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An uncommonly large new virus that attacks the anthrax bacterium has been discovered in a zebra carcass on the plains of Namibia in southern Africa. This new virus, also know as a bacteriophage, could open new strategies towards combating anthrax, as well as related bacteria that cause food poisoning. Scientists reported their findings in the January 27, 2014 issue of the journal PLOS One. Anthrax is best known as a bioweapon. It became a household name during the 2001 anthrax attacks in the U.S. when spores sent by mail killed five people and infected 17 others. Before the 20th century, however, anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), a naturally-occurring bacteria species, caused thousands of livestock and human deaths. Since the late 1880s, following the invention of an effective vaccine, a century of aggressive livestock vaccinations and improved sanitation has almost eradicated anthrax occurrence in livestock. But anthrax outbreaks continue to occur occasionally in the wild. That’s because anthrax spores can survive for very long periods in soil. When a herbivore, like a zebra, ingests long-dormant anthrax spores while grazing, the bacteria reactivates and multiplies inside its host’s body, causing severe illness that usually leads to death. As the animal’s body decomposes, newly-created anthrax spores return to the soil, staying dormant until the next host animal comes along. Anthrax can also infect carnivores that feed on infected herbivores. The anthrax bacteriophage, a term that means bacteria eaters, was found in samples obtained from a zebra carcass in Namibia’s Etosha National Park. Holly Ganz, lead author of the PLOS One paper, commented in a press release that the bacteriophage’s voracious appetite for anthrax was the first thing noticed by the research team studying the samples. Named Tsamsa, this new bacteriophage has a very large head and a long tail. It also has a large genome, molecules of DNA and RNA that describe an organism’s traits. When the scientists sequenced Tsamsa’s genome, they found the gene for lysin, an enzyme that kills bacteria cells Further research showed that Tsamsa also has an appetite for bacteria closely related to anthrax, like Bacillus cereus that’s been implicated in cases of food poisoning. When bacterophages were first discovered in the early 1900s, there was interest in using them as antimicrobials. However, penicillin and other types of antibiotics gained favor instead. One advantage held by bacteriophages over antibiotics is that each type of bacteriophage has a preference for specific types of bacteria. Therefore, they could be used to target specific bacteria pathogens while leaving beneficial bacteria unharmed. Ganz commented in the same press release: With growing concerns about antibiotic resistance and superbugs, people are coming back to look at phages. You might use it to detect the anthrax Bacillus or B. cereus; use it as an alternative to antibiotics or as part of a decontaminant. Bottom line: A large new virus that attacks anthrax bacteria has been discovered in the carcass of a zebra on the plains of Namibia in southern Africa. Named Tsamsa, this anthrax-devouring virus could open up new strategies to detect anthrax bacteria and others closely related to it, as well as treat illnesses caused by these bacteria and clean up areas contaminated by it. Scientists reported their findings in the January 27, 2014 issue of the journal PLOS One.
Teaching Strategy: Posting Word Walls in Limited Space It is a well-known fact that word walls are invaluable classroom tools. However, educators sometimes struggle to find adequate and appropriate space for their word walls. In her guide, Teaching Reading and Writing with Word Walls (1999), Janiel Wagstaff describes some strategies for incorporating word walls in your classroom when you have multiple classes or very little wall space. Below are some ideas from Wagstaff. - 3-Way Display: Use free-standing "science boards"--the heavy cardboard or poster board that have been made into 3-paneled display boards. By using these 3-panel boards, you can more easily move and, if necessary, store the word walls. - Chalk-board Space: Use sticky-tack instead of messy, damaging tape to post your word wall on your extra chalk-board space. With sticky-tack, you can handily post, remove, and re-post words with little fuss or mess. - Manila File Folders: Create smaller, portable word walls for individual students or small groups. In particular, these portable word walls are handy for students who leave your classroom to receive resource help. - Classroom Door: Even classroom doors may be used for word walls. The trick is, make sure the word wall is accessible. Regardless of where you post your word wall, be sure that you bear in mind Patricia Cunningham's (2000) suggestions for a visually accessible word wall. First, use bold, black letters to form the words. Secondly, separate commonly confused words such as saw/was, or to/too/two by putting each word on a different colored background. Finally, trace around the shape of the word so that students have yet another visual feature to remember about the word.
This morning, the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission blasted off from Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana, on the head of a Soyuz rocket. This space observatory aims to study approximately 1 billion stars, roughly 1% of the Milky Way Galaxy, and create the most accurate map yet of the Milky Way. In so doing, it will also answer questions about the origin and evolution of our home Galaxy. As the successor to the Hipparcos mission – an ESA astrometry satellite that was launched in 1989 and operated until 1993 – it is part of ESA’s Horizon 2000 Plus long-term scientific program. Repeatedly scanning the sky, Gaia will observe each of the billion stars an average of 70 times each over the five years and measure the position and key physical properties of each star, including its brightness, temperature and chemical composition. The Soyuz VS06 launcher, operated by Arianespace, lifted off at 09:12 GMT (10:12 CET). About ten minutes later, after separation of the first three stages, the Fregat upper stage ignited, delivering Gaia into a temporary parking orbit at an altitude of 175 km. A second firing of the Fregat 11 minutes later took Gaia into its transfer orbit, followed by separation from the upper stage 42 minutes after liftoff. Gaia is now en route towards an orbit around a gravitationally-stable virtual point in space called L2 Lagrange Point, some 1.5 million kilometres beyond Earth. Tomorrow, engineers will command Gaia to perform the first of two critical thruster firings to ensure it is on the right trajectory towards its L2 home orbit. About 20 days after launch, the second critical burn will take place, inserting it into its operational orbit around L2. Gaia promises to build on the legacy of ESA’s first star-mapping mission, Hipparcos, launched in 1989, to reveal the history of the galaxy in which we live. ESA’s Gaia project scientist Timo Prusti expressed similar sentiments, highlighting how the Gaia mission’s ultimate purpose is to advance our understanding of the cosmos: Along with tens of thousands of other celestial and planetary objects, this vast treasure trove will give us a new view of our cosmic neighbourhood and its history, allowing us to explore the fundamental properties of our Solar System and the Milky Way, and our place in the wider Universe. By taking advantage of the slight change in perspective that occurs as Gaia orbits the Sun during a year, it will measure the stars’ distances and their motions across the sky. This motions will later be put into “rewind” to learn more about where they came from and how the Milky Way was assembled over billions of years from the merging of smaller galaxies, and into “fast forward” to learn more about its ultimate fate. This is an especially ambitious mission when you consider that of the one billion stars Gaia will observe, 99% have never had their distances measured accurately. The mission will also study 500,000 distant quasars and will conduct tests of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. So as the mission continues and more data comes in, scientists and astronomers will be able to construct more detailed models of how the universe was created, and perhaps how it will end… The current consensus is that the universe began with a creation event known as The Big Bang. However, the question of how it will end, either through a “Big Crunch” event – where the expansion of the universe will eventually cease and all matter will collapse back in on itself – or simply continue to expand until all stars and galaxies consume their fuel and burn out, remains something of a mystery. Personally, I call Big Crunch, mainly because I like to the think that our universe is one of many. Not just in the parallel dimension sense, but in the temporal sense as well. Like the city of Ilium (aka. Troy), existence as we know it is built upon the foundations of countless others, stretching backwards and forwards into infinity… Deep stuff, man! In the meantime, enjoy this video of the Gaia’s mission’s liftoff, courtesy of the ESA: Sources: universetoday.com, esa.int
Caries (Decay) Risk Assessment Dental caries, more commonly known as tooth decay, can have significant consequences for your oral health. A patient's risk for tooth decay is the result of several factors including genetics, diet, oral hygiene, and environment. The main cause of dental caries, however, is the bacteria found in plaque. The bacteria produce acids as they feed off the sugars and other simple carbohydrates we consume. These acids slowly eat away at the outer layer of our teeth, known as enamel. If tooth decay is left untreated, the bacteria can spread to the innermost part of our tooth, resulting in an infection. Eventually, tooth loss may occur. There are some steps you can take to reduce your risk of dental caries and prevent these problems. At Everwell Dentistry, we can provide you with the education and services you need to maintain excellent oral health. The prevalence of dental caries in America had decreased significantly over the last 50 years largely thanks to fluoride treatment. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that is often found in drinking water and certain foods. If you are at particularly high risk for dental caries, we may recommend professional fluoride treatment. Every day, the enamel layer of our teeth loses minerals during the process of demineralization. The enamel also gains minerals from certain foods and liquids during the process of remineralization. Unfortunately, the rate of demineralization often exceeds that of remineralization. Professional fluoride treatment can supplement this process, which prevents tooth decay and strengthens the enamel layer. In some cases, fluoride treatment can even reverse minor instances of decay. Oral Hygiene and DietYour oral hygiene regimen and diet can also have a significant effect on your risk for dental caries. You should be brushing your teeth at least twice a day, especially after meals and before bed. We also recommend flossing once a day to remove plaque and food debris in between your teeth. Daily Flossing will significantly reduce your risk of developing periodontal (gum) disease. For extra protection against dental caries, you may want to consider using an antibacterial mouth rinse. A balanced diet also plays an important role in your oral health. If you are at a greater risk for dental caries, Dr. Embree may offer dental dietary counselling, such as instructing you to reduce the amount and frequency of your carbohydrate consumption. This includes sugary snacks between meals. The less sugar and carbohydrates you consume, the fewer acids the bacteria will produce. If you find yourself hungry for a snack, try to make it a healthier alternative. Fruits and vegetables are much better for your oral health than cookies, candies, and chips. Even with good oral hygiene and a balanced diet, most people still need professional dental care. The American Dental Association recommends biannual checkups and professional cleanings. During your checkup, we can assess your risk for dental caries. We can also diagnosis and treatment existing instances of decay, preventing the need for future restorations. During your professional cleaning, our dental hygienist will remove plaque and tartar (calcified plaque) from the surfaces of your teeth. In many cases, tartar can only be removed during a professional cleaning. We can also point out areas that need special attention, and review proper brushing and flossing techniques. Schedule Your AppointmentFind out if you are at risk for dental caries. Call (734) 973-0000 to schedule your appointment now!
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
Nitrogen is one of the many common elements on Earth, and it is one of countless nonmetals. It has an atomic variety of seven, an interpretation a nitrogen atom has seven proton (and 7 electrons). Nitrogen is a gas in ~ room temperature. In certain scenarios, it can be very dangerous, however it has some fascinating chemical properties we will explore in this article. The write-up is a great review of many more comprehensive topics in chemistry, however here they are applied to chemicals with nitrogen. We will not go into much depth of exactly how those principles work, but will focus on what they aid us come understand about nitrogen. You are watching: What is the formula of the ionic compound formed when ions of calcium and nitrogen combine? Valence shell Electrons The external orbital that a nitrogen atom, the (p^2) orbital, can carry up to 6 electrons, as with all other (p) orbitals. However, a nitrogen atom will certainly only have three of these slot filled. When reacting with various other chemicals, it will certainly often try to take it electrons from other atoms/ions to acquire a complete octet. Therefore, the (N^3-) ion (called the nitride ion) is the most usual ion developed from a solitary nitrogen atom. However, depending upon the surroundings, the nitrogen atom may communicate with an additional atom that is much less stable without three or also five added electrons that nitrogen has. So, although that is much rarer than a nitrogen atom acquiring three electrons and also becoming (N^3-), that can also lose 3 or five electrons to type one of two cations: (N^3+) or (N^5+). Chances are, if you space a student, your teacher will only expect girlfriend to understand that the (N^3-) ion exists, however trying to explain why the various other two nitrogen ion can type is a an excellent review of how orbitals work. Example 1:If (Ca_xN_y) is an ionic compound, what are the most likely values the (x) and also (y)? Solution:Calcium does not generally form any ion besides (+2) cations. Due to the fact that this is one ionic compound, the nitrogen need to be the (-3) ion to provide the compound a neutral charge. The takes 3 calcium cations come balance the charge of 2 nitride anions, therefore the chemical formula is (Ca_3N_2). In this compound, referred to as calcium nitride, (x = 3) and (y = 2). Nitrogen together a Diatmoic Element Nitrogen is one of a few elements that exists in a diatomic form. The is, its natural elemental form is 2 atoms external inspection together. The Lewis framework for element nitrogen, (N_2), is below: This molecule shows some very important patterns worrying nitrogen in chemical bonding: in perfectly stable molecules, every nitrogen atom will have actually three bonding bag of electrons and also one lone pair. Nitrogen behaves in this method in stimulate to case a full outer valence shell of electrons. Through two electrons it keeps for itself and six the it shares with another atom, that provides eight electrons total. Therefore this type of nitrogen is much more stable than a solitary atom that nitrogen, which only has five valence electrons and must reaction with another chemical to end up being stable. In one of two people case, however, the oxidation variety of the nitrogen atom is (0). Nitrogen likewise has a family members of oxyanions. The 2 in this team are the nitrate ion, (NO_3^-), and also the nitrite ion, (NO_2^-). Either of these can type acids or ionic compounds, much like nitride ions. Example 2a:Calcium Nitrate has actually a chemical formula of (Ca(NO_3)_2). Similarly, Calcium Nitrite has a chemical formula the (Ca(NO_2)_2). Example 2b:Either oxyanion of nitrogen can covalently bond with one hydrogen cation to kind an acid. Formation the nitric acid: $$H^+ + NO_3^- ightarrow HNO_3$$ Formation the nitrous acid: $$H^+ + NO_2^- ightarrow HNO_2$$ Other Chemicals through Nitrogen There room a pair major chemicals with nitrogen that have not currently been mentioned. The first is azide, (N_3^-): Some that the nitrogen atoms have an unfavorable formal charges and also some have actually positive formal charges. However, the complete charge of the molecule is negative. Example 3a:Being one anion, azide periodically joins up with cations to form ionic compounds. One instance is salt azide, (NaN_3). Example 3b:Azide anions can additionally combine through hydrogen cations to form (HN_3), recognized as azidic acid: There are also three other related anions that contain carbon and also nitrogen: cyanide ((CN^-)), cyanate ((CNO^-)), and thiocyanate ((CNS^-)). The Lewis framework for cyanide is displayed below. All 3 of this can kind ionic compounds and also acids together well. Relocating down the team of the regular table include oxygen and also sulfur, we can say, in theory, the if (CNSe^-) and (CNTe^-) exist, they would essentially have the same valence-shell electron orientation together cyanate and thiocyanate. In various other words, there Lewis structures are almost identical. However, the visibility of these two last chemicals is unknown. The takeaway indigenous this conversation is the we can use the framework of the periodic table and also the knowledge of part existing chemistry to predict others that, in theory, might exist. See more: What Does Imasu Mean In Japanese ? What Is Imasu In Japanese Thanks come the app linked right here for giving Lewis framework images:http://www.wolframalpha.com/widgets/view.jsp?id=689aa5a01c216d8b16ed0250cebdc702.
Note that you can reverse steps 1 and 2 and still come to the same solution. If you multiply 1 by 100 and then divide the result by 475, you will still come to 0.21! 1 / 475 = 0.21% We encourage you to check out our introduction to percentage page for a little recap of what percentage is. You can also learn about fractions in our fractions section of the website. Sometimes, you may want to express a fraction in the form of a percentage, or vice-versa. This page will cover the former case. Luckily for us, this problem only requires a bit of multiplication and division. We recommend that you use a calculator, but solving these problems by hand or in your head is possibly too! Here's how we discovered that 1 / 475 = 0.21% : Fractions are commonly used in everyday life. If you are splitting a bill or trying to score a test, you will often describe the problem using fractions. Sometimes, you may want to express the fraction as a percentage. \|0.21%\|\|1 / 475\|\|0.0\| A percentage is a number out of 100, so we need to make our denominator 100! If the original denominator is 475, we need to solve for how we can make the denominator 100. To convert this fraction, we would divide 100 by 475, which gives us 0.21. Now, we multiply 0.21 by 1, our original numerator, which is equal to 0.21 0.21 / 100 = 0.21% Remember, a percentage is any number out of 100. If we can balance 1 / 475 with a new denominator of 100, we can find the percentage of that fraction! Similar Percentage ProblemsWhat is 134/147 as a percentage? What is 120/127 as a percentage? What is 130/177 as a percentage? What is 16/86 as a percentage? What is 70/1 as a percentage? What is 95/196 as a percentage? What is 66/25 as a percentage? What is 63/15 as a percentage? What is 16/162 as a percentage? What is 161/131 as a percentage? Random articlesArea of a Circle Roots of a Number Exponents/Powers Intro Mode, Median Coterminal Angles, Initial/Terminal side Area of a Circle Subtraction Sums
The “small things” of care are particularly important in ensuring that care is genuinely supportive of the individual and enhances that person’s autonomy and well-being. The humanity with which assistance for everyday living is offered, especially help with eating and intimate care, is crucial in helping the person retain their self-esteem and dignity, as are the manner and tone in which a person is addressed; the care taken to ensure that they participate as much as they can or wish in any decision about their day-to-day life; the trouble taken about appropriate and attractive food and environments; and access to meaningful activity. Nuffield Council on Bioethics Activities of daily living (ADLs) are the tasks we do during our daily lives. Because ADL skills decline as dementia progresses, caregiver involvement naturally changes over time. Caregivers often help more than is needed and research suggests that people with dementia—even those with advanced dementia—can do more than caregivers allow them to do. Promoting independence requires good communication, patience, and the ability to understand and accept that dementia changes how a person approaches an activity. Many caregivers assume someone with dementia is child-like and no longer capable of understanding how to complete an activity. Many caregivers, family members, and healthcare providers simply take over the task. This not only robs people of their independence; it affects their self-worth. ADLs are generally divided into basic ADLs and instrumental ADLs. Basics ADLs are the skills needed to take care of personal needs such as: - Bathing or showering - Dressing and undressing Instrumental ADLs (IADLs) are the skills needed to function within society and within the community. As with basic ADLs, these skills decrease as dementia progresses. IADLs include: - Financial management - Preparing meals - Communicating with the outside world - Medical and medication management As a direct caregiver, medical professional or family member, the following best principles should be understood and applied to all activities of daily living at all stages of dementia: - Engage people with dementia in interventions and solutions - Manage pain - Maintain a supportive environment - Take a holistic approach - Compensate for a person’s reduced abilities - Embed interventions in day-to-day life - Provide ongoing support - Involve caregivers - Get dementia-friendly training and develop skills for working with people with dementia - Understand and know your patient - Train caregivers - Collaborate with healthcare professionals and family members (Wheatley et al., 2019) General Strategies for Promoting Independence in ADLs in Various Stages Even with proper training and mentoring, it’s nearly impossible to be a great caregiver all the time. It’s no fun getting up in the middle of the night to clean up after an incontinent family member. It’s almost impossible to be patient when your mom swears at you, screams, hits, bites, collapses during a transfer, or refuses to eat. But the dementia training I found online and the support from hospice helped a lot—it gave me strategies and techniques to use when all seemed lost and when nothing was working. Family Caregiver, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida Good Communication is the Basis for Success Good communication starts with patience and thoughtfulness. Good communication builds trust, encourages independence, and leads to better outcomes. Caregivers must learn and believe that consistently trying to understand the needs of the person they are caring for will make their job easier. Good communication takes into account a person’s ability to comprehend, their sensory abilities, and their culture. In the home setting, communication may be easier because the environment is familiar with fewer distractions although caregivers are often alone and cannot turn to a co-worker for help. No matter what setting, a calm tone, short direct sentences, a slow rate of speech, and patience encourages independence in people with dementia. Clara is a 96-year old, Caucasian woman with severe macular degeneration, significant hearing loss corrected with hearing aids, and moderate to severe dementia. She lives at home in Jacksonville, Florida and is generally very cooperative and agreeable. Her daughters stay with her for 4 days each week and have hired a caregiver for the other days. Her current caregiver has a thick accent and poor English skills and doesn’t understand that Clara can’t hear her and often doesn’t understand what she’s saying. The caregiver sometimes forgets to give Clara her hearing aids, sometimes puts the hearing aids in with dead batteries, leaves the TV on when trying to talk to Clara, and speaks in long, complicated, thickly accented sentences. She uses phrases and words that are completely unfamiliar to Clara. For example, when the caregiver wanted Clara to wipe herself after she finished urinating, she asked Clara to “wipe her jewel.” Clara had no idea what she was talking about. Clara always tries to respond to her caregiver, even when it’s clear she has no idea what she’s being asked to do. Because Clara responds, the caregiver swears Clara understands her and is just being stubborn when Clara doesn’t do what’s asked. Clara’s daughter has tried to explain but the caregiver ignores her. ADL Skill Training ADL “skills training” is recommended for all caregivers—both family and professional. Emphasis is on encouraging independence in all activities while providing appropriate assistance when needed. ADL skills training promotes involvement in self-care, minimizes caregiver stress, and reduces the amount of physical labor required of a caregiver. A skilled caregiver learns to continually assess the strengths, comprehension, and capabilities of the person they are caring for. More or less assistance may be needed depending on the task, the time of day, co-morbidities, and level and type of dementia. For example, a person who is otherwise capable of independent self-care tasks but has poor balance might need help setting up a place to safely brush her teeth and do other grooming. If forced to stand during these activities, the person may need more help from the caregiver than is needed if a suitable sitting area is arranged. Caregiver skills training provides caregivers with information, strategies, and tools to develop an individualized program that provides just the right amount of assistance. This might involve gestures, verbal and visual cues, assistive devices, planning and problem solving, and physical assistance. Planning an activity for someone with dementia must account for a person’s abilities and interests, which promotes success and leads to a wider range of activities. Well-planned activities will naturally arise from a careful assessment of a person’s lifestyle, occupation, interests, and preferences. For example, a person who loved to go for hikes but can no longer walk will still enjoy going for a drive or visiting a park with paths that accommodate wheelchairs. That same person may not enjoy sitting in front of a television tuned to a game show. Assistive technologies—devices designed to enable people with a disability to function more independently—have been developed to support people with dementia and their caregivers. Assistive technologies focus on safety and social participation. They are different than assistive devices, which aid with mobility and physical activities of daily living. - Provide the caregiver with a way to make sure the person they are caring for is safe. - Provide help with memory and recall. - Improve a person’s confidence and independence. - Keep people with dementia socially connected. Examples of assistive technologies include: - Face-to-face communication with family members and friends using tablets or computers. - Tracking devices, that allow a person to walk independently within a safe area. - Electronic prompts and medication reminders. - Medical check-ups via telephone or video conferencing. - Automated lights. - Automated shut-off sensors that prevent flooding or turn off devices that have been left on. - Communication aids such as adapted telephones with pre-set numbers. - Cameras mounted throughout the home. Assistive technologies can reduce the cost of care, decrease caregiver burden, promote independence and autonomy, and increase quality life for people with dementia. They may also promote aging in place, delay transfer into a care facility, and help people with dementia maintain independence (Czarnuch et al., 2016). Adaptive aids are devices and equipment designed to assist a person with daily activities such as mobility, transfers, dressing and grooming, bathing, and eating. They can help individuals with disabilities compensate for lost functions, increase their independence, and develop their potential (Yeung et al., 2016). The selection of an adaptive aid or device depends on the person’s level of dementia, preferences and lifestyle, and physical abilities. Adaptive aids include: - Safety devices such as grab bars, transfer poles, handrails, and non-skid mats. - Assistive devices such as walkers, wheelchairs, braces, height-adjustable chairs and beds, pulleys and slings, ramps, and lifts. - Devices to assist with eating and drinking such as non-tip cups, assistive tableware, non-spill cups, adjustable-height tables, and easy-grip silverware. - Devices for washing and bathing such as commodes, shower chairs, transfer benches, and walk-in or roll-in showers. - Devices for household tasks such as adjustable-height cupboards, reachers, grip extensions for appliance controls, and pull-out shelves or pull-down shelves. Preventing Loss of Independence through Exercise Conventional exercise programs such as walking, resistance training, and seated exercises that focus on improving aerobic endurance, strength, balance, and flexibility have beneficial effects on physical function in individuals with dementia. Exercise improves the ability to perform basic activities of daily living such as eating, dressing, bathing, using the toilet, and transferring from bed to chair (Barnes et al., 2015). Homes that are dementia-friendly (and safe) promote independence and physical activity. This means they are safe for walking, easy to navigate, and have plenty of places to sit and rest. Care techniques are the skills needed by the caregiver for monitoring, assisting, and providing total care in dressing, grooming, eating, bathing, or toileting and incontinence. As dementia progresses, the amount of care a person with dementia requires understandably changes. Dressing and Grooming As with other activities of daily living, people with dementia often need time to dress and groom. The caregiver must assess the person they are caring for to determine the amount of help needed, must be patient, and must resist jumping in to help if no help is needed. Depending on the severity of the dementia and co-morbidities such as visual and perceptual changes, balance, and strength—even the time of day—caregivers must train themselves to encourage as much independence as possible. A person with mild dementia may not need any help with dressing and grooming. These are habits and activities that a person has developed and practiced over a lifetime; habits that rely on parts of the brain, including motor control, not generally affected in the early stages of dementia. A caregiver may need to lay out a person’s clothes or make suggestions, but generally a person with mild dementia can choose what clothing they want to wear and handle grooming without help. A caregiver may suggest using an electric razor, lay out grooming supplies, or provide tools to assist with dressing and grooming. At this stage, the caregiver’s role is to help as needed while promoting and encouraging independence. In the moderate stage, depending on a person’s strength, balance, and flexibility, a caregiver will likely need to assist with at least some aspects of a person’s dressing and grooming. For example, Clara, mentioned earlier in this section has severe macular degeneration and moderate dementia. But she is very flexible and still fairly strong at the age of 95. When she’s sitting in a chair with proper back support, she can easily bring her knee up to her chest. However, she can’t see where to place her leg when she tries to put on her pants and she can’t see where her clothes are placed. It’s tempting to do everything for her, but this increases caregiver burden and fails to promote Clara’s independence. In this case, the caregiver must be patient—help Clara lay out her clothes and provide verbal and appropriate touch cues to direct the activity. The same is true for grooming. For mouth care and other grooming tasks, caregivers must provide a safe and comfortable place for these tasks, assist as needed, and provide clear, step-by-step instruction and help. For men, especially in the moderate to severe stage of dementia, the use of an electric razor provides a safe way to shave, and for both men and women, regular visits to the beauty or barber shop provides social interaction and reduces caregiver burden. As dementia progresses to a more severe stage, caregivers must provide more help with dressing and grooming. Many caregivers tend to overhelp, partly because the person with dementia takes a long time to complete what used to be simple and automatic tasks. In the home setting, schedules and routines for activities of daily living are more flexible than in a nursing home. Nevertheless, caregivers often get impatient (even bored) with the slow pace of dressing and grooming. Slowing down, encouraging independence, and maintaining an attitude of watchful patience are critical skills for a caregiver to develop and practice. Eating and Hydration Interventions to support older people with eating and drinking vary depending on the stage of a person’s dementia. There are certain general strategies that can be undertaken in the early stage and continued as a person’s dementia progresses. This includes assisting with the setup of a meal, providing a supportive seating arrangement, providing support for the feet, and making sure food is tasty, warm, and attractive. Other recommended practices include changing the color of a plate (for food contrast), encouraging daily exercise, and altering the meal schedule to suit the needs of the person with dementia. When dementia is mild, a caregiver may only need to supervise. A person with mild dementia, depending on other underlying medical issues, will likely be able to help with shopping, cooking, and dishwashing. In the mild stage, a person might be able to prepare their own meals. A caregiver will likely need to supervise and help at a distance while assuring the person with dementia is safe. Mild memory problems can lead to safety issues such as forgetting to turn off the stove, leaving water running, or forgetting to eat or drink. A person with mild dementia may feel they are safe to drive—this is when a caregiver must step in address this issue. As a person’s dementia progresses to the moderate stage, the need for caregiver assistance increases and safety issues arise. As balance and strength decline, the risk for falls increases and all activities of daily living, including eating and hydration are affected. Mild swallowing difficulties may arise in the moderate stage, increasing the risk of aspiration and choking. This can be addressed by preparing softer foods, cutting food into smaller pieces, and avoiding food that is hard to chew or hard to swallow. Proper ergonomic seating and simple swallowing techniques can be taught at this stage to reduce the risk of aspiration. Caregivers should always encourage independence, encourage choice in food and drink, and allow the person they are assisting to do as much as they can on their own. In the later stage, oral nutrition supplementation, food modification, and dysphagia management are a daily concern for caregivers. Eating assistance, encouragement, and social support have been shown to increase the amount a person with severe dementia eats and drinks. Eating can be an automatic behavior—we often eat when we see other people eating or when we smell something delicious cooking. A person with severe dementia can still help with meal preparation—even if they only beat an egg, peel an orange, or pour juice into a cup (with assistance). Remember that, especially in the home, spilled food can always be cleaned up. Caregiver education and training is critical (and often lacking) throughout every stage of a person’s dementia but becomes particularly important as a person nears the end of their life. Behavioral issues may arise—refusal to eat and drink, blunt complaints about food taste and quality, throwing food, shouting, knocking over glasses, and refusal to come to the table. Many of these things can be avoided—especially in the home setting—by adjusting to, and listening to, a person’s changing needs. Assistive or adaptive tableware has been a mainstay in nursing homes and assisted living facilities for many years and is recommended for use in the home as well. Unfortunately, a lot of assistive tableware lacks aesthetic appeal. In a group setting (and even at home), users of assistive table settings may feel stigmatized because assistive tableware stands. In the home, a person may feel less stigma, but introducing tableware that significantly differs from the tableware someone has been using their entire adult life may be an issue for some people. As eating difficulties develop and appetite decreases, meals must be simplified by providing just a plate and spoon with pureed or diced food. A plate with a high lip and slanted bottom helps a person push the food onto the spoon and scoop it up. The slanted bottom hip lip of the plate can help users to gather food on one side without scooping. Spoon heads are designed to match the curvature of the bowls to pick up the food easier. Designed by Sha Yao, Eatwell.com. Used with permission. From http://www.eatwellset.com/#!features/cf1a Well-designed assistive tableware can be used by people of all abilities, and at all stages of dementia. Color contrasts should feature prominently to provide contrast and visual cues—for example royal blue plates provide a contrast both with a white table covering and food on a plate. The same approach can be used with cups. In the example below, a royal blue bottom and a white cover are used to help those with low visual acuity or agnosia locate the cup handle and rim. The sides of the cup are angled to reduce the need to tip the cup, a large handle assures a good grip, and a wide top allows a person’s nose to fit inside the cup when tipped. A cup with a weighted bottom is shown on the left. A cup with an easy-to-grip handle is shown on the right. Designed by Sha Yao, Eatwell.com. Used with permission. Remember that dementia is a progressive disease, and a person will gradually lose the desire to eat. This can be extremely distressing for caregivers even though it is a normal part of the disease progression. Caregivers who have worked hard to keep a person eating and drinking may be alarmed as it becomes harder and harder to convince the person they are caring for to eat and drink. This will be accompanied by weight loss—sometimes severe. Interventions that improve nutrition among people with dementia include, eating meals with caregivers, family style meals, soothing mealtime music, accessible snacks, longer mealtimes, education and support for formal and informal caregivers, facilitated breakfast clubs, and regular exercise (Bunn et al, 2016). - Provide food that a person likes. - Involve the person in food preparation. - Give small portions. - Experiment with different consistencies (milkshakes, smoothies). - Use more flavoring. - Provide food when a person is awake—even if that’s in the middle of the night. - Be patient and use common sense. Throughout our lives, bathing is a private, independent, and personal experience. For someone with dementia, having another person help with bathing can be uncomfortable and even threatening. It is a caregiver’s responsibility to help the person they are caring for feel a sense of control and independence. This is accomplished by including the person is the bathing decision, encouraging independence, protecting the person’s privacy and dignity, and practicing flexibility. During bathing, techniques that comfort and reassure a person during all stages of dementia include: - Set a regular time for bathing - Be gentle with fragile skin, avoid scrubbing - Simplify the bathing process, use assistive devices - Coach or cue the person through each step, if needed - Offer a bench or shower chair for comfort and safety - Assist with cleansing of hard-to-reach areas, if needed - Use a sponge bath in between baths or as an alternative to bathing (Alzheimer’s Association, 2020a) A person with mild dementia may not need help with bathing. At this stage, the responsibility of the caregiver is to assist as needed and encourage independence. This is best accomplished by making sure the bathing area is safe, warm, and comfortable. Grab bars and non-skid mats should be available. Bathing supplies should be within reach and the water pre-heated to the proper temperature, if needed. In the moderate stage, additional safety equipment will likely be needed. This might include a shower chair, replacement of a shower door with a curtain, and a long shower hose. Depending upon a person’s physical capabilities, tub bathing may no longer be safe. In the severe stage, direct help will likely be needed with bathing. Shower chairs, grab bars, transfer poles, and even modifications to the shower allowing a rolling shower chair may be needed. Caregivers should expect to get wet at this stage as they assist with bathing. They must still take care to encourage as much independence as is safe and possible. There are times when a person may need to be bathed in bed. This is not uncommon at, or near, the end of life. Bed bathing is not as effective as showering and should only be used when there is no alternative. Cleanliness promotes skin health and supports dignity. Even at this stage, caregivers should encourage participation and consider a person’s preferences for bathing. General principles for bed bathing: - Keep the person warm - Expose only the area being washed - Change water when dirty and after washing genital areas - Pat skin dry rather than rubbing - Talk to the person (even someone who is unconscious) Toileting and Incontinence Incontinence is the involuntary leaking of urine or feces or both. No matter where a person lives, and how far their dementia has progressed, incontinence can be embarrassing and stigmatizing. Incontinence adds to caregiver stress and depression and is a factor in the decision to admit a family member to a care home. There are a number of issues related to toileting and incontinence in people with dementia. Some are the result of the loss of cognition and memory, some from behavioral and psychological symptoms, and some from the interplay of these with other comorbidities. Over-medicating with laxatives (sometimes without the knowledge of the caregiver) can be a problem. For this reason, medications should be reviewed on a regular basis—especially when a medication is changed. Many care providers believe that it is normal for older adults to be incontinent and as a result, reversible causes of incontinence are not adequately addressed. This may be because the person with dementia is too embarrassed to mention it, or the caregiver is not overly concerned. Stress incontinence, which causes involuntary loss of urine, can sometimes be reversed through surgical interventions. Kegel Exercise—in which the floor of the pelvis is strengthened by regular contractions—can be of great help in this type of incontinence. An overactive bladder during a urinary tract infection may cause urinary retention as well as incontinence. Some people require a combination of treatments such as anti-spasmodic medications with lengthened periods between toileting to increase bladder capacity to reduce wetting episodes. A person with mild dementia (as well as those in the later stages), may be physically unable to get to the bathroom in time to void. They may hide this problem out of embarrassment or ignore the problem. They may have difficulty with cleansing and personal hygiene. A person with moderate dementia may have decreased mobility, have difficulty getting to the bathroom, and may be unable to undo clothing once in the bathroom. Men may experience problems directing their penis—especially if balance is compromised and there is nothing to hold onto. Lack of grab bars or transfer poles are a problem of cleansing as well. As dementia becomes more severe and physical, sensory, and cognitive skills continue to decline, it is not uncommon for a person to hide soiled underwear, hand feces to the caregiver, or wipe feces off hands onto clothing or furniture. A person may resist help entirely, fail to remove clothes before voiding, void in inappropriate places (the garden, next to the bed at night, in waste bins) (Drennan et al., 2011). Often the person with dementia will try to stop drinking liquids to decrease the frequency of urination. This can lead to constipation and urinary tract infections, creating a difficult and vicious cycle of dehydration, infection, and incontinence. In the severe stage, a person may or may not be able to walk without assistance but, due to sensory changes and decreased vision, may have difficulty locating or recognizing the bathroom. This probably won’t stop a person from trying, increasing the risk of falls. Caregivers can find this stage extremely frustrating and stressful—partly because more physical help is required and more direct oversight is needed, and partly because more time is spent cleaning up accidents. Techniques and strategies used by caregivers to manage toileting and incontinence in a person with dementia typically start with reminders to go to the toilet on a regular basis. As dementia progresses, other techniques are needed such as adult diapers, bedside commodes, and direct help from the caregiver. Assistive equipment is critical to promote independence and to decrease the amount of lifting for the caregiver. An example of a small bathroom with grab bars, shower chair, and floor-to-ceiling transfers poles used for a woman with moderate to severe dementia who could still walk with assistance, nearly to the end of her life, but had poor balance. She was able to safely go from her bed to the toilet without assistance until the last month of her life. The pole next to the sink was installed because she had a tendency to swing onto the toilet as soon as she got close, rather than stepping and turning. Prior to installing the pole next to the sink cabinet, she turned too soon and broke a lower rib when she hit the corner of the cabinet. She held on to the pole next to the chair for balance as she got dressed. The door was also removed from the bathroom to allow wheelchair access so she could safely stand or sit at the sink for grooming. Source: Author. To make it easier for a person with dementia to find and use the toilet: - Clear the path to the bathroom by moving furniture. - Keep the bathroom door open so the toilet is visible. - Put colored rugs on the bathroom floor or put a picture of a toilet on the bathroom door. - Make the toilet safe and easy to use. Raise the toilet seat, install grab bars on both sides, and use nightlights to illuminate the bedroom and bath. - Consider a portable commode or urinal for the bedroom for nighttime use. - Remove plants, wastebaskets, and other objects that could be mistaken for a toilet. - Remove throw rugs that may cause a person to trip and fall. - Consider using glow-in-the-dark tape to create a direct line or path to the toilet (Alzheimer’s Association, 2020b). Keep in mind that incontinence can be related to a medical problem such as urinary tract infection, constipation or prostate problems. Incontinence is also associated with diabetes, stroke, Parkinson’s disease, and physical disabilities that prevent the person from reaching the bathroom in time. Medications and diuretics (drugs that increase urination) can also cause incontinence. This includes sleeping pills, anxiety-reducing drugs that may relax the bladder muscles, and drinks such as cola, coffee and tea (Alzheimer’s Association, 2020b).
Guest blog: More water storage needed for a sustainable future Global declines in water storage are increasingly troubling. With greater hydrological variability due to climate change, more storage will be vital to provide the same level of security of water, food, and energy. Water storage is fundamental protection from the impacts of a changing climate, safeguarding the supply of water, and the water–food–energy nexus, even during extended drought. For thousands of years, dams have stored water to irrigate crops, control flooding, and more recently to supply water for industrial and household use, and generate hydroelectric power – contributing enormously to food security, human development, and economic growth. These days, many dams serve more than one function but remain the primary mechanism for coping with the variability of water supply and demand. During the last century, more than 45,000 dams higher than 15 m have been constructed worldwide, creating a combined storage capacity estimated to be between 6,700 and 8,000 km3, representing 17 percent of global annual runoff. Security of water, food, and energy are inextricably linked. For example, approximately 50 percent of all large dams worldwide are used for irrigation. Without sufficient water storage, irrigated agriculture (the largest user of water at the global level, contributing 40 percent of the world’s food) is at the mercy of changing patterns of rainfall and runoff. Understanding water storage issues is essential for successfully managing water resources. At the simplest level, it is a matter of ‘inflow (water supply) less outflow (water demand) equals the change in storage’. But it is particularly important to understand whether storage declines relate to reducing supply, increasing demand, or both. The answer is both and more. Key factors influencing storage are greater variability of inflows due to climate change, increased demand due to population growth, reduced net storage due to sedimentation, and less dam construction occurring worldwide due to environmental and social impacts. The effects of climate change are predicted to increase and to result in greater magnitude and frequency of hydrological extremes, such as prolonged droughts and significant floods. With the prolonged drought, inflows to storages will reduce. If demand remains the same, stress on existing water storage will increase. In a 2015 report, the Climate Council of Australia stated that Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth, with some of the world’s most variable rainfall and stream-flow. The country has been deeply affected by drought throughout its history, with the most recent being the ‘Big Dry’ of 1996–2010 (also called the Millennium Drought) which went down in history as one of the worst droughts on record for Australia, with devastating impacts. This prolonged drought ended in some areas of Australia with major flooding. In the state of Queensland, flooding began in December 2010 and continued into 2011 with at least 90 towns and over 200,000 people affected. The final damage was estimated to be USD 2.38 billion. Storage can help protect communities from the impacts of these extreme events. It is estimated that in 2017 Earth supports around 7.5 billion people, yet 200 years ago the number was less than 1 billion. Population and water demand are strongly linked. With our world population increasing at around 80 million people per year, rising demands for basic services and growing desires for higher living standards will intensify the demand for water and put additional strain on existing storage. Many of the larger reservoirs worldwide have had their lifespans reduced significantly due to deposits of sediment within the storages, diminishing net storage in many regions of the world. A number of these reservoirs were designed for 50-65 years of functionality until sediments would reduce their operational capacity. Although in these cases the reduction in storage was expected, it still results in a reduction in total storage, and therefore requires a response. Globally, the annual rates of loss relative to installed storage capacity are generally estimated to range between 0.5 and 1.0 percent, equating to a total worldwide loss of storage of around 40 to 80 km3 per year. Reduced dam construction Installation of large reservoirs peaked during the 1960s and 1970s, both in number and storage volume. However, some of these larger reservoirs caused significant environmental and social damage, bringing dam construction under great scrutiny and ultimately decreasing dam construction worldwide. With less dam construction, some decommissioning of older dams, and loss of storage due to sedimentation, net storage worldwide is falling, most dramatically in storage per capita. Such reduction in storage is likely to undermine the reliability of supply. Few kinds of development projects arouse as much controversy as dams. However, large dams vary considerably in their environmental and social impacts. The severity of environmental impact is largely determined by the dam site. While dams at good sites can be very defensible from an environmental standpoint, those proposed at bad sites will be inherently problematic even if all feasible mitigation measures are properly implemented. The challenge is to find good dam sites to enable these necessary water storage to be developed. It is important to note that the 2000 World Commission on Dams Report marked a new focus on sustainability in the development of dam engineering projects, requiring the participation of affected communities in the project planning phase. How can we take action? Good site selection is the most effective environmental mitigation measure.” The following actions form a useful response to reduced worldwide storage and the pressing need to increase water storage to maintain reliable water supply, irrigation, and energy systems in a changing climate: - Prioritise managing existing storages well, and recognise the importance of storages for maintaining reliable supply. Appropriately manage sedimentation and its impact. Employ near-real-time management of water based on improved information systems to ensure the best economic use of existing reservoirs - Explore opportunities to increase the storage capacity of existing reservoirs by raising dams. Often, this can be more cost-effective and have lower environmental impacts than a new dam project. It may also be possible to improve the use of existing storages by providing greater interconnection between storages. Greater interconnection between storages can enable greater flexibility in managing inflow variability across a region. - Identify dam sites, either on-stream or off-stream, which will minimise environmental and social impacts. Good site selection is the most effective environmental mitigation measure. The net decline in global reservoir storage demands a different mindset for analyzing the economics and construction of sustainable dam projects. Rather than debating whether more dams are required, decision-makers must accept that more storage will be needed and should plan accordingly.
There are nutrients required by crops that are not accounted for in a simple nutrient balance accounting for kg applied and kg exported in grain. This is partially due to the following - The remaining stubble contains high quantities of nutrients that are not translocated into the grain (especially in the case of K and S). Depending on the fate of the stubble, these nutrients may, or may not be, returned to the soil for use by future crops or pastures. - The soil, organic matter and atmosphere can contribute differing amounts of some required nutrients (N, S and some trace elements) - There may be a low plant availability of applied nutrients due to sorption by soil and organic matter particles (P and trace elements). - Soil applied nutrients may be unavailable due to dry conditions. - Nutrient concentrations in final product can vary greatly
The primary word used for a comparison of two things (bigger, older, etc.) is 比 (bǐ). A simple comparison is constructed as X 比 Y SV. - Ta bi Xiao Ming gao. - He is taller than Xiao Ming. Taken literally, this means that he, when compared with Xiao Ming, is tall. A simple comparison can be negated by prepending 不 to 比: - Ta bu bi Xiao Ming gao. - He is not taller than Xiao Ming.
Glossary of Human Resources Management and Employee Benefit Terms Hourly to yearly is a term used when calculating how much an employee who is paid by the hour would earn under an equivalent yearly salary. This calculation is called an hourly to yearly conversion. Despite the word “conversion,” it does not change how an hourly worker is paid, but simply tallies their annual income. Hourly workers (and their employers) may wonder how their wages compare to other workers who are salaried. An hourly to yearly conversion enables them to compare apples to apples. Calculating an hourly employee’s yearly salary is simple. Just add up the number of hours they work in a year and multiply it by their hourly rate. For example, an employee who works 1,800 hours per year and is paid 40 dollars per hour earns the equivalent of an annual salary of 72,000 dollars. Overtime rates, bonuses, holiday differentials, and other adjustments to the employee’s usual pay are generally not considered in this basic calculation. A salaried worker can use a different formula to see what their unadjusted hourly wage would be. First, multiply the number of hours they work each day by the number of days they work in a year to determine how many hours they work per year. Divide that figure by their annual salary. The result is their hourly wage. For example, if an employee works eight hours a day on 240 days in a year, that’s 1,920 hours. Divide their annual salary of 57,600 dollars by 1,920 and you see their hourly wage is 30 dollars. Whether you convert from hourly to yearly or yearly to hourly, remember that these figures represent gross income, which is income before any payroll deductions are made for taxes, employee health insurance, etc. Take-home pay after deductions will be less.
Princeton scientists have identified genes responsible for controlling reproductive life span in worms and found they may control genes regulating similar functions in humans. The work suggests that someday researchers may be able to develop ways to maintain fertility in humans, allowing women who want to delay having children to preserve that capacity and extend their reproduction, and to prevent maternal age-related birth defects. The research, led by Coleen Murphy, an assistant professor of molecular biology and the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, was published in the Oct. 15 edition of Cell. “Could you give someone a drug or supplement when they are in their mid-30s that would keep their oocytes (immature egg cells) healthy? That’s the goal,” Murphy said. The approach, she said, would be similar to the regimen of daily allotments of folic acid taken by pregnant women to prevent the development of spina bifida in the fetus. In humans, reproductive aging causes problems in the quality of the eggs produced about a decade before the egg supply runs out. This can lead to miscarriages and worries about chromosomal abnormalities. “In humans, this suggests that quality, not quantity, is the limiting factor,” Murphy said. “The question was whether the same is true in worms. And the answer is yes.” “We have found that there are many shared genes between worms and humans in terms of their reproductive qualities,” Murphy said. “So this isn’t just about worms and how they reproduce.” In the study, the researchers sought to understand what happens in roundworms, C. elegans, as reproductive aging sets in. They compared the activity levels of genes in normal roundworms with those of mutant roundworms that produce eggs until old age. They found that a complex of genes important to human reproduction is more active in the second group. These genes affect the ability of eggs to be fertilized, the proper segregation of chromosomes, DNA damage resistance and the very shape of the eggs. Both humans and roundworms reproduce for about one-third to one-half of their lives. But there are differences. Humans’ total egg supply is present at birth, while roundworms produce them during their lives. And, in the case of the mutant roundworms, their reproductive span is longer than their counterparts, but their lifespan is the same. As a result, 13-day-old mutant worms are still reproducing though their bodies have decayed to the point that they are unable to lay the fertilized eggs. Murphy likes roundworms because their life cycle makes it easy to study them for aging issues. They live for about two weeks. It takes two and a half days for them to grow from egg to adult. Then they reproduce for about four days. If their life span or reproductive cycle is doubled through genetic manipulation, they can still be monitored in a reasonable amount of time for a scientist’s purposes. Murphy’s studies of C. elegans have led to significant insights into how to control the aging process. In May, for example, a research team led by Murphy reported it had found the first evidence that decreasing caloric intake and tweaking the activity of the hormone insulin in roundworms has an impact on cognitive function. The findings have implications for the development of treatments that simultaneously help people live longer and prevent the devastating losses in memory that so often occur with age. C. elegans are one of the simplest organisms that exist with a nervous system. Scientists, as a result, have already mapped out every neuron in their bodies. They were the first multicellular organisms to have their genomes completely sequenced. The bacteria-gobbling worms, which are about 1 millimeter long, live in temperate soil environments like gardens and compost heaps. Scientists like to study them because they are cheap to breed and can be frozen. Though multicellular, the worms are simple enough to be studied in great detail. They are transparent, allowing scientists to watch their development in such detail that they have been able to track the fate of every cell produced at birth. In addition to Murphy, other researchers on the paper included: Shijing Luo, a graduate student in the Department of Molecular Biology, who is first author on the paper; Gunnar Kleeman, a postdoctoral fellow in the Lewis-Sigler Institute; Jasmine Ashraf, a research specialist in the Lewis-Sigler Institute; and Wendy Shaw, a former postdoctoral fellow in the Lewis-Sigler Institute. The research was funded by the March of Dimes and a National Institutes of Health New Innovator Award. by Kitta MacPherson 2010 The Trustees of Princeton University
Every year on 1 December, UNESCO stands together with UNAIDS, co-sponsors and other partners for World AIDS Day. While considerable progress has been made towards ending AIDS as a public health threat, the HIV epidemic is not over and young people remain disproportionately at risk. Worldwide in 2017, there were approximately 250,000 new HIV infections and 38,000 AIDS-related deaths among adolescents. 1.8 million adolescents are living with HIV globally. Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is essential for young people to be able to protect themselves from HIV. It also helps young people avoid unintended pregnancy and other sexually transmitted infections, encourages them to seek out health-related information and services, promotes values of tolerance, mutual respect and non-violence in relationships, and supports a safe transition into adulthood. UNESCO’s work on education and HIV, in particular its strategic priorities of increasing access to quality comprehensive sexuality education and making education safe and inclusive, is a key part of the global AIDS response. UNESCO supports national education authorities and partners to strengthen their existing curricula and adapt content and approaches to their local context.
A whistler is a very low frequency or VLF electromagnetic (radio) wave generated by lightning. Frequencies of terrestrial whistlers are 1 kHz to 30 kHz, with a maximum amplitude usually at 3 kHz to 5 kHz. Although they are electromagnetic waves, they occur at audio frequencies, and can be converted to audio using a suitable receiver. They are produced by lightning strikes (mostly intracloud and return-path) where the impulse travels along the Earth's magnetic field lines from one hemisphere to the other. They undergo dispersion of several kHz due to the slower velocity of the lower frequencies through the plasma environments of the ionosphere and magnetosphere. Thus they are perceived as a descending tone which can last for a few seconds. The study of whistlers categorizes them into Pure Note, Diffuse, 2-Hop, and Echo Train types. The pulse of electromagnetic energy of a lightning discharge producing whistlers contains a wide range of frequencies below the electron cyclotron frequency. Due to interactions with free electrons in the ionosphere, the waves becomes highly dispersive and like guided waves, follow the lines of geomagnetic field. These lines provide the field with sufficient focusing influence and prevents the scattering of field energy. Their paths reach into the outer space as far as 3 to 4 times the Earth's radius in the plane of equator and bring energy from lightning discharge to the Earth at a point in the opposite hemisphere which is the magnetic conjugate of the position of radio emission for whistlers. From there, the whistler waves are reflected back to the hemisphere from which they started. The energy is almost perfectly reflected from earth surface 4 or 5 times with increase dispersion and diminishing amplitude. Along such long paths the speed of propagation of energy is between c/10 to c/100 (where c is the speed of light) and the exact value depends upon frequency. Modulated heating of the lower ionosphere with an HF heater array can also be used to generate VLF waves that excite whistler mode propagation. By transmitting high power HF waves with a VLF modulated power envelope into the D-region ionosphere, the conductivity of the ionospheric plasma can be modulated. This conductivity modulation together with naturally occurring electrojet fields produces a virtual antenna which radiates at the modulation frequency. The HAARP HF heater array has been used to excite whistler-mode VLF signals detectable at the magnetic conjugate point, with up to 10 hops visible in the received VLF data. Whistlers were probably heard as early as 1886 on long telephone lines, but the clearest early description was by Heinrich Barkhausen in 1919. British scientist Llewelyn Robert Owen Storey had shown lightning generated whistlers in his 1953 PhD dissertation. Around the same time, Storey had posited the existence of whistlers meant plasma was present in Earth's atmosphere, and that it moved radio waves in the same direction as Earth's magnetic field lines. From this he deduced but was unable to conclusively prove the existence of the plasmasphere, a thin layer between the ionosphere and magnetosphere. In 1963 American scientist Don Carpenter and Soviet astronomer Konstantin Gringauz—independently of each other, and the latter using data from the Luna 2 spacecraft—experimentally proved the plasmasphere and plasmapause's existence, building on Storey's thinking. American electrical engineer Robert Helliwell is also known for his research into whistlers. Helliwell and one of his students, Jack Mallinckrodt, were investigating lightning noise at very low radio frequencies at Stanford University in 1950. Mallinckrodt heard some whistling sounds and brought them to Helliwell's attention. As Helliwell recalled in an article in the October 1982 issue of the Stanford Engineer, he initially thought it was an artifact, but stood radio watch with Mallinckrodt until he heard the whistlers himself. Helliwell described these sounds as "weird, strange and unbelievable as flying saucers" in a 1954 article in the Palo Alto Times. Helliwell tried to understand the mechanism involved in the production of whistlers. He conducted experiments at the VLF outpost Siple Station in West Antarctica, which was active from 1971 to 1988. Since the wavelength of VLF radio signals is very large (a frequency of 10 kHz corresponds to a wavelength of 30 kilometres (19 mi)), Siple Station had an antenna that was 13 miles (21 km) long. The antenna was used to transmit VLF radio signals into Earth's magnetosphere, to be detected in Canada. It was possible to inject these signals into the magnetosphere, since the ionosphere is transparent to these low frequencies. Whistlers were named by British World War I radio operators. On the wide-band spectrogram, the observed characteristic of a whistler is that the tone rapidly descends over a few seconds—almost like a person whistling or an incoming grenade—hence the name "whistlers." A type of electromagnetic signal propagating in the Earth–ionosphere waveguide, known as a radio atmospheric signal or sferic, may escape the ionosphere and propagate outward into the magnetosphere. The signal is prone to bounce-mode propagation, reflecting back and forth on opposite sides of the planet until totally attenuated. To clarify which part of this hop pattern the signal is in, it is specified by a number, indicating the portion of the bounce path it is currently on. On its first upward path, it is known as a 0+. After passing the geomagnetic equator, it is referred to as a 1−. The + or - sign indicates either upward or downward propagation, respectively. The numeral represents the half-bounce currently in progress. The reflected signal is redesignated 1+, until passing the geomagnetic equator again; then it is called 2−, and so on. - Dawn chorus (electromagnetic) - Electromagnetic electron wave - Hiss (electromagnetic) - Atmospheric noise - Radio atmospheric - Helicon (physics) - Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), launched 1997, still operational. - FR-1, launched 1965, one of the earliest spacecraft to measure ionospheric and magnetospheric VLF waves, non-operational but still orbiting Earth. - Helios (spacecraft) - MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging), launched 2004, decommissioned 2015. - Radiation Belt Storm Probes - Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), launched 2010, still operational. - Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), launched 1995, still operational. - Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), launched 1980, decommissioned 1989. - Solar Orbiter (SOLO), Launched in February 2020, Operational in November 2021. - Parker Solar Probe, launched in 2018, still operational. - STEREO (Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory), launched 2006, still operational. - Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE), launched 1998, decommissioned 2010. - Ulysses (spacecraft), launched 1990, decommissioned 2009. - WIND (spacecraft), launched 1994, still operational. - Robert A. Helliwell (2006). Whistlers and Related Ionospheric Phenomena. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-44572-4. Originally published by Stanford University Press, Stanford, California (1965). - Hobara, Y.; Kanemaru, S.; Hayakawa, M.; Gurnett, D. A. (1997). "On estimating the amplitude of Jovian whistlers observed by Voyager 1 and implications concerning lightning". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 102 (A4): 7115–7125. Bibcode:1997JGR...102.7115H. doi:10.1029/96JA03996. ISSN 2156-2202. - Aplin, Karen L.; Fischer, Georg (February 2017). "Lightning detection in planetary atmospheres". Weather. 72 (2): 46–50. arXiv:1606.03285. Bibcode:2017Wthr...72...46A. doi:10.1002/wea.2817. ISSN 0043-1656. - Baumjohann, W.; Treumann, R. A.; Georgescu, E.; Haerendel, G.; Fornacon, K.-H.; Auster, U. (1999-12-31). "Waveform and packet structure of lion roars". Annales Geophysicae. 17 (12): 1528–1534. Bibcode:1999AnGeo..17.1528B. doi:10.1007/s00585-999-1528-9. ISSN 0992-7689. S2CID 11493967. - Inan, U. S.; Golkowski, M.; Carpenter, D. L.; Reddell, N.; Moore, R. C.; Bell, T. F.; Paschal, E.; Kossey, P.; Kennedy, E.; Meth, S. Z. (28 December 2004). "Multi-hop whistler-mode ELF/VLF signals and triggered emissions excited by the HAARP HF heater". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (24). Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3124805I. doi:10.1029/2004GL021647. S2CID 16062416. Retrieved 20 April 2022. - Gallagher, D. L. (27 May 2015). "Discovering the Plasmasphere". Space Plasma Physics. Huntsville, AL: NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Retrieved 1 December 2020. - "Owen Storey". Engineering and Technology History Wiki. 29 January 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2020. - Melissae Fellet, "Robert Helliwell, Radioscience and Magnetosphere Expert, Dead at 90," Stanford Report, May 20, 2011 at http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/may/robert-helliwell-obit-052011.html - Smith, R.L.; Angerami, J.J. (Jan 1, 1968). "Magnetospheric Properties Deduced from OGO 1 Observations of Ducted and Nonducted Whistlers". Journal of Geophysical Research. 73 (1): 1–20. Bibcode:1968JGR....73....1S. doi:10.1029/ja073i001p00001. - A beginner's guide to natural VLF radio phenomena - second part. - The INSPIRE Project - Exploring Very Low Frequency Natural Radio (NASA educational portfolio program). - Helliwell, Robert A. (1958). "Whistlers and VLF Emissions". In Odishaw, Hugh; Ruttenberg, Stanley (eds.). Geophysics and the IGY: proceedings of the symposium at the opening of the International Geophysical Year. pp. 35–44.
A horse’s height is measured by the number of hands from the ground up to the withers. The horse’s withers are the top of the shoulder at the highest point, between the neck and the back. The agreed upon measurement of the hand is equal to 4 inches. Historians believe this measurement may date back 5,000 years. About 3,000 BC in Ancient Egypt, the hand became a standard measurement along with the cubit which is the length of the arm from elbow to fingertips. The hand measurement is used in English-speaking countries. Europeans use the “stick” or “tape” measurement and the metric system. The horse’s height is told in meters and centimeters. A horse measuring 15.2 hands is considered to be 62 inches tall. But a horse 15.4 hands is called 16 hands as the .4 represents the 4 inches of a hand measurement. Not exactly the most accurate of measurements, but close enough.
The history of life on Earth is described in various publications and web sites (e.g., Speer, B.R. and A.G. Collins. 2000; Tudge, 2000; Lecointre and Guyader, 2001; Maddison, 2001 Eldredge, 2002); it is also discussed in the module on Macroevolution: essentials of systematics and taxonomy. For the current purpose of understanding what is biodiversity, it is only necessary to note that that the diversity of species, ecosystems and landscapes that surround us today are the product of perhaps 3.7 billion (i.e., 3.7×1093.7×109) to 3.85 billion years of evolution of life on Earth (Mojzsis et al., 1996; Fedo and Whitehouse, 2002). Thus, the evolutionary history of Earth has physically and biologically shaped our contemporary environment. As noted in the section on Biogeography, plate tectonics and the evolution of continents and ocean basins have been instrumental in directing the evolution and distribution of the Earth's biota. However, the physical environment has also been extensively modified by these biota. Many existing landscapes are based on the remains of earlier life forms. For example, some existing large rock formations are the remains of ancient reefs formed 360 to 440 million years ago by communities of algae and invertebrates (Veron, 2000). Very old communities of subterranean bacteria may have been responsible for shaping many geological processes during the history of the Earth, such as the conversion of minerals from one form to another, and the erosion of rocks (Fredrickson and Onstott, 1996). The evolution of photosynthetic bacteria, sometime between 3.5 and 2.75 million years ago Schopf, 1993; Brasier et al., 2002; Hayes, 2002), played an important role in the evolution of the Earth's atmosphere. These bacteria released oxygen into the atmosphere, changing it's composition from the former composition of mainly carbon dioxide, with other gases such as nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen and sulphur gases present in smaller quantities. It probably took over 2 billion years for the oxygen concentration to reach the level it is today (Hayes, 2002), but the process of oxygenation of the atmosphere led to important evolutionary changes in organisms so that they could utilize oxygen for metabolism. The rise of animal and plant life on land was associated with the development of an oxygen rich atmosphere.
January 04, 2012. A hypothesis submitted by researchers at the University of Castilla-La Mancha in Spain, published in the January, 2012Frontiers of Bioscience Elite Edition, suggests that a lack of manganese rather than calcium could be the cause of osteoporosis, a disease characterized by progressive thinning of the bones that is common among older individuals, particularly women. By studying deer antlers, Tomás Landete of the University’s Research Institute of Hunting Resources (IREC) and his associates discovered an association between manganese depleted diets in 2005 and increased breakage. “Previous antler studies show that manganese is necessary for calcium absorption,” commented Dr Landete. “Our hypothesis is that when the human body absorbs less manganese or when it is sent from the skeleton to other organs that require it, such as the brain, the calcium that is extracted at the same time is then not properly absorbed and is excreted in the urine. It is in this way that osteoporosis can slowly strike.” “Antlers grow by transferring 20% of the skeleton’s calcium towards their structure,” he added. “We therefore saw that it was not calcium deficiency that caused the weakening but rather the deficiency of manganese. The lack of manganese was almost as if the ‘glue’ that sticks calcium to antlers bones was missing.” The researchers suggest that osteoporosis caused by a lack of manganese could precede brain disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. A comparison of 45 osteoporosis patients and 68 subjects with osteoarthritis who underwent surgery between 2008 and 2009 found that 40 percent of those who had osteoporosis exhibited some type of cerebral dysfunction while none of those who had osteoarthritis showed signs of the condition. “We are collecting human bones to confirm this,” Dr Landete stated. “However, studies on rats in which Alzheimer’s disease has been induced by aluminum intoxication show that as the severity of this disease increases, manganese levels in the bones decrease.”
Nicole Zhao ’20 Imagine having the ability to never forget. This would come in handy if one needed to memorize a textbook or lecture slides for an exam. However, being able to remember every single moment of your life in snapshots does have its drawbacks. This is exactly what happened to a man known as subject S. who was known for his unforgettable memory in 1929 (1). Although he could recite a book that he learned decades earlier, he had trouble understanding abstract concepts or figurative language (1). He also had trouble recognizing faces because he only had memories of them at an exact point and was unable to understand the concept of aging (1). Therefore, it was believed that forgetting might just be as important as remembering. In a new study, researchers at Nagoya University in Japan have identified a group of neurons that may be responsible for helping the brain to forget (2). These brain cells, known as melanin-concentrating hormone (M.C.H.) neurons are located in the hypothalamus and are most active during rapid eye movement (R.E.M.) sleep (2). The hypothalamus is an area of the brain involved in producing hormones that maintain homeostasis, including those involved in sleep and arousal (3). R.E.M. sleep is a cycle of sleep characterized by a state resembling a wakefulness and vivid dreams. Researchers found that the M.C.H. neurons in the hypothalamus suppressed neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region that is responsible for the consolidation of memory (2). To determine to role of M.C.H. neurons and their effect on memory consolidation, researchers performed a controlled experiment in which they activated or suppressed M.C.H. neurons before performing memory exams on mice (2). First, the mice were allowed to see and sniff two items before researchers artificially activated or suppressed their M.C.H. neurons. After, the mice in the two groups would be presented with the same objects in addition to different ones and the rate of approach would determine whether they remembered or not. It was found that activating M.C.H. neurons during R.E.M. sleep worsened their memory and the mice would approach the new items with the same frequency as they did with the old items which they have seen and smelled (2). Researchers further validated these results with another experiment in which mice formed bonds with items which they liked to play with and activating M.C.H. neurons would change this behavior (2). The results of these experiments suggest that hypothalamic M.C.H. neurons actively help the brain forget information that is not important. Moreover, it is important to note that both experiments worked only when M.C.H. neurons were activated or suppressed during R.E.M. sleep. Their high activity during this sleep cycle may explain why we forget our dreams when we wake up. Although activation of M.C.H. neurons may not be the only explanation to why we forget, it plays a role in doing so and contributes to the necessary balance between forgetting and memory consolidation. - R. Johnson. The mystery of S., the man with an impossible memory. The New Yorker (2017). - S. Izawa, et al., REM sleep–active MCH neurons are involved in forgetting hippocampus- dependent memories. Science 365, 1308-1313 (2019). doi: 10.1126/science.aax9238. - J. Johnson. Hypothalamus: function, hormones, and disorders. Medical News Today, (2018). - Brain basic: understanding sleep. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, (2019). - Image retrieved from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nihgov/25873052091
Chapter One: An Acoustics Primer 11. What is reverberation (reverb)? The sound waves that reach the listener's ear directly from the sound source are often referred to as the direct sound. These waves reach the listener's ears first in most acoustic environments. The first reflected sounds to reach a listener's ears are called early reflections. Since they travel a longer path, compared to the direct sound, the amount of time it takes the first reflected sounds to reach our ears gives us clues as to the size and nature of the listening environment. Because the reflected sound may continue to bounce off of many surfaces, a continuous stream of sound fuses into a single entity, which continues after the original sound ceases. The stream of continuing sound is called reverberation. The rate of build-up of echo density is proportional to the square root of the volume of the room. The time-domain and frequency-domain reverb characteristics of an enviroment can be represented by its impulse response, which is equivalent to subtracting the original sound from its reverb and storing it. Combining digital sound files with an impulse response file in a process call convolution will result in something equivalent to playing the sound in that hall. Many high-end digital reverb units have stored impulse responses from famous concert halls. Later, we will see how digital filters are also measured by their impulse responses. Because of the inverse-square law described above, reverberated sounds will eventually lose enough energy and drop below the level of perception. The amount of time a sound takes to die away is called the reverb time. A standard measurement of an environment's reverb time is the amount of time required for a sound to fade to -60 dB. (This time is often called T60.) Concert halls will normally have much longer reverb times than small rooms, but maybe not as much as tunnels. Rooms with lots of reverb are called "wet" and those without are called "dry." The reverb time in a concert hall, and the variable decay time of different frequencies, keeps acoustic designers up at night. Special chambers for acoustic research, and for the recording of special sound examples, are called anechoic chambers (an=no, echoic=echoes), which should have reverb times of 0. Diffusion, often a setting on reverb units, refers to higher frequencies spreading and dying out more quickly than lower frequencies, something we use as an aural cue to the size of a space. A football field will have a higher degree of diffusion than a small studio. Humidity plays a large factor in diffusion as well. Almost all studios have either hardware or software reverb units. The controls include reverb time (how long it will take the reflections to completely die away), pre-delay time (how long after the direct sound will the first early reflection arrive), and diffusion (how much more quickly will the higher frequencies die away). Many reverb units also have filters that allow the user to tune the acoustic characteristics of the imaginary environment. Reflections from surfaces that stand out from normal reverberation levels are called echoes. An echo of prominent amplitude, close in time to the original sound may be referred to as a slapback echo. Concert halls with a focusing flat back stage wall may produce slapback echoes with sharp loud sounds, such as percussion.
Research has shown that the best learning is integrated learning. If what the student is learning is related to his everyday life, surroundings, and activities, assimilation of new information and new skills will take place more rapidly than when it is distant and unrelated to everyday experiences. An interested and involved student is a learning student, and this has been proved throughout the history of education. A student will learn math more easily if he has to add marbles instead of ordinary numbers. Dividing a cupcake is so much more fun than dividing four by two. The more we are able to integrate learning in a fun, challenging, and relevant way, the smarter our children will be. Our thanksgiving math worksheets work on the same principle, adding novelty to the subject while engaging students in activities that help them soon forget they are doing math - learning. Thanksgiving can be about more than holidays and turkey and family. While that sounds like the perfect holiday already, you can make it even better by using the time as a relaxed and fun learning opportunity. Because our thanksgiving worksheets are different from everyday schoolwork and worksheets, children embrace the novelty and enjoy every moment of something that has a decidedly festive theme. Thanksgiving activities are clearly and simply explained and no one will have to complain of boredom again. Children love challenges, and they need to stay busy, so our resources are exactly what you need to help stimulate and encourage fun, integrated learning.
Michael Wolovick ’09, a glaciology postdoctoral research associate at Princeton University, is investigating whether it might be possible to geo-engineer a solution to prevent the collapse of massive glaciers— and so fend off catastrophic sea-level rise. Wolovick’s idea is to build stabilizing underwater walls at the mouths of some of the most dangerous glaciers. If it works, his plan could give “people time to adapt to climate change and possibly reverse it,” The Atlantic reports. “Even in the most pessimistic scenarios…it still buys humanity some time, extending the life of the glacier by 400 or 500 years.” But Wolovick emphasizes that even if his plan were to work, humans still need to reduce emissions. “Rising sea levels are not the only negative consequence of climate change,” he says, “and glacial geo-engineering doesn’t do anything about thermal expansion, much less ocean acidification and heat waves.”
What determines when plants will flower? How do plants respond when they are attacked by a herbivore? Plant Responses to External Environmental Stimuli I. Do Plants and Animals Differ in Their Responses to Environmental Stimuli? 1. How do animals respond to the environment? -animal response to negative stimulus 2. How do plants respond to the environment? 3. What is phenotypic plasticity? genotype + environment ---> phenotype example: shape of leaves in oaks II. Plant Responses to Light A. Light has numerous effects on plants 2. Plant Morphology or photomorphogenesis (phototropism, flowering) 3. Measuring Time (daily and seasonally) B. How do plants measure light? 1. Receptors (measure quality, quantity and direction of light) 2. Two types of receptors a. blue light receptors -example: phototropism phototropism2 -two distinctive forms: PR (inactive) and PFR (active) -lab example (lettuce seed germination) -example in nature: impact of leaf canopy on seed germination C. How do plants measure time? 1. Early experiments -example: sleep movements in bean plants -plants get out-of-phase in the dark; must be reset by day/night cycle 2. What is the nature of the biological clock? 3. Light resets the biological clock using photoreceptors -phytochrome again; PFR resets biological clock D. Photoperiodism and the Control of Flowering 1. Developmental events in plants occur at specific times of the year -based on relative length of night and day 2. Example of Flowering Time a. Early researchers found that plants could be grouped into three types: -short day plants (SDP): flower late summer, fall early spring -long day plants (LDP): flower late spring, early summer -day neutral plants b. Plants measure night length, not day length -comparison of SDP and LDP -SDP or long night plant -LDP or short night plant c. How do plants measure the dark? -phytochrome again: light flash experiments -red light nullifies an inductive dark period, far red light does not III. Plant Defense: Responses to Herbivores and Pathogens A. Plant interaction with other species B. How do plants limit herbivory? 1. Physical defense -stinging tree: warning; the plant 2. Chemical defense -secretion of toxic chemicals in response to herbivory -Have insects developed strategies to overcome plant defenses? UCA Biologist, Dr. David Dussourd thinks so. C. How do plants defend against pathogens? 1. Role of intact plant covering -How do pathogens get into a plant? 2. Example of Internal Defense Systems: Systemic Acquired Resistance -Do plants have an immune system? -Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR)
Turquoise waters give way to white sand beaches, palm trees, brightly colored homes and shops, and then the azure blue sky. This is the lasting and indelible image of the Caribbean that is in the minds of millions of people around the world. Whether they have visited the Caribbean to take in these scenes in person or viewed them online or in print, the Caribbean is a place that leaves a permanent impression on one’s soul. A big part of Caribbean culture that makes it so memorable is its truly unique architecture. The Caribbean has long been a melting pot of various cultures and societies, and with each of these groups came different takes on architecture that shaped the way Caribbean cultures constructed homes, villages, and cities. Although much of the architecture across the region is deeply rooted in historic styles, there is an increasing tilt towards a blend of modern architecture alongside the historic feel of many villages and towns. The historic architecture of the Caribbean is a direct reflection of the many cultures and ethnic groups that came together to make the Caribbean the cultural melting pot it is today. Dutch, British, and French colonial powers brought European architectural styles to the region, where they combined over time with that of the native groups. There is also the influence of African cultures brought over as slaves of the colonial powers. As these colonial groups mixed with indigenous groups, creoles, and African cultures it gave rise to architectural styles that became uniquely Caribbean in appearance. The historic architecture of the Caribbean is best split into two different styles: - British Influence: The British colonial powers brought with them an old, European influence on architecture to the Caribbean. Islands that were controlled by the British during colonial times feature long, narrow medieval buildings and Jacobean, Georgian, and Victorian design features. - Spanish/French/African/Creole Influence: These groups were responsible for bringing a fresher, brighter approach to architecture in the Caribbean. While African and creole cultural styles are reflected in smaller villages and towns across almost every island, French and Spanish influences are not. Characteristics of these groups include flamboyant, bright colors and high levels of ornamentation. What transpired when these groups came together was a mixture of cultural approaches that led to a unique Caribbean style of architecture. Islands that were controlled by the British during colonial times featured a more European feel. The conservative approach of British overlords led to uniformity in design as well as balance and harmony in layouts. There are plantation homes from the 16th and 17th centuries standing today across several Caribbean islands that remind people of a past rich in grandeur, but tainted by the toil of millions of indigenous and African slaves. By contrast, there are islands where other colonial powers leveled a different kind of influence on the architecture of the region. Vibrant and flamboyant are just two words to describe the influence of Spanish, French, Indian, and Creole cultures on architecture in the Caribbean. These cultures, from the aristocrats to the lower class, brought a style less conservative than British features to the Caribbean. It is these features that most think of or remember when they imagine the Caribbean. Perhaps the greatest impact felt on the Caribbean came from the region’s climate. Indigenous cultures, creole cultures from Africa and the Indian Ocean region, and European cultures all had to adapt their architectural styles to the realities of the Caribbean climate. While each island offers unique architectural styles, there are constants across many of the islands that reflect the climate of the region more than the indigenous cultures and colonial powers. The Caribbean is home to high winds, heat, rain, and intense humidity. All of these factors played into the overall design and features of many Caribbean homes. Heavy rainfalls contributed to the choice of gable roofs. Cool Caribbean breezes led many to adopt large, open verandas on their homes, both to take advantage of the cooling breezes but also to offer a place to take in the beauty of the natural surroundings. One cannot overlook the impact of the hurricanes that frequently barrel through the Caribbean. Low, rectangular designs and sturdy shutters are a critical feature of many homes built with an eye toward withstanding the punishment a hurricane dishes out. Climate features have also played into the evolution of architecture in the Caribbean. While many indigenous, African, and creole cultures relied upon native materials such as clay, conch shell mortar, and timber for construction, these materials were not ideal for withstanding the punishment Mother Nature could dish out in the Caribbean. High heat and strong winds can whip up raging fires that would tear through villages constructed of these materials, and hurricanes could easily wipe entire villages off the map. As time passed into the 20th and 21st century, Caribbean cultures have begun to adopt more modern approaches to construction while working to preserve the past. An eye toward future sustainability and cheaper construction has led to the increasing use of concrete on construction across the region. Concrete offers quicker build times and greater resistance to the forces of nature that wreak havoc on traditional building materials. Along with new materials, modernism has brought a new “feel” to construction in the Caribbean. The sugar trade that dominated the Caribbean’s colonial period led to large plantations constructed of local materials widely available at the time. Now that tourism has replaced the sugar trade as the driving economic force in the region, luxury accommodations featuring the latest amenities have begun to dominate the landscape as the region seeks retain the millions of tourists that flock to its shores each year. Make no mistake, the history and tradition of architecture is alive and well across the Caribbean. Updated plantation homes remain in high demand among those moving to the Caribbean in search of a touch of history, but modernity has a place in the Caribbean as well. Though the homes are now made of concrete in many places, the vibrant and flamboyant colors and ornamentation remain to remind everyone of the shining jewel the Caribbean is to the world.
Children receive mixed messages about money. Frankly, so do adults. Discussing money in your classroom can be more controversial than discussing religion, so be warned that today’s conversation starter may provoke discomfort. April is financial literacy month. In preparation, let’s start discussing how to use money to promote happiness. Today ask your students: Who do you think is happier: people who spend money on things or people who spend money on events? Nudge them to consider their own experiences pursuing objects to make them happy versus enjoying experiences. This question is a great opportunity for students to practice their compare and contrast skills. See if you can get all of them to recognize the pros and cons of both expenditures. Objective: The goal is to help them to understand what works to make them happiest and why. With clarity about how they become happiest, they are better equipped to lead happier lives as adults. By requiring students to consider pros and cons of both types of purchases, you encourage them to recognize the merits of the choices of others. For your reluctant students, try this prompt: If I gave you $100 right now and I told you that you had to make a single purchase which would make you happy for the next month, what would you spend the money on? For younger kids ask them a more specific question: Do you prefer getting a toy? Or, spending time doing _____ activity (going to the playground, riding your bike, playing dress-up)? Let me know what they come up with!
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the routing protocol of the Internet, used to route traffic across the Internet. For that reason, it’s a pretty important protocol, and BGP Configuration can also be the hardest one to do. From our overview of Internet routing, you should realize that routing in the Internet is comprised of two parts: the internal fine-grained portions managed by an IGP such as OSPF, and the interconnections of those autonomous systems (AS) via BGP. Who needs to understand BGP? BGP is relevant to network administrators of large organizations which connect to two or more ISPs, as well as to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) who connect to other network providers. If you are the administrator of a small corporate network, or an end user, then you probably don’t need to know about BGP. - The current version of BGP is BGP version 4, based on RFC4271. - BGP is the path-vector protocol that provides routing information for autonomous systems on the Internet via its AS-Path attribute. - BGP is a Layer 4 protocol that sits on top of TCP. It is much simpler than OSPF, because it doesn’t have to worry about the things TCP will handle. - Peers that have been manually configured to exchange routing information will form a TCP connection and begin speaking BGP. There is no discovery in BGP. - Medium-sized businesses usually get into BGP for the purpose of true multi-homing for their entire network. - An important aspect of BGP is that the AS-Path itself is an anti-loop mechanism. Routers will not import any routes that contain themselves in the AS-Path. Why do you need to understand BGP? When BGP is configured incorrectly, it can cause massive availability and security problems, as Google discovered in 2008 when its YouTube service became unreachable to large portions of the Internet. What happened was that, in an effort to ban YouTube in its home country, Pakistan Telecom used BGP to route YouTube’s address block into a black hole. But, in what is believed to have been an accident, this routing information somehow got transmitted to Pakistan Telecom’s Hong Kong ISP and from there got propagated to the rest of the world. The end result was that most of YouTube’s traffic ended up in a black hole in Pakistan. More sinisterly, 2003 saw a number of BGP hijack attacks, where modified BGP route information allowed unknown attackers to redirect large blocks of traffic so that it travelled via routers in Belarus or Iceland before it was transmitted on to its intended destination. Clearly, BGP is significant. Here we’ll provide a short overview of how BGP works, along with the problems it solves and causes. First a little terminology. In the world of BGP, each routing domain is known as an autonomous system, or AS. What BGP does is help choose a path through the Internet, usually by selecting a route that traverses the least number of autonomous systems: the shortest AS path. You might need BGP, for example, if your corporate network is connected to two large ISPs. To use BGP you would need an AS number, which you can get from the American Registry of Internet Numbers (ARIN). Once BGP is enabled, your router will pull a list of Internet routes from your BGP neighbors, who in this case will be your two ISPS. It will then scrutinize them to find the routes with the shortest AS paths. These will be put into the router’s routing table. (If you only connect to a single ISP then you don’t need BGP. That’s because there’s only one path to the Internet, so there’s no need for a routing protocol to select the best path.) Generally, but not always, routers will choose the shortest path to an AS. BGP only knows about these paths based on updates it receives. Unlike Routing Information Protocol (RIP), a distance-vector routing protocol which employs the hop count as a routing metric, BGP does not broadcast its entire routing table. At boot, your peer will hand over its entire table. After that, everything relies on updates received. Route updates are stored in a Routing Information Base (RIB). A routing table will only store one route per destination, but the RIB usually contains multiple paths to a destination. It is up to the router to decide which routes will make it into the routing table, and therefore which paths will actually be used. In the event that a route is withdrawn, another route to the same place can be taken from the RIB. The RIB is only used to keep track of routes that could possibly be used. If a route withdrawal is received and it only existed in the RIB, it is silently deleted from the RIB. No update is sent to peers. RIB entries never time out. They continue to exist until it is assumed that the route is no longer valid. In many cases, there will be multiple routes to the same destination. BGP therefore uses path attributes to decide how to route traffic to specific networks. The easiest of these to understand is Shortest AS_Path. What this means is the path which traverses the least number of AS “wins.” Another important attribute is Multi_Exit_Disc (Multi-exit discriminator, or MED). This makes it possible to tell a remote AS that if there are multiple exit points on to your network, a specific exit point is preferred. The Origin attribute specifies the origin of a routing update. If BGP has multiple routes, then origin is one of the factors in determining the preferred route. To get a true sense of how BGP works, it’s important to spend some time talking about the issues that plague the Internet. First, we have a very big problem with routing table growth. If someone decides to deaggregate a network that used to be a single /16 network, they could potentially start advertising hundreds of new routes. Every router on the Internet will get every new route when this happens. People are constantly pressured to aggregate, or combine multiple routes into a single advertisement. Aggregation isn’t always possible, especially if you want to break up a /19 into two geographically separate /20s. Routing tables are approaching 200,000 routes now, and for a time they were appearing to grow exponentially. Second, there is always a concern that someone will “advertise the Internet.” If some large ISP’s customer suddenly decides to advertise everything, and the ISP accepts the routes, all of the Internet’s traffic will be sent to the small customer’s AS. There’s a simple solution to this. It’s called route filtering. It’s quite simple to set up filters so that your routers won’t accept routes from customers that you aren’t expecting, but many large ISPs will still accept the equivalent of “default” from peers that have no likelihood of being able to provide transit. Finally, we come to flapping. BGP has a mechanism to “hold down” routes that appear to be flaky. Routes that flap, or come and go, usually aren’t reliable enough to send traffic to. If routes flap frequently, the load on all Internet routes will increase due to the processing of updates every time someone disappears and reappears. Dampening will prevent BGP peers from listening to all routing updates from flapping peers. The amount of time one is in hold-down increases exponentially with every flap. It’s annoying when you have a faulty link, since it can be more than an hour before you can get to many Internet sites, but it is very necessary. This quick discussion of BGP should be enough to get you thinking the right way about the protocol but is by no means comprehensive. Spend some time reading the RFCs if you’re tasked with operating a BGP router. Your peers will appreciate it.
Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Jul 18, 2013 Apollo Zero seeks to prove that no man has ever really walked on the moon. Think about this: to date, only three countries have been able to put a man merely in Earth orbit - the United States, Russia, and China. That speaks to how difficult it is just to get into orbit. Next, consider how far away the moon is from the Earth: 240,000 miles. Since the alleged moon landings, no country even claims to have gone more than 400 miles from Earth and that was in the Space Shuttle. The International Space Station orbits at 200 miles above Earth. There is a big difference between 240,000 miles and 400 miles. Why can't anyone make it more than 400 miles from Earth today if we could make a 480,000 mile round trip in 1969? NASA further asserts that three men were loaded into a rocket, flew 240,000 miles to the moon and then achieved lunar orbit. They say the spacecraft separated and two astronauts flew 60 miles to the surface of the moon, in a vacuum and 1/6 Earth gravity. They then hung out on the moon for up to three days in 250 degree heat, hit golf balls, rode a moon buggy — but what powered their life support and equipment? They say BATTERIES. They then supposedly blasted off the surface of the moon, docked with the third man going around the moon at over 4000 miles per hour, and made it 240,000 miles back to Earth. They re-entered Earth's atmosphere going 25,000 mph, but parachutes assured a safe landing in the ocean. We hope you will agree that Apollo Zero proves the absurdity of NASA's claim in a clear and convincing fashion. View Apollo Zero and decide for yourself. To download Apollo Zero, we suggest using catchvideo.net. Apollo Zero was produced solely for educational, non-profit use.
3 Answers \| Add Yours Prokaryotes are organisms that are mainly single-celled although some are multicellular. Scientists have divided them into two groups: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have no cell nucleus and no membrane enclosed organelles. Prokaryotic DNA can be found in a coiled loop floating in the cytoplasm in a region called the nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like). In other words, the nucleoid is the area in a prokaryotic cell where DNA is located. Prokaryotes compress their DNA into a small space through a process called supercoiling. Supercoiling DNA allows it to be packaged efficiently into the small cell. prokaryotes are single celled organisms so they have their dna located in the cytoplasm since they have no specific organelles inside the cell. t is located all throughout the cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus so the DNA is located in the cytoplasm. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is also usually found in a circular ring that is coiled up into figure eights called supercoils. We’ve answered 318,988 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
In the early morning hours of March 13, Taipei Zoo welcomed the birth of a male Pangolin. The small, energetic baby is part of the 3rd generation of Pangolin born at the Zoo. Staff had been carefully monitoring the Pangolin mom’s pregnancy and provided special care prior to the pangopup’s birth. Veterinarians assisted with the birth and the new boy arrived at about 2:45am, weighing in at 132 grams. He has now grown to 293 grams. The veterinary nurse prepared a special nest of leaves and wood chips to allow insulation and protection for the new one. The new mother kept the baby completely buried in the heap of leaves to protect him from low temps. Pangolins (also referred to as “Scaly Anteaters” or “Trenggiling”) are mammals of the order Pholidota. The one extant family, Manidae, has three genera: Manis, which comprises four species living in Asia, Phataginus, which comprises two species living in Africa, and Smutsia, which comprises two species also living in Africa. These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). The name pangolin comes from the Malay word "pengguling", meaning "something that rolls up". It is found in tropical regions throughout Africa and Asia. Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin; they are the only known mammals with this adaptation. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long, specially adapted tongues. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor and its face tucked under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense. The front claws are so long they are unsuited for walking, so the animal walks with its fore paws curled over to protect them. Pangolins are threatened by hunting (for their meat and armor) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats. Of the eight species of pangolin, four species (Phataginus tetradactyla, P. tricuspis, Smutsia gigantea, and S. temminckii) are listed as “Vulnerable”, two species (Manis crassicaudata and M. cullonensis) are listed as “Endangered”, and two species (M. pentadctyla and M. javanica) are listed as “Critically Endangered” on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 50% more. While there is no defined mating season, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn months. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females will find them. If there is competition over a female, the males will use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her. Gestation lasts for approximately 120–150 days. African Pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth from one to three. Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2.8 to 15.9 oz) and the average length is 150 mm (5.9 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and will wrap her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month old, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place at approximately three months of age, at which stage the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.
Researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder have achieved the first experimental results of using graphene as a membrane to separate gases. While still a long way off from industrial use, the membranes do possess mechanical properties that should prove beneficial in natural gas production. The ultra-thin, graphene-based membranes’ highly selective pores increase flux through the membrane making the process more energy efficient, thereby reducing the plant’s production of carbon dioxide. The Univ. of Colorado research builds on work that was completed last year at Boulder that showed that graphene possessed extraordinary adhesion capabilities. That work demonstrated that if graphene were used in a multi-layer membrane, the adhesion between the layers of the membrane would be extremely strong. This most recent work also seems to go one step beyond research at MIT from earlier this year. In that work, scientists used computer simulation to show that nanoporous graphene could replace membrane materials currently used in the reverse osmosis water desalination processes. At the time, the MIT researchers said they expected that turning their computer models into real world membranes would be daunting. According to the researchers, getting the pores size precisely right would be difficult to do on a large scale. While the Boulder researchers have not attempted to scale up their experimental results yet, they have managed to get the pore size correct on the graphene so it can separate a variety of gases. The research, which was published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology (“Selective molecular sieving through porous graphene”), was able to achieve its precisely sized pores by etching them into graphene sheets with a process involving ultraviolet light-induced oxidation. The resulting porous graphene was then tested on a range of gases including “hydrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, methane and sulphur hexaflouride — which range in size from 0.29 to 0.49 nanometers.” “These atomically thin, porous graphene membranes represent a new class of ideal molecular sieves, where gas transport occurs through pores which have a thickness and diameter on the atomic scale,” says Colorado mechanical engineering professor Scott Bunch in a university press release. The main technical challenge, according to the researchers, will be bringing these results up to an industrial scale. In particular, they will need to find a process by which they can create large enough sheets of graphene. The researchers even concede that getting the pores precisely defined still needs further development.
Images for Human Vertebral Column Diagram Vertebral Column Diagram – Human vertebral column refers to the bones which make up a column-like in our back part. This column of bones is also often called as columna vertebralis. It comes from Latin words. The number of the bones that make up the vertebral column are 33 vertebrae. These 33 vertebrae are owned by human. 24 of those vertebrae are called articulating vertebrae. The other nine vertebrae are called fused vertebrae. These nine vertebrae are fused to the part of the backbone called sacrum and coccyx. Take a look at vertebral column diagram As told before that human has 24 vertebrae called articulating vertebrae. And the other nine consist of five vertebrae that are fused to the part of the backbone named sacrum and four vertebrae are fused to the coccygeal bones. The 24 vertebrae consist of Those 33 vertebrae are functioned to help protecting the spinal cord which is in the backbone area. As human is aging the number of vertebrae may increase and decrease as well at the same time. Additional vertebra may replace the diminished vertebrae. And it is just normal. However, the vertebrae in the cervix area will not be diminished it is not common to happen such case. Cervical vertebrae consist of seven bones. There are also twelve vertebrae that make up the thoracic and five vertebrae that make up the lumbar. The vertebral column of human, of course, has differences with other vertebral creatures, in this case vertebral animals. The differences can be in the form of its number or even in the form of shapes. As told above, the function of the existence of vertebrae is to protect the present of other important part of human body that is spinal cord. It is because the vertebral column has hollow space inside it and it make up a space that is used for the spinal cord. This space is called spinal canal. The 24 vertebrae or called articulating vertebrae are in the upper part of the backbone while the other vertebrae are in the lower part. Vertebral column diagram of human and other vertebral animals are not hard to distinguished.
Powdery mildew is one of the easiest plant diseases to diagnose. This fungal disease appears as a white, dusty growth on the leaves and stems, often with tiny black dots. Nearly all plants can get powdery mildew, but it is especially common on lilac, phlox, turf, and zinnia. Powdery mildew is most common when humidity is high and nights are cool while days are warm. It is especially common in the shade. It can be somewhat reduced by promoting airflow among plants by proper spacing and pruning and by planting susceptible species in the sun. Resistant varieties of several plants, such as zinnia and phlox, are available and should be used when possible. Fungicide sprays can be used preventatively if desired. On large trees such as maple and oak, powdery mildew typically appears late in the season. Because of this, the disease does not cause significant harm to the plant, as the leaves are almost done their job of making food for the year and will drop soon. No management is typically recommended in this instance.
by Sally Hodson, Ed.D. author of Granny’s Clan, published by Dawn Publications See Part 1 of this series. Part 2: Asking Questions ow do we prepare young people for the 21st century challenge of caring for our planet so that it can sustain future generations of plants, animals and humans? In short, how do we educate our kids to be eco-literate? To be literate in the language of our planet, we need to understand how life on Earth functions and how we interact with it. And we need tools to help our heads to think, our hearts to feel, and our hands to act. This month, we’ll add Ask Questions to our Eco-Literacy Toolkit Remember when you were a kid and asked endless questions about everything that interested you? Where do stars go during the day? How do fish breathe? When we became adults, many of us stopped asking questions and focused instead on getting the “right” answers. We learn by asking questions. Questions spark our curiosity, open our minds to new ideas and sharpen our thinking skills. A good question is one of our most powerful Eco-Literacy teaching tools. Students who understand the complexity of the natural world are much better equipped to solve difficult problems and make decisions. While reading Granny’s Clan: A Tale of Wild Orcas, children learn how orcas use sounds to navigate, communicate, find food and stay close to their family. By asking questions, we can help them explore this complex process and examine the impact of noise on the survival of these endangered orcas. 1. Ask questions that involve different levels of thinking. (See Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy). – Remembering questions – What is echolocation? – Understanding questions – How do sound echoes help orcas locate fish in a dark underwater environment? – Applying questions – How could you find your way across a room if you couldn’t use your eyes to see? – Analyzing questions – What are similar and different ways that humans and orcas find their way in the dark? – Creating questions – What would happen if boat noise was so loud that orcas couldn’t echolocate or communicate with their family? How would you feel if you couldn’t find your way home? Talk with your family? – Evaluating questions – Why is echolocation more effective than orca eyesight in locating fish in dark waters? 2. Ask open and closed questions. What is echolocation? (closed) What do you think it would be like to “see” with sounds? (open) 3. Ask questions that develop imagination and empathy. What do you think orcas are communicating to each other? If you could understand orca language, what would you say to them? What do you think they might communicate to you? 4. Ask questions to clarify answers and encourage discussion. Good questions usually lead to more questions. Can you give some examples of ways humans “see” in the dark? Why do you think that? What else do we need to know? Ask lots of questions. By modeling questions, you are showing students how to be active thinkers who can create their own questions. Every innovative idea begins with a question. You’ll find a set of inquiry questions in each of the activities for Granny’s Clan: A Tale of Wild Orcas. Some of the questions presented above can be found in: Echoes Show the Way, Can You Speak Orca? and Danger Ahead! To download the activities for Granny’s Clan or for any other Dawn Publications book, click this link to the downloadable activities or click the Teacher’s/Librarians tab on the website and select Downloadable Activities from the drop-down menu. The next installment of Lessons from an Orca Grandmother explores how to use the Power of Story to communicate ideas and inspire others. The fourth installment, Explore and Experience, focuses on how to connect kids to the natural environment. The fifth and final installment, Act as a Steward, shows how to involve students in action learning projects in their own community. Dr. Hodson is a K-12 teacher and a trainer of teachers, and was executive director of The Whale Museum in Friday Harbor, WA.
Scientists reported a new discovery on Wednesday that could offer new insights into the origins of humans. In the scientific journal Nature, scientists reported they were able to extract human DNA from a thighbone found in Spain that is estimated to be 400,000 years old. That is the oldest known human DNA ever recorded, far surpassing the oldest DNA recovered previously, which dated back some 100,000 years. The fossil was found at the “Pit of Bones” archeological site in northern Spain and from its DNA researchers were able to replicate the entire genome of the early human. Here’s more on what the discovery could mean for research on the evolution of humans via the Associated Press: The genetic sequence surprised researchers, who thought it was likely that the sequence would reveal that remains were related to the Neanderthals. Instead, the genetic sequence revealed that this early human species is related to another genetic cousin of modern humans, the mysterious Denisovans. Little is known about the Denisovans, who are thought to have been common throughout the regions now known as Asia and Eastern Europe. This early human species was discovered after genetic sequencing was used to map DNA through the ancient pinkie bone of a girl in 2010. Anthropologists and genetic experts said the findings from the Pit of Bones could help shed light on how early human species evolved and spread across different continents. “The mismatch between the anatomical and genetic evidence,” the New York Times reports, means “scientists are now rethinking human evolution over the past few hundred thousand years.”
\|Rolling Thunder Mountain near Talus Lake is part of the Teton Range. The orange rock in the foreground is Webb Canyon gneiss, granite formed by decompression melting more than 2.6 billion years ago.\| University of Wyoming scientists have found evidence of continental collisions in Wyoming's Teton Range, similar to those in the Himalayas, dating to as early as 2.68 billion years ago. The research, published in the journal Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, shows that plate tectonics were operating in what is now western Wyoming long before the collisions that created the Himalayas starting 40 million years ago. In fact, the remnants of tectonic activity in old rocks exposed in the Tetons point to the world's earliest known continent-continent collision, says Professor Carol Frost of UW's Department of Geology and Geophysics, lead author of the paper. "While the Himalayas are the prime example of continent-continent collisions that take place due to plate tectonic motion today, our work suggests plate tectonics operated far, far back into the geologic past," Frost says. The paper's co-authors include fellow UW Department of Geology and Geophysics faculty members Susan Swapp and Ron Frost. The researchers reached their conclusions by analyzing ancient, exposed granite in the northern Teton Range and comparing it to similar rock in the Himalayas. The rocks were formed from magma produced by what is known as decompression melting, a process that commonly occurs when two continental tectonic plates collide. The dramatically thickened crust extends under gravitational forces, and melting results when deeper crust rises closer to the surface. While the Tetons are a relatively young mountain range, formed by an uplift along the Teton Fault less than 9 million years ago, the rocks exposed there are some of the oldest found in North America. The UW scientists found that the mechanisms that formed the granites of the Tetons and the Himalayas are comparable, but that there are significant differences between the rocks of the two regions. That is due to differences in the composition of the continental crust in Wyoming 2.68 billion years ago compared to crustal plates observed today. Specifically, the ancient crust that melted in the Tetons contained less potassium than the more recently melted crust found in the Himalayas.
The continue statement is an odd statement in FORTRAN. It is an executable statement but it takes no action in the program. It's primarily used as a place holder to span gaps created between branches or loops and the rest of the program. The most common way in which the continue statement has been used in FORTRAN is as the last statement in a do loop. For instance, in the following example the program will execute every statement between the DO statement and CONTINUE labeled 1000 a to total of 100 times. After the specified number of loops, execution will continue at the next statement below the CONTINUE. Please note that the continue statement serves the exact same purpose in this example as an END DO statement does. Do 1000 i=1,100 x = y2+3i 1000 continue Another way in which the continue statement can be used is as an termination point for branching statements. In the following if construct, an unconditional go to statement is used to loop around the value of y that would be computed if x was greater than five. The continue is then used as the target for that go to statement. The continue statement then serves as a bridge between the branching structure and the rest of the program and allows significant flexibility in changing coding before and after the branch destination. if ( x.gt.5) go to 110 y=0 go to 120 110 y=(x=5.)2 120 continue Even though conditional structures written like this are still valid FORTRAN, it is recommended that you avoid writing them. This is an archaic form of FORTRAN that was used before the advent of the block IF structure for looping. The block if structure is neater and nicer to use, so it is the preferred construct in this case. In fact the combination of the END DO statement, Block IF, and CASE structures make CONTINUE far less useful than it was in older FORTRAN programs. lecture eleven and fifteen examples: fall1.f and curvefit.f Written by Jason Wehr : [email protected] and Maintained by John Mahaffy : [email protected]
Our aim in History is to excite children about the possibility of discovering the past for themselves and engaging critically, creatively and empathetically with the beliefs, struggles, and achievements of the past, both in Britain and the wider world. We strive to recognise the legacies of history, both positive and negative, and encourage the children to make connections between then and now, here and there. Throughout Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2, our children learn about various aspects of British, world and local history. Years 1 & 2: Tourism in the local area Year 3: Romans and Celts History of the circus Year 4: Settlers and Invaders (Anglo-Saxons and Vikings) The local fishing industry Year 5: The ancient Egyptians The Apollo space missions Year 6: Ancient Greece World War II In addition, our children also learn about particular historical figures.
Part I of this topic explained to parents about children’s misbehaviours and introduced the guidance approach to guide children. Part II discusses the various strategies identified by the guidance approach for guiding children’s behaviours. The guidance approach helps parents to guide children to be considerate and responsible. In order for this method to work, parents have to understand your child’s behaviour when they misbehave. This includes considering your child’s needs or perspective, the circumstances and their temperament when deciding on how to help your child. Below are some strategies that parents can use. Help your child to identify and manage their feelings As self-regulation skills are only beginning to develop in young children, they often let their emotions or impulses get the better of them, causing them to misbehave. This can happen when they are frustrated, disappointed, fearful or even excited. In order for young children to be able to regulate their own behaviours, they need to first learn to manage their emotions. Parents can consider the following: - Accept your children’s feelings. By showing empathy and relating to your child (i.e. ‘I know how you feel’), your child may then feel understood and be more likely to cooperate with you. Although you may not agree with how your child is feeling, accept their feelings first. - Help your child to put their feelings into words (e.g. ‘I understand that you are upset’, ‘I know it is hard for you to…’). This will help your child feel better, making it easier for them to regulate their emotions. - If above the age of three, get your child to talk about their feelings or teach them to express their feelings in a socially acceptable way. This will help your child to address the emotion(s) that triggered the misbehaviours. - Remain calm, so that your child learns to keep calm. If they are still unable to overcome their emotional tensions, provide emotional support by hugging them, gently patting their back or shoulder, holding their hands, etc. - Provide explanations, give reassurance or share similar experience after your child has calmed down. This can help to ease their negative emotions, especially in managing fear or insecurity. - Try to understand their perspective when they are ready to talk. If non-verbal, then still talk to them and make them feel safe. Sometimes, parents can help to prevent situations that trigger emotional tension (e.g. to give an advance reminder before a transition so that they have enough time to prepare themselves emotionally). - If older than three, discuss with your child what they can do to improve the situation so that they will feel better. By helping your child to identify the problem that caused their emotional tension, they will gain a sense of control as they can work towards solving the problem to feel better (e.g. teaching them how to express themselves or ask for things politely). Over time, children will learn to cope with their emotions as they develop early emotional regulation abilities. Instead of praising children, which is a form of reward and judgement, parents can provide feedback that - gives information about what they have done right (e.g. ‘I know it was not easy for you to finish the peas even though you do not like them’), - focuses on the process or the effort that the child has put in (e.g. ‘Thank you for remembering to put your dirty clothes into the laundry basket’), or - focuses on how their behaviour affects others (e.g. ‘Aren’t you glad that we did not get caught in the rain because you left the beach when asked’). When giving negative feedback, focus on how their behaviour affects others and how to improve or avoid the situation next time. Alternatively, encourage your child to evaluate their own action (e.g. ‘What do you think of…’, ‘Are you happy with…’, etc.). This will get them to reflect on their behaviours and help them make appropriate behavioural choices. Giving specific feedback will help your child to be aware that it is their efforts and right decisions that caused things to turn out well. Sincere positive feedback helps to teach your child about acceptable behaviours and will motivate them to behave in the same way. Setting limits and rules As young children are still lacking self-regulation skills, they need some form of external regulation to help them manage their behaviours. The guidance approach uses limits and rules as a means to establish boundaries and shape children’s behaviours, in place of punishment or rewards. This needs to be done in accord with their age. With infants and toddlers, they are too young to understand limits. However, they do begin to understand ‘No’ when you have to keep them safe. For older children, by consistently enforcing limits and rules that are reasonable for your child’s age, parents can - help your child to manage situations to prevent or ease negative emotions or stressful reactions, and - support them in learning to control their impulses and regulate their emotions and behaviours. To make it easier for children to accept and follow the limits and rules set, parents have to consider these pointers when setting limits and rules: - Show empathy, i.e. show that you understand their perspective (e.g. ‘I know you are angry with your brother’, ‘It’s hard to stop playing now’). Give warnings when it is time to change an activity or have a meal. - Be clear in your expectations (e.g. ‘You cannot hit others, but you can tell him how you feel’) and phrase your rules positively. - Explain how their behaviour affects you or others (e.g. ‘You are hurting your brother’) or why they need to do certain things (e.g. ‘You need to be in a car seat so that you will be safe’). - Speak in a calm tone, do not lecture them. Being able to follow rules and limits is important as children need to learn that they cannot always have their way. When setting limits and rules to keep children safe (e.g. to hold your hand and stand within the yellow lines when riding escalators), explain the dangerous consequences and get them to agree in advance not to subject themselves to such dangers. Reminders are often necessary as children need repeated experience to learn these limits and rules. Gradually, these limits and rules become internalised as children develop a sense of knowing right from wrong. By that time, they will be able to monitor their own behaviours and make the right decisions. Provide choices or alternative When children feel overly constrained by adults, they are less likely to be cooperative. Sometimes, instead of making your child follow your instructions, it may work better to provide choices or an alternative for your child, within the limits you set. Give choices that are both acceptable to you and desirable to your child. A child is more likely to cooperate when they are given the autonomy to make their own decisions. When a child is doing something they are not supposed to, offer them a similar alternative and gently explain the reason(s). Providing an alternative would show children what they need to do so that their behaviour becomes acceptable. It also helps to redirect their focus elsewhere while learning to cope with disappointment and accepting a substitute for their preferred choice. Providing opportunities for children to take charge of their routines or daily tasks is another way of giving them autonomy. Encourage and support your child to go through routines on their own (e.g. preparing for bedtime), giving prompts when necessary. This takes practice but would help to foster a sense of responsibility and independence. A few things to note Children need to know the consequences of their actions to understand why their behaviours were acceptable or unacceptable. This takes time and to some extent depends on the age and cognitive understanding of the child. When a child is solely responsible for the misbehaviour, it is more effective to let them experience the natural consequence of their action, as long as it is within safety limits and not demotivating. This will allow them to learn that the consequence was a result of their poor choice and convince them to make better decisions next time. Punishment, however, is not an effective consequence for this purpose. Your child is still learning to cooperate and compromise. If they show reluctance or feel upset while trying to cooperate, appreciate their effort and do not fault them for this. They may require more time to learn to manage their emotions. How parents act and react will influence children’s behaviour. This does not mean that parents cannot show their real emotions in front of their children. It is how parents behave when they are experiencing emotional tension that matters. Becoming self-regulated, considerate and responsible does not come naturally to a child. It requires parents’ efforts to support them in their learning and to shape their behaviour. The guidance approach relies on parents’ understanding of your child to achieve these positive outcomes in the long term. Showing empathy and having realistic expectations when making decisions for your child helps them to cooperate and your relationship will not likely be strained even when you have to be firm and authoritative. Copyright © Marjory Ebbeck and Wendy Toh 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any forms or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright holder.
AP Environmental Science Chapter 3- The Solid Earth - Describe the thickness, composition, and condition of Earth's three major internal layers. - Outline the theory of plate tectonics, define the three types of plate boundaries, and list the landforms and geologic activities associated with each boundary type. - Compare and contrast the appearance and behavior of cinder cones and shield and composite volcanoes. - Diagram the rock cycle and describe how rocks are transformed from one type to another. - Describe the composition and formation of soil. The speculations of early civilizations regarding the nature of the earth were mostly based on lore and legend rather than scientific thought. But a few individuals did manage some remarkable insight. The Greek historian Herodotus, who lived during the 5th century B.C., correctly deduced that the Mediterranean Sea had once extended much farther to the south based on the discovery of fossil shells in the interior parts of Egypt and Libya. During the 3rd century B.C., the Greek mathematician Eratosthenes concluded the Earth was spherical, calculated its diameter and circumference. Yet, few people believed or could even comprehend such assertions. Misconceptions and prejudices regarding the nature of the earth came and went through the centuries. Only a little more than 500 years ago, sailors aboard Columbus' ships begged him to turn back, because they were fearful that they would fall off the edge of the earth. Until recently, most people held the traditional belief that the earth's age could be measured on the order of thousands of years, not millions or billions. We now know that the earth is more than 4.5 billion years old, and that the surface of the earth has undergone continual change. Limestone that now comprises a mountain was once a coral reef in an ancient tropical sea hundreds of millions of years earlier. Granitic rock that now soars thousands of feet above sea level was originally formed deep in the earth's crust. Water and wind erode the rocky faces of mountains and carry away the bits of rock to accumulate as sediments in a lake or ocean. The sediments become buried and compacted and form new rocks, which in turn form new mountains and complete the natural cycle. Scientists use their knowledge of how rocks form and change and how old they are in order to develop a comprehensive understanding of the earth and its geologic history. Earth's Formation and Structure The earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a nebular cloud of dust and gas that surrounded the sun. As the gas cooled, more solids formed. The dusty material accreted to the nebular midplane where it formed progressively larger clumps. Eventually, bodies of several kilometers in diameter formed; these are known as planetesimals. The largest planetesimals grew fastest, at the expense of the smaller ones. This process continued until an earth-sized planet had formed. Early in its formation, the earth must have been completely molten. The main source of heat at that time was probably the decay of naturally-occurring radioactive elements. As the earth cooled, density differences between the forming minerals caused the interior to become differentiated into three concentric zones: the crust, mantle and core. The crust extends downward from the surface to an average depth of 35 km where the mantle begins. The mantle extends down to a depth of 2900 km where the core begins. The core extends down to the center of the earth, a depth of about 6400 km from the surface. The core makes up 16 percent of the volume of the earth and about 31 percent of the mass. It can be divided into two regions: a solid inner core and a liquid outer core. The inner core is probably mostly metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of nickel, as its density is somewhat greater than that of pure metallic iron. The outer core is similar in composition, but probably also contains small amounts of lighter elements, such as sulfur and oxygen, because its density is slightly less than that of pure metallic iron. The presence of the lighter elements depresses the freezing point and is probably responsible for the outer core's liquid state. The mantle is the largest layer in the earth, making up about 82 percent of the volume and 68 percent of the mass of the earth. The mantle is dominated by magnesium and iron-rich (mafic) minerals. Heat from the core of the earth is transported to the crustal region by large-scale convection in the mantle. Near the top of the mantle is a region of partially melted rock called the asthenosphere. Numerous small-scale convection currents occur here as hot magma (i.e., molten rock) rises and cooler magma sinks due to differences in density. The crust is the thinnest layer in the earth, making up only 1 percent of the mass and 2 percent of the volume. Relative to the rest of the earth, the crust is rich in elements such as silicon, aluminum, calcium, sodium and potassium. Crustal materials are very diverse, consisting of more than 2000 minerals. The less dense crust floats upon the mantle in two forms: the continental crust and the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust, which contains more mafic minerals is thinner and denser than the continental crust which contains minerals richer in silicon and aluminum. The thick continental crust has deep buoyant roots that help to support the higher elevations above. The crust contains the mineral resources and the fossil fuels used by humans. Geologic Time Scale The Earth is more than 4.5 billion years old and such a large interval of time can be difficult for the average person to comprehend. Although there is not a direct record of most of this past geologic time, earth scientists have indirect evidence of what took place in the past in the record of the earth's rocks. Some of these rock records are lost and others are jumbled, but many remain, providing accounts of the astonishing events that have taken place in the life of the earth. Geologists can reconstruct these events by combining studies on the origins of rocks (petrology) and rock layering (stratigraphy) with the evolution of life (paleontology). Using key fossils found in rock layers as markers, scientists can identify rocks of the same age throughout the world. From these studies, a relative geologic time scale based on the sequence of rock layering was established. This geologic time scale consists of segments of time represented by recurring geologic events such as mountain building and sea level changes. Geologists have used these time segments to divide the earth's history into broad time spans known as Eons and Eras and shorter spans known as Periods and Epochs. Major discontinuities in the geologic and fossil records are chosen as boundary lines between the different time segments. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous Tertiary periods marks a sudden mass extinction of species the included the dinosaurs. More recently, a radiometric time scale, based on the natural radioactivity of the chemical elements in rocks, has been developed through the use of modern quantitative experimental techniques. Using these techniques, absolute ages can be assigned to some parts of the geologic time scale. For example the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary represents a time approximately 65 million years ago. The Lithosphere and Plate Tectonics The layer of the mantle above the asthenosphere plus the entire crust make up a region called the lithosphere. The lithosphere, and therefore, the earth's crust, is not a continuous shell, but is broken into a series of plates that independently "float" upon the asthenosphere, much like a raft on the ocean. These plates are in constant motion, typically moving a few centimeters a year, and are driven by convection in the mantle. The scientific theory that describes this phenomenon is called plate tectonics. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere is comprised of some seven major plates and several smaller ones. Because these plates are in constant motion, interactions occur where plate boundaries meet. A convergent (colliding) plate boundary occurs when two plates collide. If the convergent boundary involves two continental plates, the crust is compressed into high mountain ranges such as the Himalayas. If an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide, the oceanic crust (because it is more dense) is subducted under the continental crust. The region where subduction takes place is called a subduction zone and usually results in a deep ocean trench such as the "Mariana Trench" in the western Pacific Ocean. The subducted crust melts and the resultant magma can rise to the surface and form a volcano. A divergent plate boundary occurs when two plates move away from each other. Magma upwelling from the mantle region is forced through the resulting cracks, forming new crust. The mid-ocean ridge in the Atlantic Ocean is a region where new crustal material continually forms as plates diverge. Volcanoes can also occur at divergent boundaries. The island of Iceland is an example of such an occurrence. A third type of plate boundary is the transform boundary. This occurs when two plates slide past one another. This interaction can build up strain in the adjacent crustal regions, resulting in earthquakes when the strain is released. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform plate boundary. An active volcano occurs when magma (molten rock) reaches the earth's surface through a crack or vent in the crust. Volcanic activity can involve the extrusion of lava on the surface, the ejection of solid rock and ash, and the release of water vapor or gas (carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide). Volcanoes commonly occur near plate boundaries where the motion of the plates has created cracks in the lithosphere through which the magma can flow. About eighty percent of volcanoes occur at convergent plate boundaries where subducted material melts and rises through cracks in the crust. The Cascade Range was formed in this way. Volcanoes can be classified according to the type and form of their ejecta. The basic types are: composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided, symmetrical cones built of multiple layers of viscous lava and ash. Most composite volcanoes have a crater at the summit which contains the central vent. Lavas flow from breaks in the crater wall or from cracks on the flanks of the cone. Mt Fuji in Japan and Mt Ranier in Washington are examples of composite volcanoes. Shield volcanoes are built almost entirely of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava flows. They form slowly from numerous flows that spread out over a wide area from a central vent. The resultant structure is a broad, gently sloping cone with a profile like a warrior's shield. Mt Kilauea in Hawaii is an example of a shield volcano. Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They form when lava blown violently into the area breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as cinders. A steep-sided cone shape is formed around the vent, with a crater at the summit. Sunset Crater in Arizona is a cinder cone that formed less than a thousand years ago, disrupting the lives of the native inhabitants of the region. Lava domes are formed when highly viscous lava is extruded from a vent and forms a rounded, steep-sided dome. The lava piles up around and on the vent instead of flowing away, mostly growing by expansion from within. Lava domes commonly occur within the craters or on the flanks of composite volcanoes. An earthquake occurs when built up strain in a rock mass causes it to rupture suddenly. The region where the rupture occurs is called the focus. This is often deep below the surface of the crust. The point on the surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter. Destructive waves propagate outward from the region of the quake, traveling throughout the earth. The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the total amount of energy released. The first step in determining the magnitude is to measure the propagated waves using a device called a seismograph. Based on this information, the earthquake is given a number classification on a modified Richter scale. The scale is logarithmic, so a difference of one unit means a difference of ten-fold in wave intensity, which corresponds to an energy difference of 32-fold. The intensity of an earthquake is an indicator of the effect of an earthquake at a particular locale. The effect depends not only on the magnitude of the earthquake, but also the types of subsurface materials and the structure and design of surface structures. Earthquakes generally occur along breaks in the rock mass known as faults, and most occur in regions near plate boundaries. Some 80 percent of all earthquakes occur near convergent plate boundaries, triggered by the interaction of the plates. Earthquakes are also often associated with volcanic activity due to the movement of sub-surface magma. When an earthquake occurs under the ocean, it can trigger a destructive tidal wave known as a tsunami. Rocks and the Rock Cycle The earth's crust is composed of many kinds of rocks, each of which is made up of one or more minerals. Rocks can be classified into three basic groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are the most common rock type found in the earth's crust. They form when magma cools and crystallizes subsurface (intrusive igneous rocks) or lava cools and crystallizes on the surface (extrusive igneous rocks). Granite is an example of an intrusive igneous rock, whereas basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the consolidation of the weathered fragments of pre-existing rocks, by the precipitation of minerals from solution, or by compaction of the remains of living organisms. The processes involving weathered rock fragments include erosion and transport by wind, water or ice, followed by deposition as sediments. As the sediments accumulate over time, those at the bottom are compacted. They are cemented by minerals precipitated from solution and become rocks. The process of compaction and cementation is known as lithification. Some common types of sedimentary rocks are limestone, shale, and sandstone. Gypsum represents a sedimentary rock precipitated from solution. Fossil fuels such as coal and oil shale are sedimentary rocks formed from organic matter. Metamorphic rocks are formed when solid igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks change in response to elevated temperature and pressure and/or chemically active fluids. This alteration usually occurs subsurface. It may involve a change in texture (recrystallization), a change in mineralogy or both. Marble is a metamorphosed form of limestone, while slate is transformed shale. Anthracite is a metamorphic form of coal. The rock cycle illustrates connections between the earth's internal and external processes and how the three basic rock groups are related to one another. Internal processes include melting and metamorphism due to elevated temperature and pressure. Convective currents in the mantle keep the crust in constant motion (plate tectonics). Buried rocks are brought to the surface (uplift), and surface rocks and sediments are transported to the upper mantle region (subduction). Two important external processes in the rock cycle are weathering and erosion. Weathering is the process by which rock materials are broken down into smaller pieces and/or chemically changed. Once rock materials are broken down into smaller pieces, they can be transported elsewhere in a process called erosion. The main vehicle of erosion is moving water, but wind and glaciers can also erode rock. Soil is one of the earth's most precious and delicate resources. Its formation involves the weathering of parent materials (e.g., rocks) and biological activity. Soil has four principal components: water, eroded inorganic parent material, air, and organic matter (e.g., living and decaying organisms). Soil formation begins with unconsolidated materials that are the products of weathering. These materials may be transported to the location of soil formation by processes such as wind or water, or may result from the weathering of underlying bedrock. The weathering process involves the disintegration and decomposition of the rock. It can be physical (e.g., water seeping into rock cracks and then freezing) or chemical (e.g., dissolution of minerals by acid rain). Physical processes are more prevalent in cold and dry climates, while chemical processes are more prevalent in warm or moist climates. Soil materials tend to move vertically in the formation environment. Organic materials (e.g., leaf litter) and sediments can be added, while other materials (e.g., minerals) can be lost due to erosion and leaching. Living organisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects) also become incorporated into the developing soil. The living component of the soil breaks down other organic materials to release their nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous). The nutrients are then used and recycled by growing plants and other organisms. This recycling of nutrients helps create and maintain a viable soil. Several factors influence soil formation including: climate, parent material, biologic organisms, topography and time. The climate of an area (precipitation and temperature) may be the most important factor in soil formation. Temperature affects the rates of chemical reactions and rainfall affects soil pH and leaching. Parent material or bedrock varies from region to region and can affect the texture and pH of soils. Vegetation type affects the rate at which nutrients in the soil are recycled, the type and amount of organic matter in the soil, soil erosion, and the types and numbers of micro-organisms living in the soil. Humans can also have a profound effect on soils through such activities as plowing, irrigating and mining. The topography of a region affects rainfall runoff, erosion and solar energy intake. Soil formation is a continuous process. Soils change with time as factors such as organic matter input and mineral content change. The process of making a soil suitable for use by humans can take tens of thousands of years. Unfortunately, the destruction of that soil can occur in a few short generations. - Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry & Application (McGraw-Hill) - Chapter 11: 259 - 264, 271 - 276
Light and Plant Growth There are many different ways of assessing light. But there are certain methods and terms that pertain specifically to plant growth and its symbiotic relationship with light. Quantity(or intensity) and quality(or spectrum) are 2 very basic but sometime misunderstood factors. They are also the 2 most important, so let’s look at them closer. Light quantity is the most directly correlated factor to biomass yields. Photosynthesis is a quantum process, and can be quantified on a photon bases. There are three ways of measuring and testing light quantity. PPF(photosynthetic photon flux)- is the unit of measurement that shows the total output of a lamp or light source. It is a measurement in µmols/sec of photons emitted by the source. It is a very useful figure because it shows the ability and/or possibility of the lamps capability. Average PPFD(photosynthetic photon flux density)– As we have said before, it is the relationship between light and plants that makes up a grow light, and grow space is a one of the most essential factors. 1 sq meter is the area unit which studies and scientist have standardized for the measurement unit PPFD. The “D” signify density, meaning how much PPF per area(1m^2). Studies of many varieties of plants have determined that 700-1000µmols/m^2 average is the optimal range for higher light crops. The PPF(total output) of the lamp ÷ by the area in m^2 will give you the average PPFD of the area based on the PPF available. In the case of the CX300, with a PPF of 720µmols, and a coverage area of 3’x3′(.836m^2) we get 720÷.836127=~861µmols/m^2/sec. Instantaneous PPFD(PAR meters)- Many people have seen instantaneous PPFD readings from tools like PAR meters. These are very useful to see how light is distributed and to check direct intensity levels relative to plant growth. How ever they do not tell the PPF of the lamp, or a true average PPFD of the entire canopy. They are only an extrapolated square meter figure based on that single point in space. As one single measurement these meters can be very misleading, especially with LEDs and their target beams. But when used as a network of instantaneous data points, we can see how well a lamp or source is covering an area and at what relative intensity. A better known form of light quality is spectrum. Spectrum is the essentially the colors of light that are emitted from a source. Different colors are made by photons at certain energy levels and are broken down into nanometers(nm’s). When it comes to photosynthesis, the differences in the nm of a photon, or it’s color, changes it’s potential effectiveness to drive photosynthesis. This was shown by Dr. McCree in 1972, when he studied and averaged 22 different species of both indoor and field grown plants by their carbon fixation in response to different wavelengths of light. When graphed for every nm in the spectrums range(320nm -780nm), we get what is known the McCree Relative Quantum Efficiency curve, or RQE. To this day, is the only scientifically accepted “action spectrum” Notice that there is no extreme differences across the range as some are lead to believe. Though red and blue nm’s are driving forces in photosynthesis and physiological development, they are no way the only useful or necessary nm’s for maximum physiological expression and biomass yields. A full and targeted spectrum is needed so that photosynthesis is maximized and that biological processes are triggered correctly. The green and yellow region are many times misunderstood, but are the major penetrating force of the spectrum and aid in full plant development. The upper yellow through red is the driving force in growth and development of flowering and fruiting plants.
When a person talks about Ejector seats, they are most commonly found in aircraft. In (mostly military) aircraft, the ejector seat is a system designed to rescue the pilot or other crew in the event of the aircraft becoming unflyable. There have been exceptions; like the famous ejection seat in James Bond 's Aston Martin in the film Goldfinger , which was used to get rid of unwanted passengers. In most designs, the seat is propelled out of the aircraft by a rocket motor, carrying the pilot with it. The concept of an ejectable escape capsule has also been tried. Once clear of the aircraft, the ejector seat deploys a parachute which descends safely to earth. While a bungee-assisted escape from an aircraft took place in 1910, the ejector seat as we recognise it today was invented in Germany during World War II. Prior to this, the only means of escape from an incapacitated aircraft was to jump clear, and in many cases this was difficult due to injury, the difficulty of egress from a confined space, the airflow past the aircraft and other factors. The first ejector seats were developed during the war by Heinkel. Early models were powered by compressed air and the first aircraft to be fitted with such a system was the Heinkel He 280 prototype jet fighter in 1941. One of the He 280 test pilots, Helmut Schenk, became the first person to escape from a stricken aircraft with an ejector seat on January 13, 1942 after his control surfaces iced up and became inoperable. This aircraft never reached production status, and the first operational type to provide ejector seats for the crew was the Heinkel He 219 night fighter in 1942. In late 1944, the Heinkel He 162 featured a new type of ejector seat, this time fired by an explosive cartridge. In this system the seat rode on wheels set between two pipes running up the back of the cockpit. When lowered into position, caps at the top of the seat fitted over the pipes to close them. Cartridges, basically identical to shotgun shells, were placed in the bottom of the pipes, facing upward. When fired the gases would fill the pipes, "popping" the caps off the end and thereby forcing the seat to ride up the pipes on its wheels, and out of the aircraft. After WW2, the need for such systems became pressing, as aircraft speeds were getting ever higher, and it was not long before the sound barrier was broken. Manual escape at such speeds would be impossible. The United States Army Air Corps experimented with downward-ejecting systems operated by a spring, but it was the work of the British company Martin-Baker that was to prove crucial. The first live flight test of the M-B system took place on July 24th, 1946, when Bernard Lynch ejected from a Gloster Meteor Mk III. Shortly afterwards, on August 17th, 1946, 1st Sgt. Larry Lambert was the first live US ejectee. M-B ejector seats were fitted to prototype and production aircraft from the late 1940s, and the first emergency use of a Martin-Baker seat occurred in 1949 while testing the Armstrong-Whitworth AW.52 Flying Wing. Early seats used a solid propellant charge to drive the seat out, by exploding the charge inside a telescoping tube attached to the seat. Effectively the seat was fired from the aircraft like a bullet from a gun. As jet speeds increased still further, this method proved inadequate to get the pilot sufficiently clear of the airframe, so experiments with rocket propulsion began. The F-102 Delta Dagger was the first aircraft to be fitted with a rocket propelled seat, in 1958. MB developed a similar design, using multiple rocket units feeding a single nozzle. This had the advantage of being able to eject the pilot to a safe height even if the aircraft itself was on or very near the ground. Today's ejector seats can still operate if the plane is safely stopped on the ground. Since the 1950's the mechanism would automatically open up the parachute for the crewman. Despite what some movies show, the seat separates from the pilot, who is attached to the parachute. The sea.t detaches in a number of ways, either due to the parachute yanking the pilot from the seat, or a strap pulling them apart, or a rocket called an "ear-burner" activating and blasting the seat away from the pilot (guess why it's called an ear-burner.) In the early 1960s, deployment began of rocket-powered ejection seats designed for bailout at supersonic speeds, in such planes as the F-106 Delta Dart. Six pilots have ejected at speeds exceeding 700 knots (805mph) and the highest altitude a M-B seat was deployed at was 57,000ft (from a Canberra in 1958). It has been rumoured but not confirmed that a SR-71 pilot ejected at Mach 3 at an altitude of 80,000ft. Despite these records, most ejections occur at fairly low speeds and at fairly low altitudes. The F-104 Starfighter was equipped, uniquely, with a downward firing ejection seat as the T-tail was judged likely to cut the pilot in half. In order to make this work, the pilot was equipped with "spurs" which were attached to cables that would pull the legs inwards so the pilot could be ejected. Note that such a system is of no use on or near the ground, and it was unusable during takeoff and landing. Later on, a more powerful upward-firing ejector seat became availible. Aircraft designed for low-level usage sometimes will have ejector seats which fire through the plastic of the canopy, as waiting for the canopy to be ejected is too slow. Many aircraft types (e.g. BAe Hawk) have an explosive cord embedded within the perspex of the canopy, which shatters it simultaneously with the firing of the seat. B-47, RB-47, XB-52, RB-66, XF-104, F-104 and USAF Development all had downward-firing ejection seats. YB-47, FJ-2, F-106A, F4H, P6M, and USAF Development all had upward-firing ejection seats. The B-58 and some aircraft prototypes featured Ejection Capsules, where the pilot's seat was enclosed with a plastic cocoon that sealed into an egg-shape before ejecting in one piece. They had built-in parachutes and floatation devices, and were said to be roomy, unless you had size 12 shoes or disliked being forced into a fetal position when you ejected. Some helicopters had ejector seats designed for use, such as the Russian Kaman Ka-50 Black Shark and the American AH-1 Cobra, whereupon activating the ejector system also triggers explosive bolts in the helicopter blades, making them fly off, followed by jettisoning the canopy, and using a tractor rocket system to eject the seat and person, with parachutes automatically deploying seconds later. I do not know what happens if there are other people in the helicopter, presumably they should probably eject as well. Boeing, Lockheed, Northrup, and Stanley Aviation all manufactured ejector seats at one point. By December 2003, Martin-Baker ejector seats had saved 7028 lives. The total figure for all types of seat is unknown but must be considerably higher. The purpose of an ejection seat is survival, not pilot comfort. Many pilots have suffered career-ending injuries while using ejector seats, including crushed vertebra. The pilot typically experiences a G force of about 12 to 14 times the Earth's gravity as he is hurled out of the airplane. Supposedly Air Force scientists had to cut several holes in the current model helmets because the wind shear could take an ejecting person's head off otherwise. NASA's Gemini spacecraft had ejection seats, though earlier and later designs like Apollo and Mercury instead used an escape capsule. The Columbia space shuttle was equipped with ejection seats for NASA's first four shuttle missions, when only a commander and pilot were aboard. The system, however, was removed when NASA began flying larger crews. The Challenger accident rekindled the debate on how to create a safer ejection system for the crew. The original ejector seats weren't feasible, because it would mean only the pilot and shuttle commander could eject, and flying with only a 2-person crew would mean NASA couldn't do most missions. Many escape module designs were proposed, but most were dismissed as far too costly or unfeasible. Instead, all astronauts now wear pressure suits and parachutes during launch and reentry, known as the Inflight Crew Escape System. Facts taken from Wikipedia, ejectionsite.com (a treasure trove of info), http://science.howstuffworks.com/ejection-seat1.htm and personal memory
One of the specific educational goals at many colleges is for students to achieve technological competence, by which is usually meant facility with the tools of information technology. Here are some ideas and techniques that will encourage the achievement of this goal. A particularly attractive factor of these techniques is that most are self-assessing: completion of the assignment by the student demonstrates that the student can use the tool or perform the skill. 1. Require students to use email to send at least some of their homework, papers, projects, comments, questions, or assessments. A useful assignment is to have students write and mail a narrative evaluation of a paper, reading, or class session they completed. Email can be used effectively by requiring students to submit paper topics early in the term. The professor can simply use the reply function to make comments and suggestions. 2. Use email to send students individual assignments or comments and require that they respond to the assignment (even if it means merely printing out the letter or replying to it). Comments about papers, in-class presentations, or current grade status can be sent to students, together with a request for a response. For small classes, unique regular or extra credit assignments can be sent through email only, followed, if necessary, by a brief mention in class ("Did you check your email recently?"). Commentary: Email dialog between professor and student has been discovered to have numerous benefits in addition to making sure the student learns how to use email. Here are some of them: 3. Require students to get assignments online. Post assignments or other information on a web page, intranet page, or shared drive folder. Particular sites with pertinent information might be mentioned in class or listed in an assignment or syllabus, with the requirement that students visit them and obtain certain information from them. - Students are less inhibited about asking questions, raising objections, or sharing input about the class with the professor. Many who would never speak up in class "come out of their shell" and speak frankly. - Metalearning--a student's awareness of what he or she is learning--increases, as student and professor discuss student goals, progress, and educational philosophy. Increases in metalearning have been closely tied to increases in overall learning. (That is, talking about what a student is learning helps the student learn more.) - Students emailing the professor are getting writing practice, something most of them need. Learning how to put sentences together and how to articulate one's ideas are skills enhanced by practice. 4. Use electronic reserves. Instead of photocopying materials for library reserves, put those readings on your class web page for students to read. That way, students do not have to go to the library to read the reserve material, several students can read it at the same time, and you can leave it on reserve indefinitely or update it regularly. The electronic format not only gives students practice in using technology, but it can simplify their use of the material by allowing them to cut and paste quotations with their word processor. (Note: Be sure to secure the appropriate permissions to post any copyrighted material. You may wish to ask for permission to post only to the campus intranet rather than to the Internet at large. Get all such permissions in writing and include a declaration of permission and notice of copyright on each page or document posted.) E-reserves can include documents, pictures, video, audio, or links to materials from libraries, museums, or other sites all over the world. 5. Require students to search the Internet and make use of one or more Internet sources as part of their research assignments. Books, journals, newspapers, magazines, organizational sites, corporate sites, museums, and a host of other information sources provide a truly staggering amount of useful information. (But plan also to discuss source evaluation with your students because some show a surprising lack of caution in accepting as true whatever they find. As part of their research, you might have them locate some articles on the Net relating to source evaluation or direct them to my article, "Evaluating Internet Research Sources".) 6. Require students to make use of one or more articles in electronic form as part of their research assignments. These forms are usually on CD-ROM and include encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, and various abstracts and databases. 7. Require students to find research information through other specified technologies, such as online library catalogs, CD-ROM indexes, microform materials, videocassette sources, etc. 8. Require students to subscribe to an Internet mailing list relevant to the class and to turn in one or more useful postings together with an evaluation of it and the mailing list in general. You might even require that the students propose a posting of their own. 9. Require that all papers be written using word processing software. Require the use of some additional functions, such as headlines or subheads, font changes, drop caps, tables, graphs, inserted pictures, boxes, and so on. Help students to stretch themselves and their knowledge of how the word processor can help them present information in a clearer, more effective way. (Note: Make the requirements specific to the skill you want demonstrated. For example, "Present your data in an outlined table inserted into the text and not attached at the end"). 10. Require that students use presentation technology such as overhead projectors, data projectors, presentation software, or VCR's for assigned in-class presentations. 11. Include spreadsheet and graphing assignments relevant to your course material. Remember that spreadsheets will do averages, percentages, forecasting, goal seeking, trendlines, graphing, correlation, comparison charts. A physical education class might have students graph times or scores, a business class might chart stocks. Any class that has several grades (quizzes, exams, papers, homework) can require students to keep their own point scores on a spreadsheet and turn it in from time to time. Comment: Not only will the use of a spreadsheet give students technological skill, but it will increase their number fluency, something needed by many students. 12. Require students to create their own Web pages and to post their papers or reports to them. Not only will they learn to use technology for the dissemination of information, but they will have a lesson in sharing the fruits of their intellectual labors, and perhaps be more motivated by the thought of a larger audience than the professor. General comment: Many students take to technology avidly. But perhaps a third are less enthusiastic, and, given the chance, will avoid it. Therefore, in order to accomplish the technology-use goal, it is important to (1) make the use of technology required of all students in the class and (2) make assignments and performance expectations clear and specific, so that students know exactly what is wanted. (For example, "You must send me by noon Thursday an email describing your topic and plan of procedure, in at least three paragraphs.") Take a few minutes in class and/or in the form of handouts to instruct students how to perform the skill you want them to exhibit. As with most kinds of assignment, vagueness creates fear and loathing. You may need to take more time now for instruction than you will in a couple of years, when students are more techno-literate. But if every professor trains students a bit more, and if every professor incorporates some of these requirements in each class, students will quickly become adept with the tools of information technology.
Let us read these words aloud full apples the basket is of Did that mean anything? Of course it did not. Now let us read these words aloud The basket is full of apples. Did that mean something? Oh yes it does. Well, this is what we mean by a sentence. A group of words that has a complete meaning is called a sentence. THE SENTENCE Now let’s listen these words. in a corner on the table in a few days Hmm! They sound something but do not mean anything These are group of words which make some sense but do not mean anything We call such a group of words a phrase. KINDS OF SENTENCES Statement ordeclarative sentence. The sun rises in the east. Sita is reading a book. A sentence that states or declares something is called a statement or a declarative sentence. Interrogative Sentence or a Question. Who has broken this vase ? Did you see a question mark ? A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. KINDS OF SENTENCES Exclamatory sentence. What a beautiful flower ! What a great shot ! A sentence that express a strong or sudden feeling is called an Exclamatory sentence. Imperative Sentence. Shut the door. Get me a glass of water. A sentence that express a command,request or desire is called an Imperative sentence. Read the following sentences. The sun rises in the east.( What rises in the east? ) Sita is reading a book..( Who is reading a book? ) They are playing cricket. ( Who are playing cricket) The part of sentence about which something is spoken is the Subject while the remaining part of the sentence is the predicate. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE The person,place or a thing we speak about is called the Subject. The earth moves round the sun. The elephant is a large animal. In the above sentences ‘The earth’ and ‘The elephant’ are the subjects. What is spoken about the subject is the predicate part of the sentence. The earth moves round the sun. The elephant is a large animal. In the above sentences ‘moves round the sun’ and ‘is a large animal’ are the predicates. Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and apredicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. TEST YOURSELF Four squares a has sides A square has four sides. Arrange the group of words to make meaningful sentences in your notebooks.(Click the boxes to check your answers) Water on a cork floats A cork floats on water. Elephant is an animal a large An elephant is a large animal. A man was great Gandhiji. Gandhi was a great man. TEST YOURSELF Without water cannot live we. We cannot live without water. Arrange the group of words to make meaningful sentences in your notebooks.(Click the boxes to check your answers) Cheese butter and milk made are from Cheese and butter are made from milk. Mother my early gets up morning in the My mother gets up early in the morning. In a month twelve are there years. There are twelve months in a year. TEST YOURSELF Write the following sentences correctly. 1.new york is the largest city in america. 2.connaught circus is in new delhi. 3.the nile is a large river in egypt. 4.the golden temple is at amritsar. 5.we sailed to england on queen elizabeth. Correct Answers. 1.New York is the largest city in America. 2.Connaught Circus is in New Delhi. 3.The Nile is a large river in Egypt. 4.The Golden temple is at Amritsar. 5.We sailed to England on Queen Elizabeth. Click here to see correct answers TEST YOURSELF 1.Which four of the words are seasons? 2.Which four of the words are tools? 3.Which four of the words are wild animals? 4.Which four of the words are diseases? 5.Which for of the words are vegetables? 6.Which four of the words are clothes? Correct Answers. 1.Seasons: spring,summer,winter,autumn. 2.Tools: saw,spade,hammer,chisel. 3.Wild animals: wolf,tiger,leopard,giraffe. 4.Diseases: measles,malaria,leprosy,mumps. 5.Vegetables: onion,tomato,spinach,peas. 6.Clothes: blouse,frock,socks,trousers. Click here to see correct answers Look at the words given in the box and answer the questions that follow. Blousemumps leprosy frock spring onion trousers spade hammer measles giraffe socks chisel tiger summer leopard saw wolf autumn winter tomato malaria spinach peas TEST YOURSELF 1.A place where books are kept……….. 2.Aplace where many kinds of animals are kept… 3.All people working in a ship………… 4.Cows,oxen,bullocks all together…………….. 5.Organisation of soldiers……………. Correct Answers. 1.A place where books are kept- library 2.Aplace where many kinds of animals are kept - zoo 1.All people working in a ship -crew 2.Cows,oxen,bullocks all together- cattle 3.Organisation of soldiers - army Click here to see correct answers Use the words given in the box to fill up the blank spaces. crew zoo library cattle army IT IS STILL AN EFFORT BY M S RAWAT LECTURER DIET U S NAGAR
The Cosmic Distance Scale The Milky Way About the Image Image Credit: The Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes, La Palma, and Simon Dye (Cardiff University). Because we dwell within the Milky Way Galaxy, it is impossible for us to take a picture of its spiral structure from the outside. But we do know that our Milky Way has a spiral nature from observations made from within our Galaxy (though whether or not it is a barred spiral is still being debated). To represent this, the beautiful spiral galaxy Messier 74 was used, as it thought to be a similar galaxy to ours. Below is a picture of the real Milky Way taken by the satellite COBE. The disk and center region of our Galaxy are readily recognizable. This image makes the Milky Way appear much more galaxy-like and less like the smudge of stars we see stretching across our night sky. It is possible to imagine what our Milky Way might look like looking down on it from outside. Image Credit: The COBE Project, DIRBE, NASA Although the light year is a commonly used unit, astronomers prefer a different unit called the parsec (pc). A parsec, equal to 3.26 light years, is defined as the distance at which 1 Astronomical Unit subtends an angle of 1 second of arc (1/3600 of a degree) When we use the parsec for really large distances, we often put a prefix in front of it - like kiloparsecs (kpc), which are equal to 1000 parsecs - or Megaparsecs (Mpc), equal to a million parsecs. The Milky Way is about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (about 100,000 light years or about 30 kpc) across. The Sun does not lie near the center of our Galaxy. It lies about 8 kpc from the center on what is known as the Sagittarius arm of the Milky Way. How Do We Calculate Distances of This Magnitude Parallaxes give us distances to stars up to perhaps a few thousand light years. Beyond that distance, parallaxes are so small than they cannot be measured with contemporary instruments. Astronomers use more indirect methods beyond a few thousand light years. The methods to measure stellar distances greater than a few thousand light years include: Proper motions: All stars move across the sky, but only for nearby stars are these motions perceivable, and even then it takes decades or centuries to measure. Statistically, stars move at about the same rate; therefore, the stars that appear to have larger motions are nearer. By measuring the motions of a large number of stars of a given class, we can estimate their average distance from their average motion. Moving clusters: Clusters of stars, such as the Pleiades and Hyades star clusters, travel together. Analyzing the apparent motion of the cluster can give us the distance to it. Interstellar lines: The space between stars is not empty, but contains a sparse distribution of gas. Sometimes this leaves absorption lines in the spectrum we observe from stars that lie beyond the interstellar gas. (Absorption lines are colors missing in a continuous spectrum because of their absorption by atoms or ions. The spectrum is the array of colors or wavelengths that is obtained when light is dispersed.) The further a star is, the more absorption will be observed, since the light has passed through more of the interstellar medium. Inverse-square law: The apparent brightness or magnitude of a star depends both on its intrinsic brightness or luminosity (how bright the star actually is rather than how bright it seems) and its distance from us. The inverse-square law says that the flux from a luminous object decreases as the square of its distance. If we know the luminosity of a star (for instance, we have a measured parallax for one star of the same type and know that others of the same type will have similar luminosities), we can measure its apparent brightness and then solve for its distance. There are several variations on this, many of which are used to measure distances to stars in other galaxies. Period-luminosity relation: Some stars are regular pulsators, meaning their intensity changes periodically. The physics of their pulsations is such that the period of one oscillation is related to the luminosity of the star. If we measure the period of such a star, we can calculate its luminosity. From this, and its apparent magnitude, we can calculate its distance. The period-luminosity relation was discovered by Henrietta Swan Leavitt in 1908 when she was studying Cepheid Variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds. Cepheids, named after Delta Cephei, the first and most luminous of its class to be identified, make excellent distance indicators, because of their periodicity and extraordinary brightness. Not only can they be found at the far reaches of our Galaxy, they can also be resolved in galaxies outside of our own. The most luminous Cepheids can be used to estimate distances to objects as far as 12,000,000 light years away. There are complications in using the period-luminosity relationship. First, the relationship itself depends on the chemical composition of the star. Secondly, the absorption of certain wavelengths of light by the interstellar medium can affect the apparent brightness of the star and therefore must be accounted for. Even with these (and other) complications, Cepheid Variables provide an excellent way to measure the relative distances. To convert to absolute distances, we ideally need to measure the distance to a nearby Cepheid with another, more direct, method. There is much debate at present in this area, in particular regarding the Hipparcos measurements of distances to nearby Cepheids. (See the Nearest Stars page for more information on Hipparcos measurements.) Interestingly, the size of our own Galaxy was debated for a long while. It was not until early in the 20th century that Harlow Shapley used observations of RR Lyrae variable stars to estimate our Galaxy's size. RR Lyrae stars are similar to Cepheid Variables. They have relatively short periods, typically of about a day or less, and all RR Lyrae stars have approximately the same luminosity. Typically, RR Lyrae stars are less luminous than Cepheids, but they are much more common. Globular clusters of stars - swarms of old stars tightly bound together by gravity and orbiting at the outskirts of galaxies, contain many variable stars, including RR Lyraes. Shapley was able use these to find the distance to the globular clusters that surround our Galaxy. Not only were the globular clusters great distances away, but the Sun did not lie at the center of their distribution, which placed the Sun far from the center of the Galaxy. Shapley's first estimate of the radius of the Milky Way was off by a factor of 2, but he made an important first step in understanding the nature of our Galaxy. Several more modern methods have been used to map our Galaxy more accurately. The neutral hydrogen gas in our Galaxy emits light at a wavelength of 21 cm; while this light is invisible to our eyes, it is observable to radio telescopes. Other molecules like carbon monoxide also emit radio waves. This is very helpful for mapping the disk portion of our Galaxy. Why Are These Distances Important To Astronomers? Distance is a useful tool on the galactic scale. If you can measure the average speed of stars as they move around the Galactic Center, and their distance from the Galactic Center, you can make a plot called a "rotation curve". The rotation curve, which describes the motion of the Galaxy can be used to determine the amount of mass a given distance from the center. The predicted rotation curves for many galaxies (in particular, spiral galaxies like the Milky Way) don't match the observed ones - astronomers generally accept Dark Matter as an explanation for this discrepancy. It was using rotation curves that the Dark Matter. It is thought that these galaxies consist of a large, round halo of dark matter, with the visible matter concentrated in a disc at its center. The Voyager spacecraft is traveling away from the Sun at a rate of 17.3 km/s. If Voyager were to travel to the center of our Galaxy, it would take more than 450,000,000 years to travel the 8 kpc. If it could travel at the speed of light, an impossibility due to Special Relativity, it would still take over 26,000 years to arrive! At 17.3 km/s, it would take Voyager over1,700,000,000 years to traverse the entire length of the Milky Way Galaxy. Even traveling at the speed of light, it would take nearly a hundred thousand years!
What are stem cells? Stem cells are the body’s master cells. They are known by this description because all of the cells and tissues that make up the human body develop from these master cells and they have the following unique properties: - Self-renewal: stem cells can renew themselves almost indefinitely. This is also known as proliferation. - Differentiation: stem cells have the special ability to develop into cells with specialised characteristics and functions. - Unspecialised: stem cells themselves are largely unspecialised cells which then give rise to specialised cells. Umbilical cord blood has been identified as a rich source of these cells, which can be collected just after a baby is born using a straightforward, safe and painless technique. The procedure involves no risk and poses no harm to either the mother or her newborn baby. Unlike bone marrow stem cells, which age in the same fashion as we do, cord blood stem cells stored at birth retain the same vitality and flexibility as when they were collected. This gives them a number of potential advantages over stem cells obtained from bone marrow, such as lower rates of rejection and reduced risk of transmission of viral infections. Stem cells for transplantation can come from yourself (this is called an autologous transplant) or from a donor (this is called an allogeneic transplant). Doctors have been using cord blood stem cell transplants to successfully treat patients since 1988.
Select a famous individual from the 20th or 21st centuries. Conduct a research concerning the background of your selected individual to determine what forces have impacted his or her life from the viewpoint of developmental psychology. Please address the following items: 1. Distinguish between the influences of heredit Critical analysis of Piaget and Kohlberg's theories of moral development, as applied to a hypothetical scenario. Provide a critical analysis of Piaget and Kohlberg's theories of moral development. Apply each theory to the hypothetical scenario of a nine year old boy stealing a toy from a store. Include similarities, differences, and which theory resonates with you and why. Both Kohlberg and Piaget focused on the moral development of the child. How would each theorist explain why a 10-year-old child might steal a toy from a store? Which one is more convincing to you? Why? Compare similarities and differences of the theories cognitive developmental theory was developed Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Development and Eric Erikson psychsocial development theory. Analyze the strengths and limitations of each theory. Describe each theoryâ??s strengths and limitations in e Two of the most important developmental theorists are Jean Piaget and Erik Erickson. How did the ideas of each help you better understand psychological development? Explain your new understanding and how this has changed from reading and thinking about these issues. I need help in creating a chart in which you describe the stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. For each stage, please describe the stage and identify some tasks that a child could perform. Describe your question and receive a step-by-step response, usually within an hour or two.Think about yourself in second grade and try to recall trying to understand what it was like to learn abstract symbols, called numbers, at that age. Evaluate how social context can affect mathematical development for children. Client: (speaks slowly , seems to be sad and depressed) I am so fouled up right now. The first term went well, and I passed all my courses. But this term, I am really having trouble with chemistry. It is hard to get around the lab in my wheelchair, and I still don't have a textbook yet. ( An angry spark appears in her eyes, and Cognitive and Language Development Play is the essence of a child's work. Children learn through productive play. Developmentally appropriate hands-on activities enable children to use their developing problem-solving skills and make endless discoveries that apply to reading, writing, math, and science. Dramatic play helps ch Hi, I need help with the 2 questions below. Thanks for any help you could provide. 1- Many states, in recent years have changed their laws so that children who commit violent crimes, such as murder can be charged as adults. Thinking about Piaget's findings on how children develop reasoning skills, discuss the following: How What are the four key milestones in the development of cognitive psychology? In light of present-day American society, Lev Vygotsky believed that by emphasizing particular tasks, culture and society shape the nature of specific cognitive advances. Unless we look at what is important and meaningful to members of a given society, we may seriously underestimate the nature and level of cognitive abilities th Choose one historic figure from the following list with whom you feel played an important role in the development of the field of psychology (Freud, Pavlov, Skinner, Piaget). Describe what the person did, the approximate time frame, and what makes his contribution so important. Also, include criticism of this individual and his These are some ideas, games, and logic problems that can be used when trying to determine if a child reaches the concrete operational stage according to Piaget. Cognitive Information Processing theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory â?¢ Compare them: Describe the similarities they share and their major differences. â?¢ Explain the strengths of these two theories as they relate to your setting and client population. â?¢ Describe the weaknesses you would have to address and, Explain and analyze one of the approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood. Please give an example also Describe Gender-schema and Social Cognitive Theory. Discuss how these theories affect a child's development. Include a minimum of two academic references Gender-schema theory is a way of explaining gender-identity formation, which is closely related to the cognitive developmental approach. Like radical behaviorism, social cognitive theory assumes that all human behavior is ultimately caused by the external environment. How Piaget explains cognitive function and consciousness Which milestone in the development of cognitive psychology do you feel has had the most influence on the field? Why? Which, in your opinion, explain(s) development best and why? Please explain if and how you can relate constructive developmental theory to the perspective that you selected to explain development best. Freud's psychoanalytic, Erikson's eight stage (psychosexual) and Piaget's cognitive development In a research study of Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 2 and 7 as the preoperational stage, how would you conduct a study? In a research study of Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 2 and 7 as the preoperational stage, how would you conduct a study to include. a) A study design (e.g., correlation, experiment, quasi-experiment). b) Methods for conducting the experiment (i.e., how would you propose to study their se Compare and contrast behavioral, cognitive and social developmental theories by their key concepts, points of similarity, and points of difference. One of the key individuals in the developing of Cognitive Theories is Jean Piaget. 1. Do you agree with Piaget's statement that "failure is critical to learning?" Why or why not? It has been argued that some college students fail to achieve what Piaget called "formal operations." 1. Given what you know about Piaget's Stages of Development, is it possible for a college student to have not achieved formal operations? Why or why not? Which milestone in the development of cognitive psychology do you feel has had the most influence on the field? Explain why. 1. I need help summarize stages of emotional, intellectual, psysiological, and social development of middle child hood children. 2. I need implications of these issues for a classroom teacher. 3. Give two examples of activities that could relate to a specfic developmental theory. What are some things that you read in the text about physical, sensory and perceptual development that you could share with your friend? What about cognitive development? What are some things that you read about physical, sensory and perceptual development that you could share with your friend? What about cognitive development? One example is that research has shown that babies can distinguish their mother's voice from other female's voices as newborns. Therefore it appears that in utero lea In what way is cognitive and social development affected by temperament? What was your personal temperament during childhood? Is your personality as an adult similar to your temperament as a child? Why or why not? Do you think that cognitive based therapy can help to change behaviors that we find challenging? How so? A key component of information processing views of cognitive development includes (choose the correct answer) A. expansive attention B. random retrieval processes C. intuitive grasping of environmental cues D. a limit on how much information can be stored in long-term memory E. selective attention process
How Apple Montessori Schools in New Jersey teaches children to succeed. Excitement is filling the halls as our Pre-K and Kindergarten students’ Social Studies Projects are in full swing. The Social Studies Fair theme is Community Helpers. The children have been learning all about the various helpers in our community, such as a librarian, a nurse, and the First Aid Squad. Each classroom has chosen a particular helper to research and to explain what the helper does and why it is important in the community. Working on their project, It creates a better understanding of the world around us and the role community helpers play in contributing to the greater good. In each classroom, the classmates work together to build a table top project that will be on display in a common area of the school. For the elementary students, parents are invited on Jan. 22 to view the projects and listen to each student present their work, helping hone public speaking skills. We have seen fairly quiet students come out of their shells. A student last year showed confidence, knowledge and true growth as a student. It was not only apparent that she practiced at home and in the classroom, but that she was elated about what she was presenting. It brought such joy to watch her present. One parent told of a bittersweet moment. She brought her daughter shopping for all the materials for her project. When they came home she said, “Mom, thank you for taking me shopping, but this is my project and I need to do it by myself.” After working with her child for the past four years of Social Studies Fairs, she was saddened that her baby didn’t need her anymore. However, those words gave her mother a new sense of pride. When our children accomplish more on their own, it says: - I am a capable person. - I want to take risks. - I am not afraid to fail. - I can be successful in my endeavors. - I will learn from my mistakes. - I am confident. These beliefs are critical in today’s world. We want children to be willing to take risks and learn to be able to fail, and try again, learning from mistakes. It is a difficult thing as a parent to let our children act on their own, as we do not want to see the disappointment in their eyes if they fail. So we intervene and sometimes we take over. The result is that our children become afraid to try new things in the shadow of possible failure. Our children look to us to make all decisions and eventually lose self-confidence. This process of letting go, possibly to fail, is the only way they are going to succeed. As we tell our students, Edison had thousands of notebooks filled with failed experiments, leading eventually to the electric light bulb, phonograph, movie projector and many other important inventions! How You Can Help - Guide your child, but put the ball in his/her court. - Ask them what they think is the right way - Give your child unconditional love. If they fail, it’s OK: they are one step closer to success. - Know your child’s capabilities and set realistic goals, not too high or too low. - Tell your child about your own failures and successes. You are their greatest role model. - Help your child through those uncomfortable emotions that come with failing.
Chipmunks are small, striped squirrels. All species of chipmunks are found in North America, with the exception of the Siberian chipmunk, which is found in Asia. Chipmunks may be classified either as a single genus, Tamias, or as three genera: Tamias, which includes the eastern chipmunk; Eutamias, which includes the Siberian chipmunk; and Neotamias, which includes the 23 remaining, mostly western, species. These classifications are arbitrary, and most taxonomies over the twentieth century have placed the chipmunks in a single genus. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA show that the divergence between each of the three chipmunk groups is comparable to the genetic dissimilarity between Marmota and Spermophilus. Contributions by Mgiganteus1, Aranae, and Seglea.
You are here July 23, 2007 Compounds Block Spread of Antibiotic Resistance The success of antibiotics is among modern medicine's great achievements. But microbes have been evolving resistance. Many diseases, including tuberculosis, gonorrhea and childhood ear infections, are now becoming more difficult to treat. Researchers have discovered 2 medications already approved for other uses that can block the transfer of drug resistance genes between bacteria and even kill bacteria that harbor resistance genes. This novel type of antibiotic could potentially be used against multidrug resistant bacteria. The heavy use of antibiotics allows only those bacteria with the greatest antibiotic resistance to survive and thrive, thus ensuring that future generations of bacteria will have greater drug resistance. Different strains of bacteria can spread drug resistance genes through a process called conjugation. More than 50 years of widespread antibiotic use have thus encouraged the spread of bacteria with resistance to multiple antibiotics. A team of researchers at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill led by Dr. Matthew R. Redinbo set out to see if they could find compounds that inhibit conjugation. Conjugation involves bacteria forming a junction between them and transferring circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. The study, which was funded by NIH's National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS), was published in the July 13, 2007, online edition of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The researchers focused on a DNA relaxase, a type of enzyme involved in conjugation, from E. coli. DNA relaxase initiates DNA transfer by nicking one of the plasmid's DNA strands. After analyzing the structure at the enzyme's active site, the researchers hypothesized that chemicals called bisphosphonates might inhibit relaxase activity and therefore block DNA transfer. They tested several bisphosphonates and found that many inhibited DNA relaxase, including 4 that are already clinically approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat bone loss. The researchers next tested whether the compounds could prevent living bacterial cells from transferring the plasmids. Two of the clinically approved bisphosphonates, etidronate (Didronel) and clodronate (Bonefos), were both effective not only at preventing DNA transfer but also at killing the cells that harbored the plasmids. This study shows that bisphosphonates are a potential new class of antibiotics that can prevent the transfer of plasmids, and therefore drug resistance genes, between bacteria. Further research will show whether these compounds are effective in living systems. — by Harrison Wein, Ph.D.
Sharing Our World Students gain an understanding of habitats and the coexistence of humans and wildlife. They explain the importance of and their responsibility for protecting and nurturing the environment. Through a variety of literature, students will develop an understanding and awareness of the many types of wildlife that coexist with people in and around an urban area. Students will gain knowledge of how they can be instrumental in maintaining a healthy environment for humans and wildlife that inhabit our cities. Students conduct Internet research to gain a better understanding of the changes that have occurred in the environment and animal habitats since the 1700s. Using technology, students will work in a cooperative team to explore the effects of industrialization on wildlife. Through exploration and observation, students will gain further insight into city wildlife and habitat in our community. Using various means of communication, students will demonstrate their knowledge of City Wildlife and present the findings of their inquiry teams. By participating in a service-learning project, students will gain a greater understanding of what it means to serve for the Common Good. After learning about City Wildlife and their struggle in coexistence with humans, students will take action that will benefit our neighboring animals.
Proteins are essential components of all living organisms and are made up of enzymes, amino acids and antibodies that are necessary for keeping our bodies healthy and functioning properly. Not ingesting an adequate amount of protein can lead to serious deficiencies that can lead to more serious life-threatening conditions. Side effects of low protein counts include muscle degeneration, symptoms associated with kwashiorkor, a form of malnutrition, and swelling or edema. Protein is needed to grow and maintain lean mass. Low protein counts can lead to rapid muscle degeneration in individuals. According to the National Federation of Personal Trainers “Sports Nutrition Manual,” the reason muscle degeneration occurs so rapidly during protein deficiency is because the body begins to horde all available enzymes and amino acids. When this happens, the metabolism begins to switch into starvation mode and begin to preserve calories by allocating energy only to the most vital of functions. A slow down in calorie burning occurs and muscles begin to lose strength, mass and effectively weaken until the body can no longer afford to lose any more. At this point other protein fortified components such as skin, nails and hair begin to fall out and get weaker. Kwashiorkor is another side effect of a low protein count. Kwashiorkor is a type of malnutrition that develops when there is not adequate protein in the diet. The National Institutes of Health reports that kwashiorkor is most common in areas where there is famine, limited food supply and low levels of nutritional education. This disease is more common in poor countries. It often occurs during a drought or other natural disaster, or during political unrest. These conditions are responsible for a lack of food, which leads to malnutrition. Continued protein deficiency will lead to noticeable symptoms of kwashiorkor such as changes in skin pigment, hair loss, brittle nails, protruding belly and diarrhea. Getting more calories and protein will correct kwashiorkor, if treatment is started early enough. Children who have previously developed this condition will never reach their potential height and growth. Edema is another side effect of low protein counts. Edema is swelling caused by a build up of fluid ensnared in your body's tissues. Edema is most commonly noticed in your hands, arms, feet, ankles and legs but it can occur in any part of the body. According to Michael J. Gibney, author of the book “Introduction to Human Nutrition,” when protein counts in the bloodstream get extremely low, there is a decrease in colloidal osmotic pressure which then allows fluid to escape from blood vessels into your tissues, resulting in edema. The Mayo Clinic says that other symptoms of edema include stretched or shiny skin, increased abdominal size and skin that retains a dimple after being pressed for several seconds.
Pollination Problems in cucurbits The Vegetable crops in general and cucurbits in particular are important for Bangladesh economy as a whole and for the poor in particular. Many rural households are engaged in vegetable production as farmers and laborers. Further attention holds the promise of wider benefits. Vegetables are excellent sources of vitamins A, E and C, fiber, folic acid and potassium. The major vegetables are classified into nine families including: 1.Cucurbitaceae, 2. Brassicaceae, 3.Compositae 4. Chenopodiaceae 5. Solanceae 6.Fabaceae 7.Umbelliferae 8. Amaryllidaceae and 9. Poaceae Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of the plant, thereby enabling fertilization and reproduction. This takes place in the flowering plants. Pollination is a key stone process in both human managed and natural ecosystems. It is critical for food production and human livelihoods. The vast majority of flowing plant species only produce seeds if pollinators move pollen from the anthers to the stigmas .Without this service, many species and processes within an ecosystem would collapse. Recognizing the dimensions of a pollination crisis and its links to biodiversity and human livelihoods, the Convention on Biological Diversity has made the conservation and sustainable use of pollinators a priority. At the Fifth Conference of Parties (Cop7) in 2000, an International Initiative for the conservation and sustainable use of Pollinators, known as International Pollinator Initiative (IPI) was established. Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance as food plants, next to cereals and pulses.They are also important sources of medicines and fibers. The Cultivated cucurbits of Bangladesh include: 1. Pumpkin ( Cucurbita maxima), 2. ash gourd (Benincasa hispida), 3. bottle gourd (Lagenneria siceraia) ,4. snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina), 5. ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) ,6. pointed gourd (Trichosanthes diocia) ,7. cucumber (Cucumis sativus), 8. Large bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) 9. small bitter gourd (M.muricata) 10. sweet gourd (Cucurbita moschata) 11.water melon ( Citrullus lunatus) 12. muskmelon (Cucumis melo), and 13. sponge gourd ( Luffa cylindrica). Most of the cucurbits are monoecious plants. There are separate male and female blossoms on the same plant. The male flowers open first, followed by the female flowers. It is only when both the male and female flowers open then pollination can occur. Cucurbits need cross pollination prom male to female flowers. But this requires a little more of nature. The insects, mainly bees, flies, wasps, beetles, butterflies and moths pollinate cucurbits. If insects are not present for some reason such as broad spectrum pesticides are sprayed then fruit either does not appear or it appears small and shriveled. In a recent field visit to Kaliganj, Jhenaidah district during 10-12 August, 2014, I observed many farmers were hand pollinating pointed gourd flowers. The farmers were pollinating the flowers early in the morning in the field near the Chitra river bank. Habibur Rahman, a farmer shared that he needs 2-3 hours to pollinate the flowers of pointed gourd in a plot of 50 decimals. He also mentioned that he needed to finish the pollination before the sun rise every morning. Habibur Rahman recalled his past experience of crop cultivation.The introductions of cultivation of high yielding varieties and hybrids of rice as accompanied with pesticides, killed bees, butter flies and other insects, those were pollinating the flowers. These insects are not seen any more. Now, the farmers have to do everything for crop production including pollination.The sad thing is that in most of the time the cost of crop production is higher than the market price of the produce. Thus, the net return is a negative figure leading to pauperization of the farmers.
Plumes from ice-covered oceans would increase likelihood of life-friendly conditions on moon of Jupiter L. Roth/Southwest Research Institute and USGS Water vapor spews from jagged cracks near the south pole of Jupiter’s icy moon Europa, according to a study published December 12 in Science. If confirmed, these geysers would allow astronomers to probe the moon’s watery and possibly life-supporting interior. “It’s incredibly exciting,” says Britney Schmidt, a planetary scientist at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. “It blows your mind at what these worlds can do.” Europa, Jupiter’s fourth-largest moon, has tantalized scientists since NASA’s Galileo mission in the 1990s. The probe beamed back photos of a fractured icy surface with few impact craters, suggesting the moon has active geology. Galileo also found strong evidence that the moon harbors a buried ocean heated by the alternating push and pull of Jupiter’s gravity.
Background information for simple machines Can we help you? Below you will find some commonly asked questions about simple machines. You may also want to explore the other topics relating to our school program «Pulleys and Gears : Wonderful Machines» What is a simple machine? Machines are used to reduce the amount of force required to do work, such as lift a load, but the trade off is that you must apply this force over a greater distance. Man has learned to use machines to help him do work - which in our case means to move things. Some machines, such as bicycles, are complex because they involve more than one simple machine. Back to menu What are the two basic families of simple machines? All simple machines are derived from either the inclined plane or the lever. The six types of simple machines are: Back to menu - the inclined plane - the wedge - the screw - the lever - the wheel and axle - the pulley Which machines belong to the inclined plane family? The inclined plane The word "inclined" means "at an angle". The word "plane" means "a flat surface". An inclined plane is a slope or a ramp. It can be any slanted surface used to raise a load from a lower level to a higher level. Examples of an inclined plane include: a ramp used by a workman to push a heavy load on wheels up into a truck, ramps for wheel chairs, ramps to load luggage onto a plane, an escalator. An inclined plane was used to move huge stones to build the Egyptian Pyramids. Notice that all these inclined planes are stationary (with the exception of the stairs moving on an escalator). Inclined planes don't move! An inclined plane helps a person to move or raise heavy objects. An inclined plane enables a load to be lifted with less force, but the distance over which it moves is greater. In other words, when an inclined plane is used, less force is required to move the resisting weight up the slanted surface than to lift it up vertically. However the amount of work remains the same since: Work = Force x distance. W = Fd The wedge - two inclined planes put back to back. It is not really a separate type of machine, as the principle involved is identical to that of the inclined plane. Some examples of wedges include: chisels, axes, knives, saws (small wedges), a splitting wedge, a doorstop, a plow, the hull of a boat The screw - the circular version of the inclined plane, though it must move to work. Back to menu Which machines belong to the lever family? The lever - a bar that turns on a point, called a fulcrum. The wheel and axle - a circular lever, whose fulcrum (pivot point) is an axle. The pulley - another circular lever, but the pulley wheel rotates freely on the axle. Back to menu Why does an inclined plane make work easier? Principle of the Inclined Plane W = Fd (Force x distance) As with all simple machines, the inclined plane can be used to trade increased distance for decreased force or effort. The force is applied in a different direction to that in which movement takes place. Can you get something for nothing? The steepness of the inclined plane is a key factor. If a person uses a longer board to make the inclined plane, he or she will need less force to move the object up the ramp. If a shorter board is used (the angle of the slope is steeper), more force is required but the distance over which it must be applied is less. For an object resting on an inclined plane, the vertical force of gravity acting on it is split into two smaller forces; one perpendicular to the plane, and one parallel to the plane. It is only the parallel force which needs to be counteracted by pushing (and, of course, friction, though we are ignoring that for this exercise). The slope provides "mechanical advantage" as a simple machine. Back to menu How does the wedge work? A double wedge is made up of two inclined planes back to back. You find a double wedge on an axe blade. Single wedges resemble an inclined plane, because they have only one sloping surface. A doorstop is a single wedge. Remember that the inclined plane does not move. Wedges can be used in several ways: - Wedges can help you grip things to be lifted. Pushing one under an object provides a space for your fingers. The longer the wedge and the smaller the angle of slope, the less the force needed, but the wedge must be pushed in a greater distance. - Wedges can also be used to tighten or hold things in place, for example, a wedge peg to hold a bench together, or a doorstop. - Wedges are mostly used to push things apart, for example, pounding a nail into a block of wood. Other examples are a chisel, cutting tools, an axe (also a lever), a can opener (also a lever), plow blade, and the bow of a boat or ship. Principle of the Wedge The purpose or advantage of the wedge is to change the direction of the applied force. When the force is applied downward on a wedge, it is able to push outward in two directions. Back to menu A special form of the inclined plane - The screw A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The inclined plane forms ridges in a spiral along the cylinder. These ridges are called the threads of the screw. The distance between the threads is called "the pitch" of the screw. The Principle of the Screw It would be impossible to completely insert a screw into a piece of wood without using a screwdriver. Thus you trade the extra distance moved as you turn the handle of the screwdriver, for the reduced force required to turn the screw. As with the inclined plane, force is applied in a direction different from the movement of the load. The screw also resists pulling out much better than a nail and therefore provides a stronger joint. The principle of the screw can be easily understood by cutting a right-angled triangle out of paper. Colour the triangle's hypotenuse. Wrap it around a pencil. The triangle's hypotenuse becomes the inclined plane or threads of the screw. A screw depends on another simple machine, a screwdriver (a lever), for its operation. A screw works with rotating movement, which is provided by a lever. When the lever arm makes a full turn, the screw is moved a distance equal to the pitch, or the gap between adjacent threads. A screw's mechanical advantage is the ratio of two dimensions: the length of the lever that turns it, and the distance between the threads. Thus, a screw can function in two ways. It can raise weights (liquids or solids), or it can press or fasten objects. One of the first screw machines, invented in the third century B.C., is commonly attributed to the Greek geometer, Archimedes. It was to irrigate the fields, and to pump water out of a ship's hold. This machine had a watertight cylinder enclosing a spiral running from end to end, with its lower end immersed in water. The machine was turned by hand, and the water collected in the rotating spiral blades. These blades appeared to rise, as the screw turned. The water poured out a hole in the top of the cylinder. Some modern examples of screws include: - To move or raise liquids or solids - a snowblower, a ship or airplane propeller, a worm gear, a corkscrew, a jack screw, a pig feeder, a grain thresher, a meat grinder, a piano stool, a corn sheller. - To press or fasten objects - book binding press, a vise, a screw hook, nut and bolt, an auger (hand drill), a monkey wrench, an ordinary screw, a jar lid, and a screw press for printing. Back to menu Let's examine the lever A lever consists of a rigid arm, which is free to turn about a fixed point called the fulcrum. The fulcrum is a pivot point. The effort force (push or pull) is exerted upon one lever arm, and the other lever arm will go up or down in the opposite direction. The resisting weight (the load) is exerted upon the lever arm, which tends to move the lever in the opposite direction to the applied force. Back to menu Principles of the lever family With levers, the force is applied at a different point from the load. The closer the fulcrum to the load, the less force needed to lift the load. The force will move a greater distance, and the load will move a shorter distance. The closer the fulcrum to the force, the greater the force needed to lift the load. The force will move a shorter distance, and the load will move a greater distance. Back to menu Classes of levers Levers are divided into three classes, according to the way the load and force arms are arranged around the fulcrum. First Class Lever When the fulcrum lies between the force arm and the lever arm, the lever is described as a first class lever. In fact many of us are familiar with this type of lever. It is the classic teeter-totter example. When the fulcrum is midway between the force and the load, there is no change in force, speed or distance. Other first class levers include: a car jack, a pair of pliers, a pair of scissors, a water pump, a balance or pair of weigh scales, a crowbar, a claw of a hammer taking out a nail, or a lever with a rock as its fulcrum trying to lift another rock. Second Class Lever In the second class lever, the load arm lies between the fulcrum and the force arm. A good example of this type of lever is the wheelbarrow. The axle of the wheel serves as the fulcrum, the handles are the force arm, and the load is carried between the two in the bucket part of the wheel barrow. In the second class lever, the fulcrum is usually closer to the load, which reduces the force needed to accomplish the work. Some other examples of the second class lever are: a pair of nutcrackers, and a bottle opener. Third Class Lever In this class of levers, the force arm lies between the fulcrum and the load arm. Because of this arrangement, a relatively large force is required to move the load. This is offset by the fact that it is possible to produce movement of the load over a long distance with a relatively small movement of the force arm. Think of a fishing rod! Because of this relationship, we often employ this class of lever when we wish to produce large movements of a small load, or to transfer relatively low speed of the force arm to high speed of the load arm. When a hockey stick or a baseball bat is swung, a third class lever is in effect. The elbow acts as a fulcrum in both cases and the hands provide the force (hence the lower arm becomes part of the lever). The load (i.e. the puck or the ball) is moved at the end of the stick or bat. In a third class lever there is usually a loss in force needed to accomplish the work, but a gain in speed or distance. Example of third class levers are: a fishing pole, a pair of tweezers, an arm lifting a weight, a pair of calipers, a person using a broom, a hockey stick, a tennis racket, a spade, or a shovel. Back to menu What is a wheel and axle? The wheel and axle is a first class lever in which the fulcrum has been replaced by an axle and the arms have been repeated around the axle to make up the spokes or disk of the wheel. This allows the lever to rotate through 360º instead of the limited rotation in the teeter-totter application. However, it is important to differentiate between a wheel used simply as a roller to counteract friction (i.e. the front wheel of a bicycle), and the wheel and axle where a small amount of force is applied to the wheel which moves the axle with greater force (i.e. the back wheel of a bicycle driven by pedals/gears). With the roller, the force that moves the object is often not applied directly to the wheel. Early man discovered that several logs under a heavy object helped reduce friction, when moving an object. This "roller" method was awkward. The wheel evolved from one solid round of wood, to a wheel that is built up with a number of small pieces (spokes, rim etc.). Some examples of a wheel and axle are: a windlass, a capstan, a water wheel, a windmill, gears, doorknobs, faucet handles, and steering wheels. The windlass is like the rope and crank of a wishing well. A rope on an axle is turned by a crank (wheel), to raise the bucket of water. The windlass originated several thousands of years ago with the Babylonians. The rope is wound up onto a cylindrical-shaped wheel. In the past, the windlass was used to haul ore from mines, or to open and close heavy gates of water canals. They were also used on boats to hoist sails and lift anchors. A capstan is similar to a windlass. It is used to raise heavy anchors on large ships. A capstan is a revolving barrel with a vertical axis. An early version was operated by men walking around it, pushing on horizontal bars that were attached to the top of the wooden barrel. Today, motors drive the capstan. The revolving spindle on a tape recorder is also a capstan. The Water Wheel and the Windmill The Greeks invented the "water wheel", a wheel and axle pushed by the moving water of a river. It is said that, in the first century B.C., a Roman engineer, named Vituvius, designed the first practical water wheel. Buckets were placed on the rim of the wheel and water falling into the buckets caused the wheel to turn. Windmills haven't been around as long as water wheels but they were built on similar principles and for similar reasons. For centuries windmills resembled tall fans with four to six arms. Both water wheels and windmills run on either horizontal or vertical gear systems. Water wheels and windmills have been used for grinding grain, sawing lumber, or as a source of power in the manufacture of clothing, metal and paper. Back to menu The gear - a special form of lever Gears are wheels with teeth that can be used to gain force or speed or change direction. When one gear drives another, the two gears turn in the opposite direction. If it is required that they turn in the same direction, a third gear called an "idler gear" is interposed between them. The size and number of teeth on a gear determine the kind of work it can do. A force on a large gear will cause a small gear to turn faster, but with less force. A force on a small gear will turn the large gear more slowly, but it will have a greater force. The distance between the teeth of the gear is called the "pitch". Back to menu A pulley is a wheel with a groove that allows a rope, belt or chain to ride securely on it. A pulley is a circular lever, with the wheel rotating freely on the axle. A fixed pulley is fastened to one spot, and does not move around. It provides no gain in force, distance or speed, but it changes the direction of the force. A fixed pulley acts as a first class lever. The fulcrum is the axle (the point at which the pulley is supported). The force arm is the radius of the pulley - that is, the distance from the fulcrum (axle) to the side of the rope on which we pull. The load arm is also the radius of the pulley - the distance from the fulcrum (axle) to the load-carrying side of the rope. Examples of fixed pulleys can be seen on flag poles, drapes, or on a sail mast. In each case, the pulley changes the direction of the applied force, to enable work to be accomplished. A movable pulley moves along a rope or wire. It provides a gain in force, but a loss in distance. (You have to pull the rope twice as far!) A movable pulley works like a turning second class lever. The fulcrum is at one rim of the pulley wheel, the load is at the axle, and the force is at the other rim of the pulley wheel. Why do moving pulleys make lifting easier? More sections of rope are supporting the weight. This is like having someone help you carry something heavy. The more help you have, the lighter the load seems to be. Mechanical advantage is determined by the number of supporting ropes of the movable pulley(s). A compound pulley, also called a block and tackle, is a combination of a fixed and a movable pulley. This type of pulley changes direction, and yields a gain in force at the same time. Back to menu What does "work" mean in science? The simple machines all require human energy in order to work. What does work mean? "Work" has a special meaning in science. "Work" is only done when something is moved. For example, when you push on the locomotive in the Museum, you actually are not doing work, because you cannot move it. Work consists of two parts. One is the amount of force (push or pull) needed to do the work. The other is the distance over which the force is applied. The formula for work is: Work = Force X Distance. Work is measured in joules. Force is the pull or the push on an object, resulting in its movement. Force is measured in newtons. Distance is the space the object moves. It is measured in metres. Thus, the work done (in joules) is the force moved (in newtons) multiplied by the distance moved (in metres). When we say a machine makes it easier for us to do work, we mean that it requires less force to accomplish the same amount of work. Apart from allowing us to increase the distance over which we apply the smaller force, machines may also allow us to change the direction of an applied force. Back to menu What is "mechanical advantage"? Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of the existing weight or load to the acting force; or, the ratio of the distance through which the force is exerted to the distance the weight is raised. For example, a machine has a mechanical advantage of 5 if an applied force of 1 kg can counterbalance a weight of 5 kg. \|Mechanical Advantage = \|\|W is the weight being raised F is the acting force Sf is the distance the acting force moves Sw is the distance the resisting weight or load is raised The acting force times the distance it moves equals the work put into the machine. This work is called the input force. The resisting weight times the distance it moves equals the work accomplished by the machine. This work is called the output force. Here the mechanical advantage is determined by the number of supporting ropes of the movable pulley. Back to menu Go back to Simple Machines
Paramecia are single-celled microorganisms that can be found in freshwater ponds and other standing water. Aside from the amoeba, the paramecia are probably the most widely known protozoan because of their interesting slipper shape and distinctive movement when observed under a microscope and the fact that they are generally taught in school biology classes as a typical representative of the ciliates. Like many other ciliates, most Paramecia are large for one-celled creatures. The largest are the P. multimicronucleatum, which can be as much as 350 micrometers long and are almost visible without a microscope. The smallest are the P. putrinum (a.k.a., P. trichium), which can be as little as 70 micrometers long (about the width of a blond human hair). Paramecia are fun to watch under low-power magnification because of their graceful swimming habit and the way they react to obstacles in their path. Long and streamlined, the paramecium glides through the water while twirling around its long axis. When a barrier is encountered, the paramecium reverses motion, swings around to a different angle and then moves forward again. This trial and error strategy is repeated until the paramecium has maneuvered around the obstacle. Just how the paramecium can coordinate the movements of their thousands of individual cilia to accomplish this locomotion, obstacle avoidance and feeding behaviour has yet to be explained. Ciliates reproduce in two ways. One is simple cell division (binary fission or mitosis), where one cell splits itself up into two identical daughter cells. The other reproductive mechanism is conjugation, in which two paramecia come into contact and exchange genetic material in a fairly complex process. There are many species of paramecia. Most of them don't have many noticeable differences from the others, but one, P. bursaria, is both strikingly different and very interesting as well. Bursaria are green. That's not because they contain chloroplasts like Euglena or the plants, but because their cells contain livinng chlorella, a kind of green algae that are not digested, but inside the paramecia as endosymbiotes. The algae takes nutrients from the host's protoplasm and returns oxygen. Another interesting symbiosis involves P. caudatum and a kind of bacteria called Holospora obtusa. This bacterium lives only inside the macronucleus of this one species of paramecium, so it's almost like a part of the host, but not all paramecium are infected. The bacterium somehow gives its host an ability to withstand higher temperatures. Phylum: Ciliata (Ciliaphora)
Alan Turing's accomplishments in computer science are well known, but lesser known is his impact on biology and chemistry. In his only paper on biology, Turing proposed a theory of morphogenesis, or how identical copies of a single cell differentiate, for example, into an organism with arms and legs, a head and tail. Now, 60 years after Turing's death, researchers from Brandeis University and the University of Pittsburgh have provided the first experimental evidence that validates Turing's theory in cell-like structures. The team published their findings in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on Monday, March 10. Turing was the first to offer an explanation of morphogenesis through chemistry. He theorized that identical biological cells differentiate, change shape and create patterns through a process called intercellular reaction-diffusion. In this model, a system of chemicals react with each other and diffuse across a space -- say between cells in an embryo. These chemical reactions need an inhibitory agent, to suppress the reaction, and an excitatory agent, to activate the reaction. This chemical reaction, diffused across an embryo, will create patterns of chemically different cells. Turing predicted six different patterns could arise from this model. At Brandeis, Seth Fraden, professor of physics, and Irv Epstein, the Henry F. Fischbach Professor of Chemistry, created rings of synthetic, cell-like structures with activating and inhibiting chemical reactions to test Turing's model. They observed all six patterns plus a seventh unpredicted by Turing. Just as Turing theorized, the once identical structures -- now chemically different -- also began to change in size due to osmosis. This research could impact not only the study of biological development, and how similar patterns form in nature, but materials science as well. Turing's model could help grow soft robots with certain patterns and shapes. More than anything, this research further validates Turing as a pioneer across many different fields, Fraden says. After cracking the German Enigma code, expediting the Allies' victory in World War II, Turing was shamed and ostracized by the British government. He was convicted of homosexuality -- a crime in 1950s England -- and sentenced to chemical castration. He published "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" shortly after his trial and killed himself less than two years later, in June 1954. He was 41 years old. Cite This Page:
Bubble Sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms that works by comparing each pair of adjacent elements and swapping them if they are in wrong order. Unfortunately this is the worst algorithm due to its O(N²) time complexity on average. You can read about other popular sorting algorithms here. Time complexity : O(N — N² — N²) [Best -- Average -- Worst] Memory : O(1) i.e. just the input array Stable : Yes # N being the number of elements in the list 1. When you want to implement some sorting algorithm very quickly not bothering about anything else. This is not at all practical when N is large. 2. Only advantage it has over most other sorting algorithms, even quicksort, but not insertion sort is to efficiently detect whether the list is already sorted or not. When the list is already sorted the complexity is O(N) (best case). Bottom line: Use this when you know that the list is almost-sorted (It can fix this just with linear complexity O(2N)) Implementation in C: Question: Sort an array of integers in increasing order using bubble sort algorithm (format similar to most of the online programming contests ) First line of the input contains T, number of test cases Each test case contains an integer N ≤ 200, the number of integers in that array, followed by N integers separated by N spaces. Output: Sorted array 3 5 4 7 9 3 1 3 4 5 5 4 6 10 6 7 1 3 4 7 9 4 5 5 6 6 7 10 Brief explanation is given in the gist.
Remembering the Buddha (Key Stage 3) Get a range of quotations and discuss why the Buddha is still remembered today. Ask the pupils to list, based on the quotations, the qualities the Buddha had that made his life story endure. Using a map, show where the Buddha lived and travelled, and locate other religious figures of that time and where they lived. Ask pupils to read through information packs on the life of the Buddha, and then to consider and answer the questions: - What do the stories tell us about the beliefs of the people who wrote them? - What type of source are the stories - historical/myth/parable? The Buddha's teachings (Key Stage 3) Teach pupils about the Buddhist scriptures, focusing on the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Ask pupils to write down the information, giving a practical example for each part of the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation (Key Stage 3) Ask pupils to write an article of not more than 250 words on meditation for a Buddhist magazine. Give them a selection of information on meditation. Pupils work first in pairs to highlight key points and then arrange these in a brief list. Pairs then double up into fours and plan the article (200-250 words). The group plans should include: - idea/text for a strong opening sentence - reminder of agreed key points - idea/text outline for an effective ending After checking with the teacher each member of the group works on a fuller draft of the article.
Sanitation in Disaster Situations Maintaining good hygiene and sanitation can be a challenge when a disaster occurs. Since many disease-causing organisms thrive and spread under conditions where there is flooding, fire or a lack of safe drinking water, it’s important to take steps to protect the health and safety of everyone in your household. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the most important thing you can do to keep from getting sick and spreading illness is to wash your hands. Proper handwashing consists of the following steps: - Wet hands with clean, warm water. - Apply soap and rub soapy hands together vigorously for at least 20 seconds, being sure to get under the nails where dirt and germs can hide. - Rinse with clean water and dry with clean towels. While hand sanitizers can help kill germs, they are not as effective as handwashing at removing dirt and soil. It’s best to wash your hands first with soap and water and then use a hand sanitizer. Visit www.scrubclub.org for more information about proper handwashing. When surfaces in homes are exposed to flood waters, fire or other potentially harmful residues, they need to be properly cleaned and sanitized. To avoid pushing dirt or bacteria further into your home, always start the cleaning process where food is prepared and work outward into the rest of the home. Surfaces should first be rinsed to remove visible dirt residue, and then washed with a mixture of hot water and detergent. After cleaning, rinse the surface with clean, potable water and allow to air dry. Sanitizing can be accomplished using a bleach/water mixture or other sanitizing agent specifically formulated to kill germs and bacteria. If using a bleach/water mixture, mix one capful of fresh 5.25 percent household bleach per gallon of water. Use care when cleaning specialty surfaces such as granite countertops. These types of surfaces need to be cleaned and sanitized according to the manufacturer’s instructions to avoid damaging the material. When in Doubt, Throw it Out Some products and materials in our homes simply can’t be cleaned sufficiently to make them safe. For example, household furnishings such as mattresses that have been in contact with flood waters may be contaminated with mold or bacteria, so it’s best to throw them out. Water-damaged furnishings such as carpets, stuffed toys and upholstered furniture should also be discarded unless they can be restored through steam cleaning or hot water washing and thorough drying. Dishes and cookware that have been contaminated may be able to be cleaned and sanitized if they are made from heat-resistant materials. Wash the item in hot soapy water, rinse with potable water and then immerse the item in hot water that is at least 171° F for 30 seconds. If a potable water supply has been restored to your home, you can also use the dishwasher’s sanitizing cycle if the unit is certified to NSF/ANSI 184: Residential Dishwashers.
Concerns About and Arguments Against Inclusion and/or Full Inclusion From regular education. Not everyone is excited about bringing students with disabilities into the mainstream classroom setting. Tornillo (1994), president of the Florida Education Association United, is concerned that inclusion, as it all too frequently is being implemented, leaves classroom teachers without the resources, training, and other supports necessary to teach students with disabilities in their classrooms. Consequently, "the disabled children are not getting appropriate, specialized attention and care, and the regular students' education is disrupted constantly." He further argues that inclusion does not make sense in light of pressures from state legislatures and the public at large to develop higher academic standards and to improve the academic achievement of students. Lieberman (1992) agrees: By expanding the range of ability levels in a classroom through inclusion, Tornillo (1994) argues, teachers are required to direct inordinate attention to a few, thereby decreasing the amount of time and energy directed toward the rest of the class. Indeed, the range of abilities is just too great for one teacher to adequately teach. Consequently, the mandates for greater academic accountability and achievement are unable to be met. A poll conducted by the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) in West Virginia revealed that "78 percent of respondents think disabled students won't benefit from [inclusion]; 87 percent said other students won't benefit either" (Leo, 1994, p. 22). Citing numerous concerns expressed by many of its national membership, the AFT has urged a moratorium on the national rush toward full inclusion. Their members were specifically concerned that students with disabilities were "monopolizing an inordinate amount of time and resources and, in some cases, creating violent classroom environments" (Sklaroff, 1994, p. 7). They further cite that when inclusion efforts fail, it is frequently due to "a lack of appropriate training for teachers in mainstream classrooms, ignorance about inclusion among senior-level administrators, and a general lack of funding for resources and training" (p. 7). One additional concern of the AFT and others (Tornillo, 1994; Leo, 1994) is a suspicion that school administration motives for moving toward more inclusive approaches are often more of a budgetary (cost-saving) measure than out of a concern for what is really best for students. If students with disabilities can be served in regular classrooms, then the more expensive special education service costs due to additional personnel, equipment, materials, and classrooms, can be reduced. "But supporters [argue] that, while administrators may see inclusion as a means to save funds by lumping together all students in the same facilities, inclusion rarely costs less than segregated classes when the concept is implemented responsibly" (Sklaroff, 1994, p. 7). From special education. Regular educators are not the only ones concerned about a perceived wholesale move toward full inclusion. Some special educators and parents of students with disabilities also have reservations. The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), a large, international organization of special educators, parents, and other advocates for the disabled, issued a policy statement on inclusion at their annual convention in 1993. This statement begins with a strong endorsement for a continuum of services to be available to children, youth, and young adults with disabilities. It is only after making the point quite clear that services to the disabled, including various placement options besides the regular classroom, are to be tailored to individual student need that the policy actually addresses inclusion. Clearly, the concern of this broad-based advocacy organization is not so much with inclusion as with full inclusion. However, some parents of children with disabilities and others have serious reservations about inclusive educational practices. Their concerns are forged out of their struggles to get appropriate educational services for their children and those of others. They are concerned that, with the shift of primary responsibility for the education of these children from special education teachers to regular classroom teachers, there will be a loss of advocacy. Further, by dispersing children with special needs across the school campus and district, services and resources will be "diluted," and programming will be watered down. Indeed, like many in regular education, special education advocates assert that in some instances educational programming in a regular classroom setting may be totally inappropriate for certain individuals. They acknowledge that the ideals on which inclusion rests are laudatory. However, they remain skeptical that the present overall, broad-based capacities and attitudes of teachers and school systems toward accommodating students with disabilities into regular classrooms is adequate. They argue that the current In addition to a more generalized concern by some across the field of special education in relation to how inclusive practices become operationalized in schools, stronger concern about and resistance to inclusion has been raised within specific disability groups. Perhaps the greatest concern and opposition comes from many in the deaf community. Cohen (1994) is one of many who suggest that inclusion is inappropriate for most students with hearing impairments. He notes that "communication among peers is crucially important to the cognitive and social development for all children" (p. 35). However, because "most deaf children cannot and will not lip-read or speak effectively in regular classroom settings ..., full access to communication-and therefore full cognitive and social development-includes the use of sign language" (p. 35). He points to supportive research suggesting that greater intellectual gains are made by deaf students enrolled in schools for the hearing impaired, where a common language and culture may be shared, than for similarly disabled students in mainstream classroom settings. Even with an educational sign-language interpreter (of which there is a shortage throughout the United States), students with impaired hearing miss out on many of the experiences targeted as rationales for inclusive environments by inclusion advocates (e.g., a sense of belonging, opportunities to interact with peers). Social, emotional, and even academic development is difficult when communication must be facilitated through an interpreter. Informal communications and friendships with peers, participation in extracurricular activities, dating, etc. are also not well-facilitated when a third-party interpreter is needed to communicate. Consequently, many argue that the more appropriate educational placement option for the hearing impaired is a residential school with a "community" of others similarly disabled. Lieberman (1992) points out that many advocates (primarily parents) for those with learning disabilities also have significant concerns about the wholesale move toward inclusion. Their concerns stem from the fact that they have had to fight long and hard for appropriate services and programs for their children. They recognize that students with learning disabilities do not progress academically without individualized attention to their educational needs. These services have evolved primarily through a specialized teacher working with these students individually or in small groups, usually in a resource room setting. Many successful practices have been researched and identified (Lyon & Vaughn, 1994). Special education professionals and parents alike are concerned that regular education teachers have neither the time, nor the expertise to meet their children's needs. "The learning disabilities field seems to recognize that being treated as an individual can usually be found more easily outside the regular classroom" (p. 15). The issue of inclusion is also passionately debated in one other area of exceptionality-students who are gifted/talented. It is discussed under the concept of "heterogeneous grouping" rather than "inclusion." However, the issue is still one of providing appropriate services in an integrated versus a segregated setting. Some advocate, with research support, that gifted students are better served when they are able to work with other gifted students (usually in a "pull-out" program). Others promote, also with research support, the position that gifted students benefit more from being heterogeneously grouped with other students of various levels of ability (Tompkins & Deloney, 1994). Sapon-Shevin (1994) points out that "students who have been identified as 'gifted' or as 'disabled' need not be segregated from others in order to have their needs met, nor dumped with others without differentiation or appropriate treatment" (p. 8). However, their parents and other advocates have fought for specialized services (occurring in segregated settings), and they are reticent to allow what is perceived as a move backward. Next Page: Input from Legislation and Litigation
- measure (v.) - c. 1300, "to deal out by measure," from Old French mesurer "measure; moderate, curb" (12c.), from Late Latin mensurare "to measure," from Latin mensura "a measuring, a measurement; thing to measure by," from mensus, past participle of metiri "to measure," from PIE *me- (2) "to measure" (see meter (n.2)). Replaced Old English cognate mæð "measure." Meaning "to ascertain spatial dimensions of" is mid-14c. To measure up "have the necessary abilities" is 1910, American English. Related: Measured; measuring. - measure (n.) - c. 1200, "moderation, temperance, abstemiousness;" c. 1300, "instrument for measuring," from Old French mesure "limit, boundary; quantity, dimension; occasion, time" (12c.), from Latin mensura "measure" (see measure (v.)). Meaning "size or quantity as ascertained by measuring" is from early 14c. Meaning "action of measuring; standard measure of quantity; system of measuring; appointed or alloted amount of anything" is late 14c. Also from late 14c. are senses "proper proportion, balance." Sense of "that to which something is compared to determine its quantity" is from 1570s. Meaning "rhythmic pattern in music" is late 14c.; from mid-15c. in poetry, c. 1500 in dance. Meaning "treatment 'meted out' to someone" is from 1590s; that of "plan or course of action intended to obtain some goal" is from 1690s; sense of "legislative enactment" is from 1759. Phrase for good measure (late 14c.) is literally "ample in quantity, in goods sold by measure."
This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \|(Extinct as a tribe)\| \|Regions with significant populations\| \|Related ethnic groups\| The Potapoco were a tribe of Native Americans living in southern Maryland at the time of English colonization in the 17th century. The Potapoca were among the Atlantic coastal tribes speaking Algonquian languages, and they inhabited the area along what the English colonists later called the Port Tobacco River. They called their settlement Potopaco. Overall, the dominant tribe on the north side of the Potomac River was the Algonquian Piscataway tribe, which later absorbed some of the smaller tribe's survivors. Upon absorption, the Potapoco became a sub-tribe of the Piscataway. - "Paradise lost: Region's native tribes lived lightly on the land". Southern Maryland Newspapers Online. Retrieved 2012-09-24. \|This article relating to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
Many physical phenomena exhibit behavior that shows faster rates or greater solubilities at higher temperatures. An Arrhenius equation gives the following relationship between some measure of reaction rate or chemical solubility and temperature: K = A exp (-Q/RT) where K is the rate or solubility, A is a constant, Q is an activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The equation above can be restated to: log (K) = A' - Q/RT A chart can be constructed with log(K) on the Y axis and reciprocal temperature (1/T) on the X axis; the slope of this line indicates the activation energy (actually -Q/R) and the intercept is the new constant A’. This page describes the construction of one variation of this type of chart. Microsoft Excel does not offer a built in capability to chart reciprocal data, but the technique described here allows you to simulate a reciprocal scale along a chart axis (the horizontal axis in this example). A dummy series is plotted along the X axis, and formatted to look like an axis, with error bars as customized vertical gridlines and data labels as customized axis tick labels. In addition, we will use a dummy series along the Y axis to display selected minor tick mark labels. The tables below show the dummy experimental data (shaded blue), along with the data I used to construct the simulated X axis (shaded orange) and Y axis (shaded green) in this example. The only significance of this data is that I chose it to fall roughly on a straight line on the log K vs. 1/T chart. This line has a positive slope because the reciprocal temperature increases from right to left (temperature decreases from left to right). The temperatures in column F are numbers with a custom number format of “0°C”. The reciprocal temperatures in columns C and G were defined as possible: For a Celsius temperature in cell B4, the formula in cell C4 is: Dummy Horizontal Axis Reciprocal temperatures (Column G) are used for the X values, but the original Celsius temperatures (Column F) are used for the X axis labels, because they are more meaningful. Y values (Column H) correspond to the minimum on the Y axis (it will eventually be a logarithmic axis with a min of 1 and max of 100). Dummy Vertical Axis X values for the Dummy Vertical Axis correspond to the maximum on the X axis (Column J, X=3.9526), not the minimum, because the values are charted in reverse order. The Y axis labels (Column K) were chosen to show selected minor tick labels, to supplement the built-in major tick labels (1, 10, and 100). This is an XY Scatter plot of the Rate Y (Column D) as a function of Temperature X (Column B). This is not the chart we will start with. We will start with this XY Scatter plot of Rate Y (Column D) as a function of Reciprocal Temperature X (Column C). First I’ll construct the custom X axis labels and vertical gridlines, then I’ll add custom Y axis minor tick labels. I’m using the same light gray color for all axis lines and gridlines in the chart. Horizontal (Reciprocal) Axis Construction We want temperature to increase from left to right, so reciprocal temperature should increase from right to left. To accomplish this, format the horizontal axis, and select the Values in Reverse Order option. We want the vertical axis on the left, so while formatting the horizontal axis, select Axis Crosses at Maximum Axis Value. We want the horizontal axis to go from -20°C to 240°C (on a reciprocal basis), so set the min to 1.9493 and the max to 3.9526. The major spacing doesn’t matter, because we will not be using the built-in axis labels or vertical gridlines. Select the default vertical gridlines and press Delete. Format the horizontal axis, and for Label Position, select the none option. Copy the dummy horizontal axis data from columns G and H, select the chart, and use Paste Special from the Home tab of the ribbon to add the copied data as a new series. These are the orange circles near the bottom of the chart. We’ll use error bars for the chart’s vertical gridlines. Select the dummy horizontal axis data points, and add error bars using the plus icon next to the chart (Excel 2013) or the Chart Tools > Layout tab (Excel 2007-2010). Since it’s an XY Scatter chart series, it gets both horizontal and vertical error bars. Delete the horizontal error bars. Format the vertical error bars using the Plus direction only and without end caps, with a value of 99 (the Y maximum of 100 minus the Y minimum of 1), and using the light gray line color. Right click the dummy horizontal data series and select Add Data Labels. They were added above the points, and I’ve used the same orange as the font color to clarify this tutorial. Several techniques for using custom labels as chart series data labels are described in Apply Custom Data Labels to Charted Points elsewhere on this blog. I’ve used Excel 2013’s Value From Cells label option, using the Celsius temperatures in column F. Change the data label position from above to below the points. Change the alignment of the data labels to “Rotate Text Up” on the Home tab of the ribbon or “Rotate 270°” in the Format Data Labels dialog. Finally, resize the plot area to increase the margin between the plot area and the bottom of the chart. This allows the axis title and data labels to appear without overlapping. The custom horizontal axis is now finished. Hide the last evidence of your trickery by reformatting the dummy axis series to show no markers. Vertical (Logarithmic) Axis Construction Start fixing up the vertical axis by formatting it, and selecting Logarithmic Scale, and keep the default base 10. The error bar/gridlines now span the entire height of the chart. Add minor horizontal gridlines and format them with the same line color as the other gridlines and axes. Copy the green-shaded data for the dummy vertical axis series from columns J and K, select the chart, and use Paste Special to add the data as a new series. Add data labels to this new series to the left of the data points, using the default Y value labels. These new labels are shown in green in the chart below. The labeling of the vertical axis is now complete. Format the vertical dummy axis series to use no markers, hiding any evidence of your axis deception. Here is the finished chart, with all labels in the same dark gray font color. Extension to Other Custom Axes The technique shown here to add gridlines and labels corresponding to a reciprocal temperature scale can be applied to any arbitrary scale type, limited only by your ability to transform the desired scale into a plain vanilla linear axis. You could generate a Probability Scale Axis, or put Category Labels Along a Vertical Axis, or apply more Conventional Scientific Notation Axis labels. More Axis Scale Articles - Calculate Nice Axis Scales with LET and LAMBDA - Calculate Nice Axis Scales in Your Excel Worksheet - Calculate Nice Axis Scales in Excel VBA - Chart UDF to Control Axis Scale - How Excel Calculates Automatic Chart Axis Limits - Reciprocal Chart Axis Scale - Custom Axis Labels and Gridlines in an Excel Chart - Custom Axis, Y = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 - Logarithmic Axis Scales - Link Excel Chart Axis Scale to Values in Cells - Consistent Axis Scales Across Multiple Charts - Gantt Chart with Nice Date Axis - Select Meaningful Axis Scales - Bar Chart Value Axis Scale Must Include Zero
For the longest time doctors and scientists around the world have struggled to understand and pin point the causes and effective treatment for Alzheimer’s. However, recently is has been discovered that a weak cleaning system of the brain cells in animals and humans is one of the main causes of Alzheimer’s, this breakthrough can lead to developing of new medicines and treatment for Alzheimer’s. Research done by University of Copenhagen in Denmark, found that improving the cleaning system of the brain cells, also called mitophagy nearly removed the symptoms of Alzheimer’s in animals. New medicines and treatments are currently being researched which aim at directly targeting mitophagy. According to Vilhelm Bohr “When the cleaning system does not work properly, there will be an accumulation of defective mitochondria in the brain cells. And this may be really dangerous,” “At any rate, the cleaning system is markedly weakened in cells from both humans and animals with Alzheimer’s. And when we improve the cleaning in live animals, their Alzheimer’s symptoms almost disappear,” According to the research Mitophagy breaks down defective mitochondria and reuses their proteins. The dysfunctional mitophagy is associated with low quality function of nerve cells. When the cleaning system does not work properly it does not reuse the protein which leads to accumulation of the proteins tau and beta amyloid in the brain, leading to cell death. After the recent discovery the researchers show that after improving mitophagy, this accumulation slows down. The researchers believe that their findings indicate that the cleaning process is a potential target for the treatment of Alzheimer’s, which should be further investigated.
By Silvia Montoya, Director of the UNESCO Institute for Statistics After more than 6 months since the beginning of national lockdowns and school closures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, reopening schools is necessary and essential. Interruptions to classroom-based instructions have widened existing inequalities for vulnerable populations and reduced access to learning for a large fraction of the world’s children and youth. The longer schools remain closed, the more likely disadvantaged children are at risk of dropping out of school completely. Before the pandemic, children from the poorest households were already almost five times more likely to be out of primary school than their richer counterparts. Proper infrastructure lacking to prevent the spread of COVID-19 As countries start to rethink how to address school openings, new national risk mitigation measures and public health regulations need to be considered within the school’s physical space. Children’s role in transmitting the coronavirus is still uncertain, and younger children are less likely to be sensitive or respectful of strict measures. As such, few schools are prepared to reopen in a way that can protect children, teachers and other school staff. Two of the most important measures cited by global health authorities to prevent the spread of COVID-19 – namely, frequent and proper hand washing (using soap and water) and social distancing – are highly dependent on the existing physical infrastructure. COVID-19-related hygiene and social distancing norms in schools are unearthing a range of systemic problems with infrastructure in schools across the world. From European schools in densely-populated urban areas to rural remote village schools in the mountains of north-eastern Cambodia, schools are facing a wide range of challenges in their provision of adequately protective COVID-19 environments. Inadequate physical conditions, such as water shortages, poor sanitation and small classrooms, are proving difficult to overcome in the short-term for an immediate response. Almost half the schools in the world do not have access to basic handwashing facilities with soap and water while one-third are lacking in basic sanitation (i.e. improved facilities that are single-sex and usable at the school). Overall, schools in rural areas fare worse than those in urban areas while children at the pre-primary and primary levels have less access to basic water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities than those in higher education levels. Younger children are more likely to be vulnerable to WASH-related diseases, yet are at the right ages at which to establish foundational learning around health and hygiene. Thus, training young children, staff and family members is an essential component to establishing WASH services for a community. Establishing adequate WASH facilities for vulnerable populations is crucial Basic WASH facilities in schools are particularly important for WASH-vulnerable populations, including girls, persons with disabilities, children from poor households and children living in fragile contexts. Access to water and sanitation is not only a right in itself as established in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child – and safeguarded by Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 – but it contributes to the realization of other child rights, such as health, nutrition and education. Girls require separate latrines as a fundamental part of their safety and healthy participation in life. Girls are more likely to enrol, attend and complete school if they have access to single-sex facilities, which are essential, particularly for menstrual hygiene management. Yet, this is only the case in 54% of the least developed countries, compared to 72% in Eastern and South-eastern Asia, 79% in in Central and Southern Asia and 81% in Latin America and the Caribbean (UIS database). According to World Bank ranked income levels, only 73% of lower middle income countries provide single-sex basic sanitation facilities to their female students, compared to the World average of 78% and 97% of high income countries. In addition to WASH concerns, schools needs to consider the existing physical learning environment to safeguard social distancing norms. Adapting school norms to larger classrooms as a long-term response to the COVID-19 situation can also help establish quality learning environments in the long-term. There are no set international standards for classroom sizes or ratios, although norms and guidelines exist to provide guidance on better quality learning environments. In 2005, UNICEF’s Child-Friendly Schools Manual recommended a minimum 3.8 metres squared per child in early learning centres. Setting minimum spaces for children in higher education levels is more complex, however, and depends on the conditions of the local community (including projected population growth) as well as environmental and climatic conditions. In Rwanda, a minimum of one squared meter per pupil is considered adequate. One can also establish a basis for the overall classroom size, whereby child-friendly classrooms could reach a minimum of 100 square meters if playing areas and multi-activity classrooms are included. For example, the preschool square footage per student ratio is usually higher than for primary schools as younger children are less frequently required to sit still at their desks. Global Education Coalition initiatives provides guidance Changing or adapting infrastructure to meet the new demands, however, can prove an expensive enterprise for many countries. Indeed, the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) provided more than one-fifth of its total COVID-19 response grants (USD 266 million) to programmes in 12 countries that prepared school facilities for reopenings in safe environments for children and teachers. The Global Education Coalition for COVID-19 Response – launched by UNESCO in partnership with UNICEF, the World Bank, the World Food Programme and other United Nations agencies, international organizations, private sector and civil society representatives – developed the Framework for reopening schools. Reopening schools is composed of a three-step process (before, during and after reopening) and organised according to operational safety standards, learning practices, well-being and protection that reach out to the most marginalised populations (including girls). In addition to investing in WASH to mitigate virus transmission risks, the Framework aims to provide a holistic approach on safe operational procedures by including and training teachers and school staff in adhering to social distancing measures and adopting relevant hygiene practices. A more recent jointly developed update to proper procedures and checklists to consider prior to reopening is also now available. Ensuring classrooms and materials are accessible and inclusive has been the cornerstone of quality learning environments, and such standards are well aligned with needs during the COVID-19 reopenings. For example, modular classrooms – where furniture can be moved, collapsed or put away – is already a recommendation in some national guidelines for classrooms. As children and projects evolve and change during the school year, spaces that are adaptive can reduce the density of students in the classroom as required by social distancing norms. Some adopted measures can be detrimental to effective learning Adaptations to small classroom spaces has been shown to provide less than ideal reopening environments in some countries. To maintain WHO-recommended distancing measures among students and teachers (minimum of 1 meter squared), many schools have limited the number of students returning to classrooms at the same time, thereby reducing effective classroom time for all students. In addition, WHO guidelines recommend several decision points with regards to school reopenings, with specific attention paid to local trends on COVID-19 cases. The guidelines in France, for example, adapted an approach that prioritised certain students (i.e. those of medical workers), followed by children from vulnerable families. Thus, the total amount of time returning to the classroom is a function of the strict social distancing requirements, the school’s physical infrastructure, teacher availability and children’s background. As effective learning time is reduced for all students, a temporary response is to prioritise learning according to student needs. Limited time in the classroom can make teachers face more time-stress to meet the needs of national curricula and high-stakes examinations for certification or selection to the next education level. As part of the crisis-sensitive approach, education planners can reassess curricular objectives and transitions to upper education levels. In 2015, the global community validated the importance of infrastructure to deliver quality education for all learners and teachers, regardless of background or disability status. The international standard noted in the Education 2030 Framework states that “Every learning environment should be accessible to all and have adequate resources and infrastructure to ensure reasonable class sizes and provide sanitation facilities.” Sanitation crises such as COVID-19 mark the urgency in reaching these goals and highlight existing concerns around poor learning environments. However, this moment can also serve as a catalyst to improve learning conditions and outcomes for all children.
Search through our library of courses, select a category you might be interested in, use the search bar, or filter options on the left side of the page. Dramatic play enables students to enhance communication skills, learn key concepts, and develop problem-solving strategies by taking on new roles, acting out real-life experiences, and even dressing up and using imaginative props. In this session, we will discuss the importance of dramatic play for students in the early education classroom. We will also discuss specific, cross-curricular dramatic play activities and suggested literature that you can explore with your students. Join us to learn strategies for setting up your classroom environment to create a space where dramatic play and creativity can soar! We’re sorry, no results were found. Maybe try searching a different term. Have an immediate question? Contact us directly at 1-844-414-1851 Digital Online Certifications Below are some popular Digital Teacher Certifications that are available as a series of online courses. Click on a logo to start your certification track today!
In a prior post, we look at some of the basics of probability. The prior forms of probability we looked at focused on independent events, which are events that are unrelated to each other. In this post, we will look at conditional probability which involves calculating probabilities for events that are dependent on each other. We will understand conditional probability through the use of Bayes’ theorem. If all events were independent of it would be impossible to predict anything because there would be no relationships between features. However, there are many examples of on event affecting another. For example, thunder and lighting can be used to predictors of rain and lack of study can be used as a predictor of test performance. Thomas Bayes develop a theorem to understand conditional probability. A theorem is a statement that can be proven true through the use of math. Bayes’ theorem is written as follows P(A \| B) This complex notation simply means The probability of event A given event B occurs Calculating probabilities using Bayes’ theorem can be somewhat confusing when done by hand. There are a few terms however that you need to be exposed too. - prior probability is the probability of an event without a conditional event - likelihood is the probability of a given event - posterior probability is the probability of an event given that another event occurred. the calculation or posterior probability is the application of Bayes’ theorem Naive Bayes Algorithm Bayes’ theorem has been used to develop the Naive Bayes Algorithm. This algorithm is particularly useful in classifying text data, such as emails. This algorithm is fast, good with missing data, and powerful with large or small data sets. However, naive Bayes struggles with large amounts of numeric data and it has a problem with assuming that all features are of equal value, which is rarely the case. Probability is a core component of prediction. However, prediction cannot truly take place with events being dependent. Thanks to the work of Thomas Bayes, we have one approach to making prediction through the use of his theorem. In a future post, we will use naive Bayes algorithm to make predictions about text.
An iconic medieval missile weapon, the deadly longbow made possible the English victories at Crecy and Poitiers at the height of the Hundred Years’ War. The longbow was the weapon at the heart of the English military ascendancy in the century after 1340. Capable of subjecting the enemy to a hail of deadly projectiles, the longbow in the hands of massed archers made possible the extraordinary victories enjoyed by English forces over superior numbers at Crécy and Poitiers, and remained a key battlefield weapon throughout the Wars of the Roses and beyond. It also played a leading role in raiding, siege and naval warfare. Its influence and use spread to the armies of Burgundy, Scotland and other powers, and its reputation as a cost-effective and easily produced weapon led to calls for its widespread adoption among the nascent armies of the American Republic as late as the 1770s.
Ab 2 parallelism of. Presented in the diagram below will be reflect computations. If the diameter of the circle is also the triangles hypotenuse then the triangle is a right triangle. In the diagram of circle a what is the measure of xyz. Hurry please in the diagram of circle a what is the measure up of xyz. In the diagram below a quarter of circle o is graphed. Start studying secants tangents and angles. Secants tangents and also angles. And the measure up of xyz 81 2 through a theorem of one we have the edge included in between the tangent and also chord at the point of call is same to the edge in the alternative segment. 35 70 75 140. If you reflect the 4 minutes 1 circle girlfriend would acquire a semicircle in 2 dimensions. Secants tangents and angles study guide by maritzii consists of 14 questions covering vocabulary terms and also more. What will not be preserved. 35 70 75 140. Learn vocabulary terms and much more with flashcards games and also other study tools. Log in in authorize up. In the diagram over if arc abc is a semicircle what is the size of ac. Which three dimensional number is produced when the 4 minutes 1 circle is repetitively rotated about the y axis. What is the lateral area in square feet that the cylinder to the. Answer come if o is the center of the one below and xoz measures 76 degree what is the measure up of xyz. In 3 dimensions that would be a. And cd 3 size of. abdominal muscle 4 measure up of la 6 a ideal circular cylinder has an altitude of 11 feet and a radius the 5 feet. Log in in sign up. In the diagram of one a what is the measure of xyz. Quizlet flashcards activities and games help you boost your grades. Circle o is centered at the origin. A best triangle inscribed in a circle must have actually its hypotenuse as the diameter that the circle. In the diagram of circle o what is the measure of abc. The turning back is additionally true. Friend should recognize the complying with properties to deal with this question. You are watching: In the diagram of circle a, what is the measure of ∠xyz? See more: La Cenicienta Pelicula Completa En Español Latino, La Cenicienta Español Latino : Movies & Tv 1 native the figure it is observed the xy is a tangent to the circle in ~ y and yz is a chord that the exact same circle.
Saliva is a complex fluid containing proteins, including histine and secretory IgA, electrolytes and minerals, and organic molecules, and forms a protective pellicle on the teeth and soft tissues.1 An adequate saliva volume is a critical component of oral health. The medical/dental importance of saliva includes lubricating and moistening food for swallowing; solubilizing material for taste; initiating digestion; preventing dental caries; maintaining the pH of the upper gastrointestinal tract; maintaining the health of the oral mucosa and dentition; preventing opportunistic infection such as candidiasis by keeping the oral microflora balance; speaking; cleaning the mouth; and clearing the esophagus.2 Saliva is so important to oral and general health that ideally a clinical assessment should be done at each appointment. If a pool of saliva is observed in the floor of the mouth, the patient very likely has a normal salivary flow rate. Exceptions include the patient with oral ulcers or infections that can constantly stimulate salivary flow. Patients with oral ulcers or infections should have the salivary flow rate measured after the oral lesions have healed. Patients with advanced destruction of salivary gland tissue, such as Sjogren’s syndrome or other immune mediated diseases, may not be able to produce saliva even when stimulated. Medications are a well-known cause of salivary gland hypofunction (SGH). Medication induced dry mouth is often in the range of a 20%-40% reduction in flow rate.3 More than 700 medications are known to cause dry mouth, including 63% of those on the top 200 list of most frequently prescribed medications in the United States.4 Other causes include a variety of conditions that contribute to local oral drying and systemic conditions. These include: mouth breathing, smoking, candidiasis, menopause, aging, dehydration, diabetes mellitus, radiation therapy, and SOX (sialadenitis, osteoarthritis, and xerostomia). Other medical conditions include: thyroid disease; AIDS; stress/depression/anxiety; autoimmune including Sjogren’s syndrome; Parkinson’s disease; rheumatoid arthritis; systemic lupus; erythematosus; systemic sclerosis; calcinosis cutis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, esophageal dysmotility, scleroderma, and telangiectasias (CREST); primary biliary cirrhosis; polymyositis/dermatomyositis; lymphoma; autonomic neuropathy and primary fibromyalgia; HIV-related diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome; type V hyperlipidemia; eosinophilic myalgia syndrome; silicone breast disease; multiple sclerosis; myasthenia gravis; antiphospholipid antibody syndrome; and botulism or the use of Botox.5,6 In approximately 30% of patients the etiology of SGH is unknown.7,8 An important first step in the diagnosis of xerostomia or SGH is the accurate measurement of a baseline salivary flow rate. Measuring salivary flow is analogous to monitoring blood pressure and optimally should be done at each appointment. Identifying SGH early with treatment will prevent many of the adverse consequences. Patients with SGH and meticulous oral hygiene may have a normal appearance of the oral cavity, although they are lacking a pool of saliva in the floor of mouth. Additional clinical signs of SGH include lipstick adhering to the maxillary incisors; the clinician’s gloved finger sticks to mucosa during oral examination; altered texture of saliva, often white, frothy, stringy or sticky; frequent recurrences of oral candidiasis; atrophic glossitis or hairy tongue; dental caries at the gingival margin especially mandibular incisors; increased rate of carious lesion development; dental erosion or abrasion; excessive amounts of dental plaque in spite of daily brushing; chronic oral pain or burning sensation; patient awareness of normal intraoral structures; frequent cheek biting; sensation of swollen cheeks or salivary gland swelling; a sensation of a film, grit, or sand on teeth or in mouth; a sense of a bad taste or bad breath; frequent thirst; difficulty with speech; and the complaint of thick saliva. Measurement of the salivary flow rate is an important diagnostic step in any patient with complaints of oral burning, altered taste, or sensation. Patients with SGH often have non-oral symptoms due to hypofuncton of other exocrine glands such as frequent dry cough; difficulty swallowing; blurred vision or the sensation of burning, itching, gritty eyes that require eye drops; vaginal dryness, itching, burning, or frequent infections; dry skin; constipation; and nasal dryness. Salivary flow exhibits a circadian rhythm, with the lowest flow during sleep. The lowest level of normal salivary flow rate during sleep in the majority of cases, will be within the range of normal salivary flow in patients with normal salivary gland function. Saliva is produced by the major and minor (accessory) salivary glands, although the majority of unstimulated saliva—65%—is produced by the submandibular glands.9 The parotid glands produce 20% of unstimulated salivary flow and 50% of stimulated saliva.9 The submandibular glands produce 7%-8% and the accessory salivary glands produce 7%-8% of unstimulated saliva.9 Measuring salivary flow can be done quickly and inexpensively in the dental office as a part of routine dental hygiene care.10 There are two basic methods to measuring salivary flow rate—the volumetric draining technique or calibrated paper Patient preparation for either technique is identical and begins before the scheduled appointment. Ideally a patient should be fasting for 1 hour prior to measuring baseline unstimulated salivary flow and avoid eating, drinking, chewing gum, brushing teeth, and flossing. The appointment confirmation courtesy call should review these instructions. If the patient has had something to eat, drink, or chew in the hour prior to salivary flow measurement, an unstimulated salivary flow measurement cannot be determined. If the measurement is done, this will be a stimulated salivary flow measurement. The unstimulated salivary flow rate is most important because it represents the base line amount of salivary flow. A stimulated salivary flow rate indicates the presence of functional salivary gland tissue. To measure an unstimulated salivary flow rate, the patient can sit on the edge of the dental chair with his or her feet on the floor in the coachman’s position. The dental chair height should be adjusted so that the patient’s thighs are parallel to the floor. The patient sits leaning forward resting his or her body weight, elbows, and arms on the tops of the thighs and knees while bending the neck. In one hand, he or she holds a funnel resting in a calibrated tube gently on the face. The lips are opened and any saliva that is produced in 5 minutes is allowed to passively flow into the funnel and tube. The saliva is collected for 5 minutes. The use of a timer is recommended. At the end of 5 minutes, the saliva specimen is examined. Clinical observations about saliva color and consistency can be recorded in the patient record. Normal saliva is clear and thin, similar to the appearance and consistency of water. The total volume is recorded. The total volume collected in 5 minutes, divided by five, results in the volume per minute or unstimulated salivary flow rate. The normal unstimulated flow rate varies between 0.3 and 0.4 Ml/min11,12 and values < 0.1 Ml/min should be considered abnormal (see Table 1).13,14 If the unstimulated salivary flow rate is abnormally low, the next step is measuring the stimulated salivary flow rate. The stimulated salivary flow rate measures the ability of the salivary glands to produce saliva when stimulated. Chewing unflavored paraffin for 5 minutes, applying 1% citric acid to the tongue, and prescription salivary stimulants are used to capture a stimulated salivary flow rate. A stimulated salivary flow rate may be determined by having the patient chew a piece of unflavored paraffin for 1 minute, then repeating the measurement process. A normal stimulated salivary flow rate is 1-2 Ml/minute with less than or equal to 0.5 Ml/minute considered abnormally low. A 1% topical solution of citric acid applied to the tongue can also be used to stimulate saliva. Another method is to administer a 5 mg test dose of pilocarpine, a drug that stimulates salivary flow.15 The stimulated salivary flow rate can be measured 20-30 minutes after oral administration of 5 mg pilocarpine. Contraindications to administering pilopcarpine are known hypersensitivity to pilocarpine, narrow angle glaucoma, and uncontrolled asthma. The most common adverse effect is sweating. An advantage with using pilocarpine to stimulate salivary flow is that the patient can see if the medication works, compare the oral sensations before and after the pilocarpine challenge, and determine whether or not pilocarpine or other salivary stimulant is likely to be effective as a long term treatment for SGH. Individuals who do not respond to a test of pilocarpine are more likely to have irreversible salivary gland destruction due to immune disease such as Sjogren’s syndrome. If a patient has a salivary flow rate less than or equal to 0.1 Ml/minute, the patient may require a prescription medication salivary stimulant to maintain an adequate salivary flow rate. Calibrated Paper method The modified Schirmer test (MST) measures the submandibular salivary flow rate.16,17 This test uses a calibrated filter paper test strip developed to measure lacrimal tear flow. Schirmer test strips with a blue dye impregnated into the strip that mark the amount of flow are very easy for both the clinician and the patient to see results. The strip is held on the submandibular salivary caruncle for 3 minutes. At the end of 3 minutes, the amount of salivary flow is measured. A normal salivary flow rate using the MST method is 30 mm/3 minutes. A flow of 25 mm or less is diagnostic of SGH. For patients with a low unstimulated salivary flow rate, the test can be repeated after preparation with unflavored paraffin, topical 1% citric acid, or a test dose of pilocarpine for a stimulated salivary flow rate measurement. Patients who are able to produce saliva when stimulated are known as responders. Responders are often candidates for treatment with prescription salivary gland stimulants (secretagogues). Salivary flow can also be assessed using the commercially available saliva-check kit. This test measures quantitative and qualitative aspects of saliva, including the salivary pH and buffering capacity. The normal salivary pH is 7.0-7.5 or neutral to slightly alkaline. With SGH, the salivary pH decreases. Erosion of dental hard tissues occurs at pH 5.5. A low salivary pH contributes to mucosal discomfort. The most common cause of a low salivary gland pH is SGH, but patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease may also have a low pH.18 Salivary flow rate can be measured annually as part of a comprehensive oral examination for diagnosis and prevention of oral disease. If an SGH diagnosis is made, the next step is to determine if a related systemic disease is present. Salivary Gland Biopsy Patients with SGH should be evaluated to determine if there is systemic disease contributing to the loss of salivary gland function. The most common diseases are diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and Sjogren’s syndrome. Blood tests such as the fasting blood glucose; thyroid function tests such as T3, T4, and thyroid stimulating hormone; and Sjogren’s antibodies SS-A and SS-B can detect up to 65% of contributing problems with salivary gland hypofunction.19 If blood tests fail to reveal the etiology of salivary gland hypofunction, a salivary gland biopsy of minor or major glands may increase the ability to diagnose the cause. Biopsy may identify lymphocytic infiltrates, fibrosis, amyloid, or other problems not detectable by routine blood tests. The salivary flow rate can be measured easily with minimal patient preparation in the dental hygiene appointment. The patient with salivary gland hypofunction requires treatment, including drinking 64 oz daily of noncaffeinated beverages. - Saliva: its role in health and disease. Working Group 10 of the Commission on Oral Health, Research and Epidemiology (CORE). Int Dent J . 1992;42(4 Suppl 2):291-394. - Pederson AM, Bardow A, Jensen SB, Nauntofte B. Saliva and gastrointestinal functions of taste, mastication, swallowing and digestion. Oral Dis . 2002;8:117-129. - Zunt SL, Lee L, Woo SB. Identification of salivary gland hypofunction in the management of oral mucosal disease. Abstract. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod . 2002;94:210. - Smith RG, Butner AP. Oral side effect of the most frequently prescribed drugs. Special Care in Dentistry . 1994;12(3):96-102. - Cherington M. Clinical spectrum of botulism. Muscle Nerve . 1998;21:701-710. - Costa J, Espírito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2005;25:CD003633. - Field EA, Longman LP, Bucknall R, Kaye SB, Higham SM, Edgar WM. The establishment of a xerostomia clinic: a prospective study. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg . 1997;35;96-103. - Longman LP, Higham SM, Rai K, Edgar WM, Field EA. Salivary gland hypofunction in elderly patients attending a xerostomia clinic. Gerodontology . 1995;12:67-72. - Dawes C. Saliva and Oral Health . 2nd ed. London: Thanet Press Limited; 1996. - Navazesh M, ADA Council on Scientific Affairs and Division of Science. How can oral health care providers determine if patients have dry mouth? J Am Dent Assoc . 2003;134:613-620. - Sreebny LM, Valdini A. Xerostomia. Part I: Relationship to other oral symptoms and salivary gland hypofunction. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol . 1988,66:451-458. - Sreebny LM. Saliva in health and disease: an appraisal and update. Int Dent J . 2000;50:140-161. - Navazesh M, Christensen C, Brightman V. Clinical criteria for the diagnosis of salivary gland hypofunction. J Dent Res . 1992;71:1363-1369. - Wang SL, Zhao ZT, Li J, Zhu XZ, Dong H, Zhang YG. Investigation of the clinical value of total saliva flow rates. Arch Oral Biol . 1998;43:39-43. - Rosas J, Ramos-Casals M, Ena J, et al. Usefulness of basal and pilocarpine-stimulated salivary flow in primary Sjogren’s syndrome. Correlation with clinical, immunological and histologic features. Rheumatology . 2002;41:670-675. - Chen A, Wai Y, Lee L, Lake S, Woo SB. The modified Schirmer test for measuring mouth dryness: a preliminary study. J Am Dent Assoc . 2005;136:164-170. - Fontana M, Zunt S, Eckert GJ, Zero D. A screening test for unstimulated salivary flow measurement. Oper Dent . 2005;30:3-8. - DeVault, KR. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/457231. Accessed December 5, 2005. - Wolff A, Meir T, Begleiter A. The spectrum of diagnoses among patients visiting a saliva clinic in Israel. J Dental Res . 1993;72:773. From Dimensions of Dental Hygiene. January 2006;4(1):26, 28-29.
Constitution of the United States: The Amendments The Constitution has undergone gradual alteration with the growth of the country. Some of the 26 amendments were brought on by Supreme Court decisions. However, the first 10 amendments, which constitute the Bill of Rights, were added within two years of the signing of the federal Constitution in order to ensure sufficient guarantees of individual liberties. The Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government. But since the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868), many of the guarantees contained in the Bill of Rights have been extended to the states through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The First Amendment guarantees the freedom of worship, of speech, of the press, of assembly, and of petition to the government for redress of grievances. This amendment has been the center of controversy in recent years in the areas of free speech and religion. The Supreme Court has held that freedom of speech does not include the right to refuse to testify before a Congressional investigating committee and that most organized prayer in the public schools violates the First Amendment. The right to keep and bear arms—adopted with reference to state militias but interpreted (2008) by the Supreme Court as essentially an individual right—is guaranteed by the Second Amendment, while freedom from quartering soldiers in a house without the owner's consent is guaranteed by the Third Amendment. The Fourth Amendment protects people against unreasonable search and seizure, a safeguard only more recently extended to the states. The Fifth Amendment provides that no person shall be held for a capital or otherwise infamous crime without indictment, be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb for the same offense, be compelled to testify against himself, or be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. The privilege against self-incrimination has been the center of a great deal of controversy as a result of the growth of Congressional investigations. The phrase due process of law, which appears in the Fifth Amendment, is also included in the Fourteenth Amendment. As a result there has been much debate as to whether both amendments guarantee the same rights. Those in favor of what is termed fixed due process claim that all the safeguards applied against the federal government should be also applied against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. The supporters of the concept of flexible due process are only willing to impose those guarantees on the states that are implicit in the concept of ordered liberty. The Sixth Amendment guarantees the right of speedy and public trial by an impartial jury in all criminal proceedings, while the Seventh Amendment guarantees the right of trial by jury in almost all common-law suits. Excessive bail, fines and cruel and unusual punishment are prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. The Ninth Amendment states that The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. By the Tenth Amendment The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Powers reserved to the states are often termed residual powers. This amendment, like the commerce clause, has been a battleground in the struggle over states' rights and federal supremacy. Of the succeeding sixteen amendments, the Eleventh, Seventeenth, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Amendments have already been discussed under Articles 1, 2, and 3. The Twelfth (1804) revised the method of electing President and Vice President. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth (1870) are the Civil War and Reconstruction amendments; they abolish slavery, while guaranteeing civil rights and suffrage to U.S. citizens, including former slaves. The Sixteenth Amendment (1913) authorizes the income tax. Prohibition was established by the Eighteenth Amendment (1919) and repealed by the Twenty-first (1933). The Nineteenth (1920) grants woman suffrage. The Twentieth (1933) abolishes the so-called lame-duck Congress and alters the date of the presidential inauguration. The poll tax and any other tax made a requirement for voting in primaries and elections for federal office was outlawed by the Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964). The Twenty-fifth (1967) establishes the procedure for filling the office of Vice President between elections and for governing in the event of presidential disability. The Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) lowers the voting age in all elections to 18. The Twenty-seventh Amendment (1992), first proposed in 1789, establishes procedures for Congressional pay increases. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. Government
Biodegradable Polymers – Definition, Preparation, Properties, Uses A polymer is a molecule made up of numerous small molecules called monomers that are joined together to form a larger molecule. The word “polymer” is made up of two parts: “poly” which means “many,” and “mer” which means “unit.” This diagram illustrates how a polymer’s chemical makeup is made up of numerous smaller units (monomers) linked together to form a bigger molecule. Polymerization is a chemical reaction that bonds monomers together to form a polymer. Microorganisms destroy biodegradable polymers in a suitable amount of time, ensuring that biodegradable polymers and their degraded products have a low environmental impact. Enzyme-catalyzed processes break these polymers down into little segments, and microorganisms manufacture these enzymes. Method of Preparing Biodegradable Polymers One technique to make a biodegradable polymer is to add hydrolysable ester groups to the polymer chain. Ester groups may be inserted into the polymer if the following acetal is added to an alkene undergoing free radical polymerisation. These “weak connections” will be broken down by enzymes. Examples of Biodegradable Polymers Because the weak links inherent in aliphatic polyesters are vulnerable to enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis, they constitute an important family of biodegradable polymers. - Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxy valerate (PHBV): It’s a 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid copolymer with ester links joining the monomer units. Properties of PHBV: - It is a biodegradable polymer that degrades in the environment due to bacterial action. - 3-hydroxybutanoic acid gives PHBV its stiffness, whereas 3-hydroxypentanoic acid gives it its flexibility. Uses of PHBV: - For the manufacture of orthopaedic equipment - As a type of specialised packing material. - In the case of controlled drug release. - Polyglycolic Acid (PGA): The chain polymerization of a cyclic dimer of glycolic acid, HO-CH2COOH, yields polyglycolic. - Polylactic Acid (PLA): Polymerization of the cyclic dimer of lactic acid (HO-CH(CH3)COOH) yields polylactic acid. - Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL): The lactone of 6-hydroxy hexanoic acid is chain polymerized to produce it. - Nylon-2-Nylon-6: Nylon-2-Nylon-6 is a glycine (NH2CH2COOH) and aminocaproic acid (NH2-(CH2)5COOH) alternating polyamide copolymer. Properties of Biodegradable Polymers - Biodegradable polymers can maintain strong mechanical integrity until they are degraded. - Degradation usually starts at the end-groups because biodegradable polymers have exceptionally strong carbon backbones that are difficult to crack. - Non-toxic biodegradable polymers - Biodegradable polymer degradation rates can be controlled. - Biodegradable polymers also lack crystallinity, which inhibits access to end groups. - Hydrophilic polymers are biodegradable polymers. Advantages of Biodegradable Polymers - It is Easy to recycle biodegradable polymers: These polymers not only degrade more quickly when disposed, but they may also be easily recycled organically. Recycling bio-waste can be composted or used as a renewable energy source for biogas production, which helps to reduce landfill waste. - The amount of waste generated is reduced: Depending on the substance used to produce it and the method of disposal, biodegradable plastic degrades in a matter of months. - Reduction in carbon Emission: One of the most notable advantages of employing biodegradable polymers to make plastic bags instead of traditional plastic is the huge reduction in carbon emissions throughout the manufacturing process. - Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced: Greenhouse gas emissions are decreased when biodegradable polymers are utilised instead of traditional plastics. - Reduced use of petroleum: Oil is a necessary component in traditional polymer synthesis. It’s no wonder that petroleum hurts the environment when you consider the amount of trash generated during refining and even during the extraction of oil from the soil. - They consume less energy during their manufacture: Biodegradable plastics use less energy in the long term and do not require the reprocessing of fossil fuels to manufacture polymers, despite the higher initial investment. Disadvantages of Biodegradable Polymers - To contain potentially toxic materials, landfills are designed to be moisture-free and airtight. Biodegradation is often slowed by these anaerobic conditions, which help to prevent harmful compounds from being released from landfills. - Biodegradable polymers are excessively expensive to produce. - They aren’t easy to come by. - Commingled Plastic recycling is not a good fit for biodegradable polymers. Uses of Biodegradable Polymers - These are used for stitches after surgery. - Tissue ingrowth materials, controlled medication release systems, plasma replacements, and other medical items frequently incorporate biodegradable polymers. - These are utilised in agricultural goods like seed coatings and films. - These are also seen in fast-food packaging and personal hygiene items. - To increase aeration and encourage plant growth, biodegradable polymers are utilised in and on the soil. - Biodegradable polymers are employed in medication delivery because it is necessary for the drug to be released gradually rather than all at once, and for the pill to remain safe in the bottle until it is time to consume it. - In gene therapy, biodegradable polymers are used. - Biodegradable polymers are employed in medicinal agents such as anticancer, antipsychotic, and anti-inflammatory drugs in the biodegradable system. Question 1: What are the examples of biodegradable polymers? The examples of biodegradable polymers are Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxy valerate (PHBV), Polyglycolic acid (PGA), Polylactic acid (PLA), Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and Nylon-2-Nylon-6. Question 2: What is polylactic acid? Polylactic acid is produced by polymerizing the cyclic dimer of lactic acid (HO-CH(CH3)COOH). Question 3: What are the uses of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxy valerate? The uses of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxy valerate are: - For the production of orthopaedic devices - As a unique form of packaging material. - When it comes to controlled medication release, there are a few things to keep in mind. Question 4: What is Poly ε-caprolactone? To make it, the lactone of 6-hydroxy hexanoic acid is chain polymerized.
Geologic evidence for extensive ground water system on Mars Utrecht University geologist Francesco Salese studied 24 low-lying areas distributed around the northern hemisphere of Mars. Satellite images have provided evidence of large volumes of simultaneous ground water activity connecting the areas. Salese has also found remains of deltas and coastlines on the planet’s surface. “These are strong indications that water was once present in these dried-up basins. There is no evidence that they had been filled from the surface, so upwelling ground water is the only remaining explanation. The deltas are all located at approximately the same elevation, so we are probably dealing with a ground water reservoir that spans the entire planet.” Other researchers, including some at Utrecht University, have predicted the presence of ground water on Mars since 2010. Until now, however, they were unsure as to whether the water was located in local ground water basins, or if it was a extensive system of interconnected basins, because the models and available evidence indicated that both answers were possible. Now, Salese has proven that the basins are indeed interconnected, and spread over a large area of the planet. But what happened to all of the water in those basins? “That’s the big question. We’ve been able to determine that the ground water system we’ve discovered dates from around 3.5 billion years ago, but we don’t know when or how the basins dried up. The same applies to the other structures on the planet’s surface that indicate water must have flowed over the surface at some point.” Some time later in the planet’s history, the groundwater on Mars froze into permafrost. At that point, the water activity was limited to isolated areas around local and short-lived heat sources. “Think of phenomena like meteorite impacts or volcanic eruptions.” Half of the basins had been studied before, but only on an individual basis, and the emphasis in those studies was mainly on the mineralogy of the sites. Salese examined how the 24 basins were interconnected, and included the locations’ hydrology - the presence and behaviour of water - in his research. All of the basins are located between the planet’s equator and 37° north latitude. Why did he focus specifically on that region? “The presence of water in more northerly regions could have led to the creation of glaciers, and the traces of glaciers are more difficult to study. The region south of the 37th parallel presents more opportunities to examine the hydrological morphology - how water affects the formation of the landscape.” As far as we know Mars should be considered a one-plate-planet. The substrate is so much simpler than the Earth’s, that it is possible to have a huge ground water system Plates and volcanoes A Mars-wide ground water system assumes the presence of a stable and rather uniform substrate, because otherwise it would be impossible to feed so many water basins located so far away from one another. Support for that theory is provided by earlier structural geological research. “The substrate is so much simpler than the Earth’s, that it is possible to have a huge ground water system. Because as far as we know Mars should be considered a one-plate-planet.” The height of the volcanoes on Mars provides additional evidence for that hypothesis. “They reach up to 21 kilometres high, not only because gravity is weaker on Mars, but also because the volcanoes have been active for an extremely long period of time at the same location. And that would only be possible if they hadn’t been disturbed by tectonic plates sliding beneath them, such as the case in Hawaii where a chain of volcanoes formed because of the moving plate.” Research on Mars mainly teaches us about the red planet itself, but the research may be important for the future of our planet as well. Importance for Earth In the first instance, research on Mars mainly teaches us about the red planet itself. “For example, in 2013 and 2019, researchers found mineralogical evidence for circumstances that could be beneficial for the presence of life in some of the basins.” But the research may be important for the future of our own planet as well. “As we learn more about water on Mars, especially the reason why we see so little of it on the planet today, we may be able to find out if the same can happen to Earth, or if it had already happened when Earth was still very young.” Geologist Francesco Salese grew up in Italy. In 2018, after obtaining an European PhD at Università d'Annunzio in Pescara (Italy) and Université de Nantes (France), he came to Utrecht with a Marie Curie Individual Fellowship to conduct hydrogeological research. The digital elevation model and images he used for his study were taken with the High Resolution Stereo Camera on board the European Mars Express Orbiter. Utrecht University’s research on water on Mars is explained in greater detail in this video.
The pronouns you, your, and yours must be used when writing in the second person. It differs from the first person, which employs pronouns like I and me, and the third person, which uses pronouns like he and she. Second person pronouns are also called addressal or reference pronouns because they indicate a relationship between the speaker and the person or people being addressed. First person pronouns are only concerned with the speaker, while third person pronouns deal with all three participants in the conversation: the speaker, the person or people being addressed, and anyone else present. Using proper second person pronouns is important for clarity and consistency. Without them, your writing can come across as informal and unclear, so it's best to avoid writing in the second person unless you have good reason to do so. Examples of sentences written in the second person include: "You should eat healthier." "Eat food, not too much, mostly vegetables, some fruit, some meat, and some starch. Don't eat anything that comes in a box or canister. That's the first thing to go in the trash." "I don't want any trouble, so just walk away from here." These sentences are written using the pronoun you along with a subject and a verb. The subjects are foods and problems, respectively. The verbs are to eat and not to eat. Writing in third person means writing from the perspective of an outsider looking in, and utilizing pronouns such as he, she, it, or they. It is distinct from the first person, which employs pronouns like I and me, and the second person, which employs pronouns like you and yours. Third person narratives are common in journalism and literature. Third person refers to the fact that the writer is not identified within the text, but rather objects and events are described in terms of their effect on someone else. For example, instead of saying "I like apples because they're tasty", a third person narrative would say "Apples are tasty because people like them". Third person narratives can be further divided into three categories based on who the audience is: third-person omniscient, third-person limited, and third-person unknown. Third-person omniscient narrators are known by everyone and see everything. They are usually gods or other powerful figures who comment on the action throughout the story. Examples include George Orwell's 1984 and Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment. Third-person limited narrators are characters within the story who are familiar to the audience. They may have personal opinions about what happens in the story and may even intervene with the action. In technical writing, advertising, music, and speeches, this point of view is employed to address the audience. It is usually indicated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph with the word you. Writing in the second person allows the writer to focus on one particular person without mentioning everyone else by name. This is useful when you want the reader to understand that someone is thinking about something or has feelings about something without specifying who they are. For example, if I were to write an email to my friend Emily, I might say something like "You should come visit us in Boston," rather than spelling out who exactly I was talking to (i.e., "You should come visit us; we're living in Boston now"). Writing in the second person is also useful when you want to talk directly to a specific group of people. For example, if I wanted to tell all my friends that dinner was ready, I could write "Dinner's ready! Come eat." But since I can't mention every single friend by name, I would have to write in the second person instead: "Come eat dinner; it's time to fill our stomachs." Using the second person keeps the message short and sweet. Writing in the third person allows you greater freedom and objectivity. It allows the narrator to be all-knowing in fiction writing. He, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, her, hers, its, their, and theirs are the personal pronouns used in third-person literature. They can represent any gender or number. In English literature, the third person is usually the preferred choice for novels, poems, stories, etc. This is because it gives the author more freedom to discuss things from another's point of view. Also, it makes the story more objective because what happens to the character is not seen as happening to the writer himself, or herself. In English literature, only people who write in the first person present themselves directly to the reader. Therefore, only people who write in the third person can include details about themselves or others within their work. For example, if someone was writing a novel about themselves but didn't want other people to know what they were doing, then they would use the third person rather than the first person. Writers often use the third person to describe events that could not be known with certainty by the writer or speaker. For example, if someone wrote a history book about World War II but was not there itself, then it would be written in the third person and not the first person. The writer would not be able to describe what happened during that time period because they did not experience it themselves.
How to Read Body Language: Part Three Lon Chaney Sr. was one of the most famous actors from the silent film era. He was known as ‘The Man of a Thousand Faces’ because of his ability to not only transform himself through creative makeup but also project different personalities and feelings without the use of words. Chaney developed his art of necessity. He was raised by parents who could not hear or speak, which forced him to cultivate his nonverbal skills. By addressing this need he inadvertently trained himself to understand and convey deep feelings without talking. He became a master of body language. Early Hollywood recognized his talent and took advantage of it by casting him in hundreds of roles. While the silent film era has been and gone, a command of body language remains important. You can improve your personal and professional relationships by cultivating your ability to understand nonverbal communication. When talented actors play roles, they recognize it is imperative to provide many believable cues to be convincing. This entails providing verbal and nonverbal communication that conveys what the character is feeling. Just speaking with expression is not enough. Just having certain facial responses is not enough. Just having telling mannerisms is not enough. All different aspects of the performance have to work together. Combinations Substantiate Isolated Cues One piece of nonverbal communication out of context may not provide enough information to provide the receiver with conclusive evidence of the speaker’s intent. Evidence is significantly stronger when there are several pieces of information that complement one another. Let’s imagine a young man courting a young woman. He comes to see her and presents her with flowers. What does he think if she simply smiles? Is she pleased? Is she simply responding that way because she thinks it is appropriate and feels she has to? What if she also moves slightly closer to him, places her hand on his lower arm, and says, ‘Thank you.’ Body language is more convincing when more than one expression presents concurrently. Transitions Substantiate Isolated Cues While individual movements or positions are not conclusive, transitions from one to another definitely direct the careful observer to meaningful conclusions. Let’s assume two business people are engaged in an important negotiation. Throughout a meeting, they are both engaged and leaning forward as they speak with one another. At some point, one person proposes a new idea. The other responds by leaning back in his chair, raising his arms and clasping his hands behind his head. How do you think the negotiations are going? The transition from one position to another speaks volumes. Here are some nonverbal cues that tend to substantiate one another. The presence of multiple signs generally leads to reliable conclusions. · Inhaling fully · Rocking one’s body · Shifting weight forward or upward · Closing eyes · Falling posture · Turning away from you · Asymetrical position · Blinking eyes · Facing downward · Furrowed brows · Random Movements · Rubbing of eyes · Shifting in one’s seat · Shuffling feet · Wandering eyes · Clenching teeth or hands · Crossing arms or legs · Pointing legs toward exit · Placing hands on hips · Turning upper body away · Covering mouth with hand · Touching nose · Expanding gestures · Spreading arms and legs · Standing with toes out · Bouncing knee crossed over leg · Crossing legs · Tapping Feet · Rapping fingers on one hand against table · Leaning head and/or body forward and blinking · Raising eyebrows inquiringly · Clenching teeth · Furrowing brows · Looking downward · Compressing lips in a thin line · Aligning shoulders · Establishing increased eye contact · Leaning in · Crossing arms · Looking away · Stiffening of body · Hugging themselves · Reaching up to touch their throats · Standing, toes pointed inward Nonverbal clues are just that -- clues. No one exhibits every classic symptom. Sometimes people have taken charge of their nonverbal communication and don’t show any marked indications you might expect. But most often, like the actors who portray emotions, people you communicate with will provide some nonverbal messages that reveal what they are feeling. Just look.
Reproduction & dispersal Once spores or vegetative propagules have been produced they need to be released and dispersed if new plants are to develop. There is considerable variation in sporophyte anatomy – in both the spore capsule and, when present, the supporting seta. All aspects of sporophyte structure have some influence on how the spores get out and are dispersed. The aim of this section is to show you many of the ways in which dispersal can happen and, for spore dispersal, the roles played by sporophyte anatomy. We'll look first at the ways in which spores are dispersed and then at vegetative propagules. Most bryophytes rely on wind for spore dispersal. The vast majority of species have small spores, typically with diameters of 5 to 50 micrometres, a micrometre being a thousandth of a millimetre. An example at the other extreme is the moss genus Archidium, with spore diameters mostly in the range 100-200 micrometres, but as low as 50 micrometres, in Archidium dinteri (known only from southern Africa) and up to 300 micrometres, almost a third of a millimetre, in Archidium ohioense. The latter is a widespread species, known from Africa, Asia, North America, the West Indies and New Caledonia. Small spores can be carried considerable distances by the wind. Even very light breezes, virtually imperceptible to a person, can easily waft the smaller spores away. Wind dispersal gets more difficult with spores of about 50 micrometre diameter so that Archidium spores, for example, are too heavy for wind to be an effective dispersal agent. Strong winds may certainly move them short distances, just as sand grains can be blown about, but they would be carried more easily by water. In addition, such spores may well be dispersed when mixed up with mud that is picked up by animal feet. Finally, there is a small number of moss species in which insects are the main agents of spore dispersal. Regardless of how the spores are dispersed they must first get out of the capsule. The capsule may develop a well-defined mouth, through which the spores can escape. If the capsule lacks such a mouth it may split along well-defined lines of weakness (the dehiscence lines) or break open irregularly to expose the spores, for further dispersal by wind or some other agency. In mosses the majority of species have capsules with well-defined mouths but you will also find species where the capsules break irregularly and the capsules in a couple of genera have dehiscence lines. The majority of liverwort species have capsules with dehiscence lines but there are also species with disintegrating capsules. Hornwort capsules have one or two dehiscence lines. There is variation in the structure of mouths and the ways of splitting. We will now look more closely at the three ways in which capsules can open. In a few moss genera the capsule disintegrates and examples of this are Acaulon, Archidium, Ephemerum and Pleuridium. The spores either tumble out of the broken capsules or may be washed away, for example by flowing surface water after rain. The genus Pleurophascum (confined to the southern coast of Western Australia, Tasmania and the south island of New Zealand) also appears to have disintegrating capsules, though there are still some unanswered questions about this genus. The species Pleurophascum grandiglobum (right) is endemic to Tasmania, and a Tasmanian bryologist has reported frequently seeing partly eroded or grazed spore capsules. The identity of the creature responsible for the grazing is unknown as is the role, if any, that this creature plays in spore dispersal. The capsules of the endemic New Zealand species Pleurophascum ovalifolium are globose when immature but (unlike those of Pleurophascum grandiglobum) collapse to a discoid shape when mature. The capsules of this species seem to take much longer to develop than do those of the Tasmanian species and they also appear to be longer lasting. One New Zealand bryologist has speculated that the entire spore capsule, when close to maturity but still globose, may function as a dispersal agent. The globose capsule contains much air and could easily float on water and would presumably disintegrate, and release spores, at some distance from the parent plant. In this connection it is worth noting Pleurophascum ovalifolium characteristically occurs in very wet sites. In the complex thallose liverwort genus Riccia the spore capsules are embedded in the thallus. Riccia is a widespread and commonly seen genus, with many species. When mature the capsule and overlying thallus disintegrate, leaving the spores exposed within a cup-like depression. The spores in this genus are commonly 60-80 micrometres in diameter and too large to be easily wind-dispersed, but water could wash them away. Moreover, as the thallus keeps growing at its tip, the older parts will progressively disintegrate. So eventually any spores that have been unable to disperse from those cup-like depressions will be left loose on the soil, where they may germinate or disperse more easily. Fossombronia , a simple thallose liverwort genus, is also widespread with many species. A mature spore capsule is raised on a flimsy, translucent seta and the capsule wall breaks irregularly into small plate lets, which fall away to expose the spore mass. At first sight it might appear that complex thallose liverwort genus Targionia has spore capsules that split. This photo shows several plants with mature spore capsules. At the ends of the green, strap-like thalli you can see what look like open, black clam-shells. You could be excused thinking that these are black capsules that have opened to release the spores. In fact those black "shells" are not part of the capsule, though they do surround the developing capsule and form a protective pouch. The capsule itself has thinner walls that break. Targionia is commonly found on soil in habitats that periodically become very dry. Spores may at times escape as the pouch decays. However, there is another, more common process. As conditions dry the thallus closes, the sides rolling inwards, towards the long central axis. Instead of being a green strap, a thallus now looks like a black cord. The black scales that were originally on the underside of the thallus show well after the inrolling. At the same time that black "cord" arches up from the ground to raise the pouch, which opens to expose the spores and elaters from the already ruptured capsule . Thus, even though the spore capsule develops close to the soil, a drying atmosphere raises the pouch (and hence the spores) a centimetre or two into the air where they have a greater chance of being caught and dispersed by breezes. If we take the point where the capsule is attached to a seta (or, in the absence of a seta, to the gametophyte) as the "south pole" and the opposite point as the "north pole", then the dehiscence lines are oriented north-south like lines of longitude. The number of dehiscence lines varies between species. When a capsule splits along dehiscence lines there are two possibilities – the splitting goes all the way from the "south pole" to the "north pole" or it stops short. In the first case a mature capsule opens out in a number of arms to give a somewhat star-like appearance. This is what occurs in the majority of liverwort species. Usually there are four dehiscence lines and hence four arms in the open capsule. Within the capsules there are elaters as well as spores. Elaters are tubular cells with spiral thickenings that often help in spore release. Elaters do not work in the same way in all species. The elaters may twist or untwist with changes in humidity, or spring suddenly when released from tension. In such cases the movement of the elaters helps fling the spores a short distance into the air where air currents can pick them up and carry them away. In some liverworts the elaters in the spore capsules move about little, if at all, and play little, if any, role in spore release. There's more about the workings of elaters in the ELATERS SECTION. Dehiscing capsules may split in the way just described. The other possibility, noted earlier, is that the splitting stops short of the "north pole". In such a case the capsule cannot open out fully, since the arms are joined at their apices. In two closely-related moss genera, Andreaea and Andreaeaobryum, the mature capsule has four or more lines of weakness. In many species of these genera the lines of weakness do not extend to the apex of the capsule. As the mature capsule begins to dry out the capsule shrinks in length. The outer capsule cells shrink less than the inner ones and this causes the capsule to bow out so that slit-like gaps form along the dehiscence lines and the spores can fall out through those gaps. If the capsule is moistened the gaps close up, but will re-open when dry again. Note that a dehiscing liverwort capsule, once open, stays open and does not close up if moistened. When the capsules of the mosses mentioned here are dry and showing the gaps, they look a bit like old-style lanterns - so giving these mosses the common name of Lantern Mosses. Hornwort spore capsules are generally of a long, tapering form, the exception being the genus Notothylas in which the capsules are relatively short. At maturity hornwort capsules split, along their length, along either one or two dehiscence lines. The splitting starts near, but not at, the apex of the capsule. Depending on whether the capsule has one or two lines of weakness, it opens via one or two slits. The spores near the apex mature first, then the ones a little lower down, then the ones further down and so on. As the spores lower down mature, so the slit (or slits) extend downward, keeping pace with the maturing spores. The capsule becomes twisted as it dries and the slits open to allow spores to be blown out by breezes. Under moist conditions the capsule untwists and the slits close up to block spore release. Capsules with mouths In the great majority of mosses the mature spore capsules have well-defined mouths through which the spores are released, The mouths are formed at the end of the spore capsule opposite the point at which the capsule is attached to the seta or, if there is no seta, opposite the point at which the capsule is attached to the gametophyte. During the development of the spore capsule (covered in more detail in the SPOROPHYTE DEVELOPMENT SECTION) the mouth is covered by a firmly attached lid (or operculum). That attachment must be broken if the spores are to get out. In Sphagnum the process is typically explosive, with spores and operculum shot off simultaneously. As the mature capsule begins to dry it shrinks, compressing the air inside. Eventually the internal pressure becomes enough to force the operculum off and shoot the spores into the air where breezes will pick them up. In most mosses the process is not explosive. Rather, the operculum is released fairly gently and the spores are released over an extended period. Even in Sphagnum spore release is not always explosive. This genus is most often found in bogs. Sometimes a rise in water levels may leave mature capsules submerged and then the explosive process cannot take place, since it relies on the drying out of the capsule. In such circumstances the capsule falls off its supporting stalk and the columella decays to leave a small hole at the base of the capsule. Spores can escape through that hole. Another possibility is for the spores to germinate while still in the attached capsule and then burst the capsule as the germinating plants expand. Eccremidium is a predominantly Australian moss genus. They are soil mosses with gametophytes no more than a few millimetres tall and the spores are fairly large, from 50 to 140 micrometres in diameter. The capsules are spherical to pear-shaped with the operculum occupying about half the capsule. This is unusual, with the opercula in other genera occupying very little of the capsule. Once the spores of an Eccremidium have matured the operculum falls off, leaving a smooth-rimmed mouth that is relatively large, often with a diameter equal to that of the spore capsule. In three of the six Eccremidium species known from Australia the seta holding the capsule is bent over so that the capsule is held with the mouth angled downwards. The large spores would find it easy to fall out of the large, smooth-rimmed mouth. Even in species where the mouth is not angled downwards some disturbance of the capsule (for example by wind, water or animal) would probably be enough to shake the spores out. Here are some plants of the genus Bryum , each with a green, immature capsule atop a seta. The capsules are also held so that the mouths face downward and they will keep this orientation as the capsules mature and turn from green to brown. In each capsule the operculum is relatively small but things still seem simple enough. Once the operculum has come off surely the spores will fall out. However, a closer look shows that things aren't quite that simple. In the majority of mosses (including the genus Bryum) the mouth is lined with teeth of some sort. These are called the peristome teeth by some writers (with the rim around the mouth being the peristome), while others simply use the word peristome to mean a toothed mouth. Peristome teeth may move in response to changes in humidity, either closing or opening the mouth to stop or allow spore release. There is variation in structure of peristome teeth and there are genera which lack peristome teeth. You've already seen Eccremidium as an example of the latter and Sphagnum is another. Given the explosive nature of spore release in Sphagnum, it is clear that such teeth would have no function - and would in fact hinder spore release. We'll finish this section with some more detailed examples of the ways in which capsules work. The peristome teeth in the moss genus Dawsonia are long and threadlike (right), so making the capsule look as though it has a tuft of white hairs around the mouth. In immature sporophytes the capsules are held upright. However the mature capsules are relatively large (about a centimetre long) and will have turned to be held horizontally so that they present a large surface area to falling raindrops. Any raindrop (or runoff from overhead plants) that hits the upper side of the capsule momentarily depresses the capsule wall and so (analogous to a puffball fungus) forces a puff of spores out between those threadlike teeth. Capsules in the genera Buxbaumia and Diphyscium also present relatively large surface areas, though the capsules are smaller than those of Dawsonia, often no more than half a centimetre in length. Once again capsules struck by falling raindrops puff out spores. In the case of Buxbaumia the capsules orient themselves so that the mouth is pointed towards the highest light intensity. Where the light intensity is highest, the obstructions are least. Puffing the spores in that direction would increase their chances of clearing surrounding obstacles and dispersing further away. The painting at the top of this page shows views of Buxbaumia aphylla. On the upper right you can see a close-up of a capsule, in reality about five millimetres long. On the lower left is a much closer view of the peristome and on the right are some whole plants. Between the capsule and peristome pictures is the calyptra, which covers the very young sporophyte. In a small number of moss species (in the family Splachnaceae) spore dispersal is primarily by dung- or carrion-loving insects. These mosses grow on the dung of various animals and occasionally on old animal carcases. Theoretically the spores are small enough to be wind-dispersed but they are sticky and clump together, so ruling out wind dispersal. The capsules are often highly modified, coloured to attract insects and producing insect-attracting chemicals. Here is a description of the spore release process in some of these mosses. At maturity the spore capsule sheds the operculum. In dry conditions the capsule walls shrink, forcing the peristome teeth to bend back so as to finish up turned down against the outside wall of the spore capsule. At the same time the shrinkage of the capsule leads to the columella extending beyond the capsule mouth. The tip of the columella is coated with the sticky spores. Insects, attracted to the capsule, will almost inevitably pick up clumps of the sticky spores. Being dung- or carrion-loving insects they'll naturally visit other carcases or droppings and so carry spores exactly to the sorts of substrates that these mosses exploit. In moist conditions the capsule swells (so bringing the columella back within the capsule) and the peristome teeth fold back over the mouth and spore release stops. Schistostega pennata, a widespread Northern Hemisphere moss, is another species with sticky spores. It's not in the family Splachnaceae and also seems to be without any features (such as colour or chemicals) that would attract a specific type of organism to act as a dispersal agent. There are many agents which can help in the dispersal of vegetative propagules. To take the example closest to home, think of humans. In the VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION SECTION there was brief mention of fragmentation of mosses in lawns by a lawn mower. Such fragments could then be easily carried further afield by that lawn mower. Alternatively, suppose that a gardener is raking fallen leaves off that lawn. The rake may well catch and pull out some strands of this creeping moss - which fall elsewhere as the gathered leaves are being removed. Both the mown fragments and the raked fragments are capable of generating new plants in the right habitats. Thinking of taking a walk through a grassy paddock? One bryologist found fragments of the moss Thuidiopsis furfurosa had adhered to his socks when he'd walked through a grassy, New Zealand meadow. This moss is brittle in the dry state, so fragments could easily break off and attach to fur, feathers - or socks. Most people are well aware of the annoying burrs, grass seeds and so on that are readily picked up by socks. In some grassy areas various species of creeping mosses may grow fairly luxuriantly and, with the surrounding grasses for support, grow to ankle height where they can get caught by socks. On a bush walk you will have brushed against some shrubs or had a lie down. Later that day, as you're about to get in your car for the trip home, you brush bits of rubbish from your jumper – leaves, seeds, twigs and fragments of moss or liverwort. How far have you carried those fragments – 10 metres or 10 kilometres? You've just acted as a very effective disperser of vegetative propagules. Apart from humans many other animals, in their normal activities, may help disperse bryophyte fragments. A German study, published in 2001, found 106 bryophyte fragments on 9 wild boar and 25 roe deer. Those fragments represented 12 species. The bristly coats of wild boar picked up more fragments than the sleeker coats of the roe deer. The wallowing and rooting habits of wild boar make it very easy for them to pick up bryophyte fragments. Deer, when lying down, could pick up fragments on their coats. To study this the researchers used a "dummy deer", made of a deer skin filled with foam plastic. This dummy was placed on its stomach on the forest floor. In addition the researchers mimicked a deer's wallowing motion by gently rocking the dummy from side to side a few times and also by pushing it back and forth with gentle pressure. Then the dummy's skin was cleaned of all adhering plant fragments and those were studied. The whole process was done 300 times, at random points in the forest study site, and the dummy yielded 51 bryophyte fragments. Both the boar and the deer had also picked up fragments in their hooves. Wild boar in particular, with their bristly coats and ranging up to 5 kilometres per day in European forests, may well be significant dispersers of forest bryophytes. This study was a small one, with a very small number of animals examined and there are some interesting unanswered questions. For example, how representative of other deer and boar were these 34 animals? Furthermore, in the course of a day an animal could pick up fragments, drop some of them, pick up some more, drop some more and so on. What is the total number of fragments moved per animal per day? However, as the researchers stated, the subject of animals and bryophyte fragments has not been studied systematically. Th is study has pointed out some interesting possibilities and shown that further study would be worthwhile. Moreover, think of what could be happening in an Australian setting - a potaroo digging for native truffles, a wombat pushing through undergrowth, two possums fighting on a tree branch, an arid area red kangaroo creating a shallow soil scrape. In each of those situations bryophytes could be fragmented and lodge in animal fur. Fragments of the cosmopolitan moss species Bryum argenteum have been found on the feet of Antarctic skuas and penguins. Presumably as these birds land on or walk over a mossy patch fragments occasionally get scuffed loose and then get picked up unintentionally. Dense bryophyte cushions create stable micro-habitats for various invertebrates. You can often see insectivorous birds pecking or scraping such cushions to get at those invertebrates. In the process fragments of various sorts may be produced and even picked up accidentally. Various birds deliberately pick up strands of trailing mosses and use them to help camouflage nests. <<GET PIC OF NEST>> If the conditions are right those gathered strands will continue to grow on the nest. In Queensland the Spectacled Flying Fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) is potentially occasional disperser of bryophytes. Viable fragments have been collected from the droppings of this bat and grown on in the laboratory in artificial culture. That still leaves open the question of what is the fate of the dung-embedded fragments in the wild, but presumably at least a small proportion would grow into new plants. Rather than deliberately choosing to eat bryophytes the evidence suggests that the bats swallow fragments while grooming. Numerous invertebrates live in bryophyte colonies or move through them. Various invertebrates eat bryophytes, lay their eggs on them or excavate burrows in them. Some caddis fly larvae use bryophyte fragments on their larval cases. During all such activities small fragments could be accidentally released and of course a bryophyte fragment on a discarded larval case may continue growing if that larval case is discarded in a suitable habitat. The widespread moss species Fissidens fontanus (which you may also see referred to as Octodiceras fontanum) is found on rocks in and beside streams. In Northern Europe it is also found on dead or live freshwater clams of the species Anodonta cygnea. These clams may move occasionally and so help disperse the moss. Leptodictyon riparium is another moss that is typically found on streamside rocks but which has also been reported on molluscs. Liverworts or mosses have been found on Papuan weevils and Brazilian harvestmen. It is likely that in the course of their roaming these invertebrates could lose pieces of bryophytes, for example during fights. The bryophytes involved are also found on rocks or plants, so the species are not reliant on the invertebrates. Some of the vegetative propagules described in the VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION SECTION are very easily dislodged. Even the disturbance caused by a small invertebrate moving along a bryophyte colony may be enough to loosen a tiny gemma or a fragile branch tip. The dislodged propagules could simply fall onto the immediate surrounds, but some could be picked up by the passing invertebrate on its furry or bristly body, to be dislodged or groomed off later. The northern hemisphere moss Schistostega pennata produces gemmae on the protonemal stage (which develops immediately after spore germination and is covered in the LIFE CYCLE SECTION). These gemmae are rounded at the end that is attached to the protonema, but long and tapering at the opposite end. That tapering end is extremely sticky in fresh material and mites have been seen with the gemmae of this moss attached to their legs. Undoubtedly various other invertebrates would also pick up such sticky gemmae. It is interesting to note that the spores of Schistostega pennata are also sticky. Inanimate forces may also break pieces off bryophytes. Storms may break and blow away bryophyte covered twigs. If those twigs land in a suitable habitat the bryophytes can continue growing in their new location. From time to time streamside erosion will break bryophyte colonies, with the stream then carrying any pieces further afield. Once again, if the pieces land in suitable habitats they'll continue growing. Strong winds may cause fragmentation, particularly in areas with little in the way of windbreaks. In desert, alpine and polar regions (where even low shrubbery is sparse to absent) winds may blow unchecked and for long periods. Furthermore, wind-blown sand or snow crystals add to the abrasive effects of wind alone, a sustained wind is drying and dry bryophytes are usually brittle. Putting all these factors together, we have ideal conditions for fragmentation. In many cold regions periods of freezing alternate with periods of thawing and such freeze/thaw cycles could also cause fragmentation. In a study of a site on Bathurst Island, in the Canadian Arctic, the researchers estimated that there were at least 4,000 propagules per cubic metre of granular snow near the end of the yearly melt. The particular snow bed being studied had melted completely during the previous summer. Therefore all fragments would have been deposited during the winter immediately before the investigators did their sampling. They also tried growing about 900 fragments back at the laboratory and over a four and a half month period 12% showed new growth. Naturally, there will always be questions as to how accurately a laboratory result represents what happens in nature. However, the study does show that a large number of viable propagules could be produced annually on Bathurst Island. At the other end of the world, windblown vegetative propagules have also been studied from the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On Macquarie Island or at Casey station in Antarctica researchers found gemmae, deciduous shoots, leaves, leaf fragments and stem fragments with attached leaves. Many of these produced new growth in laboratory experiments.
Fuel Pump Assembly A fuel pump assembly is responsible for pumping the fuel from its tank to the engine. If the pump wears out, the signs of its failure can be numerous, such as: an engine sputters when driving at high speeds, power loss when speeding up, an engine that won’t start, surging, and sudden power loss when your car is under strain. If you noticed all these symptoms of failure, then replace the fuel pump as soon as possible to protect other components of the engine from the damage. As we already mentioned, the fuel pump is needed to pump the fuel from the gas tank to the vehicle’s engine. Most modern cars use a fuel pump located in the gas tank, while some older models have the fuel pump outside the tank. There are two types of fuel pumps: mechanical and electrical. Mechanical fuel pump - most carbureted automobile engines use mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel tank into the fuel bowls of the carburetor. Mechanical fuel pumps use a lever that rides on the camshaft to pump a rubber diaphragm inside the pump up and down. This creates suction that pulls fuel into the pump and then pushes it along. A pair of one-way valves inside the pump only allow the gas to move in one direction (toward the engine). Anyway, the mechanical fuel pump may produce a significant fuel flow, the carburetor takes only the amount of fuel necessary for normal engine operation. Electrical fuel pump - in many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside the fuel tank, and it has a solenoid switch as the primary catalyst, as opposed to the camshaft. The pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The higher gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submerged in cool liquid. Another benefit of placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less likely to start a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode (see flammability limit) and therefore submerging the pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant flow of gasoline to the engine; unused fuel is returned to the tank. This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept close to the hot engine for too long. Fuel Pump assemblies, including complete fuel pump assembly kit Over time, the fuel pump will fail. It all depends on how you drive, maintenance, its quality, and many other factors that will affect how long the fuel pump will last. If you want your car to run with the same performance like before, then you need to replace the old fuel pump with a new one at your local mechanic or if you want to save money, then with a DIY project, which is very popular today when it comes to a car repair. When not enough of fuel delivers to the engine, the car will start to stall and at the end it will stop. If it happens, some people think that the problem is with the spark plugs, distributor cap or spark plug wires. It is understandable because a bad fuel pump has almost the same symptoms. Let’s look at some common signs of a failed fuel pump: Fluctuating temperature. If the fuel pump isn't working correctly, the car's core temperature may go up and down. When the fuel pump motor fails, the temperature of the vehicle fluctuates. That’s why sometimes some people misdiagnose this problem as a radiator problem, low coolant level , and other related issues, not as a fuel pump issue. Bad gas mileage. The fuel pump relief valve controls how much fuel is delivered by the fuel pump. If this relief valve gets damaged, then a lot more fuel will flow to the engine then usual. And this extra fuel will start to show up in your mileage calculations. That’s why you should always check the gas mileage at regular maintenance. A sputtering sound coming from the engine. Loss of power at high speeds. A clicking sound from the fuel pump. No power upon acceleration. Power drain when turning, going up hills, coming out of red light, etc. Sudden and unexplained power surges. Hard to start the vehicle. Usually, the starter is the main problem when the car doesn’t want to start. But it can also be the reason that the wrong amount of fuel is delivered to the engine. The fuel pump more often fails during the winter, because the cold temperatures can affect an already weakened fuel delivery system. There can be many other reasons why the fuel pump fails. The fuel pump's design, function and unique relation to other components (like the fuel tank) are also important. There are some signs indicating a fuel tank can failure: Driving conditions. If your fuel tank is subject to excessive moisture (in the form of rain, snow, sleet, etc.), the tank's structural integrity can impact the fuel pump. A rusted fuel tank can be one of the main reasons for the fuel pumps fail. Chronic low fuel level. It is also one of the main reasons of the fuel pump failure. Bad electrical connections. The newest car models use an electric fuel pump. A corroded connection, kinked wire or other issues can cause the fuel pump to deliver fuel from the tank to the engine very slowly, or not at all. Dirty fuel. It is hard to determine that the fuel is bad. But many auto experts target the occasional bad batch of fuel as a reason that fuel pumps stop running. Replacement and Repair If you are experiencing a fuel pump failure, then you can replace it by yourself. To replace the fuel pump is very easy, but can be a little bit complicated to remove the fuel tank before reaching the fuel pump. Here is a helpful guide for you on how to replace the fuel pump. If you have the time and experience already, then you can replace the fuel pump by yourself. You will just need 2 hours for it. But first of all, make sure that the replacement fuel pump meets all the original factory performance specifications.
(Natural News) Machine learning algorithms have been used to train artificial intelligence to do a number of amazing things, from playing chess to predicting customer preferences. Now, a group of researchers used machine learning to try to uncover hidden scientific knowledge. Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy‘s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have created a machine learning algorithm, called Word2vec, that can scan millions of scientific papers, and then use that knowledge to predict future scientific discoveries. The study has shown that an algorithm with no prior training in materials science can successfully uncover new scientific knowledge without any need for human guidance. “Without telling it anything about materials science, it learned concepts like the periodic table and the crystal structure of metals,” said team lead Anubhav Jain, a scientist at Berkeley Lab’s Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division. “That hinted at the potential of the technique. But probably the most interesting thing we figured out is, you can use this algorithm to address gaps in materials research, things that people should study but haven’t studied so far.” Teaching a machine to read science According to lead author Vahe Tshitoyan, a former Berkeley Lab postdoctoral fellow who now works at Google, the creation of Word2vec was motivated by the difficulty of making sense of the overwhelming amount of previously published studies. “In every research field there’s 100 years of past research literature, and every week dozens more studies come out,” said Tshitoyan. “A researcher can access only fraction of that.” Faced with this challenge, the team decided to make a machine learning algorithm that can make use of all of this collective knowledge without needing intervention from human researchers. As part of this, the team collected 3.3 million abstracts from papers published in more than 1,000 journals between 1922 and 2018. Using this, Word2vec took about 500,000 words from the abstracts and then turned them into a 200-dimensional vector, or an array of 200 numbers. Using this, the algorithm could then learn how each of the words were related to one another. Following this, Word2vec was then trained on materials science texts. Here, it was able to learn the meaning of scientific terms and concepts based on the positions of words in the abstracts, and how often they occurred with other words. Word2vec even learned the relationships between elements in the periodic table, by simply projecting the vector for each chemical element onto two dimensions. (Related: McDonald’s acquires machine-learning startup to develop personalized menus using A.I.) Predicting scientific discoveries years in advance With Word2vec trained using the abstracts, the team tested it to see if it could predict breakthroughs in the development of novel thermoelectric materials. These are materials that can efficiently convert heat into electricity. When the team looked at the top thermoelectric material candidates predicted by the algorithm, they found that all had computed power factors higher than known thermoelectric materials. To further test Word2vec, the team had the algorithm perform experiments “in the past” – that is, the algorithm was only given abstracts up to a certain point in time, for example, the year 2000. From this, Word2vec not only accurately “predicted” the breakthroughs in thermoelectrics that had been made since then, it actually found others that have yet to be discovered. With these results, the team is now working to release the top 50 thermoelectric materials predicted by the algorithm, so that scientists can start work developing them. In addition to this, they’re releasing the word embeddings, so that others can make their own applications for other materials. Beyond this, the team is also working on a smarter, more powerful search engine based on the algorithm that should provide a more useful way for scientists to search for abstracts.
Pyelonephritis is a type of urinary tract infection where one or both kidneys become infected. They can be infected by bacteria or a virus. It can cause people to feel very sick and it requires treatment. This article will tell you more about kidney infection and what to do about it. Male Urinary Tract Female Urinary Tract The urinary tract is the body’s drainage system. It includes two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder, and a urethra. Healthy kidneys work day and night to clean our blood. These 2 bean-shaped organs are found near the middle of the back, just below the ribs. One kidney sits on each side of the spine. Our kidneys are our body’s main filter. They clean about 150 quarts of blood daily. Every day, they form about 1-2 quarts of urine by pulling water and waste from the blood. Urine normally travels from the kidneys down to the bladder and out through the urethra. As a filter, the kidney controls many things to keep us healthy: - Fluid balance - Electrolyte levels (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, acid) - Waste removal in the form of urine - The regulation of blood pressure and red blood cell counts When the kidneys are damaged, they may not function well. In most cases, some damage won’t cause too many problems. But, major damage may require more treatment, like dialysis.
An anxiety disorder causes unexpected or unhelpful anxiety that seriously impacts our lives, including how we think, feel, and act. A phobia is an intense fear around a specific thing like an object, animal, or situation. Most of us are scared of something, but these feelings don’t disrupt our lives. With phobias, people change the way they live in order to avoid the feared object or situation. For example, agoraphobia is fear of being in a situation where a person can’t escape or find help if they experience a panic attack or other feelings of anxiety. A person with agoraphobia may avoid public places or even avoid leaving their homes. Panic disorder involves repeated and unexpected panic attacks. A panic attack is a feeling of sudden and intense fear that lasts for a short period of time. It causes a lot of physical feelings like a racing heart, shortness of breath, or nausea. Panic attacks can be a normal reaction to a stressful situation, or a part of other anxiety disorders. With panic disorder, panic attacks seem to happen for no reason. Social anxiety disorder involves intense fear of being embarrassed or judged negatively by others. As a result, people avoid social situations. This is more than shyness. It can have a big impact on work or school performance and relationships. Generalized anxiety disorder is excessive worry around a number of everyday problems for more than six months (i.e. intense anxiety over a minor concern). Many people experience physical symptoms too, including muscle tension and sleep problems. Anxiety disorders can affect anyone at any age, and they are the most common mental health problem. Sometimes, anxiety disorders are triggered by a specific event or stressful life experience. Anxiety disorders may be more likely to occur when we have certain ways of looking at things (like believing that everything must be perfect) or learn unhelpful coping strategies from others. But sometimes there just doesn’t seem to be a reason. Anxiety disorders are real illnesses that affect a person’s well-being. It’s important to talk to a doctor about mental health concerns. Normal, expected anxiety is part of being human. Treatment should look at reducing unhelpful coping strategies and building healthy behaviours that help you better manage anxiety. Each anxiety disorder has its own specific treatments and goals, but most include some combination of the following strategies: An effective form of counselling for anxiety is cognitive-behavioural therapy (or ‘CBT’). CBT teaches you how your thoughts, feelings, and behaviours work together. A goal of CBT is to identify and change the unhelpful patterns of thinking that feed anxious thoughts. It’s often the first treatment to try for mild or moderate problems with anxiety. Some people also find antianxiety or antidepressant medication helpful. Medication can help with the physical feelings of anxiety. It may also make anxious thoughts less frequent or intense, so it can be easier to learn helpful coping strategies. Support groups—in person or online (like Upopolis) —may be a good place to share your experiences, learn from others, and connect with people who understand. Many different skills can help people manage anxiety, such as stress management, problem-solving, and relaxation. Mindfulness—developing awareness of the present moment without judgement—may also help. Practices that support wellness, such as eating well, exercising, having fun, and connecting with others, are also important. Supporting a loved one who is experiencing an anxiety disorder can be difficult. You may not understand why your loved one feels or acts a certain way. Some people who experience an anxiety disorder feel like they have to do things a certain way or avoid things or situations, and this can create frustration or conflict with others. You may feel pressured to take part in these behaviours or adjust your own behaviours to protect or avoid upsetting a loved one. Support can be a delicate balance. Here are some general tips. Sourced from: https://cmha.ca/mental-health/understanding-mental-illness/anxiety-disorders
Creating an Inclusive Preschool Classroom: Best Practices for Family Engagement and Special Education The New York City Department of Education (DOE) is committed to creating inclusive preschool classrooms that enable all children to enter Kindergarten with a solid foundation for future success. Inclusive preschool classrooms offer the opportunity for special education students to learn and socialize with typically developing peers in their least restrictive environment. An important component of creating an inclusive classroom is engaging families of children with Individualized Education Program (IEPs). Research shows that when families are involved with their children’s education, children tend to perform better in school. For children with IEPs, families can provide valuable insight regarding their child’s strengths and abilities. When families and programs work together, a partnership of support for children with IEPs can develop to ensure that IEP goals are met and skills are generalized across a variety of settings. Getting to Know All Children Well Some children will come to preschool already receiving special education services. Other children may be identified as needing services once they enroll in preschool. It is important for every program to know each child well so that his or her individual strengths and needs drive classroom decisions and lesson planning. Families can share critical information and documents so that programs can learn as much as possible about children and their needs. When programs meet or communicate with families, they can ask: - What are your child’s strengths, challenges, and interests? - Can you please share any important documents that will help us learn more about your child’s needs including his or her IEP, medical information such as allergies and medications, and previous services, evaluations, and interventions? - What can you tell me about how your child learns, socializes, and behaves? - How do you support your child when he or she needs help? - Is there anything we should know about your child’s educational or family history? - What have providers, evaluators, and the Committee on Preschool Special Education (CPSE) shared with you about your child? - How can we, together, support your child in reaching his or her IEP goals? Prior to a Family Making a Referral Before making a referral to the CPSE, families and programs should work together to collect information, support the child, and determine next steps. During this time, programs should take the following steps: - Implement a variety of developmental and academic interventions to support a child; - Collect ongoing, authentic assessments such as classroom work, photographs and videos, and observation notes; - Analyze authentic assessments to determine the child’s developmental progress and make decisions about planning and supports; and - Share authentic assessments, as well as the decisions that are made after considering the data collected, with families. If, after implementing a variety of strategies and/or supports, programs and/or families still have concerns regarding a child’s progress and believe that he or she may need additional support, the parent can make a referral to the CPSE for special education services. During the Referral Process for a Family Programs can support families in many ways as they undergo the referral process: - Continue to support the child in the classroom by collecting and analyzing authentic assessments, and making classroom decisions using this information; - Meet with family members to learn more about the child’s needs and home life, and share how the child is responding to targeted interventions; - Build the family’s skills so they can support learning and social-emotional development at home; - Connect the family to additional resources and community organizations to support the child’s needs and answer the family’s questions; - Assist the family in writing a referral letter. Referral letters should: - Be made in writing and sent to the CPSE that covers the family’s home district, or the school district where the family lives. - State that the parent(s) and program are concerned about the child’s development; - Request a preschool special education evaluation; - Describe any specific areas of concern and any services the child received in the past; - Provide the parent’s full contact information, including an address and telephone number; and - State the preferred language of the family, if it is not English. - Support the family in arranging a preschool special education evaluation. After the referral letter is received, the CPSE will mail the family a referral packet including a list of approved evaluation sites. Families must set up the evaluation and provide consent in order move forward. Programs can: - Confirm the family received the referral packet; - Assist the family in identifying an evaluation site considering proximity to home, the site’s availability, and the family’s preference; - Call the evaluation site on behalf of the parent(s) to schedule an evaluation; and - Remind the parent(s) that they must provide their consent in order for the approved site to evaluate. Preschool teachers are part of the CPSE team and can play a very important role at CPSE meetings. Often, teachers spend the most time with children and get to observe their academic, social, and behavioral strengths and needs regularly. The rich amount of knowledge teachers have about the child and his her development, general education curriculum and interventions, and day-to-day workings of the classroom provide a unique and valuable perspective to the CPSE team. The CPSE arranges meetings directly with families. Because of this, it is important for programs to stay in regular contact with families so that families can invite teachers to attend CPSE meetings. CPSE meetings can be held in person or over the phone. A general education teacher must be present at a CPSE meeting if the child is or may be participating in the general education environment. At CPSE meetings, teachers can share knowledge of how the: - Child is currently performing in the general education environment including strengths, weaknesses, and needs; - Child interacts with peers; - Classroom operates in terms of approach, pace, and dynamics; - Classroom interventions and supports were put into place and how the child responded; - Child is progressing or could progress toward IEP goals in the classroom; - IEP drives or will drive planning and instruction; and - Teacher(s) works with preschool special education providers to integrate services in the classroom, if appropriate. Additionally, CPSE meetings are an opportunity for teachers to learn more about the child and collaborate with preschool special education professionals and the family on how to holistically meet the child’s needs. After a Family Makes a Referral Children’s needs and their IEPs are not fixed and can change. Because of this, it is necessary to setup a system of ongoing and effective communication and collaboration with families of children with IEPs. Programs can: - Ask families their preferred mode for communication between school and home (e.g., phone, email, a shared notebook that travels back and forth with your child); - Request that families notify the program of any upcoming evaluations and/or CPSE meetings; - Update families whenever a preschool special education provider stops coming, changes the schedule, assigns a new provider, or there are concerns about the quality and/or delivery of services; and - Meet with the family regularly to learn and share about the child and his or progress in the classroom and towards IEP goals.
Pediatric Dentistry: Dental Care for Children and Infants Infants and children are not immune to oral health problems. In 2002, "Oral Health in America: A Report of the Surgeon General" found that dental caries (tooth decay or cavities) is the most chronic childhood ailment five times more common than asthma and seven times more common than hay fever. In 2005, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that tooth decay is the most chronic disease among children aged five to 17. Oral health problems affecting infants are no less serious. Diet and the Oral Health Implications What your children eat affects their teeth. Sugars (found in cake, cookies, candy, milk and juice) and starches (found in pretzels and potato chips) can cause tooth decay. Add to this the fact that it is more difficult to clean babies' and children's teeth and you can see why debris tends to remain in children's teeth, resulting in bacteria growth and, ultimately, tooth decay. Although baby teeth (deciduous or primary teeth) are eventually replaced with permanent teeth, healthy baby teeth are fundamental to a child's overall health and development. Baby-to-Child Dental Checklist Some babies are born with neonatal teeth (teeth that develop in the first month) that require dental hygiene or a visit to the dentist for their removal. At least one baby tooth erupts by six months of age. And, yes, it requires cleaning. From six months to 24 months, children begin teething in earnest, indicated by irritability, biting on objects, drooling and ear pulling. As a parent, you can help teething progress by using strategies such as massaging your child's gums, offering a chilled teething ring or cold, wet washcloth and asking your dentist for a teething ointment recommendation. By three years of age, most if not all baby teeth have erupted. Soon after four years, spaces for permanent teeth begin to appear as the jaw, supporting bone structure and facial bones begin to grow. From six to 12, it is typical for your child to have both baby teeth and permanent teeth in their mouth. Oral Health Care Necessities for Children & Infants Here's a list of dental care necessities from birth on up: - Baby Teeth Cleaning: Baby teeth should be cleaned as soon as they erupt. Clean your baby's teeth with a soft washcloth or gauze after every bottle or meal. When more than one tooth erupts, you can soak a small-bristled child-sized (age-appropriate) toothbrush in warm water before using it on your baby's teeth, as instructed by your dentist. Baby teeth should be brushed using a pea-sized amount of toothpaste. Use water without fluoride until approximately six months of age. Encourage your children to brush their own teeth once they have the coordination to do so. Replace toothbrushes every two to three months. Children's teeth should be brushed after they are given medicine. Acids contained in medicines may eat away at tooth enamel, which serves as a natural protective coating for the teeth. - First Dental Visit: It is important that your child see a dentist by age one to establish a long-term dental hygiene and professional dental cleaning plan. - Dental Sealant Application: Dental sealants are used to protect teeth from decay and are appropriate as soon as a tooth erupts. - Fluoride Treatments: Check with your dentist and water authority about the need for fluoride treatments. Fluoride is a major component in the prevention of childhood dental caries. This is because fluoride alters the molecular structure of the tooth, making it more resistant to acid attack and decay. However, children require the right balance of fluoride treatment. Too much fluoride could be problematic and lead to fluorosis. - Dental Flossing: Parent-assisted dental flossing should commence when two teeth erupt next to each other. Independent flossing should occur when children have the ability to do it on their own (often by six years of age). - Mouth Washing: Mouth washing is usually recommended by age seven, provided your child can perform the activity. - Orthodontics: Orthodontics may be appropriate by seven years of age. Keep in mind that these age ranges are estimates only; you should follow your dentist's recommendations.
5 understand that history is a narrative told in many voices and expresses various perspectives of historical experience; 6 know that cultural elements, including language, literature, the arts, customs, and belief systems, reflect the ideas and attitudes of a specific time and know how the cultural elements influence human interaction; 3 recognize that historical understanding is relevant and valuable in the student's life and for participating in local, state, national, and global communities; 4 recognize the importance of time, ideas, institutions, people, places, cultures, and events in understanding large historical patterns; and 5 evaluate the influence of context upon historical understanding. C A student should develop the skills and processes of historical inquiry. 1 use appropriate technology to access, retrieve, organize, and present historical information; 2 use historical data from a variety of primary resources, including letters, diaries, oral accounts, archaeological sites and artifacts, art, maps, photos, historical sites, documents, and secondary research materials, including almanacs, books, indices, and newspapers;
Cadences And Diatonic Psychology If you had made it this far in the course you are obviously interested in music and its inner workings. Well, brothers and sisters I am here to tell you that throughout your study of music theory you will be amazed at the power and effectiveness of the major scale. As I have said before, the major scale is king and all discussions in music theory are always made in relationship to some major scale. From your perspective, that of a guitar player the real magic of music are the pleasing combinations of chords called cadences. In this lesson will be examining the hows and whys of creating chord progressions, discussing the personalities of chordss, and learning the most important cadences that professional songwriters, arrangers and composers rely on to do their daily work. The table below is an examination of each of the seven diatonic chords and a description of their personalities, and musical effect they are best at creating. I suggest that you study the table with the aid of your guitar and once again play the basic diatonic harmony in the interactive diagram you see below on your guitar to acclimate your ears to this key. \|The tonic chord is the chord that gives the key its name, in the example above the tonic chord would be C major. This is also called the I chord (one chord) and is usually where a song begins and ends. It is the most common point of cadence, stopping place, point of arrival and the chord which provides the greatest sense of resolution. Since the inner game of music can be simplified down to a process of tension and release, the one chord is the chord which provides the best and most frequently occurring sense of release.\| The II minor chord, also called the supertonic creates a sense of departure from the tonic, a pool are sensitive musical motion. Another job that the super tonic has is as a substitute for the sub dominant as the two cord can create a little stability of it, own almost the sensation of floating above the tonic chord. The II minor chord can move to a variety of targets, such as returning to the tonic, proceeding higher by step, are most commonly to the V chord to create one of the best-known and most widely used cadences in music, the II -V. \|The III minor chord also called the mediant is also restful and stable, and does not promote a strong sense of harmonic movement rather it adds a new color to the sense of resolution that is inherent in music. The III minor chord is also known as a tonic substitute and can do the job of the tonic, or share the job of the tonic.\| \|The sub dominant or IV chord is a very interesting and multifaceted player in the game. The root of the IV chord is the fourth note in the scale which is an unstable note and demands a resolution down to the third or as part of the scale, back to the tonic. the IV chord sort of wears three hats, the first one demands harmonic movement back to the topic, and suggests a sense of poll called harmonic motion back to home base. The second job of the IV chord is to provide a little bit of stability and resolution of its own, in rock and pop music the most common cord for a bridge, or a new section is the IV chord. The third job is to precede or set up the V chord, remember the I – IV – V cadence is the most important harmonic construct in modern music.\| \|The dominant or V chord can be considered a one dimensional player in this game. It’s job is to return to the tonic, to cadence back to home base in the sense of release that is the goal in the game of tension and release. Nobody does it better than the dominant or V chord. the dominant contains two unstable scale tones four F and the seven B, both of which create movement and pull back to the tonic.\| \|The VI minor chord also called the sub mediant is also a substitute for the tonic chord. Chord progressions moving from I to VI do not suggest strong harmonic movement rather a continuation of the rest and resolution provided by the tonic. The VI minor chord is the relative minor to the tonic and their three note triads have to notes in common. Chord progressions moving from I to VI and back again are considered cliché, but they can be quite beautiful and are utilized in virtually every style.\| \|The VII diminished chord is not at all popular in pop and rock music. It is built on the seventh note of the scale, and unstable note called the leading tone which demands a return to the tonic. If it were to be used it would immediately return back to home base, the I chord. Because of its unstable nature, and the desire to return to the root note, C, the VII diminished chord it is also known as a substitute for the dominant chord.\| II – V – I Cadences If a carpenter as his set of tools and tricks, a songwriter has a knowledge of basic cadences. We have done a good job of learning everything we can about cadences involving the I – IV & V chords, and that forms a good center, a foundation of strength for a modern musician and songwriter. There are of couse, a number of standardized, tried-and-true chord progressions that form a vocabulary of modern American music. We have already covered the I – IV – V chords and their progressions in great detail and will be returning to the three primary chords throughout our study of theory. Below you will find what is arguably the most important of all the standard or stock cadences, the II – V – I. Cadences are included in every good songwriters and arrangers toolkit. As a musician you must be intimately familiar with stock cadences as they are quite simply the standared ideas and building blocks you will use to do your job. Remember, anything and everything goes, as long as it sounds right! PLEASE (!) don’t view stock cadences as some kind of strident lifeless academic system that will kill your creativity. Quite the opposite: disciplining yourself to learn music theory will give you more artistic freedom than you ever thought possible. Below there are several variations of the II – V – I cadence. The idea here is that the I chord establishes the key providing rest and resolution. The II or D minor is meant to lead your ear away from home base, away from the tonic. The purpose of the five chord, the G7 in this case, is there to return your ears back home to the C major chord. I often use the analogy of playing baseball to explain this: wwe started at homebase, in this case the tonic chord, go around the bases and return to back homebase. To oversimplify, the game of music is creating pleasing combinations of chords called cadences and deriving beauty and artistic meaning from the resolutions they produce. The example below written in a rhythm and blues style and employs another common technique used when composing with the II – V cadence. The actual cadence itself is repeated over and over again, delaying the final resolution. In this course I have classified the small little bits of music as chord patterns. Memorize the sound of this chord pattern in your ear and use it frequently as a jamming tool, and a writing tool. Our final example of a II -V chord change is written in a jazz style and again shows another tried-and-true and extremely common technique employing the II -V cadence. It’s the exact opposite of the previous example which delay the resolution. Here the resolutions are coming fast, every two bars sort of beating us over the head with the sound of the cadence. It’s simple and it works. Notice however that the jobs of the chords have not changed. The D minor chord is still leading our years away from the tonic and the G7 chord is still returning our ears to the tonic, the psychology of the chords has remained intact throughout all three of these examples The game of the cadence and therefore music, revolves around resoving to or returning to home base, to the tonic chord also called the one chord. When the dominant chord, the V chord, is followed by a chord other than the I chord, the tonic, it is called a deceptive cadence. Quite often, this chord is the VI minor chord, A minor in this case. This effect can be heard quite nicely in the common knowledge chord progression I – V – VI – IV.
On September 27, 2012, the rover Curiosity (Mars Science Laboratory) snapped and sent back images of Martian bedrock possibly once home to a fast-moving stream. Curiosity founded rounded pebbles, probably due to erosion by water. The rocks ranging in size from sand grains to golf balls could not have been carried into the Gale Crater by wind, but carried water for a 20 to 25 miles and smoothed out. At one point in the past lasting thousands to millions of years, Mars may have been overflowing with liquid water, but present-day Mars is a barren desert with nothing but remnants of rock carved by water. Curiosity made this remarkable discovery when driving to Glenelg, the point where three types of terrain meet. Finding water is only the first step to discovering a once-habitable environment for microbial life. However, the dried-up stream didn’t preserve organic carbon. Carbon is necessary for life, so Curiosity will head to the foothills of Mount Sharp to find organic materials. Instead of “following the water,” scientists will now “follow the carbon.” ” Curiosity finds signs of ancient stream on Mars.” FOX News. Fox News, 27 Sep 2012. Web. 27 Sep 2012. Kaufman, Mark. “Curiosity rover’s Mars landing site was once covered with fast-moving water, NASA says.” The Washington Post. The Washington Post, 27 Sep 2012. Web. 27 Sep 2012. Curiosity/ Mars Science Laboratory has successfully landed on the Red Planet on August 5, 2012 at 10:31 PM (Pacific Time). JPL engineers gave the landing a “perfect 10”! The Mars rover escaped the 7 minutes of terror and will continue its 2-year mission. This revolutionary success marks the first time since the 1970s (Viking probes) that NASA sent a mission for astrobiology. Curiosity will analyze samples on Mars to determine if Mars has ever been habitable for life forms. The $2.5 billion project offset the recent loss of the 30-year space shuttle program. The rover sent its first three images of Mars, sending JPL into an uproar. For more information on Curiosity (its specifications, mission objectives, and technology) as well as two videos (animation of Curiosity on Mars and JPL’s animation of the “7 minutes of terror”), please visit this post. Grecius, Tony, ed. “Mars Science Laboratory.” NASA. NASA, August 2012. Web. 6 Aug 2012. Curiosity: A model at the Discovery Science Center The Mars Rover Curiosity will land on the Red Planet on August 5, 2012 (Pacific Time). A collaboration between JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and NASA, Mars Rover Curiosity (SUV), otherwise known as Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), has technology that succeeds its predecessors, Spirit and Opportunity (golf carts) and Sojourner (microwave). NASA launched Curiosity on November 26, 2011 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Curiosity is expected to land on August 5, 2012 on the Aeolis Palus region of the Gale crater. Curiosity‘s four objectives are: 1) determine whether Mars is suitable for life; 2) study Mars’ climate; 3) study Mars’ climate; 4) plan future human mission to Mars. Weight: 2,000 lbs. Length: >9.8 ft. Distance Covered (per day): ~600 ft Lifetime: >687 Earth days (1 Martian year) Power: Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) – uses the decay of plutonium-238 to generate 2.5 kilowatt hours per day Heat Rejection System: To keep Curiosity at optimal temperatures since temperatures on Mars vary dramatically (30°C to -127°C) Computers: “Rover Compute Element” – tolerates extreme radiation from space; Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) – rover navigation Communications: X band transmitter – communicate directly with Earth; UHF Electra-Lite software defined radio – communicate with Mars orbiters Mobility: 6 wheels in rocker-bogie suspension – serve as landing gear Cameras: 1. MastCam – multiple spectra and true color imaging; 2. Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) – microscopic images of rock and soil; 3. MSL Descent Imager (MARDI) – color images to map the surrounding terrain and landing location ChemCam: laser to vaporize samples up to 7 meters away for analysis, with the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and micro-imager (RMI) Alpha-particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS): map the spectra of X-rays to elemental composition of samples Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin): identify and quantify abundance of minerals on Mars Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM): analyze organics and gases from atmospheric and solid samples Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN): measure hydrogen, ice, and water at and near Martian surface Rover Environmental Monitoring System (REMS): measure atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind currents and direction, air and ground temperature, UV levels Hazard Avoidance Cameras (HazCams): use light to capture 3-D image to protect the rover from crashing Navigation Cameras (Navcams): use visible light to capture 3-D images for navigation EDL (Entry, Descent, Landing): also called the “7 minutes of Terror,” because any malfunction or any misstep means failure of the mission Landing Sequence: “6 vehicles, 76 pyrotechnic devices, 500,000 lines of code, zero margin of error”; from 13,000 miles an hour to 0 miles and hour; 1,600 degrees upon entry Mar’s atmosphere is 100 times thinner than Earth’s so it is harder for MSL to slow down Guided Entry: control the craft to approximate landing site region Parachute Descent: supersonic parachute (can withstand 65,000 lbs of force but only weighs 100 lbs.) deploys at 10 km altitude Powered Descent: cut parachute off and rocket thrusters (Mars Lander Engine, MLE) extend out and slow the descent Sky Crane: lower the rover with a 21-foot tether wheels down onto the Martian crater to prevent the rockets from making dust clouds; the bridle is cut and the rock thrusters fly away to a safe distance Each wheel on Curiosity has a specific traction pattern that is Morse code for “JPL” It takes 13 minutes and 46 seconds to relay signals from Earth to Curiosity Grecius, Tony, ed. “Mars Science Laboratory.” NASA. NASA, July 2012. Web. 27 July 2012.
From a systemic perspective , school failure occurs when an education system fails to provide fair and inclusive education services that lead to enriching student learning. At the school level, school failure can be defined as the incapacity of a school to provide fair and inclusive education and an adequate learning environment for students to achieve the outcomes worthy of their effort andability. From an individual perspective , school failure can be defined as the failure of a student to obtain a minimum level of knowledge and skills, which can at the extreme lead to dropping out of school.1 This manual is not going to deal with the reasons for school failures, but with the way on how to approach young people and prevent their failures in the school system and empower them and encourage them to build their capacities and discover their interests and talents. Young people differ in fundamental ways in their learning: - conceptions of learning, - learning styles and strategies, - beliefs and emotions, - as well as in their linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds. Students bring to the classroom different prior knowledge that substantially influences their learning process, and there is a constant and complex interaction between capacity and experience that shapes learning and as a result, young people learn at different paces and teachers have to adjust to these and develop diversified pedagogical practices to cater for this wide variety of learning needs. This is often very complex and demanding from the teachers who are often used to the formal, directive teaching approach, and don’t often used participant, or learner-centered methods. This tool kit has aims to provide ideas, methods and examples of good practices in how to work with youngsters with poor school performance, early school leavers and drop outs. It is a compilation of some of the tested, best practice methods used throughout the world by some of the educational practitioners and some of the “tips and tricks” that can help facilitators to guide and support the learning of the participants and make them feel comfortable and safe. Overarching goal is to empower young people and to help them increase their perception of control over their environment by showing them how to better manage their own lives. Instead of telling youngsters to act differently, this tool kit provides ideas to teach them how to act differently by introducing different useful skills. For example, how to do a multistep process for handling upsets, - starting with step 1: “Take a deep breath and count to five.”; - how to deal with anger and frustration (e.g., counting to 10 and taking slow, deep breaths); - how to set goals to focus on what they want; - role-modeling how to solve real-world problems; giving youngsters a weekly life problem to solve collectively; - teaching social skills; - introducing stress reduction techniques, both physical (e.g., dance or yoga or rock climbing) and mental (e.g., guided periods of relaxation or meditation), etc. - Field, S., M. Kuczera and B. Pont (2007), No More Failures: Ten Steps to Equity in Education, Education and Training Policy, OECD, Paris. - Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with Poverty in Mind. ASDC publishing. Alexandria, VA.
Hives are known by many names including "wheals", "weals", "nettle rash" which is a type of hive or wheal, and urticaria - which is the medical name. Generally, hives are rounded or flat-topped elevated lesions caused by broad flares of swollen skin containing an excessive accumulation of fluid. (The medical term for "swollen with an excessive accumulation of fluid" is "edematous" - though this word is not used in all texts). Hives usually occur as a result of an allergic reaction and the release of histamine. Although usually transitory,hives can constitute a medical emergency if the lips, eyes, or tongue are affected because considerable swelling can occur.
For centuries, mankind has always pondered upon the wonders that is beyond our planet, the Earth. The invention of the telescope has vastly improved our view of the skies, sharpening our perception of the universe and penetrating ever deeper, to the furthest edges of time and space. The underlying roots to the invention of the telescope is vague and thought to have started around during the 13th century. An accidental discovery made by a glassmaker during this era, resulted in the development and defined the early beginnnings of spectacles. The glassmaker discovered the magnifying effect of glass when objects glanced through a glass disk appeared clearer and larger in size. It was not until the 17th century which convex lenses were utilised together to create what we now call the “telescope”. The actual, true inventor of the telescope will never be known,however, a dutch spectacle maker by the name of Hans Lippershey was the first person to patent. The patent was denied as there were disputes over who was the foremost and earliest inventor of the telescope. The underlying reasoning laid upon the claims of other merchants who also declared themselves to have conceived the invention, whom one of which is Lippershey’s competitor, Zacharias Jansen. Hans figured that if he combined a convex and a concave lens with one another, it would greatly magnify the object of interest when observed through the newly merged lens. During this time the telescope was not used to observe the stars but rather as a war tool by the navy. The discovery and creation of the telescope spread like wildfire which led a physicist and astronomer named Galileo Galilei to construct the device in 1609. Galileo saw the potential of the telescope which led to th... ... middle of paper ... ...it the Sun. Astronomer’s quest for cosmic understanding and their telescopic exploration of the universe in only 400 years old and in conclusion there is still a long way to go. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Space: up until a few centuries ago astronomers knew little about the universe outside of our planet. But now, with vastly improved technology, astronomers are able to uncover so much more about what lies outside of Earth. While today’s observational technology is greatly superior to that of the past, we can’t disregard the accomplishments of astronomers in the past, because without their work our knowledge of space would far less than it is today. From Galileo’s first telescope to the Webb space telescope that has yet to be launched, there are so many observational technologies that made important contributions to the observation and exploration of space.... [tags: Hubble Space Telescope, Astronomy] 1476 words (4.2 pages) - ... The ocular lenses which you use to look through, body tube which is the tube you look through using the ocular lenses. The arms where you use to move the microscope and there is the base where which holds up the actually microscope. There is also a stage where you put your sample you want to examine on. Overall the microscope is mainly made out of plastic and glass. The main natural resource used to make the plastic of the microscope is petroleum. Most modern day microscopes used in labs outside of the school uses electricity and use light to help function the microscope.... [tags: history of chemistry, science tools] 802 words (2.3 pages) - ... These elements are called the transuranium elements. I think without the development of the periodic table we may not have different types of medicines, or maybe just generic products to help us along the way of life. For example, humans need Zinc. A doctor can simply tell a person how much Zinc he/she needs or a simple nutrition label can tell how much of the element is in the product. With the development of the periodic table, it gave scientists lead way of discovering new elements. There’s possibly even more elements just waiting to be explored and discovered.... [tags: history of chemistry and technology] 856 words (2.4 pages) - Then: The Creation of Television Sketch of Nipkow 's 'electric telescope ' The boob tube, the idiot box, the telly, or more commonly known as the television began as just an idea. If we could send sound over waves of electricity in the air, why couldn 't we send pictures. Paul Gottlieb Nipkow was one of many men that sparked the race for television. In 1884 Nipkow introduced his mechanical scanning system. The device had an 'electronic telescope ' and a disc which was perforated with 20 square shaped holes arranged in a spiral.... [tags: Television, History of television, Radio] 1128 words (3.2 pages) - The Hubble Telescope is a low-orbit telescope in the high Earth atmosphere. The fathers of modern rocketry, Hermann Oberth, Robert Goddard, and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published The Rocket into Planetary Space, in 1923, which mentioned sending a telescope to space for one of the first times in history. The purpose of the telescope was to provide sharper images for astronomers to study. While much larger telescopes reside on Earth, the pictures that the Hubble Telescope sends back are much better because the telescope is above the interference caused by the atmosphere.... [tags: Astronomy] 1201 words (3.4 pages) - "Nature is relentless and unchangeable, and it is indifferent as to whether its hidden reasons and actions are understandable to man or not." This quote was once said by one of the most famous scientist in history; his name was Galileo Galilei. Born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. He was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. He had three children; two girls and one boy, but was never married. In 1564 was also when William Shakespeare was born and Michelangelo died, and they both were also very famous at that time as well.... [tags: the little balance, pisa] 530 words (1.5 pages) - According to a newsletter sent out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the purpose of the Hubble Space Telescope was, and is, to gather light from cosmic objects so scientists can better understand the universe around us. Up until the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope, all telescopes were Earth based and had the disadvantage of having to peer at the stars through the Earth’s atmosphere. The Earth’s atmosphere provides a large amount of distortion when viewing very far objects, like space, through a telescope.... [tags: Astronomy ] 1734 words (5 pages) - Outsider The United States of America was founded, primarily, by those that had been persecuted by large religious organizations. These organizations had close ties to the governing body and would persecute those that did not comply with their religious ideas and arguments. Desperate for change, they arrived in America in search of freedom from those that would oppress them for worshipping God in their own way. Within this essay we shall look at the Thirty Meter Telescope project of Mauna Kea.... [tags: Hawaii, Mauna Kea, Religion, United States] 944 words (2.7 pages) - I am doing my essay over Sports/Athletics and historical events of the 1990’s because for one I am really interested in sports and I also chose historic events because I think it’s good to know things that was really important that happened in the past. The main thing that I will be focusing on about sports and athletics would be about the 1992 dream team and the top NFL teams during the 1990’s. For the historic events I will be focusing mainly on the Hubble Telescope and what it has done for the United States and John Glenn the first astronaut to orbit the earth and why it has been a major historic event in the United States.... [tags: hubble telescope, timothy mcveight] 1105 words (3.2 pages) - What Drives History. "History is the Essence of Innumerable Biographies" -Thomas Carlyle What drives history. Before we answer this question, we must go deeper and answer a more important question: What is history. History is, simply, all of the events, ideas, people, and occurrences that have existed in the past. These things have been driven by one common factor: individuals. Although individuals driving history may seem like a rather simple answer, it is the only one that provides no flaws. One such individual who has driven history is Martin Luther.... [tags: European Europe History] 695 words (2 pages)
Excision of Melanoma Melanocytes produce a pigment called melanin, which determines the colour of our skin. Melanoma is a type of skin cancer that begins in these skin cells called melanocytes. It primarily occurs on the skin, but can also occur in other parts including the eyes and the bowel. Melanoma is a malignant (cancerous) tumour that spreads to other parts of your body and is considered the most dangerous skin cancer, which can even lead to death when not diagnosed and treated early. Melanoma surgery is the standard first line treatment for melanoma. Melanoma surgery is performed under general or local anaesthesia depending on the location and size of the melanoma. Your surgeon makes an incision and removes the melanoma completely along with a margin of the surrounding normal tissue to reduce the risk of any remaining cancer cells. The depth and width of the excision depends on the thickness of the melanoma and the extent to which it has invaded the skin. Along with skin tissue, fat tissue and lymph nodes may also be removed to prevent further spread of the cancer to other parts of the body. The incision is then closed with stitches. However, larger excisions may require a skin graft, in which skin from another part of your body is removed to cover the wound. As with any surgery, melanoma surgery may involve certain risks and complications which include infection, bleeding, scarring and skin graft rejection.
During chemical reactions, the bonds that hold molecules together break apart and form new bonds, rearranging atoms into different substances. Each bond requires a distinct amount of energy to either break or form; without this energy, the reaction cannot take place, and the reactants remain as they were. When a reaction is finished, it might have taken energy from the surrounding environment, or put more energy into it. TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read) Chemical reactions break and reform the bonds that hold molecules together. Types of Chemical Bonds Chemical bonds are bundles of electric forces that hold atoms and molecules together. Chemistry involves several different kinds of bonds. For example, the hydrogen bond is a relatively weak attraction involving a hydrogen-bearing molecule, such as water. The hydrogen bond accounts for the shape of snowflakes and other properties of water molecules. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons, and the resulting combination is more chemically stable than the atoms are by themselves. Metallic bonds occur between atoms of metal, such as the copper in a penny. The electrons in metal move easily between atoms; this makes metals good conductors of electricity and heat. Conservation of Energy In all chemical reactions, energy is conserved; it is neither created nor destroyed but comes from the bonds that already exist or the environment. Conservation of Energy is a well-established law of physics and chemistry. For every chemical reaction, you must account for the energy present in the environment, the bonds of the reactants, the bonds of the products, and the temperature of the products and environment. The total energy present before and after the reaction must be the same. For example, when a car engine burns gasoline, the reaction combines the gasoline with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and other products. It doesn’t create energy from thin air; it releases the energy stored in the bonds of molecules in the gasoline. Sciencing Video Vault Endothermic vs. Exothermic Reactions When you keep track of the energy in a chemical reaction, you will find out if the reaction releases heat or consumes it. In the previous example of burning gasoline, the reaction releases heat and increases the temperature of its surroundings. Other reactions, such as dissolving table salt in water, consume heat, so the temperature of the water is slightly lower after the salt dissolves. Chemists call heat-producing reactions exothermic, and heat-consuming reactions endothermic. Because endothermic reactions require heat, they cannot take place unless enough heat is present when the reaction starts. Activation Energy: Kickstarting the Reaction Some reactions, even exothermic ones, require energy just to get started. Chemists call this the activation energy. It is like an energy hill that the molecules must climb before the reaction is set into motion; after it starts, going downhill is easy. Going back to the example of burning gasoline, the car engine must first make a spark; without it, not much happens to the gasoline. The spark provides the activation energy for the gasoline to combine with oxygen. Catalysts and Enzymes Catalysts are chemical substances that reduce the activation energy of a reaction. Platinum and similar metals, for example, are excellent catalysts. The catalytic converter in a car’s exhaust system has a catalyst like platinum inside. As exhaust gases pass through it, the catalyst increases chemical reactions in harmful carbon monoxide and nitrogen compounds, turning them into safer emissions. Because reactions don't use up a catalyst, a catalytic converter can do its job for many years. In biology, enzymes are molecules that catalyze chemical reactions in living organisms. They fit into other molecules so reactions can take place more easily.
Ecology for Educators and Students We all make choices that affect the environment we depend upon, and cumulatively they add up to big effects. Ecology provides environmental education materials for classroom teachers and students’ research, community educators’ programs and for individuals choosing to make a difference. Learn what you can do...and have fun! - Classroom Educators - Ecology provides science-based, interdisciplinary environmental education curricula and award-winning materials. These quality environmental education resources teach problem solving and critical thinking for students. Ecology also offers accessible databases and research links. Interdisciplinary curricula include Cool School Challenge, Hazards on the Homefront, A-Way with Waste, Discover Wetlands, The Estuary Guide, Project WET, and Healthy Water, Healthy People (water quality monitoring). Teacher Workshops: Dates and Locations - A calendar of workshops, conferences, and other events oriented toward environmental educators. - Students - Check out the student pages for everything from fun facts and learning, to real science research, maps and resources, and even jobs for youth and green jobs training to help you and the environment. - Community Leaders / Adults - Ecology provides materials to assist non-formal educators and local government programs. Many of these can be customized to include local information. These materials are useful for community outreach and adult audiences. - What You Can Do - Individuals make a big difference in each of our daily roles; as concerned citizens, as parents, homeowners or vehicle owners. Everyone can make a difference! Links to Ecology pages with ideas about what you can do to protect our environment.
The Great Dying November 20, 2017 Millions of years before the mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs, there was the Permian extinction, or Great Dying, the planet’s deadliest mass extinction event, and the event that had the longest recovery. Two studies led by Jackson School of Geosciences postdoctoral researcher William Foster have shed light on how marine ecosystems recovered from the catastrophic mass extinction event 252 million years ago, and why the overall recovery afterward was slow. Both center on research of marine fossil beds in Italy. The Permian extinction is linked to climate change caused by prolonged volcanic eruptions in Russia’s Siberian Traps. The eruptions covered an area larger than Alaska with lava and released massive amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere, which had dire consequences for life across the planet. The first study, which was published in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology in November 2016, found that fossils show that some species thought to have died out during the Permian extinction had actually survived the event, and others originated tens of millions of years earlier than previously believed. Many of the fossil shells are unusually small, only a few millimeters in size. But they are so well-preserved that they reveal new details of their body shape and early life stages. “The exceptional preservation of the fossil shells show how marine ecosystems survive global warming,” Foster said. The second study, published in the journal PLOS ONE in March 2017, found that life recovered slowly after the Great Dying because of two smaller extinction events that followed the mass extinction. The extinction events are linked to climate change also caused by massive volcanic activity, said Foster. He added that the study is a step toward understanding how lifeforms survived during the extinctions, which could help scientists understand how modern ocean life evolved and how it might respond to climate change in the future.
The States of Matter A Science Presentation by Mrs. Saysana There are three states of matter. Solids, liquids and gasses. Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume. The particles that make up a solid are closely packed together and move slowly. A liquid has a definite volume, but no definite shape. Liquids take the shape of whatever container they are poured into. The particles of a liquid have more energy than those in a solid, and they aren't as closely packed. Gasses have no definite shape or volume. They expand to evenly fill the space of whichever container they are in. The particles have more energy than in a solid or liquid, and they are spread out.
How Pit Ponies Replaced Children in the Coal Mines As cute and cuddly as miniature horses are, their work history is more complex than giving children rides at birthday parties or carting around small carriages. In 1838, the Huskar Colliery coal mine in northern England flooded, drowning 26 children who were working in the depths of the mine as trappers and hurriers. Queen Victoria demanded an inquiry, and within a few years, Parliament passed an act banning children under 10 years old (and women) from working underground as coal miners. Although the Mines Act of 1842 was a boon to child workers, it meant that the mining industry needed a way to replace all those tiny workers. The answer was to greatly increase the number of mini horses, called pit ponies, used to work in the mines. Today’s American Miniature Horses—defined as small yet proportional horses that measure 34 inches or less—descend from the bloodline of these pit pony coal miners. Pit ponies’ strength made them able to pull heavy carts, and their small size allowed them to maneuver in cramped mine conditions. In 1913, as many as 70,000 pit ponies worked underground in Britain’s coal mines. Different breeds were suited to different mining activities. For example, Shetland ponies’ strength, sturdiness, and intelligence made them well suited for carrying coal over rough, uneven terrain, while donkeys and mules were more common in Pennsylvania mines. Likewise, different types of coal necessitated differing work conditions for the ponies. For instance, pit ponies in bituminous (soft black coal) collieries in Wales were stabled above ground and could walk in and out of tunnels constructed on sloping hills. Other ponies that worked to extract anthracite (hard) coal had to be put in a cage and lowered into the shaft mines. Any time all the workers in a particular mine went on strike or took vacation, every pony had to be lifted back up above ground, one by one. The National Coal Board strictly regulated the use of pit ponies as mine workers, and the British Coal Mines Act of 1911 required that before they could start work, ponies had to be at least 4 years old, examined by a veterinarian, and fit with proper horseshoes. Most ponies worked 8-hour days and were paired up with one miner/handler, so that human and horse could build a trusting, long-term relationship. Although a few reports suggest that some pit ponies were mistreated, the majority of ponies seem to have been treated well. They slept in clean stables, ate a plentiful supply of corn or hay, drank fresh water, and worked fewer hours as they aged (most lived until their late teens or early 20s). Although technological advances eventually made pit ponies obsolete, the small horses still carried coal in small, private mines in Europe, and in Appalachia in the United States, until the 1950s. In the 1960s, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals worked with the National Coal Board to help find homes for retired pit ponies. Retirement came with its own set of challenges, for pit ponies were unaccustomed to living above ground in "normal" conditions, sans work schedules and handlers. Some of these equine retirees became stressed since they didn’t even know how to graze on grass. However, at least they got to live above ground rather than be sold for horse meat, a humane way for these ponies, who helped generate electricity and power civilization, to spend their last days.
Evaporation: Investigating factors that affect it In this inquiry or guided inquiry (depending on grade level) investigation, students will examine conditions to see what affect these conditions have on evaporation rates. Students will keep a science journal of their investigation. Students will then create a chart showing the various influences on evaporation. Cause and effect Context for Use This "hands-on" part of the investigation will be completed in 2-3 days of 20-30 minute class times. This investigation can be teacher demonstrated entirely, OR all student-performed, OR a combination of both depending on supplies available, time allotted, and grade level. Some time is needed to comprise testable questions regarding evaporation, and then additional time to perform each aspect of the investigations. A final day is needed to "wind up" the discussion and to come up with a hypothesis regarding each factor that affects evaporation. Resource Type: Activities:Classroom Activity Grade Level: Intermediate (3-5) Description and Teaching Materials A meter stick to make a balance (or a wood slat will work fine also.) A balance support A heat source (hot plate) Hair dryer or fan Beakers or glass jars Rubbing alcohol (enough to soak one sponge) Sponges (5cm x 10cm each) 2 Watch or clock Ice cubes or COLD water Watch glass (best)or glass plate large enough to cover a beaker or jar *(Additional materials for investigations thought up by the students) Begin investigation with a discussion on what evaporation is and what factors affect the rate of evaporation. What are the "things" that could affect evaporation? How could we test these "things". (Students, hopefully, will come up with wind, heat, humidity, and the nature of the liquid that is being evaporated.) This can be teacher guided or not. Set up experiments (teacher guided) for the following using a balance beam made up of a meter stick or wood slat balanced on a support of some kind (guided instruction?). This can be a "knife-edge" balance that is made for this purpose, or it can be created with a stack books and then a triangular ruler on top (or something similar) for the fulcrum of the balance. Take 2 paperclips (made into a hook) one for each end of the balance and hang a piece of sponge (that has been soaking in water for at least 1 minute) on each end of the balance, and using the paperclip hooks, slide them together or apart until the balance "balances". Test for the effect of various factors on the rate of evaporation as follows: A. Wind: Set up the fan or hair dryer on low speed so that it blows on one of the sponges for 2 minutes. Observe. (If no visible effect is noticed in the balanced apparatus, allow the fan to continue to blow until the effect is seen.) B. Heat: Re-soak the sponges and re-balance them. This time, place the heat source under one of the sponges. (Keep it far enough away to avoid overheating the sponge. Observe after 2 minutes. (Use more time of necessary) C. Humidity: Re-soak the sponges and re-balance them. Suspend one sponge in a beaker (jar) that has about an inch of water in the bottom of it. Do not allow the sponge to touch the water or the sides of the container. (Ask students why you should be careful of this.) Allow time for evaporation and observe. D. Nature of the evaporating liquid: Wring out both sponges (or use dry ones). If you use wet ones, blot with paper towels to remove as much moisture as possible. Soak one sponge in water and the other in rubbing alcohol. Allow 2 minutes for evaporation to occur and observe. (More time if necessary) Demonstrate the evaporation and condensation process: A. Add about 250 ml of water to the beaker and place it on a hot plate over medium heat. B. Place the watch glass (glass plate) on top of the beaker. C. Place an ice cube (or very COLD water) in the watch glass. (If you use cold water instead of ice, allow the water in the beaker to heat for awhile before putting the cold water on the watch glass for better results.) Prior to each of these activities solicit questions and or answers for what is about After each activity solicit reasons for the behavior of the materials and encourage additional questions regarding what has happened. Discuss the results of the investigation and students can write their own conclusions to the investigation in their science journals. Teaching Notes and Tips If you want to speed up the investigation, groups can be assigned different aspects of the investigation and then share their results and conclusions. These conclusions then can then be evaluated by the other groups and discussed. A safety issue to note is the use of hotplates and heated (possibly boiling) water. Some prior discussion and/or experience with balances and what they do should take place for students to understand why the balance is used in this investigation. In the past, I have lectured about the aspects of evaporation. Most of the questions I have received regarding the process of evaporation are investigated in this activity. In this exercise, students will receive first-hand experience with the factors involved in evaporation. Students ability to write inquiring questions in their journal and then plan how they will answer their questions. * Students will hand in a statement (hypothesis) regarding evaporation and the factors affecting it. * Informally assessing how student work in groups and interact with each other.
UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM Facet joints are the structures that connect the spinal vertebrae to each other. A facet joint is like many other joints in the body — it has a cartilage lining that allows the bones to glide smoothly over each other and is surrounded by a protective capsule. The function of a facet joint is to provide stability, mobility and support to the spine. Each vertebra has two facet joints, one on each side. Facet disease occurs when a facet joint degenerates. While this can take place at any level of the spine, it most commonly affects the lumbar (lower spine) region. Some of the terms commonly used to in the diagnosis of facet problems include: - Facet arthritis - Facet joint syndrome - Facet disease - Facet hypertrophy - Degenerative facet joints These terms all refer to essentially the same thing – osteoarthritis or degeneration of a facet joint. UNDERSTANDING WHO SUFFERS Facet disease may arise when the cartilage in a facet joint is worn down as a result of aging, injury or wear and tear. This type of spinal damage can be attributed to arthritis, work, overuse or an injury sustained in an accident. Another possible result of facet disease is spondylolisthesis, which occurs when a vertebra slips forward in relation to an adjacent vertebra, usually in the lumbar spine. POTENTIAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Facet disease symptoms can range in severity from slight discomfort to debilitating pain. The inflammation of the facet joints alone may cause stiffness in the neck and back, aching and warmth surrounding the inflamed joint. Additionally, the friction that occurs when the bones in the facet joints rub together may trigger the growth of bone spurs. In the event that a bone spur compresses a nerve root or the spinal cord, symptoms of radiculopathy and myelopathy can occur, which include: - Radiating pain - Tingling or numbness - Muscle weakness - Difficulty walking - Loss of balance - Loss of fine motor skills EXAMINATIONS USUALLY REQUIRED Facet disease diagnosis is relatively easy to accomplish with a thorough physical exam or a diagnostic facet injection (a numbing medication injected into the facet joint). If the source of the pain is the facet joint, then the pain should resolve immediately after the injection. If the pain persists after an injection, it may be caused by spinal stenosis or a herniated/bulging disc, which require different treatments to address. If necessary, physicians will also order an X-ray, CT scan or MRI to get a more comprehensive look at the spine PROPOSING TREATMENT AND WHY AIMIS Treatments can vary depending on the severity of your symptoms and how much they limit your everyday activities and your level of pain. Not all patients with pain from facet disease require surgery. For mild to moderate pain, more conservative treatment methods can include medications, physical therapy, and chiropractic care. More lasting relief of the facet joint problem can be obtained by destroying some of the tiny nerve endings serving the joints, through interventional ablation. In cases of severe and persistent problems, degeneration of the adjoining disc is nearly always present so the segment may require a bone fusion surgery to stop both the associated disc and facet joint problems or other type of surgery. AIMIS provides various surgical options depending on an individual’s problem and include: - Minimally Invasive Fusion Surgery - Minimally Invasive Facet Thermal Ablations - Facet Joint Denervation - Bone Spur Removal Why minimally invasive spine surgery? Minimally invasive spine surgery was developed to treat spine problems with less injury to the muscles and other normal structures in the spine. It also assists the surgeon to see where the problem exists in the spine. Minimally invasive spine surgery (MISS), does not involve a long incision as is open surgery which helps to avoid damage to the muscles surrounding the spine. In most cases, this results in less pain after surgery and a significant faster recovery. Spine surgery is normally recommended once a period of nonsurgical treatment likely including medications and physical therapy has not provided pain relief caused by the back problem. Surgery is considered when the source of your pain and underlying cause can be identified and surgical procedure proposed. Minimally invasive techniques today are common and being used for a wide range of spine procedures. Benefits of minimal invasive spine surgery include: - Small incisions - Less pain. Often less pain than open procedures because less of the natural anatomy is disrupted - Shorter Hospital stay - Quicker return to daily activities - Lower infection and complication rate - Less blood loss. Smaller incisions also mean less blood loss, which can ultimately improve outcomes. Minimally invasive procedures take a surgery that could be a dramatic event and makes it have less of an impact! To see our surgical technologies please click here To see our surgical procedures please click here REPUTABLE AND PRESTIGIOUS SURGEONS AIMIS' skilled team of neurosurgeons, orthopaedic surgeons and ancillary professionals has one of the leading experiences in the world for minimally invasive spine surgery. Our full team are consulted with each case to find the most suitable experienced doctor for the patient’s exact issue, to ensure the maximum potential outcome of treatment GETTING MORE INFORMATION BEFORE MOVING FORWARD YOU MAY HAVE QUESTIONS LIKE: - Can I get more information before I commit to this? - Can I get a second opinion from you before I commit to this? - How can I find out the cost before I have any obligation? WHAT AIMIS CAN DO: AIMIS will provide a full review, diagnosis and potential surgical options for your condition, after receiving the relevant examinations and information from you. They will also provide an estimate for your surgical procedure before you decide. AIMIS’ mission is to the provision of “true” healthcare for those who require it. It provides world leading surgeons using state of the art procedures to optimize potential surgical outcomes, whilst taking care of all arrangements so as to allow concentration on recovery. AIMIS provide competitive prices for state of the art procedures. We also work with a large range of Insurance companies where your policy allows you to have surgery abroad. FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE PROBLEM: Facet disease in the back is a common form of osteoarthritis, or arthritis of the spine, that develops with the natural wear and tear of the spine. This condition is most common in the lumbar region of the spine (the lower back), but it can occur between any vertebrae in the spinal column. Facet disease is the swelling and inflammation of the facet joints in the spine. These joints allow the vertebrae of the spine to bend. When they swell from arthritis and other facet disease causes, movement in the vertebrae is limited and painful. In some cases, the facet joints may even swell and press against a nearby nerve, resulting in chronic pain and limited mobility. Facet disease of the neck occurs when the cartilaginous lining of the joints in the cervical region of the spine begin to deteriorate. The condition is most commonly caused by the natural aging process, as years of supporting the weight of the head and providing movement can eventually begin to take a toll. In its early stages, facet disease of the neck causes pain, inflammation and stiffness, especially first thing in the morning and after long periods of rest. In an effort to prevent bone-on-bone contact, which arises because of the lack of lubrication on the damaged joints, the body sometimes develops bone spurs. Patients with spinal bone spurs may face additional symptoms of pain, numbness, tingling and/or muscle weakness in the neck, upper back, shoulders and/or arms. These symptoms usually arise when a bone spur has “pinched,” or compressed, a spinal nerve, nerve root or the spinal cord itself. FURTHER INFORMATION ON INCREASED RISK GROUPS There are a number of risk factors that can cause the development of facet disease. Causes such as the natural aging process and genetics are unavoidable, but there are certain lifestyle factors that may increase the risk of developing facet disease. Such risk factors include: - Being overweight - Using tobacco products - Abusing alcohol - Leading a sedentary lifestyle - Participating in high-impact sports - Working in a physically demanding job that requires constant bending and/or lifting WHY AIMIS FOR THIS SURGERY AIMIS strives for excellence in delivering the best surgical outcomes, via the extensive expertise of its prestige surgeons, its technologies, its highly trained staff and superior facilities to provide an individualized and compassionate experience in a comfortable environment. All patients are treated with the individual care they deserve in an effort to provide the best chance of successful treatment. OTHER SERVICES PROVIDED BY AIMIS In addition to its Innovative Healthcare, AIMIS provides seamless service along the way. From the start of your journey you'll know the best flights to take, where you'll be staying, what paperwork you will need. You will have a personal assistant assigned; from your pick up at the airport, to your accommodation, continuous assistance at your pre-consultation, through surgery and in your postsurgical care. Our Patients have said that they feel they have become "part of our family" and some even asked to stay a little longer! AIMIS is here to assist you in an all you requirements, allowing you to focus on your health and recovery.
The riparian corridor in the delta of the Colorado River in Mexico supports internationally important bird habitat. The vegetation is maintained by surface flows from the U.S. and Mexico and by a high, non-saline aquifer into which the dominant phreatophytic shrubs and trees are rooted. We studied the effects of a regional drought on riparian vegetation and avian abundance and diversity from 2002 to 2007, during which time surface flows were markedly reduced compared to the period from 1995 to 2002. Reduced surface flows led to a reduction in native tree cover but an increase in shrub cover, mostly due to an increase in Tamarix spp., an introduced halophytic shrub, and a reduction in Populus fremontii and Salix gooddingii trees. However, overall vegetation cover was unchanged at about 70%. Overall bird density and diversity were also unchanged, but riparian-obligate species tended to decrease in abundance, and generalist species increased. Although reduction in surface flows reduced habitat value and negatively impacted riparian-obligate bird species, portions of the riparian zone exhibited resilience. Surface flows are required to reduce soil salt levels and germinate new cohorts of native trees, but the main source of water supporting this ecosystem is the aquifer, derived from underflows from irrigated fields in the U.S. and Mexico. The long-term prospects for delta riparian habitats are uncertain due to expected reduced flows of river water from climate change, and land use practices that will reduce underflows to the riparian aquifer and increase salinity levels. Active restoration programs would be needed if these habitats are to be preserved for the future. Additional publication details Effects of drought on birds and riparian vegetation in the Colorado River Delta, Mexico
What You Should Know About... Pinkeye, also called conjunctivitis, can be caused by bacterial or viral infections or by allergic reactions to dust, pollen, and other materials. Bacterial and viral infections usually produce a white or yellowish pus that may cause the eyelids to stick shut in the morning. The discharge in allergic conjunctivitis is often clear and watery. All types involve redness and burning or itching eyes. Pinkeye in child care settings is most often due to bacterial or viral infections. It can usually be treated with antibiotics. Red and sore eyes may be part of viral respiratory infections, including measles. The germs that cause conjunctivitis may be present in nasal secretions, as well as in the discharge from the eyes. Persons can become infected when their hands become contaminated with these materials and they rub their eyes. Eyes can also become infected when a person uses contaminated towels or eye makeup. If a child in your facility develops pinkeye:
The wings of wasps and flies contain stunning, built-in reflective patterns that can only be seen against a black background. Called wing interference patterns (WIP), they are the result of membranes that are thicker in some parts and thinner in others, which allows for the reflection of different colors without any pigments. So far, we think that WIPs may serve as signals between the insects. Entomologists and taxonomists can also rejoice, because WIPs are species-specific —a useful piece of knowledge that has already led to the discovery of several new species within those we already (thought we) knew. Read the paper (here) (Check out Ed Yong’s Not Exactly Rocket Science for more.)
In this project you will design and 3d print a ring that contains a magnet. The wearer of this ring will have magnetic powers that will thrill and amaze those around you. >calipers – provided >magnet – provided >glue – provided >3d modeling with tinkercad.com >measurement in millimeters >measurement using calipers >designing an object to interact with the real world Your design must incorporate at least FIVE shapes. These can be either holes or solids. Step 1: choose a magnet Step 2: use the calipers to measure your magnet. Record these measurements in millimeters. You will need to use these measurements over and over. Step 3: measure your finger. Record the measurement. Save these measurements as they will be added to your engineering notebook. BEFORE YOU BEGIN DESIGNING show me your measurement page with clearly labeled measurements. Make sure that you measure in millimeters (mm). Step 4: start drawing ideas. Show me at least THREE drawn designs before you begin your design. I will sign off on the drawings so that you can move to tinkercad. Save these drawings as they will go into your engineering notebook. Loss of the drawings will result in loss of points. Hints for success: - measure the magnet and your finger first - measure them again - create hole shapes in tinkercad that match the size of the magnet and your finger measurement - build around those two shapes To submit your design for printing: 1. in the design view click on Design. 2. choose Properties from the menu. 3. rename your design to something that makes sense. 4. change the Visibility from Private to Public.

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