sub and run it(F5) - Then add following sub and run it(F5) - Cell A1 should now have the value 66 and cell B2 should have the value 55. - Change the name of the worksheet in Excel to Report i.e. right-click on the worksheet tab and rename. - Delete the contents of the cells and run the UseCodename code again. The code should still run correctly. - Run the UseWorksheetname sub again. You will get the error “Subscript out of Range”. This crytically sounding error simply means that there is no worksheet called Sheet1 in the worksheets collection. - Change the code as follows and run it again. The code will now run correctly. Sub UseCodename() shReport.Range("A1") = 66 End Sub Sub UseWorksheetname() ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Sheet1").Range("B2") = 55 End Sub Sub UseWorksheetname() ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Report").Range("B2") = 55 End Sub End of Activity 6 The With keyword You may have noticed that we need to use the worksheet name repeatedly – each time we refer to a range in our code. Imagine there was a simpler way of writing the code. Where we could just mention the worksheet name once and VBA would apply to any range we used after that. The good news is we can do exactly that using the With statement. In VBA we can take any item before a full stop and use the With statement on it. Let’s rewrite some code using the With statement. The following code is pretty similar to what we have been using so far Sheet1.Range("A1") = Sheet1.Range("C1") Sheet1.Range("A2") = Sheet1.Range("C2") + 50 Sheet1.Range("A3") = Sheet1.Range("C1") * Sheet1.Range("C2") Let’s update this code using the With statement With Sheet1 .Range("A1") = .Range("C1") .Range("A2") = .Range("C2") + 50 .Range("A3") = .Range("C1") * .Range("C2") End With We use With and the worksheet to start the section. Anywhere VBA finds a full stop it knows to use the worksheet before it. We can use the With statement with other types of objects in VBA including workbooks, ranges, charts and so on. We signify the end of the With section by using the line End With. Indenting(Tabbing) the Code You will notice that the lines of code between the start and end With statments are tabbed once to right. We call this indenting the code. We always indent the code between VBA sections that have a starting line and end line. Examples of these are as subs, the With statement, the If statement and the For loop. You can tab the lines of code to the right by selecting the appropriate lines of code and pressing the Tab key. Pressing Shift and Tab will tab to the left. Tabbing(or indenting) is useful because it makes our code more readable. - Rewrite the following code using the With statement. Don’t forget to indent the code. Sub UseWith() Sheet1.Range("A1") = Sheet1.Range("B3") * 6 Sheet1.Cells(2, 1) = Sheet1.Range("C2") + 50 Sheet1.Range("A3") = Sheet2.Range("C3") End Sub Sub UseWith() With Sheet1 .Range("A1") = .Range("B3") * 6 .Cells(2, 1) = .Range("C2") + 50 .Range("A3") = Sheet2.Range("C3") End With End Sub End of Activity 7 Copying values between multiple cells You can copy the values from one range of cells to another range of cells as follows Sheet2.Range("A1:D4") = Sheet2.Range("G2:I5").Value It is very important to notice than we use the Value property of the source range. If we leave this out it will write blank values to our destination range. ' the source cells will end up blank because Value is missing Sheet2.Range("A1:D4") = Sheet2.Range("G2:I5") The code above is a very efficient way to copy values between cells. When people are new to VBA they often think they need to use some form of select, copy and paste to copy cell values. However these are slow, cumbersome and unnecessary. It is important that both the destination and source ranges are the same size. - If the destination range is smaller then only cell in the range will be filled. This is different to copy/pasting where we only need to specify the first destination cell and Excel will fill in the rest. - If the destination range is larger the extra cells will be filled with #N/A. - Create a new blank workbook in Excel. - Add a new worksheet to this workbook so there are two sheets – Sheet1 and Sheet2. - Add the following data to the range C2:E4 on Sheet1 - Write code to copy the data from Sheet1 to the range B3:D5 on Sheet2. - Run the code(F5). - Clear the results and then change the assignment range to be smaller than the source range. Run again and check the results. - Clear the results and then change the assignment range to be larger than the source range. Run again and check the results. Sub CopyMultipleCells() Sheet2.Range("B3:D5") = Sheet1.Range("C2:E4").Value End Sub End of Activity 8 Transposing a Range of Cells If you need to transpose the date(convert from row to column and vice versa) you can use the WorksheetFunction Transpose. Place the values 1 to 4 in the cells A1 to A4. The following code will write the values to E1 to H1 Sheet1.Range("E1:H1") = WorksheetFunction.Transpose(Sheet1.Range("A1:A4").Value) The following code will read from E1:H1 to L1:L4 Sheet1.Range("L1:L4") = WorksheetFunction.Transpose(Sheet1.Range("E1:H1").Value) You will notice that these lines are long. We can split one line over multiple lines by using the underscore(_) e.g. Sheet1.Range("E1:H1") = _ WorksheetFunction.Transpose(Sheet1.Range("A1:A4").Value) Sheet1.Range("L1:L4") = _ WorksheetFunction.Transpose(Sheet1.Range("E1:H1").Value) We can also use a double With statement to make this line neater With Sheet1 With WorksheetFunction .Range("E1:H1") = .Transpose(.Range("A1:A4").Value) .Range("L1:L4") = .Transpose(.Range("E1:H1").Value) End With End With How to Use Variables Variables are an essential part of every programming language. So what are they and why do you need them? Variables are like cells in memory. We use them to store temporary values while our code is running. We do three things with variables - Declare(i.e. Create) the variable. - Store a value in the variable. - Read the value stored in the variable. The variables types we use are the same as the data types we use in Excel. The table below shows the common variables. There are other types but you will rarely use them. In fact you will probably use Long and String for 90% of your variables. \|Boolean\|\|Can be true or false only\| \|Currency\|\|same as decimal but with 4 decimal places only\| \|Date\|\|Use for date/time\| \|Double\|\|Use for decimals\| \|Long\|\|Use for integers\| \|String\|\|Use for text\| \|Variant\|\|VBA will decide the type at runtime\| Before we use variables we should create them. If we don’t then we can run into various problems. By default, VBA doesn’t make you declare variables. However, we should turn this behaviour on as it will save us a lot of pain in the long run. To turn on “Require Variable Declaration” we add the following line to the top of our module To get VBA to automatically add this line, select Tools->Options from the menu and check Require Variable Declaration. Anytime you create a new module, VBA will add this line to the top. Declaring a variable is simple. We use the format as follows Dim variable_name As Type We can use anything we like as the variable name. The type is one of the types from the table above. Here are some examples of declarations Dim Total As Long Dim Point As Double Dim Price As Currency Dim StartDate As Date Dim CustomerName As String Dim IsExpired As Boolean Dim Item As Variant To place a value in a variable we use the same type of statement we previously used to place a value in a cell. That is, the statement with the equals sign. Dim Total As Long Total = 1 Dim Price As Currency Price = 29.99 Dim StartDate As Date StartDate = #1/21/2018# Dim CustomerName As String CustomerName = "John Smith" - Create a new sub and call it UsingVariables. - Declare a variable for storing a count and set the value to 5. - Declare a variable for storing the ticket price and set the value to 99.99. - Declare a variable for storing a country and set the value to “Spain”. - Declare a variable for storing the end date and set the value to 21st March 2020. - Declare a variable for storing if something is completed. Set the value to False. Sub UsingVariables() Dim count As Long count = 5 Dim ticketprice As Currency ticketprice = 99.99 Dim country As String country = "Spain" Dim enddate As Date enddate = #3/21/2020# Dim iscompleted As Boolean iscompleted = False End Sub End of Activity 9 The Immediate Window VBA has a real nifty tool that allows us to check our output. This tool is the Immediate Window. By using the Debug.Print we can write values, text and results of calculations to the Immediate Window. To view this window you can select View->Immediate Window from the menu or press Ctrl + G. The values will be written even if the Immediate Window is not visible. We can use the Immediate Window to write out our variables so as to check the values they contain. If we update the code from the last activity we can write out the values of each variable. Run the code below and check the result in the Immediate Window(Ctrl + G if not visible). Sub WritingToImmediate() Dim count As Long count = 5 Debug.Print count Dim ticketprice As Currency ticketprice = 99.99 Debug.Print ticketprice Dim country As String country = "Spain" Debug.Print country Dim enddate As Date enddate = #3/21/2020# Debug.Print enddate Dim iscompleted As Boolean iscompleted = False Debug.Print iscompleted End Sub The Immediate is very useful for testing output before we write it to worksheets. We will be using it a lot in these tutorials. Writing between variables and cells We can write and read values between cells and cells, cells and variables,and variables and variables using the assignment line we have seen already. Here are some examples Sub VariablesCells() Dim price1 As Currency, price2 As Currency ' place value from A1 to price1 price1 = Sheet1.Range("A1") ' place value from price1 to price2 price2 = price1 ' place value from price2 to cell b2 Sheet1.Range("B2") = price2 ' Print values to Immediate window Debug.Print "Prince 1 is " & price1 Debug.Print "Prince 2 is " & price2 End Sub - Create a blank workbook and a worksheet so it has two worksheets: Sheet1 and Sheet2. - Place the text “New York” in cell A1 on Sheet1. Place the number 49 in cell C1 on Sheet2. - Create a sub that reads the values into variables from these cells. - Add code to write the values to the Immediate window. Sub Act10() Dim city As String city = Sheet1.Range("A1") Dim number As Long number = sheet2.Range("C1") Debug.Print "The city is " & city Debug.Print "The number is " & number End Sub End of Activity 10 Type Mismatch Errors You may be wondering what happens if you use an incorrect type. For example, what happens if you read the number 99.55 to a Long(integer) variable type. What happens is that VBA does it best to convert the variable. So if we assign the number 99.55 to a Long type, VBA will convert it to an integer. In the code below it will round the number to 100. Dim i As Long i = 99.55 VBA will pretty much convert between any number types e.g. Sub Conversion() Dim result As Long result = 26.77 result = "25" result = 24.55555 result = "24.55" Dim c As Currency c = 23 c = "23.334" result = 24.55 c = result End Sub However, even VBA has it’s limit. The following code will result in Type Mismatch errors as VBA cannot convert the text to a number Sub Conversion() Dim result As Long result = "26.77A" Dim c As Currency c = "a34" End Sub Tip: The Type Mismatch error is often caused by a user accidently placing text a cell that should have numeric data. - Declare a Double variable type called amount. - Assign a value the causes a Type Mismatch error. - Run the code and ensure the error occurs. The following is one possible way of causing the error. Dim amount As Double amount = "a" End of Activity 11 End of Tutorial Assignment We’ve covered a lot of stuff in this tutorial. So let’s put it all together in the following assignment Tutorial One Assignment I have created a simple workbook for this assignment. You can download it using the link below Open the assignment workbook. You will place your code here - Create a module and call it Assignment1. - Create a sub called Top5Report to write the data in all the columns from the top 5 countries to the Top 5 section in the Report worksheet. This is the range starting at B3 on the Report worksheet. Use the code name to refers to the worksheets. - Create a sub call AreaReport to write all the areas size to the All the Areas section in the Report worksheet. This is the range H3:H30. Use the worksheet name to refer to the worksheets. - Create a sub called ImmediateReport as follows, read the area and population from Russia to two variables. Print the population per square kilometre(pop/area) to the Immediate Window. - Create a new worksheet and call it areas. Set the code name to be shAreas. Create a sub called RowsToCols that reads all the areas in D2:D11 from Countries worksheet and writes them to the range A1:K1 in the new worksheet Areas. Sub Top5Report() shReport.Range("B3:E7") = shCountries.Range("B2:E6").Value End Sub Sub AreaReport() ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Report").Range("H3:H30") = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Countries").Range("D2:D29").Value End Sub Sub ImmediateReport() Dim area As Long, population As Long area = shCountries.Range("D2") population = shCountries.Range("E2") Debug.Print "The Population per square KM is " & population / area End Sub Sub RowsToColls() shAreas.Range("A1:J1") = WorksheetFunction.Transpose(shCountries.Range("E2:E11")) End Sub End of Tutorial Assignment The following quiz is based on what we covered this tutorial. Tutorial One Quiz - What are the two main differences between the code name and the worksheet name? - The code name can be referenced directly in the code. - To reference the worksheet name, you need to use the worksheets collection. - Code using the code name will still work if the worksheet name changes. - Code using the worksheet name will give a “subscript out of range” error if the worksheet name changes. - What is the last line of a Sub? - What statement shortens our code by allowing us to write the object once but refer to it multiple times? - What does the following code do? - What does the following code do? - What is the output from the following code? - What is the output from the following code? - If we have 1,2 and 3 in the cells A1,A2 and A3 respectively, what is the result of the following code? - What does the shortcut key Alt + F11 do? - In the following code we declare a variable but do not assign it a value. what is the output of the Debug.Print statement? The With Statement Sheet1.Range("D1") = result It writes the value in variable result to the cell D1 Sheet1.Range("A1:C3") = Sheet2.Range("F1:H3") It sets the range of cells A1 to C3 to be blank. The code is missing the Value property. To copy the values it should read as follows Sheet1.Range("A1:C3") = Sheet2.Range("F1:H3").Value Dim amount As Long amount = 7 Debug.Print (5 + 6) * amount The output is 77 Dim amt1 As Long, amt2 As Long amt1 = "7.99" Debug.Print amt1 amt2 = "14a" Debug.Print amt2 The first Debug.Print writes the value 8 to the Immediate window. The am2 = line results in a Type Mismatch error. Sheet1.Range("B1:B4") = Sheet1.Range("A1:A3").Value The code places 1 in cell B1, 2 in cell B2, 3 in cell B3 and #N/A in cell B4. It opens the Visual Basic from Excel. If the editor is open it simply switches to it. If you press Alt + F11 in Visual Basic it will switch to Excel. Dim amt As Long Debug.Print amt The output is zero. When we declare a numeric variable it is given a default value of zero. Conclusion of Tutorial One Congratulations on finishing tutorial one. If you have completed the activities and the quiz then you will have learned some important concepts that will stand to you as you work with VBA. In the Tutorial 2, we are going to deal with ranges where the column or row may differ each time the application runs. In this tutorial, we will cover - How to get the last row or column with data. - The amazingly efficient CurrentRegion property. - How to use flexbile rows and columns. - When to use Range and when to use Cells. - and much more… See you in Tutorial 2(coming soon!!!) Note: The For Loop will make an appearance in Tutorial 3.
Definition of Hyperbole Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below. Common Examples of Hyperbole - My grandmother is as old as the hills. - Your suitcase weighs a ton! - She is as heavy as an elephant! - I am dying of shame. - I am trying to solve a million issues these days. Let us see some examples from Classical English literature in which hyperbole was used successfully. Examples of Hyperbole from Literature In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan’s stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying: “Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before.” Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter and then warming up of the words in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole that have been effectively used by Paul Bunyan in this short excerpt. From William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth”, Act II, Scene II, “Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red.” Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the blood of the king off his hands. We can notice the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines. From W.H Auden’s poem “As I Walked One Evening”, I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I’ll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry The use of hyperbole can be noticed in the above lines. The meeting of China and Africa, the jumping of the river over the mountain, singing of salmon in the street, and the ocean being folded and hung up to be dried are exaggerations not possible in real life. From “The Adventures of Pinocchio” written by C. Colloid, “He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway hills…” The crying of Pinocchio all night until his tears became dry is an example of Hyperbole. From Joseph Conrad’s novel “The Heart of Darkness”, “I had to wait in the station for ten days-an eternity.” The wait of ten days seemed to last forever and never end. Function of Hyperbole The above arguments make clear the use of hyperbole. In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect. However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader’s attention.
Discussion about the program At the first line, defun is an auto lisp command, which is used to define a user define function. The word after the letter C: is used to call the function from autocad. Here it is flywheel, so after loading the program, if you type flywheel at the command prompt of autocad, the whole program should be executed. Please note that the defun function starts with “(“at the first line of the program and ends with the “)" at the last line of the program. Another important command used here is setq, it is used for assigning something to a variable. Say, you want to assign 5 with the variable X, and then you may have to go like: (setq X 5) getpoint, getdist and getint are used for getting user inputs in terms of points, distances and integer values respectively. Command function is used for using autocad commands in auto lisp codes. Observe the individual autocad command behavior carefully before using it with command function. We have used the loop statement repeat in order to draw multiple circles as per user inputs. Syntax of the repeat is: (repeat n expr...]) n indicates the number of times the expr.. needs to be repeated. Expr.. Typically are the combinations of auto lisp codes to be executed under repetition cycles. In our case, we have created for holes for bolting the flywheel. The program discussed here is just an approach to write auto lisp codes for your specific needs and there are many number of combinations of codes are possible to achieve a task.
West Nile Virus (WNV) was first identified in East Africa more than 70 years ago and was largely in that area until the 1990s, when it began spreading throughout , Europe, and the Americas. There is no against West , and prevention is still considered the best way of protecting yourself. Also, it is very important to understand the causes and of this infection. What is West Nile Virus? This zoonotic arbovirus is transmitted by a primary vector of West Nile virus is a mosquito it is particularly hard to prevent, especially if you live in a swampy or mosquito- .which has previously an infected bird, then biting a person. Since the Approximately 80% of people infected with West Nile virus will show no symptoms, but regular symptoms include: Less than 1% of those infected develop serious symptoms, which can be fatal if not treated properly. These more serious symptoms often manifest in , including encephalitis and meningitis, both of which directly affect the and can result in death, as well as or West Nile fever ( the most common symptom that affects approximately 20% of infected ).
What is a Strong Password? Using a strong password is the first step in protecting your information. Strong password advice has been around the block more than a couple of times. Strong passwords really come down to 3 things: - Length of password - Randomness (hard to guess) - Easy for you to remember These qualities create password entropy, which is how unpredictable a password is and the difficulty for someone/computer to figure it out (crack). Breaking down how a Strong Password is made Length of password Passwords should be as long as you can make them and still remember. The longer the better. Why? Simply put, adding length increases the computational difficulty to crack a password. Passwords should always be greater than 8 characters. Randomness (hard to guess) Password should be random and include at least one each of the following; uppercase, lowercase, symbol and numeric. Why? The more random a password is increases the computational difficulty to crack a password. Adding uppercase, lowercase, symbol and numeric help ensure that a password is random. Easy for you to remember Passwords should be easy for you remember so you can use it. How do I make a Strong Password with these qualities? One way to make a Strong Password with these qualities that is Easy for you to remember and very Random (hard to guess) is selecting an easy-to-remember piece of information such as a phrase, lyric, or favorite saying and change it into a strong password. For example, pick a phrase that is meaningful to you, such as “I was born in a car on July 4 1901” Using that phrase as your guide for a password and include the (3) three qualities. Good Example “ iWbiacoJul4,01” Why? Good because it is random (includes at lease one each of uppercase,lowercase, symbol and numeric), easy to remember and length is greater than 8. Bad Example “iwbj4/1” Why? Bad because, although it is very random and easy to remember, the length is too short. Password should never be less than 8 characters and the standard is moving towards 12 characters as computing power increases. Bad Example “Tr0mBon3!” Why? Bad because, although it seems random and easy to remember, common substitution of numbers and symbols for a single word is not difficult to crack. A password should never use common substitutions made from a single word. In this example swapping upper and lower case with the same letters (letter "T" for "t" and "B" for "b"), using a zero (0) for the letter "o" and the number three (3) for the letter "e" are common substitutions. Also, adding a symbol such as an exclamation mark ( ! ) or numbers to the end of a common word does not increase the randomness. Ok, I got it. So how do I update my Suffolk Password? - Go to Umail at https://umail.suffolk.edu and click Change Password - On the Change Password Screen enter your network/email User name, Current old password and your New Strong Password. Then click Submit. - Your new password will be effective immediately. You will need to update all devices that use this password. This would include your University desktops, Suffolk WiFi access and devices such as your smart device, tablets, laptops. - Never share your passwords with anyone - Suffolk University, Information Technology Services (ITS) and ITS third-party service providers will NEVER ask for your account passwords - If in doubt about a web link don't click, instead type it in the web address yourself and make sure it is a valid web address / URL that you are browsing to. You should never circumvent password entry with auto logon, application remembering, embedded scripts or hard-coded passwords in client software, except for University email, which is password secured by the overlaying operating system on University User workstations or smart devices. Computing devices must not be left unattended without enabling a password-protected screensaver or logging off of the device. Smart devices such as smart phones should be set to auto lock and require a password or pin to unlock. Laptops and personal smart devices should always be under your control and should be secured when not being used. If you suspect or have reason to know that the security of a password may be compromised, the password must be changed immediately. Under such circumstances, you should immediately report the discovery to the Suffolk University ITS Service Desk (617) 557-2000. Need Additional Assistance Please contact the Service Desk Email us at or call 617-557-2000 (2000 on campus) For information about Walk-in Support, http://www.suffolk.edu/explore/60186.php
Hundreds of millions of monarch butterflies spend the winter months in the oyamel fir tree forests of central Mexico, painting the verdant woods with bright patches of orange. The mountain sanctuaries are largely protected by federal decree, yet the forest is still being degraded by illegal logging, agriculture, and even tourism. A program launched in 2002 aims at saving the monarch's winter haven by providing financial incentives for sparing trees, rather than chopping them down. The threats monarchs face when they fly north from Mexico are less well documented, mainly because the butterflies disperse themselves widely throughout the United States and Canada. Environmentalists would like to know where the insects breed to establish the most sensible conservation priorities. For the past 30 years, monarch watchers have tracked migrations by placing adhesive tags on butterfly wings. This strategy, unfortunately, suffers from a low return, as only about one in a thousand tagged butterflies is ever recovered. Canadian researchers Leonard Wassenaar and Keith Hobson think there's a better way: Every butterfly, they say, carries its own chemical tag—with distinct concentrations of hydrogen and carbon isotopes—that can identify its birthplace. The idea behind the tags is that water of a particular locale has a characteristic isotopic pattern that gets incorporated in milkweed plants, monarch catterpillar's main food, and is eventually incorporated in the tissue of adult butterflies. Wassenaar and Hobson showed that half the butterflies examined in Mexico were born in a limited part of the breeding range—a band of midwestern states ranging from Kansas to Ohio. That's the region where conservation efforts would yield the biggest payoff, they note. The technique is not restricted to monarchs. A 1998 Science report coauthored by Hobson showed that the breeding success of a migratory songbird, the American redstart, depended on the quality of their winter habitat in Jamaica, which was reflected in the isotopic signature of carbon. Birds that spent their winters in poor, dry habitats—as opposed to moist, fertile accommodations—fared poorly the next summer when they attempted to breed in New Hampshire. Efforts to save whooping cranes, the most endangered of the world's 15 crane subspecies, offer a rare instance of animals learning about migration by watching what human do. Starting in 2001, humans flying ultralight aircraft have led whooping crane chicks on their first migratory flight south from a wildlife refuge in Wisconsin to a newly-created wintering habitat in a Florida preserve--a 1,200-mile journey.
\|Writing a Lab Report Many advanced science classes include a lab component. Lab reports are an important part of your grade in these classes. Some teachers provide a format they want you to use when writing a lab report. Here is a format you can follow when your teacher does not provide a format. Make your title short and to the point (try to keep it less than ten words). Your title should immediately tell the reader what your report is about. The introduction to your report should consist of a single paragraph in which you provide an overview of the experiment you conducted. Write the introduction in a style that will motivate the reader to read the rest of your report. It is important to specify the purpose of your experiment and state your hypothesis in this section. Include any background information that will help the reader better understand your report. Include only background information that is pertinent to your experiment. Materials and Methods Describe in your own words the procedure you followed to perform your experiment. Clearly describe all of the steps you completed. Include information about all of the materials you used to conduct your experiment. While this section of your report must be detailed, be careful not to overwhelm the reader with too much detail. A good rule of thumb to follow is that the reader should be able to repeat your experiment without further instructions. Keep in mind, however, that you are describing what you did in this section, not writing a set of directions. This section is the “meat” of a lab report. Here is where you provide the raw data from your experiment (raw data is the actual measured values you recorded during your experiment). Describe in words what your data means. Include graphs, tables, and figures as appropriate. Be sure that any of these visual aids you provide have descriptive titles, and show the units of data entries clearly. Discussion and Conclusions In this section you present an interpretation of your data to determine whether or not your hypothesis was accepted or rejected. You should relate your findings to existing theory and knowledge that is relevant to your experiment. Unlike the Results section, which must be straightforward, you can engage in speculation in this section. For example, you might talk about how your experiment might have been improved or what might have happened had you changed your procedures in some way. It is even appropriate to acknowledge any mistakes you may have made. As for any written paper, you must list all articles or books that you cited in your report. Using the format described above will make it easier for you to write a good lab report.
The study, published in the November issue of Nature, is the first to suggest that ocean tides contributed to enigmatic Heinrich events, a phenomenon where colossal discharges of icebergs periodically flowed into the North Atlantic from about 60,000 to 10,000 years ago. The events occurred during the deep throes of the ice age and the new study shows that tides added to the chill by breaking gigantic icebergs from the ice sheet covering northern Canada. "These findings provide a link between ocean tides, ice sheets and ocean circulation and a measure of the sensitivity of climate during the last ice age," says University of Toronto physics professor Jerry Mitrovica, a co-author of the study. "This sensitivity is important to understand, because the connection between changes in ocean circulation and future climate remains a matter of great interest." To track ancient tides, Mitrovica, lead author Professor Brian Arbic of Princeton University and a team of researchers used a state-of-the-art computer model that captured current open-ocean tidal variances with an unprecedented 92 per cent accuracy. They then inputted ice-age simulations of sea-level changes over time. "The results showed that the tides were highest in the Labrador Sea at the same time the Heinrich events occurred," says Mitrovica. "We can safely assume that the tides played a key role in breaking the ice and launching the icebergs into the ocean." Mitrovica is careful to note that ocean circulation is just one piece of the present-day climatic change puzzle. "As an example, the Antarctic ice sheet weakens due to warming and huge blocks have broken off where tides are highest. Future climatic changes involve many different factors, but it's important to note that in our ice-age past tides defined the weak spot and acted as a catalyst for large climate events." The study was funded by National Sciences Foundation and the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. Other authors include Professor Douglas MacAyeal of the University of Chicago and Glenn Milne of the University of Durham, United Kingdom. CONTACT: Jerry Mitrovica, Department of Physics, 416-978-4946, [email protected] or Karen Kelly, U of T Public Affairs, 416-978-6974, [email protected].
Although the nucleus of an atom is far too small for us to see, here's one way of thinking about an atomic nucleus: as a cluster of tightly packed "balls". The red "balls" represent protons; the blue "balls" represent neutrons. The cloud of electrons that "orbit" an atom's nucleus and define the "size" of an atom is roughly 100,000 times as large as that atom's nucleus! Click on image for full size Original artwork by Windows to the Universe staff (Randy Russell). A neutron is a sub-atomic (meaning it is smaller than an atom) particle. The nucleus of an atom is made up of neutrons and protons. Neutrons and protons are almost exactly the same size (a neutron has about 1/10th of one percent more mass). A neutron does not have an electrical charge, unlike protons (which have a charge of +1) and electrons (which have a charge of -1). Neutrons are much larger than electrons; the mass of a neutron is about 1,839 times that of an electron! The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what type of element the atom is. The number of protons is called the element's "atomic number". For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of one, since all hydrogen atoms have one proton in their nucleus. Carbon has 6 protons, so its atomic number is 6; oxygen has 8 protons, so its atomic number is 8. Uranium has 92 protons, so its atomic number is 92! If we count the number of protons plus neutrons, we get an atom's atomic mass. Most elements come in different versions, called "isotopes", with different numbers of neutrons. For example, the most common form of carbon is carbon-12 (12C); that isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, and thus an atomic mass of twelve. Another isotope of carbon, carbon-14 (14C), has 6 protons and 8 neutrons, hence and atomic mass of fourteen. 14C is radioactive and is used to determine how old things are in a technique called "carbon dating". Neutrons can exist outside of an atoms nucleus. There is a type of particle radiation called neutron radiation. Neutrons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks. A neutron is made up of two down quarks and one up quark. Particles, like neutrons, made of three quarks are called baryons. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store on science education, ranging from evolution , classroom research , and the need for science and math literacy You might also be interested in: An element (also called a "chemical element") is a substance made up entirely of atoms having the same atomic number; that is, all of the atoms have the same number of protons. Hydrogen, helium, oxygen,...more Every atom has a nucleus. The nucleus has protons and neutrons in it. Scientists have a special name for the number of protons in an atom. They call it the "atomic number". There are almost 100 different...more Oxygen (O2) is a kind of gas. A lot of the air you breathe is oxygen. That's a good thing, since we need oxygen to stay alive! About 4/5ths of the air in Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen (N2). Almost all...more One way scientists measure the size of something is by its mass. Mass is sort of like weight. Scientists can even measure very, very tiny things like atoms. One measure of the size of an atom is its "atomic...more Isotopes are different "versions" of an element. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons. All hydrogen atoms have one proton, all carbon atoms have 6 protons, and all uranium atoms have...more Text for this level has not been written yet. Please see the "Intermediate" text for this page if you want to learn about this topic. To get to the "Intermediate" text, click on the blue "Intermediate"...more Neutron Stars form when really big stars die. When such a star runs out of fuel its center begins to collapse under gravity. When the center collapses the entire star collapses. The surface of the star...more
Fir, properly, any of about 40 species of trees constituting the genus Abies of the family Pinaceae, although many other coniferous evergreen trees are commonly called firs—e.g., the Douglas fir, the hemlock fir (see hemlock), and the joint fir (see Ephedra). True firs are native to North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. The firs are distinguished from other genera in the pine family by their leaves. The needlelike leaves of a true fir grow directly from the branch, and the needles’ bases, which are shaped like suction cups, leave conspicuous circular scars when the leaves fall. Each cone is in an upright position, and its spikelike axis remains on the branch after the mature cone falls apart. Each thin, rounded cone scale bears two broadly winged seeds. In North America there are 10 native species of fir, found chiefly from the Rocky Mountains westward and attaining their fullest development in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. Several of these fir species attain immense size: the white fir (A. concolor), the noble fir (A. nobilis), the California red fir (A. magnifica), and the Pacific silver fir (A. amabilis) all can attain a height of 60 m (200 feet). With the exception of the noble fir, the wood of most western American firs is inferior to that of pine or spruce but is used for lumber and pulpwood. Of the two fir species that occur in the eastern United States and Canada, the best known is the balsam fir (Abies balsamea), which is a popular ornamental and Christmas tree. It may be 12 to 18 m (about 40 to 60 feet) tall at maturity, with cones 5 to 10 cm (about 2 to 4 inches) long. Canada balsam, an oleoresin collected from pitch blisters on the balsam fir’s bark, is used to mount specimens on glass slides for microscopic examination. The silver fir (A. alba) is an ornamental and timber species that is native to Europe and Asia. It is a lofty tree, sometimes reaching 45 m (150 feet) in height, with large, spreading, horizontal boughs curving upward toward their extremities. The silver fir is abundant in most of the mountain ranges of southern and central Europe, but it is not found in the northern parts of that continent. Extensive forests of the silver fir are found on the southern Alps, and the tree is plentiful in the Rhineland and on the Apennine and Pyrenees ranges. In Asia it occurs on the Caucasus and Ural mountains and in some parts of the Altai chain. The silver fir has soft wood that is easily worked and is hence much used in carpentry. The tree yields a high-quality turpentine from blisters on its bark. Burgundy pitch and other resin products are also obtained from the silver fir.
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus. (Cecidomyiidae or Itonididae), a family of mosquito-like insects of the order Diptera. The dimensions of the gall midge are small (1-5 mm), and the nervation of the wings is simple. The larvae, which are narrowed at the ends and are red, orange, or green, carry a chitinous sternal spatula on the ventral side. Larvae of the lower Cecidomyiidae develop in the rotting remains of plants, and those of the higher Cecidomyiidae in the tissues of plants, causing the formation of galls (hence the designation “gall midge”); the species of a gall midge is determined according to the species of its plant host and according to the shape of the gall it forms. Adult gall midges live approximately 20 days, and they do not feed. About 3,500 species are known. Gall midges are found in Europe, Asia, and North America. There are about 500 species in the USSR. Because they develop in the tissues of plants, many gall midges cause serious damage to agriculture and forests. The most dangerous species are the Hessian fly; the millet midge; the wheat midge (Contarinia tritici), which damages the ears of rye and wheat; the rye-stem gnat (Hybolasioptera cerealis), which damages the bundles of stalks in many cultivated cereals; the pear midge (Contarinia pyrivora); and the raspberry midge (Lasioptera rubi), which damages horticultural gardens. Protection against gall midges is often very difficult; it is based on agrotechnical and other measures. A. B. LANGE
Univ. of Wisconsin J.D. Univ. of Wisconsin Law school Brian was a geometry teacher through the Teach for America program and started the geometry program at his school Since Pythagorean theorem proofs requires us to square numbers and find square roots, reviewing square root operations from Algebra is really important. When working with the Pythagorean theorem, it is especially important for you to remember how to simplify square roots and rationalize fractions that have a square root in the denominator. When you get to the part of Geometry where you have anything that's being squared, especially with Pythagorean Theorem, you have to go back and remember how to simplify square roots. Let me show you 2 ways of simplifying square root of 84, we'll call this method one and method two. So method one is using the prime factors, so you're going to take whatever is, you're taking the square root of and you're going to find the prime factors. So I'm going to start with 2 and 2 goes in the 84, 42 times so I'm just going to keep factoring and I'm going to circle the numbers that are prime. So I'm going to say this is 2 times 21 and 2 is prime 21 is not but I can break it up into 3 times 7. So using method one, what I'm going to do is I'm going to write my prime factors underneath my square root. So I'm going to say this is 2 times 2 times 3 times 7, and then I'm going to say well what's my invisible number here? And since it's a square root, I could write a 2 in there it's in play. So I want to group my terms in squares, so I'm going to say that 2 times 2 is 2 squared, I don't have another 3 to group the 3 with and I don't have another 7 to group to group the 7 with. And the square root of 2 squared well, if these 2's match then your base is going to come out. So this is kind of a trick, it's not very technical but if something is being squared in a square root your base is going to come out. So that 2 comes out so now we're done with that term and we're left with 3 times 7 which I can say is 21. So this method will always work, it's not very technical because you're not understanding why this base term comes out. The reason it comes out is because taking the square root is the same thing as raising it to the power of one half. So when you have a power to a power remember from Algebra you have to multiply them. So you actually have 2 times one half which is 1, so you're saying that this is 2 to the first times 3 to the one half times 7 to the one half, and one half power is a square root. So that's the reason why this method works. Method 2. Method 2 says if you're great at factoring in your head. What you can do is you can write the square root of 84 and then you have to ask yourself well what's a square number that will multiply into 84. So by square number I'm talking about 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 all those numbers and I see that I can write this as the square root of 4 times the square root of 21. The reason why this works is because we have the square root being multiplied by a square root, you can, multiply the numbers inside and 4 times 21 is 84. And then you can say well, the square root of 4 is just 2 and the square root of 21 I can't factor anymore and there is no whole number square root. So your answer 2 times the square root of 21. So notice that method 2 uses a little bit less room, it's probably little more time efficient but if you are not confident in your factoring you could do the prime factors and use method 1.
Common causes of dying conifers include dehydration, pests, chemical poisoning and diseases such as diplodia tip blight and phomopsis. Other conditions turn conifer needles brown or yellow but do not kill the trees. Periodic dropped needles and episodic color changes are also part of the normal conifer growth cycle.Continue Reading Careful examination often reveals the cause of alarming symptoms and indicates the severity of the problem. The first step is to identify the tree species. This is essential information because it determines what is considered normal. Other important factors include the age of the tree and the season. Many conifers shed their interior needles every autumn. This makes room for new growth and is a natural aspect of the conifer life cycle, but individuals unfamiliar with these trees frequently fear that the they are dying or seriously ill. Color changes in exterior needles are abnormal and often symptomatic of diplodia tip blight, a fungal infection that manifests in springtime and kills new needles. Trees suffering from diplodia tip blight also develop tiny black dots on their branches. The most effective strategy for preventing this condition is to prune wounded and infected branches so the fungus does not incubate in the tree throughout the winter. Sterilizing pruning tools also prevents fungal transmission.Learn more about Trees & Bushes
Water Resources of the Caribbean Island hydrology: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands Allen Zack and Matthew C. Larsen U.S. Geological Survey, GSA Center, Suite 400-15, 651 Federal Drive, Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, 00965-5703, USA When Christopher Columbus sailed into the Caribbean Sea 500 years ago he initiated a profound transformation of the Caribbean islands. Within the next several centuries these forest-covered, humid-tropical islands that extend from Venezuela to Florida became important producers of sugar for the major European powers. This sugar production required importation of a massive labor force, the descendants of whom dominate the region to this day. Island ecology and hydrology prior to 1492 had been adequate to support small populations of mostly Arawak and Taino indians. However, by the 19th century, extensive deforestation began to increase soil erosion and the sediment transported by rivers. By the middle of the 20th century, deforestation in Puerto Rico reached its peak when more than 90 percent of the island forests had been cut. The effects of high population density, and the conversion of tropical forest to agricultural, industrial and residential use has had significant effects on the quality and availability of water for island residents. These effects include the over-utilization of existing water supply, filling of public-supply reservoirs with sediment, and contamination of surface- and ground-water. The hydrology of small tropical islands differs from that of temperate, continental areas. In the West Indies, precipitation, the origin of all freshwater resources, is controlled principally by the easterly tradewinds, the passage of tropical storms, and orographic effects in the islands with high relief. The geology, topography, and relative size of the islands determine the degree to which they collect and retain the rainfall that ultimately provides island water supplies.Sources of water: Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has abundant ground-water and surface-water resources due to relatively heavy rainfall over the mountainous interior of the island and receptive, sedimentary rocks around the island's periphery. These alluvial and limestone formations form an extensive artesian aquifer system on the north coast. Water-table aquifers overly the north coast artesian aquifer and occur at shallow depths along most of Puerto Rico's coastline. Man-made reservoirs located on principal water courses collect runoff and are used for water supply, flood control, and limited hydroelectric power generation. Ground water accounts for about 30 percent of the total amount of water used in Puerto Rico, whereas surface water accounts for about 70 percent.Sources of water: U.S. Virgin Islands In contrast, the three principal U. S. Virgin Islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John are much smaller and of lower maximum elevation than Puerto Rico. The U.S. Virgin Islands therefore receive less rainfall and retain less freshwater for water supplies. The U.S. Virgin Islands have no perennial streams and only limited ground-water resources. Accordingly, 65 percent of freshwater supplies in the U.S. Virgin Islands are provided by energy-consumptive desalinated seawater, making it the most expensive publicly supplied water in the United States, at $4.20 per 1000 liters. The use of fossil fuels for the desalination of seawater is particularly expensive in the U.S. Virgin Islands because all fuel is imported. At present, 22 percent of the freshwater supply originates as ground water and 13 percent is provided from rainfall by rooftop catchments. Recently, the scant ground-water resources that occur in coastal embayment areas have been selectively developed, particularly in St. Croix, and are providing less expensive drinking water to island residents. Where well fields are recharged by downward leakage of the occasional runoff in intermittent streambeds, additional ground water can be recharged to underlying aquifers by constructing retention dams in the streambeds to form small ponds. The additional recharge enabled by retention dams is not without its price, however, as the dams also trap sediment. The sediment must be periodically evacuated or the dams become useless.Pollution problems Contamination in both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from such sources as accidental spills and leaking septic tanks has limited the amount of ground-water and surface-water supplies that can be developed without treatment. In Puerto Rico, only the deep artesian aquifer on the north coast is free of downward percolating contamination. The continued use of the artesian aquifer, however, is threatened by poorly designed and constructed industrial artesian wells. Ruptured or corroded well casings provides hydraulic connection to the overlying water-table aquifer, diminishing artesian pressure and limiting the amount of water available to wells screened in the artesian aquifer. The overlying water-table aquifer has been contaminated in some areas by irresponsible or accidental releases of volatile organic compounds (VOC's) or other toxic wastes. These chemicals have infiltrated soils and entered the shallow ground-water regime along the north coast, as well as many other areas of Puerto Rico. In coastal locations of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands where fresh ground water is withdrawn for water supplies, saline-water encroachment threatens the continued use of fresh ground- water and limits ground-water withdrawals. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, and to a lesser extent in Puerto Rico, leaky septic tanks and inadequate sewage treatment facilities have degraded the quality of near-surface ground-water supplies.Reservoir sedimentation Reservoirs are used throughout most of Puerto Rico for water supply; including the San Juan metropolitan area. Many of the principal reservoirs have become partially filled with sediment since their construction, reducing their effectiveness in providing water supplies and mitigating flood peaks (table 1). Hundreds of tons of suspended sediment are transported into reservoirs during heavy rainstorms that occur several times per year on average. Reduced velocity gradients permit this suspended sediment to settle and accumulate in the reservoirs. The majority of this sediment originates from poorly controlled agricultural practices and urban development within the watersheds. Annual suspended sediment loads in some watersheds are as high as 13,000 metric tons/km2/year. In addition, landslides triggered by heavy rainfall have transported an average of 300 metric tons/km2/year into river channels in some watersheds. This sediment is then carried into downstream reservoirs. The principal water supply for the San Juan metropolitan area is Carraizo Reservoir which has lost 58 percent of its initial capacity since it was constructed almost 40 years ago. In addition to the loss of potable water storage capacity of the reservoir (particularly during droughts), Carraizo Reservoir becomes less efficient each year at reducing flood peaks. Hydrologic hazards caused by insufficient or excessive rainfall have caused considerable human suffering in both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Droughts are rare in Puerto Rico, but are frequent and severe in the U.S. Virgin Islands due to limited fresh ground-water supplies and the lack of perennial streams and reservoirs. Any minor depletions in rainfall dramatically affect agriculture and require water rationing throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands. Flash flooding and landsliding, the most dangerous of hydrologic hazards in both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, can be attributed to the physiographic features of the islands combined with periodic heavy rainfall typical of the humid tropics. Flash flooding, in which peak discharge occurs during and shortly after intense rainfall, is common where stream courses are short, characterized by steep gradients, and channels are narrow and shallow. Poor drainage on the flood plain has increased the vulnerability of these areas to flooding, threatening the dense populations residing in the lower valleys. Landsliding of steeply sloping, unstable terrain has caused many deaths and extensive property damage in Puerto Rico, since the 1950's (Larsen and Torres Sanchez, 1993). Triggered by intense and/or prolonged rainfall landslides have caused most damage near population centers where low-cost urban development has spread to steeply sloping unstable areas. In October, 1985, a 600 mm rainfall occurring in a 24 hour period triggered a landslide near Ponce, Puerto Rico that claimed the lives of more than 130 people residing in crowded, substandard housing (Jibson, 1989).Solutions Much of the ground-water contamination in Puerto Rico, although regrettable, can be accommodated by treating the withdrawn ground water before allowing the water to re-enter the potable water-supply network. Scavenger wells can be used to extract freshwater near the coast while avoiding the upconing of saline-water through hydrodynamic stabilization of the saline-freshwater interface. Brackish ground-water can be treated by reverse osmosis using a membrane that filters the sodium and chloride ions from the water. Air strippers can be used for detoxifying ground water contaminated VOC's. Sedimentation of reservoirs in the humid tropics is difficult to control because of frequent high intensity rainfall. Comprehensive programs controlling land use practices are essential to the mitigation of soil erosion. In addition periodic flushing of sediment from reservoirs, in combination with regular dredging, will prolong reservoir life. Some dredging costs can be offset by the sale of the sand fraction of dredged spoils for construction use. Natural hazard mitigation requires early warning by civil defense agencies charged with evacuation of people living in hazardous areas. The U.S. Geological Survey maintains a satellite transmitting, real-time hydrologic data-collection network that provides early warning of these hydrologic hazards. The network consists of meteorologic stations, streamflow stations, and raingages that continuously monitor threatening hydrologic conditions throughout Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The system is operated cooperatively with local government agencies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.Long-term changes in Caribbean climate Caribbean islands may be undergoing gradual, but significant, hydrologic depletions that began several centuries ago, with islands of low elevation exhibiting the most obvious depletions. The reduced streamflow and diminished ground-water supplies may be attributed to decreasing rainfall over the tropical oceans, islands, and coastal areas since the industrial revolution. Oral history reveals that perennial streams occurred in the islands of Vieques (Puerto Rico) and St. Croix several centuries ago. Fresh ground-water supplies in the Esperanza Valley, Vieques, have gradually diminished during the past 200 years even though ground-water withdrawals have remained constant. For approximately 250 years after its discovery, Isla de Mona (Puerto Rico) was shown on nautical charts as a watering port. Reports of the abundance of good water continued into the 1790's. Today, available water supplies, other than rainfall, are meager and brackish (Jordan, 1972). Rainfall in San Juan and San German, Puerto Rico appears to have decreased during the last 100 years (Colon, 1987). Similar decreases have been observed in the Panama Canal basin (Windsor and others, 1990) and at lowland sites in Costa Rica (Windsor and Rand, 1985).Summary Insular societies are forced to carefully allocate their limited natural resources, the most important of which is water. Only by good planning, prudent use of water resources, and employment of the most developed technology for exploitation of these water resources can a modern industrial society with a high population sustain itself under the constraints of limited geography and finite water resources. The water resource problems encountered in this type of setting vary somewhat from those water resource problems experienced in continental areas. However, island hydrology can be seen as a microcosm of continental-scale hydrology, and a predictor of water-resource management problems that may be encountered on a continental scale. Zack, Allen, and Larsen, M.C., 1994, Island hydrology: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: National Geographic Research & Exploration: Water Issue, p. 126-134.
\|Conservation Priority List\| \|Breed Comparison Chart\| \|Breed Clubs and Associations\| 1200 - 2000 lbs Can be aggressive Ancient feral British cattle, maintain feral streak, athletic, lean Horned, white cattle have been documented in Britain since the 13th Century. There are still several ancient herds in existence that date from that time. They were bred and used for ceremonial purposes during the pre Christian era. In the centuries that followed, herds of feral cattle became scattered throughout England, Scotland and Wales and were hunted as trophy animals. Some of the herds were enclosed into deer parks, such as those at Cadzow, Chartley, Chillingham, Dynevor, and Vaynol, though most cattle were free to roam. As their habitat was gradually reduced, the free roaming cattle disappeared, leaving only the “park” animals as representatives of the ancient type. Bloodtyping has demonstrated the importance of conserving Ancient White Parks, since remarkable genetic distance exists between this breed and all other breeds of domestic cattle. This is due to the breed’s long isolation and the limited role of human selection in its development. In 1918, the Park Society was formed to promote these historic cattle and identified nine herds of horned cattle and six herds of polled cattle in its first herd book. British White cattle were originally included, but were reclassified as a separate breed in 1946. Many of the park cattle were eventually re-domesticated, selected for beef production, and crossbred. A few of the herds were conserved as pure stocks and were the foundation strains for the Ancient White Park breed of today. The Ancient White Park attracted conservation efforts in the 1970s and became the emblem of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (The Livestock Conservancy's UK equivalent organization). Ancient White Park cattle came to North America during World War II. They were evacuated as part of a British program that sent national treasures to America for safekeeping. The cattle went first to the Bronx Zoo and then to the King Ranch in Texas, where they were maintained as a closed herd for 40 years. The cattle were dispersed in the 1980s, and several conservation herds were established in the United States and in Canada. Breeders formed the Ancient White Park Cattle Society of North America to monitor the status of the population, which by 2008 had reached nearly 300 breeding animals. These North American breeders have an important role to play in conserving some genetic variants that are now rare or have disappeared in the British population. Ancient White Park cattle are athletic and lean in appearance. The mature cows can weigh from 1200–1800 pounds by the age of 4 to 5 years while bulls can reach 1800–2000 pounds at the same age. The light colored, black tipped horns curve out and then up in a “u” shape. The breed is known by its “white park” color pattern with the coat being white accompanied by black (or red) eye rings, ears, nose, feet, and teats. Many of the animals have dark skin, and some have small speckles of black or blue scattered on the coat. A few individuals are born solid black or red. Historically these were culled, though they are being maintained now as a source of additional diversity to the breed. The Ancient White Park breed should not be confused with the American White Park, a polled beef breed developed in the United States after World War II or the polled dual purpose British White. These three populations are quite dissimilar in appearance, history, and use. The original White Park breed is called the Ancient White Park to emphasize its distinctiveness. You may be interested in... The Family Cow Storey's Guide to Raising Beef Cattle - Heather Smith Thomas
A new report published today by the Sustainable Food Trust to mark World Soil Day, explains why soil degradation is increasing and calls for it to be recognised alongside climate change, as one of the most pressing problems facing humanity. Soil degradation costs up to £7 trillion a year and poses a grave long-term threat to food security and the environment. It reduces the ability of farmland to produce food at a time when more will be demanded of soils than ever before due to population increase and climate change. More than 95% of the food we eat depends on soil, but half (52%) of all farmland soils worldwide are already degraded, largely due to inappropriate farming methods. Every year, 24 billion tonnes of soil is irrevocably lost to the world’s oceans due to wind and water erosion – that’s equivalent to 3.4 tonnes for every person on the planet or a 12 tonne lorry load for an average UK family of two parents and 1.7 children. SFT policy director, Richard Young said, “Few people think about soil when they do their shopping, in part because most root vegetables have all the soil washed off them these days, but the reality is that for every trolley of food we wheel back to our cars, we are tipping three trolleys full of the same weight of soil into the river to be washed away. “With continuing population growth and the relentless march of climate change, we need soils to produce higher yields in the years to come, yet they are in a more depleted state than at any time in human history. Urgent action is now needed to develop common solutions which address climate change and soil degradation simultaneously”. The problem, however, may be even worse than these figures suggest. In addition to the loss of soil itself, much of the soil that remains in the fields is losing organic matter. Organic matter is largely made up of carbon and nitrogen and these elements are being lost from soils as the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, which increase global warming. Soils with low levels of organic matter lack the ability to produce maximum crop yields, retain moisture during dry times or produce crops that resist pests and diseases. They are also unable to stand up to the physical impact of heavy rain, flooding and farm machinery. For further information contact: Richard Young – Policy Director 07919 194235 [email protected] Ian Fitzpatrick – Senior Researcher 07950 481643 [email protected] Megan Perry – Policy Assistant 07761 804341 [email protected] Ellie Athanasis – Communications Officer 07702 19682 [email protected] Photograph: © Clynt Garnham Environmental/Alamy Sign up to our Newsletter Stay up to date with the latest SFT views and news
- Author:Brighter Child - Publisher:Brighter Child; Crds edition (March 15, 2006) - Subcategory:Education & Reference - FB2 format1316 kb - ePUB format1825 kb - DJVU format1518 kb - Formats:docx azw lit mobi Place a number of flash cards face up on a flat surface so the image and sound are visible. Place a number of flash cards face up on a flat surface so the image and sound are visible. 2. With one to four kids, say a word that uses a sound from one of the cards. 3. Have the children slap the card that has the sound. Once the child has slapped the correct card, have them place them in a pile in front of them. They can then critically think - how do they compare? Did they figure out the answer fast enough? Series: Brighter Child Flash Cards. these flash cards skip a few numbers. not the complete division 0-12 like it claims Series: Brighter Child Flash Cards. not the complete division 0-12 like it claims. for example 3s. it 36, 27, 21,15, 9, 6. so your child and you would only get to practive all those numbers divided by 3. tthere was no 24, 18, or 12 divided by 3, which i feel are still important numbers. A friend recommended these Brighter Cards A friend recommended these Brighter Cards. Fractions Flash Cards book . This 54-card set includes a card for fractions from a whole to ninths, along with images that represent each fraction. These images act as a visual representation of the fraction in o Instill a strong understanding of math skills with a fun hands-on resource. With Brighter Child(R) Fractions Flash Cards, children are presented with an easy way to practice important skills. Instill a strong understanding of early sight words with a fun hands-on resource. With Brighter Child(R) Phonics Flash Cards, children are presented with an easy way to practice important skills. This 54-card set includes 52 cards that feature essential phonetic sounds like consonants, blends, and more, as well as a picture cues and word representation for each sound. A list of words that also fit within the phonetic sound being taught can be found on the reverse side of each card. This flash card set also includes a bonus game card for additional learning fun. Flash cards are a tried and true way to study successfully. These are a great addition to workbooks, worksheets and study lessons. HOMESCHOOL HELPER: Use these in a kindergarten classroom or at home. Regardless of your homeschool curriculum, alphabet words flash cards are a perfect addition to homeschool supplies. The First Words flashcard set by Brighter Child is a great resource for pre-school age children and early learning. Featuring a range of simple English vocabulary and an accompanying picture, the flashcards include topics such as nature, animals and pets The First Words flashcard set by Brighter Child is a great resource for pre-school age children and early learning. Featuring a range of simple English vocabulary and an accompanying picture, the flashcards include topics such as nature, animals and pets. Suited to both girls and boys of varying ages, the cards can be used to play games or to reinforce vocabulary acquisition. Each flashcard measures . x 1. cm. 9780769647197, 0087577924199. Brighter Child Colors and Shapes Flash Cards. Brighter Child Addition 0 to 12 Flash Cards. The popular Brighter Child® Flash Cards give children a fun and easy way to practice important skills. Offering 24 titles encompassing preschool to grade 5, each title focuses on an important subject including early concepts, math, phonics, and U.S. History. Fun game ideas and learning suggestions are included to help children build proficiency and confidence. Game cards also allow children to develop thinking, decision-making, turn-taking, and social skills while playing fun games at the same time. Select titles are also available in English-Spanish and Spanish-only versions.
Terraforming of a planet or moon Terraforming of a planet or moon is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology to be similar to the environment of Earth to make it habitable by Earth-like life. In its astrobiology roadmap, NASA has defined the principal habitability criteria as “extended regions of liquid water, conditions favorable for the assembly of complex organic molecules, and energy sources to sustain metabolism.” Once conditions become more suitable for life of the introduced species, the importation of microbial life could begin. As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could also be brought in. This would accelerate the production of oxygen, which theoretically would make the planet eventually able to support animal life. Many proposals for planetary engineering involve the use of genetically engineered bacteria. As synthetic biology matures over the coming decades it may become possible to build designer organisms from scratch that directly manufacture desired products efficiently. The synthetic biology, scientists could genetically engineer humans, plants and bacteria to create Earth-like conditions on another planet. Also known as the “worldhouse” concept, paraterraforming involves the construction of a habitable enclosure on a planet which encompasses most of the planet’s usable area. The enclosure would consist of a transparent roof held one or more kilometers above the surface, pressurized with a breathable atmosphere, and anchored with tension towers and cables at regular intervals. The worldhouse concept is similar to the concept of a domed habitat, but one which covers all (or most) of the planet. It has also been suggested that instead of or in addition to terraforming a hostile environment humans might adapt to these places by the use of genetic engineering, biotechnology and cybernetic enhancements.
Conifers are, most simply, woody plants. There are about 630 species of conifers. Characterized by seed-bearing cones, conifers typically have narrow, needle-like leaves covered with a waxy cuticle and straight trunks with horizontal branches. Conifers have a lifespan that ranges from a few decades to more than 5,000 years. Most conifer are green. However, there are other colors as well. Colorado blue spruce is vividly blue, many other conifers are vibrant yellow or gold, and you can find colors ranging from silver and white through yellows and blues to purple, brown and reddish at different times of the year. Since most conifers are evergreens, the leaves of many conifers are long, thin and have a needle-like appearance, but others, including most of the Cupressaceae and some of the Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves [Photo below] . Most conifers bear both male and female cones on the same plant. All are wind-pollinated. Pollinated cones ripen over the course of weeks, and the seeds are then dispersed either by being dropped, eaten or carried away by forest wildlife. Conifers almost cover the globe, from within the Arctic Circle to the limits of tree growth in the Southern Hemisphere. They are most abundant in cool temperate and boreal regions, where they are important timber trees and ornamentals, but they are most diverse in warmer areas, including tropical mountains. Conifers include the oldest, tallest and largest trees. Until 2013, Methuselah [Photo below], an ancient bristlecone pine was the oldest known non-clonal organism on Earth. While Methuselah still stands as of 2019 at the ripe old age of 4,851 in the White Mountains of California, in Inyo National Forest, another bristlecone pine in the area was discovered to be over 5,000 years old. The tallest trees in the world are redwoods, which tower above the ground in California. These trees can easily reach heights of 300 feet (91 meters). Among the redwoods, a tree named Hyperion is the tallest living tree, it measured 115.85 meters (380 feet 1 inch) as of 2019. General Sherman is a giant sequoia tree located in the Giant Forest of Sequoia National Park in Tulare County, California. By volume, it is the largest known living single stem tree on Earth. It has an estimated bole volume of 1,487 cubic meters (52,500 cubic feet). With a height of 83.8 meters (275 ft), a diameter of 7.7 m (25 ft), and an estimated age of 2,300–2,700 years, it is also among the tallest, widest, and longest-lived of all trees on the planet. The longest cones produced by any species of conifer are those of the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), native to the western USA and to Baja California in northwestern Mexico. They range in size from 25 cm to 66 cm, and are 10-13 cm in diameter. Conifers are of immense economic value, primarily for timber and paper production. They have played an important part in many human cultures and are grown in gardens and enjoyed in nature around the world for their quiet beauty. In many homes a young conifer is brought in each year to serve as a Christmas tree. Modern Christmas trees originated during the Renaissance of early modern Germany. Its 16th-century origins are sometimes associated with Protestant Christian reformer Martin Luther who is said to have first added lighted candles to an evergreen tree. Approximately 25-30 million real Christmas trees are sold each year in the United States. Almost all of these come from Christmas tree farms. Some conifers also provide foods such as pine nuts and Juniper berries, the latter used to flavor gin. Many conifers have distinctly scented resin, secreted to protect the tree against insect infestation and fungal infection of wounds. Fossilized resin hardens into amber. Conifer is a Latin word, a compound of conus (cone) and ferre (to bear), meaning “the one that bears (a) cone(s)”.
1) ATOMIC STRUCTURE: Introduction; Sub- atomic particles; Atomic models – Thomson’s Model; Rutherford’s Nuclear model of atom, Drawbacks; Developments to the Bohr’s model of atom; Nature of electromagnetic radiation; Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation- Planck’s quantum theory; Bohr’s model for Hydrogen atom; Explanation of line spectrum of hydrogen; Limitations of Bohr’s model; Quantum mechanical considerations of sub atomic particles; Dual behaviour of matter; Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle; Quantum mechanical model of an atom. Important features of Quantum mechanical model of atom; Orbitals and quantum numbers; Shapes of atomic orbitals; Energies of orbitals; illing of orbitals in atoms. Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s exclusion Principle and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity; Electronic configurations of atoms; Stability of half filled and completely 2) CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES: Need to classify elements; Genesis of periodic classification; Modern periodic law and present form of the periodic table; Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100; Electronic configuration of elements and the periodic table; Electronic configuration and types of elements s,p,d.and f blocks; Trends in physical properties: (a) Atomic radius, (b) Ionic radius (c)Variation of size in inner transition elements, (d) Ionization enthalpy, (e) Electron gain enthalpy, (f) Electro negativity; Periodic trends in chemical properties: (a) Valence or Oxidation states, (b) Anomalous properties of second period elements – diagonal relationship; Periodic trends and chemical reactivity. 3) CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE: Kossel – Lewis approach to chemical bonding, Octet rule, Representation of simple molecules, formal charges, limitations of octat rule; Ionic or electrovalent bond – Factors favourable for the formation of ionic compounds-Crystal structure of sodium chloride, Lattice enthalpy; General properties of ionic compounds; Bond Parameters – bond length, bond angle, and bond enthalpy, bond order, resonance-Polarity of bonds dipole moment; Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theories; Predicting the geometry of simple molecules; Valence bond theory-Orbital overlap concept-Directional properties of bonds-overlapping of atomic orbitals strength of sigma and pi bonds- Factors favouring the formation of covalent bonds; Hybridisation- different types of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals- shapes of simple covalent molecules; Coordinate bond -definition with examples; Molecular orbital theory – Formation of molecular orbitals, Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO)-conditions for combination of atomic orbitals – Energy level diagrams for molecular orbitals -Bonding in some homo nuclear diatomic molecules- H2, He2, Li2, B2, C2, N2 and O2; Hydrogen bonding-cause of formation of hydrogen bond – Types of hydrogen bonds-inter and intra molecular- General properties of hydrogen bonds. 4) STATES OF MATTER: GASES AND LIQUIDS: Intermolecular forces; Thermal Energy; Intermolecular forces Vs Thermal interactions; The Gaseous State; The Gas Laws; Ideal gas equation; Graham’s law of diffusion – Dalton’s Law of partial pressures; Kinetic molecular theory of gases; Kinetic gas equation of an ideal gas (No derivation) deduction of gas laws from Kinetic gas equation; Distribution of molecular speeds – rms, average and most probable speeds-Kinetic energy of gas molecules; Behaviour of real gases – Deviation from Ideal gas behaviour – Compressibility factor Vs Pressure diagrams of real gases; Liquefaction of gases; Liquid State – Properties of Liquids in terms of Inter molecular interactions – Vapour pressure, Viscosity and Surface tension (Qualitative idea only. No mathematical derivation). 5) STOICHIOMETRY: Some Basic Concepts – Properties of matter – uncertainty in Measurement-significant figures, dimensional analysis; Laws of Chemical Combinations – Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of Definite Proportions, Law of Multiple Proportions, Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes, Dalton’s Atomic Theory, Avogadro Law, Principles, Examples; Atomic and molecular masses- mole concept and molar mass. Concept of equivalent weight; Percentage composition of compounds and calculations of empirical and molecular formulae of compounds; Stoichiometry and stoichiometric calculations; Methods of Expressing concentrations of solutions-mass percent, mole fraction, molarity, molality and normality; Redox reactions-classical idea of redox reactions, oxidation and reduction reactions-redox reactions in terms of electron transfer; Oxidation number concept; Types of Redox reactions-combination, decomposition, displacement and disproportionation reactions; Balancing of redox reactions – oxidation number method Half reaction (ion-electron) method; Redox reactions in Titrimetry. 6) THERMODYNAMICS: Thermodynamic Terms; The system and the surroundings; Types of systems and surroundings; The state of the system; The Internal Energy as a State Function. (a) Work (b) Heat (c) The general case, the first law of Thermodynamics; Applications; Work; Enthalpy, H- a useful new state function; Extensive and intensive properties; Heat capacity; The relationship between Cp and Cv; Measurement of DU and DH: Calorimetry; Enthalpy change, DrH of reactions – reaction Enthalpy (a) Standard enthalpy of reactions, (b) Enthalpy changes during transformations, (c) Standard enthalpy of formation, (d) Thermo chemical equations (e) Hess’s law of constant Heat summation; Enthalpies for different types of reactions. (a) Standard enthalpy of combustion (ΔcHq), (b) Enthalpy of atomization (ΔaHq), phase transition, sublimation and ionization, (c) Bond Enthalpy (ΔbondHq ), (d) Enthalpy of solution (ΔsolHq) and dilution; Spontaneity. (a) Is decrease in enthalpy a criterion for spontaneity? (b) Entropy and spontaneity, the second law of thermodynamics, (c) Gibbs Energy and spontaneity; Gibbs Energy change and equilibrium; Absolute entropy and the third law of thermodynamics. 7) CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ACIDS-BASES: Equilibrium in Physical process; Equilibrium in chemical process – Dynamic Equilibrium; Law of chemical Equilibrium – Law of mass action and Equilibrium constant; Homogeneous; Equilibria, Equilibrium constant in gaseous systems. Relationship between KP and Kc; Heterogeneous Equilibria; Applications of Equilibrium constant; Relationship etween Equilibrium constant K, reaction quotient Q and Gibbs energy G; Factors affecting Equilibria.-Le-chatlier principle application to industrial synthesis of Ammonia and Sulphur trioxide; Ionic Equilibrium in solutions; Acids, bases and salts- Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis concepts of acids and bases; Ionisation of Acids and Bases – Ionisation constant of water and its ionic product- pH scale-ionisation constants of weak acids-ionisation of weak bases-relation between Ka and Kb-Di and poly basic acids and di and poly acidic Bases-Factors affecting acid strength-Common ion effect in the ionization of acids and bases-Hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions; Buffer solutions-designing of buffer solution-Preparation of Acidic buffer; Solubility Equilibria of sparingly soluble salts. Solubility product constant Common ion effect on solubility of Ionic salts. 8) HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS: Position of hydrogen in the periodic table; Dihydrogen-Occurance and Isotopes; Preparation of Dihydrogen; Properties of Dihydrogen; Hydrides: Ionic, covalent, and non-stiochiometric hydrides; Water: Physical properties; structure of water, ice. Chemical properties of water; hard and soft water, Temporary and permanent hardness of water; Hydrogen peroxide: Preparation; Physical properties; structure and chemical properties; storage and uses; Heavy Water; Hydrogen as a fuel. 9) THE s – BLOCK ELEMENTS (ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS) Group 1 Elements : Alkali metals; Electronic configurations; Atomic and Ionic radii; Ionization enthalpy; Hydration enthalpy; Physical properties; Chemical properties; Uses; General characteristics of the compounds of the alkali metals: Oxides; Halides; Salts of oxo Acids; Anomalous properties of Lithium: Differences and similarities with other alkali metals, Diagonal relationship; similarities between Lithium and Magnesium; Some important compounds of Sodium: Sodium Carbonate; Sodium Chloride; Sodium Hydroxide; Sodium hydrogen carbonate; Biological importance of Sodium and Potassium. Group 2 Elements: Alkaline earth elements; Electronic configuration; Ionization enthalpy; Hydration enthalpy; Physical properties, Chemical properties; Uses; General characteristics of compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals: Oxides, hydroxides, halides, salts of oxoacids (Carbonates; Sulphates and Nitrates); Anomalous behavior of Beryllium; its diagonal relationship with Aluminium; Some important compounds of calcium: Preparation and uses of Calcium Oxide; Calcium Hydroxide; Calcium Carbonate; Plaster of Paris; Cement; Biological importance of Calcium and Magnesium. 10) p- BLOCK ELEMENTS GROUP 13 (BORON FAMILY): General introduction – Electronic configuration, Atomic radii, Ionization enthalpy, Electro negativity; Physical & Chemical properties; Important trends and anomalous properties of boron; Some important compounds of boron – Borax, Ortho boric acid,diborane; Uses of boron, aluminium and their compounds. 11) p-BLOCK ELEMENTS – GROUP 14 (CARBON FAMILY): General introduction – Electronic configuration, Atomic radii, Ionization enthalpy, Electro negativity; Physical & Chemical properties; Important trends and anomalous properties of carbon; Allotropes of carbon; Uses of carbon; Some important compounds of carbon and silicon – carbonmonoxide, carbon dioxide,Silica, silicones, silicates and zeolites. 12) ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY: Definition of terms: Air, Water and Soil Pollutions; Environmental Pollution; Atmospheric pollution; Tropospheric Pollution; Gaseous Air Pollutants (Oxides of Sulphur; Oxides of Nitrogen; Hydrocarbons; Oxides of Carbon (CO, CO2). Global warming and Green house effect; Acid Rain- Particulate Pollutants- Smog; Stratospheric Pollution: Formation and breakdown of Ozone- Ozone hole- effects of depletion of the Ozone Layer; Water Pollution: Causes of Water Pollution; International standards for drinking water; Soil Pollution: Pesticides, Industrial Wastes; Strategies to control environmental pollution- waste Management- collection and disposal; Green Chemistry: Green chemistry in day-to-day life; Dry cleaning of clothes; Bleaching of paper; Synthesis of chemicals 13) ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES AND HYDROCARBONS: General introduction; Tetravalency of Carbon: shapes of organic compounds; Structural representations of organic compounds; Classification of organic compounds; Nomenclature of organic compounds; Isomerism; Fundamental concepts in organic reaction mechanisms; Fission of covalent bond; Nucleophiles and electrophiles; Electron movements in organic reactions; Electron displacement effects in covalent bonds: inductive effect, resonance, resonance effect, electromeric effect, hyperconjugation; Types of Organic reactions; Methods of purification of organic compounds; Qualitative elemental analysis of organic compounds; Quantitative elemental analysis of organic compounds. HYDROCARBONS Classification of Hydrocarbons; Alkanes – Nomenclature, isomerism (structural and conformations of ethane only); Preparation of alkanes; Properties – Physical properties and chemical Reactivity, Substitution reactions – Halogenation(free radical mechanism), Combustion, Controlled Oxidation, Isomerisation, Aromatization, reaction with steam and Pyrolysis; Alkenes- Nomenclature, structure of ethene, Isomerism (structural and geometrical); Methods of preparation; Properties- Physical and chemical reactions: Addition of Hydrogen, halogen, water, sulphuric acid, Hydrogen halides (Mechanism- ionic and peroxide effect, Markovnikov’s, antiMarkovnikov’s or Kharasch effect). Oxidation, Ozonolysis and Polymerization; Alkynes – Nomenclature and isomerism, structure of acetylene. Methods of preparation of acetylene; Physical properties, Chemical reactions- acidic character of acetylene, addition reactions- of hydrogen, Halogen, Hydrogen halides and water. Polymerization; Aromatic Hydrocarbons: omenclature and isomerism, Structure of benzene, Resonance and aromaticity; Preparation of benzene. Physical properties. Chemical properties: Mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Electrophilic substitution reactions- Nitration, Sulphonation, Halogenation, Friedel-Craft’ alkylation and acylation; Directive influence of functional groups in mono substituted benzene, Carcinogenicity and toxicity 14) SOLID STATE: General characteristics of solid state; Amorphous and crystalline solids; Classification of crystalline solids based on different binding forces (molecular, ionic, metallic and covalent solids); Probing the structure of solids: X-ray crystallography; Crystal lattices and unit cells. Bravais lattices primitive and centred unit cells; Number of atoms in a unit cell (primitive, body centred and face centred cubic unit cell); Close packed structures: Close packing in one dimension, in two dimensions and in three dimensions- tetrahedral and octahedral voids- formula of a compound and number of voids filled- locating tetrahedral and octahedral voids; Packing efficiency in simple cubic, bcc and in hcp, ccp lattice; Calculations involving unit cell dimensions-density of the unit cell; Imperfections in solids-types of point defects-stoichiometric and nonstoichiometric defects; Electrical properties-conduction of electricity in metals, semiconductors and insulators- band theory of metals; Magnetic properties. 15) SOLUTIONS: Types of solutions; Expressing concentration of solutions – mass percentage, volume percentage, mass by volume percentage, parts per million, mole fraction, molarity and molality; Solubility: Solubility of a solid in a liquid, solubility of a gas in a liquid, Henry’s law; Vapour pressure of liquid solutions: vapour pressure of liquid- liquid solutions. Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law -vapour pressure of solutions of solids in liquids; Ideal and non-ideal solutions; Colligative properties and determination of molar mass-relative lowering of vapour pressure-elevation of boiling point-depression of freezing point-osmosis and osmotic pressure-reverse osmosis and water purification; Abnormal molar masses-van’t Hoff factor. 16) ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL KINETICS: ELECTROCHEMISTRY: Electrochemical cells; Galvanic cells: measurement of electrode potentials; Nernst equation-equilibrium constant from Nernst equation- electrochemical cell and Gibbs energy of the cell reaction; Conductance of electrolytic solutions- measurement of the conductivity of ionic solutions-variation of conductivity and molar conductivity with concentration-strong lectrolytes and weak electrolytes-applications of Kohlrausch’s law; Electrolytic cells and electrolysis: Faraday’s laws of electrolysis-products of electrolysis; Batteries: primary batteries and secondary batteries; Fuel cells; Corrosion of metals-Hydrogen economy. CHEMICAL KINETICS: Rate of a chemical reaction; Factors influencing rate of a reaction: dependance of rate on concentration- rate expression and rate constant- order of a reaction, molecularity of a reaction; Integrated rate equations-zero order reactions-first order reactions- half life of a reaction; Pseudo first order reaction; Temperature dependence of the rate of a reaction -effect of catalyst; Collision theory of chemical reaction rates. 17) SURFACE CHEMISTRY: Adsorption and absorption: Distinction between adsorption and absorption-mechanism of adsorption-types of adsorption-characteristics of physisorption-characteristics of chemisorptions-adsorption isotherms-adsorption from solution phase-applications of adsorption; Catalysis: Catalysts, promoters and poisons-auto catalysis- homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis-adsorption theory of heterogeneous catalysis-important features of solid catalysts: (a)activity (b)selectivity-shape-selective catalysis by zeolites-enzyme catalysis-characteristics and mechanism- catalysts in industry; Colloids; Classification of colloids: Classification based on physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion mediumclassification based on nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium- classification based on type of particles of the dispersed phase- multi molecular, macromolecular and associated colloids- cleansing action of soaps-preparation of colloids-purification of colloidal olutionsproperties of colloidal solutions: Tyndal effect, colour, Brownian movement-charge on colloidal particles, electrophoresis; Emulsions; Colloids Around us- application of colloids. 18) GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY: Occurrence of metals; Concentration of ores-levigation, magnetic separation, froth floatation, leaching; Extraction of crude metal from concentrated ore-conversion to oxide, reduction of oxide to the metal; Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy – Ellingham diagram-limitations-applications-extraction of iron, copper and zinc from their oxides; Electrochemical principles of metallurgy; Oxidation and reduction; Refining of crude metal-distillation, liquation poling, electrolysis, zone refining and vapour phase refining; Uses of aluminium, copper, zinc and iron. 19) p-BLOCK ELEMENTS: GROUP-15 ELEMENTS : Occurrence- electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionisation enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties; Dinitrogen-preparation, properties and uses; Compounds of nitrogen-preparation and properties of ammonia; Oxides of nitrogen; Preparation and properties of nitric acid; Phosphorous-allotropic forms; Phosphine-preparation and properties; Phosphorous halides; Oxoacids of phosphorous GROUP-16 ELEMENTS: Occurrence- electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, lectronegativity, physical and chemical properties; Dioxygen-preparation, properties and uses; Simple oxides; Ozone-preparation, properties, structure and uses; Sulphur-allotropic forms; Sulphur dioxide-preparation, properties and uses; Oxoacids of sulphur; Sulphuric acid-industrial process of manufacture, properties and uses. GROUP-17 ELEMENTS: Occurrence, electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties; Chlorine- preparation, properties and uses; Hydrogen chloride- preparation, properties and uses; Oxoacids of halogens; Interhalogen compounds. GROUP-18 ELEMENTS : Occurrence, electronic configuration, ionization enthalpy, atomic radii, electron gain enthalpy, physical and chemical properties(a) Xenon-fluorine compounds- XeF2,XeF4 and XeF6 -preparation, hydrolysis and formation of fluoro anions-structures of XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 (b) Xenon-oxygen compounds XeO3 and XeOF4 – their formation and structures 20) d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS & COORDINATION COMPOUNDS: d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS : Position in the periodic table; Electronic configuration of the d-block elements; General properties of the transition elements (d-block) -physical properties, variation in atomic and ionic sizes of transition series, ionisation enthalpies, oxidation states, trends in the M²+/M and M³+/M²+ standard electrode potentials, trends in stability of higher oxidation states, chemical reactivity and Eθ values, magnetic properties, formation of coloured ions, formation of complex compounds, catalytic properties, formation of interstitial compounds, alloy formation; Some important compounds of transition elements-oxides and oxoanions of metals-preparation and properties of potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate-structures of chromate, dichromate, manganate and permanganate ions; Inner transition elements(f-block)-lanthanoids- electronic configuration-atomic and ionic sizes-oxidation states- general characteristics; Actinoids-electronic configuration atomic and ionic sizes, oxidation states, general characteristics and comparison with lanthanoids; Some applications of d and f block elements. COORDINATION COMPOUNDS: Werner’s theory of coordination compounds; Definitions of some terms used in coordination compounds; Nomenclature of coordination compounds-IUPAC nomenclature; Isomerism in coordination compounds- (a)Stereo isomerism-Geometrical and optical isomerism (b)Structural isomerism-linkage, coordination, ionisation and hydrate isomerism; Bonding in coordination compounds. (a)Valence bond theory – magnetic properties of coordination compounds-limitations of valence bond theory (b) Crystal field theory (i) Crystal field splitting in octahedral and tetrahedral coordination entities (ii) Colour in coordination compounds-limitations of crystal field theory; Bonding in metal carbonyls; Stability of coordination compounds; Importance and applications of coordination compounds. 21) POLYMERS: Introduction; Classification of Polymers -Classification based on source, structure, mode of polymerization, molecular forces and growth polymerization; Types of polymerization reactions-addition polymerization or chain growth polymerization-ionic polymerization, free radical mechanism-preparation of addition polymers-polythene, teflon and polyacrylonitrile-condensation polymerization or step growth polymerizationpolyamides- preparation of Nylon 6,6 and nylon 6-poly esters-terylene-bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde polymers; copolymerization-Rubber-natural rubber-vulcanisation of rubber-Synthetic rubbers-preparation of neoprene and buna-N; Molecular mass of polymers-number average and weight average molecular masses- poly dispersity index(PDI); Biodegradable polymers-PHBV, Nylon 2-nylon 6; Polymers of commercial importancepolypropene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), urea-formaldehyde resin, glyptal and bakelite – their monomers, structures and uses. 22) BIOMOLECULES: Carbohydrates – Classification of carbohydrates- Monosaccharides: preparation of glucose from sucrose and starch- Properties and structure of glucose- D,L and (+), (-) configurations of glucose- Structure of fructose; Disaccharides: Sucrose- preparation, tructure; Invert sugar- Structures of maltose and lactose-Polysaccharides: Structures of starch, cellulose and glycogen- Importance of carbohydrates; Aminoacids: Natural aminoacids-classification of aminoacids – structures and D and L forms-Zwitter ions; Proteins: Structures, classification, fibrous and globular- primary, secondary, tertiary and quarternary structures of proteins- Denaturation of proteins; Enzymes: Enzymes, mechanism of enzyme action; Vitamins: Explanation-names- classification of vitamins – sources of vitamins-deficiency diseases of different types of vitamins; Nucleic acids: chemical composition of nucleic acids, structures of nucleic acids, DNA finger printing biological functions of nucleic acids; Hormones: Definition, different types of hormones, their production, biological activity, diseases due to their abnormal activities. 23) CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE: Drugs and their classification: (a) Classification of drugs on the basis of pharmocological effect (b) Classification of drugs on the basis of drug action (c) Classification of drugs on the basis of chemical structure (d) Classification of drugs on the basis of molecular targets; Drug-Target interaction-Enzymes as drug targets (a) Catalytic action of enzymes (b) Drug-enzyme interaction, receptors as drug targets; Therapeutic action of different classes of drugs: antacids, antihistamines, neurologically active drugs: tranquilizers, analgesics-nonnarcotic, narcotic analgesics, antimicrobials-antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants- antifertility drugs; Chemicals in food-artificial sweetening agents, food preservatives, antioxidants in food; Cleansing agents-soaps and synthetic detergents – types and examples. 24) HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES: Classification and nomenclature; Nature of C-X bond; Methods of preparation: Alkyl halides and aryl halides-from alcohols, from hydrocarbons (a) by free radical halogenation (b) by electrophilic substitution (c) by replacement of diazonium group(Sandmeyer reaction) (d) by the addition of hydrogen halides and halogens to alkenes-by halogen exchange(Finkelstein reaction); Physical properties-melting and boiling points, density and solubility; Chemical reactions: Reactions of haloalkanes (i)Nucleophilic substitution reactions (a) SN² mechanism (b) SN¹ mechanism (c) stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions-optical activity (ii) Elimination reactions (iii) Reaction with metals-Reactions of haloarenes: (i) Nucleophilic substitution (ii)Electrophilic substitution and (iii) Reaction with metals; Polyhalogen compounds: Uses and environmental effects of dichloro methane, trichloromethane, triiodomethane, tetrachloro methane, freons and DDT 25) ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING C, H AND O (Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids): ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS Alcohols,phenols and ethers -classification; Nomenclature: (a)Alcohols, (b)phenols and (c) ethers; Structures of hydroxy and ether functional groups; Methods of preparation: Alcohols from alkenes and carbonyl compounds (reduction and reaction with Grignard reagents); Phenols from haloarenes, benzene sulphonic acid, diazonium salts, cumene; Physical propertics of alcohols and phenols; Chemical reactions of alcohols and phenols (i) Reactions involving cleavage of O-H bond-Acidity of alcohols and phenols, esterification (ii) Reactions involving cleavage of C-O bondreactions with HX, PX3, dehydration and oxidation (iii) Reactions of phenols- electrophilic aromatic substitution, Kolbe’s reaction, Reimer – Tiemann reaction, reaction with zinc dust, oxidation; Commercially important alcohols (methanol,ethanol); Ethers-Methods of preparation: By dehydration of alcohols, Williamson synthesis- Physical properties-Chemical reactions: Cleavage of C-O bond and electrophilic substitution of aromatic ethers. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES Nomenclature and structure of carbonyl group; Preparation of aldehydes and ketones-(1) by oxidation of alcohols (2) by dehydrogenation of alcohols (3) from hydrocarbons -Preparation of aldehydes (1) from acyl chlorides (2) from nitriles and esters(3) from hydrocarbons-Preparation of ketones(1) from acyl chlorides (2)from nitriles (3)from benzene or substituted benzenes; Physical properties of aldehydes and ketones; Chemical reactions of aldehydes and ketones-nucleophilic addition, reduction, oxidation, reactions due to – Alpha Hydrogen and other reactions (Cannizzaro reaction,electrophilic substitution reaction); Uses of aldehydes and ketones. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS Nomenclature and structure of carboxylgroup; Methods of preparation of carboxylic acids (1)from primary alcohols and aldehydes (2) from alkylbenzenes(3)from nitriles and amides (4)from Grignard reagents (5) from acyl halides and anhydrides (6) from esters; Physical properties; Chemical reactions: (i) Reactions involving cleavage of O-H bond-acidity, reactions with metals and alkalies (ii) Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond-formation of anhydride, reactions with PCl5, PCl3, SOCl2, esterification and reaction with ammonia (iii) Reactions involving-COOH roupreduction, decarboxylation (iv) Substitution reactions in the hydrocarbon part – halogenation and ring substitution; Uses of arboxylic acids. 26) ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN: AMINES Structure of amines; Classification; Nomenclature; Preparation of amines: reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of nitriles, reduction of amides, Gabriel phthalimide synthesis and Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction; Physical properties; Chemical reactions: basic character of amines, alkylation, acylation, carbyl amine reaction, reaction with nitrous acid, reaction with aryl sulphonyl chloride, electrophilic substitution of aromatic amines-bromination, nitration and sulphonation. DIAZONIUM SALTS Methods of preparation of diazonium salts (by diazotization) Physical properties; Chemical reactions: Reactions involving displacement of Nitrogen; Sandmeyer reaction, Gatterman reaction, replacement by i) iodiode and fluoride ions ii) hydrogen, hydroxyl and Nitro groups; reactions involving retention of diazo group; coupling reactions; Importance of diazonium salts in synthesis of aromatic compounds. CYANIDES AND ISOCYANIDES Structure and nomenclature of cyanides and isocyanides; Preparation, physical properties and chemical reactions of cyanides and socyanides.
Function and StrategyFundamental links between biology and design. What are functions and strategies? A function, by definition, is the purpose of something. In the context of biomimicry, function refers to the role played by an organism’s adaptations or behaviors that enable it to survive. Importantly, function can also refer to something you need your design solution to do. Organisms meet functional needs through biological strategies. A biological strategy is a characteristic, mechanism, or process that performs a function for an organism. It’s an adaptation the organism has in order to survive. One purpose of polar bear fur is to keep the polar bear warm. Stated in a more technical way, the function of the bear’s fur is to insulate or to conserve heat. So, the polar bear’s fur is a strategy for insulation, but, more specifically, the characteristics of the polar bear’s fur are what make it especially good insulation. Studying how polar bear fur works could lead to the development of better insulation for human needs, such as outerwear, buildings, or other applications. Understanding the concepts of function and strategy will help you find biological information that is relevant to your design challenge. When beginning a design challenge, the most important thing to consider first is “What function do you want to solve for?” Rather than thinking about what you want to make, ask yourself “What do I want my design to DO?” For example, you wouldn’t ‘ask’ nature how to make make a fan. That doesn’t make any sense. Instead you might ask “How does nature move air?” or “How does nature cool?” It is often helpful to come up with a few variations on your “How” question, if possible. Doing so enables you to explore the functional challenge from different angles. (Moving air is just one way of cooling, and can serve other functions as well.) Asking “What do you want your design to DO?” is a key step in doing biomimicry. Carefully choosing the verb that completes the question, “How does nature…?” will set you up for success when you start looking for biological models. That verb is the function you are looking for in nature. - Do you want to design a bicycle helmet? - Or do you really want to design a way to protect a bicyclist’s head from impact? Phrasing your goal the second way opens up your mind to new approaches to your challenge and also the possibility that your design may look nothing like a current helmet. Once you ask “How does nature protect from impact?”, you can search for organisms or systems in nature that perform the same function. The Biomimicry Taxonomy Taxonomy is the science of classifying life. Biologists name and identify organisms, grouping and categorizing them into a nested hierarchy of taxonomic ranks (domains, kingdoms, etc., down to genus and species) based on evolutionary relationships. Today the word “taxonomy” is also starting to be used to describe any system of classification, as it is below. The Biomimicry Taxonomy is a classification system the Biomimicry Institute developed to organize biological strategies by the functions they serve. It is also the underlying structure for AskNature, the world’s most comprehensive library (in database form) of biological solutions applicable to human design challenges. When identifying the function(s) your design needs to serve, the Taxonomy can be a helpful reference. It will help you better navigate the content on AskNature and also provide keywords that may help you understand your challenge differently or search more effectively for biological information. Different contexts may or may not require different strategies for the same function Thinking in terms of context is important because it allows you to recognize biological strategies that could be relevant to human design. By understanding what it is you want your design to do, and under what conditions, you can “ask nature” how living things do the same. The reverse is also true. As you observe the natural world around you, try to identify the functions, strategies, and contexts at play. Then see if you can think of similar functions and contexts in the human world and ways to apply the natural strategies you observe. It’s okay if you have to guess―you can always look up the answers later. The important thing is that you will be honing your skills of observation, looking at nature differently, and starting to think like a biomimic.
Your school grounds provide a home for hundreds of creatures, do you know what they are? This activity is about finding and getting to know minibeasts. You can also find out more about habitats and learn about food chains. Are you doing this activity as part of your ild Challenge? Take a look at your progress and go for gold! This activity supports the following subject: Science. What do I need? - Things to help you see eg magnifying glasses, bugpots, white sheet, pooter - Cards with pictures of minibeasts to help you identify them. - Download our free ID sheets (sheet 1) (sheet 2) - You may want to make some friendly traps to attract minibeasts, or some equipment to catch them in. - Have a look at our free How To sheets. What do I do? - Think about the area you are going to explore. What kind of habitat is it eg field, hedgerows, flower bed? What might live there? What kind of things do minibeasts need to thrive? - Go into your school grounds - look inside things, under things, in plants and trees. - Look carefully at what you find. Think about why minibeasts might live in the places that you find them. What do they need to survive? Research the type of habitats a minibeast likes to live in. - Look carefully at what you find, can you identify it? - Don't forget to tell us when you have completed the activity! When you mark the activity as complete, you will be asked to upload a photo or a piece of writing talking about your experience to help earn your award. Remember to return any minibeasts carefully to the habitat you found them in. Completing the activity Use the 'Mark as complete' button at the top of this page to tell us you've completed your activity. You'll need to show us what you did by uploading a photo or some writing showing where and when you looked for minibeasts, what techniques you used, and what you found. Get them thinking Here are some prompts to help with learning: - Which areas of your school grounds do you think would provide suitable habitat for minibeasts? Why? - Once you have discovered a living creature, what evidence can you see for why that creature lives in that location? - Why would a greater diversity of minibeasts be a positive thing?
If you are a biology or other life science teacher, and are struggling to find ways to integrate different types of technology into your science curriculum, then you've come to the right place! In this post I'll explore some ways that technology can easily be incorporated into more traditional learning activities in the life sciences. I've organized the ideas by topic, and you'll find opportunities across different age groups in these sections. This post contains affiliate links, meaning I will receive a small commission (at no additional cost to you) if you make a purchase after clicking a product link. Please see disclosures page for more details. Create a Digital ComicComic Life software to model biological processes such as meiosis and mitosis, or for the younger crew, life cycles such as metamorphosis. If you want a lower tech version, or an opportunity for students to map our their ideas on paper first, grab this paper template. 3-D Cell ModelsLearning about animal and plant cells and the organelles that make up each is a standard unit in any biology course and even in many elementary and middle school classrooms. Students are asked to draw or create models of cells. Often these are made from candy. Rather than go the sugary route a colleague of mine has his students design a digital model that is then created in 3-dimensions using a 3-D printer. \|Digital Cell Model Design\| Students evaluate their peer's designs for accuracy, proportions and proper inclusion of organelles. Like any modeling process, the students develop a deep understanding of the parts of the cell by having to recreate them, but this method also employs design and technology. \|Student's 3-D Printed Cell Models\| Digital MicroscopesDigital microscopes can be awesome tools to use to share magnified images of something minuscule with a large group via projector, or to save images of your micro-discoveries. The reasonably priced, Zoomy handheld digital microscope is a great choice for kids, making it easier to get close up to whatever you're interested in. These microscopes plug into a computer via USB to download and magnify images. Another useful digital microscope option is this inexpensive adapter that turns your smartphone into a digital microscope. A great tool for outdoor science lessons. Biology Games and SimulationsThere are many computer games and simulations that can embellish upon biology concepts. Learn the functions of the different cell parts by playing CellCraft, a free game from Carolina Biological. In the game you'll travel into the cell to learn about the different organelles, and important molecules such as glucose and ATP all the while trying to keep the cell alive in a harsh environment. Although in many ways they cannot replace the experience of a real dissection, there are now many options for virtual dissections. These are not only beneficial for economic and ethical reasons, but can also add an element of technology to a lesson. Investigate the traditional frog dissection virtually with this simulation from McGraw Hill Education. You'll find a college level virtual fetal pig dissection here and a long list of other virtual dissection opportunities here. You'll find a slew of biology simulations from gene expression to natural selection at PhET simulations. My middle school students always enjoyed playing games on the National Science Foundation's Edheads site. You'll find a free DNA game here and a hip surgery simulation game here. Digital Media and Simulations for Genetics Investigate this Smithsonian site from the exhibit Unlocking Life's Code that explores genomics. You'll find a talking glossary of genetic terms, and a huge media library of images, animations, videos and apps. You'll find boatloads of digital resources for learning genetics here. Use StarGenetics, a program developed by MIT faculty to virtually combine genetics of various organisms, such as cows, fish, flies, peas and even different smiley faces, virtually, to better understand traits. With the Classical Genetics Simulator, students can explore Mendelian genetics by simulating multiple generations of organisms without waiting weeks, months or years to see the resulting traits. Tech for Studying Plants Growing plants and learning about their needs is an activity that stretches across all age groups. You can collect data while plants grow by determining the type of light they are receiving with a light meter, monitoring the moisture of the soil with a low-tech moisture meter, or testing the soil pH with a pH meter. If you have an ed-tech budget, you might be interested in purchasing a data logger. These are great tools that measure conditions like humidity, light or temperature over time that can then be downloaded and analyzed. Pop a data logger into a terrarium or other type of ecosystem model, measure conditions over time and compare your data to plant growth. I visited a classroom that was using Aerogarden systems to study plants. These "smart" plant systems grow plants through advanced hydroponics. Although it doesn't teach in the same way as having a student become responsible for growing a plant themselves, in the right scenario something like this would be excellent for controlling experimental conditions. If you're learning to identify plants outdoors, you might want to check out some of these free apps that serve as digital field guides. Although I love a traditional book version of a field guide, the benefit of using these is that several have options for submitting photos for identification or comparison, which can be a handy tool for young learners. Explore plant identification and seasonal growth data through the citizen science project: Project BudBurst. There are tons of opportunities for learning here and lots of resources for educators. From adaptations to animal behavior, there is so much that can be learned by studying wildlife. However, it can be difficult to observe real animals in the classroom, aside from those that live in terrariums and aquariums. One excellent way to bring animals into the classroom is by observing a wildlife camera. Learn more about the Raptor Resource Project's Bald Eagle camera here. You'll also find some excellent animal cams on the National Zoo's website. Observe the tracks and sign of animals at home or in the school yard and then set up a wildlife cam to catch them in action. We have been snapping photos of birds with ours for years and absolutely love it. Study data like a wildlife biologist by observing and analyzing real animal migration data maps. You'll find some excellent digital wildlife and nature maps to explore on this list from the National Wildlife Federation. Students can participate in online citizen science projects like Penguin Watch and many others through Zooniverse.
What is the News? India protested the U.S. decision to conduct a patrol in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the western Indian Ocean. What is the Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ)? - The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines an Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ). It is an area that shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines. The EEZ is measured from the breadth of the territorial sea. India’s Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ): - India has the 18th-largest exclusive economic zone(EEZ). It includes the Lakshadweep island group in the Laccadive Sea, Andaman and Nicobar Islands at the Bay of Bengal, and the Andaman Sea. - India’s EEZ bordered to the west by Pakistan. In the south, it is bordered by the Maldives and Sri Lanka. Similarly, in the east, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) of India Definition: - India has legally defined the concept of EEZ in its “Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and Other Maritime Zones Act, 1976”. - According to the Act, the EEZ of India is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial waters. The limit of such a zone is two hundred nautical miles from the baseline. - Powers: In the exclusive economic zone, the Central Government has: - Firstly, Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of natural resources. This includes both living and non-living as well as producing energy from tides, winds, and currents, etc. - Secondly, the government has exclusive rights and jurisdiction over certain matters. This includes the construction, maintenance, or operation of artificial islands, off-shore terminals, installations, and other structures. - Thirdly, the government also has exclusive jurisdiction to authorize, regulate and control scientific research; - Further, the government has exclusive jurisdiction to preserve and protect the marine environment and also to prevent and control marine pollution - The government also has other rights also as recognized by International Law. - Further, no person (including a foreign Government) shall violate the provisions by exploring or exploiting any resources. Also, no person(or foreign government) carry out any search or excavation or conduct research within the EEZ of India. The person(or foreign government) has to get the license or a letter of authority from the Central Government to perform such activities. Source: The Hindu
Learning about numbers and math concepts is complicated, and many children encounter problems along the way. Some kids just need to overcome minor hurdles while others experience more complicated and enduring struggles that can be a sign of a learning disability. If you're worried about your child's math skills, talk to his teacher. "Because the teacher sees your child in a variety of situations at school and can compare your child's progress to that of other children, she's in a good position to notice any potential problems," says Eve Stabinsky-Ackert, an early childhood education specialist in Monroe, Conn. Early warning signs of a math problem According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities and early education specialists, your child may have a problem learning math and numerical concepts if he: - Cries or gets angry when working with numbers - Has trouble remembering numbers - Writes numbers backwards (for example, his 3s look like Es) - Can't follow the steps required to solve simple math problems - Insists that he "just can't do it" without even trying - Is anxious about math homework and tests - Can't add or subtract simple equations in his head - Can't think abstractly (he has trouble grasping concepts like "bigger and smaller," "before and after," "older and younger," etc.) If your child has most or all of these problems, it doesn't necessarily mean he has a learning disability. He may be being pushed too hard. That's why it's important to talk to your child's teacher. She's in the best position to make an early assessment. She may recommend that you give him more math practice at home (see our article on fun activities for building a 2nd grader's math skills or fun activities for building a 3rd grader's math skills) or talk to a learning specialist.
About Color Wheel Tool Using Color Theory When picking colors, one of the most common concerns is deciding which hues go together. The color wheel is a simple tool based on color theory that can help answer that question. Every decorative color combination can be defined by where it resides on the color wheel, a diagram that maps the colors of the rainbow.The color wheel makes color relationships easy to see by dividing the spectrum into 12 basic hues: three primary colors, three secondary colors, and six tertiary colors. Once you learn how to use it and its hundreds of color combinations, the color wheel can provide a helpful reference when deciding what colors to try in your design, home, etc. What is Color Wheel? A color wheel or color circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle, which shows the relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors etc A color wheel based on RGB (red, green, blue) or RGV (red, green, violet) is an additive color wheel; Alternatively, the same arrangement of colors around a circle with cyan, magenta, yellow (CMYK) is a subtractive color wheel. Most color wheels are based on three primary colors, three secondary colors, and the six intermediates formed by mixing a primary with a secondary, known as tertiary colors, for a total of 12 main divisions; some add more intermediates, for 24 named colors. Other color wheels, however, are based on the four opponent colors and may have four or eight main colors. How the Color Wheel Works Primary colors are red, blue, and yellow, these colors are pure, which means you can't create them from other colors, and all other colors are created from them.Secondary colors are between the equidistant primary color spokes on the color wheel: orange, green, and violet. These hues line up between the primaries on the color wheel because they are formed when equal parts of two primary colors are combined.Tertiary colors are formed by mixing a primary color with a secondary color next to it on the color wheel. With each blending (primary with primary, then primary with secondary), the result hues become less vivid. How to Use the Color Wheel to Build Color Schemes You can rely on the color wheel's segmentation to help you mix colors and create palettes with varying degrees of contrast. There are four common types of color schemes derived from the color wheel. Monochromatic Color Palette - Three shades, tones, and tints of one base color. Provides a subtle and conservative color combination. This is a versatile color combination that is easy to apply to design projects for a harmonious look. Although the monochromatic look is the easiest color scheme to understand, it's perhaps the trickiest to pull off. A design filled with just one color can feel boring or overwhelming, depending on how you handle it. Analogous Color Palette - For a bit more contrast, an analogous color scheme includes colors found side by side, close together on the wheel, such as orange, yellow, and green, for a colorful but relaxing feel. Neighboring hues work well in conjunction with each other because they share the same base colors. The key to success for this scheme is to pick one shade as the main, or dominant, color in a room; it's the color you see the most of. Then choose one, two, or three shades to be limited-use accent hues. This living room demonstrates an analogous scheme of blue, purple, and fuchsia. Complementary Color Palette - A complementary color scheme is made by using two hues directly opposite each other on the color wheel, such as blue and orange, which is guaranteed to add energy to any design. These complementary colors work well together because they balance each other visually. You can experiment with various shades and tints of these complementing color wedges that find a scheme that appeals to you. Split Complementary Color Palette - Alternatively known as a compound color scheme,split complementary color scheme consists of two opposite colors placed either side of one base color. This is less attractive than complementary, but just as effective. A good example is Taco Bell's logo, which consists of blue, purple and yellow colors. Triadic Color Palette - Triadic color scheme is made by three colors that are evenly spaced on the color wheel, which provides a high contrast color scheme, but less so than the complementary color combination — making it more versatile. This combination creates bold, vibrant color palettes. Tetradic Color Palette - A tetradic color scheme is a special variant of the dual color scheme, with the equal distance between all colors. All four colors are distributed evenly around the color wheel, causing there is no clear dominance of one color. Tetradic color schemes are bold and work best if you let one color be dominant, and use the others as accents. The more colors you have in your palette, the more difficult it is to balance. Make the Color wheel square! A new feature of the color wheel tool for you is to use a square color wheel (I think it might be called a color cube :D). In this section, like the circular section, you can have the color wheel as Monochromatic mode, Complementary mode, Square mode, Cool-colors mode, and Warm-colors mode. In each section, select the desired color by flicking small circles inside the square, or enter the hexadecimal code of the desired color. And even increase or decrease the number of colors you want. Finally, like, share, or save the desired palette. And this way, you can find colors that match. Let's see how this works?!
A Guide to the Functionality of Your Spine The movements we take for granted wouldn't be possible without a healthy spine. Thanks to your strong backbone, you can jump over a puddle, bend to pick up your dropped keys, or twist to reach your lunch in the backseat of your car. The Parts of the Spine and What They Do The spine is made up of small bones called the vertebrae that protect the spinal cord, support your body and help you move easily. Each vertebra contains a rounded section, known as the vertebral body, and finger-like projections called processes. The muscles in your back are attached to these processes with bands of connective tissues called tendons. Ligaments connect the vertebrae together and help keep your spine stable when you move. The spinal cord, a thick bundle of nerve fibers that transmit impulses from the brain, passes through a hollow area in the middle of the vertebra. These impulses keep your organs and immune system functioning properly, tell your muscles to contract when you move, and control breathing and other bodily functions. Nerves branch out from the spinal cord and travel to the various parts of your body. Vertebrae also contain facet joints, sections of cartilage where two vertebrae meet. Facet joints are responsible for the flexibility and stability of your spine and help you turn, twist and bend. Small rubbery discs between each vertebra cushion your spine and absorb shock. Your spine isn't perfectly straight but forms an "S" shape. This shape keeps your weight evenly distributed, enhances flexibility, and reduces pressure on your back. The 33 vertebrae in your spine are divided into these five sections: - Cervical Spine: The cervical spine starts at the base of your head and contains seven vertebrae. These vertebrae support your head and neck and make it possible to turn your head. - Thoracic Spine: The 12 thoracic vertebrae start at the bottom of your neck. They connect to your ribs and help support your chest and torso. - Lumbar Spine: Five lumbar vertebrae make up your lower back. Since this area supports most of your body's weight, it's the most frequently injured part of the back. - Sacrum: The sacrum is a triangular piece of bone formed of five vertebrae fused together. The sacrum connects to the hips and doesn't move, unlike your other vertebrae. It supports your pelvis and keeps it stable. - Coccyx (Tailbone): Your tailbone is actually made up of four vertebrae fused together. Although this part of the spine also doesn't move, it provides an anchoring point for ligaments and muscles in your pelvis. Common Causes of Back Pain Pain in your spine can occur for many reasons, including: - Problems with Discs: Disc herniation, a problem that occurs when the soft inner core of the disk protrudes through the tough outer covering, can cause pain, numbness, and tingling. Herniated discs can occur due to injuries or aging. - Arthritis: Arthritis can affect any joint in your body, including the facet joints in your back. - Subluxations: Subluxations occur when the vertebrae become misaligned. Injuries can cause subluxations, they can also occur if you sit for long hours or have poor posture. - Tight Muscles: Muscle tension can cause backaches and may be related to subluxations. Misaligned vertebrae tend to pull on muscles, causing pain and tension. - Sprains and Strains: Strains or sprains in the muscles and ligaments in your back can happen if you lift a heavy object or twist your back too far. - Pinched Nerves: Misaligned vertebrae, tight muscles, or herniated discs may press against the nerves in your back, triggering pain, tingling, numbness, or weakness. - Scoliosis: Scoliosis, a condition usually diagnosed during childhood, occurs when the spine curves sideways. Back pain and muscle spasms can be related to scoliosis. You may also notice that one shoulder is higher than the other. As much as we rely on our spines, it's not surprising that back pain is a common complaint. In fact, 80% of Americans can expect to experience back pain at some point in their lives, according to statistics from the American Chiropractic Association. Chiropractic treats the source of back pain and helps keep your spine properly aligned. Are you frustrated by nagging back pain? Give us a call and we'll help you make an appointment with a chiropractor.
Six Essential Elements for Integrating Science into CTE Activity: Explore Sample Lesson Scenario There are many online resources which can help you as you integrate science into your curriculum. Below are a sampling of resources you can use to find lessons, get ideas for activities, and help align content to both the CTE and Science TEKs. This website contains a blog, videos, lesson plans, and other science-related resources. This web page discusses the CER framework in depth. It also includes a video explanation and a video example. This site provides the CTE Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills. Be sure to identify the science-related TEKS that apply to your CTE lesson. This site provides the Science Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills. This is a direct link to the scientific practices (A–E) as outlined in the scientific and investigative reasoning section of the TEKS. This link is to the middle school TEKS which outline the scientific practices for all science; in the high school TEKS, they are tailored to each field of science. This site explains thousands of topics, ranging from the flu to black holes to conspiracy theories, with video and illustrations. This site from the National Institute of Health (NIH) provides curriculum supplements for elementary, middle, and high school teachers. This site from the Exploratorium museum in San Francisco provides inquiry-based learning ideas, activities, and more. This site from the Public Broadcasting Service provides thousands of free, innovative, curriculum-targeted learning resources. Click here to download a PDF copy of these online resources.
Short Bytes: The scientists at Stanford have created world’s first lithium-ion batteries that shut down at high temperature. This invention will prevent devices from catching fire and exploding due to overheating. This new method operates mechanically and repetitively to avoid overheating, due to a material composed of tiny particles of nickel with nanoscale spikes protruding from their surface. The above finding is reported in Nature Energy, and it’s capable of benefiting all types of lithium ion battery-based devices that are prone to overheating risks, including smartphones, tablets, and notebook computers. Why batteries explode? The reason behind overheating of batteries is that Traditional lithium-ion batteries comprise a pair of electrodes and a liquid or gel electrolyte that carries charged particles between them. But once, the battery’s temperature reaches around 150 degrees Celsius (300 degrees Fahrenheit) due to some defect or overcharging the electrolyte can catch fire and trigger an explosion, Previously, Scientists have made such attempts to prevent overheating of hover boards, by implementing things like flame retardants and copper separators to forestall potential fire hazards. But that didn’t prove to be much effective because those techniques proved to be irreversible, thereby rendering the battery dysfunctional once they were overheated. How the new Stanford battery works? But the new method operates mechanically and repetitively to avoid overheating, due to a material composed of tiny particles of nickel with nanoscale spikes protruding from their surface. These nickel particles are coated with graphene and embedded in a thin film of elastic polyethylene that facilitates the flow of electric current through it.” To conduct electricity, the spiky particles have to physically touch one another. But during thermal expansion, polyethylene stretches. That causes the particles to spread apart, making the film non-conductive so that electricity can no longer flow through the battery.” While developing these batteries, the researchers applied heat to the battery with a hot-air gun. As soon as the temperature reached above 70 degrees Celsius (160 degrees Fahrenheit), the polyethylene film expanded and caused the battery to shut down, but once the temperature dipped, the film shrank automatically, thereby resuming the electricity generation. According to the researchers, the temperature threshold could be changed depending on the particular composition of the polymer materials, enabling batteries to run cooler or hotter before the conduction/non-conduction kicks in. It’s a much reliable and faster approach with a promise for better performance and improved safety. The post Stanford Scientists Create World’s First Lithium-Ion Batteries That Don’t Explode appeared first on fossBytes. Powered by WPeMatico
What is Eosinophilic Esophagitis? Eosinophilic Esophagitis (EoE) is an inflammatory, allergic condition that affects the esophagus (food pipe) in which excess numbers of white blood cells called “eosinophils” accumulate there. Eosinophils are part of the allergic response and they create inflammation, so having too many of them in the esophagus can cause damage to the tissue; swelling which may result in difficulty swallowing or even food getting stuck; nausea or vomiting; chest pain, heartburn or abdominal pain and rarely even esophageal tears or rupture. How do we diagnose Eosinophilic Esophagitis? EoE is diagnosed by taking a biopsy (tissue sample) from the esophagus during an upper endoscopy procedure and examining it under a microscope. If there are eosinophils present in the sample(s), the pathologist will count how many are visible. Having more than 15 eosinophils present in the microscopic field of view is usually diagnostic of EoE. What causes Eosinophilic Esophagitis? EoE shares a root cause with other types of allergic diseases: an abnormal immune system response, usually (but not always) to specific foods. Just as we don’t fully understand why some people develop food allergies and others do not, there is no clear ‘cause’ for EoE. Research suggests there are certain genes involved with EoE. Many people with EoE have other known food or environmental allergies, asthma and/or eczema, as well. It is often seen in children and in young adults, but may also develop later in life. How is Eosinophilic Esophagitis treated? There are several treatment options for EoE. - Diet: For patients who wish to seek out a possible allergic food trigger for their EoE, an elimination diet protocol is available under careful guidance of one of our GI dietitians. Research suggests that somewhere in the 70% range of people with EoE are triggered by one or more foods, and the most common triggers are milk, wheat, eggs, soy, peanuts/tree nuts, fish/shellfish. Milk is by far the most common trigger, followed by eggs and wheat. Unfortunately, triggers cannot be identified by blood or skin testing for food allergy, so to identify possible triggers, patients will work with a dietitian to systematically eliminate one or more of these foods from their diet for 6-8 weeks at a time, have new biopsies taken, and compare their baseline levels with those post-elimination. The process can take many months and involve multiple repeat endoscopies. However, it offers the possibility that a person can avoid the need to rely on medications in order to control disease activity. - Proton pump inhibitors: Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are a common first-line treatment for the inflammation caused by EoE. These drugs decrease acid production by the stomach and also probably have a direct anti-inflammatory action. Research suggests that between 50-75% of EoE cases respond to PPI medications. - Topical corticosteroids: Certain steroid medications taken through an asthma inhaler can be used to treat EoE that is neither food nor PPI responsive. With the approach, an aerosol pump is used, but the agent is swallowed into the esophagus rather than inhaled into the lungs. The steroid exerts a direct topical anti-inflammatory action on the esophagus. - Emerging medications: Research over the past two decades has pinpointed specific ‘chain reactions’ that lead to the development of EoE. Based on this new understanding, laboratory scientists have created “smart” medications which specifically block these pro-inflammatory pathways. It is expected that these medications will reach the US market soon. - Endoscopic dilation: In some cases, EoE will lead to narrowing (“stricture”) of the esophagus. If this occurs, food can get stuck on the way down. Fortunately, dilation (stretching out) of the narrowed area using inflatable balloons passed through a scope is usually effective and safe. Several treatments may be required.
The beautiful silver bark and delicate swaying branches of the birch tree can herald misery for people suffering with birch pollen allergy. For the pollen of the birch tree is notorious for producing hay fever (seasonal allergic rhinitis) symptoms, including: In fact, birch pollen is the most common allergy after grass and affects 25 per cent of people with hay fever. Moreover, people with birch pollen allergy often develop an allergy to certain foods, including apples, peaches, celery, cherries and nuts, which causes swelling of the lips when the food is eaten. They may also be allergic to hazel and alder pollen. The birch is one of several tree species in the UK, which produce allergenic pollen. The tree pollen season lasts from early January to late June and the trees flower and produce pollen in roughly this order: The season lasts from mid-March to early June, with a peak in pollen in April. It may vary by a month either way, depending on winter weather. In Scotland, the birch pollen season starts around two weeks later than in southern England. Birch tree pollen is produced in the afternoon (its release peaking sometime between noon and 6 pm) while various other tree pollens are produced in the morning hours. Birch and other trees, pollen is carried around by the wind (unlike the pollen from flowering plants, which is carried by insects and far less likely to cause an allergy problem). That is why it is present in large quantities in the air. Birch pollen grains are very small (between 10 to 40 microns in size). They can be carried through great distances so you might not even need to be in the presence of birch trees to experience hayfever symptoms triggered by birch pollen. Birch pollen grains contain specific proteins which cause a response in an allergic person but are harmless to those who are not allergic. The response causes the production of histamine by the immune system and this is responsible for the typical symptoms of hayfever. The sneezing, nasal congestion, runny nose and – often – headaches can interfere with work, study and social life and if they are severe, it is worth asking your doctor to refer you for skin prick or blood tests to pinpoint whether it is birch pollen that you are allergic to, so you can work towards avoiding it. It is certainly possible to reduce your exposure to birch tree pollen by adopting the following allergen avoidance tips: You may not be able to avoid birch pollen entirely so it's also important to have some effective medication on hand. The new generation non-sedating antihistamines(like Claritin) are useful against hay-fever symptoms because they block the action of histamine. You may find short-term use of a decongestant helpful as well. Most hayfever medications are available over the counter. Always read the label and, if you have questions, do ask the pharmacist about the medication.
When they work, online discussions provide students with transformative experiences. They require students to think critically about a topic, delve deeply and explore their position, and create community with their classmates. However, all too often, simple discussion prompts requiring students to post once and reply twice garner weak responses and half-hearted discussion. Cue online protocols. They present students with specific, structured, timed tasks in the discussion tool to meet an objective as a group. Online protocols have been around for a while; there has even been a book written on the subject, Going Online with Protocols (see resources). Protocols can even help with notoriously nebulous tasks such as reflections. Over a century ago, American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer John Dewey published How We Think. In his treatise, Dewey named reflection as a crucial step in the learning process. Effective reflection is not a stream of consciousness daydream, but rather a rigorous process that makes meaning through the efforts of a well intentioned community of learning. The challenge for online educators is to provide students with the opportunity to reflect on their experience productively. Students need not only to look back at where they have come but also to glimpse the future. Going Online with Protocols has an example of the perfect protocol for online reflection: the “What? So what? Now what?” protocol. The following steps have been adapted from that source. At the end of the course—or even after each unit or book—students working in small groups post their responses to the following questions: - What? What have I learned from this course and what are the big ideas? - So what? Why do these ideas matter? Why was this learning important? After students make their initial posts that answer these questions, they all respond to at least two of their peers’ threads with suggestions for how to make the most of what they have learned, how to apply what they have learned, what are some next steps for learning. In other words, they supply the Now what? for their peers. Instructors may feel called to supply their own What? and So what? threads, sharing what they themselves learned throughout the term. Instructors should also strongly consider responding with their own Now what? suggestions to every student, just as they responded to every student in the introduction activity. This protocol helps students make meaning out of what they have learned through a systematic, rigorous process. Students work together to complete all the steps of the process, and by doing so they show an interest in the personal and professional growth of their classmates. Resources on Reflection Block, J. (2014, May 20). Let It Marinate: The Importance of Reflection and Closing. Retrieved April 13, 2017. Popova, M. (2017, March 27). How We Think: John Dewey on the Art of Reflection and Fruitful Curiosity in an Age of Instant Opinions and Information Overload. Retrieved April 13, 2017. Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining Reflection: Another Look at John Dewey and Reflective Thinking. Teachers College Record,104(4), 842-866. doi:10.1111/1467-9620.00152 Resources on Online Protocols McDonald, J. P., Zydney, J. M., Dichter, A., & McDonald, E. C. 2012. Going online with protocols: New tools for teaching and learning. New York: Teachers College Press. Moore, J. A. (2016, May). Using Online Protocols for Discussions. Online Classroom, 16, 1, 3. Retrieved April 17, 2017. Available only to subscribers. - Quick Tip: Receive Notification When Someone Posts in a Discussion - March 4, 2021 - Reusing Old Announcements - December 21, 2020 - Providing Flexibility for Students, Especially During Disruptive Times - November 25, 2020
The Great Barrier Reef has become arguably one of the biggest casualties of global warming with over a third of the reef dying in 2016. The sun’s rays, combined with increasingly warm waters causes the corals to bleach and in severe cases completely die out. Well one solution could be to reduce the effect of the sun on the water and in turn the reef by implementing a giant ‘sun shield’. Developed by the University of Melbourne and the Australian Institute this ultra-thin film would sit on the surface of the water and create a barrier between the reef and the Sun. While the testing is still in the early phases scientists did record that the film had reduced the amount of light being absorbed by as much as 30%. The ‘sun shield’ is 50,000 times thinner than a human hair and is made from calcium carbonate, the same material that corals actually use to create their hard skeletons. In case you’re worried about any polluting effect it might have the thin film is 100% biodegradable so won’t pose a danger to other local wildlife. While it sounds like the perfect solution, Great Barrier Reef Foundation Managing Director Anna Marsden points out that this sadly can’t work as magic bullet. “It’s important to note that this is not intended to be a solution that can be applied over the whole 348,000 square kilometres of Great Barrier Reef – that would never be practical.” explains Ms Marsden. “But it could be deployed on a smaller, local level to protect high value or high-risk areas of reef.” “The concept needs more work and testing before it gets to that stage, but it’s an exciting development at a time when we need to explore all possible options to ensure we have a Great Barrier Reef for future generations.” Originally Published by Huffington Post, continue reading here.
Are you aware of how important Big Data is to Organizations? Introduction to Big Data Big data refers to massive amounts of data that can be mined for information and utilized for ML projects, predictive models, and other advanced analytics. Let's examine big data characteristics and what makes it so valuable. - Oil and gas companies use big data to find drilling locations and monitor pipeline operations. - Financial services industry uses big data systems to manage risk and analyze market data. How Big Data can Benefit You? - Supply chains and delivery routes are optimized with big data. - Government uses like crime prevention, smart city initiatives, and emergency response. Five V's of Big Data that explains the characteristics. Characteristics of Big Data Big data is a vast pool of data from many sources, like business processes, social media, machines, videos, human interactions, networks, and many more. Big data covers a wide range of data types, including structured, unstructured, and semistructured. other Characteristics of Big Data.
Are you trying to understand robot programming languages and the process of creating a robot? Well, there is a lot of such languages that you will have to cover. So, the question is which language you should learn first? You will receive different options. The most crucial factor for a robot developer indeed is, he/she must have a perfect programming mindset. So, by learning the programming languages, you can attain a sharp programming mindset. Now, let’s have a look into some of the most important robot programming languages. Pascal Or Basis Robot Programming Languages Pascal and BASIC, these are the most programming languages used in robotics. These languages are used to develop different industrial robots. In detail. BASIC stands for Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). Pascal is used to promotes better robot programming practices. For beginners, they must have sufficient knowledge about these languages. Industrial Robotics Languages It has seen that each robot developer has its programing language. Well, this is a significant issue in all the industrial robots. However, if you have learned Pascal, you can understand the industrial robotics language. Talking more about it, ABB used RAPID language. On the other hand, the robot manufacturer KUKA, it is used Kuka Robot Language. Then Yaskawa has INFORM programing language. This is the world’s oldest robot programing language. However, now, this language is not used widely to create robots. But this plays a significant role in artificial programming intelligence. Some parts of the Robot Operating System have this language. HDL- Hardware Description Language In general, this language describes electronics. The language is quite common in the robotics industry as it is used to develop FPGAs- Field Programmable Gate Arrays. This lets the scientists create hardware without producing nay silicon ship. However, to use this language, you must have a prototype of the electronics. Even though the language is different from others, this is still important to develop robots. MATLAB Robot Programming Language This is an open source language and helps robotics data analysis and creating a robotics control system. Some scientists have designed robotics system with this language. However, you will have to learn this language if you want to create complex graphs or control systems. C# And .NET Microsoft is the owner of these two languages. When using the MRDS- Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio, you will use these robot programming languages, which are a bit difficult to understand. But before learning this, you may require to obtain knowledge about C and C++ language. This is an interpretive programming language and not compiled into the code. In detail, it interprets the instructions during runtime. The best part of Java is, you can use a single code on multiple machines. Python Robot Programming Language Python is one of the most crucial programming languages, and it plays a great role in creating ROS. It is also an interpretive language. So, these are some essential programming languages that you should learn for robotics.
Common sense means what people would agree about. It is a personal judgement based on the facts of a situation. Common sense is usually the simplest and most direct account of a situation. It is the knowledge and experience which most people have, or should have. The Cambridge Dictionary defines it as, "the basic level of practical knowledge and judgment that we all need to help us live in a reasonable and safe way". "Common sense" has at least two philosophical meanings. One is a capability of the mind to perceive things like movement and size. The second is our natural sense for other humans and the community. Both of these refer to a type of basic awareness and ability to judge. Most people are expected to share these things naturally, even if they can not explain why. It is quite possible for common sense to be wrong, and science often explains things in quite a different way from common sense. People lack any common-sense intuition of the universe at subatomic distances, or of speeds approaching that of light. Today it is well known that the Earth travels around the Sun but before the scientific revolution people thought that the Sun going around the Earth was common sense. According to the Simple English Wiktionary “Common sense is something that everybody knows and understands.” Related pages[change \| change source] References[change \| change source] \|The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for: common sense.\|
- Slides: 11 Observations vs. Inferences “You can observe a lot just by watching. ” -Yogi Berra Observations • An observation is the gathering of information by using our five senses: Ø Sight Ø Smell Ø Hearing Ø Taste Ø Touch • There are two types of observations Ø Qualitative Ø Quantitative Qualitative Observations • Qualitative observations describe what we observe. • “Qualitative” = quality (descriptive) • These observations use adjectives to describe something. • Example: The flower has white petals. • Example: Mr. M has blue eyes. Quantitative Observations • Quantitative observations measure what we observe. • “Quantitative” = quantity (numerical) • These observations use numbers to measure something in a quantitative way. • Example: The flower has seven petals. • Example: Mr. M has two eyes. Side by Side Comparison • Both types of observations are valuable in science. In an experiment though, quantitative observations can be precisely and objectively compared. Qualitative: The road is long. (describes) Quantitative: The road is 5 km long. (measures) • Some things are easier to quantify than others. Scientists use innovative ways of turning qualitative into quantitative. Which is better? • For example, someone might say that a dead fish is smelly. • It is hard to know just how smelly the fish is though. • To make this quantitative, the scientist could ask the person to rate the “smelliness” on a scale of 1 -5. • This would then allow you to compare how smelly the fish is! Inferences • Inferences are a logical explanation for an observation. • They are based on your past experiences and prior knowledge. Here are some examples! • Observation: The grass on the school’s front lawn is wet. • Possible inferences: Ø It rained. Ø The sprinkler was on. Ø There is dew on the grass from the morning. Ø A dog urinated on the grass! • All of these inferences could possibly explain why the grass is wet. They are all based on prior experiences. We have all seen rain, sprinklers, morning dew, and dogs going to the bathroom. Here are some examples! • Observation: The school fire alarm is going off. • Possible inferences: Ø The school is on fire. Ø We are having a fire drill. Ø A student pulled the fire alarm. • Again, these are all logical explanations for why the fire alarm is going off.
The muscularis is responsible for the segmental contractions and peristaltic movements in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. - Identify the function of muscularis in the GI tract - The muscularis, or muscularis externa, consists of an inner circular muscular layer and a longitudinal outer muscular layer. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis, which propels the food through the GI tract. - Between the two muscle layers is the myenteric or Auerbach’s plexus, which controls peristalsis. - In the colon, the muscularis externa is much thicker because the feces are large and heavy, requiring more force to push along. - The stomach has a third layer of muscularis externa: the inner oblique layer. This helps churn the chyme in the stomach. - Peristaltic activity in the muscularis externa is regulated by the enteric nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. - muscularis externa: A region of muscle in many organs in the vertebrate body, adjacent to the submucosa membrane. It is responsible for gut movement such as peristalsis. - oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. - tiniae coli: These are three, separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the outside of the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. Each layer has different structures and functions. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Structure of the Muscularis Externa Muscularis mucosa of the submucosa: The muscularis mucosa is adjacent to the submucosa, and should not be confused with the muscularis externa. The muscularis externa is responsible for segmental contractions and peristaltic movement in the GI tract. These muscles cause food to move and churn together with digestive enzymes down the GI tract. The muscularis externa consists of an inner circular layer and a longitudinal outer muscular layer. It should not be confused with a thin layer of muscle known as the muscularis mucosa, which lies within the submucosa, a layer of tissue adjacent to the muscularis externa. The muscularis mucosa is made up of smooth muscle, and is most prominent in the stomach. Within the muscularis externa, the circular muscle layer prevents food from traveling backward, while the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The layers are not truly longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis. Between the two muscle layers is the myenteric or Auerbach’s plexus, which controls peristalsis. Peristaltic activity is regulated by these nerve cells, and the rate of peristalsis can be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system. The thickness of muscularis externa varies in each part of the tract. In the colon, for example, the muscularis externa is much thicker because the feces are large and heavy, and require more force to push along. The outer longitudinal layer of the colon thins out into three discontinuous longitudinal bands known as tiniae coli (bands of the colon). This is one of the three features helping to distinguish between the large and small intestine. General Structure of the gut wall: General structure of the gut wall—the muscularis externa is labeled circular muscle and longitudinal muscle here. Occasionally in the large intestine (two to three times a day), there will be mass contraction of certain segments, moving a lot of feces along. This is generally when one gets the urge to defecate. The pylorus of the stomach has a thickened portion of the inner circular layer: the pyloric sphincter. Alone among the GI tract, the stomach has a third layer of muscularis externa. This is the inner oblique layer, and helps churn the chyme in the stomach.

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