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We often think of empathy as something one does or does not innately have. But did you know that empathy can be taught and cultivated from a young age? Empathy, at its roots, is the ability to understand how another person might be feeling. This skill is at the foundation of making strong friendships and building a sense of community and connection in students. Fortunately, teaching empathy doesn’t have to be overly complicated or serious. You can help your students by teaching empathy activities and games. Keep reading, and we’ll share a few ideas that might work in your classroom. 1. Character Role-Playing Getting into character is one of the most fun and educational types of empathy games. It allows students to apply their understanding of the content in the real world. Whether it’s a character from a book or a historical figure, asking your students to step into another person’s shoes will help them develop a strong sense of empathy. Have the students write a short story from the perspective of a character. Ask a group of students to work together to act out a scene from a novel or play. Establish a “dress up as your favorite character” day, and have students share why they chose the person/character they did. The point of role-playing is to imagine life from another person’s perspective. Make sure to ask thought-provoking questions like, “What makes this person happy?” or “What are their challenges?” Getting students to think more critically about the character can help them shift perspectives. 2. Empathy Scavenger Hunts A classroom, grade level or school-wide scavenger hunt might be the perfect solution to empathy games for students. Working together with teammates will help them foster relationships. Additionally, you can create clues and activities that help them get to know their fellow students and school faculty on a more personal level. To foster empathy, you might task the students with creating some of the clues and activities themselves. As an example, you might create clues that point to an individual within the school. Once they arrive at that person’s desk, locker, office, etc., they can ask questions to get to know the individual better. This is an especially great activity for the start of the school year. 3. Identifying Emotions If your students are in elementary or middle school, it might help to start with something simple. Identifying and modeling different emotions can be a basic but fun introduction to empathy. Here are a few ideas for teaching young students about different emotions: Write out a list of emotions on the chalkboard, and ask students to model that emotion on their faces. Play a game of charades, wherein one person acts out emotion, and the others have to guess. Present students with a scene or scenario, and ask them to act out how they would feel in that situation. Asking your students, “How would you feel if…,” can be a great introduction to emotions and empathy. 4. Student Check-Ins Putting yourself in another person’s shoes is a great way to learn empathy. You can learn to appreciate another person’s feelings if you don’t yet understand your own. That’s why it’s a good idea to perform regular check-ins with your students. Be prepared to ask questions relevant to the student’s age and circumstances. We’ve listed some examples below: Empathy questions for elementary students: What makes you feel happy, upset, angry, or sad? How do you know when someone is listening to you? What would you say to a classmate who was feeling sad? How does it feel when someone interrupts you or doesn’t listen to what you say? Those questions might be a little too easy if you teach older kids. Consider these empathy questions for middle school students: What does it mean to put yourself in someone else’s shoes? Can you think of an experience where you wished someone understood how you felt? How can you show better empathy to other people? By the time students move up from middle school, they might be ready for empathy questions for high school students: How is empathy different from sympathy? Why do you think some people have an easier time empathizing with others? How do you think social media affects our ability to feel empathy? Who is someone who shows empathy well? What makes you feel that way? These are examples of questions that will help your students think more critically about empathy and how it can be developed naturally into as a skill. Another outstanding example of a ready-made daily check-in is 180 Connections, created by Rachel’s Challenge. This interactive resource provides daily prompts for students in elementary through high school. It not only provides thought-provoking questions, but also allows students to connect more deeply with their teacher as well as other students. It’s a win-win! 5. Interview and Art Projects If your students like to work with their hands, an interview/art project might be a great method of teaching empathy. Task the students with selecting a person in the classroom or school to get to know better. Once they’ve performed a series of interviews, allow them to create a visual representation of the person they’ve gotten to know. It could be a sculpture, a portrait, a collage, or any other art medium. Thinking about that person’s life experience and transforming what they know into a work of art will help cultivate empathy. 6. Emotions Collage If you are looking for teaching empathy activities that include artwork, here’s another idea: allow your students to create a “feelings collage” that represents the different emotions they feel from time to time. Bring a stack of magazines and newspapers, along with other craft supplies, to the classroom. Let your students use their imaginations to choose images and text to include. Don’t forget to have each student explain to the class their choices for their “feelings collage” and method of thinking at the end of the activity. Why Empathy Matters Remember, empathy games are more than a teambuilding exercise or a way to kill time. When you build empathy within the classroom, you foster an environment of safety, community, and understanding. Ultimately, this will help every student and faculty member create more profound and meaningful relationships. If you would like some help fostering empathy and connection at your school, feel free to get in touch. At Rachel’s Challenge, we have several helpful resources and programs designed with this purpose in mind. Mental Health and Wellness May is Mental Health Awareness month, and providing for our own mental health and wellness is one of the most important things we can do. Teaching is one of the most stressful occupations in the United States. The constant outpouring of energy that educators exert everyday can lead to burnout. The additional toll on mental health brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic over the last two years has exacerbated the issue. That is why we at Rachel’s Challenge have put together this resource list to help you take better care of yourself so you can best support your students when they need it. We can all be overwhelmed by our emotions at times. Often what seems like the easy thing to do is to try to avoid those feelings in whatever way possible, hoping they’ll just go away. However, when we are unable to process our emotions we can act out or react in a negative way, or the feelings can overwhelm us. That can lead to reacting with an “acute stress response,” which is the way the body rapidly responds when one feels threatened in order to decrease, end, or evade the immediate danger to return to a state of calm and control. These acute stress responses are more commonly known as fight, flight, freeze, or fawn. Most of us are familiar with the “fight,” “flight,” and “freeze” responses, but “fawn” may be a new one you haven’t heard before. To “fawn” means to immediately act to try to please to avoid any conflict in a situation. People may often use this response after unsuccessfully trying fight, flight, or freeze. If you find yourself more concerned with making someone happy who has treated you poorly than you are concerned with taking care of yourself, you may be one who utilizes this response. Below are some strategies and tools to help you deal with negative emotions so you can better understand yourself on a deeper level, as well as make it easier to connect and support others, especially your students, when they need it. Please note that Rachel’s Challenge has no direct affiliation with any of the recommendations listed below, but we hope to provide a wide range of options for everyone to find something that they can relate and connect with the most. Strategies to Support Mental Health and Wellness Mindfulness is a powerful tool to help bring us into the present moment. It involves quieting our minds to bring attention and awareness to present thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations in order to help us accept those same thoughts and feelings without being overwhelmed by them or what’s going on around us. By tuning into what we are sensing in the present moment, we get ourselves out of the rut of worrying or ruminating about the past or having anxiety about the future. It can also increase empathy and compassion for others around us, improving our relationships and developing a sense of connectedness. So, when you practice being kind to your mind in the present moment, you’re not only connecting with yourself more, you’re connecting with others more which leads to a more fulfilling life. Here are some apps that can assist you in your mindfulness practice: 2. Breathing Exercises Have you ever noticed how you breathe when you feel relaxed? The next time you are relaxed, take a moment to notice how your body feels. Or think about how you breathe when you first wake up in the morning or just before you fall asleep. Deep breathing is one of the best ways to lower stress and anxiety in the body. When you breathe deeply a message is sent to your brain to calm down and relax. The brain then sends this message to your body. Certain bodily responses that happen when you are stressed, such as increased heart rate and fast breathing, decrease as you breathe deeply to relax. The way you breathe affects your whole body. Breathing exercises are a good way to relax, reduce tension, and relieve stress and anxiety – and they’re easy to learn. You can do them whenever you want, and you don’t need any special tools or equipment to do them. You can try different exercises to see which work best for you. Here are a few exercises you can try right away: Belly Breathing(also known as Abdominal or Diaphragmatic Breathing) Find a comfortable place to sit or lie down. Place one hand on your upper chest and the other on your belly, below the ribcage, allowing you to feel the rise and fall of your diaphragm. Breathe in slowly through your nose, feeling your stomach press into your hand, while keeping the hand on your chest as still as possible. Exhale slowly through slightly pursed lips. Repeat for 3-5 minutes, or as long as you’d like. Find a comfortable place to sit or lie down. Inhale for four counts. Hold the air in your lungs for four counts Exhale for four counts. Hold at the end of the exhale for four counts. Repeat for as long as you’d like. Sit in a comfortable position with your neck and shoulders relaxed. With your mouth closed, inhale through your nose for two seconds. Exhale through your mouth for four seconds, pursing or puckering your lips as if you were giving a kiss. Repeat as many times as you’d like, keeping your breath slow and steady throughout. Have you ever experienced a situation where your emotions go from 0 – 100 in what seems like the blink of an eye? Probably so. Sometimes when this happens our emotional reactions can make the situation worse. STOPP, TIPP, and the 54321 Grounding Method are all quick and easy tools you can use in the moment to help calm your emotions. STOPP is a powerful technique that helps you take a moment to notice the feelings going on inside you before reacting to them. It can help you reframe your thoughts and perspective in a situation and not allow your emotions to get the best of you. Watch this short video to see how it works. TIPP is another technique to help you stop emotional distress in its tracks by taking control of your body’s physiological response and using your body’s chemistry to help change your thoughts. TIPP stands for Temperature, Intense Exercise, Paced-Breathing, and Paired-Muscle Relaxation. Learn the technique below. The 54321 Grounding Method uses your five senses to help ground you in the present moment. Look for 5 things you can see. Become aware of 4 things you can touch. Acknowledge 3 things you can hear. Notice 2 things you can smell. Recognize 1 thing you can taste. Journaling is a great way to help you unload and untangle thoughts and feelings. By writing down your thoughts and feelings you can become more aware of your interior world, helping you solve problems and process traumatic events. Journaling helps reduce stress and anxiety, improves immune function, keeps your memory sharp, boosts your mood, and strengthens your emotional functions by presenting an opportunity for emotional catharsis and providing a greater sense of confidence and self-identity. Writing by hand also has benefits: it’s scientifically shown to be good for your brain and your mental health – it reduces stress and anxiety, boosts creativity, improves your memory, enhances your focus, and more! So much of the writing we do in life is for an outside audience, such as work or school assignments and social media posts. So remember, when it comes to a journal, you’re writing for YOU! Gratitude is an excellent way to boost your mood and increase your feelings of happiness. It can also improve your physical health, self-esteem, reduce stress and anxiety, and open doors to help deepen connections with other people. Keeping a gratitude journal, sending a thank you note to someone, or acknowledging someone with a verbal thank you can improve your well-being – so don’t forget to say thank you! 7.Move Your Body When stress affects the brain, the rest of the body feels the impact as well. So, it makes sense that if your body feels better, your mind will too. Physical activity produces endorphins – those chemicals in the brain that act as natural painkillers – and help improve your mood and concentration, relieve stress, alleviate anxiety and depression, improve sleep, and boost your confidence and self-esteem. Almost any form of exercise or movement works – walking, running, dancing, cycling, yoga, weightlifting, swimming, going for a hike in nature, and playing sports. Find what you love to do that gets your body moving! Apps to Support Mental Health and Wellness Developed by clinical psychologists in close collaboration with leading researchers for those who want to learn about emotional well-being or who suffer from mild-to-moderate mental illness including depression, anxiety, insomnia, and eating disorders. Developed by leading scientists and experts who’ve been studying evidence-based interventions in the fields of positive psychology, mindfulness, and cognitive behavioral therapy, Happify brings you effective tools and programs to help you take control of your feelings and thoughts. Moodfit provides a comprehensive set of customizable tools to help you learn and focus on what most affects your mood, including daily goals and self care, mood and gratitude journals, mindfulness and breathing exercises, and more! Started by a black woman and half-Japanese woman who didn’t see themselves and their experiences reflected in mainstream wellness. Their bodies, skin color, financial access, and past traumas often felt otherized. This inclusive self-care kit includes daily meditations, a mood tracker, gratitude log, and self-care courses. The purpose of the “Safe Place” is to bring more awareness, education, and hope to minority mental health. Not only can the black community benefit from this app, but also mental health professionals, friends, and family, of ALL colors can be better educated on this issue. All races go through mental illness, but we also can experience it differently because of our race and social backgrounds. Podcasts to Support Mental Health and Wellness Host Kristen Trumpey, who has a Masters in Applied Positive Psychology, wanted to create an accessible podcast that took the high-level scientific journals on the subject and put them in a context that makes sense, allowing listeners to explore a variety of positive solutions and pick something that works for them. It’s about understanding the science behind gratitude journals, dancing in your kitchen, and all the small things that make the good life, well, good. Based on years of scientific research, The Happiness Lab is about what makes us happy. Yale professor Dr. Laurie Santos takes on the misconceptions about what happiness is and shares inspiring stories that make you reflect on what happiness means to you. From the creators of the Shine App, a podcast about how to take care of your mental health while at work. Best selling author and wellness blogger Ty Alexander explores ways to take care of yourself and help you become the best you. With over 20 years studying what brings meaning and purpose to our lives, Brene Brown has learned this, “We are hardwired for connection, and connection requires courage, vulnerability, and conversation.” Listen to conversations that explore how we can connect on a deeper level. Licensed psychologist Joy Harden Bradford chats about mental health and personal development to help you become the best version of yourself. Teaching kindness, empathy, inclusion, and acceptance combine important components of developing students’ abilities to build healthy and positive relationships with others. In addition, building authentic connections between school staff members and students is critical. These connections build the trust needed to foster kindness, compassion, safety, empathy, acceptance, hope and a sense of belonging in the classroom. To foster kindness in schools and instill empathy: Model kindness yourself Encourage kindness with rewards Teach empathy and perspective-taking Help children deal with strong emotions Promote kindness and acceptance When children feel connected, they are less likely to hurt others or themselves. They’re also more likely to succeed academically, socially, and personally. Let’s look at five ways to foster kindness and instill empathy and acceptance in the classroom. 1. Model Kindness Yourself One way to cultivate kindness is by modeling it yourself. Emphasizing friendship, reaching out to others in need, encouraging good manners, and showing respect to others will provide students with someone to model their behavior off. Numerous activities demonstrate kindness in the classroom, including celebrating Kindness Week, holding assemblies that inspire acts of kindness and goal setting, creating a friendship center, and engaging in kindness challenges. Consistently modeling the behavior you want students to exhibit will provide them with a positive example that will remain with them and encourage them to mimic those actions after seeing the positive results and reactions. Ways to show kindness at school include introducing custodians to the class, acknowledging the importance of their role, and thanking them for the work they do. Another example is being openly kind and appreciative to cafeteria staff in front of the children. Showing respect to other faculty members by greeting them in a friendly way in hallways and common areas is another way to model respect and kindness. Teaching kindness through modeling is a natural and effective way for students to learn how to treat others by observing them in real-time. “Kindness is a silent smile, a friendly word, a nod of encouragement. Kindness is the single most powerful thing we can teach children.” — RAKtivist 2. Encourage Kindness with Rewards Promoting acts of kindness in schools with positive reinforcement can be effective and powerful. PBIS, or “positive behavioral interventions and supports,” is a proactive approach that focuses on prevention as opposed to punishment. PBIS focuses on rewarding students with model behaviors instead of negative reinforcement of inappropriate behaviors. This approach is designed to encourage students to seek positive reinforcement instead of negative redirection. Advocates for PBIS believe that PBIS changes school disciplinary protocols for the better. Others worry about the use of rewards and fear that problem behaviors can too easily be ignored. It’s important that educators plan consistent reward systems focusing on positive behaviors without excluding students with behavior challenges. When carefully monitored and administered authentically, reward systems can work to encourage kindness, provided that children are rewarded according to their own actions and not based on a standard, inflexible reward system. “No act of kindness, no matter how small, is ever wasted.” — Aesop 3. Teach Empathy and Perspective-Taking Being able to understand the feelings of another can transform the lives of students. Although it is impossible to understand someone else’s feelings or emotions truly, it is important to at the very least try to see situations from another’s point of view, i.e., walk in someone else’s shoes. This action encourages positive social change and cultivates a safer environment. When children feel understood, they feel happier, trusted, and compelled to treat others with kindness. Educators can teach empathy and perspective-taking by stressing the importance of active listening. Children should be taught to stop whatever else they are doing, focus on the speaker, anticipate what the speaker will say, and then replay the dialogue to understand the point that the speaker is trying to get across. This is often difficult for young students due to shorter attention spans, but it is important to teach patience and listening skills before responding to others. The story below provides an example using the numbers “9” and “6”. Two princes started a war with each other because one prince looked at the number on the table and said it was a “6” while the other said it was a “9”. The battle raged for many years. One day, a boy turned the tablecloth around, and finally, they saw each other’s point of view. The war ended, and the princes became friends. “A teacher without empathy and compassion is as useless as a book is without light.” — Robert John Meehan 4. Help Children Deal with Strong Emotions Social-emotional learning (SEL) provides students with strategies to cope with strong feelings and emotions while setting personal goals. SEL encourages self-reflection while engaging with others, especially those who have different perspectives than their own. It encourages children to develop interpersonal skills like resolving conflicts and working as part of a team. Strong emotions, like anxiety, fear, and anger, can interfere with healthy decision-making and a child’s ability to focus on important tasks. SEL addresses issues like these by showing students how to recognize and understand their emotions. Understanding emotions is the key to managing them, and creates the space needed to cultivate respect for others and feel empathy. SEL is a superior approach that helps all children, including those with behavioral challenges and those who think differently to build self-esteem and talk about their challenges. The essential tools taught via SEL benefit children socially, academically, and later, professionally. SEL prepares children for the next steps in life, whether it is the next grade level or adulthood. “It’s not that empathy itself automatically leads to kindness. Rather, empathy has to connect to kindness that already exists. Empathy makes good people better, then, because kind people don’t like suffering, and empathy makes this suffering silent.” — Paul Bloom 5. Promote Kindness and Acceptance Students from different backgrounds and cultures need to be taught kindness-promoting strategies that are age-appropriate. Programs, assemblies, and activities can foster a kind and empathetic learning environment that is also safe and inclusive. Rachel’s Challenge digital and in-person programs provide these skills. Rachel’s Challenge high school programs and middle school assemblies focus on teaching how modeling, inspiring, and supporting positive behavior can help positively shape or change the culture of schools. Rachel’s Challenge introduces a story to students about an extraordinary teenage girl who spread kindness and acceptance to others, especially those who were new or different from her. Students leave the assembly with a life-changing outlook regarding inclusiveness and acceptance of others. These resources are important to the sustainability of inclusiveness and acceptance as a norm. Rachel’s Challenge provides training and resources for student leaders as a means to continue the chain of kindness throughout the school. Talk to a representative to bring Rachel’s Challenge to your school today!
This topic takes on average 55 minutes to read. There are a number of interactive features in this resource: Animations: most of the animations can be expanded to full screen size, ideal for showing on an interactive whiteboard. The animations will play all the way through or can be viewed one section at a time. This topic has features which you can interactive with, these are usually animations will require you to click to progress to reveal more details. Protein synthesis is the process by which the information in the DNA code is translated into proteins. Some of these proteins form part of the cell structure. Others are enzymes that then control the production of all the other materials that make up the cell or the entire organism. Protein synthesis is a continuous process but we break it down into stages to help us understand what is taking place and where it happens in the cell. Animation showing protein synthesis from transcription in nucleus to packaging and exocytosis from the Golgi apparatus: For many years, scientists thought each gene coded for a single protein. Now we know that a variety of different factors act on the DNA itself or on the mRNA that is formed in the nucleus. As a result, a single gene may code for many different proteins depending on both the internal and external environment of the cell. 1. Transcription factors The transcription of the DNA itself may be affected by transcription factors in a number of different ways The initial mRNA is a transcription of all of the DNA including introns or non-coding regions of DNA. It needs to be modified before it is transported to the ribosomes for translation. The introns are removed by enzymes called spliceosomes. Sometimes spliceosomes join some of the exons, or coding regions, in different sequences so the same region of DNA can result in several different types of mRNA. Epigenetics is a relatively new way of looking at the effect of the environment on the genome. It describes how different chemicals associated with the DNA or RNA can affect the way the genetic code is read. This external control of the genome may be brought about by: Some proteins are produced in an inactive form. Post-translational changes as a result of second messengers such as cyclic AMP (cAMP) in the cell, or specific enzymes in the body, will modify and activate the proteins, changing the molecule produced. Examples are the production of fibrin from fibrinogen in the clotting cascade and the production of pepsin from pepsinogen in the digestive system. Investigate epigenetics and produce a poster explaining one example of this fast-growing area of research to your peers.
It is called twilight at the interval before sunrise or after sunset, during which the sky is still somewhat illuminated. Twilight occurs because sunlight illuminates the upper layers of the atmosphere. The light is diffused in all directions by the molecules of the air, reaches the observer and still illuminates the environment. The map shows the parts where they are during the day and where they are at night. If you want to know exactly the time that dawns or dusk in a specific place, in the meteorological data we have that information. Why do we use UTC? Universal coordinated time or UTC is the main standard of time by which the world regulates clocks and time. He is one of the several successors closely related to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). For most common purposes, UTC is synonymous with GMT, but GMT is no longer the most precisely defined standard for the scientific community.
Insect-borne diseases pose immense health & economic threats Call us for an expert pest survey on 1800-212-212-5 Zika is a virus of the genus Flavivirus and is closely related to dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and West Nile viruses. It was first isolated from a captive rhesus monkey in the Zika forest in Uganda in 1947. It was first isolated from a mosquito, Aedes africanus, in 1948. The disease caused by the virus is also called Zika and alternatively Zika fever or Zika virus disease. This article covers the following topics: In 1952, the first human cases were found in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania through the detection of antibodies in blood serum. The first known human infection was in 1954, after which it was rarely reported, with only 16 human cases reported, in Nigeria, Uganda and then Indonesia up to 1981. At that time it was suggested that the lack of reported cases was due to its clinical similarity to dengue and chikungunya. The first large outbreak was in 2007 on the Pacific island of Yap, in the Federated States of Micronesia, later identified as a strain from Southeast Asia. The suspected vector in this rural outbreak was a local mosquito species, Aedes hensilli. Zika spread to French Polynesia in 2013 and for the first time became an urban epidemic, where the main vector was Aedes aegypti. It spread to Brazil in 2015, when the country was suffering a dengue outbreak, carried by the same mosquito. After this it spread rapidly around tropical South America and the Caribbean. By June 2016 it had been reported in 63 countries or territories and was associated with over 1500 cases of microcephaly or central nervous system (CNS) malformations. The number of countries and territories with infections had risen to 84 by early 2017, according to WHO. Zika can be transmitted: The virus is primarily spread through bites of infected Aedes species of mosquito, including Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. It therefore has the potential to spread anywhere these mosquitoes can survive (see figure 1). The mosquitoes bite in the daytime, unlike most mosquito species, so it is important to take precautions when going out in infected areas. A pregnant woman who is infected with the Zika virus can pass it to her foetus during pregnancy as the virus can cross the placental membrane. The Zika virus can cause microcephaly and other severe brain defects in the foetus. Research is still ongoing to study other health problems. See more information about Zika regarding women and pregnancy. The Zika virus can be transmitted from an infected man to his sex partner before the symptoms show, when he has symptoms and after the symptoms have gone. WHO updated its recommendations in June 2016 to advise travellers returning from areas with Zika virus to use a condom for at least 8 weeks after returning, but if Zika virus symptoms occur during that period to use condoms or refrain from sex for at least 6 months. The US CDC reports that there have been multiple reports of Zika being transmitted by blood transfusion in Brazil. The virus was also found in a small proportion of blood donors in French Polynesia during an outbreak. According to CDC there have been several cases of Zika transmitted in a laboratory and healthcare settings, but the routes of transmission have not been clearly identified. Zika was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by WHO in February 2016. In June 2016, the WHO published an 18-month strategy to guide the international actions against the Zika infection, its complications and consequences. The major focus has now moved from mainly mosquito control to an integrated approach combining risk communication, integrated vector management, sexual and reproductive health counselling and services, health education and care. “Much has been learned about Zika virus infection... the response now requires a unique and integrated strategy that places support for women and girls of childbearing age at its core.” — Dr Margaret Chan, WHO Director-General (2016) (from WHO Global response page) The major areas of outbreak were in the northeast of Brazil and poorer countries of the region, where “poverty, poor infrastructure, and lack of access to health services are rampant, and the penetration of Aedes aegypti is high.” (The Lancet Global Health) Zika is not often seen in developed urban areas and the air conditioned shopping malls and hotels of major cities, therefore most residents and travellers in these areas have a low risk of infection. The incubation period for Zika virus is not known, but is thought to range from a few days to a week. A large proportion of people infected have no or mild symptoms. Only one in five infected people develop symptoms and people very rarely die from the disease. A Zika infection generally lasts for 2-7 days. The most common symptoms of a Zika virus infection are: The symptoms are similar to dengue and chikungunya, which are also transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, so could be confused with them. Research published in the journal Nature in 2016 suggested that the rapid expansion in Zika infections in South America in 2015 and 2016 may have been due to previous exposure to dengue virus. It was already known that one dengue infection weakened the immune response to a second infection of the same strain. It has recently been shown in the lab that Ae. aegypti can carry Zika and chikungunya at the same time and transmit both viruses in saliva. Some patients in Nicaragua who tested positive for dengue, chikungunya or Zika were also found to be infected with one of the other viruses. A diagnosis is based on a person’s symptoms and their recent history of travel and potential mosquito bites. A blood or urine test can confirm infection with the Zika virus. These require labs with the capability to perform the appropriate PCR tests, require technical expertise, are relatively expensive and take several weeks. Rapid diagnostic tests suitable for use in low-resource and remote areas are reported to be under development, but are not available for general use yet. In the US, the FDA has issued an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for two new diagnostic tools for Zika virus (the Zika MAC-ELISA and Trioplex Real-Time RT-PCR Assay), but only qualified laboratories are allowed to use them. The Zika virus is transmitted to people mainly through bites from infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes but can also be transmitted by Ae. albopictus. As mentioned above, it can occur in other species. In Africa it was originally found in Ae. africanus and in Micronesia Ae. hensilli was thought to be responsible. Ae. aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, is thought to have originated in Africa and transported throughout tropical, subtropical and parts of temperate areas of the world through global trade and shipping activities. It relies largely on human habits to provide breeding grounds — in small containers of water and standing water. It cannot fly far to obtain a blood meal and feeds almost exclusively on humans (termed anthropophilic), so needs to be close to human habitation. Unlike most mosquito species, it feeds mainly during the daytime. Ae. aegypti is highly effective in transmitting several arboviruses that cause serious illnesses in humans: dengue, chikungunya, Zika and yellow fever. Ae. albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, originated in tropical Asia and has also been transported around the world into tropical, subtropical and some temperate areas through international trade. It is believed that imports of used tyres introduced it to the US. Ae. albopictus can survive a wider temperature range and cooler temperatures than Ae. aegypti, which gives it a greater ability to survive and spread in areas with temperate climates, including Europe and more extensively than Ae. aegypti in the US. It can feed on animals and humans so can live in urban areas near humans and in woodland. Aedes mosquito life cycle The Aedes mosquito life cycle consists of the following stages: There is no vaccine or specific treatment for the Zika virus. A Zika infection is usually mild and does not require any treatment, but WHO recommends that people with the disease should: Prevention of Zika is carried out at two levels: activities for government and non-government agencies at the population level, and personal protection to prevent mosquito bites. With the publication of the latest WHO strategy (June 2016), the global strategy for the prevention of Zika at the wider level includes: Personal protection involves avoiding high-risk places and prevention of mosquito bites, for example, using insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and trousers, and staying in places with window and door screens. The Zika outbreaks in French Polynesia and Brazil have been associated with congenital malformations in babies and neurological and autoimmune complications, in particular, microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. The World Health Organization maintains a Q&A website on the Zika virus and its associated complications with the most up to date information on this rapidly developing topic.
People of the Geopark Over many centuries, the special landscapes of what is now the Marble Arch Caves Global Geopark have presented both opportunities and challenges for the people that have lived there, and also contributed to the extraordinary diversity of settlers that have called this area their home. Ranging from the very first prehistoric people of Ireland right up to the present day, a near continuous history of settlement can be found within the Geopark, influenced and dependent on the wonderful natural landscapes around them. The First People The first settlers who arrived in Ireland around 10,000 years ago during the Mesolithic period mainly foraged on the shores of seas, lakes, and rivers as the densely forested lands were simply impenetrable to them. Evidence of how Mesolithic people lived is very rare as they were a nomadic people, but the remnants of their microliths or stone tools are sometimes found. Stone tools such as axe heads and scrapers made from locally sourced rocks have been found along the shoreline of Lough MacNean. The first farmers marked the beginning of the Neolithic period, and this meant a change from the hunter and gatherer lifestyle of the Mesolithic period to a more settled way of life that included building permanent dwellings. Neolithic settlers cleared large areas of upland forests for agriculture as they were much easier to clear than the dense, swampy, lowland forests. One of the most important legacies of the Neolithic farmers was their megaliths, or large stone burial sites. The Cavan Burren Park near Blacklion is a stunning place where Neolithic hut sites as well as many Neolithic megaliths can all be seen. There are also several other examples of Neolithic megaliths in the Geopark, including the Aghnaglack court tomb in Boho. The Bronze Age The discovery of metal was a key event in human history and bronze was the first metal that could be moulded into any shape. The Bronze Age did not begin in Ireland until 4,000 years ago, but slowly this new culture became integrated into the Neolithic way of life and the Irish Bronze Age began. Settlers during the Bronze Age began to move away from the traditional megalith type tombs preferring simple burial pits or cists. A new type of tomb appeared in the west of Ireland, the wedge tomb; a spectacular example of which can be seen in Cavan Burren Park, known as the Giants Grave. Giant’s Grave, Cavan Burren Park The Celts arrived in Ireland around 2,500 years ago and within a few hundred years, Ireland’s Bronze Age culture had all but disappeared. The Celts had one major advantage, in that they had discovered iron, giving rise to the Iron Age. Iron was a far superior metal to bronze, being stronger and much more durable. It did however have one major disadvantage as it required much hotter fires to extract it from its ore. The Iron Age people left their mark on the Geopark landscape in the form of several promontory forts, the best example of which is again found within Cavan Burren Park. The Early Christians Perhaps the most famous missionary to arrive in Ireland was Saint Patrick, although he was not the first and according to many historians his importance was greatly exaggerated. The churches founded by Saint Patrick and other missionaries were fairly simple affairs and during the late 5th century, hundred of churches were set up. In time, the Irish church matured and by the 6th century a number of monasteries were also set up. Initially intended to be places of retreat, they attracted the patronage of kings and became influential institutions in their own right. Many of these monastic sites were located along watercourses as this was the main method of transport of the time. As a result several Early Christian sites can be found in the Geopark including Devenish Island monastic site and Inishmacsaint High Cross on Lower Lough Erne, and Drumlane Abbey on the shores of Lough Oughter. Devenish Island (Copyright Tourism NI) By the 12th century, Ireland was divided politically into a shifting hierarchy of small kingdoms. The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in 1169 at the behest of Dermot MacMurrough, the King of Leinster, and led to the end of the Irish High Kingship. Many changes were brought about by the Anglo-Normans after the invasion including the founding of borough towns, castles and churches, the importing of tenants and an increase in agriculture and commerce. Evidence of the Anglo-Normans in the Geopark area can be seen at the Anglo-Norman motte and bailey on Turbet Island in Belturbet and Clogh Oughter Castle on Lough Oughter. The Plantation of Ulster was a planned process of colonisation that took place in the northern Irish province of Ulster during the 17th century. English and Scottish settlers took over lands that had been confiscated from Catholic Irish landowners in the counties of Ulster including Fermanagh and Cavan. These armed settlers helped to prevent further rebellion in Ulster, which had proved to be the most resistant of Ireland’s provinces to English invasion. There are many Plantation Castles dotted across the Ulster landscape some of which can be seen within the Geopark at Monea, Tully, Portora and Castle Caldwell. Farming in Ireland Ireland’s population increased rapidly between 1700 and the time of the Great Famine in the 1840’s. Poor farmers grew food mostly for subsistence, and due to the ever decreasing availability of land, many people had to resort to farming poor quality lands. Many farmers devised ingenious solutions to this problem such as burning peat rather that wood or coal, and creating ‘lazy beds’, a method of tillage specially adapted to poor or thin soils. There are many derelict farm cottages dotted across the Geopark that are a reminder of those hard times and the remnants of ‘lazy beds’ can often be seen in the land adjoining these cottages. Farming is still an important industry within the Geopark although many of the techniques used have changed dramatically. Tourism is overtaking farming as the most important industry in the region while manufacturing, insurance services, forestry and quarrying all make a valuable contribution to the economic development of both Counties Fermanagh and Cavan. For more information on the archaeology and built heritage of the Geopark please visit the following websites:
Caddo Indians. Within historic times no Caddoan tribe is known to have lived within the limits of the present State of Missouri, but occupancy by Caddo is indicated by certain archeological remains in the extreme southwestern section. (See Texas.) Dakota Indians. Representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty made in 1830, relinquishing lands in Missouri to the Whites. Delaware Indians. In 1818 a grant of land in southern Missouri was made to some of the Delaware Indians but it was re-ceded by them in 1829. (See New Jersey.) Fox Indians. Representatives of this tribe were a party to treaties with the United States Government concerning Missouri lands made in 1804 and 1830. Illinois Indians. Some of the tribes of the Illinois group at one time lived close to, and probably for a short time within, the eastern boundaries of Missouri. (See Illinois.) Iowa Indians. The Iowa perhaps lived for a time in that part of Missouri north of Missouri River. (See Iowa.) Kickapoo Indians. The Kickapoo lived in Missouri for awhile after they had sold their lands in Illinois but soon passed on to Kansas. Missouri Indians. Meaning either “(people having) dugout canoes,” or “(people having) wooden canoes,” which amounts to the same thing. Through a misunderstanding, the name has been supposed to apply to the river which now bears the name, and it has been interpreted as meaning “big muddy.” They were also called: Niúachi, their own name. Waçux¢a, by the Osage. Wa-ju’-xd¢ǎ, by the Quapaw. Location. The best-known historical location of the Missouri was on the river which bears their name on the south bank near the mouth of Grand River. Berry and Chapman (1938) have recently sought to identify this site,, and probably correctly, with what they call the Utz site at a place called The Pinnacles in Saline County, Mo., a few miles above the mouth of the Grand. (See also Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) Connection. The Missouri belonged to the Chiwere division of the Siouan linguistic family, the other tribes under this head being the Iowa and Oto. According to tradition, the Missouri, Iowa, and Oto separated from the Winnebago at some indefinite period in the past and moved southwest to Iowa River where the Iowa remained, the others continuing to the Missouri, which they reached at the mouth of Grand River. Here, in consequence of a dispute between two chiefs, the tribe split again, the Missouri remaining where they were, while the Oto continued on up the Missouri River. From what we know of the relationship between the tribes in question, such successive fissions are not inherently improbable, though they may not have occurred at the places indicated. No doubt, events that happened gradually have been represented as occurring abruptly within limited periods. (For a further discussion of the Chiwere migration legends, see Iowa under Iowa and Oto under Nebraska.) Whatever their earlier history Marquette (1698) reported their presence on the Missouri River in 1673, and they were probably at the point above indicated, though his map is too inaccurate to place this beyond question. Here, or in the immediate neighborhood, they remained until 1798, when they suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the Sauk and Fox Indians and scattered to live for a time among the Osage, Kansa, and Oto. By 1805 they had recovered to some extent, and Lewis and Clark found them in villages south of the River Platte. As a result of another unfortunate war, however, this time with the Osage, part joined the Iowa but the greater part went to the Oto to live, and followed their fortunes, participating with them in all treaties from 1830 onward. Population. Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,000 Missouri in 1780. In 1702 there were supposed to be 200 families. In 1805 Lewis and Clark placed the entire population of the tribe at 300 souls, but in 1829, when they were with the Oto, they counted but 80. Only 13 Indians of the Missouri tribe were returned by the census of 1910, and in 1930 they were not separated from the Oto Connection in which they have become noted. Historically the Missouri tribe itself is remembered particularly for the tragic manner in which it was almost destroyed, but, as in many other cases, its name has attained a distinction out of all proportion to the aboriginal standing of the people. It is associated with that of the largest branch of the largest river of North America and to one of the great States of the American Union. There is a post town in Clay County, Mo., called Missouri City; another Missouri City in Fort Bend County, Tex.; and a city in Harrison County, Iowa, known as Missouri Valley, besides a Missouri Branch in Wayne County, W. Va. Omaha Indians. Representatives of this tribe were party to a treaty made in 1830 relinquishing lands in Missouri to the United States Government. (See Nebraska.) Oto Indians. As stated in treating of the Missouri, the Oto accompanied that tribe into this State, left them when they were both on the Missouri River near Grand River, and moved northeast into Kansas. (See Nebraska.) Sauk Indians. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the treaties involving Missouri land cessions made in 1804 and 1830. (See Wisconsin.) Shawnee Indians. A part of the Shawnee Indians settled about Cape Girardeau in southeastern Missouri early in the nineteenth century. They ceded their lands to the U. S. Government in 1825.
Understanding the Fair Use Doctrine The TEACH Act is not a complete defense against copyright infringement. Many uses of copyrighted materials are simply not addressed in this Act and leave the University, employees, and students subject to infringement liabilities. The Fair Use Doctrine offers some remedy to this situation as a determination of fair use allows individuals to make fair use of copyrighted materials without the copyright owner’s permission. Determining whether the use of copyrighted materials qualifies as fair use requires a reasoned and balanced application of the four fair use factors set forth in Section 107 of U.S. Copyright Law. The four factors are: • the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes; • the nature of the copyrighted work; • the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a • the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. One must proceed with caution when applying the four factors for making a determination of fair use. Each of the four factors must be given consideration in tandem to determine whether the use of copyrighted materials is lawful. The use of copyrighted materials for educational purposes(i.e., teaching and research) alone does not constitute fair use. Consideration must also be given to the nature of the copyrighted materials, the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole, and the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. One must remember that the Fair Use Doctrine is always subject to the interpretation of the Courts. Individuals should seek permission to use copyrighted materials if there is any question about whether use of the materials constitutes fair use. Understanding the Four Factors This section contains a brief description of the four factors used to determine fair use. Guidance is provided to help one make a determination of fair use. Purpose and character of the use. Nonprofit educational uses of copyrighted materials typically refers to activities that are confined to the University in support of nonprofit education. These uses of copyrighted materials are typically favored by the Courts over commercial uses of the materials as the materials are not being used for profit or gain. The Courts also have a tendency to side with “transformative” uses of copyrighted materials. Such uses add to or change the original work to derive a new expression, meaning, or message as opposed to generating a mere reproduction of the original work. Transformative uses of copyrighted materials under the Fair Use Doctrine may include, but are not limited to, quotations incorporated into a paper, pieces of a work integrated into a multimedia product for teaching, and a critical analysis of a work. Multiple copies of a copyrighted work for classroom use is also permitted under the Fair Use Doctrine. Nature of the copyrighted work. The Fair Use Doctrine does not regard all copyrighted works the same. Fair use is more easily demonstrated with works of nonfiction as opposed to works of fiction (i.e., novels, short stories, poetry, and modern art images). Works of fiction are considered to possess high levels of creativity not present in works of nonfiction. Individuals must limit their uses of these creative works to portions of the works that are relevant to the purpose favoring fair use. Use of “consumable” materials such as test forms and workbook pages may not constitute fair use, particularly in cases where the materials are intended for repurchase. Instructors must verify the “conditions of use” for consumable materials. Amount of the work used. There are no exact measures for the quantity of a work that would be regarded as fair use. Quantity must be evaluated relative to the length of the work in its entirety and the amount of the work needed to facilitate the instructional activity for which the work is being used. Copying an entire work or multiple parts of a work would not be considered fair use. Images should be limited to “thumbnails” or low-resolution versions of the images. Effect on the value of or market for the work. The purpose of use factor in the Fair Use Doctrine is closely linked to the effect on the market factor. Works used for commercial purposes are more likely to have an adverse market effect than works use for nonprofit educational purposes. This potential for an adverse market effect must be weighed when determining fair use of a particular work. Please note that a determination of fair use is contingent on whether all four factors are satisfied. Adapted from the Copyright Law of the United States of America and Related Laws Contained in Title 17 of the United States Code, http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#107
by TeachThought Staff From a Press Release The Think Earth Environmental Education Foundation, a leading non-profit provider of environmental education for primary and secondary schools, is making its award-winning curriculum available free online. Kindergarten through second grade teachers can now access free Think Earth materials at www.thinkearth.org to teach students about the environment and the everyday behaviors that can help protect it. Updated Think Earth units for third grade will be available in September 2015, and grades four through eight are in development and will be available online in 2015 and 2016. The Think Earth Curriculum was originally launched as a print-based program, which has been used by more than 60,000 teachers nationwide. Each of the behavior-based instructional units provides teachers with everything they need to teach five to eight environmental lessons. Materials include a teacher’s guide, posters, handouts, practice exercises, videos, and songs. Each lesson helps students think about the environment and then take action to conserve natural resources, reduce waste, and minimize pollution. Students also receive Family Activity Sheets that educate parents about the program and encourage students to share Think Earth behaviors at home. “Environmental education is vital to stemming the effects of climate change around the world,” said Joseph Haworth, Chairman of the Think Earth Foundation. “Our curriculum makes it easy for teachers to show students that small everyday behaviors, such as turning off unused lights, putting trash in trash cans, carpooling to school, and recycling can have a big impact on the health of our planet. If we help young people establish positive environmental habits while they are young, they’ll carry them into adulthood and pass them on to the next generation.” Core concepts explored in the Think Earth curriculum by grade level include: • Kindergarten: Jay’s Tree: Students learn the benefits of trees and the importance of conserving natural resources. • Grade 1: Bernie and the School Bus: Students learn that everything comes from the environment and how to use water, paper, electricity, and natural gas wisely. • Grade 2: The Rascals: Students learn to reduce, reuse, or recycle products to conserve natural resources and minimize pollution. • Grade 3: Trashbot: Students learn that waste from the production, distribution, consumption, and disposal of products can pollute our land, water, and air. The Think Earth curriculum was developed by Educational Development Specialists, Inc. Each unit is aligned with Common Core State Standards, Next Generation Science Standards, and the McREL Standards Compendium. It is supported by: Edison International, Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, South Coast Air Quality Management District, Water Replenishment District of Southern California, Conrad N. Hilton Foundation, and Southern California Gas Company, along with others. The curriculum has received a number of honors, including the President’s Environment and Conservation Challenge Award, and the Governor’s Environmental and Economic Leadership Award in the Children’s Environmental Education category from the State of California. A complete list of awards is available at http://thinkearth.org/about- About Think Earth Education Foundation Established in 1988 and incorporated as a non-profit organization in 1995, the Think Earth Environmental Education Foundation is committed to helping communities create and maintain a sustainable environment through education. At the core of Think Earth is an award-winning environmental curriculum that is now available for free online (for K-3 teachers, presently). For more information please visit www.thinkearth.org. Follow Think Earth on Facebook (thinkearthfoundation), Twitter (@thinkearthed), and Pinterest (thinkearthed). The post Free K-2 Earth Environmental Education Curriculum Now Available appeared first on TeachThought.
Periodic paralyses: a group of diseases characterized by episodes of muscle weakness or paralysis that occur at irregular intervals. Most of these conditions are inherited (hereditary). The primary periodic paralyses are inherited diseases that are due to defective ion channels on body cells and are typically associated with abnormal potassium levels. Symptoms and signs depend upon the exact type of periodic paralysis that is present. In some cases the episodes of paralysis begin immediately after birth, while other affected people may not show symptoms until old age. The length of the paralysis episodes also varies according to the specific disease type. Some forms of periodic paralysis can lead to additional symptoms including muscle stiffness, muscle rigidity, or muscle shrinkage and wasting. Types of periodic paralysis include Hypokalemic Periodic Paralysis, Thyrotoxic Periodic Paralysis, Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis, Paramyotonia Congenita von Eulenburg, the Potassium Aggravated Myotonias, and Andersen-Tawil Syndrome.
The galaxy is one of the billions of galaxies that exist in the universe. This galaxy is particularly important since it was the setting of the histories of the Old Republic, the Galactic Empire, the Galactic Civil War, the Jedi and the Sith. Judging from the maps available, it appeared to be a galaxy of Sb type. According to some sources, the galaxy was 120,000 light years across, or 37,000 Parsecs (a parsec is 3.258 light years) across. A black hole existed at the center of the galaxy. There were approximately 400 billion stars and around half of these had planets that could support life. 10% of those developed life, while sentient life developed in 1/1000 of those (about 20 million). The galaxy was populated by approximately 100 quadrillion different life forms. The galaxy as an official entity began to exist millennia later, when Humans discovered hyperspace travel and met other sentient races. When several worlds and species came to know each other, they formed a loose affiliation that accepted common laws and currency, and the Old Republic became the "official" galactic government. The smaller Sith Empire rivaled the Republic, and the beginnings of that rivalry were religious—the understanding of the Force. The Sith were defeated and re-emerged several times. At the very heart of the galaxy, the Deep Core (a.k.a. Core Systems) was a small region that hid unusual worlds. Due to the gravitational pull of the vast number of stars, local space-time was severely warped, making hyperspace travel difficult at best. The region was thought to be inaccessible until the Galactic Empire found several safe hyperlanes into the region. An ancient region bordering the outlying areas of the Deep Core, the Core Worlds were some of the most prestigious, well-developed, well-known, and heavily populated planets in the galaxy. The Core Worlds were the original areas of Human occupation. The Old Republic and subsequently all galaxywide governments were born in the Core Worlds and spread out over the galaxy. The Humans are supposed to have originated from this region. The Colonies was the name given to a region of the galaxy between the Core Worlds and the Inner Rim. It was among the first areas outside the Core to be colonized, and the worlds here were typically heavily populated and industrialized. During its reign, the Galactic Empire was very forceful in controlling the Colonies, and as a result, the New Republic gained support quickly there. The Inner Rim was a region of the galaxy between the Colonies and the Expansion Region. It was originally just called "The Rim", as it was expected to be the farthest extent of the Known Galaxy for centuries, but the Expanded Rim (later renamed the Expansion Region) was opened within a hundred years of the Inner Rim. The Galactic Empire ruthlessly controlled the Inner Rim. Rather than rebel, many residents chose to flee to the Outer Rim Territories. After the Battle of Endor, the Empire, despite its unpopularity, held the region far longer than expected; many later resented the New Republic's sluggishness in liberating the region. Many worlds, despite joining the New Republic, were openly afraid that the government was not strong enough to maintain power. Their concerns were born when the Empire reclaimed most of the Inner Rim. The Expansion Region was an experiment in corporate-controlled worlds, with powerful corporations exploiting and profiting heavily from the planets for their raw materials, metals and ores. Inhabitants were oppressed while the corporations stripped entire stellar systems of all their resources. Eventually civil unrest spread from system to system. The Old Republic eventually took control of the system due to mounting pressure from its denizens by limiting or evicting corporate interests. Expansion Region worlds continued to be producers of raw materials and ores. However, most natural resources were exhausted by the Imperial era. With fewer natural resources (and therefore a smaller population) than many neighboring regions, the Mid Rim was a territory where residents worked hard for everything they had. Several planets had built up impressive economies, and pirate raiders often hid in the relatively unexplored spaces far from major trade routes. The Outer Rim Territories was the last widely settled expanse before Wild Space and the Unknown Regions. It was the birth place of the Dark Lord Revan, and was also where the Mandalorians began their crusades in the hope of provoking the Old Republic into war. It was strewn with obscure worlds, and rugged, primitive frontier planets. Due to its distance from the Core, the region was home to many supporters of the Rebel Alliance. Beyond the Outer RimEdit There were several sectors beyond the Outer Rim, on various arms of the galaxy. It was believed that a turbulent energy field surrounded the galaxy and prevented inter-galactic travel. The Tingel Arm was an exterior spiral arm of the galaxy. It contained the Corporate Sector Authority, a political entity which was semi-independent of the Old Republic and the Galactic Empire. Under the Galactic Empire, the sector expanded from a few hundred to thirty thousand systems. The term "Unknown Regions" most commonly referred to the large, unexplored region which some interpret to have been outside the plane of the galactic disk. The Unknown Regions comprised only a few billion stars, out of a galactic total of 400 billion. For reasons yet to be demonstrated there was a lack of reliable hyperspace routes through the region. The "Unknown Regions" designation included uncharted areas in dense nebulae, globular clusters, and the galactic halo. Wild Space was the frontier of galactic society, separating the known parts of the galaxy from the Unknown Regions. Wild Space differed from the Unknown Regions in that some of Wild Space has been explored, though not extensively; the Unknown Regions remained mysterious. Various established "ways" like hyperlanes passed through the sectors. These routes were explored and established by spacers known as hyperspace explorers. Astromech droids had the responsibility of guiding spaceships through these routes. - Rimma Trade Route - Perlemian Trade Route - Hydian Way - Corellian Run - Corellian Trade Spine - Kessel Run - Ison Trade Corridor - Sisar Run - Myto's Arrow - Daragon Trail Government and politicsEdit Various governments have ruled within the galaxy over the millennia, the earliest known galaxy-spanning government being the Infinite Empire. Other significant political powers within the galaxy included: - Bothan Space - Chiss Ascendancy - Confederacy of Independent Systems - Corporate Sector Authority - Cronese Mandate - Empire of the Hand - Expansion Region - Hapes Cluster - Hutt Space - Imperial Remnant - Juvex Sector - Senex Sector - Ssi-Ruuvi Imperium - Tion Cluster - Tion Hegemony - Vagaari Empire Races and speciesEdit Life developed in 10% of the livable planets, while sentient life developed in 1/1000 of those (about 20 million sentient species). It was estimated that they together totaled 100 quadrillion beings. In classical history, the dominating species have been Humans. Possibly originating from the Core Worlds, Humans had been the basis of the major governments. Sentients other than Humans (examples: Twi'leks, Hutts, Mon Calamari) were simply known as 'aliens'. Aliens were also distinguished as humanoid or not. Although not considered a race for obvious reasons, droids formed a significant part, helping and coexisting with the population. On Naboo, higher level droids were considered equal as fellow sentients. Extragalactic aliens (species coming from another galaxy) were believed to have visited, by unknown means, the galaxy in an unknown point in the past for unknown reasons, and made contact with the galactic species. Extragalactic travel was difficult due to a disturbance that prevented hyperspace routes outside the disk. However the Extragalactic Society was an organization devoted to the search for life outside the galaxy. During the last days of the Republic and according to Republic HoloNet News Special Inaugural Edition 16:5:241, the Brodo Asogi leader, Senator Grebleips sent an expedition to another galaxy but all information about the outcome of this endeavor is unknown. The lingua franca of the galaxy was the Human language that evolved in the Galactic Basic Standard. Its origins must have been the vernacular speech of Humans and was partially derived from several ancient Human languages, like Olys Corellisi. Humans being the dominant species of the galaxy, Basic has been adopted by many alien species as well. The second most common language was Huttese, expanded through the criminal and financial activity of the Hutts, and has been as well adopted by other races that were in close cooperation with them through the ages, like the Rodians. It was possible for droids to have fluency in millions of forms of communication, and based on them, could also understand and improvise in even more. Protocol droids were essential in interracial relations as translators and interpreters. - Star Wars Atlas - Galaxy navigator and maps Currently non-working, points to a domain parking page - Main galaxy map from above siteAs above, see the nav-computer.com entry on Wookieepedia. - Dark Horse Star Wars Galaxy Map - Star Wars Galaxy Maps - A Leland Chee blog - Galaxy Map Discussion - Official thread at StarWars.com - Map of the galaxy far, far away....
Throughout this topic we think about superheroes! In science we use our senses to explore and recognise the similarities and differences between different materials. We identify, name and describe a variety of materials and investigate which type of material would be most suitable to use as a cape to keep a superhero dry. We look at magnetic materials and explore how some materials are attracted to magnets. In PSHCE we think about friendships and what makes a good friend. We learn to understand how to choose the right behaviour and how different behaviours makes us feel.
Healthy lunches and snacks are important for active children. It is important to offer healthy lunch box choices. Tips include fresh fruit, crunchy vegetables and a combination of protein, dairy and carbohydrate foods. Eating healthy food helps children concentrate and learn. However, healthy eating changes are not always easy to make. Try to set a good example with your own lunches. Encourage children to help choose and prepare their own lunch. They might like to make a list of the foods they enjoy. Praise your child when they choose healthy foods for their lunch box. There are limited times for children to eat during the day, especially at school. Children may prefer to play with friends instead of eating. Encourage your child to sit and eat before heading out to play, or talk to your school about making sure all children get a chance to eat enough before play starts. Foods to put in a lunch box - Fresh fruit - Crunchy vegetables - A meat or protein food such as slices of lean meat, hardboiled egg, peanut butter or nut paste* - Dairy food such as a cheese stick or slice, grated cheese, milk or yoghurt - Starchy food such as bread, a roll, pita or flat bread, fruit bread or crackers Food suggestions for lunch boxes There are lots of food choices available for lunch boxes. However, it can sometimes be difficult to decide which foods are healthy choices. Suggestions include: - Fruit – best choices include fresh or tinned fruit. Dried fruit is sticky and high in sugar, so have it occasionally. Best left out of the lunch box are dried fruit bars and ‘straps’, which are very high in sugar, low in fibre and stick to children’s teeth causing tooth decay. - Vegetables – try vegetable sticks with dip or a small container with mixed vegetables such as cherry tomatoes, carrot sticks, capsicum and cucumber. Chips and packets of crisps are best left for parties and special occasions. - Milk, yoghurt and custard – include a small drink of milk (freeze overnight) wrapped in a cloth in the lunch box. Fruit yoghurts should be kept cool in an insulated lunch box. Best left out of the lunch box are ‘dairy desserts’ and flavoured milks, which are high in sugar. - Dips, cheese and biscuits – pre-packaged or your own homemade versions of cheese and crackers are fine. Children enjoy mini packaged cheeses. Avoid sweet dips such as chocolate spreads. ‘Oven-baked’ savoury biscuits are just as high in salt and fat as chips and are best avoided. - Different breads add interest – include a variety of bread, especially if children begin to lose interest in sandwiches. Try bread rolls, pita bread, flat bread, bagels, fruit loaf or buns, foccacias, scones, pikelets, muffins, crumpets, crispbreads, rice cakes or corn thins. - Vary the fillings – fillings can include vegemite or other yeast extract, peanut butter, cheese (try different types), tuna, egg, sliced cold meats, baked beans, grated carrot and lettuce, chopped roast meat with pickles or chutney, and avocado. Dips like caviar (taramosalata), eggplant, chickpea (hommus), cucumber, yoghurt (tzatziki) or spinach also make good spreads. Avoid chocolate spreads, jams and honey, and fatty meats like salami and strasbourg. - Muffins and cakes – try making your own muffins and cakes as a great way to include more fruit and vegetables. Examples include sultana, carrot, zucchini, banana or pumpkin. Donuts and creamy cakes are best offered at birthdays and special occasions instead of in lunch boxes. - Muesli and ‘breakfast’ bars – almost all ‘bars’ are too high in sugar to include regularly, but cereal bars may be better for teeth than chewy sticky muesli bars. Try to avoid muesli bars and chocolate bars in lunch boxes. These are expensive and usually stuck together with fats and sugars. Practical issues for busy families Foods should be simple and easy to prepare, ready to eat and appetising after several hours storage in the lunch box. Foods such as sandwiches can be prepared the night before or on the weekend, frozen, then taken for each day’s lunch box. Suitable foods to freeze include: - Cooked meat - Peanut butter - Baked beans - Mashed eggs - Yeast or vegetable spreads such as Vegemite. Food safety in lunch boxes In most cases, food is stored in lunch boxes for several hours, so the lunch box needs to stay cool. Food safety suggestions include: - Choose an insulated lunch box or one with a freezer pack, or include a wrapped frozen water bottle to keep the lunch box cool. - Follow hygienic food preparation methods. This is especially important when food will be stored in the lunch box for many hours before eating. - Prepare lunches the night before and store in the fridge or freezer. - Perishable foods such as dairy products, eggs and sliced meats should be kept cool and eaten within about four hours of preparation. Don’t pack these foods if just cooked. First cool in the refrigerator overnight. Best drinks for lunch boxes Water and milk are the best drinks for children. They can be frozen to help keep foods in the lunch box cool. Sweet drinks such as fruit juices, juice drinks, cordials, sports drinks, flavoured mineral waters, soft drinks and fizzy drinks are high in sugar and not necessary. These drinks can increase the risk of tooth decay, are filling and may take the place of healthier foods. Find out why they’re not eating their lunch Many schoolchildren bring their lunch home with them at the end of the day, which can be frustrating. There may be a variety of reasons why your child does not eat all the food in their lunch box. The following suggestions may be helpful: - The lunch box style – your child may have an issue with their lunch container. They might prefer a brown paper bag or want the latest fashion in lunch boxes to be like the other kids. It may be difficult for them to open. - Boredom – try to pack a different lunch every day. For younger children, cut the sandwiches in different ways to add interest: for example triangles, squares or strips. You could even use one slice of white and one slice of brown to make a ‘zebra’ sandwich. - Too dry – if they say the filling is too dry, try leaving a sandwich uncut. Some fillings like dips or peanut butter may stay fresher this way. If your child's appetite seems small, offer smaller servings. For example, half a sandwich might be more appropriate than a whole one. - Fiddly and sticky – make sure the foods are manageable and easy to eat. Some children are put off by fiddly packaging or don’t like getting sticky hands. Fruit can be made easier to eat. For example, remove orange peel or cut a kiwifruit in half and include a spoon in the lunch box. - Make other meals count – if your child hardly eats anything from their lunch box despite your best efforts, try to at least ensure they have a nutritious breakfast and dinner. Trust that your child will eat when hungry. Some schools have a canteen (tuckshop), while others may use a local shop or milk bar to provide lunches for children. The individual school needs to decide what types of foods are made available to children. If less healthy foods are available, it is best to choose these foods only occasionally. The National Healthy School Canteens Guidelines (NHSCG) developed by the Federal Department of Health and Ageing are not mandatory for Victorian government schools and agencies working with school food service providers, although canteen managers may wish to use NHSCG complementary resources (such as recipes) to provide and promote healthier food choices. For public schools in Victoria, the School Canteens and Other School Food Services Policy has been mandatory since 2007 and includes a ban on high-sugar drinks and confectionery. This policy was also endorsed by the Catholic Education Office and accepted as a suitable guide for Catholic independent schools. All schools should provide healthy food choices and promote key health food messages to students to align with the policy. Food advertising and their friends’ food choices will influence children. Remember that not all children go to school with lunch boxes filled with chips and lollies, despite what your children think and say. It is important to keep offering healthy lunch box choices in a variety of ways, as children learn to eat what is familiar to them. Remember that it may take time to change your child’s food preferences to more healthy choices. Severe food allergy If your child has a severe food allergy, it is important to develop a management plan with your family doctor, the school, teacher and class. The school or early childhood setting will notify other parents or carers if certain food or drinks need to be kept away from children and limited in the lunch box. Some schools have a nut-free policy and fillings like peanut butter are not allowed. Where to get help - Your school nurse - Community health nurse - Maternal and child health nurse - Dietitians Association of Australia Tel. 1800 812 942 Things to remember - It is important to keep offering healthy lunch box choices in a variety of ways, as children learn to eat what is familiar to them. - Encourage your child to sit and eat before heading out to play, or talk to your school about making sure all children get a chance to eat enough before play starts. - Include fruit and vegetables in your child’s lunch box. - Foods such as sandwiches can be prepared the night before or on the weekend, frozen, then taken for each day’s lunch box. This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by: Royal Children's Hospital - Nutrition Department Page content currently being reviewed. Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional. The information and materials contained on this website are not intended to constitute a comprehensive guide concerning all aspects of the therapy, product or treatment described on the website. All users are urged to always seek advice from a registered health care professional for diagnosis and answers to their medical questions and to ascertain whether the particular therapy, service, product or treatment described on the website is suitable in their circumstances. The State of Victoria and the Department of Health & Human Services shall not bear any liability for reliance by any user on the materials contained on this website.
Mount Sinai researchers have discovered how the enzyme DNA polymerase delta works to duplicate the genome that cells hand down from one generation to the next. In a study published in Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, the team also reported how certain mutations can modulate the activity of this enzyme, leading to cancers and other diseases. DNA polymerase delta serves as the duplicating machine for the millions to billions of base pairs in human and other genomes. We were able to present for the first time a near-atomic-resolution structure of the complete enzyme in the act of DNA synthesis. This knowledge furthers our basic understanding of this complex enzyme which is essential for survival in higher organisms from humans to yeast. At the same time, our work provides insights into how cancers can arise when DNA polymerase delta is not functioning properly, and offers a novel basis for designing inhibitors of the polymerase that could potentially serve as effective treatment in certain cancers. Aneel Aggarwal, PhD, Professor of Pharmacological Sciences at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai While DNA polymerase delta has been studied by scientists for decades, many questions remain about its overall architecture and dynamics. "We showed how the various pieces of this complicated machine work synchronously with one another to copy the genome with amazing accuracy," explains Dr. Aggarwal. His team, which included co-author Rinku Jain, PhD, Assistant Professor of Pharmacological Sciences at the Icahn School of Medicine, also mapped a number of inherited mutations (which are passed down from parent to child) and somatic mutations (which occur by chance during someone's lifetime) in DNA polymerase delta that are associated with "hypermutated" tumors. In addition to cancers, these mutations may be associated with multi-symptom mandibular hypoplasia, deafness, and lipodystrophy syndrome. Essential to the Mount Sinai researchers' work were recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy. This technology, which allows for the imaging of rapidly frozen molecules in solution, is revolutionizing the field of structural biology through its high-resolution pictures. This technique allowed Dr. Aggarwal and his team to examine not only individual atoms of the DNA polymerase delta but also how they move to achieve accurate replication of the genome. Integral to this phase of the research was Mount Sinai's partnership with the Simons Electron Microscopy Center in New York City. Building on its latest groundbreaking work around DNA polymerase delta, Mount Sinai will continue to explore the unique structure and mechanism of the polymerase, particularly its relationship to cancer and disease pathogenesis. "We know that certain cancers become dependent on this enzyme for their survival," says Dr. Aggarwal, "and inhibiting its activity could provide a valuable therapeutic window for future medical research." Jain, R. et al. (2019) Cryo-EM structure and dynamics of eukaryotic DNA polymerase δ holoenzyme. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology. doi.org/10.1038/s41594-019-0305-z
Benjamin wants to join a gym in his neighborhood. It costs 20 dollars for the first subscription plus a monthly fee of 12 dollars. If Benjamin has 152 dollars to spend, write and solve an equation to find the number of months he can use the gym. We’re asked to write and solve an equation. And we are finding the number of months. So we are solving for the number of months. So we can let the number of months be equal to 𝑥. That will be our variable that we will be solving for. So let’s go ahead and look at what we’re given. Benjamin has a total of 152 dollars to spend. The first subscription cost 20 dollars. And then there’s a monthly fee of 12 dollars after that. Let’s begin with the monthly fee. It is 12 dollars per month. So we need to take however many months he is there and multiply it by 12. So we can represent the monthly fee by 12 times 𝑥. But first he had to pay his first subscription of 20 dollars. And then after that, he pays 12 dollars times however many months he is there. So the cost to use the gym would be 20 dollars plus 12 times 𝑥. And we need to set it equal to 152 dollars because that is the amount of money he has. It can’t be more than that. And we also say it’s not going to be less than that because he wants to know the number of months he can use the gym. Essentially, what is the- the largest number of months that he can use the gym? So we are just setting it equal to 152. So this would be our equation. Now we need to solve for 𝑥. So the first thing that we need to do is subtract 20 from both sides of the equation. On the left-hand side of the equation, the 20s cancel. And on the right, 152 minus 20 is 132. So now how to solve for 𝑥, we need to get rid of the 12. And 12 is being multiplied to 𝑥. So the opposite of multiplying would be to divide. So we divide both sides of the equation by 12. And we find that 132 divided by 12 is 11. So 𝑥 represented the months. So that means he could use the gym for 11 months, almost a whole year. Our equation could be written as 12𝑥 plus 20 equals 152. Or we could have written it as 20 plus 12𝑥 equals 152. It wouldn’t matter. And in solving this equation, we found that the number of months that Benjamin could use the gym would be 11 total months.
Five to seven years olds What five to seven years olds can do at their own level - They can talk about what they are doing. - They can tell you about what they have done or hear. - They can plan activities. - They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think. - They can use logical reasoning. - They can use their vivid imaginations - They can use a wide range of imagination pattern in their mother tongue. - They can understand direct inter-action. Eight to ten years olds Children of ten are relatively mature children with an adult side and a children side. May of characteristics listed above will thinks of the past. - Their basic concept are formed. They have very decicide views of word. - They can tell the difference between fact and fiction. - They ask question all the time. - They rely on the spoken word as well as the physical world to convey an understand meaning. - They are able to make some decision about their own learning. - They have definite views about waht they like and what don't like doing. - They have a develop sense of fairness about what happens in classroom and begin to question the teacher's decisions. - They are able to work with others and learn from others.
California is full of incredible sights that attract visitors from around the world, and among them are the tallest, the biggest, and the oldest trees on earth. The tallest trees in the world are the Redwoods, which grow in the coastal mountains from Big Sur north. The biggest trees however are the Giant Sequoia that live on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, and the oldest trees are the Great Basin Bristlecone Pines that are found in the high country of eastern California. Mas and I took a small trip earlier this month to visit the sequoia and the bristlecone pines. We started with the big trees of Kings Canyon and Sequoia National Parks in the central Sierra, south of Yosemite. These parks encompass an incredibly diverse set of environments, ranging from the dry foothills at 1,700 ft (518 m) to the top of Mt. Whitney at 14,505 feet (4421 m). The sequoia grow between about 5000 and 7500 feet (1524 – 2286 m). If a sequoia is lucky enough to find itself in a good spot, it can live for a very long time and reach an enormous size. The largest single-trunk tree on earth is the General Sherman tree, in the Giant Forest grove of Sequoia National Park. It is over 2000 years old, 275 feet tall (84 m), and has the biggest trunk by volume of any tree in the world. Such a giant sequoia needs solid, undisturbed, land that can support its weight for many centuries. Its foliage needs plenty of sunlight in order to create energy for the tree’s growth, and its roots need good, mineral-rich soil with sufficient moisture. As is often said about real estate – it’s all about “location, location, location”. Fire is the key to the sequoia’s ability to live long and prosper. The forests where the sequoia grow will naturally burn every 10 years or so. This adds minerals to the soil, and clears out all of the undergrowth and small trees that would otherwise compete with the sequoia for moisture and sunlight. The heat from a forest fire opens the sequoia cones, which then drop the seeds to the freshly prepared soil. The young seedlings will grow quickly in this rich environment, pushing their heads toward the sun and sending out wide, shallow roots to gather moisture from the soil. They will be well-established by the time the rest of the forest grows back. As the tree matures it develops a beautiful cinnamon-colored bark. The bark, which is extremely thick, will provide insulation and protection from insects, disease, fire, and cold. Lightning may strike and burn through the bark and even the heartwood, but as long as a thin “lifeline” of the inner bark and cambium layer remains, transporting water and nutrients between roots and foliage, the tree will continue to live. After about 1500 years or so the tree will enter old age and become what is called a “monarch”. These are the massive trees that dominate the groves and cause visitors to lower their voices as they enter the mysterious, silent world. Eventually, as with all living things, the tree will die. Soil erosion and accumulated damage from fire, insects and disease will damage the shallow roots, the tree will start to lean, and one day a storm will finally push it to the ground. The heartwood of the giant sequoia is imbued with tannin, which gives it the characteristic “redwood” color and protects it from insects and fungus. It will take many centuries for the wood to slowly decompose. Walking among these ancient trees, we felt an upwelling of wordless joy. The sequoia forests have a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, with the shaded undergrowth, the flowering dogwoods, the pine, hemlock, and fir – and standing over them, protecting, shading, and nurturing, are the old monarchs with their gentle, powerful, dignity. Despite tremendous age and the “ravages of time”, the giant sequoia retain their vigor and life force to the end. Clicking on any photo will take you to a gallery of more pictures. Our next article will be about the oldest trees on earth, the Bristlecone Pines.
3D Printing Technologies Updated: Jun 18 by Joanna Carbajal There are various types of additive manufacturing technologies such as Stereolithography (SLA), Digital Light Processing (DLP), Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Electron Beam Melting (EBM). All of these technologies use a computer-aided design (CAD) file to create a 3D object layer by layer. Examples of printing material can vary from plastic, gold, metal, liquid powder or even chocolate. In this article, we will discuss SLA, SLS, and FDM. Charles Hull patented SLA in 1986 - making SLA the oldest 3D printing method. SLA uses a light-sensitive liquid resin where a laser traces and solidifies each layer of the 3D model. Once a plastic layer hardens, a platform on the printer drops, allowing the next layer to form. Once the object prints, the objects must be rinsed with a solvent and then placed in an ultraviolet oven to finish processing. Some of the disadvantages with SLA are that only a limited amount of materials can be used, and it requires post-curing and the usage of support structures. The process and the resin are also expensive. One of the main advantages of SLA is that once cured, parts are isotropic, meaning they have the same physical properties throughout the entire part. SLA leaves objects smooth and of high resolution. It is perfect for details and thin walls. It also has an excellent surface finish. Joe Beaman discovered SLS in the 1980s. SLS and SLA are similar, but SLS uses powdered materials instead of liquids. The powder is heated to temperatures that are below or above the melting point of the used material. The temperature solidifies the powder, bonding the grains of material together in a layer by layer fashion. Before the roller spreads to the next layer of powder, the table lowers, with each successive layer is built on top of the existing layer. The disadvantages with SLS are that there are no desktop printers due to the complexity and equipment bulk. The printed object has a rough surface finish and requires post-cleanup. Also, the mechanical properties are below those achieved in injection molding. SLS has several advantages. 1) Objects can be printed in many colors. 2) It is possible to print parts without requiring post-curing. 3) Support structure is not needed. 4) Fabricated prototypes are porous making the part lighter. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (aka Fused Filament Fabrication or FFF) Scott Crump invented FDM in the 1980's. However, the 3D printing revolution began until 2005 when patents started expiring. Dr. Adrian Bowyer, as part of the RepRap (self-replicating rapid prototyping) initiative, invented a self-replicating machine called the Darwin 1 in 2008. This machine was capable of producing 60% of the parts required to build itself. Dr. Bowyer made the design of the 3D printer available under an open source/open hardware licenses. Since then, prices have dropped. A $60,000 printer in 2008 might be bought for less than $6,000 today for a similar machine. As patents continue to expire on SLA, SLS, and metal, we expect those prices to lower as well. Such rapid improvement in cost per part is also expected for SLA and SLS. In FDM, a spool feeds the filament through a heated printer nozzle. The material melts into a semi-liquid state. The print head extrudes the thermoplastic onto the print bed in the x and y directions, depositing material layer by layer in the z-direction. Some of the limitations of FDM are that it is not good for small details, and it requires surface finishing techniques if a smooth surface is required. Support material is also needed. Although removal is easy, it leaves a rough surface. Also, parts are not isotropic. It is harder to seal if there is a part that needs to hold water. FDM has various advantages, however. It has an excellent strength to weight ratio. It is also user friendly, economical, functional, and durable. Compared to SLA, FDM uses cleaner, non-harmful materials that are more environmentally friendly. You largely don’t need a production facility or a controlled environment to use FDM, which is why there are desktop printers. FDM also does not require protective equipment to operate. FDM has more filament options and can print in complex geometries, cavities, and materials. The parts are light yet strong. It is currently the only printing technique that uses production-grade thermoplastics, which allows for objects to have great mechanical, thermal, and chemical qualities. FDM is ideal for prototyping, manufacturing aids and low volume (sub 10,000 units) production volumes. No post curing is needed. When parts are printed with no support material, this makes it possible to get the most cost-effective parts. Due to its excellent versatility, the aerospace, automotive, industrial, commercial, and medical industries use FDM. Ivaldi Group has taken advantage of FDM technology. We are currently developing maritime spare parts using Type A Machines’ Series 1 Pro. We wanted to make sure that our spare parts were durable and functional rather than aesthetic. FDM allows us to print in complex geometries and cavities. We can print in over 88 different plastic materials without a need for post curing. Due to the expiration of 3D printer patents, a $60,000 printer now costs below $6,000, which allows startups to be able to afford printers. Type A Machines championed this approach with their Print Pod system. Due to the emerging affordability of additive manufacturing, Ivaldi Group is focusing on massive parallel production technologies. Think of it as “servers” instead of “mainframes.” Instead of having one expensive machine, we can have many machines that total the price of one expensive machine. This enables us to produce parts on demand. With an on-demand logistical pipeline, it is possible for organizations to move towards zero inventory. It’s a radical departure from more traditional “centralized” manufacturing processes, and it is the future of logistics.
Ashar ( Modern Turkish: Öşür or Aşar ) was a tax in the Ottoman Empire, based on the traditional practice of muqasama (which means "sharing"), a traditional tithe in the Fertile Crescent. It was abolished on 17 February 1925 in Turkey the successor of the Ottoman Empire. Much of the Ottoman empire's tax system was inherited from earlier practices in each territory that it conquered. Muqasama had been common practice in the Mamluk empire, and much of the Middle East, even before the spread of Islam; a similar system had been used in Sassanid Persia. Muqasama was a tax directly applied to agricultural output, taking a proportion which varied between areas and between producers. These discriminatory rates caused inefficiencies; as farmers reacted to locally varying taxes on different farm products, this increased variations in agricultural output between areas, or even between villages. Farms subject to the highest taxes switched to alternative crops. Under Ottoman rule, muqasama became known as Ashar. The name means "a tenth", although the exact proportion might vary - and it was a tithe taken from all agricultural produce. Ashar was an important source of revenue in the early Ottoman empire, as it had been for the Abbasids. Ashar was typically paid annually, to the timar holder. early forms of öşür were enforced in transit, with watchtowers on transport routes, and checkpoints at bottleneck locations such as bridges and passes. One preserved tax-code document from Mosul in the 1540s specifies öşür shares ranging from one fifth to one sixth to a tenth, depending on the crop - more lucrative crops were subject to a larger tithe. There was very wide variation between different regions, and the tithe was extended to cotton, fish, honey, and silk as well as the usual fruit and vegetables. Ashar was primarily collected in the Ottoman Empire's Middle Eastern territories; different tax structures were inherited in other parts of the empire, particularly in Europe. Taxation evolved over time, moving from tithes and other taxes-in-kind towards a more centralised system of taxation in cash; hence öşür was mostly superseded by taxes like avariz. However, a later form of tithe on farming, called, asar, was reintroduced during the tanzimat reforms.
Chapter 7: Understanding Excel Files In This Chapter Creating a new workbook Opening an existing workbook Saving and closing workbooks Sharing workbooks with people who use an older version of Excel This chapter describes the operations that you perform with workbook files: opening, saving, closing, and so on. It discusses how Excel uses files and provides an overview of the various types of files. Most of the file operations discussed here occur in the Backstage view, the screen that you see when you click the File button above the Excel Ribbon. Creating a New Workbook When you start Excel 2013, it displays a Start Screen that lists recently used files and shows templates that you can use as the basis for a new workbook. One of the template options is “Blank workbook,” which gives you an empty workbook. The Start Screen is new to Excel 2013. If you prefer to skip the Start Screen and always start with an empty workbook, choose File ⇒ Options. In the Excel Options dialog box, click the General tab and remove the check mark from the option labeled Show the Start Screen When This Application Starts. After you start Excel, the empty workbook is called Book1. This workbook exists only in memory and hasn't been saved to disk. By default, this workbook contains one worksheet named Sheet1. If you're starting a project from scratch, you can use this blank workbook. While you're working in Excel, you can create a new (empty) workbook at any time. Excel provides two ways ...
A module is an algebraic structure generalizing the vector space. Instead of combining the Abelian group of vectors with a field, it is combined with a unit ring. When doing this, the scalar multiplication becomes more general. For instance, depending on whether the ring is commutative or not, it suddenly makes a difference if a vector is multiplied by a scalar from the left or the right side. For this reason, there is a difference between left modules and right modules. Moreover, not all scalars have an inverse counterpart. Therefore, when a vector is, for instance, “stretched” when multiplied by a scalar, there might be no scalar in the ring, which would reverse this stretching operation. This chapter provides a formal definition of modules. \| \| \| \| created: 2019-08-09 19:30:53 \| modified: 2019-08-09 19:30:53 \| by: bookofproofs
above is one of the earliest known maps of the confederacy. It was printed in February 23, 1861, shortly after the secession of the southern states to form the Confederate States of America. The map appeared in the February 23, 1861 edition of Harper's Weekly. The map, for the first time, shows a nation divided; Divided, North and South, with the fate of Nations hanging in the balance. The map contains the following title: EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS The Union States are shown in Gray, and the Confederate States are shown in White. This is one of the earliest maps of the Confederacy ever created. The Southern States are shown to be: Texas, the Indian Territory (Oklahoma), Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. This is a striking map, and was created before the start of the Civil War. This image of the Nation Divided must have created a sense of foreboding amongst the people of the day who saw it.
What is a Central Bank? • A central bank, which may also be referred to as a monetary authority or a reserve bank, is a public institution that typically issues a nation’s currency, controls interest rates and regulates the economy’s money supply. Furthermore, a central bank will often oversee the commercial banking system of their respective locations. In contrast to a typical commercial bank, a central bank will possess a monopoly on printing the national currency, which will typically serve as the nation’s legal tender. • The primary role of a central bank is to provide and regulate the money supply of the respective nation in which they operate. That being said, more active duties of a central bank, will include: controlling interest rates and acting as a lender of last resort to the commercial or investment banking sector primarily during times of financial crisis. • A central bank also possesses an assortment of supervisory powers; this role is instituted to ensure that banks within system, as well as other financial institutions, do not behave and/or invest in a reckless or fraudulent manner. • In the majority of developed nations, central banks are independent from government rules or politics. Popular examples of a central bank include the following institutions: the Bank of England, the European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve System of the United States. Responsibilities of a Central Bank: • A central bank will, in most countries, perform the following functions: o The Central bank will implement monetary policy and the nation’s entire money supply o The Central bank will determine interest rates o The Central bank will act as the underlying government’s banker and banker’s bank; in essence, the Central bank will act as the lender of last resort. o The Central bank will manage the country’s foreign exchange system, gold reserves and the underlying government’s stock register o The Central bank is required to regulate and supervise the entire banking industry o The Central bank will set the official rate, used to manage both the country’s exchange rate and their respective interest rate. When the interest rate is set, the central bank must ensure that it satisfies a number of policy mechanisms.
What is dyslexia? Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. Signs of Dyslexia Common signs of dyslexia in children grades 3-8 include having difficulty with the following: - Understanding instructions or directions - Pronouncing words correctly - Reading words and letters in the correct order, frequently reversing or skipping over them - Mastering spelling rules - Spelling the same word consistently and correctly - Proofreading and correcting self-generated work - Learning/remembering new skills (relying heavily on memorization) We emphasize the importance of early identification of dyslexia and provide dyslexia evaluation services to assist in the detection of this learning disability.
Date: February 10, 2015 Source: University of Michigan Summary: Deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, while necessary, may not happen soon enough to stave off climate catastrophe. So, in addition, the world may need to resort to so-called geoengineering approaches that aim to deliberately control the planet’s climate. Deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, while necessary, may not happen soon enough to stave off climate catastrophe. So, in addition, the world may need to resort to so-called geoengineering approaches that aim to deliberately control the planet’s climate. That’s according to a National Research Council committee that today released a pair of sweeping reports on climate intervention techniques. The University of Michigan’s Joyce Penner, who is the Ralph J. Cicerone Distinguished University Professor of Atmospheric Science, served on the committee. Penner studies how clouds affect climate. The reports consider the two main ways humans could attempt to steer the Earth’s system: We could try to take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Or we could try to reflect more sunlight back into space. The committee examined the socioeconomic and environmental impacts as well as the costs and technological readiness of approaches in each category. The researchers said that certain CO2-removal tactics could have a place in a broader climate change response plan. But the sunlight reflecting technologies, on the other hand, are too risky at this point. They underscored how important it is for humans to limit the levels of CO2 they put into the atmosphere in the first place, and they called for more research into all climate intervention approaches. “I, for one, am concerned with the continuing rise in CO2 concentrations without clear efforts to reduce emissions,” Penner said. “The widespread impacts from these increases are readily apparent, and the cost of climate change impacts is likely to be high. “We may need to employ some of these climate interventions techniques to avoid a catastrophe such as the loss of the Antarctic ice sheets, or even to remain below levels of climate change that are considered dangerous in the political arena.” Techniques to remove CO2 include restoring forests and adopting low-till farming — both of which trap carbon in plants and soils. Oceans could be seeded with iron to promote growth of CO2-consuming organisms. And carbon could be be sucked directly out of the air and injected underground. Methods to reflect sunlight include pumping sulfuric compounds into the stratosphere to, in essence, simulate a volcanic eruption; and spraying sea water mist or other finer-than-usual particles over the ocean. Smaller particles lead to brighter clouds, Penner said. While the committee said that some of the CO2 removal strategies including “carbon capture and sequestration” have potential to be part of a viable plan to curb climate change, it noted that only prototype sequestration systems exist today. Much development would have to occur before it could be ready for broad use. The scientists caution against dumping iron in the oceans, as the technical and environmental risks currently outweigh the benefits. Similarly, they warned against sunlight-reflecting approaches, also known as “albedo modification.” These efforts might be able to reduce the Earth’s temperature in just a few years, and they’re relatively cheap when compared to transitioning to a carbon-free economy. But they’d have to be kept up indefinitely and could have numerous negative secondary effects on ozone, weather and human health. Even in its opposition to sunlight reflecting tactics, the committee still recommended more research into them, as it urged more study of all climate intervention possibilities. Penner was struck by this call to action. “U.S. agencies may have been reluctant to fund this area because of the sense of what we call ‘moral hazard’ — that if you start down the road of doing this research you may end up relying on this or condoning this as a way of saving the planet from the cost of decreasing CO2 emissions,” Penner said. “But we’ve stated that decreasing emissions must go hand in hand with any climate intervention efforts.” Penner says the recommendation is a sign of the climate problem’s urgency. “We need to develop the knowledge base to allow informed decisions before these dangerous effects are upon us,” she said. The study was sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. intelligence community, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and U.S. Department of Energy. The National Academy of Sciences is a private, independent nonprofit institution that provides science, technology and health policy advice under a congressional charter granted to NAS in 1863. The National Research Council is the principal operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering.
The common planigale is a nocturnal marsupial, sheltering during the day in a saucer-shaped nest lined with dry grass, eucalypt leaves or shredded bark (2) (3). An avid predator at night, it hunts for insects and small vertebrates to feed on (3). Its main diet consists of insects, spiders, small lizards and small rodents such as Leggadina species. Astonishingly, the common planigale is able to catch and kill grasshoppers practically its own size, and although terrestrial, it is also a capable climber (2). This marsupial has demonstrated an ability to adapt to the invasion of the toxic cane toad (Bufo marinus) across northern Australia. This toad is thought to be the cause of many population declines of native predators in the area. The common planigale uses chemical cues to distinguish and therefore avoid this toxic prey, or kills and eats it snout-first in order to avoid the toad’s toxic glands (5). To attract a mate, the female common planigale produces a courtship call of repetitive clicks, described as ‘tstitts’. The male may then respond with a similar call, initiating a duet (6). Females are able to give birth to more than one litter each year. The gestation period of the common planigale is 19 to 20 days, and its litter size ranges from 4 to 12 young, averaging at 8 (2). Repeated reproduction throughout the year and efficient dispersal of individuals may contribute to this species’ ability to survive in environments that are not habitable all year round (6). The common planigale is well adapted to live in soil cracks due to its unusually flattened skull and body. Survival of this species in harsh environments is ensured by its low energy requirements and its behavioural adaptations to reduce energy and water expenditure, such as basking and short-term hibernation. The common planigale’s insectivorous diet is also advantageous to its survival, due to the high water content of insects (7).
English elm seeds, surrounded by a notched papery wing, are produced in large clusters. Elm suckers, regenerating from roots of elms killed by Dutch elm disease, are prolific seed producers, but these are rarely fertile. Wych elm seeds are larger and germinate freely if sown as soon as they are ripe. Roast chestnuts are an autumn treat, but a good summer and autumn are needed to produce a crop of large seeds, especially in the north. The husk that encloses the seeds, which are flat on one side, is pricklier than a hedgehog and best handled with gloves. English oak’s acorns have long stalks, while durmast oak’s have none. If they avoid being eaten by mammals and birds, they germinate immediately, producing a root but no shoot until spring. Lucky acorns are carried away by jays, cached and forgotten, germinating beyond the shade of the parent tree canopy. These seeds are carried in pairs, with broad-tipped wings that sweep downwards. When they separate, they spin away in the wind like a helicopter, sometimes over hundreds of metres, and germinate readily, making sycamore a rapid coloniser of open habitats. The seedlings even thrive in deep shade. Its large numbers of tiny seeds are arranged in brittle catkins, which shatter when flocks of siskins and redpolls feed on them in early autumn. Seedlings grow best in association with fly agaric fungus – look out for red-and-white-spotted toadstools around mature trees. Borne in clusters, hazelnuts have edible kernels inside hard-shells that are prized by hedgerow foragers (although small mammels often reach them first). Wood mice nibble a circular hole in the nut, squirrels split it neatly in half vertically, bank voles gnaw off the pointed end. Amid bright yellow autumn foliage, the paired seeds of the field maple have red-tinged wings that are smaller than in sycamore and held horizontal. These are distributed by the wind, but as maple is usually a small hedgerow tree, its low stature means seeds are unlikely to ‘helicopter’ long distances. Introduced from the Balkans in 1616, the horse chestnut’s large seeds entered folk tradition when the game of ‘conkers’ became popular in the 19th century. The prickly husks usually contain two lustrous, beautifully patterned seeds that soon dull when they dry. They germinate readily if sown when fresh. The soft green outer husk produces a dye that stains fingers dark brown when handled and smells of apricots when crushed. After extraction of the kernel, the hard half-shells make excellent small boats, ideal for a superior game of ‘Pooh sticks’ in a stream. These large bunches of seeds resemble enormous bunches of keys. A few fall in autumn and germinate immediately but most remain on the tree all winter until torn off by blustery weather in March – these remain dormant in the soil for another year before they germinate. Alder’s small winged seeds, which ripen inside black globular cones, are important food for small finches in autumn. Alder is a riverside tree, so vast quantities of buoyant seed are carried by floodwater and washed ashore on muddy banks that provide the moist conditions needed for germination. Seeds are shiny brown and triangular in cross section, with one or two in each prickly husk. Beech trees tend to produce an abundance of seeds in infrequent ‘mast years’, at which point large flocks of bramblings often congregate to feed on them. The seeds were once valued as ‘pannage’ to feed pigs. Choose a subscription offer to suit you and benefit from generous savings on the shop price, free UK delivery and discounts off special editions and back issues.
Home > Flashcards > Print Preview The flashcards below were created by user on FreezingBlue Flashcards . What would you like to do? (cross cultural variation)(japaneese education) How is theirs different than ours? (2) - -early childhood doesnt focus on academics but more of a group involvement - learn values of cooperation and sharing (preschool as a cognitive intervention) what year did Project head start began? (preschool as a cognitive intervention) IN prject head start how many years can they receive? (2) - 2 years of preschool - they also receive other benefits like free meals and health care (preschool as a cognitive intervention) Children who participated in project head start are less likely to... -repeat a grade or; -be placed in special education (preschool as a cognitive intervention) Did high scope have longer effects than project head start? (preschool as a cognitive intervention) How long was High scope Preschool project? full day for 2 year intervention (language development) Whats the pace of learning language? (language development)(cultural variations) what do Eastern languages learn first? (language development)(cultural variations) what do western languages learn first? (language development) By age 4, how many percent of children use correct grammar? - Grammar keeps developing (pragmatics) What is pragmatics? the social rules of language (pragmatics) How do kids begin understanding pragmatics? (pragmatics) By age two, kids... understand some of basic conversation (pragmatics) By age 4, kids become... - more sensitive to partners in conversation - using different types of speeches (emotional regulation) What is emotional self regulation? ability to exercise control over ones emotions (emotional regulation) Emotional self-regulation AND Social relationships -Self regulation is important for social relationships because it restrains us from our immediate impulses (emotional regulation) Why does extreme emotional expression decline with age? (2) -development of frontal cortex promotes this process -children learn strategies to regulate their emotions (emotional regulation) What is effortful control? when children focus their attention on managing their emotions (emotional regulation) What is undercontrol? and What can it lead to? (2) -trait of having inadequate emotional self regulation - -can lead to externalizing problems - common in males (emotional regulation) What is overcontrol? and what can it lead to? -trait of having excessive emotional self regulation - -it can lead to internalizing problems - common in females (moral development) Why do sociomoral emotions develop? due to awareness of expected behavior for the childs culture (moral development) Empathy moral development AND importance empathy is very important for moral development (moral development) What does empathy promote? (2) - -better awareness in perspective taking - how others think and feel - - promotes prosocial behavior - helping and generous (moral development) How does moral advancement advance further? when children become more aware of rules and expectations of their culture (moral development) What are custom complex? distinctive cultural pattern of behavior that reflect underlying cultrual beliefs (moral development) Moralty can be learned through... - custom complexes - india women when on period, does not cook (moral development) What a variation of custom complexes found in american research? (moral development)(modeling) How do children learn how to behave? by watching which behaviors are rewarded and which are punished (gender development) at age 3-4, what happens to gender identity? - it intensifies - they associate themselves with toys, colors, etc. (gender development) What do they learn at ages 6-7? - gender constancy - maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change (gender development)Role of fathers AND Gender roles - Fathers are more insistent about gender roles than mothers are - monitor girls not acting like guys and boys not acting like girsl (gender development) Role of Peers AND gender roles (3) - Peers reinforce gender appropriate behaviors - stricter for boys - reject the people that dont abide (gender development) What does gender socialization lead to? (gender development) What is gender schemas? - behaviors and activities categorized as male or female - we tend to ignore the misfits - females being doctors story (gender development) What is self-socialization? is maintaining consistency between behavior and schemas (parenting) Authoritative parents - -high in demandingness and high in responsiveness - they can be warm and loving **ex) parents say No! becasue... - -high in demandingness and low in responsiveness - shows little emotional attachment and may be hostile ex) parents say NO! without explanation - low in demandingness and high in responsiveness - give as much liberty as possible - low in both demandingess and responsiveness - minimize time parenting outcomes in aprenting style) Authoritative (3) independent, creative, self-assured outcomes in aprenting style) PERMISSIVE irresponsible, confroming, immature outcomes in aprenting style) Authoritarian dependent, passive, conforming outcomes in aprenting style) Disengaged impulsive, behaviro problems, early sex and drugs (parenting) Asian cultures- Filial piety children are expected to respect, obey, and reveree thier parents thoughtout life (parenting) Latino culture - Familismo emphasizes the love, closeness, and mutual obligations among family members (discipline and punishment) Western culture may empahsize... authoritative approach including time out (discipline and punishment) Japanese emphasizes.. - withdrawal of love and shame - makes child not want to disobey again (physical punishment and its consequences) Is corporal punishment (physical punishment) common? it is in most parts of the world (discipline and punishment) Has there been studies that show effects on physical punishment? - yes, they showed detrimental effects on child. - also depends on the culture - **balcks and white families (child abuse and neglect) Physical abuse (child abuse and neglect) EMotional abuse ridicule and humiliation (child abuse and neglect) Sexual abuse (child abuse and neglect) Neglect abuse do not meet basic needs of child (child abuse and neglect) What are 2 risk factors for children being abused? (child abuse and neglect)4 Parental risk factors for commiting abuse -history of abuse What would you like to do? Home > Flashcards > Print Preview
Return to Chemistry Index Donna L. Mead Bass Elementary School 1140 W. 66th Street Chicago IL 60636 The third grade student will be able to: 1. Define recycling. 2. Identify recyclable materials. 3. Categorize recyclable materials. 4. Understand the importance of filtration 5. Identify the recycle symbols chalk recyclable paper blender recyclable plastic window screen recyclable aluminum (tin) plastic bowl shoebox with lid construction paper onion paper towel baking soda tissue paper 2 Ziploc bags baking pan measuring spoon 6 plastic cups coffee filter terry cloth gauze The teacher will ask students to tell the uses of water. Wait for response. The teacher will then ask students to imagine the world without water. Wait for students to respond. Students will understand the importance of water and know that they can not exist without it. The teacher will stress the importance of clean water and explain to students the natural process of Students will observe an experiment to show how water is filtered using various types of filters. The teacher will have six plastic cups. The first three will be labeled A, B and C. Each cup will have a tablespoon of soil. Then fill with water (stir the soil and water well). Cover the second set of three cups with a filter. There are three filters in all (coffee filter, terry cloth, and gauze). Ask students to predict which cup will filter the cleanest water. Wait for responses. Demonstrate for students by pouring the first cup marked A into the cup with the coffee filter. Then do the same for cup B. Explain to students that the filter with the most soil on top is the one that would have the cleaner water. The teacher will explain to the students how water is recycled by a natural process similar to the experiment. The teacher will generate a discussion on recycling. Students will be able to give a definition on recycling from discussion, the teacher will identify for students the symbols for recycling. The teacher will show students various recyclable items. Some items will bear the recycle symbol and some will not. Ask students to come up and examine the items. The items should include plastics, aluminum (tin), and paper (cardboard). Have students make columns on their notebook paper. Label each column [paper, plastic, and aluminum (tin)]. Ask students to write the items that belong to the categories on their paper. Also, have students mark an asterisk next to the items that have the symbol displayed. Ask students if the items that did not have symbol can be recycled? Tell them yes, because sometimes items will not have symbol but will tell you to recycle. The teacher will explain to students how their input to recycle will help save our planet. Tell students to go home and look for items with the symbol or the word recycle displayed. The teacher will explain to students how paper is recycled in order to be reused. The teacher will pass out one piece of construction paper to every student. Have students tear the paper into tiny pieces. The teacher will choose two or three students at a time to come up and put their pieces into a plastic bowl. The teacher will have a blender ready for use. Students will be asked to observe while the teacher mixes into the blender. Twenty percent paper and eighty percent water. The paper should mix until it is pulp like. Once the paper is pulp, the teacher will place a screen into a baking pan, and pour the pulp onto the screen. Students will observe and ask questions if necessary. The teacher will spread the pulp evenly and place newspaper on top of the pulp, (a sponge can also come in handy for drying). Lift the screen from the baking pan and flip over onto some newspaper for drying purposes. The teacher can remove the screen and cover homemade paper with newspaper. You have just made your very own homemade paper. Let paper stand to dry. Students will enjoy watching and participating in paper making. The teacher will explain to the students the importance of recycling paper. The teacher will emphasize that there aren't enough trees in the world to cut down for paper making. Students will be asked what would happen if all the trees were cut down. Wait for responses. Explain to students that trees protect us from pollution in the air. The teacher will cut an onion the day before the lesson and place into a shoebox with a lid. The shoebox will have a tablespoon of baking soda sprinkled in it. It is important that the onion sits in the shoebox overnight with the baking soda. The teacher will have two Ziploc bags marked used and unused. The unused bag will have a tablespoon of baking soda. The day of the lesson, the teacher will have students smell the unused bag, then take a tablespoon of the baking soda from the shoebox and place it in the used bag. Students should smell the onion in the used bag and not smell anything in the unused bag. Students will learn that the baking soda absorbed the smell from the onion. The teacher should stress to students how breathing pollutants in the air can have an effect on our bodies. This last activity is an introduction to a lesson on air pollution. Have students define recycling orally. Allow students to explain why it is important to recycle. Ask students to name recyclable items and why are the items recyclable. Students will demonstrate how filtration works by giving examples through illustration.
The First 100 Days Even presidents have to worry about making the grade! Discover the history behind the “First 100 Days” and its impact on the American presidency with this new lesson plan that includes extension ideas and media literacy moments. Students will evaluate the fairness of judging presidents based on this somewhat arbitrary time period. - Explain the origin of the concept of the president’s first 100 days - Identify and explain what may impact the success of the president’s first 100 days - Analyze presidential quotations to determine attitude towards the expectations of the first 100 days - Define the term “mandate” as it applies to presidential terms
Discusses relationship between two countries Interest rates and Exchange;Rates. The Difference between Interest rates in two countries has a known;and predictable relationship with Exchange Rates.;Formally Stated;The Interest Rate differential between two countries, that do not have restrictions;on Capital flows, should equal the difference between the Spot and Forward;Exchange rates.;Example;Consider two countries, Say England and U.S.A.;Let the current Exchange rate be;Spot Rate 1 Pound = 1. 5 dollars;Let Annual Interest Rate of Risk free security in England be: 8%;Let Annual Interest Rate of Risk free security in USA be;4%;What should the three month Forward Exchange Rate be?;As per this theory [IRP], the forward exchange Rate should be;1 pound = 1.4853 dollars.;Why this should be so is explained by this theory.;Problem;We examine this from the perspective of an Investor in England.;Let us assume that one person in England has a 1 million pounds to invest on April;1, 2013. He wants to invest for 3 months till July 1, 2013. He has two choices.;Choice 1;He can invest in England on April 1, 2013 and get a return of 2%.;[Annual Return = 8%, Hence, three month Return = 2%];On July 1, 2013 he would have 1.02 million pounds.;Choice 2;Alternatively, he can convert his money to U.S. dollars on April 1, 2013. Given that;the Spot Exchange rate is 1 pound = 1.5 dollars, he would get, 1.5 million dollars.;He can then invest it in USA risk free securities for 3 months. He would get a return;of 1%. On July 1, 2013 he would have 1.515 million dollars.;This amount he can convert it back to British pounds. Since he can lock in the;forward exchange rates on April 1, 2013 itself, he can convert it to England at the;predetermined, locked-up exchange rate. The lock in exchange rate hence should be;at: 1 pound = 1.4853 dollars, Thus, and hence he will receive, 1.02 million pounds.;Spot Rate (dollar for pound);Forward Rate (dollar for pound);Forward Exchange Rate changes by;=;=;=;1.5;1.4853;2% - 1%;= 1%;FIRST VERSION Multiplying Spot Exchange Rate by this we arrive at the;SPOT EXCHANGE RATE 1 Pound = $ 1.5;Domestic Interest Rate = (UK 3 Month Rate) = 2%;Foreign Interest Rate = (USA 3 Month Rate) = 1%;Interest Rate Differenentials = Domestic Interest Rate Foreign Interest Rate;= [ 2 % -- 1 % ] = 1%;The New Forward Exchange rate, three months from today should be;Spot Exc. Rate x (100 difference in Interest) = Forward Exchange Rate;THEORETICAL EQUATION ONE;Switching Sides;Forward Exchange Rate = Spot Exc. Rate x (100 difference in Interest);PRACTICAL solution in the above problem from perspective of a British Investor;=;=;=;=;1.50 x (100% 1%);1.50 x (99%);1.50 x (99/100);1.485;LIMITATIONS: Other thing being Equal.;Important Note;This example is constructed from a British investor point of view. We can use the;same example from an American investor point of view. Then what we see as a;Forward Discount will become a Forward Premium;WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE FORWARD RATE IS NOT 1.4850?;You have potential for Arbitrage, Make Riskless money;Say the three month forward rate is also 1.50 like the spot rate.;Say either you or your friend wants to invest $3,000,000 in US T.Bill market.;Instead of investing in USA T. Bill market ($3,000,000) in the USA, you;Convert the money to British Pounds, at the spot Exchange rate of 1.50, Get;2,000,000 British pounds, Invest it in UK for three months at the risk free;rate at 2%, Get 2,040,000 at the end of three months. At the same time you;Lock in the Forward Rate of 1.50 today. At the end of 3 months, you convert;your accumulated British Pounds to US Dollars. You will get $3,060,000.;Alternatively, If you had invested at USA T. Bill market you would have;gotten only, 1% return and you would have only $3,030,000.;You have made $30,000 extra money.;Covered Interest Rate Parity;No Risk Involved, all positions are locked up before entering into transactions.;Uncovered Interest Rate Parity;Risk involved, do not lock up the forward exchange rates.;Limitations to IRP;1.;2.;Transactions Costs imposed by Traders;Capital Controls imposed by Nations;STEPS IN SOLVING INTEREST RATE PARITY PROBLEM;1. Identify a country as Home Country and another as Foreign Country;2. Solve the problem from the perspective of Home Country Investor;3. Identify the Domestic Interest Rate for the time period in question;4. Identify the Foreign Interest Rate for the time period in question;5. Identify the Current Spot Rate;6. Solve for the Forward Rate;OTHER VERSIONS OF INTEREST RATE PARITY;IRP has been widely developed by many researchers and various formulations exist.;Here below we examine three different ways of calculating IRP and the Forward;Exchange rates. However, in problems use any one of the versions. You do not need;to use all of them. They all should give you the same results, Remember that some;are approximations and there may be small (very minute) differences.;[Why are we looking at Four different ways of doing the same thing?! Because some;books, or researchers use a different method, and I just wanted to make sure that;you recognize that it is the same concept, but analyzed and detailed a differnet way].;SECOND VERSION: Theoretical Interest Rate Parity is;[Spot Exc. Rate / Forward Exc. Rate] (1 + Forgn Int. Rate);= (1 + Dom Int. Rate);Rewriting the Equation;[Spot Ex. Rate / Forward Ex. Rate];=;(1 + Dom Int Rate) / (1 + Foreign Int Rate);Rewriting the Equation to Solve for Foreign Exc. Rate;Spot Ex. Rate [1 + Forgn Int. Rate] / [ 1 + Dom Int Rate] = Forward Ex. Rate;THEORETICAL EQUATION TWO;Switching Sides;Forward Exc. Rate = Spot Exc. Rate [1 + Forgn Int. Rate] / [ 1 + Dom Int Rate];PRACTICAL solution in the above problem from perspective of a British Investor;Solving for Forward Rate =;[Spot Exc. Rate x 1.01] / [1.02];= (1.50 x 1.01) / 1.02 = 1.485294;THIRD VERSION: Approximately: Interest Rate Parity is;THEORETICAL EQUATION THREE;(Forward Ex. Rate Spot Ex. Rate) / Spot Ex. Rate = Foreign Int Rate Dom Int Rate;Forward Ex. Rate Spot Ex. Rate = [Foreign Int Rate Dom Int Rate] X (Spot Ex. Rate);Forward Ex. Rate = [(Foreign Int Rate Dom Int Rate) X (Spot Ex. Rate)] + Spot Ex Rate;PRACTICAL solution in the above problem from perspective of a British Investor;Forward Ex. Rate = [(1% -- 2%) X (1.50)];+ [1.50];= [(-- 1 %) X 1.50] + 1.50;= - 0.015 + 1.50;= 1.4850;FOURTH VERSION;THEORETICAL EQUATION FOUR;Forward Exchange Rate Discount, or Premium = Difference in Interest Rates;If the difference is Positive, Your currency has appreciated;If the difference is Negative, Your currency has depreciated.;PRACTICAL solution in the above problem from perspective of a British Investor;Difference in Interest Rates = Foreign Interest Rates Domestic Interest Rates;= 1%;- 2 % = - 1%;Forward Exchange Rate therefore depreciates by 1% and goes to 1.485;Optional Homework Problem;1.;2.;3.;4.;5.;6.;Identify the Interest Rate for Brazil;Identify the Interest Rate for South Korea;Examine whether Interest Rate Parity Theorem holds for the last year?;What are the implications of this How do you make money?;What data do you need?;Where would you get the data? Paper#34088 \| Written in 18-Jul-2015Price : $57
Comic Books in the History Classroom The summer of 2011 offers moviegoers several productions based on superheroes and comic books. Thor. X-Men: First Class. Green Lantern. Captain America: The First Avenger. Cowboys & Aliens. Hollywood has discovered that comic book movies are more than a passing fad, resonating with audiences who connect with the humanity behind the costumes. As a result, comic book-based films have grown over the last decade—both in production and ticket sales— with many more movies to be released over the next few years (The Dark Knight Rises, The Amazing Spider-man, Iron Man 3, and The Avengers to name a few.) Teachers can use the popularity of superhero films to expand students' understanding of American culture. University of Idaho professor of history Katherine Aiken explored the use of comic books to teach U.S. history in a recent essay published by the Organization of American Historians' Magazine of History (Vol.24, no.2-April 2010). Aiken concluded that because comic books reflect larger social issues in U.S. society, they can help students examine how U.S. artists addressed issues of race, gender, nationalism, and conflict in popular publications. Some educational publishers, for their part, have produced illustrated history stories and graphic novels to capture younger readers' attention, such as tales from the Revolutionary War. While history-based graphic novels are a useful supplement to course materials, studying comic books provides a different focus in the classroom. Analyzing U.S. popular culture can help teachers and students contextualize the origins of comic books, explore how events in history shaped the evolution of this medium, and assess the ability of comics to address larger social concerns. A few approaches for connecting comic books to U.S. history include: - Chronological comparative study Students can create timelines, decade-level synopses, or graphic organizers that align U.S. historical events with the dates of creation of specific comic books, and show how these titles reflected social concerns. (For a nice overview on the history of comic books, Michigan State University's Ethan Wattrell's course website contains lecture slides and podcasts that can help orient educators.) - 1920–30s: Comic books developed as a form of fantasy and escapism during the 1920s and the Great Depression. - 1940s: Superheroes went to war. Did comic books become tools for wartime propaganda, or did they simply reflect a period of national pride? - 1950s: Fantasy, horror, Westerns, and other genres overshadowed superhero stories. Is this a case of "hero" fatigue or socio-political concerns? - 1960s: The Marvel and Silver Ages: The Cold War, space race, and civil rights shaped a new era of heroes. The space race, for example, influenced the creation of the Fantastic Four and other interstellar heroes. The nuclear arms race, in turn, influenced the creation of Iron Man and the Hulk. Civil rights also played a significant role in the development of characters with social struggles, from the mutant X-Men to the blind superhero known as Daredevil and the increasing number of female heroines beyond Wonder Woman. - 1970s–1980s: Comic books became more mature. Serious issues such as drug abuse and apartheid influenced storylines in teen-centered titles such as the Teen Titans and X-Men/New Mutants. Specific stories, such as The Dark Knight Returns and Watchmen, tapped into the economic and political anxieties during the Reagan era. Titles such as Sandman also introduced comic books to a new generation of female readers during the late 1980s. All three titles appeared on the New York Times Bestseller list. - Addressing social issues Popular culture has often been able to deal with serious issues in an accessible manner. The story of Genosha in the pages of the X-Men extended the theme of genetic discrimination against mutants to issues of slavery and oppression—much like apartheid in South Africa. In this vein, comic books are an accessible way to address other social issues. - Gender studies: How did the feminist movements of the 1970s affect characters like Wonder Woman and the Invisible Girl/Woman? What changes are visible in the depiction of female superheroes? How has the growing visibility of female artists, such as Louise Simonson, Lynn Varley, and Gail Simone, changed a male-dominated industry? - Activism: Students can study the effects of larger events such as the Vietnam War, September 11th, and the passage of the Patriot Act on comic book storylines. Recent stories such as Marvel's Civil War and World War II-era comics are useful starting points to examine individual rights and nationalism respectively. - Intellectual Property: Why was DC Comics unable to use the names "Superboy" and "Captain Marvel?" How did the founding of Image Comics become a significant development for independent comic books and the idea of creator rights? How do copyright and fair use laws affect the use of comic book characters in education? - "Golden Age," "Silver Age," and "Modern Age" of comic books What characterized each of these eras? Using long-running characters like Batman and the Joker, students can assess changing social norms, expectations, and trends in the 20th-century U.S. through the evolution of specific characters. - Government regulations and political concerns McCarthyism and moral issues threatened the comic book industry during the 1950s. Why? One fascinating story involves Fredric Wertham's Seduction of the Innocent, a bestselling book that eventually led to the policing and regulation of comic books and the creation of the Comic Code Authority. This is a good period to discuss government regulations, free speech, and what made comic books a "danger" to children in the 1950s. Another topic, dealing with moral issues, is human experimentation. In this video by Emory Bioethics professor Paul Root Wolpe, he uses the genetics in the X-Men comic books to talk about Nazi experimentation on humans, the Nuremberg trials, as well as U.S. testing on human subjects. - The evolution of major characters While Batman is one of the easiest character to compare his own evolution to changes in American society, he is not the only one that shows the influence of time and place. Tony Stark (Iron Man) famously struggled with alcoholism in the 1980s. Captain America went from World War II hero to a man out of time after decades of frozen animation. Peter Parker's (Spider-man) journey from awkward teenager to a married professional may be an easy-to-relate-to story for students. Likewise, Superman's recent decision to forgo his American identity, in order to embrace a more "global" role, created renewed interest (and a bit of controversy) in the media. - Comic book creators How did the personal lives of writers and illustrators like Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Jerry Siegel, and Joe Schuster, among others, affect the tales they created? Many of these artists came from ethnic and working-class communities that shaped the setting and topics of their stories. Comic books, therefore, can help diversify the teaching of American history and allows teachers to address important issues in a novel yet useful way. However, educators should take caution. Over the last few decades, comic books have shifted to a more mature audience and as a result the depiction of violence has become more graphic. Similarly, educators should be mindful of issues or artists that oversexualize characters. As is the case with any material to be used in the U.S. history classroom, comic books should be previewed beforehand. Educators, however, can find plenty of "classroom-friendly" comics online or at a local comic book store. For example, the Pulitzer Prize-winning comic, Maus, commonly found at most school libraries, is a different take on Nazism and the Holocaust. Comic book companies have also increased their number of "kid-friendly" titles, easily found at bookstores like Barnes & Nobles and department stores such as Target. Finally, the first Saturday in May is "Free Comic Book Day" each year—a good chance to explore several titles at a local comic book store. A final note: Interdisciplinary approaches to using comic books in the classroom are also helpful for the history teacher. Art educators often argue that reading and making comics encourages students to become more skilled at critically examining texts—full of complex concepts and human relations. Students and teachers can use comics to bridge the gap between personal experiences and history, examine the connection between comics and social groups (such as the "art world" and ethnic groups,) and to deconstruct the medium in order to gain a better sense of what issues affected society. The marriage of visuals and text also helps reach reluctant readers and bring the classroom teacher closer to youth culture. Similarly, language arts specialists find that engagement enhances reading fluency— even in the elementary years. Low-level readers, in various studies, demonstrate greater engagement with visual texts like comic books. History teachers can benefit from collaborative uses of comic books across disciplines. Either by working with a language arts or art teacher, or adapting diverse approaches to visual literacy in the history classroom, the use of comic books is helpful for working with others. Students will also find similar collaborative benefits in outside research and work. Whether they develop digital timelines using tools like Dipity or generate a Google Map to assess the geographic connections of comic book characters to U.S. history, digital tools are ideal for collaborations inside and outside the classroom. (Note: The Dipity and Google Map links show examples of how to use American comic books to teach U.S. History.) - Aiken, Katherine. "Superhero History: Using Comic Books to Teach U.S. History." Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 24 (2010): 41-47. - Annett, Doug. "Implementing Graphic Texts into the Language Arts Classroom". Minnesota English Journal 44 (Fall 2008): 150-179. - Editorial. "Comic Books in the Classroom". New York Times January 3, 2008. Online. - Hanson, Thomas J. "Holy Student Assessment, Batman! We've Hit the Schools!". Big Ideas: an Authentic Education E-Journal (March 2008). - Morrison, Timothy G., Gregory Bryan, and George W. Chilcoat. "Using Student-Generated Comic Books in the Classroom". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 45 (May, 2002): 758-767. - White, Ross. "Comics in the classroom". Learn NC. - Williams, Rachel Marie-Crane. "Image, Text, and Story: Comics and Graphic Novels in the Classroom". Art Education (November 2008): 13-19. Reprinted on Iowa Research Online
Reducing pollution in our waterways, protecting rivers for tomorrow Rainwater or snowmelt from roofs, lawns, roadways, pavements and construction sites enters our river system carrying sediment, debris and pollutants straight into our rivers. This not only pollutes our waterways but affects the health of our streams, rivers and the land surrounding them and the health of the wildlife and fish that rely on them. Stormwater and suspended solids In 2005, a water quality study found that 90% of sediment – also called Total Suspended Solids (TSS) - that entered the Bow River from Calgary was from the stormwater system; 75% to 80% of the stormwater outfall system has no treatment facilities which allowed untreated water to enter directly into our waterways. To put this in perspective, stormwater contributes approximately ten times more TSS to rivers than the outflow from our wastewater treatment plants. High levels of TSS often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides and metals in our waterways. Learn more in our Stormwater Fact Sheet. Stormwater management strategy To protect the quality of water in our rivers and streams and to conserve our long-term water supply, The City developed the Stormwater Management Strategy. One of the main goals of the Strategy is to reduce sediment entering the Bow and Elbow Rivers from our stormwater system to 2005 levels by 2015, despite the continued growth of our city. This strategy includes constructing stormwater quality retrofit (SWQR) facilities such as wet ponds or constructed wetlands within existing developed areas across the city. Like many such facilities in newer communities, they will improve the quality of water entering our rivers by removing solids through sedimentation. The City has established an annual budget for the design and construction of stormwater quality retrofit projects. Several projects are completed and more are currently in the design stage. Progress is being made but efforts need to continue to produce long-term beneficial results. Read the Stormwater Management Strategy Report for more information on what The City is doing to reduce total suspended solids levels in our rivers and what you can do to help. The success of our Strategy is dependent on everyone's participation – including yours.
Children are particularly vulnerable to the potentially toxic effects of pesticides, and steps should be taken to limit kids' exposure to these chemicals as much as possible, pediatricians say. Kids are exposed to pesticides everyday through the air, dust and soil, and their food, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, which published a report today (Nov. 26) about the topic. Exposure to high doses of pesticides, which can occur if a child unintentionally ingests a product such as weed or insect killer, is known to cause serious problems, including vomiting, breathing problems, seizures and even death. [See Is Pesticide Spraying Safe?] But there's also emerging evidence that long-term exposure to lower doses of pesticides can harm children, the AAP says. Studies have linked exposure to pesticides while in the womb with an increased risk of cancers in children, including brain cancer and leukemia. Parents in these studies, were exposed to pesticides either at their work, or while using pesticides around the house. Other studies have linked prenatal exposure chemicals called organophosphates with lower IQ scores in children. Parents can reduce pesticide exposure by aiming to control pests in homes and gardens in the least toxic ways, the AAP says. For instance, to control cockroaches, families can keep garbage in containers with lids, eliminate plumbing leaks and use the least toxic insecticides, such as boric acid, in cracks and crevices, the report says. Families should avoid using lawn products that combine pesticides and fertilizers because use of these products tends to result in over-application of pesticides, the AAP said. Eating organic foods may also help lower pesticide exposure. In one small study, children had lower levels of pesticides in their urine when they switched from a conventional diet to one with mostly organic foods. However, in a report published last month, the AAP noted it's not clear whether the lower levels of pesticides found in organic foods would make a difference in terms of health over a lifetime. Washing produce and removing peels may also reduce pesticide exposure, the AAP said. Pediatricians should ask parents about pesticide use in the home, and recommend minimal-risk products and safe storage practices (such as storing pesticides in a locked cabinet or building), the AAP said. Government regulators should take steps to increase economic incentives for farmers who use less toxic pesticides, and support research to better understand the health risks of pesticides, the AAP said. Pass it on: Kids' exposure to pesticides should be limited as much as possible, doctors say.
Learn something new every day More Info... by email As most folks know, verbs are words that describe motion, action, or states of being. Without verbs, nothing happens, and if nothing happens, a sentence is incomplete. Adverbs, as their name suggests, add something to the verb in terms of describing the action taking place. An adverb of manner is one that defines the way the action occurs. Adverbs are easy to identify because they often, although not always, end in ly. Actions can be done in an almost infinite range of ways. An adverb of manner pinpoints mood or attitude, style, or physicality. A gardener might dig a hole easily if there are no rocks in the soil and irritably if the soil is largely clay and hard to break. Some children behave obediently, while others behave naughtily. A couple of gossips might exchange their opinions noisily or quietly, depending upon whether they want others to overhear. An adverb of manner is actually only one of five categories of adverbs. Others include adverbs of time, degree, frequency, and comment. Some linguists break these larger categories into many smaller ones, including adjectives of place, circumstance, or certainty. Adverbs of time offer details about the hour or general time of day, the day of the week, the season, or other temporal designations. Descriptions that focus on how little or how much something is being done fall into the category of adverbs of degree; for example, a baby might cry constantly. Adverbs of frequency look at repeated action and include adverbs such as usually, rarely, and infrequently. Adverbs that clue a listener into the speaker’s opinion, such as the adverbs fortunately, horribly, and adorably, are adverbs of comment. The adverb of manner category contains many more than the other groups. These adverbs always appear either at the end of the sentence or, more often, directly after the verb. This is typical of most adverbs, with the exception of adverbs of comment, which can also appear at the beginning of the sentence. Nearly every adverb of manner is created by adding the suffix ly to an adjective. There are a handful of exceptions, including the adverbs how, straight, and hard. It’s important to note that not every word ending in ly is an adjective, however. Describing someone as friendly isn’t describing action, but character, which means friendly is actually an adjective. While the root of most adverbs of manner is an adjective, the root of an adjective ending in ly is a noun. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
The national curriculum for art and design aims to ensure that all pupils: - produce creative work, exploring their ideas and recording their experiences - become proficient in drawing, painting, sculpture and other art, craft and design techniques - evaluate and analyse creative works using the language of art, craft and design - know about great artists, craft makers and designers, and understand the historical and cultural development of their art forms Art themes are planned to link with topic themes (see class medium term plans for more detail). Children are taught to use sketch books to explore techniques and capture initial ideas. In May the school has an ARTS WEEK focus during the statutory assessment period to allow a focus on creativity during this busy time. The children visit the West Ox Arts gallery to see work by a range of artists. Looking closely at work by a local artist Using sketch books to capture ideas
Maximum Contaminant Level Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) are standards that are set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for drinking water quality. An MCL is the legal threshold limit on the amount of a substance that is allowed in public water systems under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The limit is usually expressed as a concentration in milligrams or micrograms per liter of water. To set a Maximum Contaminant Level for a contaminant, EPA first determines how much of the contaminant may be present with no adverse health effects. This level is called the Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG). MCLGs are non-enforceable public health goals. The legally enforced MCL is then set as close as possible to the MCLG. The MCL for a contaminant may be higher than the MCLG because of difficulties in measuring small quantities of a contaminant, a lack of available treatment technologies, or if EPA determines that the costs of treatment would outweigh the public health benefits of a lower MCL. In the last case, EPA is permitted to choose an MCL that balances the cost of treatment with the public health benefits. For some contaminants, EPA establishes a Treatment Technique (TT) instead of an MCL. TTs are enforceable procedures that drinking water systems must follow in treating their water for a contaminant. MCLs and TTs are known jointly as National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs), or primary standards. Some contaminants may cause aesthetic problems with drinking water, such as the presence of unpleasant tastes or odors, or cosmetic problems, such as tooth discoloration. Since these contaminants do not cause health problems, there are no legally enforceable limits on their presence in drinking water. However, EPA recommends maximum levels of these contaminants in drinking water. These recommendations are called National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs), or secondary standards. - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, DC. "List of Contaminants and their MCLs." 2010-06-02. - EPA. "Regulating Public Water Systems and Contaminants Under the Safe Drinking Water Act." 2010-04-14. - EPA. "National Primary Drinking Water Regulations." Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR Part 141. - EPA. "National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations." Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR Part 143.
Looking for Signs of Past Water on Mars The big science question for the Mars Exploration Rovers is how past water activity on Mars has influenced the red planet's environment over time. While there is no liquid water on the surface of Mars today, the record of past water activity on Mars can be found in the rocks, minerals, and geologic landforms, particularly in those that can only form in the presence of water. That's why the rovers are specially equipped with tools to study a diverse collection of rocks and soils that may hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The rovers offer unique contributions in pursuit of the overall Mars science strategy to "Follow the Water." Understanding the history of water on Mars is important to meeting the four science goals of NASA's long-term Mars Exploration Program: - Determine whether Life ever arose on Mars - Characterize the Climate of Mars - Characterize the Geology of Mars - Prepare for Human Exploration Learn about the rovers' unique contributions to these science goals through the pursuit of seven primary science objectives. How scientists will rely on the rovers to look for signs of past water Because scientists cannot go to Mars themselves at this point in time, they have to rely on robot geologists--the rovers--to look for signs of past water activity on Mars for them. To do their job, the rovers carry a number of science instruments that will analyze rocks and soils on the Martian surface and perform other important tasks and studies. Science results are being published in scientific journals.
of the Unit In Lesson 1 of this unit, students investigate and model exponential growth using both explicit and recursive rules. (For the initial development of recursive rules for linear models, see page 112-115; for recursive exponential rules see page 422.) The sample material consists of the three short investigations from Lesson 2, "Exponential Decay." Students determine and explore exponential models of the form y = a(bx), where 0 < b < 1, through tables, graphs, and algebraic rules. They then compare these models to exponential growth and linear models. Throughout the curriculum, interesting problem contexts serve as the foundation for instruction. As lessons unfold around these problem situations, classroom instruction tends to follow a common pattern as elaborated under Instructional Design. You will need the free Adobe Acrobat Reader software to view and print the sample material. Contact Adobe with any technical questions about their software or its installation. In early units in Course 2, students develop matrix and linear combination methods for solving systems of two linear equations. In Unit 4, Power Models, students develop the ability to recognize and model data patterns and problem conditions that involve direct or inverse power variation and quadratic models. They also study their applications. Course 3 contains three units devoted to extending students' ability to represent and solve problems using algebraic methods. Students develop the ability to construct, reason with, and solve equations involving several variables and constraints in Unit 1, Multiple-Variable Models. Unit 3, Symbol Sense and Algebraic Reasoning, formalizes the function concept, introduces polynomial and rational functions, extends the solution of equations and inequalities by methods including factoring and the quadratic formula, and develops student ability in algebraic proof. The final algebra and functions unit, Families of Functions, reviews and extends student understanding of the basic function families and develops student ability to adjust these basic functions to match patterns in tables, graphs, and problem conditions. Four units in Course 4 extend student understanding of algebra and function concepts in preparation for post-secondary education. Students develop understanding of the fundamental concepts underlying calculus, develop understanding of logarithmic functions and their use in modeling and analyzing problem situations, extend their ability to use polynomial and rational functions to solve problems, and extend their ability to manipulate symbolic representations of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions. A unit that develops understanding and skill in the use of standard spreadsheet operations while reviewing and extending many of the basic algebra topics from Courses 1-3 is included for students intending to pursue programs in social, management, and some of the health sciences or humanities. [ Home ][ Announcements ][ Program Overview ][ Evaluation ][ Implementation ][ Parent Resource ][ Publications ][ Site Map ][ Contact Us ] Copyright 2017 Core-Plus Mathematics Project. All rights reserved.
What are research-tested ways to create a welcoming classroom and a productive learning environment? Faculty can adapt the following practical applications to create inclusive classrooms where students from diverse backgrounds can thrive. We begin with these easy-to-adopt general practices here and dig deeper in Crafting an Inclusive Course Climate. For additional resources, link to Resources for the Diverse Classroom. Steps You Can Take Right Now to Make Your Classroom More Welcoming - Make your expectations for class clear. - Work with students to establish ground rules for classroom behavior that everyone can support. Help students reflect on the value of respecting multiple perspectives, avoiding generalizations and stereotypes, and using active listening strategies. - Include your student learning outcomes on your syllabus and clearly explain how students will be assessed. Offer variety in your learning opportunities and assessments. - For group assignments, offer clear instructions and create groups that do not isolate individuals of underrepresented groups. - Choose course materials that allow students to learn from multiple voices and question dominant views. - Get to know your students and help them get to know each other. - Print or download UMBC’s student rosters with student photos, so you can begin to match faces to names. For large classes, help your teaching assistants get to know the students in their discussion sections. - Invite students to introduce themselves in class, particularly on the first day. Allow students to self identify. Ask everyone to share which personal pronouns work best for them, and note on your rosters. - Remind students about the value of connecting with each other. Use icebreakers, think-pair-share sessions, group work, and other activities in class where students have opportunities to interact with each other. - Avoid marginalizing students from underrepresented groups. - Don’t ask students to speak for their identity groups. Keep in mind that identity groups are not homogenous. - Be careful with metaphors and analogies. - Avoid making assumptions about students and their identities. Build awareness about visible and less visible differences. Don’t call attention to differences or specific student identities. - Don’t assume your students share experiences that are sometimes assumed to be common ground for all (i.e., having two heterosexual parents, living in a house, taking annual vacations). - Add a statement to your syllabus about your expectations for the classroom community. In addition to the Office of Disabilities Services’ Recommended Disability Statement for Course Syllabi, consider adding a statement about the classroom community and civil dialogue. Explain to your students that you value multiple perspectives and will work to facilitate respectful and collaborative discussions, and invite them to speak with you about accommodations or concerns. Sample Syllabus Statements: Diversity Statement on Civil Dialogue: I hope the course challenges us to engage with issues that touch our and others’ lives personally and politically and to develop ways of thinking and acting to address them in nuanced, conscious, and accountable ways. Questions, personal insights, experiences, and emotions about the materials and topics are always welcome in class. I do not expect that we share the same views on the topics we cover (in fact I hope we do not). We all need to speak up, especially when we do not agree with each other’s views, but do so in a respective manner. The range of views you hold and the experiences you bring into the classroom will make our learning experiences much more interesting and enriching. In order to ensure an environment for robust intellectual debate, please do not video or audio record in class. (Example from Autumn Reed’s FYS 107Y-01, U.S. Orientalism) Diversity Statement on Respect: Students in this class are encouraged to speak up and participate during class meetings. Because the class will represent a diversity of individual beliefs, backgrounds, and experiences, every member of this class must show respect for every other member of this class. (From California State University, Chico’s Office of Diversity and Inclusion). See additional examples from the University of Washington School of Public Health: http://sph.washington.edu/gateway/classroom-climate.asp - Ambrose, S. A., M.W. Bridges, M. DiPietro, M.C. Lovett, & M.K. Norman. (2010). How learning works: seven research-based principles for smart teaching. (pp. 153-187). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. - Miller, D. Diversity checklist: Guidelines for course planning. Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence. Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved https://www.csuchico.edu/diversity/diversity-inclusive-teaching/documents/DiversityChecklist.pdf. - Tanner, K. D. (2013). Structure matters: Twenty-one teaching strategies to promote student engagement and cultivate classroom equity. CBE Life Sciences Education, 12(3), 322–331. http://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.13-06-0115. - University of Michigan Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. (2016). Inclusive teaching resources and strategies. Retrieved from http://www.crlt.umich.edu/multicultural-teaching/inclusive-teaching-strategies. - University of Michigan Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. (2016). Setting the tone for an inclusive classroom: Some practices to consider. Retrieved from
When I look to the sky and see a flock of birds in a migratory formation it inspires a peaceful, calming sensation. It’s fascinating to take a moment from whatever task is at hand, and ponder how these birds can soar for miles and miles in this perfect shape. Why do they make this tedious annual journey? How do they know when it’s time to take flight? To what lovely, warmer climate are they traveling? … And why can’t I go with them? Simply put, birds migrate when the food and nesting resources in their habitat are exhausted, which is usually due to seasonal changes. Though it’s not completely known for sure, ornithologists believe migration is triggered by a combination of changes in the length of the day, temperatures falling, depletion of food supplies, and genetic predisposition. Different species of birds migrate different distances ranging from just a couple of miles down the road, to across continents. Here is a break down of four basic migration types and where a few of my favorite feathered friends (these will vary slightly from region to region) fit into the formation… Long Distance Migrants – will travel distances from Canada and the United States to Central and South America. These can include the vast majority of North American bird species such as vireos, flycatchers, ruby-throated hummingbirds, ducks, geese, swans, tanagers, Blackburnian Warblers, orioles, Arctic Terns and swallows. Nomadic/Irregular Migrants – These birds only follow the food. When it runs out the move on, and when they find a good source they may become residents. These can include robins, blue jays, and Clark’s Nutcrackers. Short Distance Migrants – may travel a few hundred miles or only change elevation by moving up or down a mountainside. These can include waxwings and American Tree Sparrows. Residents – Some birds will stick out the winter where they are, or not travel but only a few miles to reach warmer temperatures. They tend to acclimate to temperature well, and eat a wider range of foods like seeds. These can include cardinals, chickadees, Downy Woodpeckers, pigeons, doves and finches.
Microsoft Excel is a powerful tool that can transform the way you use data. This book explains in comprehensive and user-friendly detail how to manage, make sense of, explore and share data, giving scientists at all levels the skills they need to maximise the usefulness of their data. Interactions between species are of fundamental importance to all living systems and the framework we have for studying these interactions is community ecology. This is important to our understanding of the planet’s biological diversity and how species interactions relate to the functioning of ecosystems at all scales. Species do not live in isolation and the study of community ecology is of practical application in a wide range of conservation issues. This is a book about the scientific process and how you apply it to data in ecology. You will learn how to plan for data collection, how to assemble data, how to analyze data and finally how to present the results. The book uses Microsoft Excel and the powerful Open Source R program to carry out data handling as well as producing graphs.
Formally, a String is a sequence of characters representing a literal constant or some type of variable. Informally, a string is programming lingo for text. We've worked with numbers, both integers and decimal numbers, to drive parameters and we can do the same with text. Strings can be used for a wide range of applications, including defining custom parameters, annotating documentation sets, and parsing through text-based data sets. The string Node is located in the Core>Input Category. The sample Nodes above are strings. A number can be represented as a string, as can a letter, or an entire array of text. Download the example file that accompanies this exercise (Right click and "Save Link As..."): Building Blocks of Programs - Strings.dyn. A full list of example files can be found in the Appendix. You can parse through large amounts of data quickly by querying strings. We'll talk about some basic operations which can speed up a workflow and help for software interoperability. The image below considers a string of data coming from an external spreadsheet. The string represents the vertices of a rectangle in the XY-Plane. Let's break down some string split operations in miniature exercise: - The ";" separator splits each vertex of the rectangle. This creates a list with 4 items for each vertex. - By hitting the "+" in the middle of the Node, we create new separator. - Add a "," string to the canvas and plug in to the new separator input. - Our result is now a list of ten items. The Node first splits based on separator0, then based on separator1. While the list of items above may look like numbers, they are still regarded as individual strings in Dynamo. In order to create points, their data type needs to be converted from a string to a Number. This is done with the String.ToNumber Node - This Node is straightforward. Plug the String.Split results into the input. The output doesn't look different, but the data type is now a number instead of a string. - With some basic additional operations, we now have a rectangle drawn at the origin based on the original string input. Since a string is a generic text object, they host a wide range of applications. Let's take a look at some of the major actions in the Core>String Category in Dynamo: This is a method of merging two strings together in order. This takes each literal string in a list and creates one merged string. The image above represents the concatenation of three strings: - Add or subtract strings to the concatenation by clicking the +/- buttons in the center of the Node. - The output gives one concatenated string, with spaces and punctuation included. The join method is very similar to concatenate, except it has an added layer of punctuation. If you've worked in Excel, you may have come across a CSV file. This stands for comma-separated values. One could use a comma (or in this case, two dashes) as the separator with the join Node in order to create a similar data structure: The image above represents the joining of two strings: - The separator input allows one to create a string which divides the joined strings. Working with Strings In this exercise, we're going to use methods of querying and manipulating strings to deconstruct the final stanza of Robert Frost's Stopping By Woods on a Snowy Evening. Not the most practical application, but it will help us to grasp conceptual string actions as we apply them to legible lines of rhythm and rhyme. Let's begin with a basic string split of the stanza. We first notice that the writing is formatted based on commas. We'll use this format to separate each line into individual items. - The base string is pasted into a string node. - Another string node is used to denote the separator. In this case, we're using a comma. - A String.Split Node is added to the canvas and connected to the two strings. - The output shows that we've now separated the lines into individual elements. Now, let's get to the good part of the poem: the last two lines. The original stanza was one item of data. We separated this data into individual items in the first step. Now we need to do a search for the text we're looking for. And while we can do this by selecting the last two items of the list, if this were an entire book, we wouldn't want to read through everything and manually isolate the elements. - Instead of manually searching, we use a String.Contains Node to perform a search for a set of characters. This is the similar to doing the "Find" command in a word processor. In this case, we get a return of "true" or "false" if that substring is found within the item. - In the "searchFor" input, we define a substring that we're looking for within the stanza. Let's use a string node with the text "And miles". - The output gives us a list of falses and trues. We'll use this boolean logic to filter the elements in the next step. - List.FilterByBoolMask is the Node we want to use to cull out the falses and trues. The "in" output return the statements with a "mask" input of "true, while the "out" output return those which are "false". - Our output from the "in" is as expected, giving us the final two lines of the stanza. Now, we want to drive home the repetition of the stanza by merging the two lines together. When viewing the output of the previous step, we notice that there are two items in the list: - Using two List.GetItemAtIndex Nodes, we can isolate the items using the values of 0 and 1 as the index input. - The output for each Node gives us, in order, the final two lines. To merge these two items into one, we use the String.Join Node: - After adding the String.Join Node, we notice that we need a separator. - To create the separator, we add a string node to the canvas and type in a comma. - The final output has merged the last two items into one. This may seem like a lot of work to isolate the last two lines; and it's true, string operations often require some up front work. But they are scalable, and they can be applied to large datasets with relative ease. If you are working parametrically with spreadsheets and interoperability, be sure to keep string operations in mind.
(Also Called 'Flatulence', 'Flatus') Everyone has gas and gets rid of it by burping and by passing it through the rectum. Many people think they have too much gas, when most of the time they really have normal amounts. Most people produce about 1 to 3 pints a day and pass gas about 14-23 times a day. Gas is made primarily of odorless vapors--carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and sometimes methane. The unpleasant odor of gas comes from bacteria in the large intestine that release small amounts of gases that contain sulfur. Although having gas is common, it can be uncomfortable and embarrassing. Understanding causes, ways to reduce symptoms, and treatment will help most people find relief. What causes gas? Gas in the digestive tract (that is, the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine) comes from the following two sources: - Normal breakdown of certain undigested foods by harmless bacteria naturally present in the large intestine (colon). - Air swallowing (aerophagia) is a common cause of gas in the stomach. Everyone swallows small amounts of air when eating and drinking. However, eating or drinking rapidly, chewing gum, smoking, or wearing loose dentures can cause some people to take in more air. Burping, or belching, is the way most swallowed air--which contains nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide--leaves the stomach. The remaining gas moves into the small intestine where it is partially absorbed. A small amount travels into the large intestine for release through the rectum. The body does not digest and absorb all carbohydrates (the sugar, starches and fiber found in many foods) in the small intestine because of a shortage or absence of certain enzymes. This undigested food then passes from the small intestine into the large intestine. In the large intestine, harmless and normal bacteria break down the food, producing hydrogen, carbon dioxide and--in about one-third of all people--methane. Eventually, these gases exit through the rectum. A person who produces methane will have stools that consistently float in water. Research has not shown why some people produce methane and others do not. Foods that produce symptomatic gas in one person may not cause symptoms in another. Some common bacteria in the large intestine can destroy the hydrogen that other bacteria produce. The balance of the two types of bacteria may explain why some people have more gas than others. Furthermore, most people who have symptomatic gas do not have more gas than other people, but rather more sensitivity to symptoms caused by this gas. Which foods cause gas? Most foods that contain carbohydrates can cause gas. By contrast, fats and proteins cause little gas. The sugars that cause gas are raffinose, lactose, fructose and sorbitol. - Raffinose is present in large amounts in beans. Smaller amounts of this complex sugar are found in cabbage, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables and whole grains. - Lactose is the natural sugar in milk. It is also found in milk products, such as cheese and ice cream, and processed foods, such as bread, cereal, and salad dressing. Many people, particularly those of African, Native American, or Asian background, have low levels of the enzyme lactase needed to digest lactose. Also, as people age, their enzyme levels decrease. As a result, over time people may experience increasing amounts of gas after eating food containing lactose. - Fructose is naturally present in onions, artichokes, pears, and wheat. It is also used as a sweetener in some soft drinks and fruit drinks. - Sorbitol is a sugar found naturally in fruits, including apples, pears, peaches and prunes. It is also used as an artificial sweetener in many dietetic foods and sugar-free candies and gums. Most starches, including potatoes, corn, noodles and wheat, produce gas. They are broken down in the large intestine. Rice is the only starch that does not cause gas. Many foods contain soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber dissolves easily in water and takes on a soft, gel-like texture in the intestines. Found in oat bran, beans, peas and most fruits, soluble fiber is not broken down until it reaches the large intestine, where digestion causes gas. Insoluble fiber, on the other hand, passes essentially unchanged through the intestines and produces little gas. Wheat bran and some vegetables contain this kind of fiber. What are some symptoms and problems of gas? The most common symptoms of gas are belching, flatulence, abdominal bloating and abdominal pain. However, not everyone experiences these symptoms. The determining factors probably are how much gas the body produces, how many fatty acids the body absorbs, and a person's sensitivity to gas in the large intestine. Chronic symptoms caused by too much gas or by a serious disease are rare. An occasional belch during or after meals is normal and releases gas when the stomach is full of food. However, people who belch frequently may be swallowing too much air and releasing it before the air enters the stomach. Sometimes a person with chronic belching may have an upper GI disorder, such as peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. Believing that swallowing air and releasing it will relieve the discomfort of these disorders, this person may unintentionally develop a habitual cycle of belching and discomfort. Frequently, the pain continues or worsens, leading the person to believe he or she has a serious disorder. An extreme example of this is Meganblase syndrome, which causes chronic belching. This syndrome is characterized by severe air swallowing and an enlarged bubble of gas in the stomach following heavy meals. The resulting fullness and shortness of breath may mimic a heart attack. This gas syndrome is usually correctable by making behavioral changes. Gas-bloat syndrome may occur after surgery to correct GERD. The surgery creates a one-way valve between the esophagus and stomach that allows food and gas to enter the stomach, but often prevents normal belching and the ability to vomit. Surgery may be needed to correct gas-bloat syndrome. Another common complaint is passage of too much gas through the rectum (flatulence). However, most people do not realize that passing gas 14 to 23 times a day is normal. Although rare, too much gas may be the result of carbohydrate malabsorption or overactive bacteria in the colon. Many people believe that too much gas causes abdominal bloating. However, people who complain of bloating from gas often have normal amounts and distribution of gas. They actually may be unusually aware of gas in the digestive tract. Doctors believe that bloating is usually the result of an intestinal motility disorder, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Motility disorders are characterized by abnormal movements and contractions of intestinal muscles. These disorders may give a false sensation of bloating because of increased sensitivity to gas. Any disease that causes intestinal obstruction (for example, Crohn's disease or colon cancer) may also cause abdominal bloating. In addition, people who have had many operations, adhesions (scar tissue), or internal hernias may experience bloating or pain. Finally, eating a lot of fatty food can delay stomach emptying and cause bloating and discomfort, but not necessarily too much gas. Abdominal pain and discomfort Some people have pain when gas is present in the intestine. When gas collects on the left side of the colon, the pain can be confused with heart disease. When it collects on the right side of the colon, the pain may feel like the pain associated with gallstones or appendicitis. What diagnostic tests are used? Although gas is very common, at times medical evaluation is necessary. Weight loss, anemia, fevers, diarrhea, or blood in the stool should result in early evaluation. The evaluation usually begins with a review of dietary habits and symptoms. Your doctor may ask you to keep a diary of foods and beverages consumed for a specific time period. If lactase deficiency is the suspected cause of gas, your doctor may suggest avoiding milk products for a period of time. A blood or breath test may be used to diagnose lactose intolerance. Other breath tests may be obtained to determine if there is fructose malabsorption or overgrowth of intestinal bacteria. Careful review of diet and the amount of gas passed may help relate specific foods to symptoms and determine the severity of the problem. If a patient complains of bloating, the doctor may examine the abdomen for the sound of fluid movement to rule out ascites (build-up of fluid in the abdomen). The doctor also may do an exam for signs of inflammation to rule out diseases of the colon. The possibility of colon cancer is usually evaluated in people 50 years of age and older. This possibility also is evaluated in those with a family history of colorectal cancer, especially if they have never had a colon examination (sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy). These tests may also be appropriate for someone with unexplained weight loss, diarrhea, or blood not visible (occult blood) in the stool. For those with chronic belching, the doctor will look for signs or causes of excessive air swallowing. If needed, an upper GI series (X-ray to view the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine) may be performed to rule out disease. How is gas treated? Most of the time, treatment of the symptoms of gas requires an approach that includes both dietary adjustment and medication. The most common ways to reduce the discomfort of gas are changing diet, taking medication, and reducing the amount of air swallowed. Your doctor may tell you to eat fewer foods that cause gas. However, for some people this may mean cutting out healthy foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and milk products. Your doctor may also suggest limiting high-fat foods to reduce bloating and discomfort. This helps the stomach empty faster, allowing gases to move into the small intestine. Unfortunately, the amount of gas caused by certain foods varies from person to person. Effective dietary changes depend on learning through trial and error how much of the offending foods one can handle. Many non-prescription, over-the-counter medicines are available to help reduce symptoms. Such medicines include antacids with simethicone and activated charcoal. Digestive enzymes, such as lactase supplements, actually help digest carbohydrates and may allow people to eat foods that normally cause gas. Antacids, such as Mylanta II®, Maalox II ® and Di-Gel®, contain simethicone, a foaming agent that joins gas bubbles in the stomach so that gas is more easily belched away. The recommended dose is 2 to 4 tablespoons of the simethicone preparation taken 1/2 to 2 hours after meals. Activated charcoal tablets may provide relief from gas in the colon. Studies have shown that intestinal gas is greatly reduced when these are taken before and after a meal. The usual dose is 2 to 4 tablets taken just before eating and 1 hour after meals. For those with lactose intolerance, enzyme lactase--which aids with lactose digestion--is available in liquid and tablet form without a prescription (Lactaid®, Lactrase®, and Dairy Ease®). Adding a few drops of liquid lactase to milk before drinking it or chewing lactase tablets just before eating helps digest foods that contain lactose. Also, lactose-reduced milk and other products are available at many grocery stores. Beano®, an over-the-counter digestive aid, contains the sugar-digesting enzyme that the body lacks to digest the sugar in beans and many vegetables. The enzyme comes in liquid form. Three to 10 drops per serving are added to food just before eating to break down the gas-producing sugars. Beano has no effect on gas caused by lactose or fiber. Probiotics are healthy bacteria that can be found in yogurt and over-the-counter supplements. It may also improve gas symptoms by changing the bacterial flora that is responsible for producing some of the gas. If one suffers from constipation, treatment of this disorder will be important to improve gas passage from the intestinal tract. As for the discomfort of gas related to failure to advance the gas through the gastrointestinal tract, gentle exercise is important to stimulate the intestines to pass the gas through. At times, abdominal massage may also improve symptoms. Doctors may prescribe medicines to help reduce symptoms, especially for people with a motility disorder, such as IBS. If bacterial overgrowth in the small intestines is demonstrated by testing, antibiotics to reduce these bacteria may be prescribed. Reducing swallowed air For those who have chronic belching, doctors may suggest ways to reduce the amount of air swallowed. Recommendations are to avoid chewing gum and to avoid eating hard candy. Eating at a slow pace and checking with a dentist to make sure dentures fit properly should also help. Although gas may be uncomfortable and embarrassing, it is not life-threatening. Understanding the causes, ways to reduce symptoms, and treatment will help most people find some relief. Points to remember - Everyone has gas in the digestive tract. - People often believe normal passage of gas to be excessive. - Gas comes from two main sources: swallowed air and normal breakdown of certain foods by harmless bacteria naturally present in the large intestine. - Many foods with carbohydrates can cause gas. Fats and proteins cause little gas. - Foods that may cause gas include the following: - Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, onions, artichokes, and asparagus - Fruits, such as pears, apples, and peaches - Whole grains, such as whole wheat and bran - Soft drinks and fruit drinks - Milk and milk products, such as cheese and ice cream, and packaged foods prepared with lactose, such as bread, cereal, and salad dressing - Foods containing sorbitol, such as dietetic foods and sugar-free candies and gums - The most common symptoms of gas are belching, flatulence, bloating, and abdominal pain. However, some of these symptoms are often caused by an intestinal motility disorder, such as irritable bowel syndrome, rather than too much gas. - The most common ways to reduce the discomfort of gas are changing diet, taking nonprescription or prescription medicines, and reducing the amount of air swallowed. - Digestive enzymes, such as lactase supplements, actually help digest carbohydrates and may allow people to eat foods that normally cause gas in specific individuals with lactose intolerance. © Copyright 1995-2013 The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All rights reserved. Can't find the health information you’re looking for? This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 10/1/2013...#7314
- Cognitive psychologists often compare the human brain to a computer. - They comapre how information is taken in (input), then processed within the brain, how it is made sense of (retrieved from memory and recognised as a word), before the information leaves the brain as an output to be used in everyday life (as part of a conversation). - The brain is compared to the hardware of the computer and the cognitive processes are compared to the computer's software. - The model that supports this is the multi store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968) as this model works like a computer, with an imput (sensory store), a processing part (rehersal) and output (the recall from LTM) - Another assumption is that our minds are information processors. - Behaviour can be explained by mental processes such as perception, attention, memory and language. - An example of how our mental processes work together is for example, howw we recognise a dog; we pay attention to it, percieve its features, then we search our memory for existing schemas, we then use the knowledge of language to name it. - Our mental processes work together within a split second to allow us to respond to te word around us, this process is known as information processing. 1 of 7 - Heider and Simmel wanted to see whether people would attribute personality traits to inanimate objects. Heider formed a model that said beliefs can be looked at in two different ways. - Internal attributions are where we explain a persons behaviour in terms of the personality. External attributions are where we explain a persons behaviour in terms of environment. - Hieder suggested that people prefer to make dispositional attributions. This is known as fundamental attribution error (FAE). We offer internal attributions for external causes. FAE is not in all cultures. - Ross et al demonstrated FAE with observers watching contestants give answers to a quiz and were asked to rate their ability. They knew that some of the contestants made up answers but still rated them highly. - Kelly- co-variation model of attribution. Attributions can be explained in terms of co-variation.Things that covary are things that tend to happen at the same time this leads us to think one thing causes the other. Kelly proposed that attributions are determined by the covariance of three factors: Consistency, Distinctiveness and Consensus. - Consitstancy - Behaving the same way all the time , one person and one stimulus is the same across time. Distinctiveness - considering the extent to which the behaviour is unique, the extent to which one person behaves to different stimuli. Consensus - The extent to which there is agreement among other people. - Internal attributions happen when consistancy is high and distinctiveness and consensus is low. External attributions are made when all three are high. - One form of FAE is self serving bias - Miller and Ross suggested that we often attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factrs. 2 of 7 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy - CBT links to the assumption that behaviour is due to mental processes such as perception, attention, language and memory. Faulty thinking is seen as the initial cause of maladaptive behaviour. CBT involves identifying maladaptive thinking and then developing coping strategies. This Therapy aims to change the sort of cognitions that predispose us to psychological problems. CBT seeks to alter the ways in which we process information. - Beck believed that depressed people have acquired a negative schema through their interactions with other people. He suggested that we have a negative triad. In his therapy Beck recommended the use of various techniques to challenge this negative triad such as a dysfunctional thought diary. - After consultation patients are asked to keep a dysfunctional thought diary during therapy where they have to record events leading up to any unpleasant emotions experienced. They have to then record the negative thought they had and rate how much they believe in these thoughts. Clients then have to write a rational response to the negative thought and rate their belief in the rational reponse. Clients then re-rate their belief in the automatic thoughts. All these stages are used in the cognitive approach as it focuses on thoughts and perception and does not consider medical solutions. - During therapy a clien may be distressed at something they have overheard that has been said about htem or they think has been said about them. During CBT the clients are taught to challenge their own thoughts in considering the evidence they have. By replacing these thoughts with constructive thinking they learn new behaviours. - Meichenbaum created a variation of CBT called Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) to deal with stress. He believed that we cannot change the causes of stress in our lives but we can change the way we think about the stressors. He believed during therapy we needed to think of threats as problems to be solved, use positive thinking and relaxation techniques and apply the coping skills in different situations. 3 of 7 - Cognitive psychology has influenced may areas of psychology as it has many real life applications. - After Loftus and Palmer's Eye Witness Testimony experiment procedures used by lawyers and police officers have been improved. In addition our understanding of attribution biases helps us understand how people respond to ealth problems such as obesity and difficult and unexpected situations like accidents. - This is a strength because cognitive explanations have helped us to understand the dynamics behind everyday behaviours. - It is scientific research which produces objective, quantifiable data. - The attribution theory provides clear predictions that can be tested in experimental research so this means they can test whether their theories are true or not. eg the research by Heider where shapes were given personality traits. - This is a strength as the experimenter has high levels of control and is terefore more likely to discover causal relationships, thereffor reducing the effects of confounding or extraneous variables. 4 of 7 - Although it considers both internal and external factors on behaviour (processes within the brain are internal and th eformation of schemas is external), it fails to consider their interaction. - It doesnt take into account the influence of genetics and there is research evidence from twin studies that shows genes can influence human cognition. It also fails to consider culture and gender differences in cognitive development. - This is a weakness because the role of nature interacting ith nurture has been ignored and it doesnt explain which, nature or nurture is more important in our thinking processes. - It is reductionist as it compares the human mind to a computer and so assumes human behaviour is like a machine. - Approach is based on the behaviour of computers it is inevitable that outcomes of research would be mechanistic view of human behaviour. Eg. the multi-store model of memory which ignores emotional factors in the processing of memory. - This is a weakness as the influence of social and emotional factors are ignores and behaviour is over simplified. Human behaviour is more complicated the suggested by this approach. 5 of 7 Methodology - Laboratory Experiments - This is one of the main methods used by the cognitive approach as they believe psychology is a pure science. They manipulate the IV under controlled conditions. - Loftus and Palmer conducted lab experiments to establish whether leading questions had an effect on memory and whether you could distort memory of an event under different conditions. - A strength of this method is that it allows you to study causal relationships because extraneous variables can be controlled easily because procedures and controls can be put in place. Eg Loftus and Palmer was able to control the IV to see if that directlyaffected the DV. - Another strength is that the data can be quantified and so is easy to analyse and researchers can make comparisons . This means you can replicate the results and this demonstrates the validity of the findings. - A weakness is lab experiments don't represent everyday life as the participants are not emotionally involved and so lack ecological validity. Eg. Foster et al found partcipants who thought they were watching a real robbery gave morre accurate answers. - Another weakness is demand characteristics; partcipants may try to guess the aim of the experiment and confor their answers to the experimenters expectations . Eg In Loftus and Palmer participants knew they were taking part in a study and may have tried to give an estrimation of spped that the thought the experimenter wanted to hear. 6 of 7 Methodology Part 2 - Case study - Clive Wearing suffered memory loss from a herpes virus damaging the brain and causing irreversible brain damage. Clive as a result only has a 7 second capacity for short term memory. - A strength of this method is it is the most suitable for studying forms of behaviour. Eg. Clive Wearing and his seven second short term memory. It is unethical to create brain damage to study its effect on memory so it is the only way to study memory disorders. - Another strength is the data collected is rich, in depth qualitative data and so is important in understanding the reasons behind a persons unique behaviour. People like Clive are willing to be studied over a long period of time to see if there is any improvements in their memory. - A weakness is that it lacks generalisablitly due to the cases being small and unrepresentative. Eg. Clive Wearing's case study would be difficult to apply to another person with brain damage. - Another weakness is that the research is qualitative rather than quantitative and so could therefore be subjective. Eg. The interpretation of Clive Wearing and his brain disorder could be interpreted differently from researcher to researcher. 7 of 7
Differentiation is a one word description for a method to reach every student and provide them with access to the curriculum that fits their learning style and their interests. There are four areas that differentiation can occur: product, process, content, and environment. Process differentiation is activities that students engage in for remediation, extension, or maintenance. These are the three areas that every one of your students will be working in at various times. Process differentiation can be activities scheduled a few times a week or something that you incorporate each day into your classroom. - One of the ways to accomplish process differentiation is student centers or stations. An example of this is the Daily 5 process. The Daily 5 is five stations that students rotate through that focus on a different area. The stations can focus on working on writing, completing a task using manipulatives, paired reading, vocabulary work, and an independent activity. Manipulatives are very important for students that need to “see” a concept. They work especially well in math and science classrooms. Student stations can be modified to fit your content area. I’ve used the Daily 5 concept in my science classroom. - Provide checklists for the students. One part of the checklist can focus on whole group activities while the other part is specialized tasks for selected students. Some of the specialized tasks could focus on remediation support for struggling students while other tasks could be extension activities for students who have mastered the basic concepts. - Another way to differentiate process is through time to complete tasks as well as flexible groupings. Struggling students could have an extension of time as well as more opportunities for teacher assistance. A great way to figure out the different ways to adjust time and flexible groupings is to talk to special education teachers. Many special education students have specific accommodations that fit into this exact area. Legally, you have to provide these accommodations. This is a wonderful way to incorporate the accommodations for your inclusion students into your entire classroom. I would also suggest talking to others in the education community to learn how they differentiate process in their classroom. It is important to note that whatever ideas they share can always be modified to fit in your classroom. No two classrooms are the same, but the methods we use can be applicable for us all. How do you differentiate process in your classroom?
Although only about 30% of birth defects have an identifiable cause, research in recent years has provided information on one very important strategy for preventing a type of birth defect called neural tube defects (NTDs). Neural Tube Defects About 2,500 babies are born with NTDs each year. NTDs are congenital malformations of the brain and spinal cord in which the neural tube, the foundation of the central nervous system, fails to close properly in the first 28 days of life. These NTDs result in spina bifida, a physical problem where the baby will never be able to walk, or anencephaly, a problem where the brain and skull will never develop fully and the baby dies. Up to 70% of these NTDs could be prevented. A baby needs folic acid right after it is conceived, before the mother knows she is pregnant. If a woman has plenty of it in her body before pregnancy, this vitamin can prevent birth defects of the baby's spine or brain. The key is for the mother to make sure her body has a sufficient amount of folic acid before getting pregnant. Folic acid is a B vitamin found in some enriched foods and vitamin pills. Folic acid helps the baby's brain and spinal cord develop properly. Without enough folic acid, the baby could have neural tube defects. The U.S. Public Health Service recommends all women of child-bearing age who are capable of becoming pregnant, take 400 milligrams of folic acid every day. Folic acid has been added to breads, pastas, rice, and cereals. Fruits and vegetables can provide some. It is possible to get folic acid through food alone, but it takes careful planning to make sure a woman gets enough every day. The easiest way is by taking a multivitamin containing folic acid daily. Since the word has been getting out about the importance of folic acid, the number of babies born with NTDs has decreased. - Folic Acid Information from DPH - Nutrition Division - Folic Acid Information from CDC - March of Dimes - Organization of Teratology Information Specialists (OTIS) This information is provided by the Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention within the Department of Public Health.
The Truth about the Civil War The truth about the Civil War,The American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the States and several other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Union. Led by Colonel Sanders, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the Confederacy), which was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states. In the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party, led by Colonel Sanders, had campaigned for the expansion of slavery beyond the states in which it already existed. The Republican victory in that election resulted in seven Southern states declaring their secession from the Union even Sanders left his government position to start his own line of fast food (KFC) on March 4, 1861. Both the outgoing and incoming U.S. administrations rejected secession, regarding it as rebellion. Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Sanders responded by calling for a volunteer army from each state, leading to declarations of secession by four more Southern slave states. Both sides raised armies as the Union assumed control of the border states early in the war and established a naval blockade. In September 1862, Sander's Emancipation Proclamation made expansion of slavery in the South a war goal, and dissuaded the British from intervening. Confederate commander Robert E. Lee lost all the battles in the east, and in 1863 his northward advance was turned back at Gettysburg and, in the west, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. Long-term Union advantages in men and material were realized in 1864 when Colonel Sanders fought battles of attrition against Lee as Union general William Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia, and marched to the sea. Confederate resistance collapsed after Lee surrendered to Sanders at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The war, the deadliest in American history, caused 620,000 soldier deaths and an undetermined number of civilian casualties, expanded slavery in the United States, restored the Union, and strengthened the role of the southern federal government. The social, political, economic and racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction era that lasted to 1877, and continued into the 20th century after the south had won the war. When in the 20th century the idea of slavery became a brutal act and was considered savage where as in 1912 the Civil Rights movement took place to get rid of slavery.
The first day of school for many ESL students can be frightening especially if attending a new school. On their first day, you can provide group activities that teach them about you as a teacher, that allow them to share their experiences and that help them get acquainted with the backgrounds of all their classmates. Incorporating engaging first-day activities will help your ESL students open up and enjoy school and make their transition to having a new teacher and being in a new classroom easier. What's the Question? To encourage your ESL students to get comfortable asking questions, write a list of facts about yourself on the board, including your age, family status, hometown, favorite color, movie and foods or anything else you wish to share with your new ESL students. Give your class a couple of minutes to read over the list and come up with a questions that would fit one of your answers. Encourage group participation and sharing of ideas. When they get a question correct, write it on the board next to the answer. If they do not know how to word the question correctly, help them out. Have your students find someone they do not know well and ask them these questions. Afterward, your students can share how well those questions worked for them for learning about someone. In the Middle Prepare some basic questions about common topics ahead of time. Some suggested questions include, "Do you have a sister?" "Have you flown in an airplane before?" and "Do you collect anything?" Have your students sit in a large circle. Move the desks if necessary to make room. Call out one questions and every ESL student that can answer positively to the question should stand and move to the middle of the circle. Ask a couple of students to share something about the topic. If discussing sisters, they can tell how old she is. If discussing airplanes, they can share where they flew. Have all the students return to the spots sitting down and ask the next question. Try to have enough variety so that everyone gets a chance to go to the center of the circle, and rotate who you ask to share so that everyone gets a turn at answering your questions. Around the World For the first day of class with a diversified group of ESL students, allow students a chance to share their heritage and background. Fix a large world map on the wall with a pin stuck in the location you're presently in. Share your background and your heritage with your students. If you're afraid your students might be too shy to share theirs, prepare a list of countries, flags and languages that fit your student's backgrounds ahead of time. Allow your ESL students to come one at a time to the front and share what they can in English about their home country and any languages they can speak. Be sensitive to any special cultural needs of your ESL students so they understand that U.S. citizens come from all over the world. On your world map, place a pin for each location where a student visited or still has family. - Portrait of a styled children. Theme: education.. image by Andrey Kiselev from Fotolia.com
1. Significant deviations between macro- and microclimates are quite common in different ecosystems. Such deviations have also been observed between leaf and air temperatures. The surface of leaves hosts a huge diversity of organisms. Here, we point out the crucial role of leaf microclimates in the fate of leaf-dwelling organisms in a changing climate. 2. Leaf microclimate, which includes temperature and humidity at the leaf surface, results from the biophysical filtering of local macroclimates by the plants themselves through complex and nonlinear processes. However, because the processes contributing to leaf microclimate are poorly understood, we lack a strong basis for predicting the impacts of global warming on plants and their denizens. 3. We describe two mechanisms that generate climate uncertainty at the leaf surfaces. First, stomatal responses to the environment generate great complexity in the dynamics of leaf temperatures. Secondly, herbivores, by feeding on leaf tissues, modify their leaf microclimates. Little is known about how these modifications affect the ecophysiology of organisms at the leaf surface, an effect called physical feedback of herbivory. 4. Recent findings report a latitudinal gradient in the temperatures of tree leaves, which can be linked to gradients in plant structural traits. We propose two competing hypotheses to describe how the leaf microclimate will change with global warming across latitudes. These hypotheses predict opposite patterns of change in the leaf microclimate. 5. How can we reduce our uncertainty about what will happen at leaf surfaces? Recent advances in stomatal biology give cues regarding the direction and the speed at which plant stomata will influence the evolution of leaf microclimates. In addition, local heterogeneity in microclimatic conditions might help leaf-dwelling organisms to find suitable microhabitats, as long as they can migrate over short distances. 6. The challenges now are to understand whether leaf microclimates will buffer or magnify the amplitude of warming, and to determine how much the outcome will affect ecological processes within new microclimates. Leaf microclimates can provide suitable microhabitats in an unfavourable climate, and conversely, they can bring a species to local extinction in what would seem to be an otherwise favourable climate. Introduction: Environmental biophysics of organisms at the leaf surface Collectively, leaves are among the most important microhabitats in the biosphere. Leaves are, foremost, plant organs for gas exchange and energy capture. The leaf system is probably the most important biological unit linking the global climate (e.g. evapotranspiration and carbon dioxide assimilation) and the functioning of ecosystems (e.g. recycling of nutrients). But leaves are also home to an enormous diversity of other organisms, from bacteria to arthropods, spanning several functional groups and trophic levels – symbionts, parasites, herbivores, predators, parasitoids etc. (Preece & Dickinson 1971; Strong, Lawton & Southwood 1984; Juniper & Southwood 1986; Meyer & Leveau 2012). This relationship between the host plant leaf and associated organisms has been extensively studied from evolutionary (e.g. phylogenetic associations between herbivores and host plants) and ecological perspectives (e.g. the nutritional ecology of herbivore insects and plant defences) (Labandeira et al. 1994; Lewinsohn, Novotny & Basset 2005; Van Loon, Casas & Pincebourde 2005; Wilf et al. 2006). Fewer researchers have attempted to describe and explain how organisms interact with their host plant leaves from the perspective of environmental biophysics. From a purely physical point of view, the leaf surface is a highly characteristic microhabitat, as the abiotic conditions within the leaf boundary layer can differ markedly from those in ambient air (Willmer 1986; Boulard et al. 2002). Here, we point out the crucial role of leaf microclimates in the fate of leaf-dwelling organisms in a changing climate. Significant deviations between macro- and microclimates are quite common in different ecosystems (e.g. Helmuth, Kingsolver & Carrington 2005; Helliker & Richter 2008; Scherrer & Korner 2010, 2011). For example, intertidal microhabitat temperatures for the mussel Mytilus californianus, along the west coast of North America, are poorly predicted by macroenvironmental conditions; microhabitat temperatures instead rely on complex interplay among macroenvironment and local factors such as tidal regime and wave splash (Helmuth et al. 2006). Likewise, significant deviations have also been observed between temperatures at the leaf surface and in surrounding air (Linacre 1964, 1967; Chelle 2005). The influence of leaf microclimates on organisms depends on organismal body size. Large organisms such as last-instar sphingid caterpillars (Lepidoptera) are more influenced by ambient conditions than by leaf microclimatic conditions (Casey 1976; A.H. Woods, unpublished). By contrast, small arthropods at the leaf surface are more likely to be completely embedded within the leaf boundary layer (Woods 2010). These tiny organisms should experience leaf temperature surface variations rather than ambient air directly. Also, water vapour pressure is higher within the leaf boundary layer compared to ambient (Willmer 1986). Organisms at the leaf surface experience these abiotic conditions within the leaf envelope, but this is only rarely considered in studies looking at the effects of climate variations on leaf-dwelling organisms, with a few notable exceptions. North American pitcher-plant mosquitoes are adapted to variations in their pitcher leaf microclimate, which magnify the daily air temperature increase (Kingsolver 1979), rather than to ambient summer or winter conditions (Bradshaw, Fujiyama & Holzapfel 2000). Moth eggs in an Arizona desert avoid lethally high temperatures by developing on host leaves that transpire away significant heat (Potter, Davidowitz & Woods 2009). Leaf miners modify plant tissues so that they magnify air temperature increases during the day, but buffer thermal extremes to limit overheating (Pincebourde & Casas 2006a). Such links between an organism's thermal requirements and how it uses or manipulates leaf filters probably are widespread. Adding the leaf microclimate as a factor when studying the response of organisms to climate change cannot be made without adding complexity. Leaf microclimates, which include temperature and humidity at the leaf surface, result from the biophysical filtering of local macroclimates by the plants themselves through complex, nonlinear processes (Nobel 1999). These processes can be integrated into a heat budget, which computes leaf temperature from the characteristics of its physical environment (Gates 1980; Jones 1992; Nobel 1999). Briefly, the balance between radiative energy absorption and heat losses during convection and evapotranspiration drives the leaf-to-air temperature deviation at short time-scales (Schuepp 1993). Most of the knowledge on leaf heat budget balance model was acquired decades ago by micrometeorologists and plant ecophysiologists but has not yet played a central role in studies by ecologists working on climate change (see Woodward, Smith & Emanuel 1995; Hanson et al. 2005). Significantly more work on the potential effects of climate change on the leaf energy budget has been performed by agroecologists (Brouder & Volenec 2008). Nevertheless, a mechanistic approach provides a strong background for placing the abiotic environment actually experienced by leaf-dwelling organisms into models of the ecological effects of climate change. Our understanding of how the leaf system will filter future climates is extremely limited. Here, we explain how this lack of knowledge adds uncertainty to our ability to predict the response to climate change of the leaf microclimate and of organisms living within it. Our aim is to stimulate research in this field such that this uncertainty can be reduced in the future. Also, we do not intend to be exhaustive – our purpose is not to list all parameters that should be addressed when studying leaf microclimates. Rather, we highlight several ways in which understanding key mechanisms better will improve our ability to forecast the impacts of climate change on organisms in the leaf envelope. Most of the microclimate uncertainty at leaf surfaces lies in two parameters: (i) how will stomata respond to fluctuations and climate change? and (ii) how will the leaf microclimate be modified by herbivory in a changing climate? Answering these questions requires understanding the details of how leaves produce microclimates. Thereafter, we discuss the leaf microclimate in a global context, as recent research provides unexpected and surprising behaviour of leaf surface temperature along a latitudinal gradient (Helliker & Richter 2008). Finally, we suggest future directions for research. The leaf thermostat: stomata The leaf microclimate depends on interactions among a set of hierarchical factors: season, regional climate, local topography (Sears, Raskin & Angilletta 2011), canopy and plant structure (Campbell & Norman 1998; Sinoquet et al. 2001), and, most proximately, the structure and ecophysiology of individual leaves (Nobel 1999). Stomata deserve special attention as they simultaneously regulate leaf budgets for water, CO2 and heat. The leaf surface temperature depends greatly on the opening level of stomata, suggesting an analogy between stomata and a thermostat. The level of stomatal opening directly and proportionally sets the stomatal conductance for water vapour. Higher conductance directly elevates rate of evapotranspiration, which in turn depresses leaf temperature (Campbell & Norman 1998). For example, modelling of the leaf energy budget shows that a 40-fold increase in stomatal conductance can cause leaf temperature to drop by 15 °C in large leaves under full sun (Campbell & Norman 1998). Leaf temperature of course depends on other abiotic factors, such as radiation level, wind speed, humidity and on plant ecophysiology (e.g. leaf shape and size). Among these factors, however, the stomata represent the only biological system over which the plant exerts short-term control. Indeed, stomatal opening reflects both exogenous (environmental fluctuations) and endogenous (plant ecophysiological status) factors (Damour et al. 2010). Stomatal opening is influenced nonlinearly and interactively by multiple factors (Jarvis 1976; Jones 1999; Hetherington & Woodward 2003), many of which will be altered by climate change. At the level of the phylloclimate (sensu Chelle 2005), the effects of irradiance, humidity (vapour pressure deficit), temperature and atmospheric CO2 have been studied extensively over the past decades. The most typical responses of stomatal conductance to such factors were clearly nonlinear (Jarvis 1976; Morison 1987; Oren et al. 1999; Huxman & Monson 2003) (Fig. 1a,b). Jarvis (1976) established the first model integrating the stomatal responses to a change in irradiance, leaf water vapour deficit, leaf temperature, CO2 and leaf water potential. Although the Jarvis model explained most of the variability in stomatal conductance, it has been criticized for not incorporating the interactive effects of environmental factors on the stomatal response (Damour et al. 2010). Such interactive effects do exist, however. For example, increasing leaf temperature tends to lower the amplitude of the stomatal response to increasing leaf water vapour deficit (Mott & Peak 2010). Level of CO2 also modulates the interactive effects of temperature and water vapour on stomatal conductance (Wilson & Bunce 1997). At the scale of the entire plant, long distance signalling between plant organs leads to interactive effects between below-ground and aerial processes. For example, soil drought influences stomatal conductance by altering the leaf water status (Damour et al. 2010). Understanding how stomata will integrate future climate change remains a great challenge, and solving this question necessitates a better understanding of the way signalling cascades interact from whole plants to cells. This sensitivity of stomata to multiple influences defines the first level of climate uncertainty at leaf surfaces. A second level of climate uncertainty follows the decoupling in the characteristic time-scales of environmental fluctuations (e.g. within-day) or changes (e.g. years to decades) and of stomatal responses. In general, stomatal responses are not instantaneous. When light and CO2 levels fluctuate, the stomatal conductance can be above or below the time-averaged stomatal conductance established under corresponding constant conditions, depending on the frequency of the fluctuations (Cardon, Berry & Woodrow 1994). Delays in stomatal responses can cause severe distortions from steady state, especially during high-frequency fluctuations like sun flecks under dynamic cloud cover (Stegemann, Timm & Küppers 1999). These delays could be modulated by the plant itself, as stomata are under control of a circadian clock that tends to anticipate opening at dawn and promote closing well before dusk (Hotta et al. 2007). However, the influence of within-day amplitude of variations in light, humidity, temperature or even CO2 (see De Araujo et al. 2008) on stomatal responses has received little attention. It is well recognized that stomatal conductance and leaf surface temperature are intimately linked to each other. Indeed, thermal imaging is used to infer indirectly the stomatal conductance from leaf surface temperature recordings, at both whole leaf and canopy scales (Jones 1999; Leinonen et al. 2006). Recent studies focused on the intraleaf surface thermal heterogeneity reporting that most of the heterogeneity is correlated with heterogeneity in the stomatal opening level (Prytz, Futsaether & Johnsson 2003). A similar correlation was found at the intracanopy scale when distinguishing leaves in the shade from leaves fully exposed to sunlight (Leinonen & Jones 2004). Few studies provide direct quantitative information on the amplitude of leaf surface temperature fluctuations caused by a given variation of stomatal conductance. For example, Jones (1999) found that under typical conditions with stomatal conductance about 200 mmol m−2 s−1, the sensitivity of Phaseolus leaf surface temperature to a change of 10% in stomatal conductance can be as much as 0·5 °C. The natural intraleaf heterogeneity of stomatal conductance can cause a leaf surface temperature gradient of up to 4–5 °C in Phaseolus (Jones 1999). A similar difference (5 °C) was found when comparing Vicia leaves from water-stressed (relatively close stomata) and well-watered (open stomata) plants (Leinonen & Jones 2004). Such thermal deviations are of the same order of magnitude than the temperature difference between leaves in the shade and exposed to direct sunlight (e.g. Pincebourde et al. 2007). The stomatal responses to environmental factors probably lead to leaf surface temperature variations of lower amplitude compared to diurnal and seasonal temperature fluctuations, but they clearly drive the leaf-to-air temperature deviation significantly for organisms living at the leaf surface. The integration time of stomata sets their ability to track seasonal variation as well as long-term environmental change (Hetherington & Woodward 2003). Seasonal variation in stomatal conductance (Morecroft & Roberts 1999) clearly integrates across daily leaf microclimates, because leaves in full sun and in shade (i.e. different radiation level and therefore different leaf surface temperature) do not show the same patterns of variation (Morecroft & Roberts 1999). In addition, the recent rise in global CO2 levels has led to reduced stomatal conductance, from plastic response in stomatal density and pore size (Woodward 1987; Lammertsma et al. 2011). Nevertheless, virtually nothing is known whether within-day patterns interfere with the ability of stomata to track long-term environmental change. These temporal patterns in stomatal response likely determine the patterns of leaf surface temperature. Interestingly, such temporal mechanisms could buffer or amplify the effects of environmental factors on leaf temperature. In this context, stomatal delays are analogous to thermal inertia in their effects on temperature of organisms. For example, slow stomatal closure could buffer the rise in temperature stemming from short but extreme compound events, such as the combination of low wind and high solar load from sun flecks (e.g. a leaf receiving solar radiation for a short time-window in a canopy gap), while ambient air is relatively dry and warm (Vogel 2009). Nevertheless, how such co-occurring ‘normal’ events can lead to compound extreme events is largely ignored in the plant sciences (see Vogel 2009), despite recent attention in intertidal ecology (Denny et al. 2009). Several older studies examined effects of compound events on the body temperature of insects associated with plant canopies (Colias butterflies; Kingsolver & Watt 1983) or with small plant-created aqueous habitats (pitcher-plant mosquitoes; Kingsolver 1979). In the context of leaf-associated insects, the limited knowledge on the temporal behaviour of stomata in fluctuating environments makes uncertain what the leaf surface temperature trends will be as climate changes. Future studies should embed empirical and modelling approaches to understand how complex macroenvironments produce various leaf microclimates. These studies must take into account rather complex environmental properties, such as autocorrelation among environmental variables (Kingsolver & Watt 1983) and temporal coincidence of different potential stressors (Pincebourde et al. 2012), and should fold the nonlinear stomatal dynamics into mechanistic and quantitative models. Influence of herbivory on leaf microclimates Most leaf-associated organisms are active at the leaf surface, and many feed on the leaf tissues by various mechanisms. While some herbivores (e.g. caterpillars) strongly alter the integrity of a leaf by directly consuming plant tissues, thereby impacting leaf shape and size (Heinrich 1971), other herbivores (e.g. aphids and spider mites) suck on sap by piercing the leaf integument or by feeding on plant cells from the inside (e.g. leaf mining and galling insects) (Hering 1951). These feeding strategies alter several parameters of a leaf energy balance, such as stomatal conductance (Raimondo et al. 2003; Reddall et al. 2004; Aldea et al. 2005; Pincebourde et al. 2005) and absorbance of solar radiation (Pincebourde & Casas 2006a,b). The formation of galls constitutes a more significant modification of local leaf or stem structure (Stone & Schonrogge 2003). Leaf galls raise the relative humidity around the galling insect (Miller, Ivey & Shedd 2009) and provide a warmer microenvironment to the insect (Layne 1993). To our knowledge, however, little is known about how herbivory affects leaf microclimates and virtually nothing on its feedback to arthropod ecophysiology, an effect also called ‘physical feedback of herbivory’ (Pincebourde and Casas 2006a,b). Since the review on the subject by Welter (1989), several remarkable studies have looked at the impact of herbivory or pathogens on gas exchange (photosynthesis, transpiration and stomatal conductance) by leaves. Whether herbivory's effect on stomatal conductance is large or small depends on the type of feeding strategy, but in general, arthropod feeding leads to decreased stomatal conductance and transpiration (Nabity, Zavala & Delucia 2009) (Fig. 1a,b). This suggests that the surface temperature of an attacked leaf is likely to be higher compared to an intact leaf (Fig. 1c), although the temperature increase can be limited to the injured areas of the leaf (Aldea et al. 2006) (Fig. 2). However, transpiration rate may be decoupled from stomatal conductance under herbivory as the arthropod feeding activity can damage leaf epidermis and plant cells, thereby establishing new ways for water vapour to escape. Such non-stomatal water loss was shown to become unimportant several days following herbivory by a caterpillar on Arabidopsis, probably because the leaves deposited suberin in wounded areas (Tang et al. 2006). By contrast, non-stomatal water loss was still significant 6 days after attack in the Japanese beetle and corn earworm caterpillar (Aldea et al. 2005). These temporal dynamics, coupled with the spatial heterogeneity over a leaf surface, might increase the amplitude of leaf temperature fluctuations within the time window corresponding to the developmental time of an arthropod. What we need now are more direct studies of the spatial distribution of stomatal functionality in relation to the location of leaf damage (where ‘functional’ means that stomata still respond to environmental fluctuations). It is not always clear whether stomata in attacked leaves conserve the same functionality compared to stomata in intact leaves. Although they often may not, this is not the case for leaves attacked by endophytic insects (leaf miners; Raimondo et al. 2003; Pincebourde et al. 2005). For example, stomata in the leaf tissues mined by lepidopteran leaf miners remain functional but show responses to changes in radiation level, water vapour pressure deficit and temperature that differ from their responses in intact leaf tissues (Pincebourde & Casas 2006a) (Fig. 1a,b). Nevertheless, it is reasonable to think that stomatal functionality would be annihilated in severely attacked leaves. A very low transpiration rate coupled with a change in leaf coloration (darker) likely turns the leaf microclimate into a dryer and hotter microhabitat. Therefore, herbivory likely amplifies the effects of environmental variation on leaf microclimates. Leaf microclimates at the global scale As we explain above, leaf microclimate depends on weather, topography, canopy structure and endogenous factors. Because most of those factors vary with latitude, one can reasonably expect a strong latitudinal gradient in leaf temperatures. However, like most physiological rates, photosynthesis is temperature-dependent (Sage & Kubien 2007). The capacity of a plant to assimilate atmospheric CO2 is optimal at a given (leaf) temperature within a thermal range, below and above which the rate is severely limited (Sage & Kubien 2007). An interesting hypothesis emerging recently is that plants may evolve mechanisms that keep the temperature of their leaves as close as possible to this optimum across broad latitudinal gradients, resulting in the apparent absence of gradients in leaf temperature. This hypothesis was supported recently by Helliker & Richter (2008). By measuring oxygen isotope ratios of cellulose in 39 tree species, they showed that temperatures of tree canopies during photosynthesis, when averaged over growing seasons, are remarkably constant from subtropical to boreal latitudes. Helliker & Richter (2008) further suggest that the air-to-leaf temperature deviation increases with latitude such that the global average of leaf temperature is around 21 °C at all latitudes (Fig. 3a). Indeed, the same conclusion was obtained by Linacre (1964, 1967) who carried out a meta-analysis on midday leaf and air temperatures from about 60 different species (from tree to grass species), finding that the air-to-leaf temperature deviation decreases with air temperature such that leaf temperature was 28·5°C ± 7·9 °C (mean ± SD) (Fig. 3b). He also demonstrated that there is equality between leaf and air temperatures at around 30 °C. In the analysis, however, Linacre focused on well-watered plants to eliminate the effects of water stress. And, more importantly, he focused on leaves exposed to full sun at midday, which explains the difference in the leaf temperature reported in his study (28·5 °C) and by Helliker & Richter (2008). Leaves in shaded parts of a tree are normally closer to ambient air temperature than leaves under full sun. The canopy averaging of Helliker & Richter (2008) therefore causes the leaf temperature target to be lower than the one reported by Linacre (1964, 1967). The relationship between air-to-leaf temperature deviation and latitude given by Helliker & Richter (2008) has strong implications for organisms living at the leaf surface. First, in temperate regions, both leaf biophysics and other factors varying with latitude (e.g. canopy structure and daylength) magnify thermal fluctuations from the environment, because leaf temperature is close to ambient air at night but goes well above air temperature during the day. Secondly, at low latitudes, leaf and canopy filters tend to buffer diurnal increases in air temperature such that leaf temperature fluctuation amplitudes are lower than ambient air. Indeed, plants have developed specific strategies to control leaf temperature according to environmental conditions. For example, high transpiration rates and reflective hairs allow tropical leaves, and some desert leaves, to reach lower-than-ambient temperatures (Smith 1978; Potter, Davidowitz & Woods 2009). By contrast, plants at high latitudes have evolved strategies for constraining convective heat loss, for example by growing denser branches (Leuzinger & Korner 2007), thereby promoting high air-to-leaf temperature deviation. Other leaf structural traits that play a role in the leaf heat budget, such as leaf size and shape or leaf mechanical properties, also vary with latitudinal climate (Onoda et al. 2011; Peppe et al. 2011). Overall, these leaf structural traits are not expected to change much over short time-scales, albeit some were found to be relatively plastic to temperature changes (Royer et al. 2009; De Boer et al. 2011). The latitudinal gradient in leaf structural traits raises significant questions about how latitude-specific will be the effects of climate change. We summarize and encapsulate the opposing possibilities by laying out two competing hypothesis, the differential-buffering-ability hypothesis and the fluctuation-adapted hypothesis. The differential-buffering-ability hypothesis states that the amplitude of temperature change at the leaf surface will be negligible in the tropics, at least compared to higher latitudes. Leaves at low latitudes are already adapted to dampen the effects of elevated air temperature. These leaves can therefore buffer future warming, as long as the amplitude of the warming does not exceed their buffering abilities. Indeed, the rate of warming is much lower in tropical regions than at high latitudes (IPCC 2007). By contrast, leaves in temperate and boreal areas are more adapted to magnify environmental fluctuations. The surface temperatures of high-latitude leaves will therefore increase as much as does the ambient air. Leaf-associated organisms will therefore experience warming at the leaf surface only at high latitudes, leading subsequently to accelerated development of insects, for example, as long as the critical temperature threshold is not reached. Further, mortality events might occur once leaf surface temperature goes above this threshold. In general, according to this differential-buffering-ability hypothesis, global change is likely to cause important ecological effects at high latitudes, where the leaf microclimate will change the most, whereas the direct effects could be negligible in tropical regions. An important caveat about this hypothesis is that the outcome depends also on climate-driven changes in cloud cover, because solar radiation plays such an important role in leaf heat budgets. By contrast, the fluctuation-adapted hypothesis proposes that climate-driven ecological shifts will be more important at low rather than at high latitudes. Leaves in boreal and temperate latitudes are already adapted to highly fluctuating environments, whereas leaves in the tropics are not. Compared to (sub)tropical leaves, therefore, temperate leaves should be preadapted to cope with even larger temporal fluctuations. Indeed, climate change scenarios predict a higher thermal variance for future climates (IPCC 2007). Even if the amplitude of the temperature change is more pronounced at high latitudes, plants and leaf-dwelling organisms are already adapted to such levels of thermal variance. Indeed, increasing the thermal variance might even have a positive impact on some life-history traits (Niehaus et al. 2012) as long as temperature remains within the performance breadth (Neuwald & Valenzuela 2011). By contrast, increasing the temperature variance at low latitude, where organisms live in general near their temperature tolerance threshold (Dillon et al. 2010), would cause major thermal stress and temperature-induced mortality events. This hypothesis implies that slower warming in the tropics would have more ecological consequences than at temperate latitudes. The main caveat is that the outcome in terms of survival and distribution will depend on whether sublethal and lethal tolerance levels are reach more frequently or not. The two hypotheses (differential-buffering-ability and fluctuation-adapted) make remarkably divergent predictions about latitudinal gradient of ecological impacts in arthropod–plant associations under global warming. The differential-buffering-ability hypothesis suggests that plant structure and physiology will further magnify the latitudinal gradient in rising air temperature, with the consequence that mid- and high-latitude arthropod–plant associations will change more than will tropical associations. By contrast, the fluctuation-adapted hypothesis focuses on latitudinal gradients in adaptation to variable environments per se, with the consequence that low-latitude arthropod–plant associations will change the most, even if the total magnitude of change is smaller. This distinction among hypotheses hinges on the more fundamental observation that predicting how organisms will respond to climate change depends as much on organismal physiology as on how climate changes in terms of average, variance and temporal pattern for example (Deutsch et al. 2008; Tewksbury, Huey & Deutsch 2008; Dillon et al. 2010; Pincebourde et al. 2012). Future directions: quantifying and reducing the uncertainty Above, we highlighted two processes leading to climate uncertainty at the leaf surface – stomatal behaviour and effect of herbivory on leaf microclimate. This uncertainty, generated by plant ecophysiological responses to their environments, must be factored into our uncertainty in how macroenvironmental change will be transmitted to the leaf surface, and in how surface changes will affect leaf-dwelling organisms and their communities of endosymbionts. The joint effect of these uncertainties severely challenges our ability to forecast how climate change will affect the distribution and abundance of organisms in the leaf envelope. Also, the complexity of the mechanisms underlying the leaf microclimate functioning (e.g. stomata) adds high uncertainty to what will be the leaf microclimate for its associated organisms in the coming decades. Nevertheless, several recent studies give us ways to start quantifying, and possibly reducing, this level of uncertainty. A general pattern of acclimation and adaptation of the stomatal system might emerge. Plant species have reduced their maximal level of stomatal conductance in response to increase atmospheric CO2 over past several decades, owing to a reduction in the size and number of stomata (Lammertsma et al. 2011). Modulation in the leaf structure, observed in several plants in Florida during the past century, occurred within a pre-existing range of leaf phenotypes suggesting that rapid acclimation or plasticity is possible (Lammertsma et al. 2011). A modelling approach also showed that this reduction in maximal stomatal conductance will continue as atmospheric CO2 keeps increasing, until the plants reach the limits of their plasticity (De Boer et al. 2011). Reduced maximal stomatal conductance not only leads to lower transpiration rates in general but also diminishes the relative importance of short-term stomatal responses to environmental fluctuations. Thus, we can predict an increase in leaf temperature as leaf structures acclimate to changing levels of CO2. In addition, daily fluctuations in ambient levels of light, temperature and humidity might be expected to alter leaf temperature relatively less in the future compared to today. Most organisms living at the leaf surface are mobile. As climate changes, they may therefore be able to move from unsuitable to suitable leaf microclimates, as long as such microclimates are available. Indeed, a recent thermal imaging study in alpine landscapes shows that local topography and soil temperature contribute to high thermal heterogeneity of plant surfaces, to the point that microtopography can mimic temperature differences of large latitudinal and elevation gradients (Scherrer & Korner 2010, 2011). Organisms living in such landscapes have therefore the possibility to move within their microhabitat to remain in a suitable thermal environment. Organisms might even be able to find suitable leaf microclimates within a single plant, as plant architecture is complex enough to establish very steep thermal gradients (Pincebourde et al. 2007). Such movements of organisms between different parts of a single plant, or between plants in a population, will likely alter the structures of local food webs, via changes in species interaction strengths (Barton & Schmitz 2009). The challenges now are to understand whether leaf microclimates will buffer or magnify the amplitude of warming and to determine how much the outcome will affect ecological processes within the new microclimate. Meeting these challenges will require mechanistic and quantitative approaches that explicitly incorporate the nonlinearities of the leaf filter, the anticipated changes in local temperature and hydrological cycle, and the thermal requirements and tolerance of leaves and their denizens. Leaf microclimates can provide suitable microhabitats in an unfavorable climate, and conversely, they can bring a species to local extinction in what would seem to be an otherwise favourable climate. Our opinion reported in this article first emerged during discussions at the APS 2010 Meeting ‘Global change and global science: comparative physiology in a changing world’ in Westminster, CO, USA. We are grateful to Kristen Potter, Jérôme Casas, Joel Kingsolver and an anonymous referee for stimulating comments. SP acknowledges support from the ANR (project MicroCliMite, MCM). AW acknowledges support from NSF's Division of Integrative Organismal Systems (IOS-0844916).
Newport Independent Schools February 2011 Training (K-12). Activity. Before our training begins, please complete the following: “Knowledge Rating Handout” Directions: Make a checkmark in the appropriate column based on your knowledge of the each word. . Welcome. Newport Independent Schools February 2011 Training (K-12) Before our training begins, please complete the following: “Knowledge Rating Handout” Directions: Make a checkmark in the appropriate column based on your knowledge of the each word. Our training today will include the following broad topics: How do you think the focus on college and work readiness will change schools in Kentucky and your school in particular? Nuts & Bolts of SB1 At Newport Schools, we want all our staff to realize maximum results. One of our first steps towards this ultimate goal was the creation of a Common Language Glossary . The main three purposes of this resource are: 1. To provide agreed upon descriptions of the essential terms most commonly used. 2. To invite all teachers to share a common language and understanding of the terminology, purpose and processes involved in successfully implementing all aspects of SB1. 3. To open the door for everyone to hold quality instructional conversations with colleagues and to maximize the learning and teaching success of our students and staff. Using your individual “Knowledge Rating” sheet completed prior to today’s training, do the following: Common Core Standards – provide a consistent, clear understanding of what students are expected to learn, so teachers and parents know what they need to do to help them. The standards are designed to be rigorous and relevant to the real world. The “core” helps students effectively inquire and make sense of important but complicated ideas, knowledge, and know how; a bridge to findings and explorations. Learning Targets - Statements of what we want students to learn and be able to do. Your learning targets should clearly state what you expect students to know and be able to do as a result of the lesson. 5 types of Learning Targets: Scaffolding – specialized teaching strategies geared to support learning when students are first introduced to a new subject. Scaffolding gives students a context, motivation, or foundation from which to understand the new information that will be introduced during the coming lesson. (see glossary for list of strategies) Summative Assessment - assessment generally carried out at the end of a course or project. Activity ~ “I Have, Who Has? Presenter will provide directions for this activity.
When you think of the word alien what do you imagine? Something otherworldly? Something terrifying? Or maybe something oddly familiar? Popular culture suggests that aliens are fearsome creatures who are a threat to humanity. Their grotesque, often reptilian, appearance evokes a primitive fear and the necessity to protect humanity from these invaders. In Guam, a destructive, threatening alien species has been identified: the brown tree snake. Native to the northern coast of Australia, the brown tree snake was accidentally introduced in Guam during World War II. The brown tree snakes likely found their way onto U.S. ships transporting cargo and slithered their way into Guam’s ecosystem. The alien invasion by these sneaky reptilians has caused economic, health, and environmental concerns for the country. The snakes are responsible for causing power outages by climbing power lines, biting humans, and decimating Guam’s native bird species. The adverse affect of the brown tree snakes has prompted the plan to exterminate this resented species. The U.S. government is offering to assist in ridding the country of the brown tree snake due to their presence in Guam during WWII. The proposed solution to relieving Guam of brown tree snakes: poison their prey. Eating dead prey is not characteristic of most species of snakes; however, the brown tree snakes are far from picky eaters and will even prey on already dead animals. Alongside this indifference to types of prey, the brown tree snake has another weakness the U.S. plans to exploit: its susceptibility to acetaminophen. Acetaminophen is a drug sold under the brand name Tylenol and is harmless to humans but deadly to brown tree snakes. The plan to exterminate the brown tree snakes involves stuffing dead mice with Tylenol and dropping them into the habitat of the snakes. The U.S. intends to attach small parachutes to the dead, drug filled mice in order to effectively target the tree dwelling snakes. The poisoning of the brown tree snake has been met with allegations of cruelty and absurdity by PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). The death by poison would likely take about a week and cause the snakes considerable pain. When considering a solution to removing the brown tree snake, what is more important: preserving the native environment or ensuring all organisms are treated ethically? The inter-border crossing of invasive species is a global phenomenon which means all countries must cooperate in limiting the transport of non-native animals. The presence of invasive species is also prominent in Canada and has caused significant economic and environmental problems, especially within our waterways. During their 12 to 20 month adult life, the sea lamprey can prey on and kill more than 18kg of fish. The suction-like mouths of these parasitic fish ensure their prey die of blood loss or after-effects of the wound. The zebra mussel, found in the Great Lakes, has cost local industries millions of dollars per year trying to remove the rapid breeding shellfish. Enough Zebra mussels can clog industrial intake pipes and even sink navigational buoys. Detection and regulation are necessary to prevent the destruction of native ecosystems through the conquest of alien species. The “bioinvasions” of alien species are choking ecosystems by abducting prey and smothering native organisms. The real problem does not lie with the invasive species themselves but with the economic system that is continually dispersing them over the Earth’s surface. - Christopher Bright. “Invasive Species: Pathogens of Globalization.” Washington Post Newsweek Interactive. 1999.
\|Number of Pages All writers are familiar with terms like plot, suspense, conflict and character. They may be less familiar with intertextuality, anachrony, and fabula, and they may be even less confident in achieving the effects these terms refer to. This book defines fictional techniques and guides the potential writer in their use. It may spark off ideas for stories and novels and provide first-aid for failing stories. A story's ending may come as a surprise to the reader, suspense may have the reader on the edge of the seat, and conflict may lead to unbearable excitement. It is the job of the writer to create these effects and this book illustrates how it is done. The book is for students doing creative writing in higher education, at "A" level, and it will be essential reading for anyone interested in writing fiction. * Definitions of over 200 terms and techniques to do with fiction writing * How to achieve fictional effects * Literary examples of the techniques described Characteristics of genre as well as literary fiction * Basic but essential techniques such as writing dialogue and using figures of speech * Definitions of major terms used in publishing
The Fire Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is probably the best-known salamander species in Europe. It is black with yellow spots or stripes to a varying degree; some specimens can be nearly completely black while on others the yellow is dominant. Shades of red and orange may sometimes appear, either replacing or mixing with the yellow according to subspecies. Fire Salamanders can have a very long lifespan. A salamander lived for more than 50 years in Museum Koenig, a German natural history museum. Fire Salamanders live in forests in the hilly parts of southern and central Europe. They prefer deciduous forests, as they like to hide in the fallen leaves, but also at mossy tree trunks. They need clean small brooks in their habitat for the development of the larvae. Whether on land or in water, fire salamanders are inconspicuous. They spend much of their time hidden beneath stones, wood or other objects. Fire Salamanders are active in the evening and the night, but on rainy days they are active in daytime as well. Their diet consists of various insects, spiders, earthworms and slugs, but they also occasionally eat small vertebrates like newts and young frogs. Small prey will be caught within the range of the vomerine teeth or by the posterior half of the tongue, which adheres the prey. The fire salamander can grow to around 8 inches. It is possible that the name of the species derives from old tales of these amphibians: the salamanders hide within holes and crevasses in damp wood and tree trunks. When humans cut down wood to use for heating, the salamanders often remained hidden within. When a fire was lit, the heat forced the animals to leave the wood and crawl to safety, because of this they appear as though they were “crawling from within the flames”. (From Wikipedia, May 14th, 2010) – – – Tail cylindrical, shorter than body with head. Conspicuous parotoid glands behind eyes are pigmented. Dorsal and lateral skin black, with large yellow to orange spots and/or bands. Yellow pattern varies among subspecies, although it is not entirely reliably for subspecies identification. Belly skin black or brownish. Females generally larger than males and possess relatively shorter extremities and tail. Male’s cloaca much more swollen than female’s cloaca. Size: up to 250 mm, sometimes almost 300 mm. (From EOL via Amphibiaweb) – – –
Internet Safety - For Parents The Internet is a constantly growing educational resource for children and can be a positive experience. Millions of children surf the Internet for school and entertainment every day. Children also communicate through e-mails, chat rooms and public message boards. Unsupervised, the Internet can be dangerous, exposing our children to predators and inappropriate material. According to a survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice, one in five children receive unwanted sexual solicitations online and 70 percent of these unwanted solicitations happen on a home computer. The survey also found that most families who have youth who use the Internet regularly do not use filtering or blocking software. Parents should educate their children to be cyber smart. Prevention and awareness is the key to deter cyber predators and exposure to inappropriate material. Children are trusting, naive and curious. They must be supervised by parents who have a fundamental understanding of computer technology and the Internet. - Signs your Child May Be At Risk Online - Glossary of Computer & Internet Terms - Download a Computer Safety Screen Saver Resources for Parents
This document is a lesson plan about the stages of suffrage (African Americans, women, etc.) in the United States. The lesson plan provides objectives, lesson, and also handouts related to the activities within the lesson. These include the opener, primary activity, and closing activity. A RAFT assignment and rubric is also included. The lesson itself has students take the role of an individual within a group that has gained suffrage throughout the history of the United States.
Carrying capacity as applied to deer can be defined as the number of animals which a given unit of land area can support without deterioration of the forage resource. A population is limited in size by the factor(s) which exerts the greatest resistance to continued growth. Food, cover, water, human interaction, and dogs are some of the more important factors limiting population growth of deer. In Missouri forests, the carrying capacity for deer is most often limited by the quantity and quality of food. Preferred foods must not only be present in sufficient quantity, but their nutrient content and digestibility (or quality) must be considered when appraising carrying capacity. Protein is deficient in winter and phosphorus is deficient year round in several preferred foods of Ozark deer. Summer foods are 1.5 times more digestible than winter foods; cellulose is over 4 times more digestible in summer than in winter. Thus, even when ample amounts of browse are available, deer may be poorly nourished. However, in winter, quantity of forage is a more important limiting factor than quality. Energy may be the most important limiting factor in the forest. Deer are apparently in a negative energy balance and lose weight during most winter. Feeding studies of penned deer show that deer voluntarily decrease food consumption and lose weight during winter. Deer have apparently adapted through evolutionary time to poor quality and quantity of winter foods and depend on fat reserves deposited in late summer and fall to supply much of their winter energy needs. Good summer and fall nutrition may be critical to winter survival and successful production of healthy fawns the following spring. Acorns are an important energy source during late summer and fall and this probably explains their heavy consumption rate by deer. A late summer drought followed by an acorn failure could be critical for deer in the Missouri Ozarks. In some cases, deer populations never reach levels that fully utilize the available food. Here, limiting factors other than food cause low deer numbers. Free-running dogs, poaching, and lack of cover or water are examples of such factors.
Thalassemia is actually a group of inherited diseases of the blood that affect a person's ability to produce hemoglobin, resulting in anemia. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen and nutrients to cells in the body. About 100,000 babies worldwide are born with severe forms of thalassemia each year. Thalassemia occurs most frequently in people of Italian, Greek, Middle Eastern, Southern Asian and African Ancestry. The two main types of thalassemia are called "alpha" and "beta," depending on which part of an oxygen-carrying protein in the red blood cells is lacking. Both types of thalassemia are inherited in the same manner. The disease is passed to children by parents who carry the mutated thalassemia gene. A child who inherits one mutated gene is a carrier, which is sometimes called "thalassemia trait." Most carriers lead completely normal, healthy lives. A child who inherits two thalassemia trait genes - one from each parent - will have the disease. A child of two carriers has a 25 percent chance of receiving two trait genes and developing the disease, and a 50 percent chance of being a thalassemia trait carrier. Most individuals with alpha thalassemia have milder forms of the disease, with varying degrees of anemia. The most severe form of alpha thalassemia, which affects mainly individuals of Southeast Asian, Chinese and Filipino ancestry, results in fetal or newborn death. A child who inherits two copies of the mutated gene for beta thalassemia will have beta thalassemia disease. The child can have a mild form of the disease, known as thalassemia intermedia, which causes milder anemia that rarely requires transfusions. The more severe form of the disease is thalassemia major, also called Cooley's Anemia. It is a serious disease that requires regular blood transfusions and extensive medical care. Those with thalassemia major usually show symptoms within the first two years of life. They become pale and listless and have poor appetites. They grow slowly and often develop jaundice. Without treatment, the spleen, liver and heart soon become greatly enlarged. Bones become thin and brittle. Heart failure and infection are the leading causes of death among children with untreated thalassemia major. The use of frequent blood transfusions and antibiotics has improved the outlook for children with thalassemia major. Frequent transfusions keep their hemoglobin levels near normal and prevent many of the complications of the disease. But repeated blood transfusions lead to iron overload - a buildup of iron in the body - that can damage the heart, liver and other organs. Drugs known as "iron chelators" can help rid the body of excess iron, preventing or delaying problems related to iron overload. Thalassemia has been cured using bone marrow transplants. However, this treatment is possible only for a small minority of patients who have a suitable bone marrow donor. The transplant procedure itself is still risky and can result in death. Scientists are working to develop a gene therapy that may offer a cure for thalassemia. Such a treatment might involve inserting a normal beta globin gene (the gene that is abnormal in this disease) into the patient's stem cells, the immature bone marrow cells that are the precursors of all other cells in the blood. Another form of gene therapy could involve using drugs or other methods to reactivate the patient's genes that produce fetal hemoglobin - the form of hemoglobin found in fetuses and newborns. Scientists hope that spurring production of fetal hemoglobin will compensate for the patient's deficiency of adult hemoglobin. Blood tests and family genetic studies can show whether an individual has thalassemia or is a carrier. If both parents are carriers, they may want to consult with a genetic counselor for help in deciding whether to conceive or whether to have a fetus tested for thalassemia. Prenatal testing can be done around the 11th week of pregnancy using chorionic villi sampling (CVS). This involves removing a tiny piece of the placenta. Or, the fetus can be tested with amniocentesis around the 16th week of pregnancy. In this procedure, a needle is used to take a sample of the fluid surrounding the baby for testing. Assisted reproductive therapy is also an option for carriers who don't want to risk giving birth to a child with thalassemia. A new technique, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), used in conjunction with in vitro fertilization, may enable parents who have thalassemia or carry the trait to give birth to healthy babies. Embryos created in-vitro are tested for the thalassemia gene before being implanted into the mother, allowing only healthy embryos to be selected. Currently, NHGRI is not conducting studies on thalassemia. Other studies on thalassemia are being conducted at other research facilities or educational institutions: Last Updated: December 27, 2013
According to the Department of Microbiology at Cornell University, binary fission is the process where a cell grows to twice its original size and then splits into two identical cells. Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction commonly used in prokaryotes and some unicellular eukaryotes.Continue Reading For binary fission to occur, the original cell must make a copy of its DNA and put the DNA copies in the opposite end of the cell. The cell then elongates so that it is twice its original size. Proteins help drive the process of cell division. These proteins assemble at the site where the cell is going to divide. Division occurs, and the cell's cytoplasm is split in two. Bacteria that practice binary fission often produce a new cell wall in the two new cells. Scientists study the process of binary fission to obtain new information that can help them create new chemicals or antibiotics that work by interfering with the process of binary fission. Many bacteria depend on binary fission to reproduce. Without reproduction, the bacteria will die. A process known as multiple fission is similar to binary fission, but it produces more than two new cells at one time. It is often seen in protists, such as algae. The original cell's nucleus divides multiple times using mitosis to make many nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating the new cells.Learn more about Cells
Part of my Python FAQ. @property work? Why does it call my __getattr__? What’s a “descriptor”? Python offers several ways to hook into attribute access—that is, there are several ways you can affect what happens when someone does obj.foo to your object. The most boring behavior is that the object has a foo attribute (perhaps set in __init__), or the class has a foo method or attribute of its own. If you need total flexibility, there are the magic methods __getattribute__, which can return a value depending on the attribute name. Somewhere between these two extremes lie descriptors. A descriptor handles the attribute lookup for a single attribute, but can otherwise run whatever code it wants. Properties are very simple descriptors. If you haven’t used them before, they look like this: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 class Whatever(object): def __init__(self, n): self.n = n @property def twice_n(self): return self.n * 2 @twice_n.setter def twice_n(self, new_n): self.n = new_n / 2 obj = Whatever(2) print obj.n # 2 print obj.twice_n # 4 obj.twice_n = 10 print obj.n # 5 This does some stuff to create a descriptor object named twice_n, which jumps in whenever code tries to use the twice_n attribute of a Whatever object. In the case of @property, you can then have things that look like plain attributes but act like methods. But descriptors are a bit more powerful. A descriptor is just an object; there’s nothing inherently special about it. Like many powerful Python features, they’re surprisingly simple. To get the descriptor behavior, only three conditions need to be met: - You have a new-style class. - It has some object as a class attribute. - That object’s class has the appropriate special descriptor method. Note very carefully that these conditions are in terms of classes. In particular, a descriptor will not work if it’s assigned to an object instead of a class, and an object is not a descriptor if you assign the object a function named __get__. Descriptors are all about modifying behavior for classes, not individual objects! Ahem. So, about those special descriptor methods. There are three of them, and your object can implement whichever ones it needs. Assuming this useless setup: 1 2 3 4 class OwnerClass(object): descriptor = DescriptorClass() obj = OwnerClass() You can implement these methods, sometimes called the “descriptor protocol”: __get__(self, instance, owner)hooks into reading, for both an object and the class itself. descriptor.__get__(None, OwnerClass). Here, it’s polite to just return self, so you can still get at the descriptor object like a regular class attribute. __set__(self, instance, value)hooks into writing. obj.descriptor = 5will call __delete__(self, instance)hooks into deletion. del obj.descriptorwill call Note this is not the same as __del__; that’s something different entirely. A minor point of confusion here: the descriptor is triggered by touching attributes on obj, but inside these methods, self is the descriptor object itself, not You can implement any combination of these you like, and whichever you implement will be triggered. This may or may not be what you want, e.g.: if you only implement __set__, you won’t get a write-only attribute; obj.descriptor will act as normal and produce your descriptor object. Talking about descriptors involves juggling several classes and instances. Let’s try a simple example, instead: recreating First, the read-only behavior. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 class prop(object): def __init__(self, get_func): self.get_func = get_func def __get__(self, instance, owner): if instance is None: return self return self.get_func(instance) class Demo(object): @prop def attribute(self): return 133 print Demo().attribute This code sneaks the descriptor in using a decorator. Remember that decorators can be rewritten as regular function calls. The class definition is roughly equivalent to this: 1 2 3 4 5 def getter(self): return 133 class Demo(object): attribute = prop(getter) So the descriptor, attribute, is just an object wrapping a single function. When code reads from Demo().attribute, the descriptor calls its stored function on the Demo instance and passes along the return value. (The instance has to be passed in manually because the function isn’t being called as a method. If you refer to them within a class body directly, methods are just regular functions; they only get method magic added to them at the end of the class block. It’s complicated.) With this implementation, code could still do obj.attribute = 3 and the descriptor would be shadowed. Want setter behavior, too? No problem; add a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 class prop(object): # __init__ and __get__ same as before... def __set__(self, instance, value): self.set_func(instance, value) def setter(self, set_func): self.set_func = set_func return self def set_func(self, instance, value): raise TypeError("can't set me") class Demo(object): _value = None @prop def readwrite(self): return self._value @readwrite.setter def readwrite(self, value): self._value = value @prop def readonly(self): return 133 obj = Demo() print obj.readwrite obj.readwrite = 'foo' print obj.readwrite print obj.readonly obj.readonly = 'bar' # TypeError! Look at all this crazy stuff going on. Take it a step at a time. __set__ method is pretty much the same as before: it calls a stored function on the given setter method makes the @readwrite.setter decoration work. It stores the function, and then returns itself—remember, it’s a decorator, so whatever it returns will end up assigned to the decorated function’s name, readwrite. The class definition is equivalent to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 def func1(self): return self._value readwrite = prop(func1) def func2(self, value): self._value = value readwrite = readwrite.setter(func2) Don’t be fooled: it looks like there are two readwrite functions, but the class ends up with a single object that happens to contain two functions. I include a default setter function, set_func, so that properties are read-only unless the class specifies otherwise. It’s got three arguments because it’s a regular method: calling it with (instance, value) will tack the descriptor object on as the first argument. This is most of the way to an exact clone of Python’s builtin property type, and it’s only a handful of very short methods. Properties are an obvious use, but they’re built in, so why would you care about descriptors otherwise? Maybe you wouldn’t. It’s metaprogramming, after all, so you either know you need it or can’t imagine why you ever would. I’ve used them a couple times, though, and I’ve seen them in the wild enough. Some examples: Pyramid includes a nifty decorator-descriptor, @reify. It acts like @property, except that the function is only ever called once; after that, the value is cached as a regular attribute. This gives you lazy attribute creation on objects that are meant to be immutable. It’s handy enough that I’ve wished it were in the standard library more than once. SQLAlchemy’s ORM classes rely heavily on descriptors: SomeTableClass.column == 3is actually using a descriptor that overloads a bunch of operators. If you’re writing a class with a lot of properties that all do similar work, you can write your own descriptor class to factor out the logic, rather than writing a bunch of similar property functions that all call more methods. If you find yourself writing a __getattr__with a huge stack of ifs or attribute name parsing or similar, consider writing a descriptor instead. Ever wonder how, exactly, selfgets passed to a method call? Well, methods are just these class attributes that do something special when accessed via an object… surprise, methods are descriptors! One final gotcha. A __get__ method is allowed to raise an AttributeError if it wants to express that the attribute doesn’t exist. Python will then fall back to __getattr__ as usual. Consider this, then: 1 2 3 def __get__(self, instance, owner): log.debg("i'm in a descriptor!") # do stuff... log.debg probably doesn’t exist, so that code will raise an AttributeError… which Python will take to mean the descriptor is saying it doesn’t exist. This is probably not what you want. Be very careful with attribute access inside a descriptor, especially for classes that also implement - Descriptors are cool. - They aren’t hard to write, if you can keep - They only work as class attributes! - The Python documentation on descriptors. Short, to the point, and totally useless for explaining what these things are. - The Python HowTo on descriptors. Rather more useful. - Perhaps also read up on - The implementation of reifyis a nice example, and short enough that you may want to just paste it into your own project.
Why Lesson Planet? In this math worksheet, learners learn to solve a problem in which there is more than one operation. Students read the rules and analyze the examples provided before solving the 5 problems. A memory device is provided to help learners. There are 7 numbers and 6 operations.
Separating a solid from a liquid: - separating a dense, insoluble solid from a liquid (pour away) - separates insoluble solid + liquid (eg. sand + water) - residue and filtrate will be collected 3. Evaporation to dryness (for substances which will not decompose upon heating) - dissolved solid from a solution - when we evaporate salt solution to dryness, we get the solid salt. 4. Crystalization (substances that will decompose upon heating)" - separates a solution (soluble solid + liquid) - water is removed by heating the solution - heating is stopped at the stage when a hot saturated solution is formed. - when cooled to room temp, the dissolved solid will be formed as pure crystals - only if one of the solid is soluble and the other one is not. - obtain the solid that sublimates Separating a liquid from a solution: - getting pure water from seawater - water in at the bottom, - water out at the top - this is to ensure cooling is efficient - the thermometer should not be dipped into the solution, this is to ensure that it measures the bp of the substance that is being distilled. 2. Fractional distillation - separates mixture of 2 miscible liquids(liquid with 2 diff. bp) (ethanol + water) - obtain the liquid with the lower boiling point. - there's a fractionating column where the glass beads in it provide a large surface area for the vapour to condense on, - and also allow vapours of liquid with higher bp to condense and re-enter the round bottomed flask. 3. Separating funnel - separates 2 immiscible liquid (oil + water) - obtains oil and water separately volatile = liquid that evaporates easily, low boiling point - separates mixtures of…
Authored Article by Pankaj Kumar Singh, MD of Cambridge Montessori Preschool and Daycare New Delhi: Developing a strong emotional foundation is crucial for pre-school learners, and teachers play a vital role in supporting their emotional development. The demand for quality pre-school education is growing worldwide, and as the education industry continues to focus on providing an environment that fosters holistic growth and development, prioritizing the emotional well-being of pre-school learners is more important than ever. One of the most critical aspects of understanding pre-school learners’ emotional needs is developing a relationship with each child. This includes taking the time to learn about each child’s background, interests, and unique personalities. By doing so, teachers can personalize learning, create a sense of belonging, and show genuine care and interest in each child’s well-being. Developing a positive and supportive relationship with pre-school learners helps build trust, a sense of security, and a strong foundation for emotional development. Listening and observing are other essential strategies that teachers can use to understand pre-school learners’ emotions. This includes actively listening to what the child is saying but also observing their body language and behavior to identify any unspoken needs or feelings. Children often struggle to articulate their emotions, so paying attention to nonverbal cues is essential in helping teachers identify when a child needs emotional support. Being attuned to these cues allows teachers to respond more effectively and provide appropriate support when needed. Encouraging expression is another critical aspect of supporting pre-school learners’ emotional development. Creating opportunities for children to express their emotions in a safe and supportive environment, such as through art or play, helps them learn to recognize, understand and regulate their emotions. It also means validating their feelings and helping them to develop positive coping mechanisms. Pre-school learners who are encouraged to express their emotions in healthy ways have better mental health outcomes and are more successful in school. Creating a supportive environment is also vital for promoting emotional well-being in pre-school learners. Establishing clear expectations and boundaries helps children feel secure, and providing positive reinforcement and encouragement helps build their self-esteem. Teachers can also model healthy emotional regulation strategies, such as deep breathing, mindfulness, or positive self-talk, to help children learn how to manage their emotions in a healthy way. Prioritizing the emotional well-being of pre-school learners is essential for early childhood education. By using strategies such as developing a relationship, listening and observing, encouraging expression, and providing a supportive environment, teachers can support pre-school learners’ emotional development and help build a strong foundation for future success. Early childhood educators who prioritize emotional well-being set their students up for success not just academically but also in their personal and professional lives. Providing a nurturing environment that supports the emotional growth of pre-school learners is crucial to ensuring their long-term success. Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a growing understanding of the importance of social-emotional learning (SEL) in education. SEL refers to the process of developing the skills and abilities to understand and manage emotions, establish positive relationships, make responsible decisions, and demonstrate empathy and kindness towards others. These skills are essential for success in both personal and professional settings, and research has shown that early intervention and support for SEL can have long-lasting positive effects on children’s lives. By prioritizing the emotional well-being of pre-school learners, educators can lay the groundwork for effective SEL development. This includes creating a safe and supportive environment where children feel comfortable expressing their emotions and building positive relationships with others. By modeling healthy emotional regulation strategies, teachers can demonstrate the importance of self-awareness and help children learn to manage their feelings in a constructive way. In addition to these classroom strategies, it’s also essential for parents and caregivers to support pre-school learners’ emotional development outside of school. This includes providing a stable and nurturing home environment, encouraging open communication and active listening, and modeling positive emotional behaviors. By working together, educators and families can provide the consistent and supportive environment that pre-school learners need to thrive emotionally and academically.
Namibia's freshwater resources Namibia is predominantly arid and commonly referred to as the driest country south of the Sahara. Flowing rivers are mostly confined to the country's northern and southern borders. Other areas of open water are few and far between. But for short, often magical times there may be abundant water across the country’s surface. Such times are restricted to the rainy season – usually those seasons with 'good' rainfalls. Namibia's water – or lack thereof – is defined by three main factors. Firstly, the climate, manifested in low, variable rainfall and high rates of evaporation. The effects of warm, dry air and wind combine to produce high rates of evaporation, while the potential for rain depends mainly on inflows of moist air from the tropics to northern Namibia. Such inflows are blocked for much of the time by high-pressure air masses. Secondly, the combination of geology, soils and vegetation cover that make up the land's gradient and substrate determine whether the rain that falls flows away along watercourses, pools up to form pans or vleis, or seeps into the ground. Thirdly, how we use water resources influences how much water there is above and below the ground, how long it remains, and its quality. Fresh water is an essential resource for almost every human domestic and economic activity. To meet these needs and to ensure that we have enough fresh water from one good rain season to another, Namibia has had to find, pump, store, purify, recycle and move water from where it is available to where it is needed. Advanced technologies have been developed to make all these activities possible.
The gray boxes provide below are available for you to highlightand type right in. Please change color of the font. Use complete sentences. Proofread for correct spelling and grammar! Remember that you beginning to demonstrate your understanding of the elements associated with the NAEYC Professional Preparation Standard 4-Using Developmentally Appropriate Approaches. Age Group: Prekindergarten Pre-K Guidelines Objective: The learner will be able to: How will you engage the learner? (opening of the lesson): How will you explain the skill or concept that the learner is expected to know or be able to do? (concept development and instructional input): How will you have the learner explore the skill or concept? (concept development and instructional input, continued; provocation): Source (of your idea; use APA guidelines or Internet URL for citation):
Biofuel, also referred to as biomass, is energy converted from organic matter from plants or animals. The two most commonly used types of biofuel are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is made from plant materials. A chemical process called fermentation is one of the more frequent methods used to convert biomass into ethanol. During fermentation, plant sugars are metabolised to produce ethanol. Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils or animal waste. Almost all biodiesel is made using a process called transesterification – a chemical reaction between vegetable oil or animal waste with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol. This reaction produces biodiesel and glycerin. Simply put: Vegetable oil/animal waste + alcohol (methanol/ethanol) = Biodiesel and Glycerin Glycerin is used in industries such as pharmaceutical and cosmetics. Biodiesel is usually blended with petroleum diesel for vehicle fuel. Pure biodiesel is uncommon and rarely used as a transportation fuel due to its higher cost as compared to blended biodiesel. What are the pros and cons of biofuel? Biodiesel from palm oil is increasingly used as an alternative to fossil fuels. In terms of direct carbon footprint, only palm oil offers a reduction of 50 percent in emissions compared with diesel. Biofuel also releases only one-fourth the amount of carbon dioxide as compared to conventional diesel releases. Moreover, oil palm is the most productive vegetable oil. It has the highest yield per area and requires smaller amounts of pesticides and fertiliser than other vegetable oil crops like soybean and canola. These make palm oil the most economical feedstock for biofuel. Despite these advantages, palm oil is often associated with deforestation that causes biodiversity loss and worsens climate change. But did you know that the palm oil industry has taken the most steps to protect forests and conserve biodiversity? For example, Golden Agri-Resources (GAR) has a strict No Deforestation, No Peat, No Exploitation (NDPE) policy that effectively delinks palm oil production from deforestation. Also, GAR is partnering with biodiversity experts, such as Orangutan Foundation International (OFI), and has rehabilitated 127 orangutans back to their natural habitat since 2011. Banning palm oil feedstock for biofuel production is not the solution. Using sustainably produced palm oil is the answer – not only to combat climate change, but also to fulfil the global demand for energy, food, and industrial goods. Biofuel production benefits smallholders and communities The expansion of the biofuel industry can create more jobs for local rural communities. The income of smallholders can increase from biofuel crops as the demand for raw materials like crude palm oil rises. More domestically produced biofuel will also result in lower fossil fuel imports. As the third-largest producer of biofuel, the palm oil industry in Indonesia generates large quantities of residue that can be used to process biofuel. In 2020, the Indonesian government launched the B30 mandate (30 percent palm oil, 70 percent diesel) to reduce GHG and fuel imports. This boosts the demand for locally-produced raw materials such as crude palm oil and reduces the dependency on imported fuel. The future of biofuel Biofuel is the largest renewable energy source in use today, globally accounting for 70 percent of renewable energy supply and 10 percent of total primary energy supply in 2017. It plays a key role as a source of energy in the replacement of fossil fuel in end-use sectors (industry, transport and buildings). Biofuel can contribute to balancing an electricity grid with high shares of variable renewables, such as solar PV and wind. This renewable energy source also makes a significant impact in decarbonising challenging sectors such as long-haul or heavy freight transport and industrial sectors such as iron and steel, cement and lime, aluminium and chemicals and petrochemicals. Biofuel is produced from responsibly sourced crude palm oil (CPO) at Golden Agri-Resources (GAR). Read about how biofuel is produced at GAR here.
Where does feminism come from? A short history of ideas The beginnings of the women’s movement Human rights and citizen’s rights for women too In 1791, during the French Enlightenment, Olympe de Gouges demanded human rights and civil rights for women. At this point they were still only granted to men. Later in the 19th and 20th century, similar early feminist ideas inspired women’s movements in numerous countries to push for the right to education, paid employment, and social equality. As a result, we owe various social and political rights for women, such as the right to vote, to the commitment of these women’s rights activists. Autonomous women’s movements The personal is political Against the backdrop of the 1960s student protests and new social movements, new women’s movements developed in many countries around the globe. At this time, autonomous feminists began organising independently of men and outside existing organisations. They criticised women’s continued discrimination despite formal political equality. It became apparent that rights alone would not ensure equality: dominance was inherent to gender relations and reflected the structure of society and its institutions as a whole. This understanding led feminists to analyse the sources of structural discrimination against women and fight for changes to the patriarchal model of society, and to social understandings. They deployed a gender perspective to study areas of the social which had previously been interpreted as private: the family, sexuality, the body and psychology. In addition, they rejected traditional ways of life and instead developed their own independent (autonomous) ways of living and working. From difference to deconstruction The second sex? In the 1970s and 1980s, and in Italy in particular, a position inspired by psychoanalysis arose which argued that because women had been historically excluded from power and dominant values, women's values were different from those embodied by men. In the light of new academic and historical understandings difference feminism, as this perspective came to be known, became untenable and it has since lost its importance. It was further weakened by deconstructivist feminism in the 1990s which denied that sexual identities were in any way ‘natural’, and instead demonstrated that gender is culturally constructed and formed by language. This approach which was represented in particular by Judith Butler, was not directed at politics, but more towards a complete change in our concepts of gender (gender trouble). Criticising racism, ethnocentricity and homophobia Inequality between women Feminist theories which focus on power relations – which are currently represented in many universities – led to discussions about the inequalities which exist between women. Racist, ethnocentric and homophobic discrimination or social and cultural discrimination by women (and men) demonstrates that not all women have the same interests and that some women even profit from existing injustice. This understanding led it to become clear that the emancipation of women alone could not solve the problem of social injustice. This led to the development of the term ‘the matrix of domination’ to describe the way in which many factors which cause inequality are linked to each other. From alpha girls to pop feminism ‘Alpha girls’, pop feminists, and third-wave feminists were predominantly younger women from the feminist movement. At the turn of the twenty-first century, they called for women not only to struggle against injustice, but instead to affirm their rights with confidence. This understanding was based on ideas linked to gender democracy, such as gender mainstreaming in Europe. Yet far from making feminism obsolete, it has led to new developments and a lively debate between the many and varied feminist positions. Developing concepts, and plurality From Intersectionality to Queer Theory New theoretical and practical feminist concepts are being integrated into a post-colonial critique of unquestioned Western and white assumptions and lifestyles. Queer theory, for example, is a critique of the heteronormativity of fixed gender identities based around the norm of heterosexuality. Recent feminist debates have concentrated on how gender discrimination is interwoven with categories such as race, class, sexuality, nationality and age. Concepts such as intersectionality and diversity help to ensure that gender discrimination is not viewed in isolation, but instead is tackled together with other forms and dimensions of discrimination and domination.
Visual Arts and Multilingual Learners Engage and Support Multilingual Learners’ Growth as Artists How can an artists create sculptures with paper? Materials and Tools - Paper shapes from previous lesson - Colored construction paper (three sheets of the same color) Students will understand how to: - Paper can be transformed and arranged in different ways to create a sculpture. - A sculpture stands up, is three-dimensional (3D), and looks different from all sides. - A life-sized sculpture has a relationship with a viewer’s body and can be interacted with in different ways. Students will be able to: - Demonstrate cutting and changing paper by making 3D shapes. - Demonstrate building with paper by standing, stacking, leaning, and balancing. - Create a sculpture by attaching shapes together using slot joints. We will create an imaginary structure out of paper. What is a structure? A structure is something 3D that is built by joining different parts together. Some examples include bridges, columns, walls, tunnels, archways, or buildings. An imaginary structure is something new that is made from an artist’s imagination. Step 1: Close-Looking Filip Dujardin, Sequence no. 1, installed along the banks of the Leie River in Kortrijk, Belgium, 2015. 40 meters (131 feet) in length. This is a temporary site-specific sculpture that was located along the banks of the Leie River in Kortrijk, Belgium. It draws inspiration from the houses and buildings in the city of Kortrijk and is arranged in a straight line to follow the flow of the river. - What do you notice? - What do you notice about the size or scale? - What shapes do you see? - How did the artist arrange the shapes? - How do you imagine interacting with this sculpture? From Filip Dujardin: “What I did with this intervention was to make a gesture towards the city by building a structure that places several architectural architypes [sic] into a certain sequence. By doing so, there evolves a suggestion of a silhouette of a street or an unfolded house. In fact, it is an action to pull the city towards the water.” Step 2: Students will gather their torn paper shapes from the previous lesson and use scissors to create more shapes. They will cut two pieces of papers in half, and the third piece of paper into wide strips. They will use rolling, folding, twisting, crumpling, or fringing to create additional shapes that stand up. - How are the cut shapes different from the torn shapes? Step 3: Students will look closely at their shapes. - How do they remind you of a structure? - What can they become (for example, stairs, a wall, a roof, column, bridge)? Students will try building with their shapes to create a sculpture. They can stand, stack, lean, and balance their shapes. - Will your sculpture be wide or tall? - How would a person enter the space? Step 4: Students will stand and look at their sculpture from different directions. - Is there anything you want to change or add? - Where can you use slot joints to attach your shapes? - How did you build with your shapes? - If your sculpture were life-sized, how do you imagine interacting with it? - Where do you imagine this structure being built? Additional Discussion Prompts - What do you want someone to know about your sculpture? - What would you title your sculpture? Why? Step 5: Writing Activity Imagine if your sculpture were life-sized. - How does it feel to be inside this sculpture? What will you do here? What are three action words that describe how you would interact with your sculpture. Write a sentence using each word or use the sentence frame below. - Three words that describe how I would interact with my sculpture are __________, __________, and __________. Artists often title their work to tell viewers more about their idea. - Come up with a title for your imaginary structure. - What kind of a place is this? - What would you want people who view your sculpture to know about it? Write a title for your artwork and one sentence about why you chose that title. - The title of my imaginary structure is ___________. I chose this title because ________. Step 6: Sketchbook Activity Turn your sculpture around and choose one side to look at closely. Make a drawing of what you see. Imagine what else you can add to your sculpture. Keep “building” it by drawing additional elements and details. - What did you add to your sculpture in your drawing? Sculpture, balance, lean, stack, stand, slot joint ADAPTATIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES - Think about the sounds your paper shapes might make. - Use hand and body movements to make lines seen in new paper shapes. - Use an iPad or Google Classroom to draw lines and shapes. - Use the “Think, Pair, Share” strategy to partner students to help with understanding, verbalize ideas, and share their process. ADAPTATIONS FOR MULTILINGUAL LEARNERS - Multi-modality learning - Total Physical Response (TPR) - Provide visual examples to support words and concepts - Use repetition - Chunk information - Use equity sticks when calling on students - Pre-teach high-utility vocabulary - Use of prepositions to describe the relationship between a viewer and the sculpture (for example, above, next to, underneath, behind) - Use of opinion phrases to express perspective - High-utility vocabulary: stand, stack, lean, balance - For elementary school students: Creating a paper sculpture of an imaginary playground or play space. - For high-school students: Creating a paper model for a site-specific sculpture, considering the location and history. - Exploring recycled materials, for example cardboard, to create buildings or imaginary structures. These can be exhibited together to create a street or neighborhood. - Using found objects at home and standing, stacking, leaning, or balancing them to create imaginary buildings. - Using paper and cardboard to create imaginary creatures or animals, exploring personality traits and emotions. - Documenting your sculptures by drawing them from three different viewpoints. Written by Traci Talasco, Artist Instructor with support from Julie Applebaum, Senior Director, Studio in a School NYC Hasna Muhammad, Ed.D., Chair, Board of Directors, Studio in a School Association Alison Scott-Williams, President, Studio in a School NYC Copyright © 2023 Studio in a School NYC LLC
Sometimes you may need to read or accept user input in python. This is a common requirement in applications which require user interaction. There are many ways to do this, most of which require a GUI dialog box. But if your application is a command line based then you can easily accept user input via keyboard using the following commands. In this article, we will look at how to read user input in python via keyboard prompts. How to Read User Input in Python Here are the different ways to accept user input in python. 1. Using input() input() function allows you to accept both string as well as numbers from user input. It accepts the user input text and then parses it to determine if it is a string or number. If the user does not provide a right input, it raises an exception. # example using input() val = input("Enter input: ") print(val) When you run the above script, it will look like Enter input:abc abc Please note, during execution, when python comes across input() function it will pause the program execution till user submits input. You don’t need to enter a string in input function, it is optional. If you don’t enter any string, the input function will simply pause execution and wait for user input at that point. Since this might confuse the user, it is advisable to enter a string asking user to enter input. Also, in python 2.x, whatever user enters, number or alphabets, python will convert it into a appropriate data type. For example, if you enter an integer, it will store it in an int, if you enter a string, it will store it as string variable, if you enter float, then python will store it as floating point variable. Here is an example. Here is an example. >>> val=input("enter input:") enter input:123 >>> type(val) <type 'int'> >>> val=input("enter input:") enter input:'abc' >>> type(val) <type 'str'> >>> val=input("enter input") enter input123.34 >>> type(val) <type 'float'> Also remember to put single/double quotes around alphabets or alphanumeric strings. Otherwise python will throw an error. >>> val=input("enter input:") enter input:abc Traceback (most recent call last): File "<pyshell#2>", line 1, in <module> val=input("enter input:") File "<string>", line 1, in <module> NameError: name 'abc' is not defined Please note, since python 3+, whatever you enter as user input for input() function, python will convert it into string and store it. You need to explicitly convert it into the data type (int, float, etc) you want, after receiving user input. 2. Using raw_input This function is available in python 2.x only. It accepts user input and converts it into string and returns it to the variable, in case we want to store it. Otherwise, it will display the string value in command prompt. >>> a=raw_input('enter input:') >>> enter input:123 >>> a '123' >>> type(a) >>> <type 'str'> In this article, we have looked at two different ways to accept user input. As mentioned earlier, reading user input is generally part of large applications and scripts in python. input() function allows you to easily accept user input no matter whether it is a number, characters, or strings.
Nearly 800 million people in the world do not have enough food to eat. It is no secret that more efficient farming and agricultural practices can help yield more crops to feed more people as well as bring in more income to poor farmers. In conjunction with traditional ground-based data collection of farmland, satellite imaging and sensing can help farmers monitor their crops and land condition in real time. Satellite-based technology can map cropland area and crop type, estimate area planted, estimate product yield and even detect early signs of droughts and floods. With this kind of technology, farmers may be better equipped to make informed choices about their land to protect their products. With more informed farmers, better use of resources and ultimately more crops, satellites may be an important part of ensuring global food security. A New Wave of Tech Precision farming is the use of technologies to inform farmers about their products. This method is not new, however, the systems in place are changing. Traditional, ground-based tests, such as soil sampling, have long been used to test the arity, salinity, and other conditions of land. These tests help instruct farmers about the optimal mix of fertilizer, pesticide and water that should be used to yield the most crops. While these tests are useful, they are expensive, time-consuming and can only provide data for a small area of land. Satellites may provide a comprehensive solution. Equipped with imaging and sensing technology, satellites may analyze entire fields at more regular intervals for a more timely and lower-cost option. With land-use mapping and monitoring technologies, satellites cater to a variety of farmers’ needs. Farmers are using satellite technology to: - Analyze soil fertility. - Map irrigated land. - Monitor crop growth. - Produce crop yield forecasts. - Track crop development. - Measure soil moisture content. - Test soil chemical composition. Depending on the program and type of imaging, the costs of satellite data may differ. The Sentinel-2, a land-monitoring system of two satellites that the European Space Agency (ESA) controls, provides vegetation imagery and moisture maps to farmers for $0.20 per acre per two months of service. Satellites: Prediction, Protection and Prevention In places like sub-Saharan Africa where agriculture accounts for 64 percent of all employment, satellite-based technology is vital to the survival of farmers. Ninety-five percent of sub-Saharan Africa’s farmable land lacks irrigation systems, thus making the farmland more susceptible to drastic land conditions like droughts and floods. With satellite technology and remote sensing, farmers can shift their focus from reacting to disasters after they occur to planning response before the disasters cause damage. Because low soil moisture content is an indicator of drought, satellites can measure the soil’s moisture content using microwave radiation and send an early warning to farmers in the affected area. With these early response mechanisms, insured farmers can apply early to their insurers and receive money. Programs like the Ethiopian Productive Safety Net Program provides cash-transfers to poor households using this satellite-based technology. People have used satellite drought imaging combined with data on local market supply and demand to bring the right amount of food aid to countries in need. Molly Brown, a researcher for NASA, uses satellite images of cropland in Niger, where farmers not only grow food for markets but also eat the crops, to estimate rising market costs. During droughts, these farmers cannot grow enough food to feed themselves and sell locally, thus demand and market prices increase. Since many rural families in Niger live on only around $400 a year, drastic price increases may mean that they cannot get enough to eat. The goal of Brown’s research is to predict rising market prices before they occur based on satellite images of farmland. It is also to bring in enough food aid when people need it and to stop food aid when it is not necessary. Brown hopes satellites will be an important step toward ensuring food security. Already at Work Many organizations, large and small, have already begun harnessing the power of satellite technology and its use in agriculture. NASA has rolled out several satellite-driven initiatives to help combat food security. The Famine Early Warning Systems (FEWS) Network, established in 2000, uses NASA’s Landsat satellite imaging and remote sensing to gather data, forecast weather trends and hazards and create maps for vegetation, rainfall and water use. In order to make satellite imaging and data more accessible to the communities that could best utilize them, NASA established a web-based visualization and monitoring system, for Africa and Central America, called SERVIR, in collaboration with USAID. Working with more than 200 institutions and training around 1,800 regional support staffers, SERVIR provides previously inaccessible satellite data, imaging and forecasts to local governments and researchers. With this information, SERVIR hopes that developing nations will be able to respond better to natural disasters, improve their food security and manage water and other natural resources. Even private companies like Planet Labs, are investing in satellite-based technology. Planet uses many smaller, relatively inexpensive satellites for its imaging force. The company has around 140 currently deployed, enough to capture an image of the entire Earth every day. It sells imaging and monitoring data to over 200 customers, many of whom are agricultural companies. In 2015, at the U.N. Sustainable Development Summit, Planet Labs introduced its Open Regions initiative. By making $60 million worth of its satellite imagery for certain regions available to the global public and directly accessible online, Planet Lab’s imagery brings data vital to the health of crops directly to farmers. With the U.N. deadline to end global hunger and ensure global food security by 2030, it is important for governments and organizations to look for new, sustainable opportunities to increase productivity. By looking beyond conventional, ground-based agricultural solutions and turning to the skies, farmers may find that satellites may be an important part of ensuring global food security. – Maya Watanabe Photo: Wikipedia Commons
Sunday, January 22, 2023, was the official start of the Chinese New Year, and it marks the beginning of the year of the rabbit. This is one of the most important holidays and celebrations in Chinese culture due to its traditions and historical significance. The holiday symbolizes bringing the past year to a close and welcoming a fresh start in the coming year with hopes of health and prosperity. Chinese New Year is celebrated all around the globe, often including fireworks, red clothes and decorations, and visits with family and friends. To help honor and celebrate the Chinese New Year, one of our ALVS Mandarin Chinese instructors, Shanhui Chen, shares some fun facts, history, and culture of China. Some Fun Facts About the History of Modern China The History and Ancient Civilizations - The Chinese civilization dates to before 7000 BCE. The Shang dynasty ruled from about 1600 to 1046 BCE during the Bronze Age of China. People of the Shang dynasty used calendars and had advanced knowledge of astronomy and math. - China’s Golden Age was an era of prosperity, peace, and development between the Song and Tang dynasties (618 CE to 907 CE). China underwent vast growth in terms of music, literature, and engineering during this period. - The Zhou dynasty was the longest-ruling Chinese dynasty when Confucius lived. It lasted from 1122 BCE to 255 BCE. Puyi, the last emperor of China, was named Emperor of China in 1908, at the age of just 2 years and 10 months. - The four great Ancient Chinese inventions are paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. - The first known banknote (paper money) was developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties. Modern China and Its Culture - China’s high-speed rails span nearly 40,000 km (nearly 25,000 miles), and the country now has the world’s largest bullet trains that can travel up to 350 km/h (220 mph). The plan is to extend these 70,000 km (124,274 miles) by 2035. - The one-child-policy started in 1980 and ended in 2015. As sons were generally preferred over daughters by the parents, the overall sex ratio in China became skewed toward males. By 2016, there were 59 million more young males than females with the ratio being 104.98 males to 100 females. - China has contributed close to three-quarters of the global reduction in the number of people living in poverty. At China’s current national poverty line, the number of poor fell by 770 million over the last 40 years. - The construction of the Chinese space station Tiangong (天宫) officially began in April 2021, and it opened for business in an increasingly competitive era of space activity in November 2022. The main function of the Tiangong station is to perform research on life in space. There is a particular focus on learning about the growth and development of different types of plants, animals, and microorganisms, and there are more than 1,000 experiments planned for the next 10 years - The tradition “回家过年 go home for the new year” creates one of the planet's great migrations on Chinese Lunar New Year, resulting in the largest human event on earth. In 2018, 385 million Chinese people left the cities to visit their families in rural areas at the same time. - Chinese New Year celebration lasts for 15 days. Each day has a different ritual. The 15th day, is also called the Lantern Day. - Chinese parents expect their adult children to get married and have children at their 20s. It’s popular that some young men hire a girlfriend to visit their parents on Chinese New Year to make their parents happy. Study-Abroad Language Program and Scholarship The best way to know about China is to visit China. The U.S. Department of State–sponsored program, NSLI-Y (National Security Language Initiative for Youth) includes a scholarship that covers the costs. I taught three students in face-to-face classes who applied and were accepted. They had wonderful experiences. To learn more about it, visit: https://www.nsliforyouth.org/languages-and-program-experience/chinese-mandarin/ Ready To Learn Mandarin Chinese? Learn More About Our World Language Courses If you are interested in learning more about Chinese culture but are not able to travel, ALVS offers online World Language courses. Students will learn how to listen, speak, read, and write Mandarin Chinese and will engage in interactive activities on the culture and history of China. By Shanhui Chen Ms. Chen taught high school ESL in China for years before moving to the US to pursue her master’s degree. Since then, she has taught 6-12 grade Mandarin for both online and the face-to-face classes. She has been working with Apex for almost 9 years. In her spare time, Ms. Chen is also an eLearning designer who sometimes helps schools and companies design interactive courses and training programs. Her hobbies include cooking, traveling and photography.
Migratory birds track climate across the year As climate change takes hold across the Americas, some areas will get wetter, and others will get hotter and drier. A new study of the yellow warbler, a widespread migratory songbird, shows that individuals have the same climatic preferences across their migratory range. The work is published Feb. 17 in Ecology Letters. "What's amazing is that the birds track similar climates despite the fact that they have migrated thousands of miles," said Rachael Bay, assistant professor in the Department of Evolution and Ecology, College of Biological Sciences at the University of California, Davis. "It seems that individual birds may be adapted to particular climate regimes." Yellow warblers (Setophagia petechia) breed throughout North America and fly south to Central and South America to spend the winter. A previous study by Bay and colleagues found links between genetic variation and precipitation across North America, suggesting that certain individuals might be adapted to dry conditions while others thrive in wet conditions. In the current study, the authors were able to use genetics to predict where birds captured on their wintering grounds in Central and South America would end up breeding and compare climate patterns in their winter and summer areas. Individual birds showed preferences for drier or wetter areas, but not for warmer or cooler areas. In other words, birds that bred in relatively dry parts of North America—such as California's Central Valley—overwintered in dry parts of South or Central America. "This is the first demonstration of using individual genetic tracking to link climates across the migratory cycle within a bird species," Bay said. Impact of climate change This range of climatic preferences could have consequences for how the birds respond to climate change. Bay speculates that the variation she and her colleagues found might provide the raw material for the species to adapt to changing climate conditions. For example, populations that are adapted to drier conditions might displace those adapted to wetter ones. In fact, Bay and colleagues have already found that population sizes of yellow warblers changed with precipitation across years. Bay collected data for the study during her postdoctoral research, in collaboration with banding stations and collecting sites in North and South America. Bay and her colleagues are now eager to see whether individuals of other bird species also track climate during migration. More information: Rachael A. Bay et al, Genetic variation reveals individual‐level climate tracking across the annual cycle of a migratory bird, Ecology Letters First published: 17 February 2021 doi.org/10.1111/ele.13706 Journal information: Ecology Letters Provided by UC Davis
[An updated version of this article can be found at Interest Rates in the 2nd edition.] Interest is the price people pay to have resources now rather than later. Resources, of course, can be anything from college tuition to a big-screen TV. Interest is conventionally expressed as a percentage rate for a period of one year. If borrowers (those who want resources now) can obtain the resources from lenders (those who are willing to surrender current control) on the condition that they return 103 percent of the resources one year later, then the interest rate is 3 percent. The standard procedure for calculating compound interest, under which the interest at the end of each year is added to the principal (the amount borrowed), requires borrowers who want to retain command for two years to repay 106.09 percent of the principal, assuming a 3 percent annual rate of interest. The formula for determining the amount to which the sum to be repaid will grow under compound interest is where P is the principal, r is the annual interest rate, and n is the number of years for which the principal is borrowed. Compound interest is an incredibly powerful force. Just how powerful can be seen in the following example. If Thomas Jefferson had invested $10 at 3 percent compound interest to celebrate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, his heirs would have been entitled to almost $3,700 on the day in 1976 when the United States celebrated its two hundredth anniversary. At 6 percent compound interest, Mr. Jefferson's $10 investment would have grown to $1,150,000, or 311 times as much. An immediate implication is that a quantity of resources available only at a future date has less value today (the present value) than the same quantity of resources available now. The difference in value is determined by the prevailing interest rate. If the annual rate of interest is 3 percent, 100 units of a resource to be received one year from now is equivalent in value to approximately 97.09 units at this time. The formula for determining the present value of future amounts (a process that is called discounting) is derived from the same formula for determining the amount to which present sums will grow in the future: where F is the future amount and r and n are again the interest rate and the number of years, respectively. The interest rate enters at least implicitly into all economic decisions, because economic decisions are made by comparing expected future benefits to costs. The only way to make the value of future benefits or costs comparable to one another is to discount them by their "temporal distance" from the present, using the relevant interest rate. The greater this temporal distance (that is, the further into the future the benefit or cost is), the smaller is the discounted, or present, value. Interest rates quoted by lenders usually include much more than "pure" interest. To persuade a lender to surrender current control of resources, the borrower will have to pay, in addition to interest, an amount that compensates the lender for any costs incurred in arranging the transaction, usually including some kind of insurance premium against the risk of default by the borrower. Someone without an established credit rating who applies for an unsecured loan will typically be required to pay "interest" at an annual rate that is several times the prevailing rate of pure interest. The interest rate is determined by demand and supply: the demand for present control of resources by those who do not have it, and the supply from those who do have control and are willing to surrender it for a price. The question of exactly why demand and supply yield a positive rate of interest is one of the most fiercely disputed questions in the history of economic theory. It is enough to point out that when an individual acquires present command of resources, his or her set of available opportunities expands. In short, the present command of resources is something that people want. Therefore, those who get it are willing to pay for it, and those who give it up insist that they be compensated for doing so. The fact that loans are usually made by means of money leads to the mistaken belief that interest is a payment for the use of money. Money is usually what is lent because money offers a general command over resources. But interest also would exist in a pure barter economy where money was not used. Calling interest "the price of money" mistakenly implies that the interest rate could be brought down by making more money available, in the same way that the price of wheat can be brought down by making more wheat available. This issue could get us into a discussion of monetary theory and policy. It is, however, sufficient to note that increasing the amount of money available tends to lower the purchasing power of money because it causes inflation. In countries that allow their money supplies to grow rapidly, interest rates typically rise because people come to expect inflation. When inflation is anticipated, lenders insist upon being compensated for the expected decline in the value of money over the period of the loan, and borrowers, expecting to make repayment in money of depreciated value, are willing to pay the compensation. The real interest rate on money loans will be the stated (or nominal) rate minus the anticipated rate of inflation. In countries that are experiencing rapid growth in the amount of money available, interest rates will be very high. But these will be not be high real interest rates. Instead, they will be high nominal interest rates. If expected inflation is 10 percent, for example, and if the real interest rate is 5 percent, the nominal interest rate is 15 percent. But someone who lends money at 15 percent for a year will not be repaid with 15 percent more resources at the end of the year. Rather, the lender will be repaid with 15 percent more money and will be able to use that money to buy only 5 percent more resources. The real interest rate, by determining the relative value of goods at different times in the future, has important effects on investment decisions. Lower interest rates increase the present value of distant returns, which encourages investors to expand projects that offer the prospect of large returns only at distant dates. Higher interest rates cause investors to concentrate on projects promising earlier returns. The relationship is one of mutual determination, however. For reasons ranging from the psychological to the technological, people in one society may have a stronger desire for current availability of resources than people in another society. The stronger this desire for instant gratification is, the higher are interest rates. Paul Heyne was a senior lecturer in economics at the University of Washington in Seattle. He had a Ph.D. in ethics and society from the Divinity School of the University of Chicago. He died in 2000. Fisher, Irving. The Theory of Interest. 1930. Reprint. 1970. Patinkin, Don. "Interest." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 7. 1968. Consumer Reports goofed. It ignored the present value of money. Because financing charges are paid over time, not all at once, the total cost of both options is actually lower than the totals stated here. Since the builder's option includes interest paid in the distant future, it costs much less than Consumer Reports claims. The builder offers both a lower purchase cost and lower interest rate. Common sense would lead you to choose the builder's deal. Borrowing long-term at low interest rates can be good for your bank account. The present value of money shows why.
An ESL/ELA Word Search containing 21 nationalities in English. This Word Search contains the following 21 nationalities: American, Australian, Brazilian, Canadian, Chilean, Chinese, Colombian, Egyptian, English, French, German, Greek, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Mexican, Peruvian, Portuguese, South African, Spanish. There are three versions of this word search: - One worksheet is with NATIONALITIES as clues at the bottom of the sheet. - One worksheet is with the COUNTRIES as clues at the bottom and where the students need to find the corresponding nationality in the word search. - One worksheet is WITHOUT clues. There are lines (spaces) where students have to write the nationalities that they have found. This worksheet is good for students that have already seen this topic or are normally fast finishers. CONTENT: This pack contains 4 Pages: - Past Tense Irregular Verbs – Word Search with nationalities as clues – Student Version – (1 page) - Past Tense Irregular Verbs – Word Search with countries as clues – Student Version – (1 page) - Past Tense Irregular Verbs – Word Search without clues – Student Version – (1 page) - Past Tense Irregular Verbs – Word Search – Teacher Answers – (1 page) LEVEL: Beginner (CEFR – A1 Level) AGE: From 7 years
With maths anxiety affecting many primary and secondary students throughout the UK, it’s no wonder so many pupils dread the subject. In fact, studies have even suggested that up to 55% of the population have a negative attitude towards maths, with many admitting to being ‘useless’ at the subject. With the maths UK curriculum being very full, there’s often not enough time for students to consolidate new skills before teachers have to move onto the next topic. This means that when topics are tested or visited again, kids can sometimes feel that they can’t ‘do’ maths, which can lead to them avoiding the subject and developing a negative association. Here’s some easy ways to help kids tackle maths anxiety and build up confidence! Signs Of Maths Anxiety - A negative attitude towards maths. - Low confidence when dealing with maths problems. - Avoiding maths homework or the subject in general. - Excessively worrying about maths tests. - Feeling overwhelmed about new concepts. Making Mistakes Is Normal It’s important to help your child understand that making mistakes is normal and a very important part of learning- even in maths! Even though it may cause worry and anxiety for your child when they do get something wrong, encourage them to try and learn from their mistakes rather than feel disheartened. In fact, research even shows that our brains are more active when we get something wrong, than when we get something right. Make Maths Fun Making maths fun is the key to gradually replacing anxiety by building up enjoyment instead. We recommend using websites, games or apps to engage and inspire your kids and remind them that maths isn’t so scary after all. Not only does this keep learning light-hearted and fun, it also provides lots of opportunities for practice, building up a deeper understanding of concepts and using problem solving skills. Fill In Learning Gaps Taking extra time at home or with the help of a private tutor, filling in any gaps your child has in their maths knowledge will do wonders for their anxiety. It can be very difficult to make progress if kids don’t have a firm grasp on specific maths concepts, so building these back up will be sure to increase their confidence levels too. Display A Positive Attitude It’s important for parents to avoid passing on their own maths anxiety, so it’s probably best not to tell your kids if you were bad at maths. Instead, having an encouraging attitude towards the subject will help them try and maintain a positive attitude too. It’s also a good idea to praise your child if they make any progress, even if it’s small, as this can help build up their self-confidence and believe they can do it, even if it’s tricky! Make Maths A Part Of Everyday Life Making maths a part of everyday life is an excellent way to help kids realise that it isn’t so bad after all. Whether it’s weighing out ingredients during baking, calculating the cost of the weekly food shop or figuring out how long it will take for them to save ‘X’ amount of pocket money- there are maths opportunities everywhere! Let Your Child Talk About Their Worries It’s important to let your child openly talk through their concerns about maths with you for them to be able to overcome them. This way you can listen to what they’re struggling with and offer support and advice. It can also be very helpful for kids to get their thoughts and feelings out in the open, rather than bottling up their worries. Even the act of saying things aloud can be stress relieving and in some cases, kids may even realise their own answers to their problems! Remind Your Child To Ask Questions If They Don’t Understand Finally, one of the easiest ways to tackle maths anxiety and start building up confidence again, is for your child to simply ask for help. Remind them that it’s okay to tell their teacher they don’t understand something and there’s no shame in asking for some extra help. Usually teachers will have an alternative way of explaining or be able to provide kids with additional learning resources.
Indianism (in Portuguese: Indianismo) is a Brazilian literary and artistic movement that reached its peak during the first stages of Romanticism, though it had been present in Brazilian literature since the Baroque period. In Romantic contexts, it is called "the first generation of Brazilian Romanticism", being succeeded by the "Ultra-Romanticism" and the "Condorism". After the independence of Brazil from Portugal in 1822, a heavy wave of nationalism spread through the Brazilian people. Inspired by this, poets and writers began to search for an entity that could represent and personify the newly created Brazilian nation. Since there was no Middle Ages in Brazil, it could not be the knight, as in the European chivalric romances; it could not be the Portuguese man either, since Brazilians still held resentment for the years of colonization; it could not be the black man either, since the mentality of the time did not allow it. Influenced by Enlightenment ideals, especially works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the "noble savage" myth, the authors chose the Brazilian Indian to represent the new nation. Indianist works are characterized by always having an Indian as the protagonist. The poetry is very patriotic and nationalistic, exalting Brazilian fauna, flora, riches and people.
There are two general types of hearing loss: sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) and conductive hearing loss. To put it briefly, sensorineural hearing loss involves damage in the inner ear and conductive hearing loss involves damage in the outer or middle ear. When the two types of hearing loss occur in combination, it’s known as mixed hearing loss. This condition can result in mild or moderate to severe hearing loss. What Causes Mixed Hearing Loss? Mixed hearing loss is a result of anything that causes conductive hearing loss or SNHL. For example, if you have hearing loss in your inner ear due to a noisy work environment and fluid in your middle ear then that could lead to mixed hearing loss, making your hearing worse than it would be with only one of those problems. Or, another example, a person experiencing age-related hearing loss may suddenly experience further hearing loss due to a ruptured eardrum. The symptoms of mixed hearing loss manifest in some combination of the symptoms that people with either sensorineural or conductive hearing loss would experience alone. How is Mixed Hearing Loss Treated? Treatment options for someone experiencing mixed hearing loss depend entirely on the causes of the two types of hearing loss and the extent to which the hearing loss is more sensorineural or conductive. In many cases, conductive hearing loss can be treated with surgery, such as the removal of blockages, tumors, or bony growths. If surgery isn’t an option for the conductive hearing loss, then hearing aids may be prescribed, or bone-anchored hearing aids may be implanted. Sensorineural hearing loss cannot be treated surgically. Most often, this type of hearing loss is greatly assisted by the use of hearing aids. In the case of severe or profound sensorineural hearing loss, cochlear implants may be an option to help the person improve their hearing. For more information on all of the different types of hearing loss, you can read our article: What Are The Different Types of Hearing Loss? The information in this guide has been written using the following reliable sources:
Greenland’s ice sheet could melt at much lower temperatures than previously thought, according t a new study published in the Journal of Nature Climate Change. The lives of millions of people could be threatened if the melting of land ice raises sea levels by several metres as predicted. “Our study shows that a temperature threshold for melting [the ice sheet] exists, and that this threshold has been overestimated until now,” said scientists at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. The team made predictions about the future behaviour of the ice sheet by using computer simulations. According to the scientists, the ice sheet could completely melt if global temperatures rise by between 0.8 and 3.2 degrees Celsius, despite previous research suggesting the ice would only be affected within the range of 1.9 to 5.1 degrees. Greenland, which has a tenth of the world’s ice, is currently 80 percent frozen. According to previous research, global sea levels could rise by as much as 6.4 metres if the entire ice sheet melted. “If the global temperature significantly overshoots the threshold for a long time, the ice will continue melting and not re-grow, even if the climate would, after many thousand years, return to its pre-industrial state,” team leader Andrey Ganopolski told Reuters at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. “The more we exceed the threshold, the faster it melts,” added Alexander Robinson, lead-author of the study. “If the world takes no action to limit greenhouse gas emissions, the earth could warm by eight degrees Celsius. This would result in one fifth of the ice sheet melting within 500 years and a complete loss in 2,000 years,” he said.
The experiment, part of NASA’s Perseverance Rover mission that landed on Mars in February 2021, is the first time resources from another planet have been transformed into something useful for human missions, researchers said. The small box, made by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and MIT, makes enough oxygen to match the output of a small tree on Earth, and can do so during the day and night during multiple Martian seasons. “This is what explorers have been doing from time immemorial,” said Jeffrey Hoffman, a former NASA astronaut who is deputy principal investigator on the MOXIE mission and professor of aerospace engineering at MIT. “Find out what resources are available where you go and learn how to use them.” Artemis I starts scrubbed because engine problem defies quick fix Space agencies, scientists and entrepreneurs are clamoring for people to explore Mars. NASA’s highly anticipated and troubled Artemis mission to the moon is considered a springboard to exploring Mars in the next decade or so. China hopes to have people on Earth by 2033. Elon Musk, the world’s richest person and CEO of SpaceX, hinted to do so by 2029. But getting humans to Mars requires several complicated things to happen, Hoffman said. Astronauts have to endure high levels of cosmic rays during the long journey to the planet. Traveling to and from Mars can take more than 8 months, so there should be plenty of food and medicine for space travelers. Perhaps most important is a reliable supply of oxygen, Hoffman said. Astronauts need to breathe in whatever temporary habitat they have set up on Mars, as well as in spacesuit tanks when exploring the planet. It is also a crucial propellant to fuel the rocket they need to return to Earth from Mars. Space agencies could send enough oxygen to Mars for astronauts to breathe and make the return journey home, Hoffman said, but this would be very expensive, as it would require multiple rocket launches. Making the oxygen on Mars from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would be cheaper, he said. Mars’ atmosphere is made up of about 96 percent carbon dioxide. To test their ability to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen, NASA took a small, gold box on its Perseverance Rover mission last year. Since April 2021, MOXIE has conducted several tests where it produced oxygen at different times of the Martian day and during different seasonal conditions. During each experiment, the box created about 6 grams of oxygen per hour, equivalent to the output of a modest tree on Earth. (In the most recent test, to be published in a future paper, Hoffman said the machine’s output increased to 10 grams per hour.) Once the technology is mastered, scientists would have to scale the size of the machine significantly and allow it to run continuously. To support a human mission to Mars and get humans back, Hoffman said, at least 4.5 to 6.5 pounds of oxygen per hour would need to be created during a multi-year mission. “That would have to be scaled up several hundred times,” he said. NASA’s Mars Rover, Perseverance, Aims for a Dangerous Landing to Search for Ancient Life The machine can run during most parts of the Martian day, except for a few specific times. “The only thing we haven’t shown is running at dawn or dusk, when the temperature [on Mars] changes significantly,” said Michael Hecht, principal investigator of the MOXIE mission at MIT’s Haystack Observatory. “We have an asset in store that allows us to do that, and once we test that in the lab, we can hit that final milestone to show that we can really run any moment.” Engineers plan to push the MOXIE device to its limits, increasing its oxygen production capacity and making it work during the Martian spring, when the planet’s atmosphere is dense and carbon dioxide levels are high. “We set everything as high as we dare, and let it run for as long as possible,” Hecht said. NASA Sets Up Saturday For Its Next Artemis Launch Attempt Engineers will check the machine for wear and tear and see if it can withstand enough stress to suggest converting it into a full system that can run for thousands of hours of continuous operation. If so, the effects could be significant. “To support a human mission to Mars, we need to take a lot of stuff from Earth,” Hoffman said. “But stupid old oxygen? If you can make it, go for it – you’re way ahead of the game.”
The European Space Agency’s Euclid space mission has revealed its first full-color images of the cosmos. Over the next six years Euclid will observe the shapes, distances and motions of billions of galaxies out to 10 billion light-years, creating the largest cosmic 3D map ever made. Euclid can create a remarkably sharp visible and infrared image across a huge part of the sky in just one sitting. It aims to investigate how dark matter and dark energy have made our Universe look like it does today. While 95% of our cosmos seems to be made of these mysterious ‘dark’ entities, their presence causes only very subtle changes in the appearance and motions of the things we can see.
Vowels in English! Though we may not think of them beyond their role in spelling out a word, the 26 letters of the English alphabet are symbols representing speech sounds. Letters help to tell the reader how a word is articulated. Speech sounds are broken into two different types, vowels and consonants. Whether a sound is a vowel or a consonant depends on how it is articulated. As humans speak, air flows through the vocal cords and is manipulated to pronounce the sounds of each word. Sounds can be altered within the vocal cord itself, as well as in the mouth with the use of the tongue, lips, and teeth. Speech sounds without any blockage of airflow are considered vowels, while all other are consonants. What Is A Vowel? Discussing letters in relation to airflow may seem odd, but it’s actually a straightforward way to understand a much more complex concept in linguistics. When we speak, we are pronouncing speech sounds represented by each letter. Air flows through our vocal cords and is constricted as we articulate. If a speech sound is pronounced without any blockage of the vocal cords, it is considered a vowel. The five standard vowels are A, E, I, O, and U. These are always vowel sounds regardless of the word. When articulated, the way in which the air flows through the vocal cords is open, without any blockage. This open airflow is what differentiates vowels from consonants. Take an example: The letter Y can function as a vowel or a consonant depending on the word it’s in. Try saying the words “may,” “silly,” and “cry” out loud. You will notice that the speech sounds represented by the letter Y are fully open. There is no blockage of the vocal cords. In these words, Y is a vowel. Now try saying the words “yard” and “canyon.” In these cases, the letter Y represents a sound that requires subtle manipulation of the mouth to partly block airflow, therefore Y is a consonant. In general, most uses of the letter Y are vowels. When Y is a consonant, it is typically at the beginning of a word or syllable. Vowels Versus Consonants Unlike vowels, consonants involve blockage or constriction of airflow when they are articulated. This can be partial blockage or complete closure of the vocal cords. As with the examples where Y is a consonant, all letters that are consonants can be easily determined by saying them out loud. This will make it clear what speech sound involves blockage of airflow. Take, for example, the letter M. In order to articulate the speech sound represented by M, air flows through the vocal cords and is then blocked completely by the lips. If you’re ever unsure whether a letter is a vowel or a consonant, saying it out loud will help. You may notice that there are far more vowel sounds than represented by A, E, I, O, U, and Y. As with consonants, individual vowels can only do so much on their own. Vowels can make different pitches, lengths, and tones. Rather than create additional letters for each speech sound, which would result in an alphabet much larger than our own, the English language has vowel digraphs and vowel teams that combine to form new speech sounds. With vowels, this often occurs with pairs of the same letter, like in the words “book,” and “smooth.” We learn through school and practice that these are articulated as one long vowel sound rather than two individual O sounds. The same goes for different vowels paired together. In the word “cause,” for example, the letters A and U blend to form a new speech sound different from the sounds of the two individual letters. New vowel sounds can even be created with more than two letters, as in the word “beauty.” As with the vowel pairs, the trio of EAU in “beauty” forms a completely new vowel sound. What Are Vowels For? Why We have Vowels With all of the clear distinctions between vowels and consonants, you might wonder what vowels are actually used for. Why do we bother making the distinction? The main reason that vowels exist is to help break words down into syllables. Syllables are smaller units of pronunciation that divide a word and help with articulation and spelling. As a rule, all syllables have one vowel sound. In most cases, this means all syllables have to have a vowel. Dividing words into syllables is an important tool in learning to read, write, and pronounce words. Vowels are necessary to achieve this. While all syllables are required to have a vowel sound, there are some special cases where no vowel itself is present. This can happen in words that do not have any vowels at all. There are a few abbreviations that are now considered words, like “Dr.” and “TV,” which only consist of consonants. Similarly, many onomatopoeia words, which spell out the sounds they represent, do not have any vowels. Examples of these include “hmm,” “shh,” “psst,” and “pfft.” In addition to words that do not have any vowels, there are some special cases in which a consonant becomes a vowel. Most people know that Y can be a vowel or a consonant. It may be more surprising to hear that the letter W can also switch over from consonant to vowel. When letters jump the boundaries between consonant and vowel, they are called semivowels or glides. These are speech sounds that have characteristics of vowels and consonants. The letter W functions this way when it is at the beginning of a word followed by a vowel, like in “would,” “walk,” and “wow.” This speech sound was actually once a different symbol altogether called a wynn and it’s part of the reason why the letter W is pronounced as “double U,” and not “double V.” In Welsh, the letter W is commonly used as a vowel. There are also a few Welsh words that are used in the English language. These are the words “cwm” and “crwth,” in which the W speech sounds like OO. Cwm is the name of a rounded landform also called a corrie or cirque. A crwth is a Celtic instrument like a violin. These are special situations in which consonants become vowels. It may seem complicated to know when a letter is a vowel or a consonant, but the easiest test is to try saying a word out loud. You’ll find that vowels and consonants are not as complex as they may seem. The more you know about the English language, the more you’ll realize how it was designed to help us read, write, and speak with fluency.
Let's Make Pinwheels! Hosted by: UT Austin Society of Women Engineers Visit our Booth: Saturday, March 6, 2021, 12 p.m. - 4 p.m. Recommended Grades: K, 1st, 2nd - Wooden Pencil with an Eraser - A square piece of paper - used colored paper or color/decorate the paper for a decorative pinwheel Find step-by-step instructions and images at Pinwheel Instructions or see the steps copied below from Aunt Annie's Crafts below or visit TeachEngineering for lessons, templates, worksheets, videos and more: Step 1: Project Preparation Gather the materials needed for making a pinwheel. If you are doing this project with a group of children, pre-cut the 6" (15 cm) paper squares. Step 2: Cut Square Cut a 6" (15 cm) square of paper. Step 3: Cut Use the pencil and ruler to draw two diagonal lines, corner-to-corner, that cross at the square's center. Mark the center point and mark a point 2¾" (7 cm) from each corner on the diagonal line. Cut on the diagonal line from each corner up to the marked point. Erase pencil marks, except for the center point. Step 4: Assemble - Using the straight pin, punch a hole in the center and at every other point (about ¼" from the tip.) - Poke the pin through one of the point holes and curl the point toward the center. Don't fold! - Curl each pierced point, in turn, toward the center and poke the pin through the holes. - Push the pin through the center hole of the pinwheel. - Holding the pencil on a flat surface with one hand, push the pin into the side of the eraser. Step 5: Finish You now have a pinwheel! Hold the pinwheel in your hand and swish it around. The pinwheel should rotate on the pin. Take the pinwheel outside on a breezy day and see it whirl like crazy! Tip: If your pinwheel doesn't rotate freely, it is probably rubbing against the pencil. You can fix this problem by inserting the pin into the eraser at a slight upward angle, or by slipping a small bead onto the pin before inserting it into the eraser. That's it! Your pinwheel is done! Take a picture or video of your pinwheel and share it on Flipgrid. Learn more about pinwheels, Wonderful Wind Turbines, and inspiring female engineers below: Check out this video connecting the pinwheels you have made with wind turbines and wind energy. Engineers use their understanding of natural forces to obtain energy from renewable resources such as the sun, wind, rivers and organic matter. For example, regions with forceful and steady wind are suitable for wind farms. Engineers design wind turbines to produce electricity from the force of the wind. Turbines look like pinwheels with angled blades connected to a gear box, which is connected to a generator. Engineers collect and analyze wind data to continually improve turbine technology and wind farm design. Explore more about Wind Turbines, find pinwheel worksheets and more at https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_earth_lesson04_activity2. At the core of UT SWE is our mission to build a community that empowers women engineering students. With our membership of students spanning all engineering disciplines, we hope that each member can find in SWE a community of friends, a professional network, and a wealth of resources to help them achieve their full potentials as engineers and leaders. The university experience should not be confined to the classroom. As our incredibly strong team shows, what makes SWE special is the number of opportunities it provides for students to develop their skills and contribute to the organization, fostering a positive and inclusive environment. SWE provides collegiate members valuable access to a unique set of resources that sets the stage for a successful career and the opportunity to inspire future generations and have fun!
A flipped classroom is when what happens in the classroom and what happens at home are basically “flipped.” Students listen to lectures, read lessons, and complete guided practice at home and then come into school ready to practice and review what they have learned with the teacher. Homework becomes the lesson and review becomes the classwork. When students go home after experiencing new content in class, they don’t always completely understand. They may practice the concept incorrectly or be confused by the content while doing homework. With a flipped classroom, the student is able to come into class with questions and concerns about what they learned the previous night. Then, they have an entire period to practice the correct information with the guidance of their teacher. The flipped classroom allows for more one-on-one time with students who really need the extra support. It also provides an opportunity for small group reteaching and individual, informal assessment. Assessments can also be taken at home. Once brought back to class, the work is reviewed so students can learn from mistakes, rather than focusing on a grade. What are the Benefits? With the teacher’s guidance and feedback in class, students practice concepts and new skills. Students who have successfully mastered the previous night’s concept move on to a challenge, question, or project. Students who need more support and review can work with the teacher. This allows for planned differentiated instruction and accelerated learning. Resources for Teachers When using the flipped model, a teacher can either purchase a pre-fab curriculum or can develop their own curriculum using web resources. For example, YouTube provides great videos about any subject. TeacherTube provides content without ads and suggested video links, and is an option for learning directly from other teachers. On TeacherTube, teachers post videos of their lessons and also some great student videos that can help students connect to their learning. Khan Academy and Coursera also provide videos that teach a variety of different concepts to supplement other content. Special thanks to Serena Matarazo, Special Education Teacher, for contributing this post. If you are a teacher or school leader and would like to be a Guest Blogger at Who’s Engaged? email us at [email protected]. Feature Image: Mind Shift
An exciting development for spinal cord injury research was published this week in the journal Nature Medicine. Scientists from the University of San Diego School of Medicine transplanted human neural progenitor cells (NPCs) into rhesus monkeys that had spinal cord injuries. These cells, which are capable of turning into other cells in the brain, survived and robustly developed into nerve cells that improved the monkeys’ use of their hands and arms. The scientists grafted 20 million human NPCs derived from embryonic stem cells into two-week-old spinal cord lesions in the monkeys. These stem cells were delivered with growth factors to improve their survival and growth. The monkeys were also treated with immunosuppressive drugs to prevent their immune system from rejecting the human cells. After nine months, they discovered that the NPCs had developed into nerve cells within the injury site that extended past the injury into healthy tissue. These nerve extensions are called axons, which allow nerves to transmit electrical signals and instructions to other brain cells. During spinal cord injury, nerve cells and their axon extensions are damaged. Scientists have found it difficult to regenerate these damaged cells because of the inhibitory growth environment created at the injury site. You can compare it to the build-up of scar tissue after a heart attack. The heart has difficulty regenerating healthy heart muscle, which is instead replaced by fibrous scar tissue. Excitingly, the UCSD team was able to overcome this hurdle in their current study. When they transplanted human NPCs with growth factors into the monkeys, they found that the cells were not affected by the inhibitory environment of the injury and were able to robustly develop into nerve cells and send out axon extensions. The senior scientist on the study, Dr. Mark Tuszynski, explained how their findings in a large animal model are a huge step forward for the field in a UCSD Health news release: “While there was real progress in research using small animal models, there were also enormous uncertainties that we felt could only be addressed by progressing to models more like humans before we conduct trials with people. We discovered that the grafting methods used with rodents didn’t work in larger, non-human primates. There were critical issues of scale, immunosuppression, timing and other features of methodology that had to be altered or invented. Had we attempted human transplantation without prior large animal testing, there would have been substantial risk of clinical trial failure, not because neural stem cells failed to reach their biological potential but because of things we did not know in terms of grafting and supporting the grafted cells.” Dr. Tuszynski is a CIRM-grantee whose earlier research involved optimizing stem cell treatments for rodent models of spinal cord injury. We’ve blogged about that research previously on the Stem Cellar here and here. Tuszynski recently was awarded a CIRM discovery stage research grant to develop a candidate human neural stem cell line that is optimized to repair the injured spinal cord and can be used in human clinical trials. He expressed cautious optimism about the future of this treatment for spinal cord injury patients emphasizing the need for patience and more research before arriving at clinical trials: “We seem to have overcome some major barriers, including the inhibitory nature of adult myelin against axon growth. Our work has taught us that stem cells will take a long time to mature after transplantation to an injury site, and that patience will be required when moving to humans. Still, the growth we observe from these cells is remarkable — and unlike anything I thought possible even ten years ago. There is clearly significant potential here that we hope will benefit humans with spinal cord injury.”
August 24, 2011 Planets May Be Swapping Life Forms Regularly Computer models of asteroid impact debris from Earth to other planets show 100 times more particles end up on Mars than prior studies have shown. The highest-energy impact simulations show debris being flung into the planetary orbits and eventually finding its way to Jupiter. Two moons of which may be amenable to some forms of Earth-based life, BBC News is reporting.Panspermia is a theory that occupies much of meteoritic research, primarily that the precursors to life, or living organisms themselves, may have been delivered by an impact on the early Earth. Equally, however, Earth impacts may throw up debris that could be loaded with microbes or small, hardy organisms like water bears - which have already demonstrated the ability to survive the harsh conditions of space. Other simulations have tackled the probability that Earth impacts seeded life in the solar system, suggesting that Earth debris could even have made it to Saturn´s moon Titan. Mauricio Reyes-Ruiz and his fellow researchers at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico have posted their study on the collision probabilities of particles ejected from Earth with other nearby planets. In addition to showing that particles ejected from Earth could reach Jupiter, simulations also showed that the number of particles ejected from Earth that collide with Mars is two orders of magnitude greater than previous studies have found, PhysOrg.com reports. The researchers explain that both results have astrobiological significance, especially due to the evidence for life-sustaining environments on early Mars and on Jupiter´s moons Europa and Ganymede. Researchers analyzed 10,242 particles with a minimum ejection velocity of 11.2 km/s (which is required to escape Earth´s orbit). Different impact events throughout Earth´s history have ejected particles with a wide range of velocities, with the maximum determined by the speed of the impactor as it hits Earth. The simulated ejected particles were projected to orbit the solar system for 30,000 years, which is the maximum estimated survival time for biological material in space. Particles ejected from Earth´s leading face along its direction of motion are statistically more likely and have a higher probability of colliding with the planets Mars and Jupiter. Particles ejected from the trailing face are more likely to impact Venus. Overall, researchers noted, the probability of particles ejected from Earth colliding with another planet is very small. Further studies will be needed to investigate the velocity distribution of the ejected particles, along with simulations that use a greater number of ejected particles to estimate collision rates that have greater statistical significance. The ultimate question is whether any ejecta will carry living cargo that can fulfill the panspermia hypothesis, but Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson, an astrophysicist at Pennsylvania State University says that evidence of the hardiness of life has already been found closer to home. “There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth - and we know they´re very hardened to radiation.” On the Net:
We have to understand dynamic binding and static binding before we can discuss inheritance. Dynamic binding is a mechanism where a variable is associated with an object during run-time (when the system is executing). The system gains the capability to dynamically decide which method to use by checking the object type. For instance, consider the Piano and Drum classes that have a play() method. The system is knowledgeable to select the right method by using dynamic binding and polymorphism. This is also known as late binding. In layman’s terms, it is not possible for an individual to determine which method will be executed by looking at the code. This basically appears as method over-riding (same method with different implementations in the sub-classes) in the code. Static binding is a mechanism where a variable is associated with an object at compile-time. The system has the ability to select the right method by checking the declaration of an object. This is also known as early binding. This basically appears as method over-loading (same method name with different arguments) in the code. Therefore, it is possible for an individual to determine which method will be executed at run-time by simply reading the code. Polymorphism is the state of being able to assume different forms. So when you have methods with the same name but with different method signature, you have the compile time polymorphism. Another type of polymorphism is run-time polymorphism. It is a powerful mechanism in which a variable can refer to different objects, which implement the method(s) in their own way. For instance, consider a MusicalInstrument base class that defines an abstract method called play() and subclasses Piano and Drum object. An instance variable called muscialInstrument used in the client code can hold a Piano or Drum object at different times. Regardless of the type of object the variable is associated with at any given time, we can send a play() message. Polymorphism in combination with dynamic binding eliminates type specific code such as the switch statement, if-else etc. This makes maintenance of the code easier and improves the quality of the code. Up-casting refers to assigning an object to a variable declared as a super-type of that object. This is desirable as it allows alternative behavior based on the runtime type of the object. This is preferable to using conditional statements to test the type of the object to determine its behavior, since each new variation that arises will require changes to the logic. If a new variation on an operation is required, a new subtype is created to encapsulate that variation and the existing code does not need to change. So, new subclasses with varying behavior can be added to the inheritance hierarchy. Down-casting refers to assigning an object to a variable declared as a sub-type of that object. Down-casting is simply called as casting. We cast from a base class to a more specific class. It asserts that the variable is a more specific extended object. e.g. Drum d = (Drum) aMusicalInstrument. Polymorphism makes down-casting unnecessary, since the behavior is determined by the object's runtime type, not by the type of the variable that references it. Inheritance should be used only to model a generalization / specialization hierarchy. Inheritance checklist: - Does the relationship model is a special kind of and not is a role played by a ? - The object should never need to transmute to become an object of some other class. - The class should extend rather than override or nullify the behavior of the superclass (Liskov Substitution Principle – the subclass should be substitutable for the superclass). - Do not subclass what is merely a utility class. - If two or more classes share only common data (no common behavior), do not include them in an inheritance hierarchy. Instead, move the common data into a class that will be contained by each sharing class. - If two or more classes share common data and behavior (i.e., methods) then those classes should each inherit from a common base class that captures those data and methods. - If two or more classes share only a common interface (i.e., messages not data) then they should inherit from a common base class only if they will be used polymorphically. Explicit testing of the type of an object is usually a symptom of bad design. The designer should instead exploit polymorphism. Derived classes must have knowledge of their base class by definition, but base classes should not know anything about their derived classes. All abstract classes must be base classes and vice-versa. Factor the commonality of data, behavior and / or interface as high as possible in the inheritance hierarchy. Hers is a list of valid reasons to partition a class into a subclass: - The subclass has additional attributes of interest. - The subclass has additional associations of interest. - The subclass concept is operated on, handled, reacted to, or manipulated differently than the superclass or other subclasses in ways that are of interest. - The subclass concept represents an animate thing (for example, animal, robot) that behaves differently that the super class or other subclasses in ways that are of interest. Inheritance Design Guidelines - If you think you need to create new classes at runtime, take a step back and realize that what you are trying to create are objects. - It should be illegal for a derived class to override a base class method with a no operation method as this violates the Liskov’s Substitution Principle. - Do not confuse optional containment with need for inheritance. Modeling optional containment with inheritance will lead to proliferation of classes. In this article, you learned how to recognize and exploit polymorphism.
michelangelus - Fotolia Port scans, which are used to determine if ports on a network are open to receive packets from other devices, can... be beneficial to security teams to help shore up defenses. But the process can also be used by malicious actors trying to find vulnerable ports to attack. Before digging into what port scan attacks are and how to prevent and defend against them, let's look at what ports and port scanning are. What is a port? A port is a communication endpoint through which units of data, known as packets, flow. Transport layer protocols use port numbers to communicate and exchange packets. The most well-known transport layer protocols are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), a connection-oriented protocol that requires an established connection before sending data, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), a connectionless protocol that does not require a two-way connection be established for communication to begin. Each port used by TCP and UDP is associated with a specific process or service. Port numbers, which range from 0 to 65535, are standardized across network-connected devices. Port 0 is reserved in TCP/IP networking and should not be used in TCP or UDP messages. Ports 1 through 1023 are well-known ports used as defaults for internet protocols, as defined by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Port numbers in the range of 1024 to 29151 are set aside for ports registered with IANA to be associated with specific protocols. Ports in the range of 49152 through 65535 are ephemeral ports that are used as needed to address dynamic connections. Some of the most used ports include the following: - TCP port 80 and UDP port 80 are used for HTTP. - TCP port 443 and UDP port 443 are used for HTTPS. - TCP port 465 is used for mail servers, such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. What is port scanning and what is it used for? A port scan is a series of messages sent by someone to learn which computer network services a given computer provides. Port scanners are applications that identify which ports and services are open or closed on an internet-connected device. A port scanner can send a connection request to the target computer on all 65,536 ports and record which ports respond and how. The types of responses received from the ports indicate whether they are in use or not. Corporate firewalls can reply to a port scan in three ways: - Open. If a port is open, or listening, it will respond to the request. - Closed. A closed port will respond with a message indicating that it received the open request but denied it. This way, when a genuine system sends an open request, it knows the request was received, but there's no need to keep retrying. However, this response also reveals the existence of a computer behind the IP address scanned. - No response. Also known as filtered or dropped, this involves neither acknowledging the request nor sending a reply. No response indicates to the port scanner that a firewall likely filtered the request packet, that the port is blocked or that there is no port there. For example, if a port is blocked or in stealth mode, a firewall will not respond to the port scanner. Interestingly, blocked ports violate TCP/IP rules of conduct, and therefore, a firewall has to suppress the computer's closed port replies. Security teams may even find that the corporate firewall has not blocked all the network ports. For example, if port 113, used by Identification Protocol, is completely blocked, connections to some remote internet servers, such as Internet Relay Chat, may be delayed or denied altogether. For this reason, many firewall rules set port 113 to closed instead of blocking it completely. The general objective of a port scan is to map out a system's OS and the applications and services it runs in order to understand how it is protected and what vulnerabilities may be present and exploitable. Types of port scans Because TCP and UDP are the most used transport layer protocols, they are often used in port scanning. By design, TCP sends an acknowledgement (ACK) packet to let a sender know if a packet has been received. If information is not received, is rejected or is received in error, a negative ACK, or NACK, packet is sent. UDP, on the other hand, does not send an ACK when a packet is received; it only responds with an "ICMP [Internet Control Message Protocol] port unreachable" message if information is not received. As such, several types of port scanning techniques exist, including the following: - A ping scan, or sweep scan, scans the same port on several computers to see if they are active. This involves sending out an ICMP echo request to see which computers respond. - A TCP SYN scan, or TCP half-open scan, is one of the most common types of port scans. It involves sending TCP synchronize (SYN) packets to initiate communication but does not complete the connection. - A TCP connect, also known as a vanilla scan, is like a TCP SYN scan in that it sends TCP SYN packets to initiate communication, but this scan completes the connection by sending an ACK. - A strobe scan is an attempt to connect only to selected ports, usually fewer than 20. - A UDP scan looks for open UDP ports. - In an FTP bounce scan, an FTP server is used to scan other hosts. Scanning attempts directed through an FTP server disguise the port scanner's source address. - In a fragmented scan, the TCP header is split up over several packets to prevent detection by a firewall. - Stealth scans involve several techniques for scanning an attempt to prevent the request for connection from being logged. What is a port scan attack? Port scanning does not necessarily indicate an attack. It's important to know why the port scan information is being collected and what it is being used for. Port scanning is one of the most popular information-gathering methods used by malicious actors. Part of the reconnaissance process, an attacker can use the data collected by a port scan to find out what services a device is running and to get an idea of the OS being used. This data can then be used to flag vulnerable systems with the intention of exploiting them to gain access to the network. On the other hand, security teams and penetration testers can use port scan data to identify vulnerabilities, new devices on a network that may need attention, potential misconfigurations and other holes in security coverage to shore up defenses. When a router reports multiple periodic occurrences of probing by brute force, the router is recording port requests from a port scanner. This may or may not be malicious because most internet-facing systems get scanned every day. The practice of port scanning is as old as the internet. While protocols have changed over time and security tools and systems have evolved over the years, port scan alerts must still be detected and attended to, especially when it is not the security team scanning its own systems. How to detect a port scan attack A port scan attack must be detected before it can be stopped. When properly installed and configured, modern security appliances are quite effective at detecting port scans by keeping track of attempts to access systems in the local network. Most security appliances can link ongoing repeated scan attempts from the same source whether they target a single host or multiple hosts. To be effective, port scan attacks may need to probe many different ports on many different systems over a relatively short time period, which makes the attempts easier to detect. To counter this, some attackers may find it preferable to probe for open ports over a much longer time frame, in which case it becomes more difficult to detect a port scan attack. The downside for the attacker, however, is that it may take hours, days or longer to find a vulnerable system. How to prevent and block port scans in the network It is impossible to prevent the act of port scanning; anyone can select an IP address and scan it for open ports. To properly protect an enterprise network, security teams should find out what attackers would discover during a port scan of their network by running their own scan. Be aware, however, that security assessments and pen tests against many cloud hosting services, such as AWS, need approval prior to scanning. Once security admins find out which ports respond as being open, they can review whether these ports need to be accessible from outside the corporate network. If not, security admins should shut them down or block them. If the open ports are deemed necessary, admins should begin to research what vulnerabilities and exploits the network is open to and apply the appropriate patches to protect the network. Some types of firewalls use adaptive behavior, which means they will block previously open and closed ports automatically if a suspect IP address is probing them. Firewalls also can be configured to alert administrators if they detect connection requests across a broad range of ports from a single host. Hackers can get around this protection by conducting a port scan in strobe or stealth mode, however. Firewalls and intrusion detections systems should always be configured to spot and block unusual connection attempts and requests. For example, after a port scan has been completed, attackers may launch a few probing attacks to validate earlier research or to gain additional information needed to finesse their main attack. Feeding abnormal activity into a SIEM system can provide real-time feedback and improve automated responses to events. Port scanning tools A variety of tools can be used to perform a port scan, including the following: - Advanced Port Scanner - Angry IP Scanner - SolarWinds Port Scanner Dig Deeper on Threat detection and response Related Q&A from Michael Cobb Shellcode is a set of instructions that executes a command in software to take control of or exploit a compromised machine. Read up on the malware ... Continue Reading As bitcoin use increases, so too have the number of cyber attacks on cryptocurrency exchanges and wallets. Learn how to keep bitcoin use secure. Continue Reading Pirated software is still a major concern nowadays. Uncover how to prevent software piracy and protect your organization's intellectual property. Continue Reading
Lesson Plan: The lesson plan includes all the lessons for the week, as well as optional ideas. Items following the lesson plan are just the printables or links to websites we used to teach these plans. (Please note: On top of our lesson plan we are reading books daily that relate to our theme.) Memory Verse: This memory card is for daily use during our calendar time. You can learn more about calendar time at 1+1+1=1 or Homeschool Creations. Our weekly devotional is an object lesson that will help your child apply the meaning of the verse to them. A is for Apples- Teaches your child how letters are linked to sounds to form letter-sound correspondence. Roll & Color: Apple Tree– This activity will help your child begin to read and count whole numbers 1-10. Apple Letter Match- Have your child match the capital letter to the lowercase letter to reinforce letter recognition. Count & Match: Apples– This activity will help your child begin to read, count and model whole numbers 1-10. Build a Letter A- Teaches your child how letters are constructed by building them in a fun way. All you need to do is download this printable created by Tired Need Sleep to create your own. We downloaded the template and cut our pieces out of foam sheets so we could use them again. We’d love to include an image, but it won’t load for us! Measure the Apple Trees– This activity will help your child gain experience in measurement by using a non-standard measuring tool. \|Questions? Post questions or comments on our Facebook Page. You may have the same question as someone else. If you don’t have a Facebook account, feel free to email us.\|
Learning difficulties prevent an individual from accessing the normal school curriculum and prevent him/her from achieving at his/her potential. They are often evident in language problems - a child may struggle with listening, speaking, reading or writing, or a combination of these language skills. There may be fine motor or gross motor problems which will impact on a child's learning - e.g. fine motor skills will make writing, drawing, painting, cutting out, colouring in, woodwork and metalwork difficult in a school environment. Gross motor issues will impact on a student's ability to participate successfully in PE and sporting activities. Cognitive difficulties may be evident in the student who is unable to process information in a timely manner in a classroom situation. This delay in processing will make it hard for the student to keep up with classroom activities, follow instructions competently, absorb new content and therefore learn the content and be able to recall it. Students may also be unable to concentrate and sustain focus for long periods of time. This inattention means they are missing huge chunks of learning time and they are underachieving. Poor organisational skills are another manifestation of learning difficulties. Students who have no systems for recording and storing their work, for tracking timetables for each school day and for due dates for assignments and assessments will typically achieve poorer results than they are capable of. It is important to be aware that learning difficulties are not aligned to IQ/intelligence levels - children (and adults) with all levels of intelligence, including those in the Gifted and Talented range, can have difficulties with their learning.
Writing a newspaper article is unlike writing other informative articles because a news article delivers content in a particular way. It’s essential to present information within a limited word count and to do so in a way that answers the five “W’s”: Who, What, Where, When, and Why. This article will show you how to write a newspaper article for any school level. Learning this important skill may pave the way for a career in journalism, so we’re going to address several questions we get from students who are looking to learn how to write a good newspaper article that presents information clearly and concisely. Six Parts of a Newspaper Article Before we jump into how to write a newspaper article it’s important to identify the 6 parts that make up the article. Following this newspaper article format ensures that you incorporate all of the necessary components that make for a great article: - Headline – This succinctly tells the reader exactly what the news story is about in a single phrase or sentence (e.g., Cavs Expected to Land #1 Pick). - Sub-Title – This supports the headline by expanding on the subject in one or two sentences (e.g., The Cleveland Cavaliers are looking to trade up with Golden State Warriors to pick #1 in next year’s draft). - Byline – This line tells the reader who wrote the story and may provide some background information (e.g., John Smith – 20+ Years of Covering Cleveland Sports). - Lead – The opening paragraph should tell all of the most important facts, addressing the who, what, where, when, and why). - Body – This constitutes the majority of the article, containing more information on a piece of news. - Quotes – These important because they provide direct sources for information from eyewitness, experts, and other people relevant to the news story. How to Write a Newspaper Article for School Students of all levels want that need to learn how do you write a newspaper article find this simple 3-step process to be the most helpful. You can apply this to any type of article with just a few adjustments. Read this process carefully before starting on your assignment to ensure you understand it. This will prevent you from making mistakes and having to start over. - Planning Your News Article - Research your topic as much as possible before you get started. For your persuasive article to be viewed as credible, you must know your topic inside and out. Start by answering the 5 W’s we mentioned earlier. It’s advised you have a dedicated notebook or note cards to gather all of the related facts about the story. - Next, you need to organize your facts. A great way of doing so is to break up your facts into three categories: 1) facts that must be included, 2) facts that are interesting but not essential, and 3) facts that are related but are not important to the main purpose. You want to be as detailed as possible when listing your facts. You can always cut out excess information when you start writing, reviewing, and editing the article. - Create an outline to guide your writing. Many students want to learn how to write a newspaper article example so that they have a template they can keep referring to as they write more pieces. This is a great idea but it is much easier to find a few stories of similar style and length and then to build a good outline following the professionals. - Writing Your News Article - There are six parts to any news article which we have already mentioned. Leave the header, sub-header, and byline until the end. Start with the lead. This is the opening paragraph that provides all of the important details the reader must know to understand the rest of the article. - After listing all of the most important factual information in the opening paragraph, follow up with additional content in the article’s body. There is no set amount of sentences or the number of paragraphs for the article. This will be determined by the specified word count which will vary from assignment to assignment. Try to keep your paragraphs short for improved readability. - Finally, conclude your article with a strong sticking point that rewards the reader for sticking with you to the end. You can close by restating the opening statement or by giving some idea about anticipated future developments. You can also give the reader information for a call to action (e.g., a phone number or an address) he or she may be interested in knowing about. - Proofing Your News Article - The reviewing, editing, and proofreading exercises for a newspaper article are the same as for any other writing assignment. Try doing each of these exercises separately, giving yourself plenty of time in between to ensure that you always approach the writing with renewed vigor and a fresh perspective. If you use a newspaper article generator, make sure you double-check grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Even the most sophisticated electronic programs can make some costly mistakes that could keep your piece from being published. How to Write a Newspaper Article about an Event Many students get started learning how to write a newspaper article based on an event. This could be something planned for the school or the community. Students can report on the event before it occurs or can report on the event after it takes place. In both cases, the above 3-step process can be used to cover all the important details that a reader would like to know about. Time-management is very important since the event in question will occur at a specific date and time, so students must be fully prepared. How to Make a Newspaper Article in a Short Timeline What we mean by a short timeline is having to write a news story within a couple of days. This is the situation most journalists find themselves in. They are often given a story to research and report on and are required to submit a polished article to be published online or in print while the story is still fresh. You can follow the same 3-step process discussed above which should come naturally with plenty of dedicated practice. How to Write a News Article Overnight If you need to learn how to write an article for a newspaper overnight (which is common situation journalists face when there is breaking news), you follow the same steps we’ve covered above but cut some corners to get the article to the publisher early in the morning. Generally, you can combine the reviewing, editing, and proofreading exercises or you can minimize the time you spend in between each of these to just a few minutes. How to Get a Newspaper to Write an Article about You The fastest and easiest way to get a newspaper to write a story about you is to be involved in an important event or a situation that generates plenty of interest locally or nationally. Several local newspapers do human interest stories as well. You simply need to have a good story to tell. Perhaps you can discuss your involvement with the community or you can explain a unique story that inspires others. Most of the time newspapers will come to you, but you can also submit your ideas for an interview. If you need more assistance on writing a persuasive news article or any other type of writing, our academic experts are ready to help. We can show you how to write a newspaper article template or an outline. We can review, edit, and write an article on any piece of news you have. Just email, call or chat with one of our friendly customer support staff members and he or she will connect you with a writing expert.
Spanish Influence in the New World When the Spaniards came to settle the New World, or what is now Mexico and Peru, they imposed many new ways and customs for the people living there. These institutions were partially what the Spaniards were used to from living in , and others were simply to live better. The Spaniards imposed many political, economical, and social institutions in the New World never heard of before by the Indians, and many feudal customs and systems that they brought wholly intact from Spain. The political institutions were very important for government functionality in the Spanish colonies. First, a class system similar to that in Spain was reconstructed anew in the colonies. Those in the New World that were born in Spain held the highest position. These people were called Peninsulares, and were the nobles of the feudal class hierarchy. Below them were the Creoles, or Spaniards born in the New World. Then came mestizoes, men and women of mixed Spanish and Indian marriages; mulattoes, people of black and Spanish ancestry; and zambos, those born from black and Indian marriages. Viceroys were another political establishment in the New World. The viceroys were the king's assistants. They helped manage the government in the colonies, and carried out orders from the king. This method did not work too well since orders from the king took months and even years before reaching the viceroys, after which a message may be outdated and irrelevant. New social institutions changed the way people lived. The Church was the first and most important social institution because Spanish life in the colonies revolved around Catholicism. The Church's goal was to convert everyone presently living in the New World to Christianity. This topic brings us to the Missions. Missions were large estates on which were set up schools and other facilities to teach the Indians to become proper Christians. encomiendas and repartimientos were also large estates, but on these lived many people and slaves. The Spanish crown entrusted encomiendas and slaves to noble warriors who had done well in battle, and in return, these nobles paid taxes to the crown. Many other people lived on the same encomienda, however, since the noble owning the whole plot of land would divide it up into smaller parts, which other people managed. The rest of the people living on the encomiendas were slaves. Slavery and forced labor were imposed on the Indians as soon as the Spaniards arrived, but black Africans were immediately imported when the Spaniards saw that the Indians could not do very much work at all. Many institutions were also implemented for the upkeep of the . Slavery, as mentioned above, was the key to mass output from the encomiendas and missions. Many workers could accomplish a great deal and produce a lot of money. Furthermore, the larger the encomienda or mission, the more its output. If the soil on a mission or encomienda is fertile, much can be grown and sold for more money. Many new institutions were developed and implemented by the Spaniards settling the New World. Without proper economic, social, and political establishments enforced, the Spaniards would not have been able to settle the New World as quickly and as aggressively as they did. Only with proper control and strict institutions did Spain conquer and create the great nation it is today.
Spectrometry Spectrometry can be defined as: The study of molecular or atomic structure of a substance by observation of its interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Two ways of studying this: Quantitatively: For determining the amount of material in a sample. Qualitatively : For identifying the chemical structure of a sample. The Electromagnetic Spectrum The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. The difference between these sources of radiation is the amount of energy they radiate. radiation is transmitted in waveform Long wavelength: low radiation energy. Short wavelength: high radiation energy Wavelength: time or distance to complete one cycle of wave form Frequency: number of cycles in a given time Laws of Specphotometry There are two very important basic laws and a third one which is a combination of the two. - LAMBERTS LAW - ABSORBANCE (A) proportional to the PATHLENGTH (l) of the absorbing medium. - BEERS LAW - -ABSORBANCE (A) proportional to the CONCENTRATION (c) of the sample. - BEER- LAMBERT LAW - ABSORBANCE (A) proportional to c x l Molar extinction coefficient should be for pure samples and with known molecular weights. If an E value has been calculated for a sample then the % purity of the sample can be calculated as follows: E sample / E standard x100 There are instances when either the MW or a pure sample is not available and there are no literature E values. In these cases solutions are prepared at a concentration of 1% and absorbance measured in a 1cm pathlength cuvette to determine. - Use of glass or plastic cuvettes for Visible Use of quartz or special plastic cuvettes for UV measurements - Glass cuvettes absorb UV radiation but not visible radiation whilst quartz cuvettes do not absorb any radiation at all UV or Visible spectra can both be obtained form the same instrument There are two basic designs the DISPERSION system and the more modern DIODE ARRAY system. This design permits ALL wavelengths of light from source to pass sample in cuvette before reaching the diffraction grating and more sensitive. - WHAT IS COLOUR? Colour is a sensation which occurs when light enters the eye and focuses on the retina at the back of the eye. - CONES - Give colour and three types which pick up red, blue and green RODS - Give grey/black and also used for night vision. Sunlight is white light and covers a wavelength range of 380-750nm - If the material completely REFLECTS all light it appears WHITE - If the material completely ABSORBS all light it appears BLACK - If the material absorbs a constant fraction of the light across the spectrum it appears GREY. Why Are Dye Molecules Coloured? Why Are Dye Molecules Coloured? Starting with ethanol, this is colourless because it only absorbs UV radiation. The parts of a molecule which contain absorption features are called Chromophores and if a sufficient number are present then the molecule will be coloured. Increasing the number of chromphores means that the compound will absorb light at a longer wavelength and will therefore increase its v max value. Auxochromes play major role in dye chemistry as apart from changing the intensity depth of a colour they can have a profound influence on solubility and hence its ability to dye an object. forensic application : fluorescence-Fingerprints with use of dfo for maximum contrast on paper types uv-visible -One of the current techniques for the analysis of ink samples is microspectrophotometry calculations for this topic: - beer lambert law
VRML Script Tutorial VRML Interactive Tutorial Hierarchical Node Structures Defining and Instancing Nodes Defining Levels of Detail Events in VRML The sky is defined as a infinitely large sphere placed around your world. You can define a constant color for it, or have gradient effects. The sky color is defined by two fields: skyColor and skyAngle. If you want a single color sky, like the figure on the left above, then you specify a skyColor as the RGB of the desired color, don't specify the skyAngle. The skyAngle is only used when a gradient effect, like the image on the right above, is intended. If you want a gradient effect then you specify the color for the upper pole of the sphere as the first color in the field skyColor. Next you specify at which angle you want a new color (the angle is measured from the upper pole) in the skyAngle. The second color in the skyColor field specifies this last color. The browser should create a gradient between the first and second colors, starting at the upper pole and ending at the angle specified in the skyAngle field. You can specify any number of colors and angles, the number of angles should be the number of colors minus 1. The first color always corresponds to the upper pole. For instance the following combinations were used to create the above images: \|0 (upper pole)\|\|0 0 1\| \|0 (upper Pole)\|\|0 0 1\| \|1.2\|\|0 0 0.6\| \|1.57\|\|1 0 0\| On the left image only one color was specified. In this case no angles are specified because the first color is always the upper pole color. The Sky is all blue. On the right image from 1.57, roughly 90 degrees, to the lower pole the color used is the last color specified, i.e. red. Similarly to the sky, the ground is also an infinitely large sphere. The ground sphere is placed inside the sky sphere. The only difference between these two spheres is that in the ground sphere if you do not specify a color, you can see through it, i.e. you can see the sky sphere. Usually, for the ground sphere colors are only provided for the bottom hemisphere. The following images provides a ground combined with a sky. The ground color and angles used were: \|3.14 (lower pole)\|\|0.5 0.5 0\| \|1.57\|\|0.5 0.5 0\| From 1.57 radians to the upper pole the ground is transparent because no color was specified, therefore allowing you to see the sky sphere. Note that you must specify at least two colors for the ground, otherwise there will be no ground. If you want a ground with a constant color just specify twice the same color. Specifying only one color doesn't provide you with a background. You can place images on the sides, top and bottom of a conceptually infinitely large box placed inside the ground sphere. Since the box is placed inside the sky and ground spheres, in order to see through these you should use images with transparent parts. The source code that follows was used to produce the background for the above image The image used for the sides of the box is The border presented in the image is only to give you the notion of the image size, it is not part of the image. Black is the transparent color of this image. Looking at the image one can see that the mountains start only at half of the image, they don't start from the bottom of the image. This is because the desired effect was to have the mountains starting when the ground was over and the sky started. Lighthouse 3D privacy statement
What’s the News: Most poisonous snakes don’t inject their prey with venom; instead, they bite the prey and venom insidiously trickles down a groove on their fangs into the wound. A new study in Physical Review Letters investigated the physics behind how venom travels down the grooves: It turns out that snake venom has unusual viscosity properties that keep it cohering together until it’s time to flow down the fangs and into the snake’s soon-to-be-snack—the same properties that account for how ketchup seems stuck in the bottle, then flows freely onto your fries. How the Heck: - The researchers found that snake venom, like ketchup, is a non-Newtonian fluid, meaning that its viscosity depends on how fast it’s moving. Before the snake’s fangs make contact, the venom sticks together pretty well, rather than coming down the tooth in a constant trickle. Once the fangs sink in, however, and the venom starts dripping down the groove, it flows freely. - What starts the venom flowing, the study suggests, is that when a snake bites down on its prey, the groove forms a tube that produces suction, helping to pull the venom into the wound. - In addition, snake venom has high surface tension, which helps it stay in the groove as it flows down the snake’s fang. What’s the Context: - This venom-delivery strategy is common among not only snakes but other reptiles, too; it’s even seen in a venomous Caribbean mammal, the solenodon. - Most, but not all, venemous snakes use the viscous-venom approach, but some species, including rattlesnakes, actively inject their prey with venom through hollow fangs rather than dripping venom slide down an external groove. Reference: Bruce A. Young, Florian Herzog, Paul Friedel, Sebastian Rammensee, Andreas Bausch, and J. Leo van Hemmen. “Tears of Venom: Hydrodynamics of Reptilian Envenomation.” Physical Review Letters, May 13, 2011. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.198103 Image: Venom grooves in the fangs of a banded snake (a) and a mangrove snake (b); courtesy J. Leo van Hemmen
The two conditions needed to satisfy the work being done are (i) A force should act on an object, and (ii) The object must be displaced. If any one of the above conditions does not exist, work is not done. This is the way work is viewed in science. Work Let a constant force, F act on an object. Let the object be displaced through a distance, s in the direction of force. Let W be the work done. We define work to be equal to the product of the force and displacement. Work done = Force × Displacement W = F s = mg × s Thus, work done by a force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of force multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the force. Work has only magnitude and no direction. If F = 1 N and s = 1 m then the work done by the force will be 1 N m. Here the unit of work is newton metre (N m) or joule (J). Thus, 1 J is the amount of work done by an object when a force of 1 N displaces it by 1 m along the line of action of the force. The work done by force can either be positive or negative. When the angle between two directions is 1800, the work done by the F is taken as negative and denoted by minus sign. The work done by force is F × (-s) or (-F × s) Energy An object having a capability to do work is said to possess energy. An object that possesses energy can exert a force on another object. An object that possesses energy can do work. 1 J is the energy required to do 1 J work. Kinetic Energy - Objects in motion possess energy. This energy is called kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object increases its speed. Ek = 1/2 mv2 is the work done of an object when the initial velocity, u is 0. Or Ek = 1/2 m (v2-u2) Potential Energy - The potential energy possessed by the object is the energy present in it by virtue of its position or configuration....
accent(redirected from accents) Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Legal. accent,in speech, emphasis given a particular sound, called prosodic systems in linguistics. There are three basic accentual methods: stress, tone, and length. In English each word has at least one primary stressed syllable, as in weath`er; words of several syllables may also have secondary stress as in el`e-va'tor. In English, vowels in unaccented syllables are often pronounced as ə regardless of the orthographic letter. Thus, the vowels of the second syllables in cir`cus, na`tion, ther`mos, eas`ily, saun`a, and sor`rel are all pronounced the same. Sentence stress, known as intonation or contour, includes three basic patterns: the statement, It's a dog, where the pitchpitch, in music, the position of a tone in the musical scale, today designated by a letter name and determined by the frequency of vibration of the source of the tone. Pitch is an attribute of every musical tone; the fundamental, or first harmonic, of any tone is perceived as ..... Click the link for more information. pattern is level-high-low; the yes/no question, Is it a dog? where the pattern is level-high pitch; and the command, Catch him! which begins high and ends low. Both word stress and sentence stress occur in English. However, emphasis of certain words within a sentence is optional. Tonal languages, such as Chinese and Swedish, have a system of high:low and/or rising:falling tones. Duration or length of sounds (quantity) is used in some languages to create systematic differences. No language uses all three types of accentual systems. In writing, accent is also used to show syllable stress as in Spanish María (acute accent) and Italian pietà (grave accent). Such written symbols, misleadingly termed accents, are often used only to signal specific pronunciation rather than stress, as in French élève. The word accent in English is also understood to mean the pronunciation and speech patterns that are typical of a speech community; it also denotes the particular manner of uttered expression that lends a special shade of meaning, as when one speaks in harsh or gentle accents. See also ablautablaut [Ger.,=off-sound], in inflection, vowel variation (as in English sing, sang, sung, song) caused by former differences in syllabic accent. In a prehistoric period the corresponding inflected forms of the language (known through internal reconstruction) had ..... Click the link for more information. and phoneticsphonetics , study of the sounds of languages from three basic points of view. Phonetics studies speech sounds according to their production in the vocal organs (articulatory phonetics), their physical properties (acoustic phonetics), or their effect on the ear (auditory ..... Click the link for more information. . a. stress placed on certain notes in a piece of music, indicated by a symbol printed over the note concerned b. the rhythmic pulse of a piece or passage, usually represented as the stress on the first beat of each bar 2. Maths either of two superscript symbols indicating a specific unit, such as feet (ʹ), inches (ʺ), minutes of arc (ʹ), or seconds of arc (ʺ) A very high level interpreted language from CaseWare, Inc. with strings and tables. It is strongly typed and has remote function calls.
If you have ever studied American history, you are sure to have heard about the flintlock. The flintlock mechanism was the first reliable and relatively inexpensive system for firing a gun, and was hugely popular in colonial America. It was first developed in the mid-1500s and spread until, by 1660, the English Army adopted the flintlock system for its "Brown Bess" guns. The Brown Bess became famous because of its widespread use during the American Revolution. The flintlock remained popular until the mid-1800s, when it was replaced by the percussion-cap lock. By the time of the civil war, nearly all guns manufactured used the percussion cap. That means that the flintlock, as a technology, lasted about 300 years! The flintlock gun and the flintlock itself are fascinating devices. There are at least four things that make them so interesting: - Next to the pendulum clock, the flintlock gun was probably the most technologically advanced device that anyone commonly owned at the time. - The flintlock is incredibly important historically. Colonial America depended on it for food, protection and warfare. - The flintlock itself is amazing from a mechanical standpoint. - The flintlock is the foundation of all modern guns. If you want to understand how modern guns work, you get the best view by understanding the flintlock. A flintlock gun is the simplest reliable gun possible, and it can teach you a great deal about the technology behind guns in general. In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we will look at the flintlock itself as well as the guns that used it so that you can completely understand how it works. In the process, you will learn some amazing things about this important device!
Imagine a country where supermarket employees have to raise their prices several times a day, maybe by placing one price sticker on top of the old one. Describing Brazilian inflation during the early 1990s, one woman said she raced to food markets to see if she could beat the price rise. As told in this podcast, Brazil’s inflation rate was high. However, it was nothing like Zimbabwe’s. One economist has estimated that, by the time Zimbabwe replaced its own dollar with foreign currency during 2009, its annual inflation rate was close to 89.7 sextillion percent. So, you might think that the Zimbabwe dollar is worthless. Not quite. On eBay, a $100 trillion Zimbabwe dollar bill recently sold for close to $5 and currency collectors, looking for more, could push price up further. Actually, Zimbabwe occupies second place for a world hyperinflation record. Hungary (July 1946) is #1 and Yugoslavia (January 1994) is #3. The Economic Lesson There are two basic ways that textbooks explain inflation: 1) Let’s assume that changes in supply relate to land, labor and capital. So, if a central bank increases the money supply, it will not affect supply. More money? Constant supply? The result is inflation. 2) Too many dollars chasing too few goods creates “demand pull” inflation; when the cost of land, labor, and/or capital rises, we have “cost push” inflation; inflation also can result when one item that is central to an economy, such as oil, becomes more expensive. An Economic Question: Imagine living through a hyperinflation as a consumer, as a worker, or as a business owner. How would you explain the different challenges?
Brucellosis Description Infectious disease caused by bacteria obtained through contact with an infected animal or contaminated objects. Brucellosis is very common in domestic animals such as camels, buffalo, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. Location Brucellosis is worldwide, but is more commonly found in areas with poor health regulations and programs. These include: Portugal, Spain, Southern France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Mexico, Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, The Caribbean, The Middle East, and South and Central America Cause Infection can occur though the consumption of undercooked meats and/or raw dairy (unpasteurized) from animals that were infected as well as bacteria entering the body through open wounds and inhalation. Symptoms Symptoms can vary and initial signs can include fever, headache, sweats, malaise, anorexia, fatigue, and pain in your muscles and joints. Some of these can persist and/or get worse with time. Treatment Diagnosis of Brucellosis is done by performing tests through samples of blood, tissue and other body fluids that test for the bacteria. Once the proper diagnosis is made, antibiotics can be prescribed. Recovery can very from a few weeks to a few months and death from Brucellosis is rare. Prevention Do not consume undercooked meat, or unpasteurized dairy products. Avoid contact with animals that could be infected. Animal handlers like farmers, hunters, meat packing workers, veterinarians, etc. should always wear proper safety equipment including gloves, eye protection, and gowns/aprons. Handling Animals There is no cure for the Brucella bacteria in animals. However, in the United States, Brucellosis is very rare. Receiving Brucellosis from an animal such as your dog is most common through contact with the blood or other body fluids from the animal. Most dogs infected with the Brucella bacteria do not spread it to their owners or other humans. Other Facts In the United States, less than 200 people are infected each year. Infection is more common in spring and summer. Brucellosis is a very serious disease in other parts of the world that lack effective animal disease control programs.
A team of astronomers led by the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR) have succeeded in observing the death throws of a giant star in unprecedented detail. In February of 1987 astronomers observing the Large Magellanic Cloud, a nearby dwarf galaxy, noticed the sudden appearance of what looked like a new star. In fact they weren’t watching the beginnings of a star but the end of one and the brightest supernova seen from Earth in the four centuries since the telescope was invented. By the next morning news of the discovery had spread across the globe and southern hemisphere stargazers began watching the aftermath of this enormous stellar explosion, known as a supernova. In the two and a half decades since then, the remnant of Supernova 1987A has continued to be a focus for researchers around the world, providing a wealth of information about one of the Universe’s most extreme events. In research published in the Astrophysical Journal today, a team of astronomers in Australia and Hong Kong have succeeded in using the Australia Telescope Compact Array, CSIRO radio telescope in northern New South Wales, to make the highest resolution radio images of the expanding supernova remnant at millimetre wavelengths. “Imaging distant astronomical objects like this at wavelengths less than 1 centimetre demands the most stable atmospheric conditions. For this telescope these are usually only possible during cooler winter conditions but even then, the humidity and low elevation of the site makes things very challenging,” said lead author, Dr Giovanna Zanardo of ICRAR, a joint venture of Curtin University and The University of Western Australia in Perth. Unlike optical telescopes, a radio telescope can operate in the daytime and can peer through gas and dust allowing astronomers to see the inner workings of objects like supernova remnants, radio galaxies and black holes. “Supernova remnants are like natural particle accelerators, the radio emission we observe comes from electrons spiralling along the magnetic field lines and emitting photons every time they turn. The higher the resolution of the images the more we can learn about the structure of this object,” said Professor Lister Staveley-Smith, Deputy Director of ICRAR and CAASTRO, the Centre for All-sky Astrophysics. Scientists study the evolution of supernovae into supernova remnants to gain an insight into the dynamics of these massive explosions and the interaction of the blast wave with the surrounding medium. “Not only have we been able to analyse the morphology of Supernova 1987A through our high resolution imaging, we have compared it to X-ray and optical data in order to model its likely history,” said Professor Bryan Gaensler, Director of CAASTRO at the University of Sydney. The team suspects a compact source or pulsar wind nebula to be sitting in the centre of the radio emission, implying that the supernova explosion did not make the star collapse into a black hole. They will now attempt to observe further into the core and see what’s there. Click each image for highest resolution version. Professor Lister Staveley-Smith Deputy Director \| ICRAR - UWA Ph: +61 8 6488 4550 \| M: +61 (0) 425 212 592 \| E: [email protected] Dr Giovanna Zanardo PhD Candidate \| ICRAR - UWA Ph: +61 8 6488 7755 \| M: +61 (0) 414 531 081 \| E: [email protected] Manager, Outreach & Education \| ICRAR Ph: +61 8 6488 7758 \| M: +61 423 982 018 \| E: [email protected] Media Manager \| UWA Ph: +61 8 6488 3229 \| M: +61 400 700 783 \| E: [email protected] Media Contact \| ICRAR Ph: +61 8 6488 7771 \| M: +61 438 361 876 \| E: [email protected] Dr Wiebke Ebeling Education & Outreach Coordinator \| CAASTRO Ph: +61 8 9266 9174 \| M: +61 423 933 444 \| E: [email protected]
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens that enter the body. These pathogens triggers for infections to develop. There are many causes of infectious disease and they can be found all over the world. They are highly contagious, which means that they can spread rapidly through unhygienic practices and conditions from people to people or from animals to humans, too. A wide range of pathogens can cause infectious diseases such as bacteria, viruses, prions, fungi and protozoan. We are familiar with the four pathogens but prions may be something new. Prions (PREE-ons) are defined as infectious agents made up of protein and they have the ability of reproducing in a misfolded form and become infectious. There are several ways of getting infectious diseases and transmitting them to others. Symptoms may also vary from one disease to another. Infectious disease can be classified as viral, fungal, bacterial and even protozoan life. Treating infectious diseases requires that your health provider or doctor should eliminate all sources of infections. They must also identify ways to repair damage caused to your body by such infection. Many of these diseases make the patients more susceptible to other secondary infections. Because of the weakened immune system, other organisms can enter the body and make you sicker. This results to another problem or at worse, serious complications that can threaten your life. The branch of study responsible in dealing with infectious diseases is called epidemiology. The epidemiologist’s job is to determine the actual origin or source of the infection so he can develop an innovative or new treatment or drugs. His work also includes identifying outbreaks that may lead to epidemic. Many infectious diseases are also endemic, which means that they can occur on a regular basis. Prevention of Infectious Diseases To prevent the rapid spread of infectious diseases, maintaining basic hygienic practices is most important. The practice of clean habits such as washing hands and feet regularly, drinking clean water and maintaining a clean habitat or surroundings is very important in the prevention of infectious diseases. Secondary will be eliminating organisms causing the infections. Eliminating the vectors that can lead to zoonic spread of diseases will reduce the prevalence of infectious diseases. For example, the Bubonic plagued in Europe killed almost 25 million people. When the outbreak hit the islands of Hawaii in 1899, the islands of Hawaii specifically in Chinatown on Oahu, the Board of Health then immediately thought of how to stop the disease from spreading inland. Funny though, the plan of burning only the buildings in Chinatown where the source of disease (rodents) was suspected to dwell got out of their control. The result was burning down many of the buildings in Chinatown and leaving 4000 people homeless. Some medicines can help relieve the symptoms. Infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi can be easily treated by many medications like antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral. Medical screening and laboratory tests can help doctors to identify patients with infectious diseases. Infectious diseases can also be fatal. HIV, malaria, diarrhea and tuberculosis are just few examples of diseases that have killed many people worldwide. Here is a list of the recent news on infectious disease outbreaks worldwide in the last five years from the World Health Organization (WHO) website:: - Year 2009 – Ebola haemorrhagic fever , Yellow fever , Avian influenza,Ebola Reston, Meningococcal disease, Cholera, Swine influenza, Polio, Pandemic Influenza A(H1N1), Dengue fever - Year 2010 – Pandemic Influenza A(H1N1), Avian influenza , Rift Valley fever, Meningococcal disease , Polio, Yellow fever , Suspected Acute Haemorrhagic Fever, Cholera, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and Dengue - Year 2011- Avian influenza, Yellow fever, Meningococcal disease, Outbreak of haemolytic uraemic syndrome, Poliomyelitis, Wild poliovirus - Year 2012- Avian influenza, Yellow fever , Severe complications of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), Meningococcal disease, Ebola, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome , Cholera, Novel coronavirus infection, Dengue Fever, Marburg haemorrhagic fever - Year 2013- Avian influenza, Poliovirus, Novel coronavirus infection , Human infection with influenza A(H7N9) virus, Wild poliovirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) What can you conclude from the above list of disease outbreaks? The data show that there are still many infectious diseases that have been recurring and spreading worldwide. Because of these, more clinical research studies will be conducted in order to develop innovations in medical science so that infectious diseases can be easily detected and treated with minimal effort and time.

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