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Wisdom Teeth Extractions Third molars, commonly referred to as wisdom teeth, are usually the last four of 32 teeth to erupt (surface) in the mouth, generally making their appearance between the ages of 17 to 25. They are located at the back of the mouth (top and bottom), near the entrance to the throat. The term “wisdom” stems from the idea that the molars surface at a time typically associated with increased maturity or “wisdom”. In most cases, inadequate space in the mouth does not allow the wisdom teeth to erupt properly and become fully functional. When this happens, the tooth can become impacted (stuck) in an undesirable or potentially harmful position. If left untreated, impacted wisdom teeth can contribute to infection, damage to other teeth, and possibly cysts or tumors. There are several types, or degrees, of impaction based on the actual depth of the teeth within the jaw: Soft Tissue Impaction: The upper portion of the tooth (the crown) has penetrated through the bone, but the gingiva (gum) is covering part or all of the tooth’s crown and has not positioned properly around the tooth. Because it is difficult to keep the area clean, food can become trapped below the gum and cause an infection and/or tooth decay, resulting in pain and swelling. Partial Bony Impaction: The tooth has partially erupted, but a portion of the crown remains submerged below the gum and surrounding jawbone. Again, because it is difficult to keep the area clean, infection will commonly occur. Complete Bony Impaction: The tooth is completely encased by jawbone. This will require more complex removal techniques. Reasons to remove wisdom teeth While not all wisdom teeth require removal, wisdom teeth extractions are most often performed because of an active problem such as pain, swelling, decay or infection, or as a preventative measure to avoid serious problems in the future. If impaction of one or more wisdom teeth is present, and left untreated, a number of potentially harmful outcomes can occur, including: Damage to nearby teeth: Second molars (the teeth directly in front of the wisdom teeth) can be adversely affected by impacted wisdom teeth, resulting in tooth decay (cavities), periodontal disease (gum disease) and possible bone loss. Disease: Although uncommon, cysts and tumors can occur in the areas surrounding impacted wisdom teeth. Infection: Bacteria and food can become trapped under the gum tissue, resulting in an infection. The infection can cause considerable pain and danger. Tooth Crowding: It has been theorized that impacted wisdom teeth can put pressure on other teeth and cause them to become misaligned (crowded or twisted). This theory isn’t universally accepted by all dental professionals, and it has never been validated by any scientific studies. Wisdom teeth examination As with any dental procedure, your dentist will want to initially conduct a thorough examination of the wisdom and surrounding teeth. Panoramic or digital X-rays will be taken in order for your dentist to evaluate the position of the wisdom teeth and determine if a current problem exists, or the likelihood of any potential future problems. The X-rays can also expose additional risk factors, such as deterioration or decay of nearby teeth. Early evaluation and treatment (typically in the mid-teen years) is recommended in order to identify potential problems and to improve the results for patients requiring wisdom teeth extractions. Only after a thorough examination can your dentist provide you with the best options for your particular case. What does the removal of wisdom teeth involve? Wisdom teeth removal is a common procedure, generally performed under local anesthesia, intravenous (IV) sedation, or general anesthesia by a specially trained dentist in an office surgery suite. The surgery does not require an overnight stay, and you will be released with post-operative instructions and medication (if necessary), to help manage any swelling or discomfort.
Brucella IgG IgM Test Brucella test is performed on a sample of blood to measure the level of brucella agglutination in the blood. It is performed to confirm zoonotic disease and also during the treatment and after the treatment of zoonotic disease. Note: Read test details, FAQs and test conditions before proceeding to booking. Brucella Test (Brucella Antibodies Panel Test) Brucellosis is caused by gram-negative bacillus of genus Brucella either by direct contact or by ingestion of meat or milk. In cases of suspected Brucellosis, this assay assists in the diagnosis and plays a supplementary role in routine culture. What is the brucella test? Brucella test is performed on a sample of blood to measure the level of Brucella Agglutination in the blood. It is performed to confirm Zoonotic Disease and also during the treatment and after the treatment of Zoonotic Disease. The main pathogenic species of Brucella are Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis and Brucella abortus. Brucella melitensis is a gram-negative coccobacillus bacterium from the Brucellaceae family. It mainly affects the reproductive tract of goats and sheep, and in some regions is the major cause of abortion in them. It can also negatively impact fertility and lactation. B. melitensis has the broadest host range, infecting cattle, camels and dogs, besides sheep, goats and humans. Brucella suis infections in pigs cause chronic inflammatory lesions in the reproductive organs or orchitis and may affect joints and/or other organs. Similar to B. melitensis, B. suis can cause abortion in pregnant hosts. Other effects of the disease are sterility, posterior paralysis and spondylitis. It is transmitted mainly by ingestion of infected tissues or fluids. It can cause undulant fever. B. suis are gram-negative, facultative intracellular coccobacilli and can specifically produce in phagocytic cells. They are also non-spore-forming, non-capsulated, and non-motile. Brucella suis are differentiated into five strains. Strains 1-3 infect boars and pigs. Strain 2 has been found in wild boars but without signs of infection while they do infect pigs and hares. Brucella abortus is a species of the genus Brucella. Natural hosts of B. abortus are cattle and other bovidae. Abortion and placentitis are common effects on the pregnant animal. When humans come in contact with an infected animal or animal products that are contaminated with Brucella, brucellosis may result. Most human infections are occupational. Over 70 percent of reported cases of brucellosis occur in the meat-processing and livestock industries. Infection is via skin wounds, but the organisms can also be inhaled. A common route of Brucella infection is eating or drinking infected dairy products that have not been pasteurized. Human infections are caused most frequently by B. melitensis, B. suis, and B. abortus, while B. canis causes only rare infections. B. melitensis is the most virulent. People infected with B. melitensis can suffer serious complications, including infection and inflammation of the bones and joints, and occasionally, the heart and brain. Incubation period is one to three weeks, and flu-like symptoms appear in the infected person, such as fever, sweats, headache, back pain, and weakness. Severe complications such as CNS infections or infections in the heart lining occur in about 5 percent of cases. Chronic symptoms like recurrent fever, arthritis, and fatigue may occur up to one year from the illness onset. Brucellosis plays an important role in the economy and health of many developing countries because of its impact on both livestock and humans. A genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that causes BRUCELLOSIS. Its cells are nonmotile coccobacilli and are animal parasites and pathogens. The bacterium is transmissible to humans through contact with infected dairy products or tissue. What is the brucella antibody test? Brucella antibody test is a serological test that is used to detect Brucella antibodies in the blood. Such test is done on the blood serum and used to detect not only the antibodies but also the different agents that handle their creation. If you are suffering from the symptoms such as fever, fatigue, muscle pain, joint pain and so on, then you may suffer from acute or chronic Brucellosis. In such cases, the blood test is done to detect the antibodies in the blood. What is the need for the brucella IgG IgM test? The presence of antibodies states that either you have a current infection or there was a mild infection in the past. The test result will tell if the treatment works efficiently or not. If the antibodies are present, the result is stated to be positive. However, if there is no current infection, then any past immunization can be the reason behind the presence of antibodies. In the case antibodies are present, the test is done of the blood serum to check antigens and know if the infection is current or not. If there are no antibodies, that means that the result is negative, and no disease is there. Brucella Agglutination Test - Overnight fasting is not required - Doctor’s prescription may be needed - The test result may vary depending on age, sex and health history, etc. - No special preparation is needed for the Brucella Test. Inform your doctor if you are on any medications or have any underlying medical conditions or allergies before undergoing the Brucella Test. - Home visit service facility available only for total test cost of above ₹999.00 Checkout for Any Offers & Discount Coupons Speak or WhatsApp 919766060629 Read our Article On Infectious Diseases Watch On YouTube
There are four main functions of a computer that make user interaction possible: - Input is data we give to our computers through interactions- Processing is comprised of the translation of input and the instructions given for output- Memory is used to store either temporary or permanent information- Output is the information that gets returned by the computer The Control Unit (CU) on a CPU receives information from the software; then, it distributes and directs the data to the relevant hardware components. Some functions of the CU:- Determine what/where the nextinstruction must go for processing- Send clock signals to all hardware toforce synchronous operations- Send memory taskings if appropriate An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. It is the fundamental building block of the CPU. Some ALU functions:- Addition & subtraction- Determining equality- AND/OR/XOR/NOR/NOT/NAND logicgates and more! A register is a volatile memory system that provides the CPU with rapid access to information it is immediately using. Functions of a register:- Store temporary data for immediateprocessing by the ALU- Hold "flag" information if an operationresults in overflow or triggers other flags- Hold the location of the next instructionto be processed by the CPU A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions based on an input of binary data (0’s and 1’s). The CPU consists of the Control Unit (CU), the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), and registers (Immediate Access Store). Random Access Memory, or RAM, is additional high-speed memory that a computer uses to store and access information on a short-term basis. Hard disks, or hard drives, are responsible for the long-term, or secondary storage of data and programs. The mainboard, or motherboard, is a printed circuit board that houses important hardware components via ports. A port is a physical outlet used to connect devices to a computer. A computer typically contains multiple ports. This connection allows for communication between the IO device and the computer. The operating system (OS) is system software that manages the basic functionalities of a computer and is responsible for tasks such as process management, memory management, file system management, IO management, networking, security, and providing a user interface.
Mean sea level The long term changes in "mean" sea level provide basic information on the climatic role of oceans and general ocean circulation. The international scientific community is conducting studies to detect long-term trends and link them to climate change. But the global network of tide stations has significant shortcomings: the stations are not evenly distributed (concentrated in the northern hemisphere) and they are ill-suited to monitoring the general dynamics of the oceans. To achieve this goal, specific tide gauges must be installed and used in conjunction with highly precise satellite positioning systems (GPS, DORIS), which will monitor the geodesic stability of the base that the gauges are based on. It is generally accepted that the global sea level is rising by about 1 to 2 mm per year, but estimates of the rate of increase differ significantly according to the authors. This is because the exact causes of the rise are not known, and in particular, what portion can be attributed to the greenhouse effect, due to the increase of industrial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The Topex Poseidon and Jason satellites measured a mean rise of around 2 mm per year between 1993 and 2000, but this increase is not uniform throughout the world's oceans: there are regional differences of ± 20 mm / year. To address this issues, tides gauges must be positioned in a unique reference system, the reference ellipsoid for example. This is why tide stations are increasingly equipped with geodetic positioning systems using satellite technology. For the purposes of climate study, long-term tidal observations are valuable, especially those of Brest, which began in 1807. With nearly 200 years of measurements, the Brest tide station has the long-term data required to determine long-term variations in sea level. This example shows that local fluctuations of annual mean sea level are relatively significant, reaching or exceeding ± 5 cm from one year to another. This is why accurate trend assessments require observation periods on the order of 100 years. In Brest, the mean sea level has risen some 20 centimetres since 1846. But this example is not representative of all long-term observations available across the globe. In most cases, these observations show an average increase of about 1 to 2 mm / year, with a spread around these values of the same order as that of Brest. However, there are sites, especially in Scandinavia, where the trend is reversed. The available tidal observations are not a good indicator of the overall trend due to the uneven distribution of tide stations, located mostly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The variability of the trend from one site to another is mainly due to vertical movements of the earth's crust, which the gauges obviously cannot detect (measurement of the relative level). These tectonic movements can be measured using satellite technology that can locate various levels (marine or terrestrial) compared to an absolute reference. The data acquired by numerous satellites equipped with radar altimeters providing near-centimetre accuracy (Topex-Poseidon since October 1992, and Jason since 2003 and Jason 2 since 2008), indicate a rise in sea levels of the same order of magnitude as those mentioned above. However, because of interannual fluctuations, many years of altimetric data across the globe are needed to reduce the uncertainty of this estimate. The available satellite data show a high spatial variability of the trends over periods on the order of a decade. However, the reliability of the radar altimeters on board satellites has been demonstrated and the quality of the data is improving. Moreover, space geodesy technology can position specific points on the surface of the Earth with centimetre accuracy in the geocentric reference system International Terrestrial Reference System (IRTS), which has been adopted by the International Union for Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). Operational systems such as GPS and Doris can reference the tide gauge datums to the ITRS. This makes it possible to monitor changes in sea level against an absolute reference. International and national programs to improve the accuracy of reference systems and geoid models from these satellite technologies are currently underway. For the same reasons as for altimetry data, exploitable results (for the study of long term sea level variations) cannot be expected for several years. Finally, measuring gravitational acceleration is another way to detect vertical movements of the Earth's crust. There are instruments capable of detecting a change in gravity, equivalent to a height variation of a few millimetres. The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), an international program conducted under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), aims at the establishment of high quality global and regional sea level networks for application to climate, oceanographic and coastal sea level research. The main component of GLOSS is the 'Global Core Network' (GCN) of nearly 300 sea level stations around the world for long term climate change and oceanographic sea level monitoring. These stations provide sea level observations with centimetre accuracy, referenced in a global geodetic system. The data are available via Internet from the University of Hawaii Sea Level Center, the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL), and the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). The SONEL project aims to produce mean sea level series and GPS solutions needed for studies on changing sea levels. This synergy should benefit tidal research on long-term variations in sea level. This project uses data on current and past water depths available on REFMAR. SONEL was certified as a National Observation Service by INSU in January 2011. It was also recognized by the Environmental Alliance in July 2011 under the Long-Term Sea Level Variation System project. This SO INSU and SOERE project is supported by LEGOS with SHOM and the ULR. In November 2011, the GLOSS Group of Experts definitively agreed to make the GNSS component of SONEL the official "data assembly center" on this aspect of the program. Thanks to the synergies between organizations running the SONEL system, the associated research activity will facilitate the dissemination of information on daily, monthly and annual mean sea levels and the associated co-located GPS data. Through the SONEL portal, mean sea level data can be disseminated for the purposes of the national strategy for sustainable management of the coastline, the strategic retreat and defence against the sea, ONERC indicators and the French Seas scoreboard proposed at the Grenelle de la Mer. Different "mean levels" The notion of mean sea level (MSL) of the observed height h (t) is ambiguous. It refers to a supposedly constant value. However, by definition MSL values are fundamentallyvariable since they depend on both the central moment tn , the selected interval and the duration T of the interval: : In addition, with respect to the tide, this ambiguity is compounded by the fact that the term "mean sea level" does not signify the mean of the observed heights h (t). The value is derived by filtering the data h (t) by the symmetric gate of width T, which is more complex than the arithmetic mean. In tide gauging, mean sea level is determined by filtering the heights measured to eliminate the astronomical tide. This makes it possible to define different mean levels, including the daily mean sea level. In tidal period (TM1 ≈ 2TM2 ≈ 24.84 h), the simple mean of 24 hourly measurements leaves a residue containing tidal components that are problematic for statistical studies of mean daily sea level. Calculating mean sea levels The SONEL portal provides all the information needed to calculate daily, monthly and yearly mean sea levels according to international standards. To find out more: - International Programme GLOSS - International Programme PSMSL - SOERE SONEL Consortium - Evolution of the mean sea level seen by altimeters - Link to pages for calculating mean levels on SONEL portal - Height references - Mean sea level, instant mean sea level, nominal mean sea level - Tide gauge sea level \| ONERC - ANR CECILE - ANR MISEEVA - Project OST-ST Ocean Surface Topography Science Team - Simon B. (2007). La Marée - La marée océanique et côtière. Edition Institut océanographique, 434pp. Last updated: 12/12/2012
Mexican Money (pesos and centavos) Believe it or not, teachers around the world teach continents differently! Here in Canada, we teach seven continents: Asia, Africa, Antarctica, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania (Australia). Other countries may teach six continents: Africa, Antarctica, North America, South America, Eurasia and Australia (or Australasia). Some places (such as Spain) teach five continents with North America and South America combined as a single continent called the Americas. Geographically a continent is a large, discrete land mass separated by large bodies of water -- by this scientific definition there are only four continents: Antarctica, Australia, Americas and Afro-Eurasia. However, children at a grade school level are almost never taught using a four continent model. Most educators take geography, politics and history into account when deciding how to split our world up into continents. For older students, it's an interesting debate topic to discuss the definition of a continent. Should the Americas be taught as one since their land masses are connected? Should Europe and Asia be combined despite their very different histories and customs? Should a large island like Greenland be considered its own continent -- how "large" is large enough? Should a virtually unpopulated island like Antarctica be considered a continent -- do continents need governments, history, people and politics?
Many know the story of the great Greek hero who traveled the seas, attempting to return home. Odysseus’ story is known in all kinds of places around the globe and the tale has been written and rewritten in all forms of Greek mythology. Two of these are The Odyssey by Homer and Odysseus by Geraldine McCaughrean. While The Odyssey and Odysseusare similar concerning their plot, they differ in point of view and formatting. The plot of The Odyssey and Odysseus are very similar. Both texts revolve around the Greek hero, Odysseus, and his shipmates as they sail across the ocean and avoid being lured away by mythical creatures called the Sirens. Odysseus decides to put ear wax in the ears of his shipmates and was tied to the ship mast. Odysseus ends up enchanted by the Sirens and wants to be set free, but is only tied tighter. At the end, in his story, The Odyssey, Homer quotes, “[t]hen scudding swiftly from the dangerous ground, / [t]he deafen’d ear unlock’d, the chains unbound” (Homer 49-50). As their ears were “unlock’d” and chains were “unbound,” they were set free from their restraints, because they escaping the Sirens. This is similar to Odysseus in which it states, “[o]ver the starboard quarter, the Island of the Sirens dipped out of sight below the brimming horizon” (McCaughrean 13). Since they could no longer see the island, they escaped. Meaning, both ended with Odysseus and his shipmates escaping safely. While in The Odyssey, point of view is in first person; Odysseus, however, differs with a third person point of view. First person point of view is clearly demonstrated when The Odyssey states, “[n]ow round the masts my mates the fetters roll’d, / [a]nd bound me limb by limb with fold on fold” (Homer 25-26). The author uses words such as my and me, referring to oneself. On the other hand, third person is emphasized when Odysseus says, “Wearily he kept watch for the island of the Sirens. There! Was that birdsong or human voices drifting towards him?” (McCaughrean 1). The author uses the words “he” and “him,”, referring to another person, in this case Odysseus. These words continue throughout the stories and prove them to have different points of views. The formatting of the two texts differ greatly. The Odysseyis poetic, including stanzas and some rhyming words. However, Odysseusis a narrative and follows the standard paragraph format. The Odyssey maintains that form when stating, “[i]n flowery meadows the sportive Sirens play, / [t]ouch the soft lyre, and tune the vocal lay.” Both lines end in a rhyming word and show the poetic form. It is clear that Odysseus is a narrative when McCaughrean says, “[t]oo quiet, too low, I must get closer, he thought, and stood with his hand to his ear on the dipping prow” (McCaughrean 2). As the actions of Odysseus progress, it forms into written events that flow one to another. The two works, The Odyssey and Odysseus, are similar and contrasting in many ways. They are different in point of view and formatting, yet the plot is similar. Aside from these, there are more similarities and differences, yet they are all the same story in the end.
Week 4: Light and Shade All form is made up of light and shade, the artist needs to grasp the effect of light on form before he can describe it convincingly. Demonstration, Show the effect of light on a round object, identifying the highlight, half tone, core shadow, reflected lights and cast shadow. Also discuss the fall of light, why things get darker the further they are from the light source. • The anatomy of light: draw a diagram showing the anatomy of light and label it. • Put elements together: draw a sphere from using the elements discussed in the lesson to create an illusionistic drawing, Week 5: Mass drawing Mass drawing refers to rendering the solidity of the subject by masses of tone or colour, without emphasising lines or edges. This is the secret to drawing and painting, Demonstration, illustrating the steps of realistic drawing. • Learning the drill: draw a group of boxes using the step by step guide below. - Shadow shapes, - Grouping of the darks - Darkest dark and lightest light, - Fall of light, - Reflected lights, - Half tones. Week 6: Atmospheric perspective The effect the atmosphere has on an object when viewed from a distance. As the distance between an object and a viewer increases, the contrast of edges, detail and colour decreases. The artist needs to understand this concept if he wants to create the illusion of objects in space. Demonstration, illustrate the effects of atmospheric perspective and how this can be applied to the figure, portrait and still life. • Near and Far objects: learn how to create the illusion of depth, copy some examples of landscapes and simple still life arrangements.
PureInsight \| March 1, 2004 [From The Epoch Times] On a lonely stretch of the Pan-American Highway, 275 miles south of Lima, Peru, lies a town called Nasca. The town sits in the Pampa region, a desolate plain on the northern tip of the Atacama Desert. What makes this area unique is the Nasca Lines -- a spider's-web of lines and shapes crisscrossing 250 square miles of bone-dry desert. Their origin and purpose has baffled scientists and laymen alike since their "discovery" in the 1920s. The Nasca Lines consist of trapezoids and spirals, giant animal and humanoid figures, and ruler-straight lines that stretch for miles. These lines and ground drawings, called "geoglyphs," are attributed to the Nasca race that populated this land between 200 B.C. and 600 A.D. They were created by removing the top layer of dark rock from the desert floor, revealing contrasting white-yellow sand. Interestingly, the drawings are best viewed and appreciated from the air. Average rainfall in this desert is a half-inch a year. Widely recognized as the driest place on earth, the Atacama's Nasca Lines have been preserved for thousands of years. When commercial airlines started flights over the Peruvian desert in the 1920s, pilots and passengers spoke of seeing "landing strips" crisscrossing the ground below. Stories of these mysterious lines soon spread. Many experts have since then attempted to unravel the puzzle of the desert drawings. Dr. Paul Kosok came to the Nasca desert in the 1930s to study ancient irrigation channels. Initially, the Nasca Lines were thought to be remnants of these channels. Often traveling by foot, Dr. Kosok soon discovered large-scale drawings of animals and other objects. Over time, he theorized that the drawings represented a large astronomical chart. In the mid-1940s, a German girl named Maria Reiche worked to further develop Dr. Kosock's astronomical theory. Her background in mathematics and astronomy enabled her to map and study the desert shapes. She noted that many lines aligned with important solstices, and discovered further correlations to the solar cycle. She found large drawings of a monkey, whale, spider and several birds. While painstakingly clearing, measuring and reproducing the lines on paper, she discovered a standard of measurement used by the ancient artists. In 1977, she published a book, Mystery On The Desert, summarizing her research of the Nasca Lines. She continued her research until her death in 1998. Other experts had different theories. Toribio Nejia, a renowned Peruvian archaeologist, proposed the lines were sacred pathways, or "ceques," and the clearings used for ritual gatherings. Author Erich von Daniken made one of the more fanciful speculations in his book Chariots of the Gods? He speculated that the lines were laid out for alien spacecraft to land on the desert. Although many theories abound to the purpose of these strange markings, there remains no consensus as to their meaning. As these different researchers brought more attention to the Nasca Lines, the normally lonely desert was suddenly under threat. As she did years earlier when the lines were threatened by a government scheme to irrigate the arid pampa, Maria Reiche was able to spearhead an effort to preserve these unique markings by restricting crowds driving through the fragile terrain. In 1994, the Lines of Nasca were designated a World Heritage site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. To this day, the Lines of Nasca remain a mysterious remnant from an ancient civilization.
What is Shock? Shock is the a severe dysfunction or failure in the circulation, meaning that adequate blood is not flowing or sufficient oxygen is not reaching the cells, tissues or organs. Shock is considered to be a medical emergency that requires immediate medical attention, failing which, death may occur. The medical term ‘shock’ should not be confused with a sudden and severe emotional upset which is commonly referred to as ‘shock’ as well. Types of Shock There are many types of shock and this is not only a result of excessive blood loss which is a common misconception. - Hypovolemic shock is the result of blood loss or significant water and salt loss (fluid and electrolyte loss). - Cardiogenic shock is the result of failure of the cardiovascular organs, particularly the heart. - Anaphylactic shock is the result of a generalized allergic reaction. - Septic shock is a result of infections which has progressed to a severe state as in septicemia. - Neurogenic shock is a result of severe nerve damage that affects the heart and blood vessels. Causes of Shock Based on the different types of shock, the causes can vary significantly. Some of the common causes of shock includes : - Sudden and severe blood loss seen with a major open wound - Disruption of heart activity like a heart attack - Anaphylaxis occurs when eating certain foods that one is extremely allergic to such as strawberries, eggs, nuts, shellfish and so on. It depends on the individual. - Untreated infections, specifically bacterial infections, can lead to septic shock should the body’s immune system not overcome the microbes. Signs and Symptoms of Shock Shock occurs when the blood pressure drops significantly or when an adequate blood supply is not reaching tissues. The cardinal signs and symptoms of shock include : - Pale skin complexion (pallor). - Clammy skin (cold sweat). - Rapid thready pulse (increased heart rate). - Rapid breathing (increased respiration rate usually with shallow breathing). - Low blood pressure. Other signs and symptoms that may not always be obvious signs of shock include : - Fainting or loss of consciousness - Confusion, anxiety or irritability - Cyanosis, first noticed as bluish fingers, toes and lips and later as bluish appearance of face. - Little or no urine - Chest pain Treatment of Shock - Elevate the legs but be cautious about spinal cord damage, especially in cases of car accident injuries. - Attempt to raise the body temperature by covering the person or moving them closer to a source of heat, if available. - In the event of a site of obvious blood loss, apply firm pressure to stop or slow the loss. - Airway, Breathing, Circulation. If any of the three are compromised, consider starting CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation). - Seek emergency medical help.
Reading resources Jokes We can all appreciate that sharing a moment of humour has the benefit of helping children feel less uncomfortable and more able to engage. Did you know that there is also evidence to suggest that jokes and puns can help children develop language and communication skills? Jokes and puns have a ‘language’ of their own with all the rules and conventions that make us laugh… or groan! Jokes help children to explore the characteristics of language (similarity of sound, ambiguity of meaning) and help develop comprehension skills. The language knowledge and thinking skills needed to understand jokes and puns is often very high-level. What did one traffic light say to the other traffic light? Don't look at me, I'm changing. To get the joke, a child would need to a) understand the more obvious meaning of the word changing in respect of traffic lights, b) then identify that the same word can have a second, more ‘naughty’, meaning, then c) put together the two possible meanings of the same word and compare them in the context… it’s the idea that traffic lights might be taking their clothes off that’s funny (or not!). In this example, the joke is based on the word ‘changing’ having two (related) meanings. Another example would be: What is the difference between a fireman and a soldier? You can't dip a fireman in your egg. Puns are also often based on words with different spellings and meanings sounding the same, or similar. What is the difference between a buffalo and a bison? You can’t wash your hands in a buffalo. To really ‘get’ this joke, you need to know that buffalo and bison are similar animals (commonly confused as being the same thing); you also need to recognise that, especially in a certain accent, the words bison and basin sound very similar and, of course, to know what a basin is! That’s quite a lot of opportunity to develop vocabulary, explore word meanings and make connections to wider knowledge in two lines! Other jokes play with words and language itself as the source of humour: What's orange and sounds like a parrot?A carrot. On a practical level, jokes are short and often easier for a child to read to you or with you, but we can also think of jokes as stories in miniature: great for practicing the skills we need to read for meaning. I thought I might become a history teacher when I grow up, but then I realised there was no future in it. Jokes can help children to determine the relative importance of pieces of information and to learn to remember a story in order. Children often find it difficult to relate things in the correct order: making sure that the end comes at the end and not in the middle! The ability to pick out the important elements and understand the sequence of events are both important in comprehension. Remembering and telling simple jokes to other people is a good way to practice these skills, and making people laugh feels good and gives us confidence to keep trying. Pupil: I'd like to bring my five dogs to school.Teacher: But what about the noise and mess?Pupil: Oh, they won't mind. Jokes prompt us to create pictures in our mind, challenging our imagination and asking us to visualise, literally 'see the joke' for ourselves. Punch lines teach children to expect the unexpected and appreciate the importance of surprise and anticipation. Good readers think about what they are reading, organise new information and match it with information that they already know, ask mental questions, look for possible answers and mentally picture objects and events that relate to the text. In other words they are actively engaged in their reading. To enjoy a good joke we need to do all these things and the reward is a good laugh. The skills that jokes develop are vital to be an effective reader and communicator. Want to read this elsewhere? You can download this in PDF format. If you have any more great tips on how to engage reluctant and struggling readers, then speak to us as we'd love to hear them. Or why not put your tips into action by becoming a Coram Beanstalk reading helper?
Coot chicks use bright colors to get preferential treatment With their bright orange and red feathers, North American coot chicks stick out like safety vests. A new study by the University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC) indicates that such coloration not only serves to get more food out of the parents, but is also a means of maximizing the bird's reproductive strategy. With its gray and black feathers and white beak, the American coot isn't known as the most colorful of water birds. Even female ducks tend to stand out more in the scenery. But, in contrast, the coot's chicks are extremely colorful. In a world swarming with predators, this may seem like a bad evolutionary move, but research in recent years shows that there's a method to this bright orange madness. According to UCSC, it was already known that the coot chicks use their bright colors to manipulate their parents into giving them preferential treatment over their siblings. However, the question remained as to why the mother and father go along with this color competition. What evolutionary function does it play? "It’s an interesting question because there are theories about conflicts of interest between parents and offspring suggesting that it could be the chick manipulating the parents to get more food," says Bruce Lyon, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UCSC. "Having shown that the parents really care about the ornamentation, we focused in this study on the natural variation in chick coloring." It turned out that there was even more to the puzzle, in that coots practice "brood parasitism." Like the cuckoo, the coot lays its eggs not only in its own nest but also in that of other coots. If the bright coloration was just a way of getting more parental attention, these intruder chicks should be a brighter color than the other chicks, but they are actually less colorful. To find the answer, Lyon and Daizaburo Shizuka from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln collected about 1,500 coot eggs and hatched them indoors under controlled conditions. As the chicks grew, they were then scanned with a photospectrometer to precisely measure their coloration. In addition, the researchers noted each chick's coot family, its egg-laying and hatching order, and if it came from a parasite egg. What they found was that the degree of coloring was controlled by the order in which the eggs were laid, with the later eggs producing brighter-tinted chicks. Since the chicks had no way to manipulate this, the change in color was likely due to the mother adding more carotenoid pigments to each subsequent egg in the nest. The UCSC study suggests that this is because the coot's reproductive strategy involves laying a large number of small eggs. Because the food supply can't support so many, about half are expected to die of starvation. However, by laying a surplus of eggs, this increases the chances that the maximum number of chicks will survive related to the food supply. This is where the chick coloration comes in. When the first chicks are born, the parents feed them indiscriminately. About 10 days after the last chick is born, however, the parents start paying more attention to the younger, more colorful ones. In this way, the larger, older chicks are neglected while the smaller ones get more of the food, allowing them to grow faster and catch up to their siblings or even surpass them. It's also the reason why the parasitic chicks aren't very colorful. Since the mother is laying her eggs opportunistically, she can't know where in the laying order her chick will fall. "The male and female divide up the brood, with each parent exclusively feeding their half of the brood, and each parent also picks a favorite," says Lyon. "Color predicts which one they choose, so the ornamentation may serve as a signal to tell them which chick needs the most help. They start by creating an uneven playing field, which allows them to cull the brood, and then they intervene to level the field. The orange plumage seems to be a feature that helps them do that." A paper on the research was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Ruby Case Examples: Ranges, Strings and RegexpUse the case statement. Match values, and ranges of values, with this statement. Case. A case-statement tests values. It matches the value of a variable against ranges and other values. It yields a specified value. It influences control flow. Ranges, expressions. Case is an alternative syntax form to the if-statement. We use ranges, strings and numbers with cases. We can assign or return the case's result. We use a case in a method. The method test() returns the value from a case-statement evaluation. It returns the strings Low, Medium or High based on the parameter. Ranges: We use numeric ranges in the when-statements. To specify a range, separate two numbers with two periods. Else: Else optionally comes at the end. If no other ranges or values match, the else-statement is reached. This is a default. Ruby program that uses case-statement # Test method. # Return a case. return case quality when 0..2 then "Low" when 3..5 then "Medium" when 6..8 then "High" # Call test method. print test(0), "\n" print test(4), "\n" print test(8), "\n" print test(-1), "\n" A case requires no ranges. In this example, we use simple number "when" statements. For example, we return 400 when the value equals 4. Note: The case statement evaluates and its result is stored in the "result" variable's memory location. Expression: We use the case as an expression in this program, one that is evaluated to return a value. Tip: In Ruby, expressions and statements are often interchangeable. This makes constructs like "case" useful in many contexts. Ruby program that uses case, no ranges value = 5 # Use case with numbers, no ranges. result = case value when 4 then 400 when 5 then 500 when 6 then 600 # Display input and output. A string can be used in a case. In this example, we use a string in a case expression, and then assign an integer to the result. The case evaluates to the value 2. Also: This case expression uses an else-statement. If the value of "name" is not matched, the value 3 is returned by this expression. Ruby program that uses string case # The value. name = "sam" # Assign to result of string case expression. id = case name when "edna" then 0 when "fred" then 1 when "sam" then 2 # Display result. When. This can have multiple values in it. Here we see a when statement that matches if the variable equals 100 or 200. This syntax form is a good choice when a range is unnecessary. Ruby program that uses when, multiple values apartment = 200 when 100, 200 # Has two possible matching values. puts "100 or 200" 100 or 200 A case can use Regexp in the when statements. Here we use a regular expression to test first letters. Any regular expression can be used. And we can even capture groups. Here: The case block detects that the word "Alexandria" starts with the letter "A." The Regexp is described. Ruby program that uses Regexp, case value = "alexandria" # Use case with regular expressions. puts "Starts with letter A" puts "Starts with B" Starts with letter A ^a String starts with a lowercase letter A. ^b String starts with a "b". This example combines many constructs in Ruby. We use an iterator (each) over a string array. We then use a case-statement with regular expressions. Tip: After a Regexp matches a value in a case, its groups are stored in a special variable $1. We get the captured value there. Tip 2: We can also directly display the value of $1 in a puts call with the code #$1. This helps us develop a simple text parser. Ruby program that uses case, Regexp, captures # An array of strings. values = ["value 100", "string box"] # Loop over strings. values.each do \|value\| # Use regular expression in case-statement. # ... Use capturing. when /value (\d+)/ # Access the capture from $1. argument = $1 # Use format string to display argument. puts "Value argument = %s" % argument when /string (.+)/ # Directly display captured value. puts "String argument = #$1" Value argument = 100 String argument = box In this test, case has no performance advantage. It is many times slower than an equivalent if-statement. This depends on the data being tested. However: To boost performance, it is sometimes helpful to replace cases with if-statements. Ruby program that times case-statement count = 100000 n1 = Time.now.usec x = 0 v = 5 # Assign a variable with a case-statement. x = case v when 0..1 then 1 when 2..3 then 2 when 4..6 then 3 n2 = Time.now.usec # Assign a variable with an if-statement. if v >= 0 && v <= 1 x = 1 elsif v >= 2 && v <= 3 x = 2 elsif v >= 4 && v <= 6 x = 3 x = 0 n3 = Time.now.usec puts ((n2 - n1) / 1000) puts ((n3 - n2) / 1000) 92 ms, case-statement 15 ms, if-elsif-else statements A summary. Case is a selection statement. It is similar, conceptually, to switch statements and to select-case statements in other languages. Case has advantages. Its syntax is clear and easy to read. It also has limitations—it may evaluate slower. We used a case-statement in a method. © 2007-2019 Sam Allen. Every person is special and unique. Send bug reports to [email protected].
(Last Updated on : 22/08/2014) Sea Anemones are sedentary coelenterates resembling hydras but stouter and larger. They are solitary and rarely form colonies. In internal structure they are far more advanced than hydras and Obelias. With their numerous spreading tentacles fringed with hair-like cilia and tinged white, lilac, yellow or orange and their habitat on mud banks and rock pools, sea anemones form conspicuous objects of the seashore. Many of them however shroud their bodies with sand grains and shingle and when exposed during low tides they shrink to such insignificant masses that they are often overlooked. A typical sea anemone has a cylindrical body with an adhesive basal disc at the attached end and an oral disc with a slit-like mouth in its centre at the free end. The tentacles are hollow and their number varies from six to many arranged in circlets about the mouth. In one species, Actinia equine, there are one hundred and ninety two tentacles arranged in six circlets of 6, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 96. All tentacles bear stinging cells and are highly contractile. They can expand or contract considerably, capture prey and convey the food to the mouth. The animal can voluntarily shift its position by softly sliding its basal disc. The gastro vascular cavity of the sea anemone is not simple. The slit-like mouth does not lead directly into the cavity but through a tube or gullet which is not circular but compressed from side to side. This gullet has two ciliated grooves one on either side. A constant stream of water enters into the body cavity through these grooves and supplies the animal with oxygen. There are male and female sea anemones producing either sperms or ova. The sperms are discharged into the gastric cavity from where they escape through the mouth. They are then carried partly by the action of their cilia into the cavity of a female where they fertilize the ova. The fertilized ovum divides and becomes an elongate ciliated larva. In this condition the larva leaves the parental cavity, swims for some time and settles on a suitable support where it develops into a fresh sea anemone. The distribution of sea anemones is wide and many typical genera are found along all the sea coasts. They abound in tidal pools, and reefs have a rich representation of large and colourful anemones. There are many interesting forms and the tropical ones are the more brilliantly coloured. Metridium is a typical sea anemone found fixed to some solid object along the seashore where rock pools and mud banks abound. It has a dark brown trunk about eight centimetres high and white, hollow tapering tentacles fringed with rich clusters of cilia. Delicately coloured Sagartia, about 2.5 to 3 centimetres high, is common on rocks. Adamsia is a stout reddish sea anemone with grey tentacles found fixed on the back of empty gastropod shells inhabited by hermit crabs. It has the benefit of being carried from place to place by the crab whereas the latter gets protection from predacious fishes which avoid the stinging weapons of the sea anemone. Members of the genus allied to Cibrina measuring about five centimetres in diameter and six to eight centimetres in height, bluish in colour with numerous slender tentacles and vertical rows of warty growths on the column, are found on mud-covered rocks. When they are exposed during low tide they contrast and appear to be mere greyish lumps. These sea anemones owe their green colour to the presence of algae in their cells. Zoanthus is another example where the original polyp sends out a horizontal branch (stolon) from which new polyps are formed by budding. Sphenopus is a somewhat flattened darkish sea anemone three to six centimetres long, usually broad and triangular at one end and narrow and cylindrical at the other. Its outer layer is tough, coated with sand grains. In life the animal anchors in mud by the broader triangular end, exposing its tentacle-covered disc at the free end. Angry waves uproot these anemones and throw them to the shore as ugly lumps of jelly. But if returned to the sea they anchor again and expand vertically, exhibiting the disc and tentacles.
Click here for the Introduction. I. James Madison and the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) After declaring independence from Britain in 1776, delegates at a special Convention took up the tasks of creating a state constitution and a Declaration of Rights (DOR). As one of the first bills of rights created by the newly independent states, Virginia’s DOR was held up as a model expressing the enlightened values that were to shape the new nation. The distinguished statesman George Mason had been enlisted to draft this foundational document, and Mason did not disappoint. His draft was greeted with overwhelming praise in and outside the Convention. (1) As a result, few changes would be made to Mason’s draft, but one of these changes was prompted by the young and idealistic James Madison. Determined to set Virginia on the path toward religious liberty, Madison succeeded in altering the article concerning religious rights (Article 16). The original article promised that “all Men should enjoy the fullest Toleration in the Exercise of Religion, according to the Dictates of Conscience.” Aware of the implications of this wording, Madison vigorously objected. The word “toleration” implies a hierarchy of religions in which some groups (or only one) are privileged, while all others are merely tolerated. After several attempts, and with the help of his future nemesis Patrick Henry, Madison’s wording (“all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of it [religion] accordg to the dictates of Conscience”) replaced Mason’s. (2) Madison indicated that his change “declared the freedom of conscience to be a natural and absolute right.” (3) Madison’s modification had important implications for the established Church of England, which had not been not legally disestablished at the Convention of 1776. Concerning these events at the Convention, Esbeck makes several claims: - Madison believed that “a civil state had no jurisdiction in matters of organized religion.” (p. 67) - the “equality” clause was about the equality of religions, not individual equality. (p. 69) - there was a “bifurcation of the protection of individual religious conscience, on the one hand, and religious disestablishment on the other.” (p. 70) How well do these claims hold up against the evidence? 1. Did Madison believe that “a civil state had no jurisdiction in matters of organized religion”? By claiming that it was “organized religion” alone that Madison saw as outside the bounds of governmental powers, Esbeck gives a misleading characterization of Madison’s views. Rather than speaking in terms of “organized religion,” Madison consistently claimed that it was “Religion” that was “wholly exempt from its [government’s] cognizance.” (4) (italics mine) (see endnote for more examples from his writings) This is a much broader limit on government’s power. If religion in general is beyond the jurisdiction of government then the legislature cannot pass any laws on the subject of religion except those protecting rights, as Madison and the dissenters frequently professed. For example, a popular dissenter petition requested that “the Legislature interfere only to support them in their just Rights and equal privileges.” (5) Madison’s broader limit also places all government support (financial, legal, or symbolic) of religion outside the bounds of governmental powers. This strict separation of religion and government was seen as necessary to protect the individual rights of conscience. In Madison’s Memorial & Remonstrance protesting against a proposed tax to support religion, he wrote, “The Religion then of every man must be left to the conviction and conscience of every man; and it is the right of every man to exercise it as these may dictate.” (M&R, point 1) Just as central to Madison’s case against “the establishment proposed by the Bill” was equality. It was Madison’s contention that the Bill violates the equality which ought to be the basis of every law, and which is more indispensable, in proportion as the validity or expediency of any law is more liable to be impeached. If ‘all men are by nature equally free and independent,’ all men are to be considered as entering into Society on equal conditions; as relinquishing no more, and therefore retaining no less, one than another, of their natural rights. Above all are they to be considered as retaining an ‘equal title to the free exercise of Religion according to the dictates of Conscience.’ (M&R #4) These two individual rights, which were enshrined in the Virginia DOR, were the foundation of Madison’s case against the establishment of a tax for religion. This cannot be squared with Esbeck’s “voluntaryism” principle, which denies that the movements against establishments were about protecting individual rights. Rather than speaking about establishments in terms of the relationship between two centers of power (“government and organized religion”), (6) Madison saw all establishments of religion as a threat to the natural rights of all men. 2. Did the new clause refer to individual equality or equality “among all religions”? Consistent with his claim that establishment issues are not about individual rights, Esbeck claims that Madison’s equality clause “could be read to imply equality not with respect to individuals, but among all religions.” (p. 69) The only evidence presented in support of this claim comes from Edmund Randolph’s History of Virginia. In the relevant section, Randolph recounts that Patrick Henry was asked whether the article “was designed as a prelude to an attack on the established church, and he disclaimed such an object.” (7) There is seemingly nothing in this brief account of events that indicates that the clause was about the equality of religions. To understand how Esbeck sees proof in this simple statement for his position we need to keep in mind Esbeck’s conviction that objections to establishments were not about protecting rights. He therefore, insists that individual equality could not be the basis for “an attack on the established church,” and from there it follows that Madison’s clause had to be about the collective equality of all religions. To Esbeck only the equality of all religions “would disestablish the Church of England.” (p. 69) The problem with Esbeck’s inference is that it rests on his own assumptions about the relationship between rights and establishments, for which he has not so far found any evidence in the eighteenth-century sources. In fact, all the evidence points in a different direction. The most obvious conclusion is that some were concerned that the individual right promised in Article 16 required the disestablishment of the Church of England, something the conservative Anglicans at the Convention were unwilling to do. They must have been reassured by Patrick Henry’s statement. Henry was most certainly unaware of the implications of the clause and, therefore, honestly saw no threat to the “established church.” Madison, aware that his proposal would fail if its implications had been known, seems to have decided to remain silent on the issue. More problematic for Esbeck’s claim is the fact that the article itself undermines his claim. Here’s the entire final version Article 16: That religion, or the duty which we owe to our CREATOR, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and therefore, all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to practice Christian forbearance, love, and charity towards each other. (8) Notice that the equality of “all men” follows from the conscience of individuals. There is nothing in the passage about the equality of all religions or religious denominations. The article declares an individual right, which belongs to all equally. The issue raised at the Convention was not about the distinction between individual and collective rights, but whether or not the individual right given in Article 16 necessitated the disestablishment of religion. To Madison and the dissenters, it certainly did. After the Convention, the dissenters immediately began their campaign demanding that “all Church establishments might be pulled down” on the on the grounds that it was contrary to the individual rights enshrined in the Declaration of Rights. (9) The conservative delegates, who were Anglicans devoted to the establishment of their Church, failed to see the implications of Madison’s change to the article, and were, therefore, stunned when the dissenters began demanding the disestablishment of the Church of England. They had earlier rejected part of Madison’s first proposal (in italics below), but they failed to realize that this statement was a logical extension of Madison’s equality phraseology, as can be seen from his original proposal (the section in brackets is from Mason’s version): [That Religion or the duty we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, being under the direction of reason and conviction only, not of violence or compulsion,] all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of it accordg to the dictates of Conscience; and therefore that no man or class of men ought, on account of religion to be invested with peculiar emoluments or privileges; nor subjected to any penalties or disabilities unless under &c. (10) The “and therefore” makes it clear that the second (third if Mason’s opening clause is included) follows from the first (second). There is no way to see this as a statement about the equality of religions as opposed to the equality of individuals. This statement of individual rights would become the legal foundation of the dissenters’ case against all establishments of religion. Once again Esbeck’s version of events does not hold up. The clause unequivocally places the individual at the center of its concern. The question now becomes, as it had at the Convention, about the relationship between this right and disestablishment. 3. Was there was a “bifurcation of the protection of individual religious conscience, on the one hand, and religious disestablishment on the other”? Separating the individual right to the free exercise of religion from the issue of establishments is central to Esbeck’s project; his whole church-state theory rests on the assumption that individual rights have nothing to do with disestablishment. While it is true that states could and did grant all citizens the right to practice their religion while still maintaining an establishment, this arrangement is one of toleration and is not compatible with the religious liberty advocated by Madison and the dissenters. Maintaining establishments while granting the free exercise of religion creates a system of toleration, rather than religious freedom. Since this arrangement privileges the religious opinions of some citizens above others it is not compatible with religious liberty, which assumes individual equality. This is why, even without Madison’s “no privileges” clause, the dissenters began calling for the disestablishment of the Church of England, and all other privileging of a particular religion or denomination, on the grounds that establishments of religion are incompatible with Article 16. Esbeck’s assumption that the two issues are separate is undermined by this fact. So far there is little evidence supporting Esbeck’s voluntaryism principle. Given the minimal evidence associated with the Convention and the creation of the DOR, there is still the possibility that the dissenters advocated for a church-state arrangement along the lines of Esbeck’s principle. The real test of his claims will come with a review of the campaign against establishments that followed the enactment of the DOR. The first stage of this campaign begins with the closing of the Convention in 1776 and goes through 1779, when Jefferson attempts to pass his bill for Establishing Religious Freedom. - Mason’s proposed DOR appeared in the Virginia Gazette (May 27, 1776). - “Madison’s Amendments to the Declaration of Rights, [29 May-12 June 1776],” Founders Online, National Archives (last update: 2014-12-01]). Source: The Papers of James Madison, vol. 1 16 March 1751-16 December 1779, ed. William T. Hutchinson and William M.E. Rachal. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962, pp. 174-175. - James Madison, Autobiography (December 1830) at Founders Online. - James Madison, “Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments” (June 20, 1785) at Founders Online. Here are some other examples from Madison’s writings (italics mine): “Because Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body. The latter are but the creatures and vicegerents of the former.” (Memorial & Remonstrance, Point # 2) “The settled opinion here is that religion is essentially distinct from Civil Govt and exempt from its cognizance; that a connection between them is injurious to both…” (Madison to Edward Everett, March 19, 1823) at Founders Online. “I observe with particular pleasure the view you have of the immunity of Religion from civil jurisdiction, in every case where it does not trespass on private rights or the public peace.” (Madison to Edward Livingston, July 10, 1822) at Founders Online. “Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt. in the Constitution of the United States the danger of encroachment by Ecclesiastical Bodies, may be illustrated by precedents already furnished in their short history.” (Detached Memoranda, ca. 31 Jan. 1820) at Founders Online. - “‘Ten-thousand name’ petition by Dissenters from whole state, for ending established church, and for institution of religious equality.” (October 16, 1776) at Library of Virginia: Digital Collection. (accessed November 2016). Since the original document is difficult to read a summary of the petition can be found in the Virginia Journal of the House of Delegates of Virginia, 1776 (Richmond: Samuel Shepherd & Co., 1828), 15. - Esbeck asserts that “the Establishment Clause was not so much about protecting individual rights qua rights (the Free Exercise Clause serves that role), as it is about the proper structuring of the relationship between two centers of authority, government and organized religion.” (61) - Moncure Daniel Conway, Omitted Chapters of History Disclosed in the Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph, 2d ed. (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, The Knickerbocker Press, 1889), 30. The account by Randolph was written years after the event and was found among Randolph’s papers after his death. He also describes Patrick Henry as the author of the sixteenth article, which is contradictory to the majority of the evidence. - “Article on Religion Adopted by Convention, [12 June 1776],” Founders Online. - The Virginia Journal of the House of Delegates (1776), 7. - “Madison’s Amendments to the Declaration of Rights, [29 May – 12 June, 1776]” at Founders Online.
Written by: Sherrard Pearce Catawba County Schools in Hickory, North Unit Guide Level "C" - 65 points (basic understanding) 1. Read play with class and answer three worksheets. 15 pts. 2. Act out one scene of the play with finger puppets you have created. 10 pts. 3. Draw a scene from the play and label the action. 10 pts. 4. Write a two-paragraph summary about the play. This summary MUST be in a language other than English. 10 pts. 5. Make a Greek mask of one of the characters from the play.10 pts. 6. Create a diorama illustrating the story's major problem(s) and solution(s). 15 pts. 7. Act out a favorite scene of the play. 10 pts. 8. Create a personal coat of arms for any character from the play. 9. Create a newspaper for incidents in the play Oedipus. Create pictures, a cover story, obituaries, and other features of a newspaper. 15 pts. 10. Choose 10 new or interesting words from the play and make flashcards with their definitions. Be able to tell their meanings.10 pts. 11. Answer all questions in the book for each act of Oedipus.15 pts. Level "B" Choose one 1. Write a paper discussing the motives and conflicts of each of the characters, as well as the consequences of their actions. 2. Rewrite the story in a modern setting. 3. Make a diary that Oedipus would have written to express his thoughts throughout the play. Include a MINIMUM of six 3/4 page entries. 4. Rewrite the scene where Jocasta realizes Oedipus' identity. Change the outcome. How does this affect Oedipus, Jocasta, their daughters, the kingdom? Level "A" - Choose one 1. Research sperm/egg banks. How do they screen recipients of the genetic material? Is there any way to know you are not getting the genetic material of a relative? Write an essay discussing your findings and the implications of what you find. 2. Research the brain as it experiences "anger." What chemicals are released to trigger anger? What chemicals are released to calm a person down? What causes some people to experience uncontrollable anger or rage? Write an essay discussing your findings and include some steps that a normal person can use to calm himself down. 3. Research the role of the Greek gods in the lives of the Greeks. Is Oedipus a puppet of the gods or master of his own fate? Was he responsible for his downfall? Could he have done anything to stop the chain of events? Write an essay stating reasons for your opinion and support your opinion with examples from the play.
Director: Maryanne McLeod, BA, MAEd Elementary School Teacher, 2004-2018 Surrey, BC Public School System, Canada The following is a review for educators of a joint position statement adopted January 2012 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at St. Vincent College. This review focusses especially on how computers should be used to enhance Kindergarten and Elementary School Education. There have been studies showing the negative effects of computers in early school education. These have correctly identified passive modes of computer education where students just watching videos or animation passively like watching TV at home. That form of passive computer interaction contributes to obesity, lack of social skills and other asocial behavior. Even worse software sometimes introduces videos and games showing violence and abuse such as war games, and martial arts with the worst case being UFC, eg ultimate fighting championships This study emphasizes from a NAEYC study the positive facilitative ways in which computers can be used to enhance education for young children from pre-kindergarten (pre K) through elementary school. The most positive effects come from interactive programs where students solve problems and simultaneously interact with the computer, with other students and with teachers. Just as television was an early technology in our homes the last century, so are computers and videos the next generation of that technology. This issue of computers in education is important because we live in a digital age in which vast amounts of information flows to persons of all ages. The positive effects of computer use is that it extends the potential for children’s learning and development far beyond traditional teaching. Part of the positive effects of computer use is in supporting the relationship of young children with both adults and others their age. For the last 50 years, we have learned through traditional practice how young children: Grow , Learn Play and Develop. The best use of computers in education should enhance each one of these key aspects of maturing. Recent research has shown that the best computer technology in schools is interactive media. In the words of the report, the most positive use of computers is defined as follows: “Interactive media refers to digital and analog materials, including software programs, applications, broadcast and streaming media, some children’s television programming, e-books, the Internet and other forms of content designed to facilitate active and creative use by children and to encourage social engagement with other children and adults” The report defines digital devices as follows: “Computers, tablets, multitouch screens, interactive whiteboards, mobile devices, cameras, DVD and music players, audio recorders, electronic toys, games, e-book readers, and older analog devices such as tape recorders, VCRs, VHS tapes and cassette players, light tables projectors, and microscopes.” It is foolish to attempt to fight the use of computers in education since computers and interactive media have been around several decades and will never go away. Young children best integrate with the world when they become comfortable with digital devices that are the dominant tools of our age. Society is changing so rapidly that technology is increasingly disruptive in social life. This is as dramatic a change as the historical movement from oral language to print literacy. Following that the of the printing press that led to the explosion of books. Just as people who could not read were left behind historically by the explosion of published books, so it is today for children. The technological changes today mean that all citizens must develop digital literacy, otherwise, they cannot compete in our high-tech society. The naeyc study defines digital literacy to encompass “both technology and media literacy.” p. 2 The study emphasizes that exposing students early to “technology handling” is parallel to the “book handling” skills associated with learning two centuries ago as well as early literacy development today (National Institute for Literacy 2008). In fact, the International Society for Technology in Education (2007) recommends that students should develop basic skills in technology and concepts by the age of five. The best use of computers in early education sites the creative learning advantages of high quality interactive media. That works especially well when combined with good teaching and complimentary curriculum resources. Well used, this interactivity and complimentary curriculum formation can accelerate learning and narrow the achievement gaps for children from low- income families compared to more affluent students. Studies have shown that the most successful effects of computers for young children come from their use by smart teachers to match the use of computers with: 1. level of each child’s development 2. individual student’s interests 3. individual student’s readiness and 4. social context of the student. Selecting the right software and computer medium is like choosing any other learning material used in classrooms. The ultimate criteria for technology selection boils down to a simple criterion: what promotes the most positive outcomes for each child (NAEYC,2009) One of the most important considerations in the selection of technology and interactive media and materials and software is the cost. Technology which is too expensive will reduce its usage and impact especially lower income neighborhoods and schools. Thus there are hard trade-offs that educators must face in balancing limited resources. Costs can be complicated because of the balancing of upfront costs and then ongoing costs of updating and upgrading hardware and software. The big danger here is that schools may select technology that is cheap upfront but with hidden ongoing costs especially in upgrading and updating both hardware and software. Another consideration of the cost side is the durability of hardware because it can be battered around and damaged easily in classroom environments. This is especially true for children who are using the hardware themselves. One difficulty in the use of technology of all costs is that they should be chosen for effectiveness as well as costs and driven by advertising and commercial pressure from vendors. This is especially true for technologies that has vast promise but based on inflated claims by vendors. Here is important to consider technology consultants whose interest is for the school clients and not for the technology vendors. The positive use of school-age children who are already technology proficient is that they can learn how better to communicate ideas and express feelings through technology. Many of them are already proficient at gathering information through online sites such as Google. Early elementary school students need to be trained how to locate such information more efficiently. Another major positive interaction between computers and elementary school education is teaching students how to accomplish tasks: this would include making a picture, acting out a story, taking a photograph or writing an essay. Along these lines, the NAEYC study states following important summary point: “Effective uses of technology and media are active, hands-on, engaging, and empowering; giving the child control; providing adaptive scaffolds to ease the accomplishment of tasks; and using it as one of many options to support children’s learning.” In my experience, some of the most important lessons for children in kindergarten and in the early grades is to learn to take turns and to accept the needs of others. Failure to do this makes children demanding and unsociable. Students expand the limits of their own ego needs when playing and having a good time with fellow students. Getting the attention off of themselves comes when they are working with other students in problem solving, creating and exploring. As children mature, they are able to investigate ideas and actually help their fellow students to learn. Learning from one another is a very important early grade skill Along these lines, the study suggests it’s very important to connect on-screen and off screen activities as co-participation with their fellow students as well as with adults. Students that isolate themselves on their computer screens lose these important shared experiences with others. This is why teachers read books in class and other joint activities between teacher and students because it involves co-viewing and co-media engagement. It is important that computers integrate into early grades and complement rather than replaces these joint interactions between teachers and students and between students. Because socialization is so important, technology needs to provide the same learning experiences provided with books, play materials blocks, art and other manipulatives. The use of technology to help children save pictures, stories, and other classroom activities to share with their families becomes an integrative part of socialization. Computer use is should be more than fun and enhance the self-regulation of emotions, and expand problem-solving skills. The latter are particularly easy to quantify using computer technology. In this area qualification is quite easy on computers in solving math problems, situational problems and vocabulary development. Some computer approaches to early elementary school education place insufficient emphasis on pre-computer training such as pretend play, outdoor activities and active play inside the classroom. The best way to facilitate socialization with computers comes from interactive games or collaborative play in which students play against each other or against their teachers or family members. Similarly, digital games can be made more elaborate than simple board games because the computer can generate self-correcting learning. One of the most powerful positive effects of technology is that teachers can make stronger the connections between school and home. Computer technology greatly reduces the cost of interacting almost cautiously with parents and family. Educators emphasize how important continuous ongoing communication is between faculty, parents and student performance. Giving parents the opportunity to communicate directly back and forth with teachers electronically helps them keep up with what children need from school from the parents point of view. This is one of the little recognized benefits of technology in the classroom: that is to say the ability for home and school to build much stronger relationships and reduce communication costs using online resources. The report summarizes well this bonding of home school communication: “Likewise, parents and families can use technology to ask questions, seek advice, share information about their child, feel more engaged in the academic program and their child’s experiences there. Technology tools such as smart phones, mobile devices, and haps offer new and more affordable ways for busy family members to communicate, connect to the Internet, and access information and social media tools to stay in touch with their families and their child’s teachers and caregivers. Internet-based communication tools offer new opportunities for video calling and conferencing when face-to-face meetings are not possible; the same technology tools can connect children to other family members who live at a distance.” In my own experience, I found this particularly important for young children with divorced parents or where one parent lives at distance from the caregiving parent. Computer technology can allow communication from the school to both parents no matter their distance and the parents can communicate with the school through software or social media. Another such example I’ve encountered is one or more parents working overseas and having a child’s grandparent or grandparents raising the child. Technology overcomes the distance factor so that parents away can see videos of their child working playing and review a child’s artwork online. An important aspect of child development is having there were praised and complemented. Computer technologies allow parents and grandparents and others to view a child’s accomplishments in ways that are not possible in face-to-face communications because of distance and working parents’ time constraints. It was particularly rewarding in my experience when children were able to take a picture of something or upload their artwork and share it with doting parents and grandparents. Rewarding information can be sent to the parents about their children at school, so the mystery of what happens at school is reduced. School – parent communication is important for children with emotional problems who report to their parents things that never happened at school. Children who are particularly difficult at school sometimes report they are being mistreated by teachers or the principal when in fact they are simply being disciplined. Videos of children being disruptive at school sent to parents home can have a positive effect on student’s behavior. Young children are visual and love to draw. This expression should be enhanced by computers and software. For example the traditional practice of teaching was with paints, crayons and markers. Computer versions of these art activities should be emphasized using touchscreen art, for example. The advantage of computer artwork is that it survives the classroom and work done on paper which is typically lost, not kept taken home or becomes a storage problem. A students art however survives electronically and can be retained almost costlessly given gigabytes and even terabytes today of storage capacity. Another important value of computer-assisted education is how it provides inclusive practices allowing children with disabilities to participate more fully. Computer-assisted education is also valuable for dual language learners. For example students can both learn English and stay in touch with their parents native language. This is particular important for English as a second language classes. Here computer technology can greatly facilitate the learning of a second language that is easier than the current method. The report emphasizes that both single language and dual language students need the four domains of literacy: speaking, listening, writing, and reading. The use of computers for students learning a second language is important for the self-esteem and social skills. Students feel inadequate learning a language already known by their classmates. It is empowering for ESL (English as a second language) students to communicate with family members in their home country using the language they grew up with from home. For example, the many labels that are put on books and games and pictures on the wall can be done in both languages with computers. A problem for educators is picking the technologies to be used in the classroom. Along these lines, the four Horsemen of Technology Choice boils down to: 3. Use; and 4. Evaluation of the technology In the choice of technology, here are the recommendations that I feel are most important from the study. These are the goals of incorporating technology well into the curriculum. Technologies and software need to: 1. Align the use of technology and media with the curriculum goals; 2. Take a childcentered and play oriented approach; 3. Facilitate hands-on exploration by children; and 4. Facilitate meaningful relationship building. The last three of these goals were achieved in the very best schools in which I have taught. When children go from home to kindergarten and beyond, there is a transition from the warmth of home to the wide wide world. The early grades are the most important for confidence building and emotional development. I would hug many of my teary-eyed kindergarten students in their first months at school so they would feel safe. Most suffered separation anxiety. The confidence was built as students learned they were in a safe place and with someone who cared for them. Emotional security is more important than reading, writing, and arithmetic. The early grades are the halfway house between home to the universe. Computer-assisted learning can I replace warmth of the human heart.
This package offers the introductory guide Writing is Elementary: Teaching Young Children to Write alongside the module Bookmarks: Narratives. Writing is Elementary: Teaching Young Children to Write serves as an introduction and a guide to this module. It focuses on the four basic qualities of writing: After explaining these fundamental building blocks, classroom-tested lessons are provided to teach each specific quality. These lessons can be easily differentiated for various developmental levels. Whole-class instruction, guided work, and individual responses are included. Building on the skills learned in the guide, Bookmarks: Narratives is a step-by-step resource that focuses on creating characters, setting, and plot. Through direct instruction and guided writing, it teaches students the qualities of a narrative in three developmental levels. Level One Qualities of Writing - What the character wants - Idea to solve the problem Children are natural storytellers. Storytelling is an important literacy activity that increases a child's ability to communicate. Bookmarks: Narratives strengthens students' imaginations and teaches them the art of communication. - 40 classroom-tested lessons - Scaffolding of instruction: whole-class modeling, guided practice, and independent writing. - Scoring rubrics - Annotated student anchor papers - A bibliography of recommended books
Examining Africa’s Diversity Module Three: Examining Africa’s Diversity is a collection of images meant to illustrate Africa’s diversity, rich history, and global connections, and to question some of the common stereotypes about Africa. The lesson has one main computer-assisted activity that is covered in two days. This activity is a series of maps of the continent studded with “thumbnail” pictures, which you can enlarge. The pictures express a particular theme for that page, including: geography, culture, religion, making a living, transportation, and where people live. Each image is preceded by a question meant to encourage you to think critically about the images they see. You should record your answers in preparation for a discussion. Begin this module with Activity One or select from one of the other activities
What is Space Weather? Weather on Earth is the set of ever-changing ambient conditions in our atmosphere. Its elements include temperature, air pressure, wind speed and direction, humidity, precipitation, and so on. Space weather is the set of ever-changing ambient conditions in the space within our Solar System. Its elements include electromagnetic radiation, the solar wind of charged particles which flows outward from the Sun, and the force of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) which spirals outward from our parent star. Space Weather Starts at the Sun The Sun is the primary driver of space weather. Storms on the Sun, in the form of solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), can launch showers of radiation and powerful magnetic fields into interplanetary space. We are most concerned about local impacts of space weather, meaning those storms which are directed at Earth and influence our home planet. Space Weather at Earth and in Near-Earth Space (Geospace) When a cold front on Earth encounters a mountain range the local weather conditions are influenced by the local topography. Similarly, when a strong pulse in the solar wind generated by a CME encounters Earth's magnetic field, the solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere interact in complex ways to influence the net results of the "storm" on Earth and in near-Earth space. Short-term and Long-term Changes in Space Weather Some of our space weather comes as short-lived storms which can last minutes to hours to days. The Sun also undergoes cycles in its level of activity that span years to decades, causing longer-term variations in space weather. Finally, the Sun has changed substantially over the multi-billion year history of our Solar System, producing long term "climate change" effects in our space weather. How does Space Weather affect People and Human Society? Why is space weather of interest to humans? Since sunlight is the primary driver of Earth's weather, variations in the Sun's output may influence weather and climate on Earth. Radiation from space weather storms can endanger astronauts and can damage and destroy satellites, such as those used for cell phone communications. Some electrical power grids have been knocked out of commission by especially powerful solar storms. Such storms can be sources of beauty as well as destruction. The marvelous displays of the aurora (the Northern and Southern Lights) are caused by collisions of particles energized by solar storms with gases in Earth's upper atmosphere.
Locrian is the word used to describe the inhabitants of the ancient Greek regions of Locris. Although the term occurs in several classical authors on music theory, including Cleonides (as an octave species) and Athenaeus (as an obsolete harmonia), there is no warrant for the modern usage of Locrian as equivalent to Glarean's Hyperaeolian mode, in either classical, Renaissance, or later phases of modal theory through the 18th century, or modern scholarship on ancient Greek musical theory and practice. The name first came to be applied to modal chant theory after the 18th century, when it was used to describe the mode newly-numbered as mode 11, with final on B, ambitus from that note to the octave above, and with semitones therefore between the first and second, and fourth and fifth degrees. Its reciting tone (or tenor) is G, its mediant D, and it has two participants: E and F. The final, as its name implies, is the tone on which the chant eventually settles, and corresponds to the tonic in tonal music. The reciting tone is the tone around which the melody principally centres, the mediant is named from its position between the final and reciting tone, and the participant is an auxiliary note, generally adjacent to the mediant in authentic modes and, in the plagal forms, coincident with the reciting tone of the corresponding authentic mode. In modern practice, the Locrian may be considered to be a minor scale with the second and fifth scale degrees lowered a semitone. The Locrian mode may also be considered to be a scale beginning on the seventh scale degree of any Ionian, or major scale. The Locrian mode has the formula: Its tonic chord is a diminished triad (Bdim in the Locrian mode of the diatonic scale corresponding to C major). This mode's diminished fifth and the Lydian mode's augmented fourth are the only modes to have a tritone above the tonic. The Locrian mode is the only modern diatonic mode in which the tonic triad is a diminished chord, which is considered dissonant. This is because the interval between the root and fifth of the chord is a diminished fifth. For example, the tonic triad of B Locrian is made from the notes B, D, F. The root is B and the fifth is F. The diminished-fifth interval between them is the cause for the chord's dissonance. The name "Locrian" is borrowed from music theory of ancient Greece. However, what is now called the Locrian mode was what the Greeks called the Diatonic Mixolydian tonos. The Greeks used the term "Locrian" as an alternative name for their "Hypodorian", or "Common" tonos, with a scale running from mese to nete hyperbolaion, which in its diatonic genus corresponds to the modern Aeolian mode. In his reform of modal theory in the Dodecachordon (1547), Heinrich Glarean named this division of the octave "Hyperaeolian" and printed some musical examples (a three-part polyphonic example specially commissioned from his friend Sixtus Dietrich, and the Christe from a mass by Pierre de La Rue), though he did not accept Hyperaeolian as one of his twelve modes. The usage of the term "Locrian" as equivalent to Glarean's Hyperaeolian or the ancient Greek (diatonic) Mixolydian, however, has no authority before the 19th century. There are brief passages in works by Sergei Rachmaninov (Prelude in B minor, op. 32, no. 10), Paul Hindemith (Ludus Tonalis), and Jean Sibelius (Symphony No. 4 in A minor, op. 63) that have been, or may be, regarded as in the Locrian mode.Claude Debussy's Jeux has three extended passages in the Locrian mode. The theme of the second movement ("Turandot Scherzo") of Hindemith's Symphonic Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber (1943) alternates sections in Mixolydian and Locrian modes, ending in Locrian. English folk musician John Kirkpatrick's song "Dust to Dust" was written in the Locrian mode, backed by his concertina. The Locrian mode is not at all traditional in English music, but was used by Kirkpatrick as a musical innovation.
Millions of people in South and Southeast Asia face the prospect of catastrophic flooding each year. The floods destroy crops and infrastructure worth hundreds of millions of dollars. At other times of the year, these same people can face severe water shortages that also affect food production and livelihoods. The severity of these events is expected to increase as a result of climate change. CGIAR Scientists have been working on innovative ways of trapping and storing floodwater and using it during the dry season. This short film explores the idea of the Underground Taming of Floods (UTFI) as a possible response to a growing problem. The research comes from the IWMI-led CGIAR Research Program on Water Land and Ecosystems (WLE), together with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
Presentation on theme: "Second Language Acquisition"— Presentation transcript: 1 Second Language Acquisition To Think About:Think about a baby acquiring his first language.Think about a person acquiring a secondlanguage.What similarities and differences are there in thetwo processes? 2 First and Second Language Acquisition Characteristics L1 Learner L2 Learnerconstructs language fromprior conceptual knowledge x xis an active learner who testsand revises hypotheses x xrequires interaction x xuses cognitive strategies(i.e., overgeneralization) x xunderstands more when input is modified(caretaker talk, foreign talk) x xdevelops language in predictable stages x xmakes developmental errors x xexperiences a silent period x x 3 Characteristics L1 Learner L2 Learner is usually made cognitively developed xgenerally has a greater knowledge ofthe world xgenerally can learn and apply rulesmore easily xusually has more control over input xhas an L1 as a resource xis familiar with one or more other cultures xmay have a problem withattitude/motivation xis more likely to be inhibited or anxious xAdapted from: P. Richard-Amato. (1996). Making it happen: Interaction in the secondlanguage classroom. P.27 4 Age and Second Language Acquisition To Think About:Is it better to learn a second language when one is young or when one is older?Why? 5 Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period Hypothesis states that and individual must acquire a language by a critical period or it will be difficult to acquire a language. This is in terms of First Language Acquisition.The main advantage to learning a language when younger is that the individual is more likely to acquire a native-like accent. 6 Proficiency: What is it? To Think About:When a person proficient in a second language?How do you know a person is proficient? 7 Proficiency: Sociolinguistic Competence Grammatical Competence Mastery of language codeLexiconWord formation rulesSentence formation rulesPronunciation rulesSpellingSociolinguistic CompetenceMastery of appropriate language use n different contexts 8 Discourse Competence Strategic Competence Mastery of how to combine meanings and forms to create a text in different modesExamples: telephone inquiry, argumentativeessays, recipesStrategic CompetenceMastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication 9 Proficiency: How long does it take? To Think About:If you wanted to learn a second language, how long do you think it would take you to speak and understand that language? How long would it take you to read and write? 10 BICS ( Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) 2 to 3 yearsAbility to converse and understand every day discussionsCALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)5 to 7 yearsAbility to read, write, speak, and listen at an academic level 11 Stages in Second Language Acquisition Preproduction/Comprehension Stage CharacteristicsSilent periodCan respond non-verballyWill be able to understand more than they can produce 12 Early Speech Production Characteristics Early Speech Production Characteristics Can understand more than can produce Can produce one or two words at a time Will make lots of errors Interlanguage occurs (a mixture of vocabulary and structures from both languages 13 Speech Emergence Characteristics Will be able to understand more than they can produceInterlanguage continues to occurLonger utterancesDecreases in errors 14 Intermediate Fluency Characteristics Appear orally fluentErrors are same errors native speakers makeStruggle with content area reading and writing. 15 First Language Development To Think AboutDo you think the child’s first language is a hindrance or a help in terms of learning a second language?Why? 16 Common Underlying Proficiency/Transferability Theory Many skills and concepts are common or interdependent across languages. 17 Dual Iceberg Representation Surface Features Surface Featuresof L1 of L2CommonUnderlyingProficiency 18 What Literacy Skills Transfer? DirectionalitySequencingAbility to distinguish shapes and soundsKnowledge that written symbols correspond to sounds and can be decoded in order and direction 19 Activation of semantic and syntactic knowledge Knowledge of text structureLearning to use cues to predict meaningAwareness of the variety of purposes for reading and writingConfidence in oneself as a reader and writer 20 What Skills Do Not Transfer? Critical and Cultural Literacy(interpretation of text given a specific cultural world view)From: C. Roberts. (1994). Transferring literacy skills from L1 to L2: From theory to practice. In The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, v. p 21 Threshold Hypothesis One reason for this view is Interlanguage Bilingualism has been viewed as a handicap and a cause of cognitive confusion.One reason for this view is InterlanguageAnother reason has to do with theThreshold Hypothesis 22 Threshold Hypothesis: The better developed the L1, the better developed the L2 can be.High level of proficiency in L1-high level of proficiency in L2 is possibleA low level of proficiency in L1-lower level of proficiency in L2 Your consent to our cookies if you continue to use this website.
What is trauma? Trauma is something we hear a great deal about in our society, but most of us don’t fully understand what it is. It is usually applied to dangerous or life-threatening situations and circumstances and describes something that feels big and emotionally challenging. It is often talked about when explaining the refugee experience. It is important to note that trauma is not in an event itself, it is in a person’s response to that event. Not every refugee is traumatised, as everyone processes experiences in different ways. As you will see, trauma is a response of the nervous system and involves the mobilisation and locking up of the defence mechanisms of the body. Just as with all other living creatures, when a person feels threatened or unsafe, their nervous system mobilises their body to defend itself. It can do this in a number of ways. Our primary defence systems are Fight and Flight, which require a great deal of physical activity. The body therefore has to mobilise a great deal of energy, which it does by: - elevating the heart rate to pump more blood around the body - speeding up the breathing to exchange gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) more quickly - sending blood to the muscles, bringing oxygen and glucose to where it is needed - heightening senses so you are ready for action. That person is then able to fight off or run away from danger. Once the danger has passed, their nervous system can calm back down and recognise that they are now safe. However, if a person cannot use the mobilised energy to defend themselves, the body has a third and fourth way of protecting itself which we call Freeze and Faint. This ‘shut down’ locks up the energy in the nervous system so that the person becomes silent and still. This was designed to trick our ancient predators to think we were dead so they would pass by and leave us alone. Once we were safe, we could then shake off any remaining Fight/Flight energy in the body and live to fight another day. Humans have learned to mistrust and fear the strong feelings and behaviours that accompany the natural release of the Freeze/Faint response. Even though the danger may have passed, they don’t feel safe enough to release the Fight/Flight energy: - the necessary crying and shaking of release can be stigmatised as weakness and cowardice by society so we prefer not to show them - the feelings themselves can seem so overwhelming that we prefer not to experience them. This can mean that the unused energy of Fight/Flight can stay in the system for a long time. This is trauma – the inability to release the strong emotions of Fight/Flight and know that you are now safe. It is like having a stress and anxiety dial in the body that is turned up full and that cannot be switched off – the body still thinks it is in the original dangerous situation that switched it on in the first place so never feels safe. Many refugees have been living with Fight, Flight, Freeze and Faint for a long time on their journeys and this may still be present within them when they first meet you. How trauma might present itself People with trauma in their systems may display some unusual behaviours: - difficulty concentrating/distraction - shorter attention span - difficulty sitting still for long periods of time - reduced ability to take in large amounts of information - difficulty interacting with you and other members of the class - intolerance to touch/physical contact - triggered emotion from seemingly unrelated subjects. None of these behaviours are a personal reflection of you or your lesson but are a result of the thinking and social engagement parts of the brain going offline through trauma-related feelings of anxiety. This is why it is important to create a ‘safe space’ for your learners. The safer they feel with you, the less likely their trauma behaviours will be triggered and the more they will be able to learn. Please remember that you are not a therapist and as a teacher you are not expected to solve your learners’ personal problems. Although we advise you not to ask personal questions about people’s journeys or the circumstances of leaving their home, you will find that people may speak about their experiences once they trust you. If they do, the best thing you can do is listen openly, with compassion and without agenda. In Step 2.9 Darren will talk about the importance of meeting people where they are today and creating a safe space for learning that respects their present needs. Have you experienced any of the behaviours described? Are there any other behaviours you have seen? How did you respond to them? Share your experiences in the comments section and respond to others. © UCLES/Crisis Classroom 2017
Let's say Mrs. Smith is teaching a science class and has to give a grade to Charles, who has piercings on his face, a bizarre haircut, wears clothes she finds hideous, and has an unpleasant personality. She recognizes that none of these should influence the grade he gets in the science class: that is supposed to be a measure of his knowledge and ability in science only. If she judges his performance on class participation, she will find it very hard to exclude her bias, since he annoys her whenever he participates, whether his science knowledge is valid or not. If he makes a minor error in terminology she takes it as a sign of ignorance, while if Ryan, a neat and polite boy she likes, makes a similar mistake, she treats it as a triviality. The same can be true of their answers on essay tests. A standard way of avoiding bias in this kind of situation is the use of "objective" tests. These are tests designed so that the answer to each question is graded according to a strict rule that will not vary from student to student and there is no opportunity for the grader to make a judgment that would be influenced by the student's personal characteristics. Multiple choice tests are very effective in this respect as well as questions with a number or particular word as an answer. Objective tests have important drawbacks in that they are more difficult to devise, and they can't be used to test some important abilities such as engaging in group discussions or doing creative work. Nevertheless, they can help reduce or eliminate bias by making grading choices automatic. They have the additional advantage of being easy to grade and can often be graded by machine. Even when the test is not objective, bias can be reduced by having someone grade the test who does not know the students. One could go to various extremes by having tests typed in order to eliminate bias based on handwriting and having names replaced by codes to remove recognition of the individual or the person's ethnicity. Bias is eliminated by only providing certain information to the person making the judgment. Information that is irrelevant to the grade is kept secret in order to prevent it from influencing the decision. The technique of hiding information from the person making the decision can be used in many other important situations. In evaluating products, particularly food and drinks, we can easily be biased by assumptions that the product that costs more is better, or by advertising that associates the product with an image, such as being high-class and sophisticated or being rugged or rebellious. If we really want to know how we would like these products without the biases, we can arrange to try them without knowing the brand. We could have someone else give us samples of wine or soda or ice cream without knowing which brand it is so we could make our judgment purely on the basis of taste. Although we rarely will do this because it involves a lot of extra work, we should be aware that judgments based on these so-called "blind" tests are often quite different from the ones we make when we are influenced by the biasing information (see suggestion). Of course, as with grading students, there are some cases where there is no easy way to eliminate biasing information about products. It is generally impossible to test drive a car without knowing the manufacturer. Doing blind tests is important for scientists doing experiments requiring subjective judgments. People taking an experimental medicine, for example, could be biased towards saying they felt better if they knew the researcher giving them the medicine was enthusiastic about its possibilities. This could ruin the experiment because a useless treatment might look like it was effective. To prevent this, such tests are done so the patient cannot tell whether she is getting the real drug being tested or a fake substitute (see blinding). Sometimes when people are unwilling or unable to eliminate biasing information they try to compensate for their biases by giving a better or worse evaluation in the opposite direction of the bias. If I don't like a students poem because he used it to promote a religious opinion I disagree with, I might increase his grade by a category because I assume my subjective assessment was unfairly low. I could also assume a car I am tempted to buy is probably not as good as I think it is because I know I was impressed by the advertising. Unfortunately this kind of compensation is a very crude and unreliable way to judge things, since we have no way of knowing just how strong our biases are. Abstraction and role reversal Sometimes it is useful to translate real situations into abstract terms in order to reduce our biases. For example, instead of "Harry told me he would give me his old computer but he decided to give it to his sister instead", we might judge the situation more fairly if we think of "Person one told person two that he would give him an object, but person one decided to give it to his sibling instead". Among other things, I can get a fairer view if I imagine someone other than myself involved. A very useful and well-known method of removing bias when it involves conflict with another person is to imagine the roles being reversed. I tend to get upset when my wife tells me I did something wrong, even though it is clear that I did foul up. I feel like she should just keep quiet about it. But if I imagine myself in her position, I can easily see that she has every right to say that, especially given that it usually involves a problem that she needs to have corrected. It is common for us to get upset at a store owner because she is charging too much for a product we want. If we imagine ourselves in the position of the owner, however, we recognize that we put in a lot of work and have a lot of expenses and need to make a living, so we have to mark up our products enough to make a living. One place where this seems very appropriate is coffee shops, where coffee costs many times what the ingredients must cost. When I consider all the costs these places have, including the salaries of the workers, instead of being upset at the high prices I become impressed that they stay in business at all, and in fact I notice that a lot of these places are no longer open after a year or so.
COMPILATION OF INTERNATIONAL NORMS One of the most vulnerable groups among persons with disabilities are children. They are more vulnerable to wars, exploitation, malnutrition, physical and psychological ill-treatment, trafficking etc. The human rights mechanisms have taken a significant interest in the protection of disabled children. The Convention on the Rights of the Child provides in its Article2 that States parties must respect the rights in the Convention "...without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of (...) sex (...) or any other status" (emphasis added). This anti-discrimination clause, therefore, applies to female children with disabilities. Article 19 (1) states that the child shall be protected from "...all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse...." Article 23 (1) provides that "States Parties recognise that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child's active participation in the community." This obviously applies to female as well as male children. Article 23 (2) concerns the right of the disabled child to special care. Article 23 (3) provides that assistance to the child and those responsible for his or her care "...shall be designed to ensure that the disabled child has effective access to and receives education, training, health care services, rehabilitation services, preparation for employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conductive to the child's achieving the fullest possible social integration and individual development...". Services for disabled children should, wherever possible, be provided free of charge. Article 23 (4) provides that the States Parties shall promote...the exchange of appropriate information in the field or preventative health care and of medical, physiological and functional treatment of disabled children...." Article 24 (2) (d) of the Convention requires States to ensure the appropriate prenatal and post-natal health care for mothers. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states in Article 25 (2) that "...motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection." The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights state in Article 24 (1) that , "Every child shall have, without anydiscrimination as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, national or social origin, property or birth, the right to such measures of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State...". The Article 10 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states that "...special protection should be accorded to mothers during a reasonable period before and after childbirth...Special measures of protection and assistance should be taken on behalf of all children and young persons without any discrimination for reasons of parentage or other conditions. Children and young persons should be protected from economic and social exploitation. Their employment in work harmful to their morals or health or dangerous to life or likely to hamper their normal development should be punishable by law. States should also set age limitsbelow which the paid employment of child labour should be prohibited and punishable by law." The Section II paragraph 21 of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action urges States to ratify and implement the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In addition, in all actions concerning children, non-discrimination and the best interests of the child should be primary considerations. The Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts states in Part II, Article 4 (3) (a) that children "...shall receive an education, including religious and moral education, in keeping with the wishes of their parents, or in the absence of parents, of those responsible for their care." Article 4 (3) (b) states that all appropriate steps shall be taken to facilitate the reunion of families temporarily separated. Article 4 (3) (c) provides that "...children who have not attained the age of fifteen years shall neither be recruited in the armed forces or groups nor allowed to take part in hostilities." Furthermore, Article 4 (3) (d) states: "...measures shall be taken, if necessary, and whenever possible with the consent of their parents or persons who by law or custom are primarily responsible for their care, to remove children temporarily from the area in which hostilities are taking place to a safer area within the country and ensure that they are accompanied by persons responsible for their safety and well-being." The European Social Charter states in Article 7 that, " right of children and young persons to protection: With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right of children and young persons to protection, the contracting parties undertake," the following: 1. To provide that the minimum age of admission to employment shall be 15 years, subject to exceptions for children employed in prescribed light work without harm to their health, morals and education; 2. To provide that a higher minimum age of admission to employment shall be fixed with respect to prescribed occupations regarded as dangerous or unhealthy; 3. To provide that persons who are still subject to compulsory education shall not be employed in such work as would deprive them of the full benefit of their education; 4. To provide that the working hours of persons under 16 years of age shall be limited in accordance with the needs of their development, and particularly with their need for vocational training; 9. To provide that persons under 18 years of age employed in occupations prescribed by national laws or regulations shall be subject to regular medical control; 10.To ensure special protection against physical and moral dangers to which children and young persons are exposed, and particularly against those resulting directly or indirectly from their work." Article 17 obliges the States Parties to take measures to provide economic and social protection for children: "The right of mothers and children to social and economic protection: With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right of mothers and children to social and economic protection, the Contracting Parties will take all appropriate and necessary measures to that end, including the establishment or maintenance of appropriate institutions or services." Though there were no fundamental changes in the Revised Form of the European Social Charter, in article 7 the age limit goes up from 16 to 18 years of age and states: "The right of children and young persons to social, legal and economic protection: With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right of children and young persons to grow up in an environment which encourages the full development of their personality and of their physical and mental capacities, the Parties undertake, either directly or in Cupertino with public and private organizations, to take all appropriate and necessary measures designed: Article 19 of the American Convention on Human Rights provides that, 45;Every minor children with a right to protection: "Every minor child has the right to measures of protection required by his condition as a minor on the part of his family, society, and the state." The Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Field of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights proclaimed in Article 15 (3) (b) and (d), States undertake to guarantee adequate nutrition for children and to help create an environment in which children receive and develop the values of understanding, solidarity, respect and responsibility. Article 16 outlines a comprehensive set of rights for children including the right to special protection, the right for the young child, save in exceptional circumstances, not to be separated from his mother, the right for children to remain under the protection of their parents, and the right to free and compulsory education. Article 18 (3) of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights provides: "The State shall ensure the elimination of every discrimination against women and also censure the protection of the rights of the woman and the child as stipulated in international declarations and conventions...". The Convention of the Rights of the Child is the most complete statement of children's rights and is the first to give these rights the force of international law. A child is defined in the Convention as a person under the age of 18, unless national laws mandate an earlier age of majority. Moreover, this Convention is the first international treaty, which recognises the rights of disabled children. The most important article for the protection of disabled children is article 23 (1) which states that "States Parties recognise that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child's active participation in the community." Article 23 (2) provides: "States Parties recognise the right of the disabled children to special care and shall encourage and ensure the extension, subject to available resources, to the eligible child and those responsible for his or her care, of assistance for which application is made and which is appropriate to the child's condition, and to the circumstances of the parents or others caring for the child." Article 23 (3) provides that "...assistance shall be provided free of charge, whenever possible, taking into account the financial resources of the parents or others caring for the child. Assistance shall be designed to ensure that the disabled child has effective access to and receives education, training, health, care services, rehabilitation services, preparation for employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the child's achievement the fullest possible social integration and individual development, including his or her cultural and spiritual development." And further on: "States parties shall promote, in the spirit of international co-operation, the exchange of appropriate information in the field of preventive health care and of medical, psychological and functional treatment of disabled children, including dissemination of and access to information concerning methods of rehabilitation, education and vocational services, with the aim of enabling States Parties to improve their capabilities and skills and to widen their experience in these areas. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries". Other articles in this convention too relate to the protection of disabled children. These include: a) article 24 (the child is entitled to the highest attainable standard of health), b) article 32 (States shall protect the child from economic exploitation and work that may interfere with education or be harmful to health and well-being) and c) article 19 (States shall protect children from physical or mental harm and neglect, including sexual abuse or exploitation). The European Convention on the Exercise of Children's Rights aims to promote the rights and best interests of children and to give the children the opportunity to exercise their rights. This Convention applies to disabled children, as article 1 states that "...this Convention shall apply to all children who have not reached the age of 18 years...". The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child has a very comprehensive approach regarding the protection of disabled children. Indeed, article 13 refers to handicapped children: "Every child who is mentally or physically disabled shall have the right to special measures of protection in keeping with his physical and moral needs and under conditions which ensure his dignity, promote his self-reliance and active participation in the community." States Parties to the present Charter shall ensure, subject to available resources, to a disabled child and to those responsible for his care, of assistance for which application is made and which is appropriate to the child's condition and in particular shall ensure that the disabled child has effective access to training, preparation for employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the child achieving the fullest possible social integration, individual development and his cultural and moral development. The States Parties to the present Charter shall use their available resources with a view to achieving progressively the full convenience of the mentally and physically disabled person to movement and access to public highway buildings and other places to which the disabled may legitimately want to have access to."
Pertaining to the direct conversion of light into electricity. The word "photovoltaic," first used in about 1890, is a combination of the Greek word for light and the name of the physicist and electricity pioneer Allesandro Volta. So, "photovoltaic" can be translated literally as "light-electricity." The conversion of sunlight to electricity using photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells, is based on the photoelectric effect discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface. Photovoltaic systems already play an important part of our lives. Simple PV systems provide power for many small consumer items, such as calculators and wristwatches. More complicated systems provide power for communications satellites, water pumps, and the lights, appliances, and machines in some people's homes and workplaces. Many road and traffic signs along highways are now powered by PV. In many cases, PV power is the least expensive form of electricity for performing these tasks. Related category• SOLAR ENERGY AND POWER Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Science • Contact
The North Pole is on thin ice While the world’s political leaders have left the negotiating table again without an agreement to reduce greenhouse gases, the Arctic has greater problems than ever – 75 percent of the sea ice has disappeared. “There’s been enormous focus on when the North Pole will be free of ice for the first time, but people have overlooked the great change that has already taken place,” says Professor Jean-Claude Gascard of the Pierre et Marie Curie University in Paris. “Most of the ice at the North Pole has actually disappeared.” Gascard says that between 50 and 75 percent of the Arctic sea ice around the North Pole has already disappeared – a figure that surprises most people. Not only has the extent of the sea ice fallen, but the Arctic ice cap has also become two to three metres thinner. The professor is part of the large European research project Arctic Tipping Points (ATP), which aims at understanding climate change in the Arctic. The ATP project combines biological data and mathematical models in order to predict how climate change impacts on the Arctic ecosystem. Cold night gives 20cm of ice In 2008, Gascard led a research project that deliberately let the expedition ship Tara freeze in in the North Pole’s ice mass. For a year, Tara was borne across the Arctic by the movements of the ice, and it became a drifting home – in the middle of a sea of ice – to a group of researchers. Every day, to the accompaniment of a ‘son et lumière’ show from the ship’s jarring and the Northern Lights, researchers measured the speed, temperature and salinity of the currents under the ice. “Even the job of keeping the holes which we used to lower the equipment into the water free from ice was an enormous challenge,” says one crew member. “A 20-cm thick layer of ice could easily form overnight.” Travel time halved The Tara expedition showed just how much the North Pole had changed over the previous 100 years. The ice masses brought the ship and the researchers over the Arctic very quickly – twice as fast as when Fridtjof Nansen explored the North Pole in the same way a century ago with the ship Fram. Nansen let Fram freeze in in the ice, and let the movements of the ice bear the ship from Siberia to the Atlantic. When the researchers on Tara compared to two expeditions, they noted that Tara took just one year to cover the part of Fram’s route that took two years a century ago. In the ATP project, Gascard and his group build on the data and experiences gained from the Tara expedition. Now it is obvious that much thinner sea ice is one of the reasons why the Arctic ice moves more quickly. The researchers have also revealed that the thin ice means that even small seasonal variations in cloud cover or summer temperatures result in extreme variations in the expanse of the sea ice. The sea ice is simply becoming younger and younger. The old ice – which has been formed over several years – disappears and is being replaced by ice that accrues every year and then melts away. Glacial algae can’t adapt The changes in the dynamics and thickness of the ice have enormous impact on both the oceanographic and the biological conditions in the Arctic. Among other things, the changes affect the glacial algae, which adhere to the underside of the ice and are the first link in the Arctic food chain. The results of the ATP project show that the changes in the Arctic now occur so quickly that the glacial algae and other biological components of the Arctic ecosystem cannot adapt to the new ice and temperature conditions before new changes occur.
African Americans in the Civil War: Equality Earned With Blood "Freedom to the slave should now be proclaimed from the Capitol, and should be seen above the smoke and fire of every battle field, waving from every loyal flag." —Frederick Douglass, 1861 From the National Geographic Magazine, "African Americans in the Civil War: Equality Earned With Blood," by Shelley Sperry -- America's Civil War battlefields are sacred in large measure because on that soil a war to preserve the Union became a war to end human slavery. But through the course of the conflict, a new cause emerged, one that anticipated the next century's great struggle as African-American soldiers who fought on those bloody fields demanded not only freedom but equality. In December 1861, less than a year after the guns began firing, Secretary of War Simon Cameron suggested that slaves should be freed and recruited as laborers and soldiers for the Union cause. President Abraham Lincoln responded with a new job for the secretary, who was soon on his way to St. Petersburg as the minister to Russia. A few months earlier two Union generals had attempted to free slaves in areas under Federal control, but superiors nullified their orders. Despite these rebukes, African Americans and their white allies kept emancipation and the right of all Americans to serve in the military at the forefront of public debate about the war. By July 1862, Lincoln announced to his Cabinet that he would soon be using his war powers to free slaves in the rebellious states. In the same month the Militia Act allowed the Army and Navy to employ "persons of African descent," and, in some cases, granted freedom to the families of those who served. Although designed mainly to let escaped slaves become laborers for Yankee forces occupying the South, the act produced black Army units in New Orleans and the Sea Islands of South Carolina. Once Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863—formally allowing the Union Army to recruit African Americans—a wave of volunteers flooded the North. A few months later a new Bureau of Colored Troops began overseeing the segregated units. In key battles at Port Hudson, Louisiana, and Fort Wagner, South Carolina, black soldiers stunned once skeptical white officers with their courage and fighting skills. But beyond the blood and smoke of the battlefields, African-American soldiers were also engaged in a dramatic fight for equality with their white comrades on two fronts: They wanted to be treated as equals by the enemy as well as by their own government. "Never let them sell our colored soldiers for slaves" As soon as African Americans appeared in uniform, the Confederate government declared that captured black soldiers would not be considered prisoners of war but would be treated as fugitive slaves, even if the men had been free upon entering the Army. Many Northerners feared this would mean torture or even murder. Indeed, some Southern officers immediately executed captured black soldiers. A July 1863 letter from Hannah Johnson, mother of an African-American soldier who fought with the 54th Massachusetts Infantry at Fort Wagner, urged the President to act fairly and protect men like her son: . . . I know that a colored man ought to run no greater risques than a white . . . So why should not our enemies be compelled to treat him the same. . . . they said Mr. Lincoln will never let them sell our colored soldiers for slaves, if they do he will get them back quck he will rettallyate and stop it. Now Mr. Lincoln don't you think you oght to stop this thing and make them do the same by the colored men. Shortly before he received the letter, Lincoln pledged that the Union Army would indeed retaliate against Confederates if the South did not accord black prisoners the same treatment as whites. Yet the North offered no retaliation for Rebel atrocities at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, where scores of black soldiers were massacred in April 1864. "We have done a Soldiers Duty. Why cant we have a Soldiers pay?" While the controversy over prisoners of war raged, the U.S. government was using the Militia Act of 1862 to justify paying all black soldiers—whom it regarded as laborers—less than half the monthly wages of white soldiers. African Americans earned ten dollars a month, from which three dollars was deducted for clothing. White soldiers of the same rank received $13 a month plus clothing or cash worth more than three dollars. The Militia Act primarily applied to former slaves who worked as laborers for the Union Army, and many free blacks who had enlisted to serve their country deeply resented treatment that equated them with slaves. In September 1863, Cpl. James Henry Gooding wrote to President Lincoln to state the case of his comrades as clearly as possible: Now the main question is. Are we Soldiers, or are we LABOURERS. We are fully armed, and equipped, have done all the various Duties, pertaining to a Soldiers life, have conducted ourselves, to the complete satisfaction of General Officers, who, were if any, prejudiced against us, but who now accord us al the encouragement, and honour due us. . . . have dyed the ground with blood, in defense of the Union, and Democracy. . . . We have done a Soldiers Duty. Why cant we have a Soldiers pay? The men of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry continued to serve, but refused to accept any pay at all until the U.S. government—the institution they were fighting to preserve—treated them as equal to their white comrades. What could be more absurd than accepting demeaning wages and treatment based on their race, while sacrificing their lives to end race-based slavery? In response, the governor of Massachusetts convinced the state legislature to make up the difference between the black and white soldiers' pay, but the soldiers refused it. It was a matter of pride. As one declared: "We did not come to fight for money . . . [but for the principle] that made us men when we enlisted." In November 1863 Sgt. William Walker of the 3rd South Carolina Volunteers led a group of men to lay down their arms in Jacksonville, Florida, and resign from the Army in protest, arguing that they had been promised equal treatment when they enlisted. Walker's case prompted increased public discussion of the issue, and in December Secretary of War Edwin Stanton asked that the pay of all soldiers be equalized. The families of black soldiers suffered as opposition and long debates in Congress delayed the action. In February 1864 Sergeant Walker was court-martialed and shot for mutiny. Finally, in June 1864 Congress passed legislation giving black soldiers equal pay, retroactive to January 1, 1864, for all soldiers and to the time of enlistment for those who had been free men when they joined. The question of just how the military would determine who was and wasn't a free man upon enlistment was solved creatively by officers who wanted to provide fair compensation for as many as possible. They accepted each man's personal oath about whether he had been free or not and encouraged a "Quaker oath," in which soldiers could declare that by God's law (even if not by human law) they had been free men. By December 1865 the 13th Amendment had abolished slavery throughout the United States.
Through a fast-paced game of matching and sequencing, players discover fascinating facts about and reinforce their understanding of star life cycles. Before you start: Enlarge 130% (on 11x17 paper) and copy the Star Stage and Stage Descriptions cards on two different colors of card stock for each group and cut out the cards. Based on the SkyTellers science story and discussion, players should have a basic understanding of star life cycles. Alternatively, children can research and create their own Stage Description cards. Divide players into groups of three to five. Distribute one set of Star Scramble cards to each group. Place the Star Stage cards in random order, face down in a stack and the Stage Description cards face down, scattered in front of the players. Each player, in turn, selects a Star Stage card and then selects a card from the Stage Description cards to read aloud. If the Star Stage and Stage Description are a match, the player calls out “star match.” If the others agree, the card and its match are set aside and the player waits his or her turn to draw another Star Stage card. If the Star Stage and the Stage Description do not match, the Stage Description card is returned to its original position, face down, and the player waits of his or her turn to try again, Players should continue until all matches are made. If a match is found later to be incorrect, both cards are returned to the game. Players can discuss the descriptions and help each other verify matches, but they should not help each other find cards. The facilitator should circulate and assist in clarifying terms if needed. Refer to “About Stars” for a discussion of star lives. Remind children of the SkyTellers science story. The first group to find all the card matches and order them correctly, wins. Have older children research the terms and create their own definition cards. Invite them to illustrate each stage of star evolution, based on what they have learned. Connections to the National Science Standard(s) Standard D (grades K–4): The sun and stars have properties that can be observed and described. Standard D (grades 9–12) Stars produce energy from nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium.
"Internationally and nationally, the funds and political will remain insufficient to halt further global environmental degradation and to address the most pressing environmental issues - even though the technology and knowledge are available to do so", the reports explains. The report points out that "the recognition of environmental issues as necessarily long-term and cumulative, with serious global and security implications, remains limited..... The continued preoccupation with immediate local and national issues and a general lack of sustained interest in global and long-term environmental issues remain major impediments to environmental progress internationally". The report singles out worldwide progress in the realm of institutional development, international cooperation, public participation and the emergence of private-sector action as an indicator of growing environmental awareness. Legal frameworks, economic instruments, environmental impact assessment methodologies, environmentally sound technologies and cleaner production processes are being increasingly developed and applied. "As a result" the report points out, "several countries reported marked progress in curbing environmental pollution and slowing the rate of resource degradation, as well as reducing the intensity of resource use. The rate of environmental degradation in several developing countries has been slower than that experienced by industrial countries when they were at a similar stage of economic development". The Global Environment Outlook report produced by UNEP differs significantly from the approach taken by other assessments, which have come out recently. The report approaches environmental problems from a regional perspective. This methodology stems from UNEP's unique experience in dealing with regional environmental issues over the last twenty five years. In preparing the report, the United Nations Environment Programme identified 20 internationally renowned environmental institutions as Global Environment Outlook collaborating centres, and instituted a mechanism for regional consultations, four scientific working groups and United Nations agency participation through the United Nations system-wide Earthwatch. In all, some 500 experts, including many government experts, participated in the preparation of Global Environment Outlook report. The report argues that although there is repeated acknowledgement of both the vicious cycle of poverty and its intrinsic linkages with the environment and the urgency to address poverty alleviation, little evidence had emerged from the regional reports that effective and concerted actions have been taken since Rio to ensure that environmental policies benefit the poorest members of society. "A vacuum still remains at the national level for linking environmental protection to social investment, such as education, better health care and employment generation for the poor, especially women", says the report. At the same time, the report sees encouraging signs in the empowerment of communities and the growth of environment-oriented non-governmental organizations in civil society and their increasing recognition in all regions as powerful mechanisms to advance sustainable development. The tendency to strengthen regional and subregional cooperation worldwide is another heartening signal which "might well prove to be one of the most powerful mechanisms to move national and global institutions forward towards sustainable development". The Global Environment Outlook identifies principal environmental issues confronting the major regions. In regions where food security and poverty alleviation are priorities, such as Africa, West Asia and parts of the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America, the primary concern is related to land - its availability, the prevention and control of land degradation, and efficient land and water management. "Half a billion hectares of land in Africa is moderately to severely degraded. Some 47 per cent of Latin America's grazing lands have lost their fertility as a result of erosion, overgrazing, salinization and alkalinization" says the report. The limited availability of arable land and loss of land to urban expansion are of particular importance to small island States and the West Asia region. Degradation of drylands is an urgent global problem, placing some one billion people in 110 countries at risk, mainly in developing regions. In highly industrialized regions, ameliorating soil contamination and combating acidification are priorities. A decline of some two per cent in the area of the world's forests and wooded land over the last decade is another aspect that the report touches upon. While the area under forest cover in developed regions remained fairly unchanged during this period, natural forest cover in developing regions declined by eight per cent. African forests are the most depleted of all the tropical regions, with only 30 per cent of historical stands remaining, the report points out. Asian timber reserves may last for no more than a further 40 years. West Asia has lost 11 per cent of its remaining forests during the 1980s. In Europe, air pollution (including acid rain), pests and diseases, and forest fires were the main causes of forest degradation. The report recognizes that, whilst total deforestation has been greatest in Latin America and the Caribbean, deforestation rates have decelerated as a result of international initiatives and national programmes to abolish subsidies, tax incentives and special credits that encouraged deforestation. Biological diversity is of particular concern in both the Latin American and Caribbean region and the Asia and Pacific region, which together house 80 per cent of the world's ecologically megadiverse countries. Worldwide habitat loss and fragmentation, the lack of biological corridors and the decline in biological diversity outside protected areas constitute the primary threats to biological diversity. One common factor that links all regions is the problem related to either groundwater or surface water, or both. Every day, 25,000 people die as a result of poor water quality. Some 1,700 million people, more than one third of the world's population, are without a supply of safe water and, in the absence of an adequate sanitation infrastructure, the problem of pathogenic pollution is severe in many developing countries. An estimated one quarter of the world's population will suffer from chronic water shortages in the beginning of the next century. The development and efficient management of water resources are of particular concern in West Asia, Africa and Asia and the Pacific. In Europe and North America, the protection of water resources from contamination, acidification and eutrophication feature high on the agenda. One million rural Americans are without piped water and supplies to a further 5.6 million do not meet safe drinking water standards. Water supply to regions hosting megacities is a worldwide concern, mainly with regard to groundwater resources, the intrusion of salt into freshwater supplies and land subsidence. More than 1,500 million people depend on groundwater for their drinking water. "Other global priorities are the equitable distribution of water between riparian countries sharing international river basins and the impacts of major dams and diversion projects. The depletion of aquifers on the western side of the Persian Gulf, for example, is leading to the loss of a unique ecosystem of natural freshwater springs. Many countries in West Asia suffer from water scarcity, with Bahrain having less than 18 per cent of the minimum threshold; yet levels of water consumption are now very high - ranging from 300 to 1500 liters a day per capita", the report points out. Currently, Africa has 19 of the 25 countries that have the highest percentage of populations without access to safe drinking water. The report points out that one third of the world's coastal regions are at high risk of degradation, particularly from land-based activities. Currently, about 60 per cent of the global population lives within 100 kilometres of the coastline and more than three billion people rely on coastal and marine habitats for food, building sites, transportation, recreation, and waste disposal. European coasts are the worst affected, with some 80 per cent at risk, followed by Asia and the Pacific, with 70 per cent at risk. In Latin America, some 50 percent of the mangrove forests are affected by forestry and aquaculture activities. Oil spills are particular threats in West Asia and the Caribbean, while infrastructure development for the tourism industry is placing severe stress on natural coastal areas around the world, particularly in small island developing states. There is widespread anxiety in Asia and the Pacific, North America, Europe and West Asia regarding the over-exploitation of marine fisheries and the consequent decline in stocks of commercial fish species. Globally, over 60 per cent of marine fisheries are heavily exploited. Acid rain and transboundary air pollution, once considered a problem only in Europe and parts of North America, are now increasingly apparent in parts of Asia and the Pacific and Latin America. Large regions are at risk from the effects of both climate change and acidification. All major cities in the world suffer urban air quality problems. In Eastern Europe, air quality is considered the most serious environmental problem. Despite coordinated action worldwide, damage to the ozone layer continues faster than expected, with the next ten years predicted to be the most vulnerable. Non-compliance and growth in illegal trade in ozone depleting substances are emerging problems. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay experience the effects of increased ultraviolet-B radiation due to ozone depletion more acutely than any other inhabited region. All regions express concern over global warming but special emphasis is placed by the developing countries on the need for adaptive mechanisms to cope with accompanying climate variability and sea-level change. "The rapidly rising demand for energy to fuel economic development will aggravate these problems," states the report, "particularly in Asia and the Pacific, where a 100 per cent increase in energy use is predicted for the period 1990 - 2010 and in Latin America, with a predicted energy growth of 50 -77 per cent for the same period". Currently, the impacts of current consumption and production patterns and associated waste generation, particularly on personal health and well being, are high on the priority list of both North America and Western Europe, and of concern to the other regions as well. Subregions with emerging economies, such as those of Eastern Europe, South-East Asia, and parts of Latin America and West Asia, face problems associated with rapid industrialization. The accumulation of radioactive waste and the continued impacts of the Chernobyl disaster and the effects of past radioactive spills remain of particular concern in Eastern European countries. These problems are compounded by rapidly increasing urbanization, particularly in coastal zones, and the widening gap between the rich and the poor. The polar regions, representing the largest remaining natural ecosystems on Earth are also coming under increasing stress, particularly from long-range pollutant transport and deposition. "Their crucial role in climate regulation and the vulnerability of their fauna and flora warrant special attention". recommends the report. The Global Environment Outlook identifies seven fundamental global environmental trends that could be crucial in halting environmental degradation and implementing sustainable development: Current use of renewable resources, land, forest, freshwater, coastal areas, fisheries and urban air which is beyond their natural regeneration capacity and therefore unsustainable; Emission of greenhouse gases which are still being emitted at levels higher than the stabilization targets internationally agreed upon under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Natural areas, and their attendant biological diversity which are diminishing as a result of the expansion of agricultural land and human settlements; The increasing, pervasive use and spread of chemicals which are causing major health risks, environmental contamination and disposal problems; The continued heavy reliance on hydrocarbons in the energy sector to fuel economic development - a practice which is clearly unsustainable; Rapid unplanned urbanization, particularly in coastal areas, which is placing severe major stress on adjacent ecosystems; and Interactions among global biogeochemical cycles which are leading to widespread ecosystem damage and change. The report also explores four key priority areas for action by the global community that emerge from the Global Environment Outlook report. "Current patterns of energy use require drastic changes, because of their destructive impacts on land and natural resources, climate, air quality, rural and urban settlements, and human health and well-being. Alternative energy sources need to be vigorously pursued and their application enhanced. Energy efficiency still needs to be greatly improved, and emissions need to be reduced". The second priority relates to the need for a wider dissemination of appropriate and environmentally sound technologies worldwide. "Despite years of deliberation, countries have yet to agree on how to reach consensus on international mechanisms to serve the vital interests of both developers of technologies and those countries that need access to them, as well as on international finance mechanisms". The report lists Global action on fresh water as its third priority. Greater efforts are needed to resolve issues related to land-based sources of pollution, non-point source runoff from agricultural and urban areas, protection of groundwater reserves, water pricing, the impact of development projects on ecosystems, and competing demands for water among different social sectors, among rural and urban communities, and among riparian countries. Fourthly, the report identifies the need for investment in new and better national data collection methods and in the acquisition of global datasets and in enhanced capabilities for integrated assessment and forecasting, and the analysis of the environmental impact of alternative policy options. Releasing the report, UNEP Executive Director, Ms. Elizabeth Dowedswell said, "The analysis of the state of the environment in the Global Environment Outlook takes us into several fields. It takes us into politics, because environmental policy is made in an intensely political atmosphere where interests and values often collide. It takes us into science, which enables us to understand problems and attempt to solve them. It takes us into the field of ethics, because few areas of policy present more difficult choices: how to preserve shared resources, how to distribute costs and benefits, how this generation's actions will affect future ones. It also takes us into economics, because a society's choices about the environment relate directly to how it produces, consumes and preserves its resources". "Solutions to environmental problems do not come from awareness alone", Ms. Dowedswell remarked. "They have to be relentlessly sought after and striven for. Rio was the start of a process: a unprecedented basic framework was agreed upon and many important commitments were made, but some vital issues remained to be set in place. UNEP's Global Environment Outlook report confirms that there still remained an unfinished agenda". For further information, please contact: Chief, State of the Environment Reporting Division of Environment Information and Assessment UNEP, P.O. Box 30552 Tore J. Brevik, Chief or Robert Bisset, Information Officer Information and Public Affairs UNEP, P.O. Box 30552 E Mail: [email protected] Global Environment Outlook is co-published with Oxford University Press. To order a copy, contact: Oxford University Press, Order Department, 2001 Evans Road, Cary, NC 27513, USA. Tel: +1 800 451 7566, Fax: +1 919 677 1303, Email: [email protected] Hardback: US$ 39.95 (plus mailing costs) Paperback: US$ 24.95 (plus mailing costs) Where GEO-1 can be accessed on the Internet: UNEP News Release 1997/3
"Living" Crystal Colonies A bacterium will group together with its neighbors to form a living colony, but what about non-living things? Researchers recently discovered crystals that form similar colonies when illuminated with a specific spotlight. But when this light goes off, the colony breaks apart!1 IT'S ALIVE! Well, not quite. An illustration of the particles used in the experiment. The red square represents hematite and the white sphere represents the polymer that encapsulates the hematite to form this colloid. Image Credit: Kazem Edmond and Stefano Sacanna/NYU Center for Soft Matter Research New York University scientists and a student from Brandeis University doing a summer research project2 recently uncovered this odd crystal behavior that mimics living creatures. These colloidal particles self-assembled into colonies under certain conditions, much like the formation of bacterial colonies, swarming insects, or flocking birds! A colloidal particle is a particle that does not make a chemical bond with other particles. Instead, it remains suspended between particles of a different substance. Often the substance holding the colloidal particles is a liquid, but it could also be a gas or solid. Milk, for example, has colloidal particles in it. Its butterfat molecules are suspended within the liquid, and they can be seen under a microscope. The colloidal particles used were made of two types of material: a polymer sphere made of 3-methacryloxyporpyl trimethoxysilane (TPM), that encapsulates most of an antiferromagnetic hematite cube.1 Under regular lighting or in the dark, these particles undergo the typically random motion caused by bombarding atoms and molecules in a fluid (gas or liquid). Brownian motion describes this random motion of particles in time. Robert Brown conceived this idea while watching pollen particles in water under a microscope. He saw the pollen particles moving, but he couldn’t figure out why they were moving. Simulation showing the motion of a dust particle (yellow) in a gas (for example air). The interaction between the gas particles and the dust particle cause the dust particle to move in its random Brownian motion. Image Credit: Francisco Esquembre, Fu-Kwun and lookang Brown then realized that it was the movement of the water particles and their interactions with the pollen particle that caused the motion of the pollen particle. The water molecules were moving around with regular thermal motion – the random motion of particles with temperatures above absolute zero. For example, consider a dust particle in air. The air molecules are moving around randomly, as seen in the simulation to the left.3 The researchers observed Brownian motion when the colloidal particles were in a solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and illuminated with regular light. In this case, the colloidal particles and their surrounding solution are in equilibrium.1 When blue-violet light illuminated the system, the colloidal particles became self-propelled, forming colonies within 25 s after the blue-violet light came on. If they were suddenly attracted to each other, they would continue to colonize until all the particles were in the group, but that didn't happen. Even after the colloidal particles grouped together into a crystalline structure, they still moved around, rotating and translating and changing colonies. Different colonies formed, and they rotated, translated, and collided. So the system is not an overall attractive system. If it were, they would all bunch together over a long period of time. The average size of a colony was found to be 35 particles, and the typical time for a colony to change its size by 50% had a large range of about 100±75 seconds.1 When the blue-violet light was turned off, the particles “de-colonized” and exhibited Brownian motion again. Watch the video below to see how light changes the system’s behavior. Two Kinds of Attraction To discover the impetus behind this colonization under blue-violet light, the researchers observed each material of the bi-material colloid separately. They attached just hematite cubes to a surface and placed polymer spheres in solution around it. When they shined the blue-violet light on the system, the spheres all moved toward the hematite cube, from all directions. Now the scientists wanted to find out why. When hematite is submersed in the solution of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) and illuminated with the blue-violet light, it catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.1 This chemical reaction does two things: It changes the chemical composition of the fluid around the hematite and transfers heat energy to the surroundings, raising the local fluid temperature. The researchers found that the difference in chemical composition affected the resultant motion of the polymer spheres more than the difference in temperature. Basically there was an energy transfer from the chemical reaction to the spheres that resulted in their motion and their attraction. Scientists refer to this chemical composition difference as a concentration gradient, and the resultant change in motion of particles due to this is called diffusiophoresis. Temperature-based changes in motion are called thermophoresis. It is the small attractive interaction from both of these phoreses that orders the aggregates into periodic (crystal) structures. Future Research and Development According to Jeremie Palacci, one of the researchers, this self-assembling crystal structure that can be controlled with a switch, could be used to study a variety of things. Palacci said that, “on the fundamental side, it sheds a new light on the emergence of collective effects in an assembly of active particles.” Palacci gave examples such as the ability to reproduce the very cool collective effects we see in nature like flocks of birds or schools of fish. Scientists could reproduce these effects using a minimalistic system solely driven by physics. Palacci also gave examples of technological applications. He suggested smart materials, where the particles could spontaneously self-organize under light into crystal structures, and materials whose property completely changes (mechanical, color...) under illumination. Palacci also pointed out that since this effect is reversible, you could create on-demand reconfigurable materials. References and Resources 1. 1) Palacci, et al., Living Crystals of Light-Activated Colloidal Surfers, Science Express, 31 January 2013 2. Devitt, J., NYU Physicists Shine a Light on Particle Assembly, NYU News, New York University, 31 January 2013 3. Brownian motion, Wikipedia
Sonntag, 10. Juli 2016 - 10:00 Uhr Artist's impression of the giant impact that would have given birth to Phobos and Deimos. The colliding object is about 1/3 the size of Mars—which at the time may have had a thicker atmosphere and water on its surface. The aura of mystery surrounding Mars has long been intensified by its curious pair of moons: Phobos and Deimos, whose origins have remained clouded until now. No planet stirs human imagination quite like Mars. As non-stop land-based missions continue to probe its past and search for possible traces of life, another intrigue—this time high above its skyline—had long baffled scientists: how did Mars end up with its two small moons, Phobos and Deimos, first spotted in 1877? This riddle may have just been solved by a multidisciplinary study combining French, Belgian and Japanese expertise.1 Capture or Impact? Scientists have long hesitated between two hypotheses. The first suggests that the moons are asteroids like those found in the belt between Jupiter and Mars; but why they should have been trapped around Mars remains unclear. An alternative theory posits that the moons formed from the debris of a collision between Mars and a protoplanet—a planet in the making; here though, uncertainty has hovered over the mechanism producing two small satellites. “A major difficulty has been to explain why a giant impact on Mars would have left two moons so different from our own Moon, a huge single mass, that also formed from Earth undergoing such an impact,” explains planetary scientist Sébastien Charnoz of the IPG,2 who contributed to the new study. To shed light on this puzzle, the researchers3 pooled their expertise in astrophysics, planetary science, mathematics and computer science to create complex models running a range of hydrodynamic and numerical simulations able to recreate the sequence of past events. Their findings back up the second hypothesis of an almighty collision while also, for the first time, coherently filling in the gaps to explain how two moons emerged from the crash debris. A mission is scheduled to bring back samples from Phobos by 2026. According to the simulations, Mars suffered a colossal impact with a body three times smaller some 4 to 4.5 billion years ago. Debris from the collision initially accumulated into a long disk around Mars, resembling one of Saturn’s rings. Within this disk, an enormous moon a thousand times the mass of Phobos gradually formed—similar to the way in which our Moon amassed from debris created by Earth’s impact. The tide effect The new study innovates by identifying the crucial factor differentiating moon formation around Mars and Earth: the planets’ differing rotation speeds, prompting “completely different tidal actions,” explains Charnoz. The scientist indicates that at the time of their respective giant impacts, “Earth took less than 4 hours to spin on its axis whereas Mars rotated very slowly over a 24-hour period.” The upshot of this divergence is that Earth kept a single large moon whereas debris from the Mars collision further collected into a dozen smaller moons alongside a larger companion. Eventually, Martian tide action due to the planet’s slow rotation caused most of the moons, including the largest one, to fall back onto the planet’s surface, leaving only the two most distant ones: Phobos and Deimos. Conversely, the Earth’s fast rotation pushed its moon further away. In future analyses, the team plans to examine the “long-term dynamics of Phobos and Deimos,” says Charnoz. Fellow team member and planetary scientist Ryuki Hyodo, originally from Kobe University, currently also collaborating with the IPG, adds that “high-resolution impact simulations are still needed to understand more about the disk structure.” Diagram showing the six phases of formation of Deimos and Phobos around Mars. Another moon "landing" Even if concrete evidence is still required to confirm the team’s scenario, parallel findings certainly seem to back it up. A recent French study on the orbital and physical properties of the Martian moons points towards their formation from a colossal impact.4 And further plans are underway to gather more conclusive evidence. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has announced a space mission commencing in 2022, with an expected return to Earth in 2026. “Its objective is to carry out close-up remote sensing and in-situ observations of both Phobos and Deimos, and to bring back samples from Phobos,” says Hyodo. The current study’s Franco-Belgian-Japanese collaboration has an exciting role to look forward to in this mission: JAXA will enlist them to conduct tests on the samples to determine whether this moon is indeed composed of a mixture of Martian mantle and debris from the vanished protoplanet as implied by their simulations. The team’s input thus marks a crucial step towards deciphering the enigma. “More generally, our findings clarify how giant impacts give birth to satellites and can create a diverse variety of satellite systems,” explains Charnoz. Casting attention to other regions of our universe, the planetary scientist anticipates that the team could apply their method to study “Uranus and Neptune and—why not?—systems of satellites around exoplanets that we may identify in the future.” 1. P. Rosenblatt et al., “Accretion of Phobos and Deimos in an extended debris disc stirred by transient moons,” Nature Geoscience, 2016. DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2742. 2. Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (CNRS / Université Paris Diderot). 3. From Université Paris Diderot, Royal Observatory of Belgium, Université de Rennes 1, CNRS and Earth Life Science Institute (Tokyo Institute of Technology), with additional support from IPGP, the Labex UnivEarthS and Kobe University. 4. T. Ronnet et al., “Reconciling the Orbital and Physical Properties of the Martian Moons,” Astrophysical Journal, forthcoming.
Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| A safety belt , sometimes called a seat belt, is a safety harness designed to secure the occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result from a collision or a sudden stop. As part of an overall occupant restraint system, seat belts are intended to reduce injuries by stopping the wearer from hitting hard interior elements of the vehicle or other passengers (the so-called second impact) and by preventing the passenger from being thrown from the vehicle. Use of seat belts by child occupants - Main article: Infant car seat As with adult drivers and passengers, the advent of seat belts was accompanied by calls for their use by child occupants, including legislation requiring such use. It has been claimed that children in adult restraints suffer lower injury risk than unrestrained children. The UK extended compulsory seatbelt wearing to child passengers under the age of 14 in 1989. It was observed that this measure was accompanied by a 10% increase in fatalities and a 12% increase in injuries among the target population. In crashes, small children who wear adult seatbelts can suffer "seat-belt syndrome" injuries including severed intestines, ruptured diaphragms and spinal damage. There is also research suggesting that children in inappropriate restraints are at significantly increased risk of head injury, one of the authors of this research has been quoted as claiming that "The early graduation of kids into adult lap and shoulder belts is a leading cause of child-occupant injuries and deaths." As a result of such findings, many jurisdictions now advocate or require child passengers to use specially designed child restraints. Such systems include separate child-sized seats with their own restraints and booster cushions for children using adult restraints. In some jurisdictions children below a certain size are forbidden to travel in front car seats.[How to reference and link to summary or text] In rear seats In 1955 (as a 1956 package) Ford offered lap only seat belts in the rear seats as an option within the Lifeguard safety package. In 1967 Volvo started to install lap belts in the rear seats. In 1972 Volvo upgraded the rear seat belts to a three point belt. Reminder chime and light In North America and some other parts of the world, cars sold since the early 1970s have included an audiovisual reminder system consisting of a light on the dashboard and a buzzer or chime reminding the driver and passengers to fasten their belts. Originally, these lights were accompanied by a warning buzzer whenever the transmission was in any position except park if either the driver was not buckled up or, as determined by a pressure sensor in the passenger's seat, if there was a passenger there not buckled up. However, this was considered by many to be a major annoyance, as the light would be on and the buzzer would sound continuously if front-seat passengers were not buckled up. Therefore, people who did not wish to buckle up would defeat this system by fastening the seatbelts with the seat empty and leaving them that way. By the mid-1970s, auto manufacturers modified the system so that a warning buzzer would sound for several seconds before turning off (with the warning light), regardless of whether the car was started. However, if the driver was buckled up, the light would appear, but with no buzzer. New cars sold in the United States in 1974 and the first part of the 1975 model year were sold with a special "ignition interlock", whereby the driver could not start the car until the seat belt was fastened; however, this system was short-lived. Today, the belt warning light may stay on for several minutes after the car is started if the driver's seat belt is not fastened. In Europe most modern cars include a seat-belt reminder light for the driver and some also include a reminder for the passenger, when present, activated by a pressure sensor under the passenger seat. Some cars will intermittently flash the reminder light and sound the chime until the driver (and sometimes the front passenger, if present) fasten their seatbelts, and they sometimes even lock the speed to 10 km/h or less. - Main article: Seat belt legislation Observational studies of car crash morbidity and mortality, experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of death and injury in the majority of car crashes. This has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that, in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a significantly and substantially higher chance of death and serious injury. One large observation studying using US data showed that the odds ratio of crash death is 0.46 with a three-point belt, when compared with no belt. In another study, that examined injuries presenting to the ER pre- and post-seat belt law introduction, it was found that 40% more escaped injury and 35% more escaped mild and moderate injuries. The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce road fatalities. There was also concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and 3-point seat belts, rapidly-tilting seats, and air bags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades Some have proposed that the number of deaths was influenced by the development of risk compensation, which says that drivers adjust their behavior in response to the increased sense of personal safety wearing a seat belt provides. In one trial subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving unbelted drove consistently faster when subsequently belted. Similarly, a study of habitual non-seatbelt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seatbelt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances. Similar responses have been shown in respect of anti-lock braking system and, more recently, airbags and electronic stability control.[How to reference and link to summary or text] A 2001 analysis of US crash data aimed to establish the effects of seatbelt legislation on driving fatalities and found that previous estimates of seatbelts effectiveness had been significantly overstated. According to the analysis used, seatbelts were claimed to have decreased fatalities by 1.35% for each 10% increase in seatbelt use. The study controlled for endogenous motivations of seat belt use, which it is claimed creates an artificial correlation between seat belt use and fatalities, leading to the conclusion that seatbelts cause fatalities. For example, drivers in high risk areas are more likely to use seat belts, and are more likely to be in accidents, creating a non-causal correlation between seatbelt use and mortality. After accounting for the endogeneity of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research. Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic, and other factors such as age, and based on these adjustments, a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use has been claimed. However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation. Use in vehicles other than cars Use of seatbelts in trains has been investigated. Concerns about survival space intrusion in train crashes and increase of injuries to unrestrained or incorrectly restrained passengers led the researches to discourage the use of seat belts in trains. - It has been shown that there is no net safety benefit for passengers who choose to wear 3-point restraints on passenger carrying rail vehicles. Generally passengers who choose not to wear restraints in a vehicle modified to accept 3-point restraints receive marginally more severe injuries.. - ↑ Adams, John (1995). Risk, London: UCL Press Ltd. University College. - ↑ Winston FK, Durbin DR, Kallan MJ, Moll EK (June 2000). The danger of premature graduation to seat belts for young children. Pediatrics 105 (6): 1179–83. - ↑ "Kids at Risk: When Seatbelts are NOT Enough", by Karp H, Reader's Digest (US Edition), November 1999. - ↑ Volvocars corporate website - ↑ Ichikawa M, Nakahara S, Wakai S (January 2002). Mortality of front-seat occupants attributable to unbelted rear-seat passengers in car crashes. Lancet 359 (9300): 43–4. - ↑ "Unbelted rear passengers 'biggest danger in crash" - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Nakahara S, Ichikawa M, Wakai S (2003). Seatbelt legislation in Japan: high risk driver mortality and seatbelt use. Inj. Prev. 9 (1): 29–32. - ↑ Allen S, Zhu S, Sauter C, Layde P, Hargarten S (2006). A comprehensive statewide analysis of seatbelt non-use with injury and hospital admissions: new data, old problem. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 13 (4): 427–34. - ↑ Bourbeau R, Desjardins D, Maag U, Laberge-Nadeau C (1993). Neck injuries among belted and unbelted occupants of the front seat of cars. The Journal of trauma 35 (5): 794–9. - ↑ Bédard M, Guyatt GH, Stones MJ, Hirdes JP (2002). The independent contribution of driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics to driver fatalities. Accident; analysis and prevention 34 (6): 717–27. - ↑ Thomas J (1990). Road traffic accidents before and after seatbelt legislation--study in a district general hospital. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 83 (2): 79–81. - ↑ includeonly>Fenton, John. "Safety Design", The Times, 1969-01024. - ↑ Streff FM, Geller ES (1988). An experimental test of risk compensation: between-subject versus within-subject analyses. Accident; analysis and prevention 20 (4): 277–87. - ↑ Janssen W (1994). Seat-belt wearing and driving behavior: an instrumented-vehicle study. Accident; analysis and prevention 26 (2): 249–61. - ↑ Spital M, Spital A, Spital R (November 1986). The compelling case for seat belts on school buses. Pediatrics 78 (5): 928–32. - ↑ Albers AC (2001). Should there be laws mandating seatbelts in all school buses? Writing for the pro position. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 26 (1): 8. - ↑ Begley CE, Biddle AK (1988). Cost-benefit analysis of safety belts in Texas school buses. Public Health Rep 103 (5): 479–85. - ↑ Seat-belts in School Buses? - ↑ Pros, Cons of School Bus Seatbelts - ↑ Garzon DL (2001). Should there be laws mandating seatbelts in all school buses? Writing for the con position. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 26 (1): 9. - ↑ Assessment of three-point passenger restraints (seatbelts) fitted to seats on rail vehicles PDF, page 33 - Canada Child Restraint Requirement - Municipal Seatbelt Enforcement Cameras - Seatbelt Physics - Seatbelt Testing and Sled Slow Motion Video - Three-point seat belts on coaches - the first decade in Australia Proceedings of 19th Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Washington 2005 - US State Child Restraint Requirement \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
Begin this activity by accessing the web pages for the two major political parties in Texas (Democrat and Republican). Next, follow each party using one of the social networking tools they offer. Generally, they useFaceBook, MySpace, Okurt or Twitter. After reading some of the postings by each party on their social media sites, identify a major political issue facing the state of Texas that is of personal interest to you. - Discuss the position of both major political parties regarding the selected issue. - What is the short history of the issue you identified? - Why is it important to you? - What impact do you see special interests having on the position of the major political parties regarding the selected issue? - To what extent are you personally willing to take political actions on the selected issue after completing this activity, what would you? - Explain why you arrived at each of your answers.
The spindly antennae of a common wasp are as sensitive to smells as the wet nose of a drug-sniffing police dog. With this in mind, biological engineer Glen Rains and his colleagues at the University of Georgia at Tifton have devised a contraption called the Wasp Hound: a canister no bigger than a medium-size soda cup filled with insects trained to detect smells. Rains developed a simple regimen to teach the insects to associate a particular odor with food. When the wasps in the canister catch a whiff of that odor—such as a chemical linked to a drug, bomb, toxin, or corpse—they cluster around the source; a minicamera inside the Wasp Hound monitors the insects' movements and transmits the results to a nearby laptop. "The wasps are small and portable, and the training takes only about 5 or 10 minutes," says Rains, pointing out the advantages of wasps over dogs. The insects die within 48 hours, but when they expire, a cartridge of five freshly trained wasps can be popped into the canister. Rains sees no reason why future versions of the Wasp Hound couldn't be used to detect the chemical signatures of diseases in plants, animals, and humans. "The insects can be trained to recognize most chemicals," he says. "They are sensitive to just about anything."
The Mystery of Bach's Genius? Solved! It's All in the Ink J.S. Bach wrote his musical scores with iron gall ink, which was in standard use in Europe at the time. The ingredients include tannic acid from oak galls, a hypertrophy growing on the sides of oak trees, and gum arabic, from the sap of the acacia tree. Imagine if a musicologist claimed that the mystery was fast being solved of how Bach composed music of such towering genius, since a "relatively simple combination of naturally occurring substances offers a plausible route to the building blocks" of the ink he used. Provided with a pot of ink, how did he then arrange the notes in the right order? Don't bother us with such trivial details! What are you, some kind of creationist? As an explanation of musical genius, this would be bewilderingly silly. Yet it's the basic summary of a genre of breathless news items about the origins of life on earth, a staple of science journalism and, its symbiotic twin, peer-reviewed "origins" research. The basis of life is information carried in genetic molecules like DNA -- notes arranged in the right order -- but the hypothesized existence of raw ingredients in the ancient earth, the stuff the ink is made of, is regularly assumed to be just about all you need to explain how life's music was composed. Thus Science Daily reports on a paper in Nature Chemistry under the headline, "Study Builds on Plausible Scenario for Origin of Life on Earth": A relatively simple combination of naturally occurring sugars and amino acids offers a plausible route to the building blocks of life....The study shows how the precursors to RNA could have formed on Earth before any life existed....It's always so "relatively simple," isn't it? In these stories, it is. Biological molecules, such as RNA and proteins, can exist in either a natural or unnatural form, called enantiomers. By studying the chemical reactions carefully, the research team found that it was possible to generate only the natural form of the necessary RNA precursors by including simple amino acids. Another ingredient of gall ink, ferrous sulfate, is derived from iron which in turn is known occasionally to fall to earth in meteorites. And hey what do you know, so do more building blocks of life. "Building blocks of DNA found in meteorites from space," reads the headline on MSNBC. Right, it's the familiar life-from-outer-space origins scenario: The components of DNA have now been confirmed to exist in extraterrestrial meteorites, researchers announced.The building blocks in this case are nucleobases, which in DNA form the nucleotides that, arranged in pairs, give physical expression to life's alphabetic language. A different team of scientists also discovered a number of molecules linked with a vital ancient biological process, adding weight to the idea that the earliest forms of life on Earth may have been made up in part from materials delivered to Earth from space. This mystery of how life began is indeed fast being resolved. It pretty much tumbled out of the sky like rain, or grew on trees. Easy! Now go away, you bloody creationists. Stop bothering us with your petty fundamentalist doubts.
view a plan “Mitten Math” illustrates the Commutative Property of Addition By – Corben Washington Primary Subject – Math Grade Level – 1 - This is a Commutative Property of Addition lesson. Following this lesson, students should be able to understand that a + b = b + a, or at least that 2 + 3 = 5 and so does 3 + 2, the order of the addends does not matter. - The student will be able to: - Add simple numbers - Explain how flip-flopping the addends yields the same sum - Match the sums with the correct addition sentences - White Paper - Crayons or colored pencils - Mitten or mitten template - Simple addition worksheet - Math manipulatives (optional) - Thinking Cap - Create a worksheet with simple addition problems, one for each student. Half of the problems should be the same as the other half, only with their addends reversed. Mix up the matching pairs so they are not right next to each other. - Pick the quietest student to pass out the worksheet to each of their classmates. - ” Okay, now I know everyone came to school to have a good time and learn. I hope everybody has a good attitude, because we are about to have some educational fun. The name of the activity is MITTEN MATH” Learning Experiences/Presentation/ Procedure: - Start out with the quote that is listed above in establishing sets. - Review a couple addition facts to make sure the kids remember what the learned before. - Practice a couple of different simple addition problems. - If the kids are having problems with them, bring out the manipulatives, so you can move on with the lesson. - Give kids a mitten to trace and cut out for later in the lesson. - Assign each student a mitten problem on the worksheet. - Ask them to write the problem with the answer on their mitten. (Optional: If you want to be extra clever, arrange it so that the a + b problems are written on a mitten with the thumb on the right and the b + a problems are written on a the other side creating a left-thumbed mitten. You can do this the easiest by going from desk to desk, turning over the appropriate mittens.) - Have them color their mitten. - When they are completely finished, have them find the person that has the mate to their mitten. All three numbers have to match. At first they will discover that some people may have the same answer, but the problem doesn’t match. Then they will discover that they have found a match, and will ask if the order matters! - Once they are done, they can sit down and visit with their partner until eveyone has finished. - Recap what they have learned and ask them how they enjoyed the lesson. E-Mail Corben Washington !
The Slave Lodge was built in 1679, making it the second oldest existing colonial structure of the Cape Colony, today known as Cape Town. This building was changed many times and it is unclear how much of the existing building dates from the slave period. The building was used as a slave lodge until 1811 when it was changed into government offices by the new British colonial authorities. Britain occupied the Cape Colony in 1806 and their claim to the Cape was recognised in 1814 by the rest of Europe. The Slave Lodge housed the slaves who belonged to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). These slaves worked for the VOC and were never sold. Very little is known of the people who lived in the Lodge, We know what type of work they did and we know something of conditions in which they lived. We have managed to find at least half of their names, but know little more than where they came from and the date of their death. The British colonial government decided to turn the Slave Lodge into government offices in 1807. At that stage there were 283 slaves in the Lodge: 187 men, 73 women and 23 children. Many of these slaves were old and could not work anymore. The governor, the Earl of Caledon, sold some of his slaves at a public auction and the remaining slaves were moved into the western wing of the Lodge. In 1811, the remaining slaves were moved to a rented building and in 1820 to a new slave lodge in the Gardens. These 135 slaves were manumitted in 1828, six years before universal emancipation of slaves in the British Empire. Today the Slave Lodge is a museum, managed by Iziko Museums of South Africa. It became a cultural history museum in 1966, exhibiting mainly the material culture of the descendents of the Dutch and British colonists. The role that slaves played in developing the Cape Colony was only fully recognised by the museum during the 1990s. The building was renamed the Slave Lodge on Heritage Day, 1998. \|Rear facade of the Old Supreme Court from Church Square, late 19th/early 20th century. The building was very dilapidated at this stage. The pediment sculpture had been created by Anton Anreith when the Slave Lodge was converted into Government Offices in the early 1800s. The building was converted to government offices, including the Master's Office, the office of the Attorney-General, the Government Secretary, the receiver of Revenue, the Bank, the Post Office, and the Public Library. By 1817 the Supreme Court was located at the former Slave Lodge and after 1827, the builiding became the home of the COuncil of Advice and later the Legislative Council of the Cape Colony. In 1966 the building became the home of the new South African Cultural History Museum and was proclaimed a National Monument in 1967 - there were many exhibitions but the histories of slavery remained untold. Finally in 1998 the Museum was re-named the Slave Lodge; and today, as part of Iziko Museums of South Africa, a permanent exhibition of slavery is unfolding within its walls.
the Physics Education Technology Project This student hand-out was created specifically to accompany the PhET simulation "Nuclear Fission". Appropriate for grades 8-12, it provides guided directions on using the simulation to ensure that students stay focused on learning goals. The simulation features a neutron gun that "fires" an accelerated neutron into a Uranium-235 nucleus. By using this printed guide, students will be prompted to think about what happens in a nuclear reaction, what makes a nucleus "fissionable" and how nuclear power containment vessels prevent a runaway chain reaction. The fission simulation, which must be open and displayed to complete this activity, is available from PhET at: Nuclear Fission. This lesson is part of PhET (Physics Education Technology Project), a large collection of free interactive simulations for science education. 9-12: 3C/H5. Human inventiveness has brought new risks as well as improvements to human existence. 4. The Physical Setting 4D. The Structure of Matter 6-8: 4D/M1a. All matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope. 9-12: 4D/H1. Atoms are made of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The nucleus is a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom but makes up almost all of its mass. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons which have roughly the same mass but differ in that protons are positively charged while neutrons have no electric charge. 9-12: 4D/H2. The number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom's electron configuration can be and so defines the element. An atom's electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. Atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons. 9-12: 4D/H3. Although neutrons have little effect on how an atom interacts with other atoms, the number of neutrons does affect the mass and stability of the nucleus. Isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons (and therefore of electrons) but differ in the number of neutrons. 9-12: 4D/H4. The nucleus of radioactive isotopes is unstable and spontaneously decays, emitting particles and/or wavelike radiation. It cannot be predicted exactly when, if ever, an unstable nucleus will decay, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate. This predictability of decay rate allows radioactivity to be used for estimating the age of materials that contain radioactive substances. 11. Common Themes 6-8: 11B/M1. Models are often used to think about processes that happen too slowly, too quickly, or on too small a scale to observe directly. They are also used for processes that are too vast, too complex, or too dangerous to study. 6-8: 11B/M4. Simulations are often useful in modeling events and processes. 6-8: 11D/M3. Natural phenomena often involve sizes, durations, and speeds that are extremely small or extremely large. These phenomena may be difficult to appreciate because they involve magnitudes far outside human experience. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics Alignments High School — Functions (9-12) Linear, Quadratic, and Exponential Models? (9-12) F-LE.1.c Recognize situations in which a quantity grows or decays by a constant percent rate per unit interval relative to another. F-LE.3 Observe using graphs and tables that a quantity increasing exponentially eventually exceeds a quantity increasing linearly, quadratically, or (more generally) as a polynomial function. %0 Electronic Source %A Blaisdell, Mark %D July 8, 2009 %T PhET Teacher Activities: Nuclear Fission Simulation - Student Guide %I Physics Education Technology Project %V 2016 %N 24 September 2016 %8 July 8, 2009 %9 application/ms-word %U https://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/3249 Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
Yevgeniy Perev, a 20 year old male from Staten Island asks on April 20, 2005,When our galaxy will absorb the 2 Magellanic Clouds, that will produce a starburst. For how long will it take for that starburst to die down? Will there be 1 long starburst, or several shorter ones? viewed 13631 times Our home galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, has about 400 billion stars, and is shaped like a fried egg, with a flattened disk and a bulge in the center. Between the stars, low density gas and dust is present in large concentrations known as interstellar clouds. Orbiting around the Milky Way are two smaller galaxies, the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds. The Magellanic Clouds will eventually merge with the Milky Way. This will not be the first time such a merger has happened --- in fact, right now another small galaxy, the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, is in the process of merging with the Milky Way. In addition, some scientists have claimed to have found evidence for a second past merger of the Milky Way with another galaxy known as the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, but that is controversial. When the Magellanic Cloud-Milky Way merger will happen is uncertain, but on the order of 100 million years or so. When a galaxy merger happens, stars will not collide together, because the spaces between the stars are immense compared to the sizes of stars (to visualize this, imagine that the Sun were scaled down to be the size of a basketball. On that scale, the closest star would be on the other side of the Earth). However, although the stars won't collide, the interstellar clouds will, since they are large, though low density. When such clouds get compressed enough, they gravitationally collapse and form into new stars. If a lot of new stars form all at once in a galaxy, this is called a `starburst'. When two massive galaxies with large amounts of interstellar gas clouds collide, this sometimes causes a starburst. For example, the merging pair of galaxies known as the Antennae galaxies are currently undergoing a starburst (see the Hubble Space Telescope picture of this ). In the Antennae, both galaxies that collided were about the same size. When this happens, it is called a `major merger'. During a major merger, so many clouds collide that many young stars are formed and a starburst happens. When a small galaxy falls into a much more massive one, like the merger of the Magellanic Clouds with the Milky Way, it is called a `minor merger'. Probably over the lifetime of the Milky Way, many such mergers have happened, not just the mergers with the Sagittarius Dwarf and Draco Minor Dwarfs. Since not as many interstellar clouds are involved, the bursts of star formation are generally not as powerful, and not as many new stars form. One might not even call such an event a 'starburst', as the term is usually used. An individual starburst generally happens over a relatively short timescale, astronomically speaking--about a few million years. However, a galaxy can undergo many starbursts in its life due to multiple close encounters with one or more other galaxies. Furthermore, one close encounter between two galaxies can trigger the formation of stars in different parts of the galaxies at different times--for example, star formation can occur at different times in the central regions of the galaxies, in the outer disks, and in long streamers of gas pulled out from the galaxy by tidal forces from the second galaxy. The timescale between the start of a 'burst' in one part of a galaxy and the the start of a 'burst' in another part of a galaxy can be very long, more than 100 million years. No one has yet exactly modeled the future merger of the Magellanic Clouds with the Milky Way, so we don't know exactly where and when new stars will form due to the merger. Note: All submissions are moderated prior to posting. If you found this answer useful, please consider making a small donation to science.ca.
MANY governments around the world pay only lip service to the problem of water and sanitation thereby denying an essential human right to their populations. Though governments attest to the importance of water and sanitation as evidenced by MDG on water and sanitation, they make very little investment in the sector. The matter is rarely given prominence on national political agendas. Water as a human right refers to the human right to safe water and adequate sanitation without which the enjoyment of other essential human rights can be jeopardized. The availability of safe drinking water and hygienic sanitation facilities can indeed play a key role in the fight against poverty, hunger, child deaths and gender inequality. According to the UN, over 1,100 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and over 2,600 million have no access to adequate sanitation. To complicate matters, water sources throughout the world are drying up, chiefly due to climate change and the mismanagement of water resources. Dirty water and lack of sanitation affects mainly the poor, disadvantaged and voiceless in society, that is, women, girls and children. Approximately, 1,8 million children die every year to diarrhea because of lack of access to clean water, more than AIDS, malaria and measles combined. More than 50 percent of the cases occur in Africa and Asia despite the existence of inexpensive and efficient means of water treatment. “In the developing world, 24,000 children under the age of five die every day from preventable causes like diarrhea contracted from unclean water,” said Caryl M. Stern, President and CEO, the U.S. Fund for UNICEF at the launch of a report, titled “Diarrhea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done“. “It is truly a tragedy that these deaths take place since inexpensive and effective treatments for diarrhea already exist. In addition, women and girls, particularly in Africa, have to walk long distances to fetch water for household use and consumption. This not only perpetuates gender inequality but can expose women and girls to violence. Women and girls, particularly in remote and rural areas lose valuable time (which they could otherwise utilise for their own personal development) looking for water. While water and basic sanitation are regarded as peripheral, and in some cases individual concern, it is clear that their enjoyment or lack of thereof directly impinge on human rights. In many parts of Africa, girls for example are forced to miss school because they have to spend hours looking for water thereby getting denied an education and consequently opportunity in life. In fact, poverty and inequality lie at the very heart of poor access to water and sanitation. Communities with little or no say in the political process suffer the most. “Denying the enjoyment of the human right to water has very serious consequences for human development, conflicts, inequality, the environment, health, housing, education and poverty,” states UNESCO Extea report titled, “The Human Right to Water: Current Situations and Future Challenges”. According to the report, the “ … human right to water has been semi-hidden as content integrated with other rights, like the right to food, to housing and to health.” “Progress in recent years has shown that such a situation of ‘dependency’ is insufficient for such an important right,” adds the report. Governments around the world, particularly in developing countries, need to recognize that access to clean water proper sanitation to the human rights and personal dignity of every woman, man and child on earth.
VIGNETTES SERIES 1 The following five vignettes are short descriptions of attributes and ‘awareness factors’ that can help teachers in setting classroom scenes VIGNETTE ONE : IMAGINATION Imagination – teaching and the ‘inner eye’. Appealing to children’s imagination and having students walk round inside their heads. Imagination can be a powerful tool. Having children simulate situations through appeal to their imagination can be a very powerful supportive learning aid. Having children put themselves in the pace of literary characters, into a historical situation, using the ‘mind’s eye’ to imagine life in another country, simulating situations regarding applied maths … the list goes on. Imagination can run riot in terms of the richness of variables and probabilities that light up the minds of children. Keeping students focussed is the role that belongs to the teacher. It is a quality that adds to the vibrancy and ‘life’ in lesson situations if allowed the opportunity for development and use. With oral texts, shared reading can be enhanced if students are asked to use their imagination for the sake of predicting, considering consequences, analysing characters in readings and so on. This can extend to include drama and the acting out of scenarios. It also has credence in more academic contexts, including Science and Maths if students are ‘invited into’ domains bringing imagination to the classroom. This is situational learning where students are given questions based on real life scenarios. Maths, Science, Literacy and SOCE all lend themselves to scenario learning. Scenario learning is also stimulation for teachers because it encourages them to use their imagination in order to set the learning scenes. The imagination of children can be quite boundless. However with the use of electronic gadgetry and games I fear that imagination has become somewhat less and possibly unduly influenced by this gadgetry. The gadgets can stand in the place of children determining outcomes and play by setting the agenda to which day (children) simply react. I used to say to children at all age and grade levels, that we have three eyes ; the left, eye, the right eye, and the mind’s eye. That eye is the imaginative eye and it sits in our brain behind our forehead. It can ‘see’ in the same way as our physical eyes by taking us to places in our heads. Imagination can be a powerful tool facilitating teaching and learning opportunities in classrooms. It can enhance teaching and learning contexts and also build memories of the created events and scenarios. VIGNETTE TWO : COMPUTER ENCOURAGES TEACHER SEDENTARINESS Teacher needs in terms of planning, preparation, recording and data inputting, along with other benefits have come a long way since pen and paper, then later typewriters were the only available recording tools. Without doubt, computer and iPad options have been enhancing for teachers in terms of these functions. With the emphasis these days focussed as it is on data and recording, there is a tendency for teachers to become desk-bound and screen-focussed, inserting data and results onto their electronic records. That is fine, but we ought not forget the importance of moving around the classroom engaging with students. That personal contact is important and can easily become lost because of screen fixation. Anoppther ‘beware point’ is to watch that children are not engaged in activities that offer ‘filler’ time for teachers for data and recording purposes. Silent reading is an example. There needs to be a focus about sustained silent reading (SSR), an activities outcome. It ought not be a period of time that is provided simply to facilitate administration. Be conscious of the need to move around the classroom between, among and engaging with students. Children value contact and appreciate teachers who take interest in them individually as well as class collectively. VIGNETTE THREE : MAPPING MOVEMENT ‘Location location’ by teachers in classrooms is important. It is important that teachers are ‘boundary riders’, regularly visiting around their classrooms, talking to all children, being aware of how groups are working and keeping up-to-date with classroom happenings. This cannot happen unless they are migratory. Classrooms, metaphorically, might be considered as the estate for which teachers are responsible. The most significant elements of that landscape are students. When at Leanyer and observing practice teachers, I would take a photo of the classroom, with desks and chairs in their normal places. Part of my appreciation of teachers undertaking preservice was to map their movement around the classroom. Not for every lesson but periodically. Over a twenty minute period, on the blank ‘classroom map’, I would trace their movement patters with a pen or biro. The completed map was part of the feedback given to them. It showed quite graphically their tracking patterns, creating awareness of parts of the room and students upon whom they concentrated. If the aim is to be uniform in terms of movement and engagement, it offered a ‘visual’ on adjustments that might be necessary in order to fully cover all students. It is easy to over-focus on some students and overlook others. This process offered a tool enabling teachers to consider any necessary changes they might make. If interested, you might ask mentor teachers to carry out a similar exercise . You could possibly (with the okay) take a picture of the empty room, and print, possibly to A4 size and ask your mentor to track you in a ‘time and distance manner. After a while, you will become ‘subconsciously aware’ of your movement habits within the classroom. This will automatically trigger adjustments you may need to make. VIGNETTE FOUR : TRANSIENT STUDENTS There is a very high rate of student transience in the Northern Territory. This happens on two fronts. * Movement of children between territory schools. This is particularly the case and remote areas with families moving to accord with ceremonial cycles and other obligations. * Transfers of students with their families from interstate to territory and back a game after fixed periods. This applies to the many families in our Defence Forces and also to those who come on contracts for 12 months or two years. It is important to understand this phenomena, because throughput of students within classes can lead to disconnections between students and also between students and teacher. It can be discouraging to build a rapport with students, then to discover they move on, often without notice. New enrolments come in their place and the enrolment- departure syndrome can continue. It is important to not become downhearted or discouraged at the discovery of changes resulting from transience. Life goes on and we have to remain buoyed and optimistic for the other students in the class. Transience is an issue that confronts some schools more than others but it impacts everywhere. The teacher – pupil relationship is best helped in these situations by acceptance of departure as being a fact of life, then moving on with the class and newly enrolled students to new learning. A corollary for teachers on practice, to leave at the end of the practicum with happy memories, not tinged b y sadness the period has come to an end. In life we all move on (often). It is the way things happen. VIGNETTE FIVE : ‘CONVERSATIONAL’ VOICE The way in which teachers talk with children is an important consideration. Talking ‘with’ children rather than talking ‘at’ them is ever so important. It helps students understand you as being ‘one with them’, not someone over and above them. It is easy to talk down to children and when that happens the respect they hold for you becomes somewhat dampened. Tone of voice needs to confirm teachers and being conversational. I often think of teachers who in staff rooms and talking to peers are conversational, speaking on the same level as their peers. When those same teachers go to their classes, their voice takes on a ‘tone of command’ that can become almost perpetual. In metaphoric terms, their voice, which has been ‘quiet and car like on a smooth bitumen road’ takes on the grind of a4WD engaged to travel over difficult terrain. That grinding, shrill, load, commanding voice is not something I would recommend as being of help to teachers wanting to engage with children. Voice can embrace children; it can also be off-putting, distancing you from them and making the student group difficult to reach. The teacher’s voice is her or his most powerful tool. Use it carefully.
AUTHORS: Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph - ©2013 Ottenheimer's authoritative yet approachable introduction to the field's methodology, skills, techniques, tools, and applications emphasizes the kinds of questions that anthropologists ask about language and the kinds of questions that will intrigue YOU. The text brings together the key areas of linguistic anthropology, addressing issues of power, race, gender, and class throughout. Further stressing the everyday relevance of the text material, Ottenheimer includes "In the Field" vignettes that draw you in to the chapter material via stories culled from her own and others' experiences, as well as "Doing Linguistic Anthropology" and "Cross-Language Miscommunication" features that describe real-life applications of text concepts. CengageBrain offers two types of free content: The amount and type of free content available will depend on whether the book comes with a companion web site or CourseMate. To get started accessing your content, click the "access now" button. You can either access your content immediately or save it to My Home.
The word polymorphism means “many forms.” When a subclass overrides a method of a superior class, the behavior of the method will depend upon which type of object is being used in the program, an instance of the superior class or an instance of the subclass. This characteristic of OO programming is called polymorphism, and it is a powerful feature of the OO approach. We will add some lines to our AutomobileFactory class to set the speed of a family car to 120 and set the speed of a sports car to 120. Looking back at the accelerate() method for the class Automobile, you will see that the maximum speed for an instance of the Automobile class is 70. Compare that with the accelerate() method for the SportsCar class; the top speed for a SportsCar is 150. When we call the same accelerate() method for an instance of Automobile and an instance of SportsCar, the results are different. The Automobile speeds up to 70, and the SportsCar speeds up to 120. To show this, add code to the This will be the new output: Polymorphism allows us to write programs in a more general way. We can reference the superior class as we write programs, and if the object being used by the program happens to belong to a subclass of the superior class, the methods in the subclass which override the corresponding methods in the superior class will insure that methods appropriate to the particular instance will be called. This is another way in which OO programming reduces the amount of code that must be written and tested, and also promotes reuse of existing code in new applications. Get help on Computer Science with Chegg Study Answers from experts Send any homework question to our team of experts View the step-by-step solutions for thousands of textbooks In engineering there are many key concepts and terms that are crucial for students to know and understand. Often it can be hard to determine what the most important engineering concepts and terms are, and even once you’ve identified them you still need to understand what they mean. To help you learn and understand key engineering terms and concepts, we’ve identified some of the most important ones and provided detailed definitions for them, written and compiled by Chegg experts.
In pre-settlement times, the Omaha had an intricately developed social structure that was closely tied to the people’s concept of an inseparable union between sky and earth. This union was viewed as critical to perpetuation of all living forms and pervaded Omaha culture. The tribe was divided into two moieties or half-tribes, the Sky People (Insta’shunda) and the Earth People (Hon’gashenu). Sky people were responsible for the tribe’s spiritual needs and Earth people for the tribe’s physical welfare. Each moiety was composed of five clans or gente. Each gens had a hereditary chief, through the male lines, as the tribe had a patrilineal system of descent and inheritance. Children were considered to be born to their father’s clan. The hereditary chiefs and clan structures still existed at the time the elders and chiefs negotiated with the United States to cede most of their land in Nebraska in exchange for protection and cash annuities. Only men born into hereditary lines or adopted into the tribe, as Joseph LaFlesche (Iron Eye) was by the chief Big Elk in the 1840s, could become chiefs. Big Elk designated LaFlesche as his son and successor chief of the Weszinste. LaFlesche was the last recognized head chief selected by the traditional ways and the only chief with any European ancestry. He served for decades from 1853. The Sacred Pole The Omaha revere an ancient Sacred Pole, from before the time of their migration to the Missouri, made of cottonwood. It is called Umoⁿ’hoⁿ’ti (meaning “The Real Omaha”), and considered to be a person. It was kept in a Sacred Tent in the center of the village, which only men who were members of the Holy Society could enter. In 1888 Francis La Flesche, a young Omaha anthropologist, helped arrange for his colleague Alice Fletcher to have the Sacred Pole taken to the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University, for preservation of it and its stories, at a time when the tribe’s continuity seemed threatened by pressure for assimilation. The tribe was considering burying the Pole with its last keeper after his death. The last renewal ceremony for the pole was held in 1875, and the last buffalo hunt in 1876. La Flesche and Fletcher gathered and preserved stories about the Sacred Pole by its last keeper, Yellow Smoke, a holy man of the Hong’a gens. In the twentieth century, about 100 years after the Pole had been transferred, the tribe negotiated with the Peabody Museum for its return. The tribe planned to install the Sacred Pole in a cultural center to be built. When the museum returned the Sacred Pole to the tribe in July 1989, the Omaha held an August pow-wow in celebration. The Sacred Pole is said to represent the body of a man. The name by which it is known, a-kon-da-bpa, is the word used to designate the leather bracer worn upon the wrist of an Indian for protection from the bow string (of the weapon of bow and arrow). This name demonstrates that the pole was intended to symbolize a man, as no other creature could wear a bracer. It also indicated that the man thus symbolized was one who was both a provider for and a protector of his people.
Definition of forecastle in English: 1The forward part of a ship below the deck, traditionally used as the crew’s living quarters. - ‘Heads’ was the name given to that part of sailing ships forward of the forecastle and around the beak which was used by the crew as their lavatory. - This had enabled the crew to reach the fo'c's'le, bridge and engine room in the stern area, because when fully laden in heavy seas the San T's deck would have been awash. - The crew's quarters would traditionally be in the fo'c's'le, while officers would be quartered amidships and at the stern. 1.1 historical A raised deck at the front of a ship. - Even getting food from the galley to the forecastle (at the front of the ship) was a tremendous job. - There is no standard location, but bells would often be mounted on the back of the fo'c's'le or on the front of the wheelhouse. - Those of the crew not gathered at the stern held on for dear life to whatever they could or scrambled to the front of the forecastle to brace against it. Words that rhyme with forecastleMosul • fo'c's'le Definition of forecastle in: - US English dictionary What do you find interesting about this word or phrase? Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
Hubble snaps sharp image of cosmic concoction The star-forming region NGC 2467 is a vast cloud of gas that serves as an incubator for new stars. Provided by Hubble ESA, Garching, Germany July 13, 2010 A colorful star-forming region is featured in this stunning new NASA/European Space Agency Hubble Space Telescope image of NGC 2467. Looking like a roiling cauldron of some exotic cosmic brew, huge clouds of gas and dust are sprinkled with bright-blue hot young stars. Strangely shaped dust clouds, resembling spilled liquids, are silhouetted against a colorful background of glowing gas in this newly released Hubble image. The star-forming region NGC 2467 is a vast cloud of gas — mostly hydrogen — that serves as an incubator for new stars. Some of these youthful stars have emerged from the dense clouds where they were born and now shine bright, hot, and blue in this picture, but many others remain hidden. The full beauty of this object and hints of the astrophysical processes at work within it are revealed in this super-sharp image from Hubble. Hot young stars that recently formed from the cloud are emitting fierce ultraviolet radiation that is causing the whole scene to glow while also sculpting the environment and gradually eroding the gas clouds. Studies have shown that most of the radiation comes from the single, hot, and brilliant massive star just above the center of the image. Its fierce radiation has cleared the surrounding region, and some of the next generation of stars are forming in the denser regions around the edge. One of the most familiar star-forming regions is the Orion Nebula (42), which can be seen with the naked eye. NGC 2467 is a similar but more distant example. Such stellar nurseries can be seen out to considerable distances in the universe, and their study is important in determining the distance and chemical composition of other galaxies. Some galaxies contain huge star-forming regions, which may contain tens of thousands of stars. Another dramatic example is the 30 Doradus region in the Large Magellanic Cloud. NGC 2467 was discovered in the 19th century and lies in the southern constellation Puppis. NGC 2467 is thought to lie about 13,000 light-years from Earth.
A CCSS aligned, Greek mythology short story and corresponding literacy activities about Sisyphus, a clever king whose actions fooled the gods and led to a world where nobody died. This resource was created for beginner to intermediate ESL students to practice reading and responding to a fictional text. It can be used for an in-class activity, homework, or an emergency sub plan. I designed this resource with upper-level elementary, middle school, and high school ESL students in mind because I often find resources that are appropriate for my students' language levels, but not their age levels. My goal is to create ESL materials that are appropriate for both. I also wish to make Common Core ELA more accessible for ESL students. Included in this resource are: 1. Sisyphus story (2 pages) 2. Vocabulary: Academic vocabulary (Tier 2 & 3 words) in bold print throughout reading. Vocabulary chart, adapted from Learner's Dictionary, at the end of reading with definitions. Parts of speech and singular/plural words are also identified in the chart. 3. Grammar: Students conjugate verbs from reading into the past tense. 4. Spelling Practice: Students unscramble vocabulary words and write the correct spelling in sentences based on the reading. 5. Vocabulary Practice: Students complete cloze sentences with the correct vocabulary word. Sentences are out of the context of the reading. 6. Reading Comprehension: Students annotate text dependent questions (aligned with CCSS) by circling the question word, underlining the subject once and verb twice, and boxing the object. Afterwards, they answer the comprehension questions using complete sentences. 7. Story Map: A graphic organizer in which students complete sections on the myth's literary elements, such as: characters, setting, conflict, solution, characterization, and theme. 8. Summary Writing Template 9. CCSS Alignment & Teaching Tips Greek Mythology for ESL II: Five Short Stories with Activities King Midas & The Golden Touch Prometheus & The Creation of Fire The Fall of Icarus The Story of Eros & Psyche Persephone & The Story of the Seasons Arachne the Weaver The Story of Echo & Narcissus Perseus & Medusa
In Greek mythology, Daedalus was a famous inventor, sculptor and architect. He was originally from Athens but became jealous of his nephew and pupil Talos who invented an iron saw after sawing a thin stick with the jawbone of a snake, and the potter's wheel as well. Daedalus threw him down from the Acropolis but his corpse was discovered and Daedalus was condemned to exile. He was welcomed by Minos into his court in Crete where he among other things constructed a wooden cow for Queen Pasiphae and a labyrinth where Minos imprisoned the Minotaur. After Daedalus helped Theseus kill the Minotaur, Minos imprisoned him and his son Icarus inside the labyrinth. Daedalus constructed wings for himself and his son and they flew away from Crete but Icarus flew too high causing the wax in his wings to melt and he fell into the sea. Daedalus managed to reach Camicus in Sicily and was received into the court of King Cocalus. - Apollodorus. The Library. - Diodorus Siculus. Library of History.
Daily Life in Early JamestownWhat is the Evidence? By the time the first English colonists arrived in Virginia, the region had been occupied by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. Much of what historians know about daily life in James Fort and in the surrounding Powhatan Indians villages comes from the writings of the English colonists. These documents offer limited information about life in early 1600s Virginia—and they present a heavily biased view of Virginia Indians. Obtaining a more complete understanding of life in early Jamestown requires additional sources of information, including archaeological artifacts. In this lesson, students examine written sources and artifact evidence to determine what they reveal about the lives of the Jamestown colonists and the Powhatan Indians. - James Fort Artifact - Jamestown Artifact Cards - Jamestown Artifact Cards Sorting Mat - Jamestown Primary Source Quotations - Glue sticks (provided by the teacher) Before beginning the lesson, make a transparency of the James Fort Artifact. One copy of the Jamestown Artifact Cards, the Jamestown Primary Source Quotations, and one Jamestown Artifact Cards Sorting Mat will be needed for each group. Optional: You may also find it helpful for group discussions to have overhead transparencies of both the Jamestown Artifact Cards and Jamestown Primary Source Quotation Cards. 1. Conduct a class discussion using the following questions: - Have you ever lost anything? - Did you find it? If so, how? - Do you think that the colonists in the 1600s lost things they never recovered? - Do you think we could find those things today? If so, how? 2. Explain that since 1994, archaeological excavations at the site of the 1607 James Fort have revealed over one million artifacts that were last used by the Jamestown colonists nearly four hundred years ago. Careful examination of these artifacts is helping archaeologists to learn what daily life was like in the first permanent English settlement in North America. Display a transparency of the James Fort Artifact. Do not reveal its identity/use to students. Conduct a class discussion in which students attempt to identify the artifact and how it was used in the 1600s. Guide the discussion by using questions such as: - What do you think the artifact is made of? - How might the artifact have been used? - Do we use anything similar today? - What questions does this artifact bring to mind? So what is it? Inform students that the artifact is an ear picker. Written records indicate that specialized tools were used to clean fingernails, teeth, and ears. An ear picker would have been a very familiar object to most English men and women in the 1600s. The pointed end was used to clean teeth and nails, and the spoon-shaped end was used to remove earwax. Because this ear picker is made of silver it would have been an expensive status symbol, and the owner may have displayed it on a chain hung around the neck or attached to a belt at the waist. Without the information provided by thorough research, this artifact might have remained a mystery! 3. Divide the class into teams or small groups. Give each group one set of Jamestown Artifact Cards and a Jamestown Artifact Cards Sorting Mat. Give groups approximately 10 minutes to examine each artifact and place it in either the "English Colonists" or "Powhatan Indians" column of the Sorting Mat. [NOTE: As students examine the artifact, they should discuss their reasons for placing them in a particular column. Also, they should place the cards on their Sorting Mats, but not glue them down.] 4. Ask students if sorting the artifact cards was easy or difficult. Did they have any disagreements within their groups? If there were disagreements, pursue the reasons why. [NOTE: Highlight for students that similar differences of opinion also arise among archaeologists and historians.] As a class, discuss each artifact and arrive at a consensus regarding its placement on the Sorting Mat. If students believe that an artifact may have been used by both English colonists and Powhatan Indians, allow them to place the artifact card on the line between the columns. Have students glue the artifact cards to their Sorting Mats. 5. Give each group a copy of the Jamestown Primary Source Quotations. Have students read the quotations, match each quotation to an archaeological artifact on their Sorting Mats, and write the name of the artifact next to the appropriate quotation on their Jamestown Primary Source Quotations sheet. [NOTE: If the quotations are deemed too difficult for students to read, consider placing them on the overhead, reading them aloud to students, and then having the groups complete the rest of the activity on their own.] As a class, discuss each quotation. Which archaeological artifact does each quotation support? Why? What information does each quotation and its matching artifact reveal about the daily lives of the Powhatan Indians and/or the Jamestown colonists in the early 1600s? 6. Conclude the lesson by reminding students that archaeologists use all available information to learn about life in the past. Archaeological artifacts tell an important part of the story, but careful research of the written records is also required. Only after the artifacts and the research are examined togetherand careful, thoughtful interpretation is appliedare archaeologists able to accurately describe life in the past. This lesson was written by Martha Berner, retired elementary school teacher, San Diego, CA; Rachel Hull, elementary school teacher, Buffalo, WV; and Jodi Norman, educational media editor, The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA.
Paper can be made from a variety of materials, but perhaps one of the most unusual and environmentally friendly is paper made from stones. Stone paper is known by many names including rock paper, limestone paper, eco-stone, and synthetic paper. How it's made Stone paper is made with a mixture of about 80% calcium carbonate which is also used in the manufacture of conventional tree-based paper. The calcium carbonate usually comes from limestone, marble and other stones collected as waste material from existing quarries for the building and construction industry. The stones are ground down to a fine chalk-like powder then a small quantity (about 20%) of non-toxic resin (HDPE- High Density Polyethylene) is added as a binder for the calcium carbonate. Together these materials create a soft, smooth, bright white paper that is tough, durable and both water and tear resistant. The paper is chlorine free, acid free, and safe for the environment. The ECO benefit • One ton of virgin paper uses 20 trees, 36,000 BTU’s of energy, creates 16,000 gallons of contaminated waste water, uses bleach, and contains 20-30% calcium carbonate (stone). • One ton of recycled paper uses 4 trees, 22,000 BTU’s of energy, creates 9,000 gallons of contaminated waste water, uses bleach, and contains 20-30% calcium carbonate (stone). • One ton of stone paper uses 0 trees, creates absolutely no waste water, and uses half the energy of virgin paper and 1/3 the energy of recycled paper. Stone paper does not require bleaching chemicals and generates no air pollution. Stone-based paper is recyclable with both paper and plastic. Since it is stone it is not biodegradable. On exposure to UV light, e.g. from the sun, and moisture, the High Density Polyethylene breaks down after about a year returning the calcium carbonate to a power form. Egg shells are 95% calcium carbonate and decompose in a similar way. The HDPE is also recyclable and has the number "2" as its recycling symbol. Much of household waste is sent to WTE (Waste to Energy) plants where it is incinerated, scrubbed of carbon, and ‘recycled’ into energy. Even conventional paper waste ends up in WTE plants. If stone paper ends up at a WTE plant it actually is a great contributor since it burns more cleanly than many other materials and does not produce toxins. The calcium carbonate itself is the most abundant natural mineral on earth making up 70% of all minerals on the planet. Mining and quarrying operations already existing in the world scrape away tons of calcium carbonate each year in an effort to get at the ‘more precious’ minerals. This excess material makes calcium carbonate a great ‘filler’ for papers, plastics, some food products and many household products. Stone-based papers are: • Water Proof • Grease Proof • Tear Resistant • Weather Resistant • An alternative to synthetic papers such as Yupo, Tyvek and polypropylene films • A great grease barrier • A great outdoors product (with the addition of UV blockers) Some stone-based paper brands include: FiberStone® Natural Stone Paper, Terraskin, and Rockstock.
Cerebral palsy refers to a number of neurological conditions that affect muscle control and movement. Children with cerebral palsy have difficulties in controlling their muscle movement as they grow and develop. Cerebral palsy is usually caused by damage to the brain which may occur before, during or after birth. The main known causes of damage include infection in early pregnancy, lack of oxygen to the brain, and abnormal brain development. Some risk factors that increase the likelihood of brain damage include a complicated or premature birth, maternal age of below 20 or over 40 years, multiple births and low birth weight. Symptoms vary greatly depending on which type of cerebral palsy a child has. Ataxia cerebral policy affects balance and may cause difficulty in walking, while children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy may be unable to even maintain an upright position. The most common type of cerebral palsy, spastic cerebral palsy, refers to a tight and unyielding muscle tone that restricts movement and impairs mobility. In the UK, cerebral palsy affects about one in every 400 children and approximately 1,800 babies are diagnosed with the condition each year. There is no cure for cerebral palsy but treatments such as physiotherapy and occupational therapy can help relieve symptoms and increase a child's self-esteem and independence while medication can relieve muscle stiffness and spasms.
More than half of Americans don’t get enough sleep. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have dubbed our lack of sleep a public health epidemic, contributing to chronic conditions like hypertension, diabetes, cancer and obesity. It can also affect how well treatments – and prevention – work. Aric Prather, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychiatry at UCSF who studies how sleep – or lack of it – affects the immune system. In a recent study, Prather and his colleagues enlisted 164 volunteers and recorded information on their normal sleep patterns. Then they exposed the volunteers to a cold virus. The result: people who got less than six hours of sleep a night were more than 4 times more likely to get sick than those who got a decent night of 7 hours or more. In an earlier study, Prather found that a shortage of sleep also can interfere with the effectiveness of vaccines. Following a group of healthy, middle-aged volunteers over the six-month course of vaccination for hepatitis B, Prather again found that sleeping less than six hours a night was problematic. Volunteers in this group turned out to be 11 times less likely meet CDC guidelines for clinical protection. “What this means is that chronic behavioral problems like sleep deprivation can lead to chronic health problems,” Prather says, adding that social factors such as income, education and exposure to pollution have important affects, as well. That’s why this kind of data, which historically has been ignored in medical care, should be included in a precision medicine approach. The role of social and behavioral sciences in precision medicine is to look at the “environment” side of the gene-environment interaction. “We need to look at the full spectrum of health determinants – people’s individual experiences, family systems, the community and environmental factors,” Prather says. “We know that all those things are likely to be related to health and they are also likely to interact with a lot of things we’re collecting data on at the biological level. Now, we need to begin integrating those measures.” Once physicians have a better understanding of how behavioral and social factors increase the risk for disease, Prather explains, they can combine that information with genomic and other types of data about a patient or population. This meshing of data is exactly what precision medicine’s knowledge network will be designed to do, with efforts already underway to gather a wealth of such information to include in the knowledge network effort. To make social and behavioral data accessible to all health care providers, though, it needs to become a routine element of patients’ medical records, alongside numbers like blood pressure and body weight. That will enable behavioral researchers to find the patterns that might lead to or predict disease. “Social and behavioral factors play an important role,” Prather says. “They have predictive value, identifying risk.” In other words, these factors go beyond contributing to better treatments: they also promote more effective prevention early on, keeping people healthier in the first place.
Lyme (LIME) disease is a bacterial infection that is spread to humans by the bite of an infected tick. It begins with a distinctive rash and/or flulike symptoms and, in some cases, can progress to a more serious disease with complications affecting other body organs. for searching the Internet and other reference sources Lyme disease was first described in 1977 when a group of children in and around Lyme, Connecticut, became ill with arthritis. In its early stage, Lyme disease produces flulike symptoms; if untreated, the disease Lyme disease is caused by a corkscrew-shaped bacterium called Borrelia burgdorferi (buh-REEL-e-uh burg-DOR-fe-ree). It is most commonly carried by very small, immature ticks of the Ixodes (iks-O-deez) group called deer ticks or black-legged ticks. Deer ticks spread Lyme disease in the northeast, midwest, and some other parts of the United States; another kind of Ixodes tick, the western black-legged tick, is the source of Lyme disease in the western United States. Lyme disease also occurs in other countries such as China, Japan, and some countries in Europe. Lyme disease is not spread from person to person. It is spread by ticks that become infected with Borrelia burgdorferi after feeding on an animal, usually a mouse. Ticks then pass the bacteria to humans while attached to the person's skin and feeding on blood. To infect a human, the tick must be attached for at least 24 hours. Just because people are bitten by a tick does not mean that they will get Lyme disease; most tick bites do not cause disease. Do Many People Get Lyme Disease? More than 16,000 cases of Lyme disease occur each year in the United States, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Although cases of Lyme disease have been reported in nearly every state, most cases are reported from the northeastern states, including New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, and from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California. These areas contain natural habitats of Ixodes ticks. People who live, play, or work in tick-infested wooded areas or overgrown brush are most at risk of getting the disease. Lyme disease is most common during the late spring and summer months in the United States (May through September), when ticks are most active and people are frequently outdoors. Did You Know? Immature Ixodes ticks (called nymph ticks) are about the size of a poppy-seed. Adult ticks are only the size of a sesame seed. * Iymph (LIMF) nodes are small, bean-shaped masses of tissue that contain immune system cells that fight harmful microorganisms. Lymph nodes may swell during infections. What Happens When a Person Has Lyme Disease? Signs and symptoms Within a few days to weeks after being bitten by an infected tick, about 80 percent of people develop a red circular rash known as erythema migrans (air-uh-THEE-muh MY-granz) at the site of the bite. The center of the rash may clear as it grows, giving the appearance of a bull's-eye pattern. The rash may feel warm, but it is usually not painful or itchy. Other symptoms in the early stage of Lyme disease may include tiredness, fever, chills, joint pain, muscle aches, headache, stiff neck, and swollen lymph nodes * (glands). Some people have no noticeable symptoms or only have the non-specific, flulike symptoms such as fever and headache. In all, 95 percent were identified in Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Vermont. If untreated, Lyme disease can progress to the next stage, called the early disseminated stage, as the infection spreads and starts to affect certain body functions. This more advanced stage appears a few weeks to as long as 3 months after a bite by an infected tick. Symptoms may include two or more areas of rash, severe headache, severe tiredness, stiffness (especially in the joints and neck), one-sided facial paralysis * (Bell's palsy * ), tingling or numbness in the legs and arms, irregular heartbeat, fever, and meningitis * . A late stage of Lyme disease may develop weeks to years later if the disease remains untreated. In this stage, symptoms can include chronic * Lyme arthritis (episodes of pain and swelling in the joints, especially in the arms and legs), memory loss (which is rare in children and teens), and numbness in the hands, arms, legs, and feet. * paralysis (pah-RAH-luh-sis) is the loss or impairment of the ability to move some part of the body. * Bell's palsy (PAWL-zee) is a condition in which there is weakness or loss of function of muscles on one side of the face. * meningitis (meh-nin-JY-tis) is an inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that surround the brain and the spinal cord. Meningitis is most often caused by infection with a virus or a bacterium. * chronic (KRAH-nik) means continuing for a long period of time. * antibodies (AN-tih-bah-deez) are protein molecules produced by the body's immune system to help fight specific infections caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses. Diagnosing Lyme disease can be difficult because the symptoms often look like those of other diseases. A known recent tick bite or the erythema migrans rash are often key to the diagnosis of Lyme disease. Following a physical examination and medical history that includes asking about exposure to tick-infested areas, the doctor may order blood tests that look for the presence of antibodies * to Borrelia burgdorferi. If any joints are swollen or signs of meningitis are present, joint fluid or spinal fluid is sometimes tested for Lyme disease. Some blood tests for Lyme disease can give false negative results, particularly if done within the first month after infection. False positive test results can also occur. Because of this, doctors may have difficulty interpreting Lyme disease test results and confirming the diagnosis. Lyme disease is usually treated with antibiotics taken for 3 to 4 weeks. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth, but in severe or advanced cases of Lyme disease they may be given by injection. If treatment begins at the early stage of the disease, a complete cure is likely; it generally takes a few weeks or months for the symptoms to go away. Sometimes symptoms recur, making it necessary for a patient to take another course of antibiotics. If treatment is not started until later in the progression of the disease (at the early disseminated or late stage), antibiotics still work but recovery may take longer; the patient's symptoms may last for months or even years. Children usually recover from Lyme disease faster and with fewer complications than do adults. Is Lyme Disease Preventable? The best way to prevent Lyme disease is to prevent tick bites. Experts recommend avoiding areas that are likely to be infested with ticks, particularly in the spring and summer when nymph (immature) ticks feed. For any activity in tick-infested areas, it is wise to: - Wear light-colored clothing so that ticks can be spotted easily. - Keep arms and legs covered. - Wear high rubber boots, because ticks usually are found close to the ground. - Tuck shirts into pants and pants into socks or boots to help keep ticks from reaching the skin. - Wear a hat and keep long hair pulled back. - Shower and wash clothing after being in tick-infested areas. - Inspect pets for ticks after they have been in the woods. Applying insect repellents containing 10 percent DEET (n, n-diethyl-m toluamide), which is safe to use on children and adults, on both clothes and exposed skin, and permethrin (per-ME-thrin) (which kills ticks on contact) on clothes, may also help reduce the risk of tick attachment. If ticks are found attached to skin, they should be carefully removed with tweezers or forceps. A vaccine to prevent Lyme disease has been developed but is not currently available for use while it is being evaluated for possible side effects. The Safe Way to Remove a Tick - First, stay calm. - Second, using tweezers, gently grasp the tick as close to the skin as possible and pull straight back slowly and steadily to reduce the risk of squeezing more bacteria into the bite. - Third, wipe the area with alcohol or an antiseptic. - Lastly, place the tick in a jar of rubbing alcohol to kill it. Other diseases that can be transmitted through tick bites include: - Rocky Mountain spotted fever Monroe, Judy. Lyme Disease. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press, 2001. American Lyme Disease Foundation, Inc., Mill Pond Offices, 293 Route 100, Somers, NY 10589. The American Lyme Disease Foundation provides information on Lyme disease and other tick-borne illnesses on its Lyme Disease Foundation, Inc., One Financial Plaza 18th Floor, Hartford, CT 06103. The Lyme Disease Foundation offers information on tick-borne illnesses and avoiding tick bites on its website. Telephone 800-886-5963 http://www.lyme.org National Center for Infectious Diseases, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Mailstop C-14, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333. The website for this U.S. government agency provides information about Lyme disease. . KidsHealth is a website created by the medical experts of the Nemours Foundation and is devoted to issues of children's health. It contains articles on a variety of health topics, including Lyme disease.
It was not a slow death — it lasted a few hours at most. The casualty was a star in a spiral galaxy some 160 million light-years away. Its core collapsed in on itself, triggering a supernova explosion as bright as 100 billion suns. On a cosmic scale, this star was rather ordinary, probably a red supergiant some 10 times more massive than our sun. But on October 6, 2013, when the light from the explosion finally reached Earth, its death made history. The glow from SN 2013fs, as it’s now called, hit the right robotic witness, and then astronomers caught a cosmically lucky break. Humans have recorded supernovas for centuries. In A.D. 185, observers in China (and possibly Rome) recorded a bright “guest star” that shone for eight months. To Renaissance astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, these sudden heavenly bursts proved that the sky was not immutable. Modern astronomers study supernovas to understand how they seed the universe with heavy elements that can’t be made otherwise. But despite all the attention, supernovas are still riddles wrapped in mysteries. Scientists know that the most common type of supernovas — so-called “Type II” supernovas, of which SN 2013fs was one — happen when a large star runs out of fuel and its core collapses in on itself. But the details of this process are still opaque. Does a dead star show any signs of imminent explosion? How does the supernova eject so much energy in such a short period of time? And might some events that we think of as supernovas really be other astrophysical cataclysms in disguise? The questions are compounded by the fact that supernovas are hard to find and even harder to study in detail. Supernovas only happen about once or twice per galaxy per century — our Milky Way is now hundreds of years overdue for one — and appear to flash at random. Astronomers have to cast a wide celestial net and wait to see what they catch. Then, as soon as a promising blast has been spotted, they try to secure time on a large, powerful telescope to study the event’s spectrum of light, its astrophysical fingerprint. Often this means a wait of weeks, if not months. By then the fireworks may have flickered out. “This is like stellar forensics,” said Matteo Cantiello, an astrophysicist at the Simons Foundation’s Flatiron Institute and at Princeton University. “We know a star died, we want to understand exactly why and who did it. We can look at the corpse, but even better if we can have footage of its last hours of life.” This time, astronomers got that final look. Three hours after the first light from SN 2013fs reached Earth, an automated sky survey, the Palomar Transient Factory in Southern California, spotted the bright flash. By sheer luck, a team of supernova hunters had already pre-booked time on the massive Keck Telescope in Hawaii for that same night. They had been planning to make a completely different set of observations, but now Ofer Yaron, an astrophysicist at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, and his collaborator Dan Perley, a researcher at the California Institute of Technology, pointed Keck at the flare. Yaron’s team also lined up the space-based Swift telescope to take measurements in X-ray and ultraviolet light. What they found is challenging long-held beliefs about how supernovas behave. “Until recently, everyone would say that there is no way to tell if a star is going to explode to within about 10,000 years,” said Stan Woosley, an astrophysicist at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Yet SN 2013fs may have shown signs that it was about to die just several months before the eruption. “Stars sometimes give you a warning sign that they are about to explode,” said Jim Fuller, an astrophysicist at Caltech. And once we understand how to spot these signs early, maybe we can predict which stars are about to blow up. The First Burst When Yaron and his team examined the early data from SN 2013fs, they saw that the exploding star was surrounded by a dense shell of gas. This raised a question: Had that gas been there for dozens or perhaps hundreds of years — a long-ago cosmic burp unrelated to the supernova itself? Or was it somehow a consequence of the same processes that gave rise to the supernova — a ghostly premonition of the imminent astrophysical violence? The traditional theory of core-collapse supernovas implies that a star should look outwardly quiet while its insides obliterate. It’s the core of the star that collapses, after all — the outer part of the star, called the mantle, only bursts once the collapsing core has rebounded against itself. “We expect that the surface will show nothing special even though dramatic changes are occurring in the core in the last years,” said Anders Jerkstrand, an astrophysicist at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics in Germany. Over the past decade, however, a number of research teams have suggested that dying stars slough off their outer layers of gas before exploding. One team, who sifted through Palomar images of 16 older supernovas, spotted minor flashes at five of them during the months immediately before detonation. Yaron’s observations of SN 2013fs appear to provide the clearest evidence that a dying star anticipates its imminent death by shedding more gas than usual during its final months. Yaron compared the presence of the gas cloud to “a volcano that before a big eruption has smaller eruptions and bubbling at the surface.” Five days later, as the shock wave from the supernova spread, this so-called circumstellar material had completely vanished. “Maybe a large fraction of stars, those between 10 to 20 solar masses that produce Type II supernovas, have these eruptive mass loss episodes,” said Yaron, who suspects that early shock waves emerging from the star’s core could trigger the process. Yet not all astronomers believe that the gas surrounding SN 2013fs was of a recent vintage. Red supergiant stars — the kind that gave rise to SN 2013fs — “are surrounded by material all their lives, polluted with material at the surface,” said Luc Dessart, an astrophysicist with the French-Chilean Joint International Astronomy Unit at the University of Chile. “There’s lots of stuff there.” For instance, the red supergiant Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion is only 430 light-years away from us, so astronomers can see clearly that it is shrouded by gas that has likely been there for a long time. One day, Betelgeuse will explode as a supernova, said Dessart — but can we predict if it will happen next year? “Probably not,” he said. One way to be sure is to measure how fast the gas is moving away from the star. If it’s moving quickly, it must have erupted recently. Yaron said that in SN 2013fs, “it is clear that the velocity is higher compared to typical wind velocities of a red supergiant star, which are around 10 to 20 kilometers per second.” But the measurements made by Keck provide only an upper limit on what the velocity of the gas is, not the exact number. Based on the spectra, one simply cannot tell if the gas moved at a speed of “one, 10 or 100 kilometers a second,” said Jerkstrand. In other words, the gas could have been floating around the progenitor star for many, many years. It could also be that the star that became SN 2013fs simply had an eruptive process completely unrelated to its core collapse, argued Jerkstrand. After all, scientists have traditionally assumed that it’s very unlikely for a star’s core to “communicate” its imminent collapse to the hydrogen mantle — the star is so large and massive that it should take information thousands of years to travel from the core to the surface. That’s true if we assume that information is carried by photons of light, which bounce around in the optically thick environment of a star. Shock waves, however, could carry enough energy to create massive surface bubbling, said Fuller. In April of this year, Fuller published a study that explores the idea of information transfer, but with a twist. “There are other ways that energy can be transported, and one of those ways is sound waves,” he said. Fuller used an idea first put forward in 2012 by Eliot Quataert, an astrophysicist at the University of California, Berkeley, who suggested that acoustic waves from the center of a star could trigger surface outbursts. The core is “sort of like a pot of boiling water — if it’s boiling pretty intensely, you can hear it because boiling excites sound waves in the air,” said Fuller. It’s the same with the star’s core right before a star goes supernova: The boiling excites acoustic waves that carry an enormous amount of energy. The waves create little outbursts on the surface that “haven’t been predicted in previous models of stars,” said Fuller. His model supports Yaron’s analysis of the gas found around SN 2013fs. “His results,” said Fuller, are “similar to what was happening in my models, so I was encouraged that the data might be verifying my theoretical work.” Supernova Inside Out Early spectra, however, tell us only about the outside of the exploding star. To see what’s inside and get clues on why it blows up, you need to study a supernova from about 200 days after the explosion, during its so-called nebular phase, and much later, during the remnant phase, explained Jerkstrand. By this time, the “ejecta” — the shreds of the star — have made it out to where they can be seen. In a sense, the star has been turned inside out. These parts form the heavy elements that are the building blocks of much of our universe — including life. One remnant that is currently forming right before our eyes is that of SN 1987A — the nearest supernova to Earth in over 400 years. Back in 1987, the event appeared to confirm one of the central insights into how stars explode. Theories of Type II supernovas like SN 1987A predict that the collapse of the star’s core will trigger a massive stream of neutrinos, a type of subatomic particle. And, indeed, two neutrino experiments on Earth independently detected a surge of these particles passing through our planet. Neutrinos are famously shy, interacting only through the so-called weak force. But in recent years theorists have explored how they could change the supernova itself. Because there are so many neutrinos coming out of a supernova’s core, if even a small fraction of them are reabsorbed by the matter surrounding the core, the energy input will make the gas “begin to boil violently like soup in a pot on the stove,” said Hans-Thomas Janka, astrophysicist at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. “Neutrino-heated gas starts to rise outward in mushroomlike structures similar to those in photos of atomic-bomb explosions.” Computer simulations of supernovas in 3-D reproduce this process with its “bumpy, clumpy and highly asymmetric structures,” Janka said. These models seem to agree with what is happening in real time in SN 1987A. In February, new images of SN 1987A were released by a team that combined data from three telescopes: the Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) high up in the mountains of Chile. The images highlighted a striking observation of another important consequence of supernovas — freshly formed dust. “At the time of the explosion, the temperature of gas was over a million Kelvin,” said Mikako Matsuura, an astronomer at Cardiff University in Wales, who led the ALMA study. In the 30 years since, the gas cooled down to a few tens of Kelvins, so what were initially “ionized atoms — hot plasma — now consists of molecules, with some neutral atoms.” That makes it possible to detect molecules from the supernova — the astrophysical seeds of new stars and planets. The Black Hole Option Astronomers have cataloged a veritable zoo of different types of supernovas — from the thermonuclear explosions seen in Type Ia, to Types Ib, Ic, II-P, TI-P, II-L, IIn and more. Because of this, we probably should not be surprised when newly discovered supernovas don’t fit the categories that have been described before. Compare SN 1987A and SN 2013fs, for example — both Type II “core collapse” supernovas. The latter appears to provide the best evidence for some sort of anticipatory eruption on the star’s surface. Yet take all we know about SN 1987A, and it quickly becomes clear that in this case the star’s surface did not show any signs of its imminent death. Woosley believes that this may not necessarily be a contradiction, but could simply point to new subclasses of supernovas, where some show early outbursts. “We do not understand such things well, but we do know that ’87A was not one of these. It was well-behaved for a century before it blew up.” Both 1987A and 2013fs are also dramatically different from another class of core-collapse supernovas that was discovered only during the past decade — the incredibly energetic superluminous supernovas. They “are rare and more exotic, and also about 50 times as bright” as any other supernovas, said Mark Sullivan, an astrophysicist at the University of Southampton in England. So far, nobody knows exactly what they are or what causes them. They are far too energetic to be powered by neutrinos like regular Type II supernovas. One idea currently gaining traction is that superluminous supernovas are supercharged by magnetars — rapidly rotating magnetic neutron stars. These magnetars could form after a normal core collapse and then “dump their energy into the supernova ejecta, heating it up and making it luminous,” said Sullivan. “But no one really knows.” Little wonder that these extremely bright events cause major controversies. In 2015, a team of researchers discovered what they said was the “most luminous supernova” ever, calling it ASASSN-15lh. Yet, in December 2016, another team suggested that the bright light originated instead from a star that was torn apart by a spinning black hole — a so-called “tidal disruption event.” The lead author of the ASASSN-15lh team, Subo Dong, an astronomer at the Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics at Peking University, acknowledges that the event “breaks some previously established patterns from a couple of dozen superluminous supernovas.” But he stands his ground, asserting that ASASSN-15lh is simply “an extreme member” of the superluminous supernova group — adding to the ever-surprising supernova family tree. Several future telescopes promise to help scientists spot more supernovas early and study them in more detail. One of them, the wide-field Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, is designed to scan the entire visible sky in short intervals of only three days, which should make it more likely to catch supernovas early. And once these stellar events are spotted, both the James Webb Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory’s Extremely Large Telescope should help astronomers to capture more detailed spectra and do other observations. For some stars on the verge of extinction, one day it may indeed be possible to find “advanced warning signs that an explosion is imminent,” said Jacco van Loon, an astrophysicist at Keele University in England. “Thankfully,” he added, our “sun is very unlikely to undergo that fate.” This article was reprinted in German on Spektrum.de.
photo by Nadine Haefs SCIENTIFIC NAME: Order Heteroptera, family Lygaeidae, Oncopeltus fasciatus SIZE: Adult – 9/16 to 10/16” IDENTIFICATION: Black with reddish –orange on the head, sides of the pronotum and wing covers. The colorful bugs have Y-shaped head markings and crossing orange bands across the wings. They have long sucking mouth parts. BIOLOGY AND LIFE CYCLE: Incomplete metamorphosis. Eggs hatch in about 1 week, take about a month to become adults after 5 nymphal instars. Nymphs have bright red abdomens and look like adults without full wings. Adults mate end to end. HABITAT: Found in small groups on milkweed plants, often under leaves. FEEDING HABITS: Milkweed bugs pierce the walls of seed pods to feed on the seeds. They also eat the green tissue of the plant. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE: This insect can tolerate the toxic compounds in milkweed plants. They are important in regulating this plant as a weed. They are pests if you are trying to raise milkweed plants for butterflies. NATURAL CONTROL: They have few predators because they taste bad due to the compounds found in milkweed plants. These bugs use their bright colors to advertise their bad taste. Limit milkweed plantings. ORGANIC CONTROL: Plant oil sprays and neem products. INSIGHT: The small milkweed bug is Lygaeus kalmii. photo by Thomas Walters
"Math," (Yikes!)... For some of us, this simple word sends a shiver up our spine as those long ago tormented years in math classes come back in a wave of consciousness so strong we can still smell the musty text books and # 2 pencils. As parents, we desire to help our children learn and understand how they will one-day come to use math in their everyday lives. How then, do we get past our nightmarish math memories to the point where, while educating our children, we too can overcome the hesitations and learn to enjoy math? Homeschool.com consulted with IPlayMathGames.com to ask them their advice on how parents can overcome their own math phobias in order to help their children discover the joy of mathematics. Their suggestions were simple and constructive. Here are some great tips to help motivate both you and your student to study math. Parents must be careful not to perpetuate the mathematical myth - that math is only for specially talented "math types." Strive not to make comments like; "they don't like math" or "I have never been good at math." When children overhear comments like these from their primary role models they begin to dread math before even considering a chance of experiencing its wonders. It is important to encourage your children to read and explore the rich world of mathematics, and to practice mathematics without imparting negative - Don't let your fear of math come across to your kids. Emphasize the usefulness of math! The student might get more motivated if she/he knows how often math is used. Math improves problem solving, increases competency and should be applied in different ways. It's the same as reading. You can learn the basics of reading without ever enjoying a novel. But, where's the excitement in that? With math, you could stop with the basics. But why when there is so much more to be gained by a fuller understanding? Life is so much more enriching when we go beyond the basics. Stretch your children's minds to become involved in mathematics in ways that will not only be practical but also enhance their lives. Often our children question why they need to learn a specific subject, so emphasizing and pointing out the everyday applications of math may help them. Wrong Answers are valuable! One of the reasons students have math anxiety is because it's so easy to get the answer wrong. Instead of putting down a wrong answer, ask your children to explain how they came up with that answer. If there are other children studying the same problem, ask if they got the same result. If you have two different answers, go through each step and figure them out together. Remember, wrong answers are valuable. You get insight into the student's thinking and where he/she went wrong and you can then work on the concepts that need to be re-taught. Take the emphasis off of tests. Tests are a part of school but they don't need to be the ultimate goal. The goal is to learn math so the child can use it in his/her life. Instead, use worksheets with your children to see what concepts that have grasped and what they need more work on. This way, you can still evaluate how well they're doing, but your children won't have their normal anxiety. Use the internet to help your child explore the fascinating world With sites such as it's easy to make math fun and exciting again. With iplaymathgames.com, you buy only the games that you want, download them immediately and incorporate them into your classroom or family fun. Their math worksheets, workbooks and workshops can be used in the classroom, home or tutoring sessions to improve standardized test scores, reinforce skills and provide differentiated instruction. They can also be used to enhance ESL and special education programs Here are what other homeschoolers and teachers had to say about iplaymathgames.com: At last, math games that are fun for my students and reinforce essential mathematics skills! Ben Carlson, 2nd grade teacher As a 7th grade teacher for 29 years, I like to switch up my lesson plans. Visiting iplaymathgames.com and downloading a game is an easy way to add flavor to my lesson plans. Rebecca Paulson, 7th grade It's so easy and inexpensive to download a game I do it once a week! It doesn't matter what grade I'm teaching that day! Katie Nelson, substitute teacher ABOUT OUR SPONSOR: will change the way supplemental mathematics materials are delivered to Teachers, Parents, Tutors and Interested Learners through an innovative new "i-tunes" type internet based model. You buy only the games that you want, download them immediately and incorporate them into your classroom or family fun. has a refreshing, new easy-to-use website! Check it out.
\|Hand-wrought nail, before circa 1800\| \|Type A cut nail, circa 1790s-1820s\| \|Type B cut nail, circa 1810s-1900s\| \|Wire nail, circa 1890s to present\| Nails provide one of the best clues to help determine the age of historic buildings, especially those constructed during the nineteenth century, when nail-making technology advanced rapidly. Until the last decade of the 1700s and the early 1800s, hand-wrought nails typically fastened the sheathing and roof boards on building frames. These nails were made one by one by a blacksmith or nailor from square iron rod. After heating the rod in a forge, the nailor would hammer all four sides of the softened end to form a point. The pointed nail rod was reheated and cut off. Then the nail maker would insert the hot nail into a hole in a nail header or anvil and form a head with several glancing blows of the hammer. The most common shape was the rosehead; however, broad "butterfly" heads and narrow L-heads also were crafted. L-head nails were popular for finish work, trim boards, and flooring. Between the 1790s and the early 1800s, various machines were invented in the United States for making nails from bars of iron. The earliest machines sheared nails off the iron bar like a guillotine. The taper of the shank was produced by wiggling the bar from side to side with every stroke. These are known as type A cut nails. At first, the heads were typically made by hand as before, but soon separate mechanical nail heading machines were developed that pounded a head on the end of each nail. This type of nail was made until the 1820s. By the 1810s, however, a more effective design for a nail making machine was developed; it flipped the iron bar over after each stroke. With the cutter set at an angle, every nail was sheared off to a taper. With the resulting nails thus all oriented in the same direction, it became possible for the same machine to automatically grip each nail and form a head in a continuous mechanical operation. Nails made by this method are known as type B nails. Cutting the nails leaves a small burr along the edge as the metal is sheared. By carefully examining the edges for evidence of these burrs, it is possible to distinguish between the earlier type A nails and the later type B nails. Type A nails have burrs on the diagonally opposite edges, while the type B nails have both burrs on the same side because the metal was flipped for each stroke. This kind of evidence can be used to establish the approximate period of construction or alteration of a building. Type B cut nails continued to be the most common through most of the greater part of the nineteenth century. With the rapid development of the Bessemer process for producing inexpensive soft steel during the 1880s, however, the popularity of using iron for nail making quickly waned. By 1886, 10 percent of the nails produced in the United States were made of soft steel wire. Within six years, more steel-wire nails were being produced than iron-cut nails. By 1913, 90 percent were wire nails. Cut nails are still made today, however, with the type B method. These are commonly used for fastening hardwood flooring and for various other specialty uses. Text and images copyrighted by Thomas Visser. Adapted from A Field Guide to New England Barns and Farm Buildings by Thomas D. Visser, published by the University Press of New England. For further information contact:
Really. Earth may look perfectly spherical from space, like a giant marble, but it actually isn't! Instead, our planet is slightly wider around the equator because matter is forced outward by centripetal force as the Earth spins. That's the force you feel on the carnival "Tilt-a-Whirl", where you would go flying outward if you weren't restrained. However, this bulge at the Earth's midsection isn't constant; it shrinks and grows. Standing on Earth's surface, we can’t see the Earth's shape, much less changes in it. But using satellites researchers watched the equator grow smaller over the past 20 years or so. They believed this had been happening at least since the last ice age 18,000 years ago. Since then, as temperatures warmed and glaciers at the poles melted slowly, little by little the poles became less squashed under heavy ice. Responding to this change, molten rock moved under the Earth's crust from the equator to the poles to fill in the new space and the equator grew smaller. More recently, however, researchers have found that the equator is again growing. Why? We haven't started a new Ice Age, squashing the poles again, so what is forcing material back to the equator? One hypothesis is that a small change in Earth's magnetic field might be responsible. Another idea is that, if glaciers are melting, they could be adding more water to the equator via ocean currents. This increased mass could bulge the equator a bit. But these are only guesses. Whatever the reason, researches believe that the change in Earth's shape is natural and has nothing to do with human activity.
Linneaus and the Science of Taxonomy Carolus Linneaus was a biologist who lived in the 18th century and created the binomial naming system we use for all plants and animals. You know that humans are Homo sapiens, right? Binomial means two names: one for genus (Homo) and the other for species (sapiens). Every known kind of plant, animal, and microorganism has a name that takes this form: Genus species. So that all biologists will know when they are reading the genus and species name of an organism, we always italicize the genus and species or underline it: Genus species or Genus species Also note, we always capitalize the name of the Genus, but leave the name of the species in lower case. Most of these scientific names are in Latin or derivatives of Latin, so unless you know Latin, you may have trouble matching a genus and species with the common name of an organism. But, sometimes the binomial nomenclature of an organism is easy to match with the name. For example: Bos taurus = cattle Spinacia oleracea = spinach Rosa spp. = rose Of course, within a genus, there may be many species. As you see in the rose example above, we listed all the different species of roses as "spp." This abbreviation stands for "species" and it means that there are several different species that fall under this common name. Theres another abbreviation you will see sometimes: "var." This stands for variety and it means that this particular plant is a race of this species. For example, cauliflower and brocolli have the same genus and species names, but they are different races, which explains why they look quite different. Take a look at some of the scientific names of the different types of fruits.
Quality sleep is important for many aspects of health, yet many of us struggle to get enough sleep every night. This post discusses the proven health benefits of sleep. - What is Sleep? - Sleep and Brain Health - Sleep is Important for Healthy Metabolism - Sleep and Cardiovascular Health - Sleep Balances the Immune System - Sleep is Important for Hormone Balance - Sleep Deprivation and Digestive Health - Sleep and Cancer Risks What is Sleep? Sleep is defined as a natural and reversible state of reduced responsiveness and relative inactivity, accompanied by a loss of consciousness (R). Sleep occurs in regular intervals and humans have a consistent need for sleep, so a loss or delay in regular sleep results in subsequently prolonged sleep (R). There are two types of sleep, i.e. non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: REM sleep is characterized by high-frequency low-voltage brain electrical activity (as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG)) and bursts of rapid contractions of eye muscles, causing the eyes to move rapidly. A healthy young person’s normal night of sleep typically includes 4-5 distinct REM cycles. REM sleep accounts for 20% of the total time spent asleep (R). Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep: Most of a night’s sleep is spent in NREM sleep, which is further divided into 4 sub-stages (stages I-IV). Stage I (N1) is the lightest stage of sleep Stage II (N2) sleep is defined by the emergence of specific types of peaks in the EEG spectrum known as K-complexes and sleep spindles. N2 sleep typically accounts for more than half of one night’s sleep. Stage III and IV (N3 and N4) are the deepest stages of sleep and are characterized by slow brain waves called delta brain waves. Together stages III and IV are referred to as “Slow wave sleep” (SWS). Throughout one period of sleep both REM and NREM sleep alternate cyclically. For a healthy young person the first progression through the four non-REM sleep stages typically takes 70-100 minutes. Both REM and NREM sleep are important. Irregular cycling and/or the absence of sleep stages are associated with sleep disorders (R). Typically people with inflammation tend to have trouble getting enough deep sleep (stages 3 and 4), because inflammation can result in HPA axis activation and CRH increase, which reduces deep sleep (R). Sleep and Brain Health 1) Sleep Improves Memory and Cognitive Functions Sleep is essential for effective cognitive function and sleep improves both cognitive function and memory, while a lack of sleep is detrimental to cognitive function (R). - Sleep helps strengthen and stabilize new memories acquired before sleep (R1, R2, R3). - Sleep promotes the reprocessing of fresh memories and their integration into the pre-existing network of long-term memories (R1, R2, R3). - Sleep loss diminishes many cognitive abilities including attention, language, reasoning, decision-making, learning and memory (R1, R2, R3). - In children, shortened sleep duration, especially before the age of 41 months, is associated with lower cognitive performance and developmental tests (R). - Humans completely deprived of sleep showed deficits in the ability to perform unconscious and repeated movement memory such as bicycle riding and shoelace tying as well as deficits in short-term memory (R). - A short period of sleep prior to learning can enhance the capacity to remember new information (R). - Naps can reduce sleepiness and improve cognitive performance (R). 2) Sleep Helps Remove Waste from the Brain The glymphatic system clears metabolic waste from the mammalian brain while the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord cells (cerebrospinal fluid) removes beta-amyloid metabolites from the brain (R1, R2). Sleep stimulates the glymphatic system and the cerebrospinal fluid to clear metabolic waste from the adult brain (R). When individuals sleep well, the glymphatic system can effectively remove cellular waste byproducts that have accumulated outside and inside of brain cells (R). 3) Sleep as Neuronal Detoxification process Levels of oxidized glutathione, a sleep-inducing substance, increase at the end of the day and during sleep. These high levels of oxidized glutathione may counteract glutamate toxicity and prevent neuronal cell death level (R). 4) Sleep and Mental Illness Most patients with depressive disorders also have sleep disturbances. Difficulty in initiating or maintaining sleep or both have been reported in about three-quarters of all depressed patients (R). Patients with persistent insomnia have a 2 to 3.5-fold increased risks of developing depression than those without insomnia (R, R2). 72.7% of youths with major depression also reported insomnia and hypersomnia (R). Sleep disturbances are also commonly associated with other psychiatric illnesses, including (R) - generalized anxiety disorder - panic disorder - posttraumatic stress disorder Unfortunately, most antidepressant medications suppress rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (R). Sleep is Important for Healthy Metabolism 5) Sleep Reduces Appetite In sleep-deprived young men, leptin levels decreased 18% and ghrelin levels increased 28% causing a total increase in appetite of 23% when compared to the levels present after healthy sleep (R). 6) Sleep May Help with Weight Loss Additionally, a National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey analysis showed that adults who slept less than 7 hours per night were more likely to be obese (R). People who slept only 5.5 hours per night lost 55% less body fat and 60% more fat-free mass (e.g bones and muscles) compared to people who slept 8.5 hours per night (R). 7) Unhealthy Sleep Lowers Insulin Sensitivity and Increases Diabetes Risk In a cohort study, men reporting a short sleep duration of less than or equal to 6 hours per night were twice as likely to develop diabetes as those men who reported 7 hours of sleep per night. In the same study, men who reported a long sleep duration or greater than 8 hours of sleep per night) were three times as likely to develop diabetes than those who reported 7 hours of sleep per night (R). Metabolic pathways linking Sleep disorders with the development of Type 2 diabetes 8) Poor Sleep Increases the Risks of Nonalcoholic Fatty liver Disease (NAFLD) Sleep and Cardiovascular Health Sleep influences cardiovascular function in healthy people and in those with heart diseases (R). Getting quality sleep can reduce cardiovascular risks, while unhealthy sleep is associated with cardiovascular disorders (R). 9) Sleep Loss Increases the Risks of High Blood Pressure 10) Poor Sleep Increases Risks of Coronary Heart Disease Both abnormally short and long self-reported sleep duration are independently associated with a modestly increased risk of coronary heart diseases (R). Sleep Balances the Immune System Healthy sleep supports a healthy immune response, while lack of sleep can worsen inflammation and autoimmunity. 11) Sleep Enhances Immune Responses Sleep supports the Initiation of an adaptive Immune response Good sleep also enhances the immune system’s ability to remember a previous infection and mount a more effective response in the case of re-infection (R, R2). This is the methodology behind vaccines, and thus quality sleep improves the response to vaccination. Sleep deprivation in humans changes the level of circulating immune cells (T cells and NK cells) and inflammatory cytokine levels (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-ɑ etc) (R). Increased levels of inflammatory cytokines can contribute to inflammatory diseases. 12) Sleep Loss May Trigger Autoimmune Disease Sleep Deprivation Reduces Regulatory T Cell Activity T regulatory cells (Treg) suppress inappropriate immune responses and prevent our immune system from attacking our own cells (self-tolerance) (R). The breakdown of the self-tolerance process can cause autoimmune diseases (R). Sleep Deprivation Increases Inflammation and Th17 Immune Responses Disordered sleep may induce systemic inflammation and activate Th17 cells, thereby leading to autoimmune diseases (R1, R2, R3). The Th17 cytokine IL-17 remained elevated following sleep deprivation, even after recovery for 7 days (R). Sleep is Important for Hormone Balance 13) Sleep Loss Activates HPA Axis and Increases Cortisol The Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis Sleep loss and sleep disruption activate the HPA stress reponse axis, thus increases Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and cortisol levels (R, R2). Read this post to learn about the negative effects of increased CRH. 14) Sleep and Thyroid Hormone Axis The hypothalamus senses low circulating levels of thyroid hormone and responds by releasing thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then stimulates the pituitary to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH further stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete the thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine). TSH levels increase with acute sleep deprivation but may decrease with chronic sleep deprivation (R). The increase in TSH suppresses reproductive functions. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) axis mainly controls development, reproduction, and aging. 15) Sleep Loss Lowers Testosterone Levels In young adult men, testosterone levels begin to rise upon falling asleep and reach peak levels at the time of first REM sleep. Once at its peak, testosterone levels remain at the same until awakening (R, R2). The amount of increase in testosterone levels during sleep and decrease during time awake varied between individuals (R). Sleep deprivation disrupts this natural testosterone level rise and fall. Total sleep deprivation reduces testosterone levels in men (R1, R2). This reduction may be dependent on age, with a greater reduction in older men (R1, R2). In a clinical cohort study, men with lower testosterone levels also had a lower sleep efficiency (R). 16) Sleep Is Important for Healthy Estrogen Levels In addition, both pre- and post-menopausal women with sleep-disordered breathing have lower estradiol levels compared to age- and cycle-matched women without the sleep-disordered breathing (R). 17) Sleep Loss May Cause Infertility in Women Sleep loss elevates several pituitary hormones, which interfere with normal reproductive functions in women. In reproductive-aged women, an increase in TSH (as seen in hypothyroidism) due to sleep deprivation can cause several reproductive issues including: the ovaries not to release an oocyte during ovulation (anovulation), recurrent miscarriage, the absence of menstruation, and irregular menstrual cycles (R, R2). High luteinizing hormone (LH, typically elevated in polycystic ovarian syndrome) can cause infertility. Healthy sleep keeps LH within normal, although fluctuating, levels (R). Sleep deprivation significantly increases the fluctuation of LH, with overall higher than healthy levels (R). 18) Sleep Increases Growth Hormone Sleep Deprivation and Digestive Health 19) Sleep Loss Can Cause Stomach Ulcers In animals, partial sleep deprivation has been shown to compromise stomach lining integrity by (R): - increasing stomach acidity - increasing blood levels of gastrin (a hormone that stimulates stomach acid secretion) - increasing histamine - increasing norepinephrine - decreasing stomach mucosal blood flow Sleep deprivation damages the stomach and could be one of the risk factors for ulcer formation. 20) Poor Sleep and Bowel Diseases Further, a cross-sectional study found a nearly 3-fold increased risk of bowel disorders in patients with insomnia (R). Sleep and Cancer Risks 21) Poor Sleep Increases Cancer Risks - Inhibiting abnormal/cancerous cell growth (anti-proliferative effects) (R1, R2). - Increasing p53, a tumor suppressor protein (R). - Inducing cell differentiation (R) - Preventing cancer cells from metastasizing (migrating and invading other tissues in the body) (R) - Preventing angiogenesis (stopping cancer cells from growing their own blood vessels, which will allow the tumors to enlarge) (R) - Decreasing telomerase activity, thus causing cancer cells to age and preventing the cells from dividing indefinitely (R1, R2) - Functioning as a free radical scavenger (R). Melatonin production is closely related to sleep duration. Night-shift work disrupts sleep pattern and thus decreases melatonin levels, this may explain why the night-shift workers have higher cancer risks (R1, R2, R3). In addition, sleep also helps prevent cancer by: - controlling inflammation (R1, R2) - maintaining healthy immune function (R) - maintaining healthy levels of estrogen production (not too high) (R) - maintaining healthy levels of oxidative stress (R) - Cohort studies are a type of medical research used to investigate the cause of a disease, establishing links between risk factors and health outcomes. - A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. - Beta amyloids are peptides of 36-43 amino acids that are crucially involved in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) as the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brain’s of AD patients. - One potential pathway linking sleep duration and cardiometabolic health is via systemic inflammation (R). - Hypersomnia or hypersomnolence is a neurological disorder of excessive time spent sleeping or excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS). - K-complex is an electroencephalography (EEG) waveform that occurs during stage 2 of NREM sleep. It is the largest event in healthy human EEG. They are more frequent in the first sleep cycles. - A sleep spindle is a burst of oscillatory brain activity visible on the EEG that occurs during stage 2 sleep. It consists of 12-14 Hz waves that occur for at least 0.5 seconds. Sleep spindles are generated in the thalamus of the brain. - Apoptosis is a genetically regulated cell death involved in the deletion of cells in normal as well as malignant tissues (R). - Slow wave sleep (SWS) is considered the most restorative stage of sleep where the greatest impact from immune regulation happens. - During SWS smooth muscles in the colon contract less, so this phase of sleep is considered the “rest period” for the colon. - So alterations in this phase of sleep can have direct effects on GI (gastrointestinal) physiology (R1, R2). - Sleep disorders are generally diagnosed using Electroencephalography (EEG) a method used to record the electrical activity of the brain. - Intraperitoneal means administered through the peritoneum which is a thin transparent membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity that encloses the abdominal organs such as stomach and intestines.
According to recent research, most Australians don’t know that cold food should be stored at or below 5°C. Yet doing this can considerably reduce the chances of you or your family getting food poisoning. Watch our short video on fridge safety Why store food in your fridge or freezer Storing perishable foods and food ingredients in the fridge or freezer is primarily to prevent food poisoning or to slow down spoilage and loss of food quality. At 5°C or colder and at freezing temperatures many bacteria that cause food poisoning and food spoilage either don’t grow or their growth may be slowed down. Remember though that there is a limit to how long food can be refrigerated as it will eventually spoil and the quality deteriorate and some food poisoning bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes can grow and cause infection (see Advice on Listeria). Frozen food can be kept safely for longer although quality may deteriorate. Get a fridge thermometer To check if your fridge is operating at the correct temperature you need to purchase a thermometer and place it in the fridge. When you do this you might get some surprises. The temperature inside your fridge will vary several degrees as the fridge goes through its cycle. It will also vary markedly from one section to another. The door is usually the warmest part and the top shelf is often the warmest shelf. We suggest you place your thermometer below the top shelf and towards the door to give a general indication of the fridge temperature. If the thermometer shows your fridge is higher than five degrees, adjust the fridge setting to lower the temperature. The crispers for fruit and vegetables will usually be slightly warmer so that the fruit and vegetables don’t freeze. You might have to adjust the fridge a few times to get it right, but ideally, you want the main compartment to spend most of its time around 4 to 5°C. Check that food looks and feels frozen to be sure your freezer is functioning correctly or use a thermometer if you have one covering this range. Partially frozen food will have a shorter shelf life. What foods to store in the fridge All perishable and cooked food should be stored in the fridge. This will not only prevent the growth of food poisoning bacteria, but it will reduce spoilage. Check the labels on bottled and packaged food as they will provide storage instructions where necessary, for example “Refrigerate under 4 or under 5°C”. Also look for instructions that state “refrigerate after opening” as many foods not required to be stored refrigerated in the past have been reformulated and now require refrigeration, often to prevent spoilage If you have a lot of food in the fridge, for a party or some other function, remove the drinks, pickles and jams to make more room. These foods can be left out of the fridge for a while. Good air circulation between items in the fridge is important to keep them cold. Where to store food in the fridge Store ready to eat food (i.e. food that is eaten raw or will not receive any further cooking like a dessert, salad) above raw food. Store raw meats, seafood and poultry where it is coldest. In many fridges this is the bottom shelf. Wherever you store raw meats,poultry and seafood, make sure that juices and liquids can’t drip onto other foods. These juices might contain food poisoning bacteria which can contaminate other food if they drip onto it. If you have to store raw meats or poultry on higher shelves, put them in leak-proof, sealed or covered containers. Avoid raw foods touching cooked foods and keep them separated in the fridge. Cover any cooked or ready-to-eat foods stored in the fridge to reduce the risk of cross contamination. For large quantities of food divide it up among several shallow containers so it cools faster. Cool food on the bench only until steam stops rising. Then place the hot food directly into the containers, cover with a lid and put them in the fridge. Freeze and defrost food safely When freezing food, avoid freezing large amounts at a time. It’s better to split it into smaller quantities in separate containers. This also means you can defrost only the quantity you need. When freezing food you’ve just bought, place it in freezer bags to maintain quality. You don’t need to unwrap pre-packaged raw meat on trays, just put it in a freezer bag. This will help minimise cross contamination in your kitchen. Tie the bag after squeezing out as much air as possible, label and date. If you are freezing cooked food or leftovers, the most important thing is to cool it quickly. Cool food on the bench only until it stops steaming. Then place the hot food directly into the container, cover with a lid and put it in the freezer. When thawing frozen food thaw poultry, rolled or seasoned (stuffed) meat joints and boned meat joints right through to the centre before cooking. Thaw cooked or ready-to-eat foods in the fridge or microwave – not on the bench-top. Follow thawing and cooking instructions on packaged frozen food as some food don’t require thawing before cooking If you lose power When there is a power outage you need to take extra measures to reduce the risk of food-related illness. It is important to record the time the power went off. When a power cut is ongoing (that is, it lasts for more than 4 hours and there is no immediate likelihood of reconnection) food safety becomes an important issue. Unless cold storage is available within 2 hours of a power cut, all potentially hazardous foods such as meat, poultry, seafood and ready-to-eat perishable food) that are stored in refrigerators or chillers need to be: - placed in alternative cold storage, for example coolers with ice or ice bricks, or into the fridges of family and friend’s - eaten immediately - if you have a fridge thermometer and have recorded the time the power went off, eaten immediately or thrown away if the temperature rises to above 5 degrees for over 2 hours - if you don’t have a fridge thermometer and another cold storage area is not immediately available after 2 hours. Maintaining your fridge There are some clues when your fridge is having trouble coping. If the motor stays on most of the time, or if your milk, cottage cheese, meat (particularly mince meat) or other perishables are going off quicker than they should, then this is a sign that your fridge is struggling and needs maintenance and/or adjustment.
In cognitive science, one example of a problem of underdetermination is the ‘poverty of the stimulus’ faced by children learning their first language. In this case, the given information is the sample of language to which a child is exposed. The problem is that this information is in principle consistent with an infinity of different natural grammars, only one of which is correct. Problems of underdetermination are often found in the study of visual perception. The information provided directly to our eyes (the proximal stimulus) is actually consistent with an infinite number of different scene interpretations (models of the world). Only one of these interpretations is correct. We do not experience problems of underdetermination, suggesting that the human mind has mechanisms that eliminate incorrect conclusions, delivering only the correct result. It seems that the mind provides additional information that serves as a ‘filter’ that only lets correct conclusions through, as shown in the figure below, which assumes that ‘Conclusion 2’ is correct: Similarly, perception researchers argue that visual problems of underdetermination are solved by adding required knowledge of the world. For some, this knowledge is innate: the visual system is wired in such a way that certain general properties (neighbouring points in a scene will have similar color, depth, motion, and so on) are true. For others – the New Look theorists – this knowledge is general knowledge of the world, which provides context that can be used to solve the problem of underdetermination. For the New Look, seeing is literally a kind of thinking. Cognitive scientists are not the only scholars who face problems of underdetermination. Music theorists are often concerned with analyzing musical scores by assigning chord labels to configurations of notes. However, different theorists may assign radically different chords to the same score, a classic example of underdetermination. David Damschroder, in his 2008 book Thinking About Harmony, observes that “analysts guided by contrasting basic principles may offer wildly divergent views concerning a chord’s root; or, the same chord may be interpreted in different ways depending upon its context. … A chord may in certain contexts be understood as an incomplete or modified representative of some other chord” (p. 17). Ukulele players constantly face this kind of underdetermination. When learning their instrument they soon realize that a single finger configuration on the fret board can have more than one chord name! Two of the many examples of this are illustrated in the figure below. For the first pair (F6 and Dm7), note that the interpretation of the chord’s name depends upon which ukulele string is assumed to provide the chord’s root note (the string associated with the number 1 at the bottom of each chord diagram). The solution to this problem is to play a subset of a chord’s notes, four notes that are sufficient to provide the musical sense of the chord even when the other notes are absent. One example of this is the second pairing of chords in the figure directly above. If one assumes that one of the strings provides the chord’s root, then the chord could be named as Bm7♭5. However, if one assumes that the root is not one of the notes that is actually played, one can interpret the same set of four notes as a chord extension, G9. A ukulele player cannot avoid chord underdetermination. How can they cope with interpreting music, or deciding upon chord names as they compose their own music? My suggestion is to endorse the position of the New Look theory of visual perception, and rely upon context supplied by musical knowledge. Consider the three chord progression provided in the figure below. From the information given above, it would be completely correct to label the first chord as being F6, and the second chord as being Bm7♭5. However, it is difficult to come up with a basic musical context and key in which these chord labels make sense. This raises an additional interesting question: when one hears a chord progression, is their experience of the chords affected by the context that they adopt? Do F6 and Dm7 actually sound like different chords in different contexts, even though they are played in exactly the same way on the ukulele? The New Look theorists hypothesized that experience is indeed altered by the contexts, beliefs, and expectations that we bring into perception. Damschroder, D. (2008). Thinking About Harmony. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.
Cantonese, or Yue (粵語), is a major Chinese dialect group or language, a member of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Colloquially, it is also known as 廣東話 (Mandarin: Guǎngdōng huà, Cantonese: Gwóngdùng waah). The exact number of Cantonese speakers is unknown due to a lack of statistics and census data. The areas with the highest concentration of speakers are in Guangdong and some parts of Guangxi in southern mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau. Cantonese is the de facto official language of Hong Kong. Other major groups include Chinese minorities in Southeast Asia. The name has been stated as being derived from Canton; a name in English for Guangdong province, and Canton; a name in English for Guangzhou city. There are numerous different dialects of Cantonese; the most widely spoken is the Guangzhou dialect, often referred to simply as "Cantonese". The Guangzhou dialect is a lingua franca of not just Guangdong province, but also the overseas Cantonese speaking diaspora. The Guangzhou dialect is also spoken in Hong Kong. Like other major varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is often considered a dialect of a single Chinese language for cultural or nationalistic reasons, though in practice Cantonese, like many other Chinese language varieties, is mutually unintelligible with many other Chinese "dialects". See Identification of the varieties of Chinese. There are at least three other major Chinese languages spoken in Guangdong Province— Standard Mandarin, which is used for official occasions, education, the media, and as a national lingua franca; Minnan (Southern Min) spoken in the eastern regions bordering Fujian, such as those from Chaozhou and Shantou; and Hakka, the language of the Hakka people. Standard Mandarin is mandatory through the state education system, but in Cantonese speaking households, the popularization of Cantonese-language media (Hong Kong films, television serials, and Cantopop), isolation from the other regions of China, local identity, and the existence of the non-Mandarin speaking Cantonese diaspora (including Hong Kong) give unique characteristics to the language. Most wuxia films from Canton are filmed originally in Cantonese and then dubbed or subtitled in Standard Mandarin or English or both. Officially Standard Mandarin (Putonghua/guoyu) is the standard language in mainland China and Taiwan and is taught to nearly everyone with different variations as a supplement to their native local languages (which includes Cantonese in Guangdong). Cantonese along with Mandarin form two of the official languages of Hong Kong and Macau. Cantonese is also one of the main languages in many overseas Chinese communities including Australia, Southeast Asia, North America, and Europe. Many of these emigrants and/or their ancestors originated from Guangdong. In addition, these immigrant communities formed before the widespread use of Mandarin, or they are from Hong Kong where Mandarin is not commonly used. The prestige dialect of Cantonese is usually the Guangzhou dialect. In Hong Kong, colloquial Cantonese often incorporates English words due to historical British influences. In some ways, Cantonese is a more conservative language than Mandarin, and in other ways it is not. For example, Cantonese has retained consonant endings from older varieties of Chinese that have been lost in Mandarin, but Cantonese has merged some vowels from older varieties of Chinese. The Taishan dialect, which in the U.S. nowadays is heard mostly spoken by Chinese actors in old American TV shows and movies (e.g. Hop Sing on Bonanza), is more conservative than the Guangzhou/Hong Kong variants of Cantonese. It has preserved the initial /n/ sound of words, whereas many post-World War II-born Hong Kong Cantonese speakers have changed it to an /l/ sound ("ngàuh lām" instead of "ngàuh nām" for "beef brisket" 牛腩) and more recently drop the "ng-" initial (so that it changes further to "àuh lām"); this seems to have arisen from some kind of street affectation as opposed to systematic phonological change. The common word for "who" in Taishan is "sŭe" (誰), which is the same character used in classical Chinese, whereas Cantonese has changed it to "bīngo" (邊個). Cantonese sounds quite different from Mandarin, mainly because it has a different set of syllables. The rules for syllable formation are different; for example, there are syllables ending in non-nasal consonants (e.g. "lak"). It also has different tones and more of them than Mandarin. Cantonese is generally considered to have 8 tones, the choice depending on whether a traditional distinction between a high-level and a high-falling tone is observed; the two tones in question have largely merged into a single, high-level tone, especially in Hong Kong Cantonese, which has tended to simplify traditional Chinese tones . Many (especially older) descriptions of the Cantonese sound system record a higher number of tones, 9. However, the extra tones differ only in that they end in p, t, or k; otherwise they can be modeled identically. Cantonese preserves many syllable-final sounds that Mandarin has lost or merged. For example, the characters 裔, 屹, 藝, 艾, 憶, 譯, 懿, 誼, 肄, 翳, 邑, and 佚 are all pronounced "yì" in Mandarin, but they are all different in Cantonese (jeoih, ngaht, ngaih, ngaaih, yìk, yihk, yi, yìh, si, ai, yap, and yaht, respectively). Like Hakka and Min Nan, Cantonese has preserved the final consonants [-m, -n, -ŋ -p, -t, -k] from Middle Chinese, while the Mandarin final consonants have been reduced to [-n, -ŋ]. But unlike any other modern Chinese dialects, the final consonants of Cantonese match those of Middle Chinese exactly with extremely few exceptions. For example, lacking the syllable-final sound "m"; the final "m" and final "n" from older varieties of Chinese have merged into "n" in Mandarin, e.g. Cantonese "taahm" (譚) and "tàahn" (壇) versus Mandarin tán; "yìhm" (鹽) and "yìhn" (言) versus Mandarin yán; "tìm" (添) and "tìn" (天) versus Mandarin tiān; "hùhm" (含) and "hòhn" (寒) versus Mandarin hán. The examples are too numerous to list. Furthermore, nasals can be independent syllables in Cantonese words, e.g. "ńgh" (五) "five," and "m̀h" (唔) "not". Differences also arise from Mandarin's relatively recent sound changes. One change, for example, palatalized [kʲ] with [tsʲ] to [tɕ], and is reflected in historical Mandarin romanizations, such as Peking (Beijing), Kiangsi (Jiangxi), and Fukien (Fujian). This distinction is still preserved in Cantonese. For example, 晶, 精, 經 and 京 are all pronounced as "jīng" in Mandarin, but in Cantonese, the first pair is pronounced "jīng", and the second pair "gīng". A more drastic example, displaying both the loss of coda plosives and the palatization of onset consonants, is the character (學), pronounced *ɣæwk in Middle Chinese. Its modern pronunciations in Cantonese, Hakka, Taiwanese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese are "hohk", "hók" (pinjim), "ha̍k" (Pe̍h-ōe-jī), học (although a Sino-Vietnamese word, it is used in daily vocabulary), "학" (hak) (Sino-Korean), and "gaku" (Sino-Japanese), respectively, while the pronunciation in Mandarin is xué [ɕyɛ]. However, Mandarin's vowel system is somewhat more conservative than Cantonese's, in that many diphthongs preserved in Mandarin have merged or been lost in Cantonese. Also, Mandarin makes a three-way distinction among alveolar, alveopalatal, and retroflex fricatives, distinctions that are not made by modern Cantonese. For example, jiang (將) and zhang (張) are two distinct syllables in Mandarin or old Cantonese, but in modern Cantonese they have the same sound, "jeung1". The loss of distinction between the alveolar and the alveolopalatal sibilants in Cantonese occurred in the mid-19th centuries and was documented in many Cantonese dictionaries and pronunciation guides published prior to the 1950s. A Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Canton Dialect by Williams (1856), writes: The initials "ch" and "ts" are constantly confounded, and some persons are absolutely unable to detect the difference, more frequently calling the words under "ts" as "ch", than contrariwise. A Pocket Dictionary of Cantonese by Cowles (1914) adds: "s" initial may be heard for "sh" initial and vice versa. There are clear sound correspondences in, for instance, the tones. For example, a fourth-tone (low falling tone) word in Cantonese is usually second tone (rising tone) in Mandarin. This can be partly explained by their common descent from Middle Chinese (spoken), still with its different dialects. One way of counting tones gives Cantonese nine tones, Mandarin four, and Middle Chinese eight. Within this system, Mandarin merged the so-called "yin" and "yang" tones except for the Ping (平, flat) category, while Cantonese not only preserved these, but split one of them into two over time. Also, within this system, Cantonese is the only Chinese language known to have split its tones rather than merge them since the time of Late Middle Chinese. Historically, written Cantonese has been used in Hong Kong for legal proceedings in order to write down the exact spoken testimony of a witness, instead of paraphrasing spoken Cantonese into standard written Chinese. Newspapers have also done likewise to capture more exact quotes. Its popularity and usage has been rising in the last two decades, the late Wong Jim being one of the pioneers of its use as an effective written language. Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in certain tabloids, online chat rooms, and instant messaging. Some tabloids like Apple Daily write colloquial Cantonese; papers may contain editorials that contain Cantonese; and Cantonese-specific characters can be increasingly seen on advertisements and billboards. Written Cantonese remains limited outside of Hong Kong, even in other Cantonese-speaking areas such as Guangdong, where the use of colloquial writing is discouraged. Despite the relative popularity of written Cantonese in Hong Kong, some disdain it, believing that being too accustomed to write in such a way would affect a person's ability to use standard written Chinese in situations that demand it. Forms of written Chinese in Hong Kong: For colloquial vernacular usage, written Cantonese incorporates an entire range of characters and particles specific to the Cantonese spoken form. This is commonly used in publicity and journalistic writing in Hong Kong and Hong Kong-influenced regions. It reads exactly as Modern Standard Spoken Cantonese. For literary and artistic reasons (such as calligraphy), standard literary Chinese, the classical wenyanwan is used. Records of legal documents in Hong Kong also use written Cantonese sometimes, in order to record exactly what a witness has said. Colloquial Cantonese is rarely used in formal forms of writing; formal written communication is almost always in standard written Chinese, albeit still pronounced with Cantonese sound values. However, written colloquial Cantonese does exist; it is used mostly for transcription of speech in tabloids, in some broadsheets, for some subtitles, for personal diaries, and in other informal forms of communication such as Internet bulletin boards (BBS) or e-mails. It is not uncommon to see the front page of a Cantonese paper written in hanyu, while the entertainment sections are, at least partly, in Cantonese. The vernacular writing system has evolved over time from a process of modifying characters to express lexical and syntactic elements found in Cantonese but not the standard written language. In spite of their vernacular origin and informal use, these characters have become so common in Hong Kong that the Hong Kong Government has incorporated them into a special Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set (HKSCS), along with special characters used for proper nouns. A problem for the student of Cantonese is the lack of a widely accepted, standardized transcription system. Another problem is with Chinese characters: Cantonese uses the same system of characters as standard written Chinese, but it often uses different words, which have to be written with different or new characters. An example of Cantonese using a different word and a different character to write it: the Mandarin word for "to be" is shì and is written as 是, but in Cantonese the word for "to be" is haih and 係 is used in written Cantonese (係 is xì in Mandarin). In standard written Chinese 是 is normally used, though 係 can be found in classical literature and modern formal writing. In Hong Kong, 係 is often used in colloquial written Cantonese and therefore actively avoided and discouraged in formal writing; on the other hand, the use of 係 is relatively widespread in both mainland China and in Taiwan, in government publications and product descriptions, for example. Many characters used in colloquial Cantonese writings are made up by putting a mouth radical (口) on the left hand side of another more well known character to indicate that the character is read like the right hand side, but it is only used phonetically in the Cantonese context. The characters, 叻, 吓, 吔, 呃, 咁, 咗, 咩, 哂, 哋, 唔, 唥, 唧, 啱, 啲, 喐, 喥, 喺, 嗰, 嘅, 嘜, 嘞, 嘢, 嘥, 嚟, 嚡, 嚿, 囖 etc. are commonly used in Cantonese writing. As not all Cantonese words can be found in current encoding system, or the users simply do not know how to enter such characters on the computer, in very informal speech, Cantonese tends to use extremely simple romanization (e.g. use D as 啲), symbols (add an English letter "o" in front of another Chinese character; e.g. 㗎 is defined in Unicode, but will not display in Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.0, hence the proxy o架 is often used), homophones (e.g. use 果 as 嗰), and Chinese characters of different Mandarin meaning (e.g. 乜, 係, 俾 etc.) to compose a message. For example, "你喺嗰喥好喇，千祈咪搞佢啲嘢。" is often written in easier form as "你o係果度好喇，千祈咪搞佢D野。" (character-by-character, approximately "you, be, there (two characters), good, (final particle), thousand, pray, don't, mess, he/she, genitive particle, thing"; translation: "You will only stay there, don't mess with his/her stuff"). The words represented by these characters are sometimes cognates with pre-existing Chinese words. However, their colloquial Cantonese pronunciations have diverged from formal Cantonese pronunciations. For example, in formal written Chinese, 無 (mòuh) is the character used for "without". In spoken Cantonese, 冇 (móuh) has the same usage, meaning, and pronunciation as 無, differing only by tone. 冇 is actually a hollowed out writing of its antonym (有). 冇 represents the spoken Cantonese form of the word "without", while 無 represents the word used in formal Chinese writing (pinyin: wú) . However, 無 is still used in some instances in spoken Chinese in both dialects, like 無論 ("no matter what"). A Cantonese-specific example is the doublet 來/嚟, which means "to come". 來 (lòih) is used in formal writing; 嚟 (lèih) is the spoken Cantonese form. The largest number of Cantonese speakers outside mainland China and Hong Kong are in south east Asia, however speakers of Min dialects are predominate among the overseas Chinese in south east Asia. The Cantonese spoken in Singapore and Malaysia is also known to have borrowed substantially from Malay and other languages The Taishan dialect, one of the sei yap or siyi (四邑) dialects that come from Guangdong counties that were the origin of the majority of Exclusion-era Guangdong Chinese emigrants to the USA, continues to be spoken both by recent immigrants from Taishan and even by third-generation Chinese Americans of Taishan ancestry alike. The dialect of Zhongshan in Pearl River Delta is spoken by many Chinese immigrants in Hawaii, and some in San Francisco and in the Sacramento River Delta (see Locke, California); it is much closer to Cantonese than the Taishan dialect, but has "flatter" tones in pronunciation than Cantonese. Cantonese is the third most widely spoken non-English language in the United States. The currently most popular romanization for learning Cantonese in the United States is Yale Romanization. The dialectal situation is now changing in the United States; recent Chinese emigrants originate from many different areas including mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Recent immigrants from mainland China and Taiwan in the U.S. all speak Standard Mandarin (putonghua/guoyu), with varying degrees of fluency, and their native local language/dialect, such as Min (Hokkien and other Fujian dialects), Wu, Mandarin, Cantonese etc. As a result Standard Mandarin is increasingly becoming more common as the Chinese lingua franca amongst the overseas Chinese. In Hong Kong, Hong Kong Cantonese is the main and dominant form of spoken Chinese and is used in education, the government, public life, the media and entertainment (e.g. Hong Kong cinema), and in business dealings with Cantonese speaking overseas Chinese communities. Nowadays, due to Putonghua (Mandarin) being the medium of education on the mainland, many youngsters in the Cantonese speaking region in mainland China do not know specific historical and scientific vocabularies in Cantonese but do know social, cultural, entertainment, commercial, trading, and all other vocabularies. Cantonese is widely spoken and learned by overseas Chinese of Guangdong and Hong Kong origin. The popularity of Cantonese language media and entertainment from Hong Kong has led to a wide and frequent exposure of Cantonese to large portions of China and the rest of Asia. Cantopop and the Hong Kong film industry are prominent examples of modern Cantonese language media.
Green roofs are simply rooftops (usually flat) that have been vegetated with plant species. There are three types of green roof: intensive, semi-intensive and extensive. They are categorized as such because generally, they serve different purposes in the urban environment and are constructed in very different ways. Green roofs were originally designed for environmental and economical reasons. They enhance thermal insulation to, increase the roof life, absorb air pollutants, greenhouse gases and dust, reduce noise (Grant et al. 2003) and even to reduce water run-off and improve the quality (Mentens et al. 2006; Berndtsson et al. 2006), having a positive effect on sewage systems that are prone to flooding. Although it was not originally in the design concept it appears that these roofs have another, incidental benefit – to provide a habitat for rare birds and invertebrates Plate 1.1 Thriving green roofs in Basel, Switzerland 1.1.1 Intensive green roofs Intensive green roofs are those that are found in easily accessible private or public places; often these are parks or attractive gardens, a good example being the Jubilee Gardens in Canary Wharf, London (Plate 1.2), situated on top of the Jubilee tube station (Grant et al. 2003). Although many intensive types are not obvious as being on a roof, many have the underground train system running beneath them or are over underground car parks (commonly found in Basel, Switzerland). Intensive roofs are constructed using 20 – 50 % soil or organic matter plus a lightweight aggregate; together, aggregate plus organic matter, are described as a ‘substrate’. These green roofs have substrates that are extremely deep (above 20cm), enough in many cases for trees and large shrubs to grow well in (Dunnett & Kingsbury 2004). These types of roofs are aesthetically very pleasing but they require heavy maintenance and a complex irrigation system to keep healthy. Intensive green roofs are therefore very expensive to install and to upkeep (livingroofs 2009) and their purpose is probably best described as that of an attractive roof garden. Plate 1.2 Intensive green roof, Jubilee Gardens Canary Wharf 1.1.2 Semi-intensive green roofs Semi-intensive green roofs are similar to the purely intensive variety but their substrate depths are significantly reduced, usually to between 10 – 20 cm (Dunnett & Kingsbury 2004). These types of green roofs are more obvious as being situated on rooftops, although they are also better described as roof gardens due to ornamental vegetation and their ability to sustain large shrubs (Plate 1.3). Lighter substrates are usually required for semi-intensives as the roof structure has a finite loading capacity; therefore the soil/organic components are often reduced to 20 – 30 % (as this is where the main body of weight is coming from). 1.1.3 Extensive green roofs Extensive green roofs are the most common and can be categorized into two further sub-types. Firstly ‘Sedum matted’, are those placed directly onto a moisture blanket or onto a thin substrate layer (often less than 2 cm deep). These ‘mats’ are planted with the stonecrop plant genus Sedum (up to 7 species) and like rolls of carpet, are simply laid out over the building’s rooftop. They are extremely lightweight and so are often perfect for sheds, garages and buildings with a very low roof loading capacity (Plate 1.4). Secondly, substrate-based green roofs can be plug-planted with Sedum species (which are well known for being drought resistant) or can be seeded with wild flower mixes for more natural, species rich meadows. These roofs are constructed with substrates that contain little soil components typically between 5 – 20 % organic matter, and contain lightweight aggregates that make up the bulk of the substrate to between 5 – 10 cm in depth (Snodgrass & Snodgrass 2006). Plate 1.3 Semi-intensive green roof Plate 1.4 Extensive Sedum matted green roof Both types of extensive green roof require little or no maintenance. They are far less costly than intensive roofs as they only require thin substrate levels, making them very light weight – perfect for city rooftops. It is estimated that around 20,000 hectares of existing roof spaces in London (equivalent to an area 28 times size of Richmond Park) are currently unused and could be extensively vegetated with little or no structural modification to the buildings below (Grant et al. 2003). 1.1.4 Extensive green roof construction Extensive green roofs are constructed using standard procedures (as outlined by the German FLL guidelines, 2002). Firstly, there is a doubled layer of water proofing membrane placed directly onto the roof of the building. This is on top of the buildings original waterproofing, which should be in good condition in order to guarantee no leaks and ensure the maximum life span of the roof (between 45 – 60 years with a green roof, Langley Waterproofing pers. comm.). A root barrier (300 μm) is then laid over the water proofing along with a filter sheet (150 gsm) to prevent particulate matter from entering the water run-off, followed by an engineered egg-box-like drainage layer. Plate 1.5 Layers of construction for an extensive green roof system For a Sedum mat system, there may or may not be a substrate layer used, as mats can sit directly on top of a moisture retention blanket for an ultra-lightweight design (Plate 1.5). For Sedum plug-planted systems, there is a deeper substrate layer (5 – 10 cm) that is planted with several species of Sedum seedlings and in the case of a biodiverse roof, the substrate will be either seeded or left to colonise and vegetate naturally (Plate 1.6). Plate 1.6 Layers of construction for a Sedum plug-planted extensive green roof system or for a biodiverse ‘brown’ roof. 1.2 Non-Sedum extensive roofs Substrate-based extensive roofs that are seeded with a wild flower mix or left to colonise naturally have recently been termed ‘brown roofs or biodiverse roofs’ as they are comparable to natural Brownfield land. These rapidly decreasing wastelands are mainly found abandoned in urban areas but are increasingly being lost to planners and developers as the pressure for new housing for expanding cities mounts (DETR 2000; ODPM 2003). These wasteland sites generally have a substrate that has the consistency of crushed brick aggregate with little soil nutrition or retention of water, however re-colonisation can lead from bare ground to grassland, scrub and woodland, allowing a wide range of wildlife to become established (Gibson 1998; Angold et al. 2005). Brownfield areas are home to such animals as the brown hare, skylark and lapwing (these birds nest on open areas producing eggs that camouflage with the brick substrates), rare invertebrates (particularly spiders as found by Kadas 2002) and a variety of butterflies, reptiles and amphibians. These habitats also provide mitigation to the now very endangered Black Redstart (Frith & Gedge 2000; Grant et al. 2003). Red listed species could therefore be conserved by the green roof alternative that mimics these ever-decreasing natural habitats. The most species-rich site so far identified in the UK is a 27.5 hectares (55 acres) Brownfield site in Essex that has more recorded biodiversity per square foot than anywhere else in the country (Anon. 2005). The idea of green roofs for enhancing biodiversity is simple; to create a similar environment to Brownfield sites but in places where they cannot be disturbed (Gedge 2001). 1.3 Previous green roof research Although this is a fairly new research area in the U.K, green roofs have been a building requirement in Switzerland and Germany for a number of years. By law in Switzerland, 25% of all new commercial buildings must be ‘greened’ to preserve microclimates. In Germany 43% of cities provide a financial incentive for installing green roofs (Grant et al. 2003). There has been very little biodiversity research conducted on green roofs in the U.K, and less so on the plant species that are colonising the substrates found there. At the moment architects and developers install green roofs for non-ecological reasons, such as aesthetical appeal and economical value (i.e. thermal insulation). For this reason they tend to place down the commercially available ready-made Sedum matting; that generally does not allow natural plant colonisation nor offers the varied, species diverse environment that is desirable for most animals (Gedge & Kadas 2005). 1.3.1 Biodiversity benefits Studies on Swiss green roofs have investigated how these artificial systems could be utilized to provide benefits for biodiversity. Brenneisen (2001) conducted one such study, looking at invertebrate populations on extensive green roofs. He showed that several roof design variables influenced green roof biodiversity, but that the most important factor seemed to be substrate depth. This is logical as deeper areas would retain more moisture and therefore provide a habitat for species requiring thicker and more diverse vegetation cover. Thinner areas of substrate would provide habitat that is bare and less vegetated, preferable to a number of drought tolerant invertebrates. By varying aggregate depth, a series of microhabitats are created on a green roof increasing biodiversity of the artificial habitat (Brenneisen 2001). Horticultural researchers have also been investigating substrate depth. They have suggested that thinner mediums should have a supplementary watering regime for plants, due to reduced water storage capacities (Dunnett & Nolan 2004; VanWoert et al. 2005) and conclude that media < 4 cm should ideally be Sedum matted to provide sufficient vegetation cover. Brenneisen’s research in Switzerland has recently been supported by PhD research in London by Gyongyver Kadas (2007). She also looked at invertebrate populations on the different types of extensive green roof and showed that although Sedum matted roofs supported larger invertebrate population numbers, substrate-based ‘brown’ roofs were more species rich – communities were actually 70 % similar to those seen in nearby brownfield sites. She suggested that this was due not only to the increased plant species richness on ‘brown’ roofs compared to the Sedum mats but also because of the diverse plant architecture that this provided. Importantly, 20 % of spiders and 15 % of beetles recorded on London roofs were either Notable or Red Data Book species (Kadas 2007). Furthermore, 10 % of the whole UK national (Harvey et al. 2002) and almost 20 % of the Greater London (Milner 1999) spider fauna were recorded from green roof sites in her study, again highlighting the importance and potential of green roofs in the urban environment. 1.3.2 Water run-off quality benefits Most studies by green roof researchers seem to centre on water run-off quality and thermal properties provided by vegetated roofs. Water run-off quality is measured by the quantities of leachate contaminates, e.g. high phosphorous levels from too much organic fertilisation. Young roofs can act as a source of contamination, with metals and nutrients being leached into storm water systems. This means that the use of dissolvable fertilisers should be avoided and careful planning of green roof substrates is essential (Berndtsson et al. 2006). Studies have also been conducted to find out what effects substrate depth and roof slope have on water absorption and therefore quantities of run-off (Nicholaus et al. 2005). Vegetated roofs are able to retain on average, 82 % of rainfall compared to 27 % on pure gravel rooftops; and this is even better on roofs with a 2 % slope (up to 87 % retention). Researchers in Sweden have also observed this hydrological function of extensive green roofs and have recorded peak flows (Bengtsson et al. 2005; Bengtsson 2005). The substrate itself is the most important factor in retention of water, however evapotranspiration of plants can increase this by 10 % (Nicholaus et al. 2005). This suggests that well-performing growing media will act not only to increase water-holding capacity (and so reduce storm water run-off) but may also enhance this benefit further if good vegetative cover is supported. Encouragingly, this storm water retention function of green roofs is beginning to be used as a management tool in many cities (Carter & Jackson 2007). Thus more and more green roofs are being installed in urban areas for their positive hydrological benefits, and not just for aesthetic appeal. 1.3.3 Thermal benefits Investigations into the thermal properties of green roofs have revealed that plants themselves significantly reduce air temperatures both inside the building and in the immediate environment (Niachou et al. 2001). Other studies have suggested that green roof plants (specifically their leaves) can reduce the thermal energy of solar radiation by 70 – 90 % and showed that vegetation cover and total leaf thickness is key to this reduction (Fang 2007). Experiments in Toronto, Canada, comparing common flat roofs, painted white roofs and green roofs found that, on average, roof temperatures on dry summer days were 65˚C, 42˚C and 35˚C respectively. Hence, green roofs contribute to the cooling of spaces below the roof during the summer and can increase heat in these spaces during the winter by controlling temperature fluctuations via increase thermal capacity (Niachou et al. 2001; Spala et al. 2008). Thus green roofs have the ability to significantly reduce the heat island effect in urban environments (Saiz et al. 2006; Alexandri & Jones 2007; Takebayashi & Moriyama 2007) because better insulation means less heat is escaping from the roof into the local vicinity. 1.3.4 Economical benefits Life cycle assessments of buildings’ input/output costs have also been calculated and published in many building and environment journals. A study from Pittsburgh, USA, calculated that although annual energy savings – through reduced air conditioning and heating bills – were small, there was a significant decrease in environmental impact over the life cycle of the building (Kosareo & Ries 2007). Similar publications have indicated that the need for air conditioning in summer months can actually be reduced by 6 % and, combined with a 1 – 2 % reduction of the urban heat island effect; greened cities could see electrical demand come down by 5 % (Booth 2006). This would not only have positive impacts on the environment but would also save hundreds of millions of dollars (Peck 2006). At present, thin-layer green roofs are only about 10 % more expensive than traditional roofing systems on new urban builds and it is thought that this will be reduced (by as much as 20 %) as the green technology becomes more advanced and widespread in the coming years (Cater & Keeler 2007). These studies concentrate on economic benefits rather than biodiversity, but are nonetheless vital if green roofs are to become part of planning and developing in the U.K and other developed countries. 1.4 Green roof policy Policy in London has recently included a section on green roofs (Policy 4A.11 Living Roofs and Walls) and states the following: ‘The Mayor will and boroughs should expect major developments to incorporate living roofs and walls where feasible and reflect this principle in local development framework (LDF) policies. It is expected that this will include roof and wall planting that delivers as many of these objectives as possible: • Accessible roof space • Adapting to and mitigating climate change • Sustainable urban drainage • Enhancing biodiversity • Improved appearance Boroughs should also encourage the use of living roofs in smaller developments and extensions where the opportunity arises’ (Policy 4A.11 Living Roofs and Walls). This policy is not U.K wide, however there are calls for this to become national as the pressure for official guidelines mounts as green roofs become more and more popular. German green roof standards are available in English, from the German Landscape Development Research Society (or FLL). These are strict guidelines on every aspect of green roof construction from membrane layers to substrates to plant seed mixes (FLL 2002). However, these have been produced for the market in Germany and have little relevance to green roofs in the U.K. They are not flexible, as is needed for biodiverse green roof construction, and do not consider the possibility of using any other alternative recycled aggregates in substrates except for crushed brick. 1.5 Problems with existing green roofs Until now, construction of extensive green roofs has predominantly been by the use of Sedum matted and Sedum plug-planted systems. The substrate-based ‘brown or biodiversity’ roofs have become more popular in London, however these too have been made in a uniform fashion. Crushed brick, crushed concrete and general demolition waste has been the prime aggregate for extensive roof substrate; often with the result of poor plant growth and severe drought stress during the summer months (Plate 1.7). The low-nutrient and free-draining characteristics of these types of green roof are by far the largest problems. Plants need organic matter to remain healthy and water storage is vital in the summer months to sustain the vegetation cover. However, too much organic matter will have adverse effects on water run-off quality (Berndtsson et al. 2006) and water pooling would not only cause stagnation and root rotting but may also lead to leakages through the roof membranes (livingroofs 2009). One way of solving these problems could be through the use of biological applications, such as introducing a sustainable and viable microbial population to substrates in order to alleviate both nutrient – and to some extent – drought stress, on plants above. Plate 1.7 Poor vegetation cover on a roof in Canary Wharf Preliminary studies of microbial communities on green roofs have shown that there are relatively few microorganisms present within the substrates (Molineux 2005). This may mean that nutrient recycling is not as efficient as it could be, especially where there is no green roof maintenance, resulting in reduced plant growth and diversity. Therefore it will be important to look at the overall composition of microbial communities in green roof substrates, to see if manipulation experiments can firstly improve the health and then increase the growth of target plants and increase plant diversity. The addition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (see section 1.6) – which has been shown to be very limited in the substrates of green roofs (Molineux 2005) – may also help plants source scarce water in summer months by increasing the surface area of roots. Compared to the Sedum green roofs, brown roof systems have been shown to provide the most biodiversity (Kadas 2007) but also have so much potential to be improved. At present, substrate-based green roofs have predominantly been constructed with crushed brick and crushed concrete. Alternative materials to demolition waste are commercially available however these are often from primary sources and are expensive to install – such as lightweight pumice (Fentiman & Hallas pers. comm.). Other relatively cheap, secondary aggregates, local to the site of the new green roof, would be desirable and may be a way to recycle wastes that would otherwise be sent to landfill. Previous research has shown that varied plant communities, vegetation cover, architecture, topography and substrate depth all increase biodiversity of green roofs (Brenneisen 2001; Kadas 2007); thus diversity of the actual substrate should enhance and increase this further still. 1.6 Importance of soil microbial communities The soil microbial community is a vital ecosystem that supports successful colonization of a substrate by plants (Lavelle et al. 2006). These communities include many species of bacteria and fungi that work in an equilibrium to produce stable, coexisting viable populations. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) fungi are an important group, they comprise of about 150 known fungal species and are said to be associated with around 70% of all plant species root systems (Hodge 2000). AM fungi do not cause any visible changes to a colonised plant, e.g. tumours as by some pathogenic fungi, and therefore can only be detected under the microscope. Plants become colonised by mycorrhizal fungi when hyphae, that can penetrate plant roots, emerge from AM fungal spores found within the soil. These form characteristic arbuscules (Plate 1.8) that can fill entire individual plant root cells. From five known genra, three (Glomus, Acaulospora and Entrophosphora) form vesicles inside the plant root cells on the hyphae of the fungus (Smith et al. 1994). These vesicles are storage vessels for nutrients and are also characteristic of these VA (vesicular arbuscular) mycorrhizal fungi (Plate 1.9). Plate 1.8 Characteristic arbuscules of a Plate 1.9 A vesicle on the hyphae of a mycorrhizal fungus within plant root cells mycorrhizal fungi, inside plant root cells Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are generally beneficial to herbaceous vegetation as a mutualistic association is formed. The plants are able to maximise uptake of limiting minerals and nutrients from their growing mediums because the fungus stimulates growth in the roots, allowing them to cover a much larger surface area – they are also thought to alleviate drought stress via the same mechanisms (Ruiz-Lozano et al. 1995a). This mediated access to limiting nutrients by the fungus to the plant is particularly important for phosphates, and to some extent nitrates (Bücking & Sharchar-Hill 2005). The uptake of P from the soil is improved by the fungus, not only via a larger root surface area but also due to a decreased distance for nutrient diffusion, a faster diffusion rate (up to six times) through the hyphae compared to root hairs alone (Bolan 1991) and through the production of acids that catalyse the release of P from organic complexes within the soil (Marschner & Dell 1994). As the fungus is connected to the host root cells, it is able to absorb carbon from the plant (Smith & Read 1997); this is vital for its growth, as it cannot do this from its environment unlike other mycorrhizal fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizas also seem to have other positive affects such as: resistance to insect herbivory (Gange and West 1994) and reductions in foliar diseases (Borowicz 2001), but can also have less positive effects on plant productivity in some communities (Klironomos et al. 2000). It has been shown in many studies that well-established underground communities have huge benefits on the aboveground forbs and grasses (Gange & Brown 2002; Wardle et al. 2004). If there is a viable microbial community then plant growth – and to some extent diversity (Gange et al. 1990) – should be increased. Due to the nature of green roof substrates, there may be limited microbial activity (Molineux 2005), which could be a disaster for plant and insect populations. The presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in particular may be crucial in determining plant species composition, by strongly influencing the outcome of competition (Allen & Allen 1984). For this reason it will be very important to study presence and absence effects of AM fungi on green roof plant diversity, as has been studied in grassland communities by Hartnett & Wilson (2002). 1.7 New Research To date there has been no published research on the microbial communities found in green roof substrates or on presence/absence effects on the above vegetation. Furthermore, there has been no published work on plant species diversity of green roofs in London or on the performance (in terms of supporting healthy plant communities) of different secondary aggregates used as extensive roof substrate. Instead floral research has mainly been lead by horticulturists who experiment with different herbaceous plants seeking out those able to withstand conditions up on a rooftop (Dunnett & Kingsbury 2004). These are nearly always non-native plants (Snodgrass & Snodgrass 2006), which look aesthetically pleasing but do not necessarily contribute to biodiversity or brownfield mitigation (livingroofs 2009). 1.7.1 Alternative green roof substrates Green roof research to date has predominantly focused on economical benefits for the urban environment and a small amount of work has been done on animal biodiversity in these unusual habitats. These are all highly important research topics, without which, green roofs may still be unknown in the U.K; however, now more and more popular, green roof research needs to expand on the most crucial element, and that is the substrate. As new applications for waste materials becomes ever more imperative, it seems that the production of lightweight secondary aggregates will become increasingly wide spread. These recycled materials should be commercially available and so seem perfect for use on a green roof. I do not expect that every material will be suitable for plant growth, but my study will characterise some selected aggregates (see chapter 2) and determine their potential as green roof growing media. 1.7.2 Plant and microbial diversity Another largely untouched area of research is that on the diversity of native plant species on existing green roofs. As many roofs in the U.K are Sedum based systems, there is little vegetative biodiversity to observe. There has also been no published research on the microbial communities in substrates on green roofs. Preliminary work suggests that these habitats are deficient in healthy microbial populations (Molineux 2005) therefore experiments to determine if microbial enhancements would improve substrate conditions, will be investigated in this study (see chapters 4 & 5). 1.7.3 Objectives of the study The research objectives in this thesis are divided into two main themes: physical improvements and biological improvements to extensive green roof substrates, in order to enhance plant growth and maximise plant species diversity. The first theme (physical improvements) investigates the potential for new, alternative and recycled aggregates to be used as substrate, by characterising the materials and testing their performance – in terms of plant growth and diversity – on a new experimental site (see chapter 3). Specifically, the study aims to address the following questions: • Can recycled secondary materials be produced into usable aggregates? • Are these aggregates suitable for green roof applications? • How do plants perform on a green roof containing the recycled aggregates? • How diverse are the plant communities that establish? • Are the alternative substrates equally as good or better than the standard crushed brick and concrete green roof substrate? The second theme (biological improvements) investigates the possibility of improving existing green roofs by the addition of a microbial community, in the form of bacteria and AM fungi, to the substrate. Specifically, this part of the study aims to answer the following questions: • Can a soil microbial community be established and sustained on a green roof? • Can plant performance on an existing green roof be improved biologically with soil microbes? • Does microbial diversity and plant species diversity change with soil manipulation experiments (see chapter 4)? • How do the microbial communities of green roofs compare to those of natural brownfield habitats? 1.8 Introduction to the chapters Chapter 2 is composed of material science techniques used for the rigorous testing of six potential new aggregates for extensive green roof substrates. Chapter 3 is dedicated to preliminary greenhouse experiments leading to the construction and monitoring of a new green roof – incorporating the potential new substrates. Chapter 4 describes microbial manipulation experiments on an existing green roof, in the hope of biologically improving plant growth and maximising biodiversity. Chapter 5 compares microbial communities found on two existing green roofs (including the one described in chapter 4) and from two brownfield sites to see if green roof communities are similar to those found in natural wasteland habitats; and if experiments in chapter 4 have changed or improved these communities. Finally chapter 6 is a general discussion of the results and suggestions for future green roof construction strategies.
Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that would surely result if all sentences were brief and of equal length. (If you haven't already read them, see the sections on Avoiding Primer Style and Sentence Variety.) Part of the writer's task is to employ whatever music is available to him or her in language, and part of language's music lies within the rhythms of varied sentence length and structure. Even poets who write within the formal limits and sameness of an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against that beat and vary the structure of their clauses and sentence length, thus keeping the text alive and the reader awake. This section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers use to combine sentences. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. That means that there are at least two units of thought within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself as its own sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either separated by a semicolon (relatively rare) or connected by a coordinating conjunction (which is, more often than not, preceded by a comma). And the two most common coordinating conjunctions are and and but. (The others are or, for, yet, and so.) This is the simplest technique we have for combining ideas: Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another; the but also links, but it does more work in terms of establishing an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is part of the immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing simply comes after another and the logical relationship between the ideas is not always evident or important. The word but (and the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument. Click here to review the rules of comma usage when you combine two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding various sentence elements: subjects, verbs, objects or whole predicates, modifiers, etc. Notice that when two such elements of a sentence are compounded with a coordinating conjunction (as opposed to the two independent clauses of a compound sentence), the conjunction is usually adequate and no comma is required. Subjects: When two or more subjects are doing parallel things, they can often be combined as a compounded subject. Objects: When the subject(s) is/are acting upon two or more things in parallel, the objects can be combined. Notice that the objects must be parallel in construction: Jefferson believed that this was true and that was true. If the objects are not parallel (Jefferson was convinced of two things: that the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border and wanted to begin the expedition during his term in office.) the sentence can go awry. Click here to review the principles of parallelism. Verbs and verbals: When the subject(s) is/are doing two things at once, ideas can sometimes be combined by compounding verbs and verb forms. Notice that there is no comma preceding the "and learned" connecting the compounded elements above. (Notice in this second version that we don't have to repeat the "to" of the infinitive to maintain parallel form.) Modifiers: Whenever it is appropriate, modifiers such as prepositional phrases can be compounded. Notice that we do not need to repeat the preposition from to make the ideas successfully parallel in form. The act of coordinating clauses simply links ideas; subordinating one clause to another establishes a more complex relationship between ideas, showing that one idea depends on another in some way: a chronological development, a cause-and-effect relationship, a conditional relationship, etc. When we use subordination of clauses to combine ideas, the rules of punctuation are very important. It might be a good idea to review the definition of clauses at this point and the uses of the comma in setting off introductory and parenthetical elements. The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we have for combining ideas. An appositive or appositive phrase is a renaming, a re-identification, of something earlier in the text. You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from which the clausal machinery (usually a relative pronoun and a linking verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not always, a parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it off from the rest of the sentence. Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a parenthetical element (structurally, the sentence adequately identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman"), and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name, however, is essential to the meaning of the sentence (otherwise, which fur-trader are we talking about?) and is not set off by a pair of commas. Click here for additional help identifying and punctuating around parenthetical elements. A writer can integrate the idea of one sentence into a larger structure by turning that idea into a modifying phrase. In the sentence above, the participial phrase modifies the subject of the sentence, Lewis. Phrases like this are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Perhaps the most elegant and most misunderstood method of combining ideas is the absolute phrase. This phrase, which is often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up of a noun (the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a participle. Other modifiers might also be part of the phrase. There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory modifier, which is set off by a comma. The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial phrase, and the difference between them is structurally slight but significant. The participial phrase does not contain the subject-participle relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the subject of the the independent clause that follows. The absolute phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the entire clause that follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the absolute phrase modifies the subject Lewis, but it also modifies the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or "in what way" or "how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus modifies the entire subsequent clause and should not be confused with a dangling participle, which must modify the subject which immediately follows. The ideas (but not the language) about Lewis and Clark used in this section are taken from Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West by Stephen E. Ambrose, Simon & Schuster, 1996. We highly recommend this book.
highest common factor (idea) Return to highest common factor (idea) \|If a,b are integers then the highest common factor (or greatest common divisor) is simply the largest integer that divides both a and b. This definition does not generalise well to other interesting rings. For example, we want to be able to make sense of the highest common factor of two Gaussian integers or two polynomials. Here's the correct definition. Notice that if R=Z this is essentially the same definition as we gave before. Except that we now are saying a highest common factor instead of the highest common factor. That's because according to the new definition if d is a HCF of integers a,b then so is -d. In the general case if a HCF exists it is unique up to associates. This means that if d is a HCF then so is any associate. And conversely any other HCF has to be an associate. We use (a,b) to denote any HCF of a,b. Notice that in general it is not guaranteed that a HCF exists. But they do always exist if R is a unique factorization domain. To prove this write a=u.p1r1...pnrn and b=v.p1s1...pnsnfor units u,v, primes p1,..., pn then we get a HCF from It's a familiar and useful fact that Euclid's algorithm will compute the HCF of an integer. More generally if R is a Euclidean ring the same algorithm will compute a HCF. This goes for the polynomial ring over a field or the ring of Gaussian integers. If you work backwards through the Euclidean algorithm you can see that it is possible to write (a,b)=ra+sb, for some r,s in the Euclidean ring R. I'll illustrate this with an example in a second but first let's note that there is a rather elegant existential proof of this fact. Proposition Let R be a principal ideal domain. Then given two elements a,b there exist r,s such that Proof: Consider the ideal I=aR+bR. This just means all elements of R of the form ar+sb. By assumption R is a PID so there exists d such that I=dR. Since d is in I it must be that there exist r,s such that d=ar+bs. Now to show d is a HCF. Since a is in dR this shows that d \| a and likewise it divides b. Now suppose that e \| a,b. then since d=ar+bs then e \| d. As promised here is an example of how to use the Euclidean algorithm to find the r,s of the proposition for the case of the Gaussian integers. Let a=3+i and b=2i. (3+i)/2i = (3+i)(-2i)/2i(-2i) = -6i+2/4 = (-i+1) + (-1/2i-1/2)so if we multiply up by 2i we get the first line in our workout of Euclid's algorithm (3+i) = (2i).(-i+1) + (1-i)But the next line is the last line 2i= (1-i)(-1+i)so we see that 1-i = (3+i, 2i). The other HCFs can be found by multiplying this one by the units of Z[i] which are 1,-1,i,-i. Finally 1-i = 3+i + 2i(i-1)
Coming of Age in Mississippi Anne Moody's Coming of Age in Mississippi, talked extensively about the civil rights movement that she had participated in. The civil rights movement dealt with numerous issues that many people had not agreed with. Coming of Age in Mississippi gave the reader a first hand look at the efforts many people had done to gain equal rights. Anne Moody, like many other young people, joined the civil rights movement because they wanted to make a difference in their state. They wanted their freedom and the same rights as the white people had. Many other young people joined the civil rights movement because they felt that a change was needed in the way black people were treated. They felt that this change would not come if they did not join the civil rights movement. Anne Moody was a strong believer of black rights and felt that it was important for her to help black people fight for equal rights. These civil rights workers felt that their freedom would only come if most of the black community supported the efforts of the civil rights workers. Anne Moody, and other young people, thought that the only way that they would get equal rights for black people was to prove that they really wanted them. These civil rights workers, for example, showed that they really did care by joining various civil rights organizations and engaging in Freedom Marches. These Freedom marches were very organized, and they occurred all over the United States, which proved that black people wanted the same rights as the white people had. Anne Moody, and many other young people, joined the civil rights movement because they felt a change was needed and that it was their duty to fight for equal rights. Anne Moody had thought about joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), but she never did until she found out one of her roommates at Tougaloo college was the secretary. Her roommate asked, "why don't you become a... Please join StudyMode to read the full document
A giant virus has awakened, resurrected after a deep slumber for over 30,000 years in Siberian permafrost. To answer the question posed by the title, the virus only infects single-celled organisms and doesn't bear any known resemblance to documented pathogens that would harm you or I. At least, not yet. According to a March 4 LiveScience report, as carried by Fox News, even though the Pithovirus will not infect multi-celled organisms, the fact that a dormant virus has been revived raised the possibility that additional, harmful viruses could be released from the icy north. Explains Live Science: …the new discovery raises the possibility that as the climate warms and exploration expands in long-untouched regions of Siberia, humans could release ancient or eradicated viruses. These could include Neanderthal viruses or even smallpox that have lain dormant in the ice for thousands of years. Jean-Michel Claverie, a bioinformatics researcher at Aix-Marseille University in France, said the discovery of this century-old virus erases the “non-possibility” that ancient viruses could become active again in a modern environment. “There is now a non-zero probability that the pathogenic microbes that bothered ancient human populations could be revived, and most likely infect us as well,” Claverie said. “Those pathogens could be banal bacteria (curable with antibiotics) or resistant bacteria or nasty viruses. If they have been extinct for a long time, then our immune system is no longer prepared to respond to them.” Researchers went back and took a second look at permafrost samples collected from Kolyma in the Russian Far East in 2000. The permafrost – frozen soil, rock or sediment – was layered along cliffs, and drillers bore into the landscape horizontally in order to extract samples that were tens of thousands of years old. The team then took the samples and put them into contact with single celled organisms, such as amoebas, protozoan, hydras and paramecium. When they did, researchers were shocked to see the virus activate within the host, and in some cases kill it. But before we panic over the fact that microscopic pathogens may be infecting us on a pandemic scale, consider the fact that we are in constant contact with viruses every day. “We are inundated by millions of viruses as we move through our everyday life,” said Curtis Suttle, a marine virologist at the University of British Columbia in Canada. “Every time we swim in the sea, we swallow about a billion viruses and inhale many thousands every day. It is true that viruses will be archived in permafrost and glacial ice, but the probability that viral pathogens of humans are abundant enough, and would circulate extensively enough to affect human health, stretches scientific rationality to the breaking point.”
Every different life form on earth can probably be infected with at least one type of virus, if not many more. Most of these viruses have not yet been discovered: just over 2,000 viral species are recognized. While the majority of the known viruses infect bacteria and eukaryotes, there are only about 50 known viruses of the Archaea, and these all have DNA genomes. The first archaeal RNA viruses might have been recently discovered in a hot, acidic spring in Yellowstone National Park. Archaea are single-cell organisms that are similar in size and shape to bacteria, but are evolutionarily and biochemically quite distinct. They inhabit a broad range of environments including those with extreme conditions such as high temperature, acidity, and salinity. Identification of archaeal RNA viruses is important because their study could provide information about the ancestors of RNA viruses that infect eukaryotes. Direct sequencing of viral communities from the environment, known as viral metagenomics, is one approach being taken to discover archaeal viruses. The acidic (pH <4) and hot (>80°C) springs in Yellowstone National Park were examined for the presence of archaeal RNA viruses because these bodies of water contain mainly Archaea. Samples were obtained from 28 different sites and extracted nucleic acids were treated with DNAase (to remove DNA genomes) and then reverse transcriptase (to copy RNA to DNA). If reverse transcription was reduced by treatment with RNAse, it was concluded that the sample contained mostly RNA. The results narrowed the sample size to three, all from Nymph Lake. New samples obtained twelve months later also showed a predominance of RNA and were used for metagenomic analysis by deep sequencing. Analysis of the RNA viral sequences revealed coding regions for a predicted RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), a hallmark of RNA viruses. One assembled sequence of 5,662 nucleotides, believed to be a complete viral genome, encodes a single open reading frame containing a RdRp and a putative capsid protein similar to that of the positive-strand RNA containing nodaviruses, tetraviruses, and birnaviruses. Another viral sequence encoded a protein with 70% amino acid homology to the predicted RdRp. The sequences are from a novel virus which does not belong to any known virus family. These results clearly show that at least two related but distinct RNA viruses are present in Nymph Lake. However whether or not the hosts of these viruses are Archaea or Bacteria cannot be determined by these metagenomic analyses. What is needed to resolve this question is old-fashioned virology: isolating RNA virus particles that can infect an archaeal host and produce new infectious viruses. B Bolduc, DP Shaughnessy, YI Wolf, EV Koonin, FF Roberto and M Young J. Virol. 2012, 86(10):5562. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.07196-11.
Define Kites and Squares based on Attributes Videos and solutions to help grade 5 students learn how to draw kites and squares to clarify their attributes, and define kites and squares based on those attributes. Plans and Worksheets for Grade 5 Plans and Worksheets for all Grades Lessons for Grade 5 Common Core For Grade 5 New York State Common Core Math Module 5, Grade 5, Lesson 19 Lesson 19 Concept Development a. Draw a square and articulate the definition. b. Measure and label its angles to explore their relationships. c. Measure to explore diagonals of squares. a. Draw a kite, and articulate the definition. b. Measure and label its sides and angles to explore their relationships. c. Measure to explore diagonals of kites. • Is a rhombus with four right angles. • Is a rectangle with four equal sides. • Is a quadrilateral in which two consecutive sides have equal length, and • Has two remaining sides of equal length. Lesson 19 Homework 1. a. Draw a kite that is not a parallelogram on the grid paper. b. List all the properties of a kite. c. When can a parallelogram also be a kite? 2. If rectangles must have right angles, explain how a rhombus could also be called a rectangle. 3. Draw a rhombus that is also a rectangle on the grid 4. Kirkland says that figure below is a quadrilateral because it has four points in the same plane and four segments with no three endpoints collinear. Explain his error. Rotate to landscape screen format on a mobile phone or small tablet to use the Mathway widget, a free math problem solver that answers your questions with step-by-step explanations. You can use the free Mathway calculator and problem solver below to practice Algebra or other math topics. Try the given examples, or type in your own problem and check your answer with the step-by-step explanations.
Share this story! For the first time, the entire lunar surface has been completely mapped and uniformly classified by scientists from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in collaboration with NASA and the Lunar Planetary Institute. The lunar map, called the “Unified Geologic Map of the Moon,” will serve as the definitive blueprint of the moon’s surface geology for future human missions and will be invaluable for the international scientific community, educators and the public-at-large. The digital map is available online now and shows the moon’s geology in incredible detail (1:5,000,000 scale). “People have always been fascinated by the moon and when we might return,” said current USGS Director and former NASA astronaut Jim Reilly. “So, it’s wonderful to see USGS create a resource that can help NASA with their planning for future missions.” To create the new digital map, scientists used information from six Apollo-era regional maps along with updated information from recent satellite missions to the moon. The existing historical maps were redrawn to align them with the modern data sets, thus preserving previous observations and interpretations. Along with merging new and old data, USGS researchers also developed a unified description of the stratigraphy, or rock layers, of the moon. This resolved issues from previous maps where rock names, descriptions and ages were sometimes inconsistent. “This map is a culmination of a decades-long project,” said Corey Fortezzo, USGS geologist and lead author. “It provides vital information for new scientific studies by connecting the exploration of specific sites on the moon with the rest of the lunar surface.” Elevation data for the moon’s equatorial region came from stereo observations collected by the Terrain Camera on the recent SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) mission led by JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Topography for the north and south poles was supplemented with NASA’s Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter data.
The status of households depended on their land and resources. The largest groups recorded are: - Villagers and freemen: around 40% of households, villani, socmani and franci homines were small-scale landholders, owning on average 30 acres of land, and two oxen for ploughing. - Smallholders and cottagers: around 35% of households, bordarii and cotarii owned about 5 acres of land on average and might have had a share in the villagers' plough teams. - Slaves: around 10% of households, servi owned no land of their own, belonged to the lord, and may have been used as ploughmen. Domesday records the heads of families, so the total population was probably around five times larger. Other households are sometimes noted, including priests, widows, burgesses (townspeople), and Frenchmen (probably a local military presence). For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to the peasantry and occupations. Arable land was recorded in different units, including: - Ploughlands, carucates, hides: A ploughland (terra carucis or carucata) was the area that could be ploughed by eight oxen in a year. Generally around 120 acres, though the area varied depending on the quality of the land. Learn more. - Plough teams: Groups of eight oxen (which indicated how much land could be ploughed): sometimes belonging to the peasants and sometimes to the lord. Other taxable resources were also recorded, including: - Woodland: Usually quantified by the number of pigs it supported. About 15% of the country was forested in 1086. - Meadow and pasture: Used to graze animals, typically sheep. - Mills: Water mills were the main source of power besides oxen: more than 6,000 are recorded in Domesday. - Fisheries and salthouses: Important economic resources: the salt industry is the most fully documented industry in Domesday. Tax on fisheries was often paid in fish. For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to manors and to weights and measures. Livestock was not consistently counted in Domesday Book. It is mainly recorded in Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk, and sometimes in Cornwall, Devon, Dorset and Somerset. Where livestock is recorded, it counts only the animals belonging to the lord. Nonetheless, sheep, goats, cows, pigs, cattle, and cobs (horses) are all recorded in substantial numbers. Sheep are by far the most numerous animal recorded. For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to livestock. Most entries record the total annual value of the estate in 1086 and 1066. This was probably to help the Crown calculate how much tax the lord should be charged. Some estates gain in value between 1066 and 1086: others lose value, and some are wiped out entirely. For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to taxation and tax assessment. Domesday carefully records the owners of each manor (estate) in 1086, as these were the people liable for tax. All land was ultimately owned by the Crown, but held by lords, who provided military resources or tax in return. - Tenant-in-chief in 1086: The main landholders listed in Domesday Book. Either King William himself, or one of around 1,400 people who held land directly from the Crown, mostly Norman knights. - Lord in 1086: The immediate lord over the peasants after the Conquest. Sometimes the same as the tenant-in-chief, sometimes a tenant granted the estate in return for tax. Domesday also records the equivalent owners before the Conquest in 1066. For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to landholding. - Waste: Estates described as "waste" paid no tax. About 10% of all the estates in Domesday are waste. Most are in the North or on the Welsh Borders, and were probably destroyed in fighting after the Conquest. For more information, see the Hull Domesday Project's guide to waste. - Phillimore reference: The section number in the Phillimore translation of Domesday Book, from which this information is taken. Consult the Phillimore translation for the full text.
There are many definitions for mindfulness, many ways of learning and understanding mindfulness and many methods to be mindful. In Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), mindfulness skills are taught as a central component to skills training. They are the first skills taught and are repeated throughout all groups and skills training. Mindfulness skills are considered as vehicles for balancing emotionality and intellectualization. In DBT mindfulness skills are designed to teach a person how to focus their mind and attention. Achieving focus requires control of attention, which is a capability many people with impulsive and mood dependent behaviors lack. Mindfulness teaches individuals to observe and describe their own behavior, which is necessary when any new behavior is being learned, when there is some sort of problem, or a need for change. Mindfulness is broken down into skill sets which include: WISE MIND: The integration of ‘emotion mind’ and ‘reasonable mind.’ Combination of emotional experiencing and problem solving. This skill can be intuitive. OBSERVE: JUST NOTICE: Allowing oneself to notice the experience in the moment, without getting caught in it and without reacting to it. The skill of observe involves noticing events, emotions, thoughts and other responses. DESCRIBE: PUT WORDS ON: applying verbal labels to internal (thoughts & feelings), behavioral and environmental events. PARTICIPATE: To become one with an experience, completely forgetting yourself. Letting yourself get involved in the moment without ruminating. NONJUDGMENTAL STANCE: Judging something as neither good nor bad. Everything simply is as it is. Focusing on just the facts. ONE-MINDFULLY: IN THE MOMENT: To focus the mind and awareness on the current moment’s activity, rather than splitting attention among several activities and thoughts. EFFECTIVENESS: FOCUS ON WHAT WORKS: To focus on doing what is actually needed or called for in a situation, rather than on what is considered ‘right’ or ‘fair’ or what ‘should’ be done. Acting skillfully to meet the needs of the situation just as it is.
Ages Four-to-Six Months Motor Development Milestones - Learns to roll from stomach to back with help - Learns to roll from back to stomach with help - May sit erect when supported - Begins to show interest in holding a rattle and can do with some success - Reaches for objects with both arms simultaneously; later reaches with one hand - Reaches for toys - Holds objects - Reaches for feet and brings them to mouth - Moves toys from hand to hand - Begins to stand locking knees and bearing some weight when held and supported - Turns head to localized sounds - Follows people with eyes and turns head to keep in view Cognitive Development Milestones - Uses hand, mouth, and eyes to explore own body, toys, and surroundings - Focuses eyes on smaller objects and may reach for them - Attracted to bright light and interested in colored objects - Indicates a desire to be picked up with some gesture or specific cry - Focuses on the action(s) performed by objects such as banging or shaking - Turns head towards and locates familiar voices and sounds Day Care Resources 7 Domains of Learning Personal and Social Development Children learn to develop healthy relationships with adults and their peers while cultivating a positive personal identity. Children are taught to channel their natural curiosity to articulate questions and draw conclusions about the world around them. This discipline focuses on numbers and their relationships, in addition to the geometric concepts that explain spatial awareness. Language and Literacy The basis of learning, this domain opens the door of communication through writing and drawing as well as grammar and comprehension. This sphere examines societal relationships based on social structures and the connections between people and their communities. An exploration into visual arts, music, dance and theater, this domain celebrates distinctive expression of emotions and ideas. Physical Development and Health Children are taught regard for health and nutrition in addition to the benefits of exercise to develop a strong mind and body.
Author/s Martin Siegert (1), Irina Alekhina (2), Jill Mikucki (3), Andres Rivera (4), Sun Bo (5), Helen A. Fricker (6), Dusty Schroeder (7), Bernd Kulessa (8), Christine Dow (9) (1) Imperial College, UK (2) AARI, Russia (3) University of Tennessee, USA (4) CECS, Chile (5) PRIC, China (6) Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA (7) Stanford University, USA (8) University of Swansea, UK (9) University of Waterloo, Canada Brief Overview Over 400 lakes exist beneath the Antarctic ice sheet. They range from giant stable lakes at the centre of the ice sheet, isolated from the atmosphere for millions of years, to small through-flow pockets of water beneath fast-flowing ice streams. Subglacial lakes likely harbour unique micro-organisms, adapted to the extreme conditions such as pressure and darkness under the ice, and records of ice and climate change from when the ice sheet first formed. Uncovering their microbiological and climatological secrets requires direct access and sampling of these pristine environments. SCAR has been involved in guiding plans for subglacial lakes access and exploration, ensuring experiments are conducted in a safe, clean and environmentally sustainable manner. A formal code of conduct was accepted by the ATCM in 2011 and a revised version endorsed in 2017. To date, only two lakes at the edge of the West Antarctic ice sheet have been sampled cleanly for water and sediment – subglacial lakes Whillans (in January 2013) and Mercer (in December 2018). Detailed Overview Subglacial lakes are bodies of liquid water that lie beneath the Antarctic ice sheet, in the interface between the ice and the bed material. With ice acting as an insulator, typical levels of geothermal heat flux are sufficient to warm the ice base to the pressure melting point, despite surface temperatures tens of centigrade below freezing. Subglacial water flows under the combined forces of gravity and the pressure of the ice above and can pond in subglacial hollows and troughs, forming lakes1. Like any other continent, Antarctica’s bed morphology involves a complex system of mountains, valleys and lowlands. Under certain circumstances, water can fill entire subglacial troughs leading to giant lakes, such as the 280 km long Lake Vostok – one of the world’s top ten largest freshwater lakes in terms of depth, surface area and volume2. Such lakes are located near ice divides and may contain undisturbed water, and sediment dating back millions of years. Towards the ice sheet margins, subglacial water gathers into networks of distributed and channelized systems3, lubricating the beds of the fast-flowing ice streams4. Here, water can collect in lakes, filling a bed depression to the level at which it discharges downstream and subsequently refills5, 6. There are a wide variety of subglacial lake systems beneath the Antarctic ice sheet, ranging from large stable lakes at the ice sheet centre (e.g. Lake Vostok), to smaller stable lakes scattered across the ice bed (e.g. Lake CECS7 and Lake Ellsworth), and the small hydrologically “active” lakes predominantly located close to the ice-sheet margin (e.g. Lake Whillans5) (Figure 1). Figure 1. The types and locations of Antarctic subglacial lakes. Colours/shapes indicate the geophysical nature of investigations undertaken at each site: Black/triangle = RES, yellow = seismic sounding, green = gravitational field mapping, red/circle = surface height change measurement, square = shape identified from ice surface feature. Lake Vostok is shown in outline. Taken from Siegert (2018)(27). The first subglacial lake observation was made in 1969 by airborne radio-echo sounding (RES) beneath Sovetskya Station in central East Antarctica – the flat and continuously bright radio-wave reflections unmistakably as a consequence of deep (>10 m) freshwater beneath the ice8, 9. Since then, RES has been used to detect >200 lakes across the Antarctic continent10. While RES is a good determinant of pooled basal water, it cannot be used to measure lake depths since radio-waves are absorbed in water for all but the shallowest and purest water bodies11. Instead, seismic sounding is appropriate to make direct measurements of water depth. To date, the bases of only four lakes have been measured successfully by seismics; Lake Vostok (~1000 m deep)12, Lake Ellsworth (~160 m)13, Lake Mercer (~15 m), and a lake at South Pole (~30 m)14. For the larger lakes, such as Lake Vostok, where the cavity of water is substantial, gravity measurements can be used to infer the shape of the lake bed, which when used in conjunction with seismic data can reveal the bathymetry at a macro-level15. In the future electromagnetic geophysical techniques offer the potential to create multi-dimensional images of subglacial lakes and provide insight on their salinities9, 16, as trialled in the austral summer of 2018/19 by the US Antarctic program on Lake Mercer. Active subglacial lakes can be resolved using satellite-altimeter-derived measurements of ice-surface elevation change; during filling the ice surface rises by several meters and, similarly, during discharge it lowers5, 17. Satellite altimetry has been used to delineate over 120 so-called hydrologically ‘active’ lakes, including Lakes Whillans and Mercer in West Antarctica18. However, often RES data from the same sites do not reveal ‘classic’ looking lake reflectors, potentially due to the water filling into a complex series of connected smaller hollows rather than a single basin, and sometimes in unexpected locations such as the lee side of subglacial obstacles to ice flow19. In some cases, water has been shown to exit one lake and fill into another several hundred kilometres away, forming a temporary river between the two. Between 1996 and 1998, the flux of water flowing between two active lakes in East Antarctica was estimated to be similar to the River Thames in London17. After Lake Vostok was identified as a giant lake beneath central East Antarctica in 1996, subglacial lakes have been the subject of significant media and scientific attention. As unique environments, isolated from the rest of the planet for hundreds of thousands of years, they are hypothesised to be habitats for unusual, specially-adapted microbes and recorders of ancient climate change, beginning in time where ice cores end. These hypotheses are fully testable if subglacial lakes are accessed and sampled. SCAR became involved in guiding plans for subglacial lake exploration in 2000, ensuring international dialogue and exchange of scientific findings and plans. Key to their involvement was an appreciation that these pristine subglacial lake environments should be protected and preserved during access sampling and in situ experiments. SCAR first commissioned a Group of Specialists, which then became a formal scientific research programme named Subglacial Antarctic Lake Environments – SALE. Separately, the US National Research Council organised a review of subglacial lake exploration, to understand how scientific ambition could be met while ensuring environmental protection20. Following this, SCAR developed a Code of Conduct on subglacial access, which was accepted at the 2011 ATCM (held in Buenos Aires) and in revised form in at the 2017 ATCM (in Beijing). It explains the scientific basis for what cleanliness means, and details how this requirement can be achieved during in situ measurement and sampling21. The 2011-12 and 2012-13 Antarctic seasons were pivotal for subglacial lake exploration. Three exploration programmes were conducted, with varying degrees of success. First, in February 2012, a Russian team extended the Vostok ice core to penetrate into Lake Vostok22. By allowing lake water to freeze into the borehole and reactivating the corer the following seasons, a ‘sample’ of lake water was recovered, albeit not using sterile procedures. Second, in December 2012, a UK team failed to activate a purpose-built hot-water drill to access and sample Lake Ellsworth in West Antarctica23. Third, in January 2013, a US team, also using a clean hot-water drill24, successfully sampled the active subglacial Lake Whillans, demonstrating that Antarctic subglacial lakes contain microbial life25. In 2015, an international meeting was held at the UK Royal Society’s Chicheley Hall to share lessons on the various deep-drilling missions, and to identify future plans and ambitions26. Subsequently, in December 2018 and January 2019, Lake Mercer was accessed and the water column and sediments were sampled successfully by the US programme. The Lake Mercer science team hypothesized that microbial transformations in this lake will be driven to a large extent by relict marine organic matter deposited during a past climate scenario (J.C. Priscu, personal communication). Samples from the Mercer project are currently being analyzed and results are forthcoming. While many lessons have been learnt on how to conduct deep drilling missions, major scientific questions remain unanswered. Direct sampling of other lakes, such as deep, hydraulically stable Lake Vostok, will be required to address these questions. Key Events See also Siegert 2018 (reference 27). Late 1960s Trials of airborne radio echo-sounding revolutionise glacial and sub-glacial data acquisition. 1967-1968 First Antarctic subglacial lake discovered near Sovetskaya Station. 1973 First inventory compiled of 17 Antarctic subglacial lakes. 1974-1975 Lake Vostok discovered during the second season of a programme of systematic Antarctic ice sheet surveying carried out by the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Technical University of Denmark (TUD). 1977-1978 Lake Ellsworth discovered during the third season of surveying by the SPRI / NSF / TUD collaboration. 1987-1991 Four seasons of Soviet airborne geophysical surveying discovers a further 16 subglacial lakes. 1996 Lake Vostok revealed as one of the world’s largest freshwater bodies. 1996 Second inventory compiled of 77 Antarctic subglacial lakes. 1998 Italian surveying in the region of Dome C reveals a further 14 subglacial lakes. 1999 SCAR forms the Subglacial Antarctic Lake Environments (SALE) Group of Specialists. 2002 The Russian Federation circulates the first draft Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation (CEE) for penetrating subglacial Lake Vostok. 2003 The 6th meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection discusses the draft CEE prepared by the Russian Federation and advises the 26th meeting of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) on its findings. 2003 SCAR SALE becomes a formal SCAR Research Programme. 2005 Third inventory compiled of 145 Antarctic subglacial lakes. 2006 Subglacial lake discharges and inflows discovered. 2010 The Russian Federation circulates the final version of its CEE to penetrate subglacial Lake Vostok. 2010 The UK circulates a draft CEE for the exploration and sampling of subglacial Lake Ellsworth. 2011 The 14th meeting of the CEP discusses the draft CEE prepared by the UK (for accessing subglacial Lake Ellsworth) and advises the 34th ATCM on its findings. 2011 The UK circulates the final version of its CEE to penetrate subglacial Lake Ellsworth. 2011 SCAR prepares and disseminates a Code of Conduct for the Exploration and Research of Subglacial Aquatic Environments. 2011: Fourth inventory compiled of 381 Antarctic subglacial lakes. 2012 The Russian Antarctic Expedition accesses and takes a water sample of subglacial lake Vostok on 5th February 2012. 2012 The UK-led mission to access Lake Ellsworth is halted due to technical issues. 2013 The U.S. Antarctic Program accesses and samples subglacial Lake Whillans and demonstrates the ice-base to contain viable microorganisms. 2016 Fifth inventory compiled of 402 Antarctic subglacial lakes. 2017 ATCM 40 endorses SCAR’s Code of Conduct for the Exploration and Research of Subglacial Aquatic Environments by means of Resolution 2 (2017). 2018 The U.S. Antarctic Program accesses and samples subglacial Lake Mercer, retrieving 60 litres of water and a ~1.7 m lake-bed sediment core.
If your experience with bones is pretty much limited to putting on that skeleton costume every Halloween, then you could be cheating yourself out of important preventive care. Take this quiz to find out how much you know about bone health, and learn a bit about what you can do to protect your skeleton from head to toe! 1. The largest bone in the human body is: c. Femur (thigh bone) d. Tibia (shin bone) Answer: c. Your femur (thigh bone) is not only the largest bone, but also the strongest one, bearing much of the weight of your body. The lower end of the femur joins to the tibia in a joint that forms your knee. The upper end is rounded into a ball that fits into a "socket" located in your pelvis to form your hip joint. The smallest bone in the body is in the ear and is only 1/8 inch long. 2. The term "long bones" is used to describe: a. Very tall people b. Women with very long legs c. Bones that offer structure and mobility d. Any fully grown bone Answer: c. "Long bones" is the term used to describe any hard, dense bone that also provides strength, structure, and mobility, such as the femur. 3. The difference between a "broken" bone and a "fractured" bone is: d. No difference Answer: d. "Break" and "fracture" are interchangeable terms that mean the same thing: The bone is broken. There are, however, different types of bone breaks. A complete break is said to occur when a bone breaks into two or more pieces; an incomplete break means the bone does not break all the way through; a compound fracture(also called an "open" fracture) occurs when a bone breaks through the skin; a simple fracture (or "closed" fracture) occurs when the bone breaks but there is no break in the skin. In children, the most common type of bone break is a greenstick fracture, a type of incomplete break that causes the bone to be bent. 4. When a forensic expert examines a skeleton, they can tell: c. Certain causes of death d. All of the above Answer: d. All of the above. Age is determined by looking at the level of bone decay, as well as looking for evidence of a process called "ossification," a fusing of bones that occurs at some 800 points in the body at various ages. Discovering which bones are fused can help pinpoint the age at the time of death. The skull and the hip bones are used to determine the gender of a skeleton, with men's hips generally narrower than women's, and a man's skull having a more pronounced bony protrusion in the forehead area than that of a woman. Women also frequently have smaller rib cages. Often, evidence of a violent death can be seen in the bones. This would include bullet holes, injury with a sharp weapon, and bone breaks. Bone disease leading to death can also be detected. 5. Adults have 206 bones in their body. Babies are born with: a. 206 bones b. 150 bones c. 300 bones d. 185 bones Answer: c. Babies are born with about 300 bones, almost a third of which eventually fuse together to form the 206-bone skeleton of an adult. Further, some of the "bones" in a baby's body are not really bone at all, but instead cartilage, a soft and flexible material that eventually grows into a bone. Calcium and other nutrients are what help baby's bones fuse and grow into a strong skeletal structure. 6. Which type of bone break most often leads to death in people over 65? a. Skull fracture b. Spine fracture c. Hip fracture d. Collarbone fracture Answer: c. When it comes to deaths from injuries in senior citizens, data from the CDC tell us that falls are one of the leading causes, with hip fractures the No. 1 cause of fall-related deaths. Moreover, hip fractures are the cause of the most severe health problems in this age group, and they're also responsible for a dramatic reduction in quality of life. About 80% of hip fractures occur in women, with the rate increasing dramatically between ages 65 and 85. According to the CDC, by age 90, one in three women will sustain a hip fracture. 7. The most common site of bone break seen in hospital emergency rooms is in the: Answer: a. According to data provided by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, in 2004 the leading bone break seen in hospital emergency rooms was a fracture of the wrist, hand, or fingers, with some 1,093,000 cases in the U.S. Next in line were ankle, foot, and toe fractures (783,000), followed by lower arm fractures (763,000) and upper arm fractures (342,000). b. Zinc and magnesium d. All of the above Answer: d. Though calcium is a key nutrient for strong bones, vitamin D is also necessary in order for bones to absorb calcium -- one reason why milk is often fortified with this nutrient. That said, zinc, magnesium, and protein are also found in milk and are important for strong bone health. Among the best sources of calcium are low-fat or nonfat milk or cheese, yogurt, broccoli, almonds, and calcium-fortified foods such as orange juice, cereals, soy beverages, and tofu products. 9.Which of the following lifestyle habits affects bone health: c. Excessive alcohol consumption d. All of the above Answer: d. While smoking and alcohol affect bones in a negative way, exercise can have a positive effect on bone health. Studies have shown a direct link between smoking and a decrease in bone density that in turn increases the risk of a bone-thinning disorder known as osteoporosis. Excessive drinking can interfere with the production of vitamin D, which in turn interferes with calcium absorption. Alcoholism has also been linked to an increase in levels of cortisol, a hormone that can decrease bone formation and increase bone breakdown. Meanwhile, exercise -- particularly weight-bearing workouts that force you to push against gravity, such as walking, weight lifting, and climbing stairs -- increases bone health to help slow loss of bone density as we age. a. The study of bone health b. A type of bone fracture c. A female bone disease d. Low bone mass Answer: d.Osteopenia is a term used for low bone mass that isn't low enough to be osteoporosis. It is sometimes the forerunner to osteoporosis, a more serious bone-thinning disease. Both are diagnosed via a painless bone mineral density test known as DXA.
American Civil War \|American Civil War\| Clockwise from top: Battle of Gettysburg, Union Captain John Tidball's artillery, Confederate prisoners, ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of Richmond, Virginia, Battle of Franklin. \|United States\|\|Confederate States\| \|Commanders and leaders\| 2,200,000:[better source needed] \|Casualties and losses\| \|50,000 free civilians dead 80,000+ slaves dead Total: 785,000–1,000,000+ dead The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States (U.S.) from 1861 to 1865. The Union (i.e., The United States) faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America. The Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U.S. history. Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America. War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U.S. fortress of Fort Sumter in South Carolina. The Confederacy grew to include eleven states; it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona and New Mexico, which was organized and incorporated into the Confederacy as Confederate Arizona. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although some countries such as Britain and France recognized it as a belligerent power). The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North. The war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the factious issue of slavery, especially the extension of slavery into the western territories. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the number of American military deaths in World War I and World War II combined, and much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed (most of them by Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation). The Reconstruction Era (1863–1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. - 1 History - 2 Causes of secession - 3 Outbreak of the war - 4 War - 4.1 Mobilization - 4.2 Naval war - 4.3 Eastern theater - 4.4 Western theater - 4.5 Trans-Mississippi - 4.6 End of the war - 5 Diplomacy - 6 Union victory and aftermath - 7 Memory and historiography - 8 In works of culture and art - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Further reading - 12 External links In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories at the time, something which the Southern states viewed as a violation of their constitutional rights and as being part of a plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected the first Republican president. But before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States," he reaffirmed, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton" that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years of the Reconstruction Era. The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it has been traditionally estimated that about 620,000 died but recent scholarship argues that 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians.[N 1] By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40. Causes of secession The causes of the Civil War were complex and have been controversial since the war began. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won without carrying a single Southern state, many Southern whites felt that disunion had become their only option, because they thought that they were losing representation, which would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies. Contemporary actors, the Union and Confederate leadership and the fighting soldiers on both sides believed that slavery caused the Civil War. Union men mainly believed that the purpose of the war was to emancipate the slaves. Confederates fought the war in order to protect southern society, and slavery was an integral part of it. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with Republicanism in the United States. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. Slavery was illegal in the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide, including sectionalism, protectionism, and state's rights. Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations. Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other. Historically, southern slave-holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still-nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full-fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade. The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited–long after the war–by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience. The South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact" or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations: While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle. Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided. With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself." By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view. The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846. Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular" sovereignty – which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave. The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states' rights"), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine", named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. "States' rights" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power." These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election. Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British-French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation-state. In the world of 19th century self-made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, "freedom" could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure—first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together. Nationalism and honor Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group, A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses ... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins. Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859. While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence." The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together. The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment" and the "Crittenden Compromise", failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy. Outbreak of the war The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861. Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the 'slaveholding states' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "... was intended to be perpetual," but that, "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union," was not among the "... enumerated powers granted to Congress." One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy. As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war. On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void". He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions. The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister" behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina's Fort Sumter. Battle of Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation. The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins says: - The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment. ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures." However, much of the North's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South. Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years. Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond. Attitude of the border states Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863. Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling. In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri. Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky. After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union. The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought". Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier. As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress. In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland. When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed. From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat. Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight. At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities. The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations. By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond. In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service. The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful. The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it. The Battle of the Ironclads was a draw, but it marks the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. The ships were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy, however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply. Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports. To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes: - McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond. - Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee. - The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River. - The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas. Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862. In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South. Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after. Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation. When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant. While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization. The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river. General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee. The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy. Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election. Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender. After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war. End of the war Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end." Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama. Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia. Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army. Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek. Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces. Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war. Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons. Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesman, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic." U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful. War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South– though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this. The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral. Union victory and aftermath The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty. Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union. \|Population\|\|1860\|\|22,100,000 (71%)\|\|9,100,000 (29%)\| \|1864\|\|28,800,000 (90%)[N 2]\|\|3,000,000 (10%)\| \|Free\|\|1860\|\|21,700,000 (81%)\|\|5,600,000 (19%)\| \|Slave\|\|1860\|\|400,000 (11%)\|\|3,500,000 (89%)\| \|Soldiers\|\|1860–64\|\|2,100,000 (67%)\|\|1,064,000 (33%)\| \|Railroad miles\|\|1860\|\|21,800 (71%)\|\|8,800 (29%)\| Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform. Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War." A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win." Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out." Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war. Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that: The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond." The war produced at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined. Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war. Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows: - 110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000). - 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway) - 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps - 9,058 killed by accidents or drowning - 15,741 other/unknown deaths - 359,528 total dead In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle). Colored troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among Negroes were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all Negroes enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.:16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers: [We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate" amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.:16 Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000. The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses: - 110,100 killed in action - 224,580 disease deaths - 275,154 wounded in action - 211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs) - 94,000 killed in action - 164,000 disease deaths - 194,026 wounded in action - 462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs) While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5%, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate. Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses. Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million. Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I. The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. Slavery as a war issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment. The Emancipation Proclamation enabled Coloreds, both free negroes and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army.[N 4] About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.[N 5] During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game." Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union. At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat". Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published letter to abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper. In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me." Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware. Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent. Texas v. White In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null", under the constitution. Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status. President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin. Memory and historiography The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world. Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said: God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor. In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as: God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land. Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause", shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism" of the 19th century, sacrificing Negro progress to a white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance. The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really: [A] social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South. The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers. Civil War commemoration The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015. There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun. In works of culture and art - The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis - The Red Badge of Courage (1885) by Stephen Crane - The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain - Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne - An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890) by Ambrose Bierce - Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell - Shiloh (1952) by Shelby Foote - North and South (1982) by John Jakes - Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (1989) by Allan Gurganus - The Birth of a Nation (1915, US) - The General (1926, US) - Gone with the Wind (1939, US) - The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US) - The Horse Soldiers (1959, US) - Shenandoah (1965, US) - The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG) - The Beguiled (1971, US) - Glory (1989, US) - Gettysburg (1993, US) - The Last Outlaw (1993, US) - Cold Mountain (2003, US) - Gods and Generals (2003, US) - North and South (miniseries) - Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter (2012, US) - Lincoln (2012, US) - 12 Years a Slave (2012, US) - Free State of Jones (2016, US) - The Gettysburg Address (2017, US) - "Johnny Reb" (1959) written by Merle Kilgore, sung by Johnny Horton - "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down" (1969) written by Robbie Robertson, sung by The Band - Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, US) - Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, US) - American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US) - Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US) - The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US) - Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR) - History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US) - Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US) - Darkest of Days (2009, US) - Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR) - Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR) - Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR) - A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war. - "Union population 1864" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded. - "Slave 1864, CSA" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley. - At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the slaves "... cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union." The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization. Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations. In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. - In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented. The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved south. Historian John D. Winters referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: "As the troops moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army. They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army. Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there." Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335. This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program and the growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia, where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease. - "The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End. All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers. If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports. Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia. The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 10, 1865. Retrieved December 23, 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Total number that served - "Facts". National Park Service.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War": Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army. - Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. OCLC 68283123. p. 705. - "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies.; Series 4 – Volume 2", United States. War Dept 1900. - Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War (1889) - Official DOD data - Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849. - 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties. - 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties. - Nofi, Al (June 13, 2001). "Statistics on the War's Costs". Louisiana State University. Archived from the original on July 11, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Professor James Downs. "Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War". University of Connecticut, April 13th 2012. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths. - Recounting the dead, Associate Professor J. David Hacker, "estimates, based on Census data, indicate that the [military] death toll was approximately 750,000, and may have been as high as 850,000" - Professor James Downs. "Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War". Oxford University Press, April 13th 2012. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, "New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll," reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ..." - "Date of Secession Related to 1860 Black Population", America's Civil War - Burnham, Walter Dean. Presidential Ballots, 1836–1892. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, pp. 247–57 - 1.Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 325. - Frank J. Williams, "Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically," in Harold Holzer, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006), pp. 74–75. - "U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests". Science Daily. September 22, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hacker 2011, p. 307–48. - Huddleston 2002, p. 3. - James C. Bradford, A Companion to American Military History (2010), vol. 1, p. 101. - See also Freehling, William W., The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861, pp. 9–24, and Martis, Kenneth C., The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789–1989, ISBN 0-02-920170-5, pp. 111–115, and Foner, Eric. Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War, (Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 18–20, 21–24. - Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 22, 2015). "What This Cruel War Was Over". The Atlantic. Retrieved December 21, 2016.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Eskridge, Larry (January 29, 2011). "After 150 years, we still ask: Why 'this cruel war'?". Canton Daily Ledger. Canton, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2011. Unknown parameter \|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Weeks 2013, p. 240. - Olsen 2002, p. 237. - Chadwick, French Esnor. Causes of the civil war, 1859–1861 (1906) p. 8 - Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948). - Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973). - Ahlstrom 1972, p. 648–649. - Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969). - Woodworth 1996, p. 145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684. - Thornton & Ekelund 2004, p. 21. - Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 115–61 - Hofstadter 1938, p. 50–55. - Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861. (1961) - Jon L. Wakelyn (1996). Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. 23–30. ISBN 978-0-8078-6614-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Matthew Fontaine Maury (1861/1967), "Captain Maury's Letter on American Affairs: A Letter Addressed to Rear-Admiral Fitz Roy, of England", reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol. I, pp. 171–73. - John Lothrop Motley (1861/1967), "The Causes of the American Civil War: A Paper Contributed to the London Times", reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol. 1, p. 51. - Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002). - McPherson 2007, pp. 3–9. - Krannawitter 2008, p. 49–50. - McPherson 2007, p. 14. - Stampp 1990, p. 190–93. - McPherson 2007, pp. 13–14. - Bestor 1964, p. 19. - McPherson 2007, p. 16. - Bestor 1964, pp. 19–21. - Bestor 1964, p. 20. - Russell 1966, p. 468–69. - Bestor, Arthur. "The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis", in Lawrence Meir Friedman (ed.) "American Law and the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, ISBN 978-0-674-02527-1 p. 231 - Bestor 1964, pp. 21–23. - Johannsen 1973, p. 406. - "Territorial Politics and Government". Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society. Retrieved July 10, 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>Finteg - Bestor 1964, p. 21. - Bestor 1964, p. 23. - Varon 2008, p. 58. - Russell 1966, p. 470. - Bestor 1964, p. 23–24. - McPherson 2007, p. 7. - Krannawitter 2008, p. 232. - Gara, 1964, p. 190 - Bestor 1964, p. 24–25. - Potter 1962, p. 924–50. - C. Vann Woodward (1971), American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue, p. 281. - Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000). - Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953). - "Republican Platform of 1860," in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956). p. 32. - Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005). - Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 485. - Ordinances of Secession by State. Retrieved November 28, 2012. - The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union. - The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012. - The text of Georgia's secession declaration. Retrieved November 28, 2012. - The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012. - McPherson 1988, p. 24. - President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860. Retrieved November 28, 2012. - "Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River". World Digital Library. 1865. Retrieved July 16, 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 41–66 - Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 147–52 - McPherson 1988, pp. 234–266. - Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861. - Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861. - Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 572–73. - Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (1959), pp. 74–75. - Russell McClintock (2008). Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 254–74. ISBN 978-0-8078-3188-5. Provides details of support across the North. Online preview. - Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 291–92 - McPherson 1988, p. 274. - Howard Louis Conard (1901). Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri. p. 45.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, pp. 276–307. - "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008. Unknown parameter \|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, p. 284–87. - William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71, - Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863). Fourteen Months in American Bastiles. London: H.F. Mackintosh. Retrieved August 18, 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–29. - Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–36. - "A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia". West Virginia Archives & History. Retrieved April 20, 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49. - McPherson 1988, p. 303. - Weigley 2004, p. 55. - Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p. 28. - Neely 1993, p. 10–11. - Keegan, "The American Civil War", p. 73. Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee. See Gabor Boritt, ed. War Comes Again (1995), p. 247. - "With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army ..." Civil War Extracts pp. 199–221, American Military History. - E. Merton Coulter, Confederate States of America (1950) p. 308. John G. Nicolay and John Hay (Abraham Lincoln: a history, vol. 4, p. 264) state: "Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made ... In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000 ..." Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent. - Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition. - Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (1909) v. 1, p. 523 online. The railroads and banks grew rapidly. See Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War (1907), Vol. 2 at Google Books, pp. 378–430. See also Oberholtzer, A History of the United States Since the Civil War (1926), 3:69–122. - Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007). - Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971). - Judith Lee Hallock, "The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion." Civil War History (1983) 29#2 pp. 123–34. online - Peter S. Bearman, "Desertion as localism: Army unit solidarity and group norms in the U.S. Civil War." Social Forces (1991) 70#2 pp. 321–42 in JSTOR. - Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74. - Keegan 2009, p. 57. - Perman & Taylor 2010, p. 177. - Roger Pickenpaugh (2013). Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–73.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 1466. - Welles 1865, p. 152. - Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 462. - Canney 1998, p. ?. - Richter 2009, p. 49. - Johnson 1998, p. 228. - Anderson 1989, pp. 288–89, 296–98. - Nelson 2005, p. 92. - Anderson 1989, p. 300. - Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989) - Nelson 2005, p. 345. - Fuller 2008, p. 36. - Mark E. Neely, Jr. "The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War," Civil War History (1986) 32#2, pp. 101–18 in Project MUSE - Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (1991) - Surdam, David G. (1998). "The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered". Naval War College Review. 51 (4): 85–107.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - David G. Surdam, Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (University of South Carolina Press, 2001). - Jones 2002, p. 225. - Anderson 1989, p. 91. - Whitsell, Robert D. (1963). "Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus". Register of the Kentucky Historical Society. 62 (2): 107–21.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009). - Frank & Reaves 2003, p. 170. - Symonds & Clipson 2001, p. 92. - Ronald Scott Mangum, "The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations," Parameters: U.S. Army War College (1991) 21#3, pp. 74–86 online - Foote 1974, p. 464–519. - Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–96. - McPherson 1988, pp. 424–27. - McPherson 1988, pp. 538–44. - McPherson 1988, pp. 528–33. - McPherson 1988, pp. 543–45. - McPherson 1988, pp. 557–558. - McPherson 1988, pp. 571–74. - McPherson 1988, pp. 639–45. - Jonathan A. Noyalas (December 3, 2010). Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign. Arcadia Publishing. p. 93.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, pp. 653–663. - McPherson 1988, p. 664. - McPherson 1988, pp. 404–05. - McPherson 1988, pp. 418–20. - McPherson 1988, pp. 419–20. - McPherson 1988, pp. 480–83. - McPherson 1988, pp. 405–13. - McPherson 1988, pp. 637–38. - McPherson 1988, pp. 677–80. - Keegan 2009, p. 270. - Keegan 2009, p. 100. - James B. Martin, Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012). See also, Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War (1989). Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties. - Bohl, Sarah (2004). "A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri". Prologue. 36 (1): 44–51.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Graves, William H. (1991). "Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 69 (2): 134–145.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Neet, J. Frederick; Jr (1996). "Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation". Great Plains Journal. 6 (1): 36–51.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Keegan 2009, p. 220–21. - Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004, pp. 434+. - U.S. Grant (1990). Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters. Library of America. p. 247. ISBN 0-940450-58-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Ron Field (2013). Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege. Osprey Publishing. p. 6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, pp. 724–42. - McPherson 1988, pp. 778–79. - McPherson 1988, pp. 773–76. - McPherson 1988, pp. 812–15. - McPherson 1988, pp. 825–30. - McPherson 1988, pp. 846–47. - William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002), pp. 158–81. - Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia and the Battle of West Point. - http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html General Kirby Smith Surrenders the Trans-Mississippi Forces Web. Retrieved February 6, 2016. - Morris, John Wesley, Ghost towns of Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977, pp. 68–69, ISBN 0-8061-1420-7 - McPherson 1988, pp. 546–57. - Herring 2011, p. 237. - McPherson 1988, p. 386. - Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–64. - Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014), pp. 8 (quote), 69–70. - Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013) - Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125. - Herring 2011, p. 261. - McPherson 1988, p. 851. - McPherson 1988, p. 855. - James McPherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose?. p. ?. - Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed.), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860 U.S. Census and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006. - Martis, Kenneth C., "The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865" Simon & Schuster (1994) ISBN 0-13-389115-1 p. 27. At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one-third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave-populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864. - Digital History Reader, U.S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880 Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012. "Total Union railroad miles" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300. - McPherson 1988, pp. 771–72. - Murray, Bernstein & Knox 1996, p. 235. - HeidlerHeidlerColes 2002, p. 1207–10. - Ward 1990, p. 272. - E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (1950), p. 566. - Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1991), ch 1. - Armstead Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (University of Virginia Press, 2004) - see Alan Farmer, History Review (2005), No. 52: 15–20. - McPherson 1997, pp. 169–72. - Gallagher 1999, p. 57. - Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). "Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days". University of Illinois. Retrieved October 16, 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, pp. 382–88. - Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014). - Fergus M. Bordewich, "The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege", Wall Street Journal (February 7–8, 2015). - Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011). "Recounting the Dead". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Associated Press. Retrieved September 22, 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson 1988, p. xix. - Vinovskis 1990, p. 7. - Richard Wightman Fox (2008)."National Life After Death". Slate.com. - "U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands". National Geographic News. July 1, 2003. - Teresa Riordan (March 8, 2004). "When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Associated Press. Retrieved December 23, 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Herbert Aptheker, "Negro Casualties in the Civil War", The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 32, No. 1. (January 1947). - Professor James Downs. "Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction". January 1, 2012. - Ron Field and Peter Dennis (2013). American Civil War Fortifications (2): Land and Field Fortifications. Osprey Publishing. p. 4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Claudia Goldin, "The economics of emancipation." The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85. - The Economist, "The Civil War: Finally Passing", April 2, 2011, pp. 23–25. - Foner 1981, p. ?. - Foner 2010, p. 74. - McPherson, pp. 506–8. - McPherson. p. 686. - McPherson 1988, p. 495. - McPherson 1988, pp. 355, 494–96, 495. - McPherson 1988, pp. 831–37. - Winters 1963, p. 237. - McPherson 1988, pp. 791–98. - Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861. Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery especially among Forty-Eighters, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union. " Wittke, Carl (1952). "Refugees of Revolution". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. Cite journal requires \|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> ", Christian B. Keller, "Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers", Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 117–45; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds, Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). "On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought." Baker, Kevin (March 2003). "Violent City", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010. "Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities." Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6. Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862. - Baker, Kevin (March 2003). "Violent City", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010. - McPherson, James, in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. Lincoln, the War President, pp. 52–54. - Oates, Stephen B., Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106. - "Lincoln Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862". - Pulling, Sr. Anne Francis. "Images of America: Altoona, 2001, 10. - Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864. - Harper, Douglas (2003). "SLAVERY in DELAWARE". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2007. Unknown parameter \|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - " James McPherson, The War that Never Goes Away" - Asante & Mazama 2004, p. 82. - Holzer & Gabbard 2007, p. 172–174. - Murray, pp. 155–59. - Hans L. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders. - Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey. - C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd edn 1991). - Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press). - David W. Blight, Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory (2001). - Steven E. Woodworth (1996). The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. p. 208.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Stephen Cushman (2014). Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War. pp. 5–6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries - Wilson Fallin Jr, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp. 52–53. - Fallin, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp. 52–53. - Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913. - Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history (2000), pp. 12–19. - Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause, pp. 28–29. - Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54. - Richard Hofstadter (2012) . Progressive Historians. Knopf Doubleday. p. 304.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008). - Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: The American Pageant, p. 434. 1987 - Dome, Steam (1974). "A Civil War Iron Clad Car". Railroad History. The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society. 130 (Spring 1974): 51–53.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, ed. Christopher H. Sterling(New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1:63. - Buckley, John. Air Power in the Age of Total War (Warfare and History). Routledge; 1 edition (December 18, 1998). pp. 6, 24. ISBN 978-1-85728-589-5 - Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77. - Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. Vintage Books. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-307-27314-7 - Ahlstrom, Sydney E. (1972). A Religious History of the American People. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-01762-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Anderson, Bern (1989). By Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War. New York, New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80367-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama (2004). Encyclopedia of Black Studies. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. 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ISBN 978-0-8281-0305-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Chambers, John W.; Anderson, Fred (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Davis, William C. (1983). Stand in the Day of Battle: The Imperiled Union : 1861–1865. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14895-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Davis, William C. (2003). Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-3499-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Donald, David; Baker, Jean H.; Holt, Michael F. (2001). The Civil War and Reconstruction. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16056-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Gara, Larry. 1964. The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964) - Green, Fletcher M. (2008). Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776–1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-58477-928-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Guelzo, Allen C. (2009). Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536780-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Guelzo, Allen C. (2012). Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-984328-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hacker, J. David (December 2011). "A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead". Civil War History. 57 (4): 307–48. doi:10.1353/cwh.2011.0061. PMID 22512048.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T.; Coles, David J. (2002). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-382-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Herring, George C. (2011). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976553-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hofstadter, Richard (1938). "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War". American Historical Review. 44 (1): 50–55. JSTOR 1840850.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Holt, Michael F. (2005). The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-4439-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Holzer, Harold; Gabbard, Sara Vaughn (2007). Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2764-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Huddleston, John (2002). Killing Ground: The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6773-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Johannsen, Robert W. (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501620-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Johnson, Timothy D. (1998). Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0914-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Jones, Howard (1999). Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2582-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Jones, Howard (2002). Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913. Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8420-2916-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26343-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Krannawitter, Thomas L. (2008). Vindicating Lincoln : defending the politics of our greatest president. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-5972-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960). Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson, James M. (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503863-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson, James M. (1992). Ordeal By Fire : The Civil War and Reconstruction (2 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-045842-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974105-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - McPherson, James M. (2007). This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539242-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004). Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Murray, Robert Bruce. Legal Cases of the Civil War (2003). ISBN 0-8117-0059-3 - Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, MacGregor (1996). The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War. Cabmbridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56627-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Neely, Mark (1993). Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press. ISBN 978-0-87462-325-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Nelson, James L. (2005). Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-052404-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner - 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 - Olsen, Christopher J. (2002). Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516097-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Perman, Michael; Taylor, Amy M. (2010). Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays (3 ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-618-87520-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Potter, David M. (1962). "The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa". American Historical Review. 67 (4): 924–50. JSTOR 1845246.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Potter, David M.; Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1976). The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-013403-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Rhodes, John Ford (1917). History of the Civil War, 1861–1865. New York: The Macmillan Company.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Richter, William L. (2009). The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6336-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Russell, Robert R. (1966). "Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories". Journal of Southern History. 32 (4): 466–86. doi:10.2307/2204926. JSTOR 2204926.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Schott, Thomas E. (1996). Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2106-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Sheehan-Dean, ed., Aaron (2014). A Companion to the U.S. Civil War. New York: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 1-4443-5131-1.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>, 2 vol. 1232 pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography. - Stampp, Kenneth M. (1990). America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503902-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Symonds, Craig L.; Clipson, William J. (2001). The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-984-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. (2010). The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-338-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Varon, Elizabeth R. (2008). Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3232-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Vinovskis, Maris (1990). Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Ward, Geoffrey R. (1990). The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56285-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Weeks, William E. (2013). The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00590-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Weigley, Frank Russell (2004). A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33738-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Welles, Gideon (1865). Secretary of the Navy's Report. 37–38. American Seamen's Friend Society.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Winters, John D. (1963). The Civil War in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0834-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Woodworth, Steven E. (1996). American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29019-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Gugliotta, Guy. New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll, The New York Times, April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03 online. - Bibliography of American Civil War naval history - . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - American Civil War at DMOZ - Civil War photos at the National Archives - View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress - Civil War Trust - Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. - Civil War 150 Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. - Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries - The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War - The short film A HOUSE DIVIDED (1960) is available for free download at the Internet Archive. - Civil War Living History Reenactments (videos) - West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles - "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library - Civil War Manuscripts Script error: The function "top" does not exist. 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As is logical from the name of the process, climate change describes the change of the average weather conditions, or climate, over a long period of time. Generally, the term “climate” can be used to describe the average weather conditions of a region if these conditions last for at least 30 years. Therefore, seasons, for example, are not considered to be climate changes. Our planet has undergone multiple climate changes throughout its history. Some of these changes were caused by catastrophic events, like a collision with a meteorite, which supposedly caused the Ice Age and the annihilation of most of the then-existing life-forms. Other changes were the result of evolution of the life-forms of the planet. The current nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere of the Earth was formed as a result of evolution of primitive organisms that started to produce O2 as a waste product of their life-sustaining activities. The creation of the oxygen atmosphere has dramatically changed Earth’s climate. It has also killed almost all the life-forms that existed at the time, as oxygen was poisonous to them. The current situation If climate change has always been part of the planet’s life-cycle, why are we suddenly so concerned about it? The answer to this question is rather simple. As mentioned above, the previous climate changes have usually destroyed most of the life-forms existing on Earth before those climate changes took place. Our species are adapted to survive in the current climatic conditions of the Earth, therefore, when we are worried about the climate change – we are worried about our own survival. Moreover, the humanity is currently the main driver of climate change. This basically means that we are trying to kill ourselves with our own hands. When people talk about protecting the environment or nature from climate change, what they really talk about is protecting ourselves. Nature will always find a way, just like it had multiple times in the past. New ecosystems will be created and life on Earth will eventually come to a balanced state again. The problem is that that new world will not be able to accommodate us, humans, in it. The signs of climate change Among the most obvious signs of climate change are: - Increase or decrease of the average temperatures; - Changes of the prevailing wind directions; - Changes in the water cycle. These factors influence the amount of clouds formed above the surface of the Earth, and, therefore, the amount of precipitation – another noticeable sign of climate change. The factors listed above greatly influence all ecosystems on Earth. The distribution of wetlands and deserts changes, the areas that used to have enough water may become dry and stop supporting the vegetation. Other areas may, on the contrary, become flooded, due to the increased levels of water in the rivers. The size of the polar icecaps and glaciers is changing as well. Among the long-term consequences of climate change are changes in sea currents’ strengths and directions, general sea level rise and an increase or decrease in salinity (salt content) of sea water. Climate change became obvious in the 20th century when the global temperature rise became so significant that it became impossible to ignore the problem any longer. As the problem of global warming becomes more and more obvious, more and more information about climate change becomes available.
So far in this class we have only considered sequential programs. Execution of a sequential program proceeds one step at a time, with no choice about which step to take next. Sequential programs are limited in that they are not very good at dealing with multiple sources of simultaneous input and they can only execute on a single processor. Many modern applications are instead concurrent. Concurrent programs enable computations to overlap in duration, instead of being forced to happen sequentially. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs), for example, rely on concurrency to keep the interface responsive while computation continues in the background. A spreadsheet needs concurrency to re-compute all the cells while still keeping the menus and editing capabilities available for the user. Without concurrency, a GUI would "lock up" until the current action is completed. Sometimes, because of concurrency bugs, that happens anyway—and it's frustrating for the user! Servers are another example of applications that need concurrency. A web server needs to respond to many requests from clients, and clients would prefer not to wait. If an assignment is released in CMS, for example, you would prefer to be able to view that assignment at the same time as everyone else in the class, rather than having to "take a number" a wait for your number to be called—as at the Department of Motor Vehicles, or at an old-fashioned deli, etc. One of the primary jobs of an operating system (OS) is to provide concurrency. The OS makes it possible for many applications to be executing concurrently: a music player, a web browser, a code editor, etc. How does it do that? There are two fundamental, complementary approaches: Interleaving: rapidly switch back and forth between computations. For example, execute the music player for 100 milliseconds, then the browser, then the editor, then repeat. That makes it appear as though multiple computations are occurring simultaneously, but in reality, only one is ever occurring at the same time. Parallelism: use hardware that is capable of performing two or more computations literally at the same time. Many processors these days are multicore, meaning that they have multiple central processing units (CPUs), each of which can be executing a program simultaneously. Challenges of Concurrency Regardless of the approaches being used, concurrent programming is challenging. Even if there are multiple cores available for simultaneous use, there are still many other resources that must be shared: memory, the screen, the network interface, etc. Managing that sharing, especially without introducing bugs, is quite difficult. For example, if two programs want to communicate by using the computer's memory, there needs to be some agreement on when each program is allowed to read and write from the memory. Otherwise, for example, both programs might attempt to write to the same location in memory, leading to corrupted data. Those kinds of race conditions, where a program races to complete its operations before another program, are notoriously difficult to avoid. The most fundamental challenge is that concurrency makes the execution of a program become nondeterministic: the order in which operations occur cannot necessarily be known ahead of time. Race conditions are an example of nondeterminism. To program correctly in the face of nondeterminism, the programmer is forced to think about all possible orders in which operations might execute, and ensure that in all of them the program works correctly. Purely functional programs make nondeterminism easier to reason about, because evaluation of an expression always returns the same value no matter what. For example, in the expression operations can be executed concurrently (e.g., with the left and right products evaluated simultaneously) without changing the answer. Imperative programming is more problematic. For example, the expressions incr x; !x, if executed concurrently, could give different results depending on which executes first. To make concurrent programming easier, computer scientists have invented many abstractions. One of the best known is threads. Abstractly, a thread is a single sequential computation. There can be many threads running at a time, either interleaved or in parallel depending on the hardware, and a scheduler handles choosing which threads are running at any given time. Scheduling can either be preemptive, meaning that the scheduler is permitted to stop a thread and restart it later without the thread getting a choice in the matter, or cooperative, meaning that the thread must choose to relinquish control back to the scheduler. The former can lead to race conditions, and the latter can lead to unresponsive applications. Concretely, a thread is a set of values that are loaded into the registers of a processor. Those values tell the processor where to find the next instruction to execute, where its stack and heap are located in memory, etc. To implement preemption, a scheduler sets a timer in the hardware; when the timer goes off, the current thread is interrupted and the scheduler gets to run. CS 3410 and 4410 cover those concepts in detail. In the functional programming paradigm, one of the best known abstractions for concurrency is promises. Other names for this idea include futures, deferreds, and delayeds. All those names refer to the idea of a computation that is not yet finished: it has promised to eventually produce a value in the future, but the completion of the computation has been deferred or delayed. There may be many such values being computed concurrently, and when the value is finally available, there may be computations ready to execute that depend on the value. This idea has been widely adopted in many languages and libraries, async keyword that causes a function to return a promise, await keyword that waits for a promise to finish computing. There are two widely-used libraries in OCaml that implement promises: Async and Lwt. Async is developed by Jane Street. Lwt is part of the Ocsigen project, which is a web framework for OCaml. We now take a deeper look at promises in Lwt. The name of the library was an acronym for "light-weight threads." But that was a misnomer, as the Github page admits (as of 10/22/18): Much of the current manual refers to ... "lightweight threads" or just "threads." This will be fixed in the new manual. [Lwt implements] promises, and has nothing to do with system or preemptive threads. So don't think of Lwt as having anything to do with threads: it really is a library for promises.
What are Obsessions and Compulsions? Obsessive-compulsive disorder is often the subject of jokes and parodies, but despite the stereotypes, genuine OCD is no laughing matter. OCD is a biologically-based anxiety disorder that often begins in childhood and may run in families. OCD is characterized by obsessions, compulsions, or both. Obsessions are unwanted thoughts or images that repetitively intrude into awareness, while compulsions are seemingly unstoppable repetitive habits or behaviors, in which an individual engages in order to reduce discomfort and anxiety. Both the obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors are usually recognized as unrealistic or irrational by OCD sufferers, but typically, they feel powerless to stop either. Symptoms of OCD Although the types of thoughts and behaviors often vary significantly from person to person, some patterns are common. For example, OCD sufferers may engage in repetitive “checking”. This may take the form of checking to make sure doors are locked, appliances are turned off, keys are in place and the like. Some individuals may compulsively avoid exposure to germs by repetitive cleaning or handwashing. Some may have elaborate rituals associated with everyday activities, such as dressing or undressing in a certain specified order, entering or leaving their house or room in a certain way, attempting to repeat (or avoid repeating) a given action or thought a certain number of times for luck, etc.. Sometimes, behaviors associated with other disorders, such as anorexia, bulimia, and trichotillomania (hair-pulling, eyelash pulling) include obsessive-compulsive qualities. It is very important to note that many people engage in some of these behaviors and thinking patterns, some of the time, without having OCD. For example, it is normal and appropriate to make certain a door is locked for safety, or to wash one’s hands after exposure to germs. Displaying a certain degree of neatness and attention to detail is considered appropriate and is even expected as a sign of emerging maturity as children mature developmentally. Likewise, everyone also has typical ways of doing routine tasks. It is only when thoughts and behaviors are excessively repetitive and/or begin to interfere, rather than assist, in daily living that OCD is suspected. Thus, people with OCD often spent vast amounts of time engaging in ritualistic and/or avoidance behavior to the point that they actually neglect important areas of their lives. They may spend so much time attending to personal hygiene that they never make it to class. They may be so worried about potential germs or contamination that they may avoid sharing mealtime with friends in the dining hall. They may also avoid socializing or participating in activities because of shame and fear that their OCD will be detected by others. If you suspect that you or someone you know, suffers from OCD, consider a consultation with a mental health professional. OCD is an anxiety disorder that can be helped, through the use of counseling, behavioral therapy, and/or medication. The Talley Center for Counseling Services have staff who are experienced in helping those with OCD and who will assist in assessing your situation and recommending options for intervention. These services, including short-term individual counseling are confidential, and available free-of-charge, to all full-time, degree-seeking students. If you would like more information on these or other mental health services, call the Talley Center for Counseling Services at 540-654-1053 or stop by Monday through Friday.
Saving the Northern Spotted Owl First and foremost, its habitat was threatened by excessive lumber harvesting. The northern spotted owl lives in the forests in northern California, Washington and Oregon. These forests contain beautiful centuries-old trees. As beautiful as these trees are, they also make excellent timber for home floors, furniture and other wooden goods. These forests were all threatened by excess logging. Not only are the trees majestically beautiful and home to the northern spotted owl, they are also flammable. Forest fires cut wide swaths through the forest, destroying everything in their path. These fires took out large chunks of the northern spotted owl territory. The owl was and still is also under heavy threat by a better competitor: the barred owl. The northern spotted owl is a fairly picky eater. It only likes to eat flying squirrels. The barred owl has a much more varied diet, and thus is outcompeting the northern spotted owl for territory and resources. Basically, the barred owl has a higher survival rate than the northern spotted owl. Imagine you are locked in a room with a buffet with one other person. You only eat spaghetti and meatballs, but the other person likes spaghetti, mac and cheese and fresh fruit. Since there are 8 dishes available in limited quantities, the other person will survive longer than you because they are willing to eat three out of the 8 dishes available as opposed to just one. That’s what it is like for the northern spotted owl; the picky eater is outcompeted by the nonpicky eater. In 1992, the government and scientists joined together to do something to save this endangered species. They drafted the Northern Spotted Owl Recovery Plan. This plan was outline to defend the owl against the two primary threats against it: habitat loss due to timber harvest and forest fires and interspecific competition with the barred owl. This plan was joined by the Northwest Forest Plan drafted by Bill Clinton just one year later. These two plans combined to protect the northern spotted owl territories along California, Washington and Oregon. The plans also enacted laws to limit timber harvest within the northwest spotted owl territory. The government also endeavored to manage the barred owl population. These plans were the first major example of scientists and the government working together for a common cause: an endangered species. Scientists conducted research on the northern spotted owl and its progress on becoming delisted as an endangered species. The government received copies of their research reports and drafted laws based on that research to protect the northern spotted owl. By working together the northern spotted owl has made significant progress towards becoming delisted. These conservation efforts are still in effect today to protect the owl and its habitat. For more information on the northern spotted owl, check out this great book: "The Wisdom of the Spotted Owl: Policy Lessons For A New Century" For another book with more information on the Northern Spotted Owl and fabulous photos of the bird in its natural habitat, check out "Spotted Owls: Shadows in an Old-Growth Forest" This site needs an editor - click to learn more! Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2021 by Catherine Ebey. All rights reserved. This content was written by Catherine Ebey. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact BellaOnline Administration for details.
Unsustainable pumping of groundwater for irrigated agriculture is acclerating rapidly around the world, according to new research that matches crop production statistics against high-tech measurements of aquifer drawdowns. Agriculture’s heavy demand on the world’s freshwater resources is well understood from the output end — of all water consumption for all uses, the United Nations estimates, 70 percent goes to produce food. But the problem has been more difficult at the sourcing end, which requires distinguishing between perpetually replenished surface water from lakes and streams on the one hand, and essentially nonrenewable underground reserves on the other. Quantifying the impact of withdrawals from aquifers has become a little easier since the introduction about 15 years ago of the satellite program known as GRACE, for Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, developed in a collaboration of the U.S. and German space programs. Using a pair of satellites equipped with sensors that measure changes in the earth’s gravitational field, scientists can now visualize what’s going on with changing water volumes far below the surface (also, for that matter, with water locked in polar ice sheets). For a paper published last week in the prestigious journal Nature, an international team of researchers — led by scientists at the UK’s Institute for Sustainable Resources and NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies — looked at the gap between the rapid rate at which water is being withdrawn from aquifers and the very slow pace at which it is returned, essentially via rainfall and surface water filtering down through soil. Because most of the returns occur on time scales of many decades, at least, the gap amounts to a long-term depletion of groundwater resource. But where is the water going? To answer that question, the team made what appears to be the first effort to overlay depletion data with country-by-country statistics on agricultural output, to see how much of the loss could be attributed to food production. They called the resulting measurement GWD — groundwater depletion for irrigation — and the numbers were rather grim in terms of the acceleration rate. Depletion up 24 percent in just 10 years In the year 2000, GWD was estimated at 19.47 cubic kilometers. By 2010, the endpoint of the analysis, it had risen to 24.14 km3 — an increase of 24 percent in just one decade. (If that volume measure seems unimpressively small, note that one cubic kilometer is 26.42 billion gallons.) Of course, agricultural depletion is not uniform across the globe. About two-thirds of the GWD calculated for 2010 was in just four countries: India (7.35 km3), Iran (3.33 km3), Pakistan (2.75 km3) and China (2.40 km3). Almost 85 percent occurred in 10 nations — the top four plus the United States (1.62 km3), Mexico (1.11 km3), Libya (.25 km3), Turkey (.20 km3), and Italy (.20 km3). During the decade that ended in 2010, the acceleration of GWD was most rapid in India (23 percent), China (102 percent) and the United States (31 percent). Nor does all agriculture contribute equally, the researchers found: The crops leading to the most depletion globally in 2010, both because of their large production and high GWD intensity, are wheat (22% of global GWD, or 65 km3/year) rice (17%), sugar crops (7%), cotton (7%) and maize (5%). As a result of this, GWD itself is further concentrated within parts of the producing countries where output is highest: Most GWD is concentrated in a few regions that rely significantly on overexploited aquifers to grow crops, mainly the USA, Mexico, the Middle East and North Africa, India, Pakistan and China, including almost all the major breadbaskets and population centres of the planet [my emphasis]. Both distribution factors raise obvious issues of food security — and so does a third, which the paper addresses at some length: Food and water security Because many of the crops driving GWD trends are globally traded commodities, the threats to agriculture posed by overconsumption of groundwater for irrigation are also threats to the economies of exporting countries, and to essential food supplies in importing countries. Indeed, many countries where GWD is accelerating are both exporters and importers — the U.S., Mexico, Iran, Saudi Arabia and China are in the top tier on both sides of the trade ledger — and therefore face the dual risk of losing production capacity and access to food produced elsewhere. This embedding of groundwater in globalized commodities also results in a “virtual water trade,” in which this most fundamental and local of resources is bought and sold across borders within what you might consider the “packaging” of grain, fiber and sugar. And this adds yet another dimension of insecurity: A vast majority of the world’s population lives in countries sourcing nearly all their staple crop imports from partners who deplete groundwater to produce these crops, highlighting risks for global food and water security. Some countries, such as the USA, Mexico, Iran and China, are particularly exposed to these risks because they both produce and import food irrigated from rapidly depleting aquifers. The big and unanswered question in this area, of course, is how much water remains in the world’s aquifers. GRACE can measure changes in volumes but not the volumes themselves. Even where the situation has been studied closely, as with the Ogallala aquifer underlying the central U.S., and those beneath California’s Central Valley, the complexity and sheer scale of the geology and hydrology involved defy efforts to measure and forecast the available resource with confidence. So we simply don’t know whether the glass is half full or half empty. We just know that it’s emptying out rapidly, that the rate is accelerating, and that replenishment will take may generations. And now we are coming to know more about how heavily the depletion is being driven by agriculture, driven in turn by population growth and rising living standards around the world. The paper suggests that its findings could be used to help target efforts to improve the sustainability of water use and food production. Solutions to minimize GWD could include, in the producing countries, water-saving strategies such as improving irrigation efficiency and growing more drought-resistant crops, together with targeted measures, such as metering and regulation of groundwater pumping. These policy efforts need to be further supported by local analysis that takes into account socio-economic, cultural and environmental aspects. All worthy aspirations, and I imagine the world’s governments will be taking them up as soon as they’ve finished fixing that little problem of global warming. * * * The full paper, “Groundwater depletion embedded in international food trade,” can be found here but access is not free.
Although modern slavery is not always easy to recognize, it continues to exist in nearly every country. In total, there are 167 countries that still have slavery and around 46 million slaves today, according to the 2016 Global Slavery Index. The U.S. Department of State defines modern slavery as “the act of recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing, or obtaining a person for compelled labor or commercial sex acts through the use of force, fraud, or coercion.” India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Uzbekistan and North Korea are at the top of the list for countries that still have slavery. Here are some facts about what slavery is like in each of these countries. The Highest Numbers: 6 Countries That Still Have Slavery - India (18.4 Million) India has the highest number of slaves in the world. Like many other countries, modern slavery in India can take the shape of domestic service, forced begging, commercial sexual exploitation, forced marriage and forced recruitment for armed services. Because of India’s growing economy, many modern slaves work in factories that export goods to other countries. Consequently, men, women and children work long hours without proper compensation or even basic rights. - China (3.4 Million) The Chinese government relies on exports of goods and raw materials even more than India. According to a CNN report, people in China are forced into labor across many different industries. The migration of poor families from rural to urban areas in search of jobs often leads to opportunities for traffickers. Although families travel together, many eventually split up. Individuals sell young boys to other families who lack sons, and girls often face sex slavery or forced marriage. - Pakistan (2.1 Million) Modern slavery in Pakistan, like India, centers on debt bondage, or bonded labor. Brick-making employs around 10 million people in Pakistan. Children and families often work 10 hours each day in brick kilns and are denied basic rights or laws to protect them. Without this protection, workers face torture and sexual exploitation. - Bangladesh (1.5 Million) Contemporary slavery in Bangladesh is accounted for through 80 percent forced labor and 20 percent forced marriage, according to the Global Slavery Index. Poverty, natural disasters and government corruption have made Bangladesh the 11th most vulnerable country to slavery within Asia. - Uzbekistan (1.2 Million) The main cash crop of Uzbekistan is cotton. Each fall, when cotton crops are booming, the government forces millions of people out of their jobs to work in the cotton fields. International organizations monitor the process, however, the government still does not compensate these people. They also do not enforce proper safety precautions. - North Korea (1.1 Million) The government of North Korea has done little to criminalize modern slavery. People of all ages are subject to forced labor while their government says they are “living in a socialist paradise.” One in twenty North Koreans is enslaved. Although the country does not have the highest total number of slaves, it does have the highest concentration of forced labor. While many countries have taken steps toward banning and criminalizing slavery, there is still much to do. Countries that still have slavery are facing many problems that we all must address. “Improving the rights of 45.8 million human beings is both wise and urgent for all leaders of countries and organizations,” said Andrew Forrest, Founder and Chairman of the Walk Free Foundation. “Eradicating slavery makes sense; morally, politically, logically and economically.” – Madeline Boeding
vernier(redirected from verniers) Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical. vernier(vûr`nēr), auxiliary scale, either straight or an arc of a circle, designed to slide along a fixed scale. Its unit divisions, usually smaller than those on the fixed scale, permit a far more precise reading. The vernier is attached to the scales of instruments employed for very accurate linear or angular measurements; these include the transit, sextant, barometer, compass, and caliper. It was devised by a French mathematician, Pierre Vernier, who described it in his Construction, usage et propriétés du quadrant nouveau de mathématiques (1631). Certain auxiliary control mechanisms used for fine measurements or adjustments are often called verniers. vernier(ver -nee-er) A short scale used to increase the accuracy of the graduated scale to which it is attached. If nine divisions of the vernier correspond to 10 divisions of the instrument scale, the latter can be read to a further decimal place. (1) In instrument making, a device for the exact reading of lengths or angles from the fractional divisions of a scale. The operation of the vernier is based on the eye’s capacity to establish with certainty the coincidence of two lines when one of them is a continuation of the other and their ends overlap. The vernier is a movable scale that can slide along a fixed, basic scale; the divisions on the movable scale are somewhat finer than those on the basic scale. If the interval between the divisions of the basic scale is represented by a, and the interval between divisions on the Vernier is (a - a/n), then the vernier allows the primary scale to be read with an accuracy equal to 1/n of its division. The divisions of the vernier are figured in corresponding fractions of the division of the basic scale. If the zero line of the vernier (index) is located between the two lines c and c + 1 of the basic scale, then the reading is equal to c plus that indication of the vernier which is located opposite the line that best coincides with a certain line of the basic scale. The vernier was invented in 1631 by P. Vernier (1580-1637), the director of the mint in Franche-Comté, and it was named in his honor. (2) In radio engineering a device for the exact tuning of radio receivers and other radio equipment. E. A. IUROV an auxiliary scale used to read fractions of divisions on the main scale of a measuring device. A prototype of the modern vernier was proposed by the French mathematician P. Vernier. [The Russian term, nonius, comes from the name of the Portuguese P. Nunes, latinized to Nonius, who proposed a similar device as a means for reading fractions of scale divisions; this device is no longer used.] There are several types of vernier: linear (Figure 1, a), goniometric (Figure 1, b), spiral (Figure 2), and transverse (Figure 3). The use of a linear vernier is based on a difference in division intervals between the main scale and the vernier scale. The length of the vernier (a whole number of its divisions) is laid out precisely on an integral number of divisions of the main scale. If the zero mark of the vernier coincides with any mark L of the main scale, the measurement result A corresponds to the value given by the mark L. If the zero mark of the vernier does not coincide with L, the value of A becomes A = L + ki, where k is the number of vernier divisions from the zero division to the division that coincides with the mark on the main scale, and i is the smallest fraction of a division of the main scale that can be measured with the vernier (usually i = 0.1, 0.05, or 0.02 mm). The principle of reading from a goniometric vernier (used in a number of opticomechanical instruments) is the same as for a linear vernier. The operation of other types of vernier is explained in Figures 2 and 3.
Different Types of Horse Parasites See files for Horses The vast majority of species in the animal kingdom can be affected by parasites. Even parasites can have their own parasites, the latter known as hyperparasites. For an animal as large as a horse, there are various types of parasite which can cause infestation. Since a parasite is an organism which survives by taking resources from their host, there is a risk of causing disease. However, this doesn't always occur, so parasitism in itself is not necessarily detrimental to the horse's health. Parasitosis is when the parasite's interaction with the host causes disease. As you can see already, different parasites will have different effects on the host. AnimalWised looks at the different types of horse parasites so we can know what harm may come to the animal. Equine parasites come in different forms, with worms being very common internal and flies common external parasites. Types of parasites on horses A parasite will adapt to the different tissues of the animal host it infests. Their ability to do so will largely depend on their size. This is why parasites will often be categorized according to the areas they affect. For example, some internal parasites are so small they can live in the the organism's cells and are known as intracellular parasites. A hemoparasite is a type of intracellular parasite which lives in the blood of the animal. Since there are millions of genera and species of parasites, taxonomic categories are used to help research and study them. Taxa are the groups in biology which classify living beings, associating them by their similarities and phylogenetic relation. The correct taxonomic classification of parasites has helped scientists study the effects of these organisms. However, because there are so many of them, knowing all the different types can become complicated. In a more general sense, we can classify the types of horse parasites into two categories: - Internal parasites (endoparasites) - External parasites (ectoparasites) Within each group we find various different types of parasites that affect horses. A parasite species will often bear a name relating to the host they most commonly affect, something which also apply to certain horse parasites. Internal parasites in horses Internal parasites, also called endoparasites, are organisms that live inside the animal. The type of tissue or organic material they live in varies, but some of the most common are those which live in the intestines, blood or organs. If parasitosis occurs, the symptoms we can observe in the horse will vary according to their location. However, many symptoms will be shared by various equine parasite types. Some may be asymptomatic either at the beginning of their infestation or for their full life cycle. This means no obvious behavioral or physiological changes may occur. Intestinal parasites in horses One of the first symptoms we might observe in a horse with parasitosis is linked to their gastrointestinal tract. Diarrhea is one of the most common. These are often the result of intestinal parasites, since their defecation is so closely related to these organs. Other digestive conditions in horses which may result from intestinal parasites include colic, weight loss and peritonitis. The most important intestinal parasites in horses are strongyles. These are the cause of equine strongyloidiasis (parasitosis in horses caused by nematodes of the order Strongylida). They are the major cause of diseases by intestinal parasites in horses. Strongyles can be classified into both large and small types, with larger varieties able to migrate along the digestive tract and affect other organs. The most common types of strongyle parasite in horses include: - Strongylus vulgaris: this parasite locates itself in the intestine of the horse and causes lesions in the tissue. This can seriously detract from the animal's quality of life. One of the most fascinating, yet deleterious, characteristics of this parasite is the fact it can migrate through the horses arteries. They can then attach themselves to the endothelium which can result in a life-threatening aneurysm. For this ability, they are also known as blood worms in horses. - Strongyls equinus: part of the group of larger strongyles, they can also manifest migratory behaviors. In the case of this parasite, they can lead to pancreatitis and lesions on the liver. - Strongylus edentatus: this parasite is associated with peritonitis in horses, although it has also been described leading to liver damage. Aside from the strongyles, we need mention other species of intestinal parasites in horses as they are very relevant: - Parascaris equorum: a type of roundworm in horses, this parasite causes cramps and is known for its high mortality in foals. - Oxyuris equi: the parasitosis of this type of pinworm is characterized by pruritus in the anal area and tail. Restlessness and other signs of stress are both common and dangerous symptoms. - Habronemiasis: this pathology caused by nematodes of the order Habronema and are most commonly found in the stomach. Although nematode worms parasitize internal organs, this species is also capable of causing equine cutaneous habronemiosis. This is one of the most studied skin conditions in horses. Within this order we can name Habronema megastoma, Habronema muscae and Habronema microstoma. Hemoparasites in horses The prefix ‘hemo-’ means ‘blood’, meaning a hemoparasite is one which lives in the blood of its host. They usually have a preference for certain cells, depending on the species. Some have also been reported to migrate freely in the bloodstream. The most studied types of hemoparasites in horses are: - Trypanosomas: the cause of equine trypanosomiasis, they result in anemia which can become very serious. The species that parasites horses is called Trypanosoma evansi. - Babesias: this is the cause of equine piroplasmosis, a malaria type disease which is sometimes known as ‘Texas fever’. Species of babesia most commonly parasitize the horse through tick as vectors. In horses we can find the species Babesia caballi and Babesia equi. Pulmonary parasites in horses There are parasites in horses that develop their evolutionary cycles in the airways of their respiratory system. In the case of the equine, the most important is a nematode called Dictyocaulus arnfieldi, which causes equine lungworm. The main symptoms of lungworm in horses are coughing and nasal discharge. These can be exacerbated on colder days. The prognosis is generally favorable, but severe infestation can be damaging. They may result in respiratory distress and even pneumonia. They can also create hospitable conditions for bacterial infections. Foals or health-compromised horses are particularly vulnerable. Kidney parasites in horses There are some parasites capable of residing in the kidneys. In the case of horses, the most significant is Klossiella equi. This is responsible for equine renal coccidiosis. This pathology can lead to the animal developing kidney infections and alterations in the structure of the kidney. The infestation of horses can come through different vectors. However, the most common is from ingestion of affected material. Eggs are consumed by the horse which then develop in various tissues. Since horses spend so much time in large spaces, prevention of intestinal parasites can be difficult. This is why horse owners need to be vigilant for any signs of symptoms of internal parasites in horses. One of the most common is the presence of larvae or worms in their feces. External parasites in horses External parasites, or ectoparasites, are organisms that live outside the host organism. They are usually found in the skin and can cause very dangerous for the animal they feed on. These include insects, mites, arachnids, etc., but the most important external parasites in horses can be classified as follows: Parasitical flies on horses Horseflies are a species of fly which belong to the Tabanidae family. They are hematophagous, meaning they feed on blood. Some species are particular to horses. Their sting is quite painful, so it causes stress problems to the affected horse. The most common are: - Stomoxys calcitrans: it is commonly called the stable fly and also has hematophagous habits. It is attracted to any warm-blooded animal (including humans), which is why it should be considered an important external parasite in the study of horse parasites. - Gasterophilus: also known as bot flies. An infestation is caused by an external fly laying eggs in wounds or other orifices. The eggs then lay in the flesh of the horse and the ensuing larvae eat through the tissue. This is one of the most common parasites in horses. While they can survive without treatment, if the infestation grows large enough, the horse's well-being is under threat. The most important ones that affect horses are: G. haemorroidalis , G. intestinalis and G. nasalis. Ticks on horses The most common tick species in horses are the following: - Dermacentor nitens: it is a species belonging to the family Ixodidae (hard ticks) and is one of the ticks that parasitize horses. This tick serves as a vector for other parasites (such as babesia), causing different systemic diseases such as equine pyroplasmosis. - Amblyomma cajennense: it also belongs to the family of hard ticks and is one of the species that is most found in horses. It causes anemia problems and is well known worldwide for being responsible for rocky mountain spotted fever. They are sometimes known as the cayenne tick. We will notice that the horse has ticks if we observe that it feels itchy in certain areas. When analyzing this area, we should be able to see the tick, which we will need to remove with tweezers. We need to be very careful so that the tick doesn't release toxins into the bloodstream of the horse. If we feel like we are unable to do this ourselves, we should seek a specialist veterinarian. Treatment of parasites in horses For obvious reasons, each parasitic species will have different methods of control and treatment. While prevention is difficult, maintaining proper hygiene and regular checkups with a specialist veterinarian are important. This should happen from birth. If parasitosis is diagnosed, antiparasitic medication will likely be prescribed by the vet. The type of drug will depend on the type of parasite. If there is a high number of flies present, further protection may be required. This may include a special mask which is used to protect from further infestation (see photo above). This may even be used as a preventive method in areas where there is a large population of flies, especially those from the order Diptera. The prognosis for the majority of cases is favorable, but it internal parasite can be tricky. Parasitosis can progress without showing any external signs, only doing so when a lot of damage has been done to the animal's tissues. After antiparasitics have been administered, the veterinarian will implement a course of deworming which will help to avoid future infestations. Internal deworming schedules will usually come in the form of tablets or syrup. For external parasites which affect the skin, both topical and oral treatments may be used. A vaccination plan will also need to be implemented. This is another reason it is so important to take the horse to a specialist veterinarian right after they are born. This article is purely informative. AnimalWised does not have the authority to prescribe any veterinary treatment or create a diagnosis. We invite you to take your pet to the veterinarian if they are suffering from any condition or pain. If you want to read similar articles to Different Types of Horse Parasites, we recommend you visit our Parasitic diseases category. 1. Hall, C. M., et al. (2013). Genetic characterization of Theileria equi infecting horses in North America: evidence for a limited source of U.S. introductions. Parasites & Vectors, 6(35). - Cordero del Campillo, M., & Rojo Vázquez, F. (1999). Veterinary Parasitology. McGraw-Hill Interamerican Editorial. - Flores, A. & Rivero, E. (2016). Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in horses of the JJ Ranch stable El Alto sector of the Monseñor Iturriza municipality of Falcón state. UNEFM. - Quiroz, R. H. (1984). Parasitology and parasitic diseases in domestic animals. Editorial Limusa.
An accounting method is a set of rules under which revenues and expenses are reported in financial statements. The choice of accounting method can result in differing amounts of profit being reported in the short-term. Over the long-term, the choice of accounting method has a reduced impact on profitability. Accounting Method is the method by which income and expenses are reported for taxation purposes. The Internal Revenue Service requires taxpayers to choose an accounting method that accurately reflects their income and to be consistent in their choice of accounting method from year to year. IRS approval is required to change methods. The chosen accounting method is based on regulation and tax minimization strategies. The primary accounting methods are the accrual basis of accounting and the cash basis of accounting. Under the accrual basis, revenue is recognized when earned, and expenses are recognized when consumed. Accrual basis accounting is required for publicly-held entities, and for any organization that wants to have its financial statements audited. This is considered the most theoretically correct accounting method, but also requires a greater knowledge of accounting, and so is less likely to be used by smaller organizations. The other main accounting method is the cash basis of accounting. Under the cash basis, revenue is recognized when cash is received from customers, and expenses are recognized when cash is paid to suppliers. This method is more likely to result in lumpy profitability in any given period, since a large cash inflow or outflow can sharply alter profits. There are also variations on the cash and accrual methods that are considered to be hybrid accounting methods. These may be allowable under special circumstances, but will not normally result in financial statements that can be audited. Accounting methods refer to the basic rules and guidelines under which businesses keep their financial records and prepare their financial reports. There are two main accounting methods used for record-keeping: the cash basis and the accrual basis. Small business owners must decide which method to use depending on the legal form of the business, its sales volume, whether it extends credit to customers, whether it maintains an inventory, and the tax requirements set forth by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Some form of record-keeping is required by law and for tax purposes, but the resulting information can also be useful to managers in assessing the company’s financial situation and making decisions. It is possible to change accounting methods later, but the process can be complicated. Therefore it is important for small business owners to decide which method to use up front based on what will be most suitable for their particular business.
Internal Hard Drive Example: "All of his programs and files are stored on the computer's internal hard drive." As the name implies, an internal hard drive is a hard drive located inside a computer. Nearly all computers come with an internal hard drive, which serves as the computer's primary storage device. It typically contains the operating system, software applications, and other files. While most computers only have one internal hard drive, some system units and servers have room for multiple hard drives. Extra internal hard drives can be added to these systems to provide additional storage inside the computer. If a computer only has one internal hard drive bay (such as a laptop), extra storage can be added using an external hard drive. Updated: May 11, 2010
Thursday, May 12, 2011 Evolution happens even within a human lifetime Nylon is a synthetic material and was invented in 1935. Bacteria cannot grow/feed on synthetics. However, in 1975 Japanese scientists discovered a new bacteria feeding off nylon waste in a pond near a nylon producing factory. The bacteria strain of Flavobacterium, using an enzyme called nylonase, had evolved junk, repetitive DNA to digest certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate, even though those substances are not known to have existed prior to the invention of nylon. Further study revealed that the three enzymes the bacteria were using to digest the byproducts were significantly different from any other enzymes produced by other Flavobacterium strains (or any other bacteria for that matter), and not effective on any material other than the manmade nylon byproducts. Scientists have also been able to induce another species of bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, to evolve the capability to break down the same nylon byproducts in a laboratory by forcing them to live in an environment with no other source of nutrients. The P. aeruginosa strain did not seem to use the same enzymes that had been utilized by the original Flavobacterium strain. Nylon eating bacteria is an example of evolution working even with a human lifetime.
The quality of our writing, especially in professional contexts, is actually quite important. The fact is, whenever we write, we always reveal two things about ourselves. Naturally, we communicate the explicit message that we are intending to write, but we also convey an implicit message: the story revealed by our writing ability. Truth be told, writing ability is invariably associated with a host of other traits, such as one’s ability to think, to learn, and to communicate. Our ability to write, at any given age, reveals how much effort we have directed towards mastering our language up to that point in time. Poor writing reveals either a poor effort in learning one's language, or a poor effort in applying one’s ability toward a particular piece of writing. Either way, poor writing does not speak well of a person’s ability or attitude. In poker terms, we could say that a person’s writing is a “tell.” Writing reveals something about ourselves that we may not intend, or even wish, to convey. Indeed, a writer’s skill will often belie their words. As uncomfortable as it may be to believe, we always stand to undermine even our best efforts if the quality of our writing indicates that we are perhaps less capable, less intelligent, or less responsible than our words might suggest. What is an abstract? An abstract is a concise summary of a research paper. It is often said that an abstract is like a summary of a story wherein you give away the ending. Writers must bear in mind that the abstract will be read by students and researchers to help guide their decisions about whether to read the article or not, and so the abstract should make sense on its own, without the need to refer to outside sources or even to the article that it is summarizing. Abstracts are short: often numbering between 100 to 250 words in length. I often remind my students that there is limited space in an abstract, and so we must remain staunchly focused on the primary purpose of the abstract, which is to summarize our study, its methodology, and its findings. With this in mind, I have begun teaching a basic five-sentence model for writing an abstract. I have outlined this model below. The Five-Sentence Model: In the five sentence model, the first sentence establishes the general issue, the second sentence provides more specific detail about the issue, and then, if possible, segues into the purpose of the study. The third sentence briefly describes the study’s methodology. The fourth sentence briefly outlines the study’s findings, often providing some specific statistical data, and the fifth and final sentence provides a brief statement of the study’s implications for society, policy, or research. I have included a colour-coded exemplar below. In recent years, high-profile fatalities involving school-aged pedestrians crossing the street at designated crosswalks have elevated the issue of pedestrian safety, especially with respect to highly vulnerable pedestrians. While Section 136(1) of The Highway Traffic Act clearly outlines the requirement to stop at posted stop signs, little is known about the average driver’s propensity to comply with this law. This study gained insight into this question by observing motorists as they approached a suburban stop sign, and then coding their behaviour into one of three categories: “full stop,” “rolling stop,” or “slow and go.” The study’s findings suggest that the majority of drivers do not comply with the requirement to stop at stop signs, with more than one in four drivers almost completely disregarding the stop sign. These findings suggest a need to solicit greater compliance rates amongst Ontario drivers with respect to Section 136(1) of the HTA. Sentence Number and Objective: 1st: Establishes the general Issue. 2nd: Provides more specific detail about the issue, then segues into the purpose of the study. 3rd: Briefly describes the study’s methodology. 4th: Briefly outlines the study’s findings, often providing some specific statistical data. 5th: A brief statement of the study’s implications for society, policy, or research. Directions for further study are not explicitly discussed in most abstracts, although they may at times refer to the general need to conduct more research in a certain area. Educators are constantly lamenting the lack of writing skill observed in their students. However, few teachers take any ownership over this often-cited deficit in their own students, preferring to blame social trends regarding technology, entertainment, and the popularity – or lack thereof – of reading. Many English teachers claim that reading is the key to writing (Hanski, 2014). They suggest that the rules of English grammar will be learned naturally as one continues to read English prose. These same teachers suggest that the lack of writing skill we presently observe in our students is the result of a lack of such reading. While I would certainly agree that reading does improve writing skill, I must disagree with any position that views writing skill as being wholly dependent on reading. In truth, I believe that writing skill is a body of knowledge that must be taught - not absorbed subliminally. I believe that one must first learn the rules of grammar before one can even begin to recognize the various rules and conventions at play in our language. Otherwise, commas that come before coordinating conjunctions, for example, will seem like just another random event concealed in the apparent chaos of words, punctuation, and carriage returns. In my view, until one understands that there is in fact a rule being invoked, one will simply not realize that they are observing such a rule when they see it. To be sure, it is widely believed that the quality of writing skill amongst English writers is on the decline. Few teachers would disagree with this. I strongly believe, however, that the cause of this deterioration is not a lack of reading, but rather the Whole Language movement that came to the forefront of educationalist theory back in the 1970s. Whole Language (also known as “New English”) is a learning theory that believes language is acquired most effectively when language is kept whole, and not fragmented into skills. The theory sounds very nice, and was without a doubt well-intentioned. However, I personally prefer the perspective provided by Steven Laffoley, a Canadian English teacher and school principal. In a 2004 CBC radio commentary, Laffoley described Whole Language as a movement that “blindly trusted a student’s individual intuition and ... encouraged students to write willy-nilly, unfettered by rules of grammar or qualitative evaluation.” Laffoley went on to say, “Unfortunately, Whole Language failed to produce competent writers. And worse. Whole Language imparted to students a fantastical and unwarranted sense of self-esteem and self-confidence in writing. They were told they write well, but in truth, they have no practical knowledge of English or of writing and certainly no sense of its craft. In truth, they are inexperienced and incompetent.” Laffoley’s final assertion is the most damning, not just of Whole Language, but of the very future of the English language: “Even if we had the will to change our course suddenly, we would be left to confront the dark, awful truth that this generation of teachers is the product of New English. Frankly, many teachers are without the fundamental grammatical knowledge necessary to teach our children.” While some may view Laffoley as cynical, it's hard to deny his point. If we teachers do not understand the mechanics of writing, then how can we expect our students to grasp the rules and conventions of the written word? Should we simply ask our students to read more? That’s an easy out... but I suspect that's not the answer. I say this for two reasons. The first is that any modern piece of published writing can, and likely does, contain numerous grammatical errors. As such, modern published writing cannot be utilized dependably as exemplars of grammatically correct writing. The second reason is this: reading didn’t work for us. Teachers read, do we not? Yet, how many of us have enough faith in our knowledge of grammar to qualitatively mark grammar? If we do mark grammar, then how often do we simply underline a phrase or clause and write [awk] or [revise] or [rewrite] on the student’s paper? If we do understand the notion of, for example, parallel structure, how often do we just mark the paper with [ // ] and then move on? Can we actually explain the meaning of parallelism to our students? Can we identify the non-parallel elements within the sentence? Can we describe these elements in terms of their parts of speech? How often do we find ourselves saying, “I know it doesn’t sound right, but I can’t really say why”? In her 1994 article, The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language, Louisa Cook Moats discusses the findings of her study wherein she tested experienced teachers on reading, language arts, and special education to determine whether they have the requisite awareness of language elements. "The results were surprisingly poor, indicating that even motivated and experienced teachers typically understand too little about spoken and written language structure to be able to provide sufficient instruction in these areas." After these same teachers took a course focusing on phonemic awareness training, spoken-written language relationships, and analysis of spelling and reading behaviour in children, the teachers judged this information to be "essential for teaching" and advised that it "become a prerequisite for certification." I would even go so far as to suggest that we teachers – many of us the products of Whole Language – have simply tuned our ears to our own writing styles, and remain oblivious to the countless errors that we commit on a regular basis. We do this simply because we, quite frankly, find ourselves in constant agreement with the mechanics that we taught ourselves all those years ago in middle school. Thus, we think ourselves competent writers, yet we cannot really explain our system of writing to anyone else. Until we subject our own system of grammar to scrutiny, and dare to acquire an understanding of the grammatical rules that have governed our language for centuries, then we cannot know for certain whether our knowledge of English is truly knowledge, or simply a fairy tale told to us long ago by our Whole Language teachers. All is not lost If we do indeed have the will to change our course, then each and every teacher who deals with the written word can become an advocate for the authentic English language. There is still an abundance of grammar books available on the market, and more grammar blogs and websites come online every year. Any one of us can access these resources in an effort to improve our knowledge of English grammar, and, in so doing, we can help our students do the same. We even see evidence of a writing revolution in places like New Dorp High, a New York high school wherein "students suffered from a writing deficit that neither huge technology investments nor radical staffing changes could remedy" (Tyre, 2012). In 2009, the school finally resorted to implementing a cross-curricular program that required students to write expository essays and learn the fundamentals of grammar. "Within two years, the school's pass rates for the English Regents test and the global-history exam were soaring. The school's drop-out rate — 40 percent in 2006 — has fallen to 20 percent" (Tyre, 2012). "Homework got a lot harder. Teachers stopped giving fluffy assignments such as, “Write a postcard to a friend describing life in the trenches of World War I,” and instead demanded that students fashion an expository essay describing three major causes of the conflict" (Tyre, 2012). Knowledge of grammar is not a destination: it is a journey. It is unrealistic to expect anyone to learn all of the intricacies of our language, but that does not mean that we, as teachers, should not endeavour to expand and improve our knowledge of grammar, and then teach that knowledge – true knowledge – to our students. The only question we must now ask ourselves is: do we have the will? Hanski, Mike. Want to be a Better Writer? Read More. Huffington Post, June, 2014. Web. Oct. 2016. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/mike-hanski/read-more_b_5192754.html> Krashen, S. (1989), We Acquire Vocabulary and Spelling by Reading: Additional Evidence for the Input Hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73: 440–464. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb05325.x Strom, Ingrid M. "Does Knowledge of Grammar Improve Reading?" The English Journal 45.3 (1956): 129-33. Web. Tyre, Peg. “The Writing Revolution” The Atlantic.com. The Atlantic Monthly Group, October 2012. Web. Oct. 2012. <http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/10/the-writing- revolution/309090/> The New Learner Lab Exploring the ever-changing, often challenging, and always controversial world of teaching.
Storm surge is the rise in seawater level caused solely by a storm. Storm surge is the abnormal rise in seawater level during a storm, measured as the height of the water above the normal predicted astronomical tide. The surge is caused primarily by a storm’s winds pushing water onshore. The amplitude of the storm surge at any given loFcation depends on the orientation of the coast line with the storm track; the intensity, size, and speed of the storm; and the local bathymetry. Storm tide is the total observed seawater level during a storm, resulting from the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide. Astronomical tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon and have their greatest effects on seawater level during new and full moons—when the sun, the moon, and the Earth are in alignment. As a result, the highest storm tides are often observed during storms that coincide with a new or full moon. DYK: Powerful winds aren’t the only deadly force during a hurricane. The greatest threat to life actually comes from the water — in the form of storm surge. See for yourself with this video from NOAA’s Ocean Today. Compiled by Amy Duncan #storms #NOAA #oceans #hurricanes
The practice of physically stimulating the brain in order to alleviate symptoms of illness and injury has been around since the early 20th century. For example, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is still used to alleviate symptoms of depression. However, perhaps in part due to negative connotations associated with ECT, in modern medicine treatment of psychological disorders have tended to use other forms of intervention. These now mostly involve drugs or therapy. However, a recent study, published in the journal Science, sees a return to this idea of stimulating brain regions to improve brain function. Researchers at Northwestern University have shown that targeted stimulation of regions of the brain involved in the functioning of memory can enhance our ability to memorise. The method they used was not ECT, but transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). In TMS, electromagnetic pulses are applied to the outside of the head over the part of the brain that is to be stimulated. The magnetic stimulation then induces electrical activity – that is, impulses – in those parts. Importantly, whereas ECT has to be used with anaesthetics and muscle relaxants and has side effects, TMS is a less invasive procedure. In TMS the patient is able to remain fully conscious and may only experience mild physical symptoms such as a small tapping sensation to the head. In neuropsychology, the region of the brain predominantly associated with memory is the hippocampus. However, the hippocampus is located deep within the brain and its direct stimulation is difficult. Instead, the researchers used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques to identify regions located closer to the skull that connect with the hippocampus. They then targeted these cortical-hippocampal memory networks and tested the effects of this manipulation on memory. Sixteen people were recruited for the study. Half of these people received 20 minutes of TMS stimulation to the memory networks for five consecutive days. The other half received a “sham” application of TMS to the same networks. All people were also required to take a memory test both preceding the TMS stimulation – which was treated as the baseline – and after the five days of stimulation. The memory test consisted of a study phase whereby pictures of faces were paired with common words – and a subsequent test phase where people were again shown the faces and were required to recall the matching word. In addition, after the five days of TMS stimulation a second MRI scan was conducted in order to see if the “zapped” neural networks had changed. The researchers found that memory in the people that had received the TMS application was improved relative to those that had received the sham TMS application. However, what caused this improvement? Did it improve specific brain networks work or just help the brain overall? By conducting tests, such as stimulating regions of the motor cortex (making thumbs twitch for example) and also testing other cognitive abilities, the possibility that it was only the TMS stimulation “per se” on brain activity and function that produced the improved memory was eliminated. Also, MRI scans revealed increased connectivity in the brain networks targeted. The authors of the study note that this procedure is not a cure for memory disorders following neurological illnesses or brain injury. Rather the application offers insight into the possibility of an alternative form of intervention than drugs for illnesses such as Alzheimer’s. The problem with pharmacological intervention – that is, the use of drugs – is that it is hard to target specific regions of the brain – and due to this non-selectiveness many drugs have unwanted side effects. It is the recognition of the ability of TMS to target specific regions of the brain that offers the promise of a new approach to recovery of brain function following brain injury and illness. Incidentally, if you are also envisaging some kind of futuristic alternative to smart drugs – such as that found in the movies Limitless or Lucy – you are probably not the only one. For now, however, the research focus is firmly clinical with the view to improving the lives of those with debilitating memory disorders.
Engage students in mathematics using growth mindset techniques The most challenging parts of teaching mathematics are engaging students and helping them understand the connections between mathematics concepts. In this volume, you'll find a collection of low floor, high ceiling tasks that will help you do just that, by looking at the big ideas at the first-grade level through visualization, play, and investigation. During their work with tens of thousands of teachers, authors Jo Boaler, Jen Munson, and Cathy Williams heard the same message-that they want to incorporate more brain science into their math instruction, but they need guidance in the techniques that work best to get across the concepts they needed to teach. So the authors designed Mindset Mathematics around the principle of active student engagement, with tasks that reflect the latest brain science on learning. Open, creative, and visual math tasks have been shown to improve student test scores, and more importantly change their relationship with mathematics and start believing in their own potential. The tasks in Mindset Mathematics reflect the lessons from brain science that: There is no such thing as a math person - anyone can learn mathematics to high levels. Mistakes, struggle and challenge are the most important times for brain growth. Speed is unimportant in mathematics. Mathematics is a visual and beautiful subject, and our brains want to think visually about mathematics. With engaging questions, open-ended tasks, and four-color visuals that will help kids get excited about mathematics, Mindset Mathematics is organized around nine big ideas which emphasize the connections within the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and can be used with any current curriculum. , Jen Munson , Cathy Williams Country of Publication: 18 August 2017 Professional and scholarly Introduction Low Floor, High Ceiling Tasks Youcubed Summer Camp Memorization versus Conceptual Engagement Mathematical Thinking, Reasoning, and Convincing Big Ideas Structure of the Book Activities for Building Norms Encouraging Good Group Work Paper Folding: Learning to Reason, Convince, and Be Skeptical Big Idea 1: Seeing Patterns inside Numbers Visualize: Visualizing Numbers Play: What Could It Be? Investigate: How Flexible Is a Number? Big Idea 2: Building and Designing with Shapes and Angles Visualize: Tile It! Play: Those Crazy Rep-Tiles Investigate: Polyiamonds Big Idea 3: Making and Naming Number Patterns Visualize: Finding Fibonacci Play: Pattern Carnival Investigate: All Hail! Big Idea 4: Units Are a Relationship Visualize: It's All in the Axes Play: Measure Up Investigate: 10,000 Steps Big Idea 5: Modeling with Unit Fractions Visualize: Perplexing Measures Play: Tangram Designs Investigate: Pixeled Fractions Big Idea 6: Fraction Equivalence Visualize: Painting Pieces Play: Color-Coding Fractions Investigate: Tiling Rectangles Big Idea 7: Illustrating Multiplication and Division Visualize: Visual Proof Play: Cover the Field Investigate: Table Patterns Big Idea 8: Using Operations Flexibly Visualize: How Crowded Is the Crowd? Play: Target 20 Investigate: Supply Parade Big Idea 9: What Is a Decimal? Visualize: Finding the Better Deal Play: Decimals on a Line Investigate: Can You Make It? About the Authors Acknowledgments Index JO BOALER is a professor of mathematics education at Stanford University and co-founder and faculty director of youcubed. She serves as an advisor to several Silicon Valley companies and is a White House presenter on girls and STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math). The author of seven books, including Mathematical Mindsets, and numerous research articles, she is a regular contributor to news and radio in the United States and England. JEN MUNSON is a doctoral candidate at Stanford University, a professional developer, and a former classroom teacher. She works with teachers and school leaders across the U.S. to develop responsive, equitable mathematics instruction. CATHY WILLIAMS is the co-founder and the executive director of youcubed at Stanford University. Before working at youcubed she was a high school math teacher and worked in mathematics curriculum and administration at the county and district levels in California.
1 Answer \| Add Yours Almost every country in the world is big enough that it has to have a central government and smaller governments. These smaller governments are often called state governments or provincial governments. In the United States, even the smaller governments govern areas that are big enough to make even smaller governments (counties, cities) necessary. Systems that have a central government along with small governments can be classified in three ways. First, there is a unitary government. This is one in which the central government has all the power and simply gives the smaller governments whatever powers it sees fit. In the US today, state governments are like this. They only give county and city governments whatever rights they want to give. At the other end of the spectrum is a confederal government. This is one in which the smaller governments have all the power. The central government only has powers that the states choose to give it. This is the system that the US had under its first constitution, the Articles of Confederation. In that system, the central government was very weak and could not even do things like imposing taxes on the people. It had to ask the state governments for money instead. In between these extremes, we have a federal system. This is the system we have today. In this system, the Constitution gives some powers to the states and some to the national government. Neither the states nor the federal government can simply take powers from the other level of government. The two levels are not necessarily equal, but they each have powers that are reserved for them by the Constitution. We’ve answered 395,831 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
Each device that is connected to the Internet has a unique identifier referred to as IP (Internet Protocol) address. This includes computers, web servers, smart phones, switches, etc. The pool of IP addresses, that was introduced at first, has already been distributed, hence the so-called IPv4 IP addresses are progressively getting replaced with IPv6 addresses. Every domain that opens a site has an IP record, that is the address of the server where it is hosted. Using the IPv4 system, the record is called A and it consists of four groups of numbers from 1 to 255 divided by a dot, while in the IPv6 system it's called AAAA and it comprises of 8 groups of hexadecimal numbers i.e. this kind of records use numbers from 0 to 9 and letters from A to F. An illustration of an AAAA record is 2010:0c48:43d3:2142:1012:8c3a:2475:2435 and this format is designed for a significantly bigger number of IPs than the IPv4 format.
The cerebellum, Latin for "little brain," is the part of the brain that is partly responsible for the movement, coordination and balance of the body. The cerebellum sits at the back of the skull, below the two cerebral hemispheres, and consists of three main parts: the archicerebellum, the paleocerebellum and the neocerebellum. The archicerebellum is the part that deals with balance; it connects to the inner ear. The connection of the brain and the inner ear is called the vestibular system. The labyrinth section of the inner ear contains fluid. When a person moves his head, the movement of the inner ear's fluid sends signals to the archicerebellum, which then processes these signals and sends messages to the rest of the body, maintaining coordination and balance. Traumatic brain injuries often cause balance problems due to damage to the connection between the central nervous system, of which the cerebellum is a part, and the rest of the vestibular system. Symptoms of this damage include dizziness and vertigo. Ménière’s Disease is the production of excess fluid in the labyrinth section of the inner ear that can interfere with human balance by sending inaccurate signals to the cerebellum. This disorder is most common among middle-aged people.
Factor track is not a race but a game of skill. The idea is to go round the track in as few moves as possible, keeping to the rules. Complete the following expressions so that each one gives a four digit number as the product of two two digit numbers and uses the digits 1 to 8 once and only once. A 3 digit number is multiplied by a 2 digit number and the calculation is written out as shown with a digit in place of each of the *'s. Complete the whole multiplication sum. Is it possible to draw a 5-pointed star without taking your pencil off the paper? Is it possible to draw a 6-pointed star in the same way without taking your pen off? All the girls would like a puzzle each for Christmas and all the boys would like a book each. Solve the riddle to find out how many puzzles and books Santa left. Using the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 once and only once, and the operations x and ÷ once and only once, what is the smallest whole number you can make? Work out Tom's number from the answers he gives his friend. He will only answer 'yes' or 'no'. Can you arrange the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 into three 3-digit numbers such that their total is close to 1500? Mr McGregor has a magic potting shed. Overnight, the number of plants in it doubles. He'd like to put the same number of plants in each of three gardens, planting one garden each day. Can he do it? Can you see how these factor-multiple chains work? Find the chain which contains the smallest possible numbers. How about the largest possible numbers? Amy's mum had given her £2.50 to spend. She bought four times as many pens as pencils and was given 40p change. How many of each did she buy? This challenge is to make up YOUR OWN alphanumeric. Each letter represents a digit and where the same letter appears more than once it must represent the same digit each time. Using only six straight cuts, find a way to make as many pieces of pizza as possible. (The pieces can be different sizes and shapes). In 1871 a mathematician called Augustus De Morgan died. De Morgan made a puzzling statement about his age. Can you discover which year De Morgan was born in? There are a number of coins on a table. One quarter of the coins show heads. If I turn over 2 coins, then one third show heads. How many coins are there altogether? 56 406 is the product of two consecutive numbers. What are these Arrange the digits 1, 1, 2, 2, 3 and 3 so that between the two 1's there is one digit, between the two 2's there are two digits, and between the two 3's there are three digits. A shunting puzzle for 1 person. Swop the positions of the counters at the top and bottom of the board. Using some or all of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and using the digits 3, 3, 8 and 8 each once and only once make an expression equal to 24. Have a go at this well-known challenge. Can you swap the frogs and toads in as few slides and jumps as possible? Skippy and Anna are locked in a room in a large castle. The key to that room, and all the other rooms, is a number. The numbers are locked away in a problem. Can you help them to get out? Strike it Out game for an adult and child. Can you stop your partner from being able to go? Fill in the missing numbers so that adding each pair of corner numbers gives you the number between them (in the box). This cube has ink on each face which leaves marks on paper as it is rolled. Can you work out what is on each face and the route it has taken? Fill in the numbers to make the sum of each row, column and diagonal equal to 34. For an extra challenge try the huge American Flag magic square. A cinema has 100 seats. Show how it is possible to sell exactly 100 tickets and take exactly £100 if the prices are £10 for adults, 50p for pensioners and 10p for children. Nine squares with side lengths 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, and 18 cm can be fitted together to form a rectangle. What are the dimensions of the rectangle? Start by putting one million (1 000 000) into the display of your calculator. Can you reduce this to 7 using just the 7 key and add, subtract, multiply, divide and equals as many times as you like? You have two sets of the digits 0 – 9. Can you arrange these in the five boxes to make four-digit numbers as close to the target numbers as possible? There are 44 people coming to a dinner party. There are 15 square tables that seat 4 people. Find a way to seat the 44 people using all 15 tables, with no empty places. Five numbers added together in pairs produce: 0, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15 What are the five numbers? Use your addition and subtraction skills, combined with some strategic thinking, to beat your partner at this game. Place the digits 1 to 9 into the circles so that each side of the triangle adds to the same total. The clockmaker's wife cut up his birthday cake to look like a clock face. Can you work out who received each piece? There are 78 prisoners in a square cell block of twelve cells. The clever prison warder arranged them so there were 25 along each wall of the prison block. How did he do it? Place the numbers 1 to 10 in the circles so that each number is the difference between the two numbers just below it. Katie had a pack of 20 cards numbered from 1 to 20. She arranged the cards into 6 unequal piles where each pile added to the same total. What was the total and how could this be done? Can you make a cycle of pairs that add to make a square number using all the numbers in the box below, once and once only? On the planet Vuv there are two sorts of creatures. The Zios have 3 legs and the Zepts have 7 legs. The great planetary explorer Nico counted 52 legs. How many Zios and how many Zepts were there? Sam sets up displays of cat food in his shop in triangular stacks. If Felix buys some, then how can Sam arrange the remaining cans in There were chews for 2p, mini eggs for 3p, Chocko bars for 5p and lollypops for 7p in the sweet shop. What could each of the children buy with their money? Using the statements, can you work out how many of each type of rabbit there are in these pens? Can you locate the lost giraffe? Input coordinates to help you search and find the giraffe in the fewest guesses. Find another number that is one short of a square number and when you double it and add 1, the result is also a square number. There are three buckets each of which holds a maximum of 5 litres. Use the clues to work out how much liquid there is in each bucket. Peter, Melanie, Amil and Jack received a total of 38 chocolate eggs. Use the information to work out how many eggs each person In this problem you have to place four by four magic squares on the faces of a cube so that along each edge of the cube the numbers Can you draw a continuous line through 16 numbers on this grid so that the total of the numbers you pass through is as high as We're excited about this new program for drawing beautiful mathematical designs. Can you work out how we made our first few pictures and, even better, share your most elegant solutions with us? Carry out some time trials and gather some data to help you decide on the best training regime for your rowing crew.
Psychoanalysis is a set of psychological and therapeutic theories and techniques. It was started by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, with experience from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others. Since then, psychoanalysis has expanded and been revised, reformed and developed in different ways. Freud's own colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, had their own ideas. They went on to develop their ideas independently from Freud. Much later, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein used the ideas to treat troubled children. The basic ideas of psychoanalysis are: - besides inherited personality, a person's development is determined by events in early childhood; - human behavior, experience, and thought is largely influenced by unconscious irrational drives; - attempts to bring these drives into awareness is resisted by defence mechanisms; - conflicts between conscious and unconscious (repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression, etc.; - liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved by bringing this material into the conscious mind (e.g. by the skilled guidance of the analyst. The unconscious mindEdit Sometimes people cannot say why they are feeling the way they feel or acting the way they act. What causes the feelings and actions is called the unconscious mind in psychodynamic theory. Under the broad umbrella of "psychoanalysis" there are at least 22 different approaches to the theory and clinical treatment. The term also refers to a method of studying child development. Freudian psychoanalysis uses a type of treatment where the subject (analytic patient) talks, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams. From these the analyst works out the unconscious conflicts which cause the patient's symptoms and character problems. By interpreting them for the patient, the analyst creates insight into the problems. The analyst identifies and clarifies the patient's pathological defences, wishes and guilt. Psychoanalysis has been criticized on many fronts. It has been called a pseudoscience, and lacking in empirical support. However, it remains influential within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others. - Freud S. 1940. An outline of psychoanalysis. (The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, volume XXIII) - Freud, Sigmund 1922. Introductory lectures on psycho-analysis: a course of twenty-eight lectures delivered at eh University of Vienna. Authorised English translation by Joan Riviere with a Preface by Ernest Jones. London: Allen & Unwin. - Erich Fromm 1992. The revision of psychoanalysis, p13/14. - Freud, Sigmend. 1913. The interpretation of dreams. Authorised translation of third edition with introduction by A.A. Brill. London: George Allen. - Fisher, Seymour, Greenberg Roger P. 1996. Freud scientifically reappraised: testing the theories and therapy. New York: John Wiley. - Popper KR, "Science: conjectures and refutations", reprinted in Grim P. 1990. Philosophy of science and the occult, Albany, pp. 104–110. See also Popper's Conjectures and Refutations. - Webster, Richard 1996. Why Freud was wrong: sin, science and psychoanalysis. London: Harper Collins. - Gellner, Ernest, The psychoanalytic movement: the cunning of unreason, a critical view of Freudian theory. ISBN 0-8101-1370-8 - Sadock, Benjamin J. and Sadock, Virginia A. 2007. Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry. 10th ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 190. - Michels, Robert. "Psychoanalysis and psychiatry: a changing relationship", American Mental Health Foundation.
The color of eyes is an interesting topic. In years past a brown eyed child seemed like an unlikely outcome from two blue eyed parents, but as we learn more about genetics we learn that eye color isn't as simple as blue + blue = blue. Let's learn more about the genetics of eye color. Caucasian children are usually born with unpigmented, blue eyes. As the child develops, the cells begin to produce melanin which eventually determines the final color of the eyes as well as the skin and hair. Eye colors range from brown, which is the most common, to green, the most rare, with shades of blue, amber, hazel and gray somewhere in between. Eye color is generally determined by the amount of pigment in the eye and this is decided by our genetic makeup long before we are born!! There are several genes which influence the color of a person's eyes. As a general rule brown eyed genes are often dominant and blue eyed genes tend to be recessive. These factors of genetic dominance are added to the complex genetic equation that our bodies use to determine our eye color Our genes are made up of two alleles. We receive one allele from our mother and a second from our father. Dominant alleles are typically shown as an uppercase letter and recessive are shown as a lowercase letter. Let's say there was a gene that determined eye color. A B allele would confer brown eyes and a b allele would result in blue eyes. Someone with BB would have brown eyes while another person with Bb would also have brown eyes, although possibly lighter. Finally a person with bb would have blue eyes. But, eye color isn't that simple. Multiple genes play a role in determining eye color. While the B gene we just talked about might play one role, there may be a second or even third gene involved in the process. In a second eye color gene let's say that G confers green or hazel eyes and g results in lighter eyes. In simple terms in one gene the B allele confers brown eye color, and the recessive b allele gives blue eyes. In another gene G confers green or hazel eyes and g would confer lighter eyes. In this instance B would be dominant over all the other alleles and the eyes would be brown. If you are homozygous (with identical genes) to the B alleles, the eyes would be darker brown than if you are heterozygous (with dissimilar pairs of genes). If you are homozygous for the G allele in the absence of B, your eyes would be darker, or more hazel, than if you had just one G allele. If one BG or a Bg allele crosses with any other BG, Bg, bG or bg allele then the result will be brown eyes, but in varying shades. BBGG would create the darkest brown eyes. bbGG would result in very green/hazel eyes. Green eyes need a bG allele to cross with a bG or a bg and the darkest green would be created with a bG bG cross. True blue eyes can only be produced from a genotype bbgg. Returning to the first example of two blue eyed parents producing a brown eyed child, probably the parents were bbGg with a shift to the lighter side of hazel influencing the shade of blue. The child is bbGG and the presence of two G alleles confers a brown color in this instance. To further complicate the issue, both genetic and environmental influences also affect the eye color to a degree too. Pregnancy, puberty and trauma can also see a change in the color of a person's eyes. Eye color is complicated. Blue eyes Blue eyes have become increasingly rare in American children in just the last few decades. As blue eyes are recessive, it needed parents of English, Irish and North European descent to pass on these traits. Increasingly, immigration has brought a wider pool of genes which are more dominant, with the resulting decline in blue eyes. Thirty years ago about 30% of American babies had blue eyes; now that statistic has changed to about 1 in 6. Researchers believe that all blue eyed people share one common ancestor. It is believed that the mutation that caused blue eyes occurred sometime between 6,000-10,000 years ago. Isn't it strange to think that all blue eyed people are somehow related? Brown eyes Brown eyes are predominant in humans and in many populations it is the only iris color. More than half the world's population has brown eyes and 90% of the world has brown, hazel or amber eyes which are all variants of brown eyes. Dark brown eyes are prominent in East Asia and contain large amounts of melanin within the iris. Although brown eyes are predominant and are the main eye color worldwide, in some parts of the world they are very rare. In Iceland 80% of the population has green or blue eyes. Gray eyes are darker than true blue eyes and have less melanin than blue eyes. Gray eyes are predominant in Russia, Finland , Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The gray eye color is determined by the density of proteins and the amount of melanin in the iris. Gray eyes are influenced by the light and may appear to change color in different lighting, or to reflect makeup and clothing colors. Green eyes Green eyes have moderate or low amounts of melanin and are often associated with red hair. Only 2% of the world has green eyes and strangely they are more prevalent in women. They are common in the Icelandic population and those with Celtic and German ancestors. Hazel eyes Hazel eyes are defined as being the color midway between the lightest blue and the darkest brown eyes. Hazel eyes have a large amount of melanin in the anterior border of the iris. In different lights they may appear to change from light brown to medium gold or even dark green. Sometimes they have a multicolored iris, lightest in the center of the iris and dark brown or green on the outer part. Why are my baby's eyes two different colors? Most babies, especially those born to Caucasian parents, are born with varying shades of blue eyes. The eyes may stay blue for as long as three years, until the melanin pigment develops in the eye (if it is going to). By the time the child is five years old their eye color will be pretty well defined. However, there are also times when babies are born with two distinctly different colored eyes. This may occur for a number of reasons including: Local trauma either while the baby was still in the womb or shortly after birth Faulty developmental pigment transport A genetic disorder (benign) Diffuse nevus of the iris (this is technically a freckle) Hornerís syndrome, a potentially serious condition Why do our eyes change color? In babies, the change in eye color is a result of the development of pigmentation. For adults the change in eye color could be a warning sign of some serious medical conditions. As many as 15% of Caucasian adults have some change in their eye color as they age, typically from darker to lighter, but if an adult's eyes change color dramatically, suddenly or the change is noted in only one eye, he or she should seek immediate medical attention. It could be the result of conditions such as: Fuchís heterochromic iridocyclitis Throughout our lifetime, the human eye may appear to change colors, even if the effect is only slight, because of lighting, mood and to some extent, what we are wearing. The iris, which is the colored part of the eye, is a muscle which in part controls the size and shape of the pupil. The pupil is wider in times of low light and is narrower in times of bright light. When the iris expands or contracts around the pupil, the pigments of its surface are either spread out or compressed together affecting the color that we perceive. In addition, certain emotions may cause the pupils to dilate and thus change the color of our eyes. What we wear doesn't actually cause a physical change in the color of our eyes; however the perception of our eye color can be affected by the clothing, makeup or jewelry that we are wearing. The future of eye color genetics Researchers are working on interesting ways to use DNA to determine a person's eye color. This information could be particularly useful during criminal investigations. There may even come a time when science can tell you what color your baby's eyes will be while he or she is still in the womb. New technologies are also being developed to change eye color, without changing genetics. One eye doctor believes that he can permanently change brown eyes to blue by using a special laser to remove the pigment from the eye.
This is a good video to understand voltage, current, electricity and magnetism. After watching this video you can answer these questions in order to check what you know. 1. What type of charged particles create magnetic fields? 2. What is a magnet? 3. What do we call the two sides of a magnet? 4. Magnetic fields exert a force on what? 5. Magnetic fields can also be created by ______________ through a _______________ . 6. What causes the magnetic field to reverse direction? 7. How can we make a magnet rotate? 8. Electric fields can also be created by a magnet field which is ________________________ . 9. The changing magnetic field creates an _______________________ which _________ the charged particles. 10. To maintain a moving magnetic field what must the magnet do? 11. How do pòwer plants generate electricity? 12. What happens when there is AC current and AC voltage? 13. What happens when there is DC voltage and DC current? 14. Radios and cellphones communicate through _______________________________ . 15. How is visible light different than radio waves? 16. X Rays and Gamma Rays are also electromagnetc waves with _________________________ frequencies.

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