Split (1)

train · 64k rows

content stringlengths 275 370k
Populations of Iberian spiders that make aerial webs and move around by ballooning (using a thread of silk as a parachute) are genetically more homogeneous and are better connected between them. On the other side, species of nocturnal spiders, which hunt on the ground and have a low dispersal capacity, show less genetically connected populations and are more vulnerable to local extinction processes due to environmental factors. This is concluded in an article published in the journal Insect Conservation and Diversity, led by Professor Miquel Arnedo, from the Faculty of Biology and the Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio) of the University of Barcelona. Among the participants are the UB-IRBio experts Marc Domènec —first author of the article—, Alba Enguídanos and Cesc Múrria, and Jagoba Malumbres-Olarte, from the University of the Azores (Portugal). Genetic diversity of Iberian spider populations In the context of the current biodiversity loss due to human activity, the use of genetic techniques to accelerate cataloguing and identification of species for their preservation has become especially relevant. These techniques require databases that relate species to their genetic sequencing. The new paper is the broadest study on the biodiversity of spiders of the Iberian Peninsula carried out using the DNA barcoding methodology, a comparative genetics technique for the identification of species. With this genetic information, the team revealed the existence of a taxonomic diversity that had been unnoticed to date. The team provided more than 3,200 new sequences of spiders corresponding to 371 species —that is, a quarter of the total of registered species in the Iberian Peninsula that live in different oak woodlands of six national parks: Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici, Ordesa y Monte Perdido, Picos de Europa, Monfragüe, Cabañeros and Sierra Nevada. Populations of Iberian spiders are characterized by an exceptionally high diversity and a high endemic level. This high level of endemism —and a relatively reduced distribution— makes peninsular populations more vulnerable to potential local extinctions, compromising the viability of the species. “In other populations of the European continent, the endemicity level is lower and this involves a broader distribution which guarantees the permanence of the species despite the potential extinction of some of their populations”, notes Professor Miquel Arnedo, from the Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences. As stated in the paper, some peninsular species show a high genetic homogeneity in the area but others present a high variability between populations. “In different cases, the delimitation of species based on genetic information has revealed the existence of well differenced lineages within the same species”, notes Arnedo. “These lineages —he continues— could simply reflect populations that are less connected to each other. However, in some cases, this could indicate the potential existence of a hidden diversity that we had not found before, if we consider the morphological characters exclusively”, adds Arnedo. “Therefore, we have found that species such as Eratigena montigena or Nuctenea umbratica have different lineages that had been unnoticed due to the strong morphological similarities between them. Future studies with these species will determine whether these lineages correspond to different species”. How to protect Iberian spider populations The genetic structure of peninsular spider populations is associated to their functional features, as noted in the paper. The correlation of the patterns of genetic diversity at a peninsular scale with different functional and environmental variables enabled the researchers to determine that better connected and genetically homogeneous populations are associated to diurnal spiders that live in the vegetation, hunt preys with space webs and move by ballooning. However, those living at the ground level, which are active and nocturnal hunters, are more vulnerable to local extinctions due to a lower genetic connection between populations. Keeping the genetic variability in a population “is a fundamental factor to ensure the adaptation skills and to deal with environmental changes since it is the substrate on which natural selection acts”, says Marc Domènech (UB-IRBio), first signatory of the article. “Regarding the species with a low dispersal capacity, if a population disappears due to some external perturbation, it is even harder to repopulate the area it occupied at the beginning”, notes Domènech. “The fragmentation of the habitats is one of the most negative effects derived from the alteration of natural environments. Therefore, it is important to ensure the existence of biological corridors that ease the connectivity among populations that are separated by altered environments and that are inhospitable by these species”. DNA Barcoding: a revolution in taxonomic studies The DNA Barcoding methodology has changed the analysis of biodiversity in several faunistic groups through new great-resolution bioinformatic tools to accelerate the classification and identification of species. Using this technology, it is possible to classify juvenile individuals —morphologically unidentifiable— at a species and subspecies level. It is also an efficient technique to identify different life stages of the same species which are impossible to identify by other methodologies. In the study field of Iberian spiders, the team led by Miquel Arnedo is working on a DNA barcode library of all Iberian spiders. This task will enable the future implementation of automated and large-scale identification systems to facilitate the monitoring of communities and habitats of interest, and therefore establish an early warning system to detect potential perturbations on the populations. “Extrapolating these results to other natural habitats will allow us to see up to what extent our results are generalizable”, conclude the experts. Insect Conservation and Diversity Method of Research Subject of Research What DNA barcodes reveal: microhabitat preference, hunting strategy and dispersal ability drive genetic variation across Iberian spider species Article Publication Date
Reindeer see their world in glorious ultraviolet, helping them find food and avoid predators. Most mammals, including humans, see using light from the visible part of the spectrum; ultraviolet light, which has a shorter wavelength, is invisible. But not so reindeer, says Glen Jeffery of University College London. The frozen wastes of the Arctic reflect around 90 per cent of the UV light that hits them; snow-free land typically reflects only a few per cent. So Jeffery and colleagues wondered whether reindeers had adapted to their UV-rich world. In dark conditions, they shone LED lights of different wavelengths, including UV, into the eyes of 18 anaesthetised reindeers while recording with an electrode whether nerves in the eye fired, indicating that the light had been seen. The UV light triggered a response in the eyes of all the reindeer. “Since migrating to the Arctic 10,000 years ago, these animals have adapted incredibly quickly,” says Jeffery. The team’s experiments with a UV camera in the Arctic suggest why. They showed that urine – a sign of predators or potential mates – and lichens – a major food source for reindeers in the winter months – absorb UV light, making them appear black in contrast to the UV-reflecting snow. “Very few mammals see UV light. Rodents do and some species of bat do but we have no idea why they have developed this capability,” says Jeffery. “This is the first time we have got a real handle on why a mammal uses UV light.” The eyes of most mammals cannot cope with UV light because it carries enough energy to destroy their sensitive photoreceptors, permanently damaging vision. To prevent this happening we experience “snow blindness”: our corneas respond to UV light by becoming temporarily cloudy, preventing excess amounts of UV reaching and burning the retina. “Why don’t reindeer, arctic fox, polar bears or arctic seals get snow blindness?” asks Jeffery. “Arctic mammals must have a completely different mechanism for protecting their retinas.” To try to shed light on this conundrum, Jeffery and his team plan to return to the Arctic later in the year. “If we could work out what this protective mechanism is perhaps we could learn from it and develop new strategies to prevent or treat the damage UV can cause to humans,” he says. Journal reference: Journal of Experimental Biology, DOI: 10.1242/jeb.053553 More on these topics:
What Sets Davis Apart We view dyslexia as a result of an inherent mental gift or talent. People who develop dyslexia think in pictures, rather than words; they are imaginative and creative; and they try to solve problems by looking at the whole picture, rather than working step-by-step. Davis Dyslexia Correction is a strength-based approach that harnesses the mental talents that dyslexic people share to overcome the learning problems. To do this, students must use different strategies than are commonly taught with remedial programs. When dyslexic students recognize their mental talents, they develop a renewed sense of self-esteem and confidence. When they start to employ study methods which capitalize on their talents, progress is very rapid. The Davis method does not rely on instruction based on phonics. Dyslexic students rely mostly on non-verbal thought processes. Since their primary mode of thought is to rely on pictures or other sensory impressions, they have difficulty thinking with the sounds of words and it is hard to try to read by breaking words down into component sounds. Rather than trying to force students to use a method that is inherently difficult for them, Davis methods teach a visual and meaning-based approach that is much easier for dyslexic people to learn and use. This in turn leads to much more rapid progress than with traditional instruction. Rather than the slow progress and labored reading that often is seen with phonics-based methods, Davis strategies enable dyslexic students to become fluent, capable, and often enthusiastic readers. The Davis method does not employ repetition or drill. Dyslexic students have a hard time remembering things that they do not fully understand. Repetition and drill are a waste of time and increase frustration because they will not retain information unless they understand where it fits into the “big picture”. The Davis approach is based on mastery — students are given tools that enable them to master the symbols and concepts that are part of learning. Once mastered, the information is understood inherently and the student does not need to practice or review. The Davis method does not rely on physical devices such as colored overlays or large print books. Dyslexia is a developmental learning problem that affects the way that individuals process information. It is not a result of problems with vision or hearing. While some physical devices may seem to make reading or writing easier, the use of such devices does not help the dyslexic student to function normally. Dyslexic students do often experience distortions in perception, but these problems are caused by mental disorientation. It is not a problem with eyes or ears, but rather the way that the brain interprets the input from the sensory organs. With the Davis approach, students learn to recognize disorientation when it occurs, and learn simple techniques to reorient themselves so that they can maintain mental focus and accurately perceive print on a page. The Davis method does not rely on medications or herbal treatments. The Davis approach puts dyslexic students in control of their own learning, mental focus, and energy level. Since dyslexia is not a disease or a psychiatric ailment, medications will not address the underlying problem, and will only tend to hinder the student’s ability to learn. Share this page!
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 aimed to regulate the movement of forest produce, and the duty leviable on forest produce. This act has details of what a forest offence is, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act. After the Forest Act was enacted in 1865, it was amended twice (1878 and 1927). The penalties and procedures given in this Act aimed to extend the state’s control over forests as well as diminishing the status of people’s rights to forest use. The village communities were alienated from their age-old symbiotic association with forests. Further amendments were also made to restrain the local use of forests mainly by forest-dependent communities. TYPES OF FORESTS Degree of protection Reserved forests > Protected forests > Village forests Forest Settlement Officer The Forest Settlement Office is appointed, by the State government, to inquire into and determine the existence, nature and extent of any rights alleged to exist in favour of any person in or over any land comprising a Reserved forest. He/she is empowered even to acquire land over which right is claimed. To speed up resolution of forest-related violations -the amendments are aimed at decriminalising “relatively minor violations” of law. The amendments seek to decriminalise offences like kindling, keeping or carrying fire in a reserved forest without permission, trespassing or pasturing cattle or causing any damage by negligence in felling any tree in a reserved forest. They also seek to decriminalise acts like leaving a burning fire kindled by the person in the vicinity of any tree reserved under Section 30, or felling any tress or dragging timber to damage any reserved tree, or permitting cattle to damage such tree. The offences were earlier punishable with imprisonment for a term which could even extend to six months, a penalty that the Environment Ministry now seeks to remove. This would help in: However, there are the following concerns associated:
The Blue Moon Butterfly on the Samoan islands was attacked by a parasite, which destroyed male embryos. Females always choose the male peacock with the brightest colored feathers. Changes of climate and chemical composition of the atmosphere appear to have caused these mass extinctions; there is no convincing evidence that they resulted from cosmic impacts. When two species compete for very similar resourcessay, the same kinds of seeds or fruitsone may become extinct, although often they will displace one another by dividing the territory or by specializing in slightly different foods, such as seeds of a different size or kind. Paleontologists distinguish between background extinction, the steady rate at which species disappear through geologic time, and mass extinctions, the episodic events in which large numbers of species become extinct over time spans short enough to appear almost instantaneous on the geologic scale. The changes to the message in the game are similar to what happens when there are mutations. Variations in genotypes can also produce variations in phenotypes. Invertebrates have only one cluster with a variable number of genes, typically fewer than 13. In order for a species to lose its coloration, mutations must occur that allow the elimination of pigment. and Social organization of individuals in a population is another way of achieving functional division, which may be quite fixed, as in ants and bees, or more flexible, as in cattle herds or primate groups. Some multicellular animals exhibit light-sensitive spots on their epidermis. Some ants learned to imitate this signal from another colony, so they can attack a colony and take over. Some transitions at first may seem unlikely because of the difficulty in identifying which possible functions may have been served during the intermediate stages. (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Water Experiments in Space (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Capillarity, Transpiration, and Wicking (1), Further Investigations: Water Properties (1), Comparison of Water with Other Liquids (6), Activity: Comparison of Water With Other Liquids (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Dilution of Pollution and Vital Gases (1), Question Set: Comparison of Liquids and Compounds (1), Further Investigations: Comparison of Liquids and Compounds (1), Chemicals as Tracers of Water Movement (1), Introduction to Energy and the Water Cycle (0), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Water on Mars (1), Question Set: Phase Changes and Pressure (1), Question Set: Melting and Boiling Points (1), Further Investigations: Phases of Matter (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Celsius Versus Fahrenheit (1), Further Investigations: Ice Formation (1), Further Investigations: Salinity and Ice Formation (1), Weird Science: Pressure and Boiling Point (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Water Power (1), Further Investigations: Heating and Cooling Water (1), Question Set: Evaporation and Humidity (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Water Droplets (1), Question Set: Condensation and Precipitation (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Water Needs and Water Use (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Sea Surface Salinity (1), Question Set: Sublimation and Deposition (1), Further Investigations: Climate Comparisons (1), Introduction to Biogeochemical Cycles (0), Atmospheric Chemistry and Air to Sea Exchange (0), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Carbon Monoxide Verses Carbon Dioxide (1), Further Investigations: Global Warming (1), Introduction to Building Blocks of Life (0), Voice of the Sea: Fish Spawning Aggregations (1), Voice of the Sea: Food Webs of the Open Ocean (1), Voice of the Sea: Shark and Tuna Tagging (1), Voice of the Sea: Strange Fish of The Deep (0), Practices of Science: The Language of Science (1), Further Investigations: Properties of Life (1), Practices of Science: Communication & Collaboration in the Scientific Community (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Natural and Sexual Selection (1), Compare-Contrast-Connect: Marsupial Mammals versus Placental Mammals (1), Practices of Science: Common Misconceptions on Evolution (1), Further Investigations: Evolution by Natural Selection (1), Activity: Identifying Butterflyfish Using Dichotomous Keys (1), Further Investigations: Classification of Life (1), Introduction to Algae and Aquatic Plants (1), Question Set: What are Aquatic Plants and Algae (1), Further Investigations: What are Aquatic Plants and Algae (1), Weird Science: Penicillin and the Cell Wall (1), Activity: Identifying Cells and Cell Parts Using a Microscope (1), Activity: Structure of Algae with Comparisons to Vascular Plants (1), Further Investigations: Where are photosynthetic autotrophs found in your life? Most of the orders and families of mammals now in existence originated in the first 10 million20 million years after the dinosaurs extinction. Over millions of generations of copying, even little errors in that influence phenotype can add up to big changes. The simplest organ of vision occurs in some single-celled organisms that have enzymes or spots sensitive to light (see eyespot), which helps them move toward the surface of their pond, where they feed on the algae growing there by photosynthesis. In the 1800s, many people were trying determine why there were so many different kinds of plants and animals in the world. The forelimbs of reptiles became wings in their bird descendants. Yes! traits are eliminated because they detract from the success of the organism. Whenever you use a pesticide, it kills the majority of an insect population. Eventually, eukaryotic multicellular organisms appeared, in which there is a division of function among cellssome specializing in reproduction, others becoming leaves, trunks, and roots in plants or different organs and tissues such as muscle, nerve, and bone in animals. Some bilateral animals, such as millipedes and shrimps, are segmented (metameric); others, such as frogs and humans, have a front-to-back (head-to-foot) body plan, with head, thorax, abdomen, and limbs, but they lack the repetitive, nearly identical segments of metameric animals. Birds such as ostriches, emus and penguins are unable to fly. All of these factors come into play in any example of evolution. In general. The most catastrophic happened at the end of the Permian Period, about 251 million years ago, when 95 percent of marine species, 82 percent of genera, and 51 percent of families of animals became extinct. Natural selection occurs when environmental pressures favor certain traits that are passed on to offspring. A population is a group of organisms that mate and reproduce with one another. Keep reading for examples of how different species evolve to best survive their surroundings. Because bacteria reproduce very rapidly, these mutations can quickly take effect in changing the population of bacteria. Often mistakes in repeating or understanding the sample phrase lead to changes in the meaning. Any force in the environment that favors or disfavors traits is a selective agent. The common ancestor of the chordates (which include the vertebrates) probably had only one cluster of Hox genes, which may have numbered 13. But gradual evolution may amount to large differences over time. The conditions of our planet have both affected and been sustained by the ongoing evolution of living organisms. Most notable among these are the Hox genes, which produce proteins (transcription factors) that bind with other genes and thus determine their expressionthat is, when they will act. Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth. All rights reserved. Exploring Our Fluid Earth, a product of the Curriculum Research & Development Group (CRDG), College of Education. Although the dinosaurs vanished, turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and other reptiles, as well as some mammals and birds, survived. The same thing happens when DNA is replicated again and again. Chordates may have one or more clusters, but not all 13 genes remain in every cluster. Sometimes a single change in a regulating gene that controls other parts of an organisms DNA can also have a big effect. In contrast, individuals with beneficial genes are more likely to survive and reproduce. Evolution is the biological change of a species over a span of time. Under this definition, when populations can no longer breed with each other, they are considered to be different species. If the mutation never arises, the animals will stay pigmented. University of Hawaii, 2011. Mammals that lived prior to the event were small and mostly nocturnal, but during the ensuing Paleogene and Neogene periods they experienced an explosive diversification in size and morphology, occupying ecological niches vacated by the dinosaurs. These first duplications happened very early in animal evolution, in the Precambrian. 2022 LoveToKnow Media. There is a puzzling correspondence between the position of the Hox genes in a cluster along the chromosome and the patterning of the bodygenes located upstream (anteriorly in the direction in which genes are transcribed) in the cluster are expressed earlier and more anteriorly in the body, while those located downstream (posteriorly in the direction of transcription) are expressed later in development and predominantly affect the posterior body parts. MS-LS4-4 Construct an explanation based on evidence that describes how genetic variations of traits in a population increase some individuals probability of surviving and reproducing in a specific environment. Genes containing homeobox sequences are found not only in animals but also in other eukaryotes such as fungi and plants. The multicellular animals (metazoans) first found as fossils in the Cambrian already demonstrate all the major body plans found during the ensuing 540 million years, as well as four to seven additional body plans that became extinct and seem bizarre to observers today. Thousands of years of selective pressures have determined the shapes, colors, sizes, and behaviors that optimize the survival and reproductive success of organisms in the environment in which they evolved. Theme course requirements can be found in the Evolution and Biodiversity Theme Chartscalendar entry. Background extinctions result from ordinary biological processes, such as competition between species, predation, and parasitism. These two men, working independently of one another, developed the same basic explanation for the diversity of life: natural selection. Archaeologists rely on fossil records to note the steps of human evolution. Charles Darwin famously studied various species to determine how environmental adaptations allowed them to survive. Embryonic development (see animal development) is the process of growth and differentiation by which the single-celled egg becomes a multicellular organism. These ants have a chemical signal that identifies their colony. The genes within a cluster retain detectable similarity, but they differ more from one another than they differ from the corresponding, or homologous, gene in any of the other sets. Research on species and genetic diversity includes the systematics and conservation biology of a wide range of organisms (e.g., lichens, vascular plants, fish and other vertebrates) and the study of biological diversity as it relates to human well-being and sustainability. Most scientists believe that the Cretaceous mass extinction was provoked by the impact of an asteroid or comet on the tip of the Yucatn Peninsula in southeastern Mexico 65 million years ago. Eyes, which serve as another example, also evolved gradually and achieved very different configurations, all serving the function of seeing. In nature, there are four different means of speciation: allopatric, parapatric, sympatric and peripatric. DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES A mutation is an error that is made during the DNA copying process. (See also Triassic Period: Permian-Triassic extinctions.) Over time, populations subjected to different selective agents may become so different that they are no longer able to breed with one another. HS-LS3-1 Ask questions to clarify relationships about the role of DNA and chromosomes in coding the instructions for characteristic traits passed from parents to offspring. This is because the few male moths that were immune lived to breed. Eyes have evolved independently at least 40 times.
Researchers at Cornell University found that mice who were obese had 25% fewer taste buds than mice who were not obese. They fed one group of mice a high fat diet to achieve rapid weight gain while another group of mice were fed a healthy diet. Then the researchers counted the taste buds on a spot on the tongue that is known to have large clusters of taste buds for each group of mice. The lean mice were found to have more taste buds than their rotund counter parts. Taste buds are known to constantly regenerate by 50 to 100 cells. The average life span of a taste bud is 10 days and complete turn over of taste buds takes about 4 weeks. The researcher noticed in the obese mice that cell death sped up and regeneration of taste buds slowed down. The researchers turned to fatty foods to see if that was the culprit for the loss in taste buds. After controlling for mice who were genetically resistant to obesity the researchers came to the same conclusions. chronic inflammation in the body so researchers turned to a common inflammatory molecule called TNF-alpha. Mice specifically bred to not have TNF-alpha were fed a high fat diet, became obese but did not loose taste buds. When TNF-alpha was injected into the tongues of lean mice, the mice lost taste buds. From their data the researchers concluded that inflammation caused by obesity increases the loss of taste buds. They theorize that people who become obese continue to do so because they have to keep eating higher fat foods to be satisfied. This study is interesting because it shows how important of a role inflammation plays in obesity. Hopefully this research can used to help others achieve and maintain a healthy weight.
Students enter words in the gaps, based on the context within a given article, individually or collaboratively. This activity helps improve your vocabulary and sentence structure and your communication skills. Type: Individual or Group collaboration Instructions: Click on the gap and type in a word. Click on the light bulb icon (if any) for help. The words of sentences are scrambled and students must sort them into their original order. This activity helps you study sentence structure by providing you with genuine text and allowing you to select suitable materials to practice on. Instructions: Put the bold words in the correct order by drag-drop them into the correct position. This activity is for image collections only. A randomly chosen image is shown to one player (called the "describer"), while the other player (the "guesser") must identify it by asking questions. This activity helps improve your communication skills and vocabulary. Type: Collaboration in pairs Instructions: The "describer" sees a single image and describes it to their partner through the chat box. Based on what their partner says, the "guesser" selects one of the images by double-clicking. Both score a point if it is the correct image. If a timer is shown, the "guesser" must make their choice before time runs out. Students collaborate to predict words they think will occur in a given text, This activity provides a learning environment in which you help each other by sharing information and exchanging ideas. Type: Group collaboration Instructions: In the text box, type your guesses of what words you think might be in the article. Use the title and/or image to help you think of words.
Managing Grasshoppers - July 7, 2021 Jeff Schalau, Agent, Agriculture & Natural Resources University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, Yavapai County Grasshoppers can quickly defoliate a garden or landscape and are challenging to manage due to their large numbers. Biological control, physical barriers, and pesticides are the most effective tools to manage grasshoppers. As with all pest problems, the most effective management will occur when combinations of strategies are used. There are about 400 species of grasshoppers found in the 17 Western States. Only 17% of these species are considered serious pests. These pest species normally feed on native vegetation. However, when grasshoppers can access novel plant species, they may eat them preferentially. This is the case with many annual flowers, vegetables, and forage crops. Among vegetable crops, lettuce, carrots, beans, sweet corn, and onions are often favored. New leaves and fruits of woody plants may also be impacted, but these plants can tolerate low level grasshopper damage. When grasshopper numbers are high and food choices are few, plants can be completely defoliated. Gardens and landscapes that receive the highest impact are often adjacent to open grasslands and/or shrublands. Grasshoppers lay clusters of eggs in the soil during fall. Each cluster has 8 to 30 eggs and each female lays 7 to 30 clusters varying by species. The eggs overwinter in the soil and are extremely resistant to cold temperatures. Hatching date is determined by the maturation of the egg and soil temperature. Juvenile grasshoppers look like smaller versions of the adult and are called nymphs. Most nymphs start feeding right away and continue to feed on the same plants as they mature into adults. To distinguish nymphs from adults, look for wings. Nymphs do not have mature wings but may have wing buds and cannot fly. Adults have fully developed wings and many species fly quite well. Grasshoppers begin laying eggs one to three weeks after reaching adulthood. Grasshoppers have some natural enemies which include parasites, predators, and diseases. Small wasps of the family Mymaridae parasitize grasshopper eggs to offer some natural control. Parasitic nematodes, also called threadworms or hairworms, feed coiled up inside grasshoppers and can cause death, sterility, or reduced vigor of the insect. Blister beetles and crickets are predators of grasshopper eggs. Spiders, wasps, robber flies, rodents, and birds eat nymphs and adult grasshoppers. I have a flock of chickens in my yard and they also seem to be somewhat effective at managing grasshoppers. Grasshoppers are susceptible to a large array of natural diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. Nosema locustae is a microsporidium fungus that has a toxic effect on grasshoppers and crickets. This fungus is the active ingredient in several baits used to control grasshoppers. The fungus is applied to wheat bran and a sweetening agent to create the bait. Grasshoppers eat the bait and become infected with the pathogen. The effects are not immediate, but the pathogen causes grasshoppers to stop feeding and become lethargic. It is most effective on nymphs and is less effective on adults. The best time for application is the spring just after they hatch out. It is most effective when applied over large areas (one acre or more) because of distances traveled by grasshoppers. Chemical controls offer the advantage of quick results but require the proper equipment and knowledge of safe application practices. Some of the active ingredients labeled for grasshopper control are: bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, permethrin, esfenvalerate, and carbaryl. As with all pesticides, the label should be consulted to see if the pest (grasshopper) and the crop are listed for use with that pesticide formulation. Always follow the directions found on the label. Home gardeners may also want to consider using a physical barrier made of lightweight, spun fabrics (also called Remay or frost cloth). These fabrics are often used for floating row covers and allow light penetration and some air circulation. These products may be found at garden centers and through mail order catalogs. Under severe circumstances, grasshoppers may start to feed on the fabric. In these situations, you may consider application of a residual insecticide to the fabric using the same precautions you would if applying it to a plant. Regardless of management approach, grasshoppers can be destructive and their sheer numbers make management challenging. See below for more grasshopper management information and photos. You can follow the Backyard Gardener on Twitter – use the link on the BYG website. If you have other gardening questions, email the Master Gardener Help Desk in Prescott ([email protected]) or Camp Verde ([email protected]) and be sure to include your name, location, and phone number. Find past Backyard Gardener columns or provide feedback at the Backyard Gardener web site: https://cals.arizona.edu/yavapai/anr/hort/byg/. Female differential grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis, Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org ). Twostriped grasshopper (Melanoplus bivittatus, Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org). Artichoke plants with grasshopper feeding damage (Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org). Onion plants with grasshopper feeding damage (Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org). Grasshopper Control in Gardens and Small Acreages, Colorado State University Grasshoppers and Their Control, Texas A & M Agrilife Extension Grasshoppers, University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \| Arizona Cooperative Extension 840 Rodeo Dr. #C Prescott, AZ 86305 Last Updated: June 28, 2021 Content Questions/Comments: [email protected]
High-Temperature Topping Cells from LED Materials There are two primary methods for capturing and using sunlight today: direct conversion of sunlight to electricity using photovoltaic (PV) solar panels, or focusing sunlight onto a fluid that is used to drive a steam turbine in concentrated solar power (CSP) systems. Storing hot fluid in CSP systems is a less expensive way to generate electricity when the sun is not shining compared to storing electrical energy from PV in batteries. However, PV uses just part of the solar spectrum at high efficiency, while CSP systems use the entire solar spectrum but at low efficiency. Combining the best elements of these two technologies could provide a means to get the most out of the full solar spectrum, generating both electricity and storable heat (for later use) within the same system. Developing hybrid solar energy systems that perform both functions at the same time could provide electricity at cost comparable to traditional sources, whether the sun is shining or not. Project Innovation + Advantages: Arizona State University (ASU) is developing a solar cell that can maintain efficient operation at temperatures above 400°C. Like many other electronics, solar panels work best in cooler environments. As the temperature of traditional solar cells increases beyond 100°C, the energy output decreases markedly and components are more prone to failure. ASU’s technology adapts semiconducting materials used in today’s light-emitting diode (LED) industry to enable efficient, long-term high-temperature operation. These materials could allow the cells to maintain operation at much higher temperatures than today’s solar cells, so they can be integrated as the sunlight-absorbing surface of a thermal receiver in the next generation of hybrid solar collectors. The solar cell would provide electricity using a portion of the incoming sunlight, while the receiver collects usable heat at high temperature that can be stored and dispatched to generate electricity as needed. If successful, ASU’s solar cell will extract far more energy from the highest-energy portion of the solar spectrum than today’s solar cells when used at high temperatures in the next generation of hybrid solar energy systems. Developing new hybrid solar systems that generate both electricity and dispatchable heat at the same time could provide clean domestic power at costs comparable to traditional sources, whether the sun is shining or not. Replacing energy systems powered by fossil fuels would provide an immediate decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, 40% of which come from electricity generation today. Cost-effective, dispatchable solar energy alternatives would stabilize electricity rates for consumers as the penetration of renewable energy increases in the coming years.
In quantum mechanics, bosons (, ) make up one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions. The name boson was coined by Paul Dirac to commemorate the contribution of the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose in developing, with Einstein, Bose–Einstein statistics—which theorizes the characteristics of elementary particles. Examples of bosons include fundamental particles such as photons, gluons, and W and Z bosons (the four force-carrying gauge bosons of the Standard Model), the Higgs boson, and the still-theoretical graviton of quantum gravity; composite particles (e.g. mesons and stable nuclei of even mass number such as deuterium (with one proton and one neutron, mass number = 2), helium-4, or lead-208[Note 1]); and some quasiparticles (e.g. Cooper pairs, plasmons, and phonons).:130 An important characteristic of bosons is that their statistics do not restrict the number of them that occupy the same quantum state. This property is exemplified by helium-4 when it is cooled to become a superfluid. Unlike bosons, two fermions cannot occupy the same quantum space. Whereas the elementary particles that make up matter (i.e. leptons and quarks) are fermions, the elementary bosons are force carriers that function as the 'glue' holding matter together. This property holds for all particles with integer spin (s = 0, 1, 2 etc.) as a consequence of the spin–statistics theorem. - Types 1 - Properties 2 - Elementary bosons 3 - Composite bosons 4 - To which states can bosons crowd? 5 - See also 6 - Notes 7 - References 8 While most bosons are composite particles, in the Standard Model there are five bosons which are elementary: Additionally, the graviton (G) is a hypothetical elementary particle not incorporated in the Standard Model. If it exists, a graviton must be a boson, and could conceivably be a gauge boson. Since bosons with the same energy can occupy the same place in space, bosons are often force carrier particles. Fermions are usually associated with matter (although in quantum physics the distinction between the two concepts is not clear cut). Bosons are particles which obey Bose–Einstein statistics: when one swaps two bosons (of the same species), the wavefunction of the system is unchanged. Fermions, on the other hand, obey Fermi–Dirac statistics and the Pauli exclusion principle: two fermions cannot occupy the same quantum state, resulting in a "rigidity" or "stiffness" of matter which includes fermions. Thus fermions are sometimes said to be the constituents of matter, while bosons are said to be the particles that transmit interactions (force carriers), or the constituents of radiation. The quantum fields of bosons are bosonic fields, obeying canonical commutation relations. The properties of lasers and masers, superfluid helium-4 and Bose–Einstein condensates are all consequences of statistics of bosons. Another result is that the spectrum of a photon gas in thermal equilibrium is a Planck spectrum, one example of which is black-body radiation; another is the thermal radiation of the opaque early Universe seen today as microwave background radiation. Interactions between elementary particles are called fundamental interactions. The fundamental interactions of virtual bosons with real particles result in all forces we know. All known elementary and composite particles are bosons or fermions, depending on their spin: particles with half-integer spin are fermions; particles with integer spin are bosons. In the framework of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, this is a purely empirical observation. However, in relativistic quantum field theory, the spin–statistics theorem shows that half-integer spin particles cannot be bosons and integer spin particles cannot be fermions. In large systems, the difference between bosonic and fermionic statistics is only apparent at large densities—when their wave functions overlap. At low densities, both types of statistics are well approximated by Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, which is described by classical mechanics. \|Standard Model of particle physics\| - Photons are the force carriers of the electromagnetic field. - W and Z bosons are the force carriers which mediate the weak force. - Gluons are the fundamental force carriers underlying the strong force. - Higgs Bosons give other particles mass via the Higgs mechanism. Their existence was confirmed by CERN on 14 March 2013. Finally, many approaches to quantum gravity postulate a force carrier for gravity, the graviton, which is a boson of spin plus or minus two. Composite particles (such as hadrons, nuclei, and atoms) can be bosons or fermions depending on their constituents. More precisely, because of the relation between spin and statistics, a particle containing an even number of fermions is a boson, since it has integer spin. Examples include the following: - Any meson, since mesons contain one quark and one antiquark. - The nucleus of a carbon-12 atom, which contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons. - The helium-4 atom, consisting of 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons. The number of bosons within a composite particle made up of simple particles bound with a potential has no effect on whether it is a boson or a fermion. To which states can bosons crowd? Bose–Einstein statistics encourages identical bosons to crowd into one quantum state, but not any state is necessarily convenient for it. Aside of statistics, bosons can interact – for example, helium-4 atoms are repulsed by intermolecular force on a very close approach, and if one hypothesize their condensation in a spatially-localized state, then gains from the statistics cannot overcome a prohibitive force potential. A spatially-delocalized state (i.e. with low \|ψ(x)\|) is preferable: if the number density of the condensate is about the same as in ordinary liquid or solid state, then the repulsive potential for the N-particle condensate in such state can be not higher than for a liquid or a crystalline lattice of the same N particles described without quantum statistics. Thus, Bose–Einstein statistics for a material particle is not a mechanism to bypass physical restrictions on the density of the corresponding substance, and superfluid liquid helium has the density comparable to the density of ordinary liquid matter. Spatially-delocalized states also permit for a low momentum according to uncertainty principle, hence for low kinetic energy; that's why superfluidity and superconductivity are usually observed in low temperatures. Photons do not interact with themselves and hence do not experience this difference in states where to crowd (see squeezed coherent state). Even-mass-number nuclides, which comprise 152/255 = ~ 60% of all stable nuclides, are bosons, i.e. they have integer spin. Almost all (148 of the 152) are even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides, which necessarily have spin 0 because of pairing. The remainder of the stable bosonic nuclides are 5 odd-proton, odd-neutron stable nuclides (see even and odd atomic nuclei#Odd proton, odd neutron); these odd–odd bosons are: 2 7N and 180m 73Ta). All have nonzero integer spin. - Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. entry "Boson" - "boson". Collins Dictionary. - Carroll, Sean (2007) Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe, Guidebook Part 2 p. 43, The Teaching Company, ISBN 1598033506 "...boson: A force-carrying particle, as opposed to a matter particle (fermion). Bosons can be piled on top of each other without limit. Examples include photons, gluons, gravitons, weak bosons, and the Higgs boson. The spin of a boson is always an integer, such as 0, 1, 2, and so on..." - Notes on Dirac's lecture Developments in Atomic Theory at Le Palais de la Découverte, 6 December 1945, UKNATARCHI Dirac Papers BW83/2/257889. See note 64 to p. 331 in "The Strangest Man" by Graham Farmelo - Daigle, Katy (10 July 2012). "India: Enough about Higgs, let's discuss the boson". - Bal, Hartosh Singh (19 September 2012). "The Bose in the Boson". - "Higgs boson: The poetry of subatomic particles". BBC News. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012. - Charles P. Poole, Jr. (11 March 2004). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Condensed Matter Physics. Academic Press. - "boson". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 21 March 2010. - Carroll, Sean. "Explain it in 60 seconds: Bosons". Symmetry Magazine. - Srednicki, Mark (2007). Quantum Field Theory, Cambridge University Press, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-0-521-86449-7. - Sakurai, J.J. (1994). Modern Quantum Mechanics (Revised Edition), p. 362. Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-53929-2.
Your team has been chosen to research one of the volcanoes listed below. The information you will uncover will be used to teach the world about one of the most majestic yet dangers landforms on Earth; the volcano. Your team will select a volcano, choose roles, conduct research, organize your information into a report and plan a presentation. Step 1: Chose one of the following volcanoes. Clicking on each volcano above will take you to the Global Volcanism Program and a brief biography of your volcano. Step 2: Chose your role. - Geologist- What makes your volcano tick? You are responsible for researching the make up of the volcano. What causes it to erupt? What types of eruptions does it have? What type of lava? Etc. - Ecologist- How has your volcano impacted the surrounding environment? You are responsible for researching how your volcano's eruptions have impacted the atmosphere, wildlife, human actiity, soil, etc. - Tour Guide- What makes your volcano unique? You are responsible for your volcano's biography. Where is it? How big is it? When has it erupted? Safety. etc.
Children need strong, healthy teeth to chew their food, speak and have a good-looking smile. What’s more, a good diet is essential for a child’s growth and development. Almost all foods, including milk or vegetables, have some type of sugar, which can contribute to tooth decay. To help control the amount of sugar your child consumes, always try to read food labels and choose foods and beverages that are low in added sugars. Also, select beverages, such as water, that hydrate and contribute to good nutrition. What to Eat: According to MyPlate, a website from the Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, an agency of U.S. Department of Agriculture, a balanced diet should include: - Fruits and vegetables. Combined these should be half of what your child eats every day. - Grains. Make sure at least half of their grains are whole grains, such as oatmeal, whole wheat bread, and brown rice. - Dairy. Choose low-fat or fat-free dairy foods. - Lean proteins. Make lean protein choices, such as lean beef, skinless poultry, and fish. Try to vary protein choices to include eggs, beans, peas, and legumes, too. Eat at least 8 oz. of seafood a week. In addition to a nutritious diet, snacking habits, bottles and pacifiers also impact your child’s oral health. Here are some tips to keep your child’s mouth healthy: - Place only formula, milk or breast milk in bottles. Avoid filling the bottle with liquids such as sugar water, juice or soft drinks. - Infants should finish their bedtime and naptime bottles before going to bed. - If your child uses a pacifier, provide one that is clean—don’t dip it in sugar or honey, or put it in your mouth before giving it to the child. - Encourage children to drink from a cup by their first birthday and discourage frequent or prolonged use of sippy cups. - Serve nutritious snacks and limit sweets to mealtimes.
Plant biology is exciting, so explore how plants mature from a tiny seedling into a full foliaged adult. Put horticulture in motion by trying it out in a fun (and tasty) project. From Seed to Plant Learning how plants grow is an important part of any gardener's education. The Germination Process Plants that reproduce via a seed do so in a process called germination. The embryo waits inside the seed (some plant embryos can wait for decades) until outside conditions begin to break down the seed's outer shell or testa A seed needs water and heat to germinate. Water assists the seed in breaking the seed coat, which in some cases can be very tough. Corn and morning glory seeds have a very tough seed coat and need to be soaked in water before they are planted. The seed begins to grow as it absorbs the moisture triggering the cells and enzymes within the seed to multiply. As the encased embryo turbo-charges metabolic processes, the seed is primed to release the first root structure (called the radical). Eventually, usually within a few days, the seedling bursts from its seed coat and will continue to grow both downward and upward. For example, parts of a bean seed include: - The "test/testa" is the outer husk or seed coat. - The "hilum" sits above the divot in the bean seed. The hilum attached the seed to the pod. - Water is absorbed into the seed (imbibed) through the micropyle. This structure is found above the hilum. The cotyledons, or first leaves, will be the first things you will see once the seedling has come out of the seed coat. Cotyledons are usually thicker leaves than the ones that will follow. The shoot of the plant may also be visible as the leaves start growing upward. Many plants, like corn and other grasses, are monocots - they only have a single cotyledon- the first food producing leaf. Bean and legumes have two of these, and are called dicots. Taproots and Roots As the shoot and cotyledons are pushing upwards, the taproot and smaller root hairs will also begin to grow. The proper soil, or water with the right nutrients, is necessary in order for the plant to continue growing. A plant can grow in most environments as long as it receives the proper nutrients required for growth. Plants can either grow in soil or in water (aquaculture). - The first root has a specialized root cap that helps it to push downward into the soil. When the embryo first emerged from the seed/testa it sent out a root called the radical. The radical began the growth process by digging into the soil. This first root takes in nutrition and water allowing the embryo to "take off" on a critical growth spurt. Lateral root hairs and thread-like structures emerge from the central stem root. The root hairs also conduct water and nutrition into the uptake system. - A plant root's center, the core or stele, are part of the circulation process. Inside are tubes that allow water and food to flow through the plant. For example, in the spring, sugar maple trees ramp up this circulation during warm days and cold nights. The liquid is called sap and this is what is collected to make maple syrup. Leaves and Flowers Once the roots have anchored the seedling, upwardly mobile growth begins. The plant has a firm footing and it is getting a ready amount of food and water - all of these will assist the building of the stalk (or stem) and the creation of adult leaves. The plant will continue to grow upward and outward as its cells multiply. New leaves will appear, as will flowers in many plants. As the plant grows, it will continue to need the proper nutrients from the soil and water as well as sunlight or the right artificial light. Plants in good health will eventually reach their full height and maturity, which is dependent upon their specific variety. Once a plant reaches maturity, it will reproduce. Plants can do this in a few different ways that do not necessarily involve a seed. Plants with a male and a female reproductive system are in the flowering plant category. This is called sexual reproduction in flowering plants. Some plants, are hermaphrodites (have both male and female reproductive systems - like roses), others require a separate male and female plant that are near each other (like holly bushes or sea buckthorn shrubs) to reproduce. Flowering plants (hermaphrodite and male/female species) produce their "seeds" in a variety of forms from nuts to pods and fruit to underground storage containers- like peanuts! Plants also reproduce, or are propagated, in the following ways: - Grafting two plants together - Some fruit trees, like apples, or flowering roses, will not produce a similar variety from the fruit's seed (hybrids). In order to grow another Honey Crisp, grafting is essential for the fruit to be true to the original hybrid. To do this, a budding stem is grafted or cut into the main branch of the host tree. Some roses are grafted to a standard root stock or stem. - Runners or stolons - As seen on the strawberry plant, these runners send down roots that will assist in the formation of a separate plant! - Adventitious buds - These buds are seen on the trunks of trees that have been cut down. - Suckers - This is seen on Elm trees, pears, apples, tomatoes and roses. - Bulbs - Plants like the onion, garlic and tulips reproduce by forming new bulbs. Egyptian/walking onions are masters of bulb reproduction. As the top bulb set matures, the weight causes the vertical stem to bend. The tiny onion bulbs rest on the soil and they soon begin to set root. A new walking onion begins to grow! - Corms - Gladiolas and crocuses reproduce by forming new corms. Gladiolas are easy to grow. Simply dig the corms up before winter, save the new corms, store in a cool, dark area and then reset the corms in the spring. - Tubers - Similar to bulbs, the dahlia and potato reproduce more tubers. The tuber is actually an enlarged stem. The potato is the king of the tubers. Potatoes grow from the eye that sits on the skin of the tuber. Each seed potato is cut into pieces - leaving an eye for each section. The piece is allowed to dry and then the seed potato is placed into the soil - eye side up. Corn Plant Project If you'd like to see for yourself how plants grow in a controlled environment, consider starting corn plants indoors. Corn loves warm soil to germinate and this can hamper folks living in cold areas from getting a good early crop. Forcing corn seeds a few weeks before outdoor planting begins is a great way to be the first to get tassling in your neck of the woods. - Several corn (Zea mays) seeds, any variety (popcorn, sweet, ornamental) - A clear plastic egg carton - Seed starter mix - A well-lit and warm place for germination - Fill each of the egg cups 3/4 full with seed starter soil. Soak the corn seeds in tap water for a few hours. - Plant the seeds in about a half-inch of the dampened soil mix. You will be able to see the corn kernel, or part of it, through the side of the container. - Water the soil so that it is moist, not drenched. - Place the container in a warm, sunny window and wait for the seeds to germinate. In a few days, you should be able to observe the corn seeds begin to germinate and shed their seed coats. The coleoptile (sheath covering the first leaves and stalks of grasses) will be visible as well as the beginnings of the shoot and taproot. The plant will continue to grow and you'll be able to watch the plant reach for the sunlight (phototropism). The taproot and root hairs will also continue to grow, pushing further into the soil in search of water. With a degree of care, tease a corn seedling from the dirt. You can look at the root formation by gently swishing the seedling in a bowl of water to loosen the soil. The corn can then be planted immediately in the garden - do not allow the seedling to dry out. Transplant the Corn Carefully transplant the corn seedlings outdoors. Corn does not like to be transplanted or disturbed, so be extra gentle while transferring the seedling into the tilled soil. When your germination experiment reaches the reproduction phase (corn are hermaphrodites), those familiar tassels appear at the top of the stalk. Corn are pollinated by the wind! The tassel drops pollen onto the silk atop each ear. Every silk will form the seed called a kernel. Enjoy those kernels when the tassels turn brown and the ear is plump. Use the fascinating process of plant reproduction in your yard. Gardening is a lifelong hobby that feeds the body and invigorates the mind.
1. Be encouraged to recognize and name Pets: cat, dog, horse. 2. To form ability to allocate their characteristics: the head – ears, the fur soft and fluffy, long tail. 3. Create the desire to play with them, talk about them and name the basic parts of the body. 4. To enrich the children's vocabulary by words: coat, mane, bone, milk, grass. 5. To enhance the children's vocabulary through words: cat, dog, horse, barks, meows. Toys – cat, dog, horse; images of animals (cats, dogs, horses) for display on the flannel-graph; a treat for animal-dummies: a bowl with milk, bone, grass; Mat - river. Children come into the group. - Guys, look at how many guests came to us. Say Hello to the guests. Guests to the baby came (song). - Oh, but where are the guests? Maybe they decided with the children to play hide and seek. - Let them look for it? (Children along with a caregiver walking group). And no under shelf, And on the shelf there. And under the chair there, And on the chair there. Moving down the group, the children find a dog. Look, Yes this is dog. - Who is it? - As a barking dog? The teacher invites the children to bark like a dog in the beginning loudly, then softly. - Here is our faithful Mongrel dog, Black nose, a ring tail. - Guys, what about dogs? (tail, eyes, paws, fur hard) . - What dog can do? (to bark, to run, to lie, to gnaw a bone) . - Doggy, come play with us. Is mobile game with a dog: we've got a dog, With the children playing. Very loud barks Escapes from children. Children chasing a dog, catching up with her. The dog sits at the table, offer a treat. (bone). Who else came to us? The teacher moves through the group, looking for along with children. - On the sofa Under the sofa there. - On the cot there, under the bed there. - Whose tail sticks out at the window? Riddle: Maintenka, ustanicka, There is drinking, singing songs. (female) - Yes, it's a cat. - Guys, let's pet the kitty. - Her fur is soft, smooth, fluffy. - Show me where the cat ears, nose, tail, paws-scratchy? - What is it? (ears, nose, tail, paws-scratchy) . - Meows like a cat? (meow). Song: fair-haired kitty Sat by the window. - As she beckoned the children? (meow) - And who are kids kitties? (the kittens). - But come on, you will now not guys, but little kittens. As our cat Backless hollow out The tail wags And they are on their feet I love to wash Paw ears to scratch And belly lick Lay down on the flank And curled up in a ball And then bent backrest Ran away from the basket. (Children run away from a cat) . - Played, and now you are kittens, and kids. Put the kitty at the table and treat. - Clop, clop, clop (educator). Who's hoof knocking? (heard hoofbeats). - Who is it? (horse) . - Screams like a horse? (and a-go-go) -And the pounding hooves? (clop-clop-clop) - I love my horse But I know it is a horse Comb sleek ponytail And the top will go to visit. "You're not guys, and fast horses. - Hey, horse, follow me! Hurry to drink. Here the wide river, It cool water. Hey, horses, follow me, Jumped all over the home. Children jumping on seats. You are no longer horses, and cute guys. -Now let's remember who came to visit us (dog, cat, horse). - Guys, than we were treated to a dog (bone). Like a dog told us thank you? (AV-AV). - Kitty? (milk) (meow-meow) . - The horse? (grass) (and a-go-go) . -That's what wonderful guests we had today.
The crape myrtle bark scale ( Acanthococcus ) is a recently introduced pest from Asia that initially infested crape myrtles (Lagerstroemia spp.) in Texas during 2004. Since then, it has spread rapidly through the movement of plant material. The pest is currently in 12 states: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia lagerstroemiae and Washington. It is one of the only scales known to infest crape myrtles. The Facts About Crape Myrtle Bark Scale Common name: Crape myrtle bark scale (CMBS) Scientific name: Acanthococcus (Kuwana), formerly lagerstroemiae Eriococcus lagerstroemiae Kuwana Description: CMBS is relatively easy to identify. Adult females are felt-like white or gray encrustations that stick to crape myrtle parts ranging from small twigs to large trunks. When crushed, these scales exude pink liquid. On new growth and in heavy infestations, the scales may be distributed more uniformly on the branch. Up close, CMBS is white to gray and about 2 mm long. Crape myrtle bark scales may aggregate toward the undersides of young horizontal branches instead of the parts exposed to the sun. CMBS causes extensive honeydew deposits and the growth of black sooty mold. The crawlers are pink, very small, and may not be noticed without a hand lens. Life cycle: The small CMBS males are winged and will fly to find females and to mate. Once the females lay eggs, they die. The eggs remain protected within the white colored ovisacs until the crawlers (immatures) hatch and disperse onto the branches. Each female lays about 60 to 250 eggs, which may overwinter within their ovisacs, and then hatch during mid- to late-April to May. A second peak in crawler activity occurs in late summer. These mobile crawlers move out to new twigs and branches to settle down and begin feeding on the sugary phloem layer beneath the bark. Damage: Crape myrtles suffer aesthetic damage because of the CMBS infestations. These bark scales may not kill the plants, but there may likely be a reduction in plant vigor, number of flowers, and flower cluster size. Infested plants typically leaf out later than healthy plants. Branches and trunks can be covered in the white scale infestation. Another striking symptom is the extensive amount of black sooty mold that may completely cover the foliage, branches, and trunks. However, do not confuse the honeydew and resulting black sooty mold caused by an aphid infestation with that caused by the crape myrtle bark scale. Control: The most effective chemical control is a soil drench with either imidacloprid or dinotefuran. These systemic insecticides will move up into the plants and give control for at least a year. They are most effectively applied in spring as new plant growth begins. Sprays for crawlers are best applied in the late April and May, then again in late summer when immatures appear. Use a bifenthrin spray mixed with 2% horticultural oil. Double-sided sticky tape wrapped around small branches can be used to trap the crawlers to see when they hatch and to base the timing of additional contact insecticide applications. Natural predators may take a while to build up in numbers, but both lady beetles and mealybug destroyers are effective in controlling CMBS.
Non-Instrument Weather Forecasting Before the invention of modern weather instruments, seafarers relied on observations of nature to predict weather; today, while weather station and buoy reports, National Weather Service forecasts, and satellite photos are excellent sources of weather information, a mariner should also understand seasonal weather patterns and be able to read signs in the environment both before and during a trip: the wind, sea state, clouds, appearance of celestial bodies, smells, and animal behavior contain clues to current and approaching weather. The art of non-instrument weather forecasting can be used to confirm weather reports or to predict weather when instruments and reports are not available. The appearance and movement of clouds are used to forecast weather. Photo by Sam Low Basic to any observation of weather for sailing is knowing the direction and strength of the wind. Face the wind: when the pressure is even on both cheeks and ears, you are looking directly at the wind. You can tell direction also by watching in which direction the clouds are moving, the leaves of the trees are streaming, or the ripples on the ocean are running. Wind strength can be determined by feeling the wind, by watching the speed of clouds or the bend of trees and branches, and by observing the sea state (See "Wind Speed Tables" on what signs indicate what wind velocity.) But remember: the wind on land is affected by the land and may not be from the same direction or of the same strength as the wind at sea; you must be able to observe the sea or get a report from a vessel or buoy at sea to get an accurate reading of conditions at sea. Also, when you are on a moving vessel at sea, the true wind is different from the apparent wind: the apparent wind (the wind you feel) is a combination of the true wind, plus the wind your vessel is creating by moving. Knowing the direction of winds around high and low pressures systems can help a mariner understand wind patterns. The winds around high pressure systems move clockwise and outwards in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise and outwards in the southern hemisphere.The winds around low pressure systems move counterclockwise and inwards in the northern hemisphere and clockwise and inwards in the southern hemisphere. In Hawai'i the prevailing ENE wind, called Moa'e or A'eloa, is generated by a high pressure system that is generally located to the N or NE of the islands. Hawai'i is situated toward the bottom edge of this system (called the North Pacific High), where the clockwise winds are blowing easterly. These so-called trade winds average about 14 knots, but may gust well over gale force, particularly when they are funneled through channels or mountain gaps. Wind strength is determined by (1) the strength of the high pressure; and (2) the steepness of the pressure gradient (the closer together the isobar lines are, the steeper the pressure gradient). The greater the pressure and the steeper the pressure gradient, the stronger the winds. The trade winds are the steadiest during the summer months, from May to September; during the winter months, the high pressure systems moves farther to the east, and the trade winds weaken, from October to April; however, migratory highs can bring strong and gusty easterlies during these months: "Winter months have the strongest trade wind episodes because of the passages north of the Islands by these highs but the average wind speeds do not reflect this-the average wind speed in summer is higher than that of winter in Hawaiian waters" (Haraguchi 12). When the high is centered directly over the islands, winds become light and variable. "The area under the center has light winds and low-height clouds with little precipitation outward to within about 300 miles of the center" (Haraguchi 12). Shifts in wind direction may indicate changes in weather. As low pressure systems travel from west to east, pushed along by the jet stream north of Hawai'i, or when low pressure systems form west of Hawai'i, the prevailing winds may shift southerly. Low pressure systems that remain stationary to the west of the islands bring warm, humid air from the south, and we experience a period of mugginess called Kona weather. As low pressure systems pass north of Hawai'i, cold fronts (cold air wedging under warm air) may sweep over the islands. At the leading edge of a cold front, the winds are southwesterly; rain and blustery winds often accompany these fronts. As the cold front passes, northerly winds fill in behind it, bringing dry cold air. As the cold front moves away from the islands to the east, the ENE trades may return. Ocean Surface-Swells, Seas, Currents Navigator Nainoa Thompson explains the difference between swells and seas, or locally-generated waves: "Swells are big waves generated by pressure systems far beyond the horizon, and they maintain their direction for long periods of time [and travel in the general direction of the winds generating them]. Seas are generated by local winds. Seas generally come downwind, but they may vary by as much as 30° on either side of the wind. When the wind changes, the seas become more of a mish-mash" (Kyselka 167-8). The height of swells depends on the strength of the wind generating them (velocity), the distance over which the wind is blowing (fetch), and the duration of the wind (time). Given a particular wind velocity, swells grow to a maximum size as the fetch and duration increase; they may persist for several days. "A 20-knot wind might make waves of some 6 to 8 feet ('significant wave height,' meaning the average height of the highest one-third of all the waves), if the wind blows for a day or so, over a distance of about 100 miles" (Burch 36). A diminishing swell indicates the wind generating it is diminishing. The farther away the wind generating the swell, the rounder the swells will appear, and the greater the distance between the swells. A 7-8 second interval between swells indicates a well-established wind pattern far off. Shorter intervals and steeper swells indicate that the wind system is closer. Major swells in Hawaiian waters include an ENE Swell generated by the trades; a North Swell, generated by winter storms in the North Pacific; and a South Swell, generated by southern hemisphere winter storms (bringing summer surf to the northern hemisphere). While not directly related to weather, currents affect the sea state: "A strong current flowing against the wind causes an enhanced chop and steepness to the seas, whereas a current flowing with the wind diminishes the seas just as dramatically. To recognize the effect, however, requires some experience at sea, since you must be able to conclude that the seas are not consistent with the wind" (Burch 132). Grimble notes that navigators in the Gilbert Island observe the ocean surface to determine the strength of currents before departure: "Before setting sail in the fair weather season, a Gilbertese mariner will sometimes spend several days in looking at the sea. If it is streaked in places with calm patches of an oily appearance he will refuse to start until these disappear, for they speak to him of strong currents" (238). David Seidman writes, "Clouds are the harbingers of weather. Their shape, height, color, and sequence foretell coming events." "High clouds are associated with the upper atmosphere and distant weather systems up to six hours away. If they are wispy and white, the weather will be fine. Lower clouds relate to the current weather or that which is soon to come. If they are dense and dark, change is imminent, usually for the worse. Notice if clouds are lowering or lifting, and if they are gathering or dispersing. Lowering or gathering usually brings wet weather. Lifting or dispersing means the weather will improve. A cloud's color seems obvious: the darker, the more dangerous. And a sharp-edged dark cloud is the most dangerous of all. In shape, flat clouds are characteristic of stable air, while lumpy, well-rounded clouds live in unstable air" (166). Satawal navigator Mau Piailug desribes how to read an approaching squall or squall line: "If the rain cloud is black, the wind isn't strong. If the cloud is brown, the wind is probably strong. If the cloud is high, there's not much wind, but maybe a lot of rain. If it's low, probably lots of wind. [As the clouds approach, if the ocean surface beneath the clouds] is black, you know it is a real strong wind. If it's the same color as the ocean near you, then it is not a strong wind. If the water is bumpy [beneath the cloud]you know there's a strong wind" (Kyselka 145). Dark, "bumpy" water (i.e., water full of ripples and small waves, which create shadows) is a sign of a strong local gust of wind; to anticipate such gusts, an experienced sailor watches for dark patches of water moving across the ocean surface. When the sun is relatively low on the horizon (e.g. in the afternoon), the ripples caused by a local gust may reflect sunlight and the patches of wind glitter with light. The following classification of clouds and information about the significance of types of clouds are from Weather for the Mariner by William J. Kotsch. Meteorologists classify clouds by the heights at which they appear: high clouds (above 18,000 feet); middle clouds (7,000 feet to 18,000 feet); low clouds (from near ground up to 7,000 feet). Some words and roots used in naming clouds include: cumulus ("to heap up"; dense, sharply outlined clouds with high vertical development, usually rising domes or towers, with the upper part looking like a cauliflower); stratus ("spread"; cloud layers, with spread horizontally); nimbus ("rain-producing"); alto ("high"; used to refer to middle or high clouds, as opposed to low clouds); cirri, cirro, cirrus ("curl of hair," wispy high clouds). (Drawing from William Crawford's Mariner's Weather. New York: Norton, 1992.) Cirrus: "detached wisps of hair-like (fibrous) clouds, formed of delicate filament patches, or narrow bands"; "Cirrus clouds that are scattered and are not increasing have little weather meaning except to signify that any bad weather is at a great distance. Cirrus clouds in thick patches mean that showery weather is close by. These clouds are associated with, and formed from the tops of thunderstorms. Cirrus clouds shaped like hooks or commas indicate that a warm weather front is approaching, and that continuous-type rain will follow-especially if the cirrus is followed by cirrostratus." Cirrostratus: "transparent, whitish clouds that look like fine veils or torn, wind-blown patches of gauze"; "when in a continuous sheet and increasing, [cirrostratus] signify the approach of a warm weather front with attendant rain and stormy conditions. If these clouds are not increasing and are not continuous, this means that the storm is passing to the south of you and no bad weather will occur at your location." Cirrocumulus: "thin, white, grainy, and ripped patches, sheets, or layers showing very slight vertical development in the form of turrets and shallow towers. When these clouds are arranged uniformly in ripples, they form what seafaring men call a mackerel sky"; "quite rare and of mixed significance. In some areas, these clouds foretell good weather; in others, bad weather." Altostratus: "grayish layers of clouds usually uniform in appearance and cover part, or all, of the sky"; among the most reliable weather indicators of all the clouds. They are indicative of warm air flowing up over colder air and impending rain or snow of the continuous type, especially if the cloud layer progresses and thickens. These clouds are a good indication of a new storm development at sea with poor visibility, large waves, and heavy swell." Altocumulus: "extensive 'cloudlets' arranged in a regular pattern"; "significant primarily when they are followed by thicker high clouds or cumuliform low clouds. When they are in parallel bands, these clouds are in advance of a warm front with its associated steady rain or snow. When altocumulus clouds occur in the form of turrets rising from a common flat base, they are usually the forerunner of heavy showers or thunderstorms." Nimbostratus: These rain clouds are "low, amorphous, dark and usually quite uniform"; they are of "little help as a forecasting tool, since the bad weather is already at hand when these dark clouds with their associated heavy rain are overhead. But if they are at some distance from you, and you have a report that they are coming your way, you know bad weather, high winds, and hazardous sea conditions (for small boats) will persist for many hours." Stratus: "low, gray cloud layers with rather uniform bases and tops . Only a fine drizzle falls from true stratus clouds because there is little or no vertical motion in them"; "Stratus clouds do not signify much danger. If the wind speed should decrease markedly when stratus clouds are present in a large quantity, the base of the cloud could lower to the earth's [or ocean's] surface, resulting in a thick fog." Stratocumulus: "gray or whitish irregular layers of clouds with dark patches formed like rolls. These clouds look like altocumulus clouds, but they are at a much lower level. These clouds do not, as a rule, produce anything but light rain or snow"; stratocumulus clouds "form from degenerating cumulus clouds," and "are usually followed by clearing at night and fair weather . Visibility, however, can be seriously reduced in stratocumulus drizzle or snow." Cumulus: "puffy, cauliflower-like clouds whose shapes constantly change brilliant white in the sunlight, often extending from a relatively dark and horizontal base"; "when detached and with little vertical development [the] weather is fine, and nothing hazardous is in the offing. However, when cumulus clouds swell to considerable vertical extent, heavy showers are likely, associated with gusty surface winds in the vicinity of the showers. Since these clouds normally cover about 25 percent of the sky, they can often be circumnavigated." Cumulonimbus: "heavy dense clouds of considerable vertical extent (often to 45,000 feet and higher) in the form of a mountain or huge tower. These clouds are the familiar thunderheads. The upper part of these clouds is usually smooth, sometimes fibrous, with the top flattened to an anvil shape or a vast cirrus plume"; "very gusty surface winds in the vicinity of the thunderstorm, heavy rain, lightning, frequently hail, and in general, a bad time can be expected in the immediate vicinity of these clouds. a tornado or waterspout could possibly develop." Readings Clouds and Sea States: During Hokule'a's voyage from Tahiti to Hawai'i in February, 2000, documentor Sam Low photographed clouds and sea state and recorded navigator Nainoa Thompson's readings of them: (1) February 11; (2) February 14; (3) February 15; (4) February 20 Color in the Atmophere Red skies at sunrise or sunset indicate humidity in the air. As raindrops form, the water particles scatter the short-wavelength blue light so that only the long-wavelength red light reaches the observer (Freier 32, 96-96). The observer needs to know which way the weather is coming from, though, east or west, to read this sign. If the eastern sky is red at dawn, and the weather is coming from the east (i.e., on the trade winds), then the red sky could indicate rain or stormy weather is approaching; if the weather is moving from west to east, then red skies at dawn indicate that the bad weather has past. Light Around Celestial Bodies "A halo around the moon is another sign of rain. The halo is caused by the moon shining through ice crystals of moisture-laden clouds. If the halo is a tight fit, rain is still far off. If the halo forms a large ring, rain is near. If the clouds close in and the moon loses its outline, rain can be expected in about ten hours. The same is true with the sun" (Seidman 167). Navigators in the Gilbert Islands count stars in the halo around the moon: "if [the moon] had a halo in which more than ten stars could be counted, there would perhaps be rain, but not a great downpour; if fewer than ten stars were visible there would be much rain and probably wind. "If, again, the moon had a double halo, the inner one reddish brown in colour, it promised a torrent on the wings of a gale" (Grimble 237-8). The appearance of stars is also a clue to weather-twinkling indicates that the atmosphere is unstable and turbulent, a sign of stormy weather. (Freier 54-55) When the dark side of the moon can be seen, the air is usually clear and stable in the direction of the moon, hence a sign of good weather if the weather is coming from that direction (Freier 55). Rising humidity and increasing moisture in the air (accompanying dropping air pressure) enhances smells. Particles of odor become "hydrated"(wet) and cling more easily to the olfactory membranes in the nose. Thus stronger smells may be a sign of rain or stormy weather approaching (Freier 29). Hawaiian proverbs suggests that observations of the flights of seabirds were used to predict weather; generally birds and other animals hunt for food in good weather and seek shelter from stormy weather: Lele ka 'iwa, malie kai ko'o: "When the 'iwa [frigate bird] flies [out to sea], the rough sea will be calm." (Pukui 'Olelo No'eau, No. 1979) 'Olelo ke kupa o ka 'aina ua malie; ua au koa'e: "The natives of the land declare that the weather is calm when the tropic bird travels afar." (Pukui 'Olelo No'eau, No. 2498) Ua ho'i ka noio 'au kai i uka, ke 'ino nei ka moana: "When the noio bird returns from sea to land, the sea will be stormy." (Pukui 'Olelo No'eau, No. 2787) A western proverb suggests, "Porpoises in a harbor, expect a storm." Freier explains "These animals need to come to the surface to breathe. Apparently this is more difficult in rough water" (122). Emma Kauhi remembers that when she was growing up in Kapa'ahu, Puna, on the Big Island, she was told, "Ina 'au ka nai'a ma Hilo, 'a, e malie ana ke kai. Ke 'au ka nai'a ma Ka'u, 'a, e 'ino'ino ana ka moana: "If dolphins swim toward Hilo, the sea will be calm; if the dolphins swim toward Ka'u, the ocean will be rough" (61). The proverb suggests a sheltered sea toward Ka'u. Navigators in the Gilbert Islands also use observations of animals to predict weather: "When a voyage had to be made during the bad season, the navigator knew several weather signs to help him choose his day. He would watch the small red ants which infest most houses: if they were returning in numbers to their nests, laden with food, and were blocking up their doors with particles of sand, foul weather was impending; but if they swarmed out, leaving their doors wide open, it promised good weather. "The spider was another prophet: when the weather was set fair he would stay in the middle of his web; but if wind and rain threatened, he would retire to something more solid." "But the most reliable barometer in the opinion of the Gilbertese navigator was (and still is) the shellfish nimatanin (Nerita plicata). This is found in the shallows on the reef by the ocean beaches of the islands. When fair weather promises, it remains on the surface of the rock, and if it is found thus in any great numbers there is every hope of a long fine spell; but if the creature remains in the crevices of the reef, it is an infallible sign of heavy weather, and the deeper it hides itself the worse will be conditions for sailing" (237-8). Hawaiian Traditions of Weather Prediction Paka'a, who served as ho'okele-wa'a, or navigator, for Keawenui-a-'umi, a ruling ali'i of the Big Island during the 16th century, was famous for his ability to read the signs of the sky to predict weather and winds. In a 19th century account of his life, Samuel Kamakau describes Paka'a's ability to read weather signs: "Paka'a was trained to read signs (kilokilo) and knew how to manage a canoe in the ocean, out of sight of land. He knew how to tell when the sea would be calm, when there would be a tempest in the ocean, and when there would be great billows. He observed the stars, the rainbow colors at the edges of the stars, the way they twinkled, their red glowing, the dimming of the stars in a storm, the reddish rim on the clouds, the way in which they move, the lowering of the sky, the heavy cloudiness, the gales, the blowing of the ho'olua wind, the a'e wind from below, the whirlwind, and the towering billows of the sea" (Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i 36). Another account of Paka'a depicts him as not only able to predict weather, but to control winds with a gourd containing all the winds of Hawai'i, which Paka'a called forth by name. (For chants containing the dozens of wind names of each island, see Moses K. Nakuina's Moolelo o Paka'a a me Ku-a-paka'a, or the English translation of Nakuina's work, The Wind Gourd of La'amaomao by Esther T. Mookini and Sarah Nakoa; or a shorter version of the Paka'a legend accompanied by an English translation, in the Fornander collection, Vol. 4, 72-135). In Nakuina's story, Paka'a is given the wind gourd by his mother, who received it from her grandmother La'amaomao, the Hawaiian wind goddess. (In other Hawaiian traditions, La'amaomao is said to be a god rather than a goddess; he came to Hawai'i with the voyaging chief Mo'ikeha, and settled at Hale-o-Lono, Moloka'i). The notion of a wind gourd is traditionally Polynesian: "In Mangaia of the Cook [Islands], the high priest possessed a magic calabash, a miniature universe, which had holes bored in a circle at equal distances around its middle, representing the openings on the horizon through which the thirty-two winds of the compass were supposed to blow. When a voyage was contemplated to a distant island the priest was induced to stop up all the holes in the calabash except the one at the particular point of the compass from which the prospective travelers desired the wind to blow for the speedy consummation of the voyage" (Makemson 147). Lewis quotes Gill about the importance of knowledge of the winds: "'In olden times, great stress was laid on this knowledge for the purpose of fishing, and especially for their long sea voyages from group to group. At the edge of the horizon are a series of holes through which Raka, the god of winds, and his children, love to blow'" (75). David Malo, in Hawaiian Antiquities (12-13), gives the following classification of Hawaiian cloud names and their signficance: "The clouds, objects of importance in the sky, were named for their colors. A black cloud was termed 'ele'ele; if blue-black, it was called uliuli; if glossy black hiwahiwa or polo-hiwa. Another name for such a cloud was panopano [Pukui-Elbert: "thick clouds"; PE also lists ao lalahiwa, "dark clouds," and ao kokoli'i, "thick, black clouds; Andrews gives ao pouli, "dark clouds"] "A white cloud was called ke'oke'o, or kea. [Another name for a white cloud was ao 'opiopio.] If a cloud had a greenish tinge, it was termed maomao; if a yellowish tinge, lena. A red cloud was termed ao 'ula or kiawe 'ula [PE: "faint streaks of red in a cloud"] or 'onohi-'ula, red eye-ball [PE: ao 'onohi-"cloud with rainbow colors," and -'onohi 'ula-"clouds with red hues of a rainbow."] "If a cloud hung low in the sky, it was termed ho'o-lewa-lewa ["suspended"], or the term ho'o-pehupehu, "swollen," was applied to it. [PE: ao ho'opehupehu-billowy, swollen clouds; cumulus clouds]. A sheltering cloud was called ho'o-malumalu; ["darkened," "shady"]; a thick black cloud was called ho'o-kokoli'i; a threatening cloud was called ho'o-weli-weli. "Clouds were also named according to their character. If a cloud was narrow and long, hanging low in the horizon, it was termed 'opua, a bunch or cluster. There were many kinds of 'opua, each being named according to its appearance. If the leaves [lau] of the 'opua are slanting downward [hina], it might indicate wind or storm, but if the leaves [lau] were upright [kupono], calm weather. If the cloud was yellowish and hung low in the horizon it was called newe-newe, "plump," [PE: "full, billowy"] and was a sign of very calm weather. [PE: 'opua or kaupua: "cumulus clouds; puffy clouds as banked up near the horizon"]." [In Kona, on the west side of Hawai'i Island, the appearance of 'opua over the ocean to the west was a promise of rain: Mama Kona i ka wai kau mai i ka maka o ka 'opua: "Kona is relieved, knowing that there will be no drought, when the clouds promise rain." (Pukui 'Olelo, No. 2134). [Two other proverbs link 'opua to rain: Aia ka wai i ka maka o ka 'opua: "Water is in the face of the 'opua" (Pukui 'Olelo, No. 55); Ola i ka wai a ka 'opua: "There is life in the water from the 'opua" (Pukui 'Olelo, No. 2483).] "If the sky at the west horizon was blue-black, uli-uli, at sunset, it was said to be pa-uli ["gloomy"] and was regarded as prognosticating a high surf, kai-ko'o. If there was an opening in the cloud, like the jaw of the au (swordfish), it was called 'ena and was considered a sign of rain. "When the clouds at the eastern heavens were red in patches before sunrise, it was called kahea ("a call, alarm") and was a sign of rain. [PE gives this cloud name as kaha'ea-"cumulus clouds, often colored and thought to be a sign of rain."] If the cloud lay smooth over the mountains in the morning, it was termed papala [PE-"haze, fog"] and foretokened rain. It was also a sign of rain when the mountains were shut in with blue-black clouds, and this appearance was termed palamoa [PE: palamoa: "thick, dense, as clouds"]. There were many other signs that betokened rain. "If the sky was entirely overcast, with almost no wind, it was said to be po'i-pu (shut up), or ho'o-ha-ha [PE: "overcast, calm"], or ho'o-lu-luhi [PE: "overcast, threatening"]; and if the wind started up, the expression ho'o-ka-ka'a, "a rolling together," was used. If the sky was shut in with thick, heavy clouds, it was termed hakuma; and if the clouds that covered the sky were exceedingly black, it was thought that Kulani-ha-ko'i [a lake in the sky] was in them, the place whence came thunder, lightning, wind, rain, violent storms. "When it rained, if it was with wind, thunder, lightning and perhaps a rainbow, the rain storm would probably be a prolonged storm. When the western heavens are red at sunset, the appearance is termed aka-'ula (red shadow or glow) and it was looked upon as a sign that the rain will clear up." The Pukui-Elbert dictionary contains the following additional cloud names (compiled by Nalani Minton): - 'ala'apapa: long cloud formation (stratus) - ao ku: rain clouds, mist - ao loa: long cloud; high or distant cloud; stratus cloud along the horizon - ao nui-ho'olaholaho: broad mass of clouds extending over a great space [from Andrews] - ao poko: short cloud (cumulus) - ao pua'a: banks of clouds often gathered over a mountain summit; a sign of rain (altocumulus) - 'ilio 'ehu: dog-shaped cloud with a ruddy tint - 'ilio mea: reddish dog-shaped cloud - 'ilio uli: dark, dog-shaped cloud - ka'apeha: a large mass of clouds - kaha'ea: cumulus clouds, often colored, thought to be a sign of rain - kia ao: cloud pillar (cumulonimbus?) - ki'ikau: drifting clouds of different colors, including black and white - ko'i'ula: rainbow-hued rain, mist, or cloud - 'ohu: mist, fog, vapor, light cloud on a mountain - pae ki'i: row of clouds on the horizon - popuaki'i: clusters of cloud banks A proverb notes the weather significance of the ao pua'a: Kaka'i ka puapua'a i ka malie, he 'ino: "When the piglets follow one after another in the calm, bad weather is coming" (When the clouds called ao puapua'a or pua'a "pig" clouds, follow one after the other on the mountaintops in calm weather, bad weather is to be expected.) (Pukui 'Olelo, No. 1416). (The ao pua'a are apparently altocumulus clouds. See a decsription of this cloud and its weather significance under "Clouds"). Some Comments by European Explorers Concerning Polynesian Traditions of Weather Prediction Andia y Varela made the following observation of Tahitian weather predicting skills: "What took me most in two [Tahitians] whom I carried from [Tahiti] to [Ra'iatea, 160 miles away] was that every evening or night, they told me, or prognosticated, the weather we should experience on the following day, as to wind, calms, rainfall, sunshine, sea, and other points, about which they never turned out to be wrong: a foreknowledge worthy to be envied, for, in spite of all that our navigators and cosmographers have observed and written about the subject, they have not mastered this accomplishment (Corney 286-287). Oliver notes: "For sailors and fishermen, livelihood and even survival sometimes depended upon ability to predict the weather, a skill which, some observers such as Banks claimed, the Maohis had in considerable measure: 'The people excell much in predicting the weather, a circumstance of great use to them in their short voyages from Island to Island. They have many various ways of doing this but one only that I know of which I never heard of being practised by Europeans, that is foretelling the quarter of the heavens from whence the wind shall blow by observing the Milky Way, which is generally bent in an arch either one way or the other: this arch they conceive as already acted upon by the wind, which is the cause of its curving, and say that if the same curve continues a whole night the wind predicted by it seldom fails to come some time in the next day; and in this as well as their other predictions we found them indeed not infallible but far more clever than Europeans.' "Banks' high opinion of Maohi weather prediction was not, however, shared by Cook, who, after describing the more common local changes in wind direction and velocity, wrote,'The natives seem not to have a very accurate knowledge of these changes'." Bibliography--Predicting Winds and Weather Andrews, Lorrin. A Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1974. (First published in 1965.) Burch, David. Emergency Navigation. Camden Maine: International Marine, 1986. Corney, B.G. (ed.), The Quest and Occupation of Tahiti by Emissaries of Spain during the Years 1772-6 (3 vols.), London: Hakluyt Society, 1913-1919, Vol. II, 284-287). Crawford, William. Mariner's Weather. New York: Norton, 1992. Freier, George D. Weather Proverbs. Tuscon: Fisher Books, 1992. Grimble, Rosemary, ed. Migrations, Myths, and Magic from the Gilbert Island: Early Writing of Sir Arthur Grimble. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972. Haraguchi, Paul. Weather in Hawaiian Waters. Honolulu: Pacific Weather Inc. 1979. Kamakau, Samuel M. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools, 1961. Kauhi, Emma. He Mo'olelo no Kapa'ahu, the Story of Kapa'ahu. Honoulu: n.p., 1996. Kotsch, William J. Weather for the Mariner (3rd edition), Annapolis: The Naval Institute Press, 1963. Kyselka, Will. An Ocean in Mind. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987. Lewis, David. We, the Navigators. Honolulu: UH Press, 1973. Makemson, Maud W. The Morning Star Rises. New Haven: Yale University Press 1941. Malo, David. Hawaiian Antiquities. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1951. Nakuina, Moses K. The Wind Gourd of La'amaomao. Trans. by Esther T. Mookini and Sarah Nakoa. Honoloulu: Kalamaku, 1992. Oliver, Douglas L. Ancient Tahitian Society. Honolulu: UH Press, 1974. Pukui, Mary Kawena.'Olelo No'eau: Hawaiian Proverbs and Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1983. Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Samuel H. Elbert. Hawaiian Dictionary. Honolulu: UH Press, 1986. Sanderson, Marie, ed. Prevailing Trade Winds: Weather and Climate in Hawai'i. Honolulu: UH Press, 1993. Seidman, David. The Complete Sailor: Learning the Art of Sailing. Camden, Maine: International Marine, 1994. Related Websites (Weather and Meteorology) Jet Stream: NOAA Online School for Weather Weather Symbols: http://weather.noaa.gov/pub/fax/PLBZ08.gif University of Hawai‘i Department of Meteorology: http://weather.hawaii.edu/current/hawwx.cgi?banner=uhmet NOAA NWS Forecast Office/ Hawaiian Marine Products: http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/pages/marine.php NWS Honolulu weather: http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/ NOAA NWS Internet Weather Service: http://weather.noaa.gov/index.html NOAA/NWS Ocean Prediction Center: http://www.opc.ncep.noaa.gov/index.shtml Navy Fleet Numerical Meteorological and Oceanography Center: https://www.fnmoc.navy.mil/public/
At Unsworth Primary we believe in providing children with a range of different opportunities to write across the curriculum. Within our English lessons we aim to teach children the necessary skills to become confident and fluent writers. When children enter our Reception class they begin their writing journey, starting to learn how to write individual letters and words, which turn into captions and sentences as the year progresses. By the end of KS1, children are writing their own full texts, developing a continuous cursive style of handwriting and starting to select precise vocabulary to interest the reader. Across Lower KS2 children consolidate their handwriting style, develop an understanding of controlling paragraphs and vary the types of sentences and language that they apply to different text types. By the end of KS2, we aim for our children to be confident writers who can independently select different text types for different audiences and purposes. To achieve this our teaching of writing focuses on 4 key elements as set out in the revised National Curriculum. - Composition-the development of writing stamina, composing sentences and editing work. - Transcription-the spelling of words and application of spelling rules. - Vocabulary, Grammar and Punctuation-the mechanics of writing. - Handwriting-the development of a fluent continuous cursive style of handwriting by the end of Year 3. Below is a video that one of our Y6 children created independently to share the types of writing that go on within our school. He wanted to share the video with David Walliams, who has inspired him to consider being a writer in the future. Within the classroom, children will experience 3 types of writing and below is a definition of each. Shared Writing–Shared writing involves the class or small groups. During shared writing, the teacher initiates and models writing, while children contribute their ideas. Teacher and pupils work together to compose messages and stories. The teacher models how writing works, the processes that are involved and draws attention to letters, words, and sounds during the writing. The object of shared writing is to demonstrate and teach the necessary skills and conventions of fluent writing. Guided Writing–Guided writing involves very specific and focused instruction. It can be one-to-one or with small groups of children with similar needs. Each child in a group composes an individual piece of writing with the intense support of the teacher. They hold the pen and have ownership over their writing. Mini-lessons are planned to reflect the specific needs of the children that are determined through ongoing assessment. The aim is to support children in becoming independent writers through building on the writing behaviours focused on in modelled and shared writing sessions. Children can usually produce more detailed and complex texts in these sessions than they can on their own. Independent Writing–In independent writing children take responsibility for their own writing. It provides an opportunity for them to demonstrate the processes and strategies that have been demonstrated through the other elements of the writing block. It is crucial that sufficient scaffolding of the processes and strategies required to successfully complete the task have occurred prior to children working independently. Some children will require more support than others and may need to be part of a small group constructing a joint text using interactive or an independent piece using guided writing. Across the week children will experience the different types of writing and at the end of every 2 weeks, they will write a full independent piece to ensure that they are able to develop their writing stamina and have an opportunity to use the skills that they have been learning. Within our enquiry curriculum children are also given opportunities to write, using a range of different text types that they have learnt. The aim of this is to give children a real sense of audience and purpose for their writing, as well as giving them content that they can use. In every class from Year 1 to Year 6, the children follow our school writing route map, which is displayed on our writing working walls. The idea of the route map is to provide children with a clear idea of the steps they need to take to develop an understanding of a particular text type. Below are some examples of our writing working walls. - E-learning resources for writing - Year group writing overviews - Helpful hints to support writing at home
5th Grade Math: Diameter In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints are on the circle. The diameters are the longest chords of the circle. Many 5th grade math students find diameter difficult. They feel overwhelmed with diameter homework, tests and projects. And it is not always easy to find diameter tutor who is both good and affordable. Now finding diameter help is easy. For your diameter homework, diameter tests, diameter projects, and diameter tutoring needs, TuLyn is a one-stop solution. You can master hundreds of math topics by using TuLyn. At TuLyn, we have over 2000 math video tutorial clips including diameter videos , diameter practice word problems , diameter questions and answers , and diameter worksheets Our diameter videos replace text-based tutorials in 5th grade math books and give you better, step-by-step explanations of diameter. Watch each video repeatedly until you understand how to approach diameter problems and how to solve them. - Tons of video tutorials on diameter make it easy for you to better understand the concept. - Tons of word problems on diameter give you all the practice you need. - Tons of printable worksheets on diameter let you practice what you have learned in your 5th grade math class by watching the video tutorials. How to do better on diameter: TuLyn makes diameter easy for 5th grade math students. 5th Grade: Diameter Videos Area Of a Circle When Diameter is Given Video Clip Length: 5 minutes 9 seconds Video Clip Views: This tutorial will teach you how to find the area of a circle when given the diameter. You will also learn how to use given information, the diameter, and figure out what the radius will be equivalent to in order to solve for the area. You also learn to multiply decimals with various decimal places. Circumference Of A Circle When Diameter is Given Video Clip Length: 1 minute 40 seconds Video Clip Views: This tutorial will show you how to find the circumference when given the diameter. You will also learn how to multiply by decimals and multiply by pi. We realize that pi is an approximation and use 3.14 as a substitution into the circumference formula. diameter video clips for 5th grade math students. 5th Grade: Diameter Worksheets Free diameter printable worksheets for 5th grade math students. 5th Grade: Diameter Word Problems The first Ferris wheel was built The first Ferris wheel was built in 1893 in Chicago. Its diameter was 250 feet. What was the actual circumference of the Ferris wheel? Use 3... diameter homework help word problems for 5th grade math students. Fifth Grade: Diameter Practice Questions What is the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 18cm? diameter homework help questions for 5th grade math students. How Others Use Our Site I have to help my 5th grade boy with his homework. He uses Singapore math curriculum. I teach a small group of 5th graders who struggle with math, especially what is taught at the 5th grade level. It is for my 5th grader and 1st grader and for us (parents) to help with teaching/math homework. Hopefully it will help me explain it to my 5th grader. I am a 5th grade math teacher. It will help me alot. Refreshing my memory of math to help my soon-to-be 5th grader. It will nhelp me to gain fundamentals lacking to complete math problems and help me to help my struggling 5th grader. I`ve been moved from 5th grade to 7th grade math. I need reinforcement and additional support. I saw a sheet that another teacher assigned to her class from you site and thought there would be other good activities to supplement my 5th grade Math program. I think it will help with teaching my 5th grade students. Will help my 5th grade child. This will help enrich my math instruction for my 5th graders. Practice worksheets for my 5th grade math students. It will help me to teach Math to my 5th grade class. It will reinforce the material I am teaching to my 5th grade students. Helps me generate worksheets and practice sets for my son in 5th grade. I think your site can explain 5th grade math better to me then my teacher can. I teach 5th grade and short video clips on various math concepts may be beneficial to my students`s learning. I am teaching special ed students algebra and geometry on grade level. I have no materials for bringing them up from 5th grade - 7th grade level to 9th grade -10th grade level. I teach 5th grade math. This will help to make professional worksheets to practice the skills that I am teaching. With my 5th grade class. I think it will help me give my 5th grade students a visual, to help them with more difficult math skills. I teach 5th grade advanced math. It will help with my studies and also help me to help my grandaughter with her math studies she is in the 5th grade Resource for teaching EIP math for 5th grade I am a student teacher, covering a 5th grade class and have been teaching first grade for a number of years. It will help me refresh my memory and get the facts straight for the students. It`s for my son which is in the 5th grade. Having problems with improper & proper fractions( different denominators)
According to the United States census in 2000, the five most common last names for citizens who identified as American Indians or Alaskan Natives were Smith, Johnson, Begay, Yazzie and Locklear. Other common names included Jones, Williams, Brown, Davis and Wilson. Historically, government officials gave many Native Americans English names. Some Native Americans still carry both English and traditional names. In the late 19th century, most Native Americans had traditional names, such as Lone Bear, Night Horse or Yellow Calf. Surnames were rarely used, and names were sometimes changed because of life events. Government officials were concerned that the lack of surnames would make it difficult to determine property ownership rights, heirs and family relationships. Beginning around 1890, government officials gave many Native Americans on reservations English names, which were loose translations of traditional names or merely names based on the whims of the officials. They also attempted to stop traditional naming practices. Names such as William Shakespeare, Abraham Lincoln or George Washington were not uncommon. Students in schools were often assigned new first and last names to make them easier for teachers to remember. Today, many Native Americans use surnames given to their ancestors as well as formal names; they also often use traditional names given through traditional practices.
Every cell has to contain the precious book of life, the DNA. To make this possible, a complex machinery, like a copying machine, copies the cells DNA before it divides. That way each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the dividing cell's DNA. This doubling of DNA is called replication. schematic illustration» In addition to this "copying machine" cells have evolved mechanisms to correct mistakes that sometimes occur during DNA replication, a DNA repair system. Abnormalities in these processes, copying and repairing, result in a failure of accurate replication and maintenance of DNA - a failure that can have disastrous consequences, such as the development of cancer. Thus replication constitutes the fundamental condition for biological growth (cell division) and transmission of genetic information, DNA, from one generation to another (reproduction).
Not all species may suffer from climate change. A new analysis shows that Dolly Varden, a species of char common in southeast Alaska, adjust their migrations so they can keep feasting on a key food source - salmon eggs - even as shifts in climate altered the timing of salmon spawning. The resiliency of species to climate change may depend on how well they adapt to climate-driven changes in their food and habitat, such as altered growth of plants they feed on. A mismatch in timing between predators and the availability of prey could cause some species to lose access to food. But others such as Dolly Varden that successfully adjust to shifts in climate and prey offer a climate change story with a happy ending, according to the study published in Freshwater Biology. Ignoring environmental cues may help this predator The Dolly Varden's secret appears to be that instead of taking its migration cues from environmental variables such as water temperature or streamflow, the species cues directly off the presence of salmon the Dolly Varden depend on for food, the study found. "Despite warming temperatures and shifting salmon migrations, Dolly Varden do a great job of following their food," said lead author Chris Sergeant of the National Park Service's Inventory and Monitoring Program in southeast Alaska. "Species that can handle a high degree of variability are the ones that should be most resilient to further changes associated with climate." Dolly Varden get most of their energy over the course of each year by gorging themselves on salmon eggs, which are abundant in summer and rich in energy thanks to the same fatty acids that make fish healthy for humans. Eggs from any single species of salmon may be available during a narrow spawning window of two to six weeks. The Dolly Varden must follow salmon migrations closely to take full advantage of this annual salmon egg bonanza. Sticking with salmon to find food But salmon migrations are shifting as the climate warms. Previous research by the University of Alaska and NOAA Fisheries' Alaska Fisheries Science Center in southeast Alaska's Auke Creek has shown that pink and coho salmon now migrate to their spawning grounds 10 to 17 days earlier while sockeye salmon migrate eight days earlier. Instead of falling out of synch with salmon, though, seagoing Dolly Varden in Auke Creek have accurately adjusted their annual migrations from the ocean back to freshwater to stick with the salmon. The adjustment has maintained their access to egg meals, according to the new research that includes coauthors from the University of Wyoming and NOAA Fisheries' Northwest Fisheries Science Center. Researchers rely on long record of fish migration data The research depended on a wealth of fish data from a weir on Auke Creek maintained primarily since 1980 by NOAA Fisheries' Alaska Fisheries Science Center Auke Bay Labs, supported by collaborations with the University of Alaska Fairbanks and Alaska Department of Fish and Game. From 1997 to 2006 crews counted and measured Dolly Varden migrating from the ocean, past the weir and into Auke Creek, providing an unusual long-term picture of fish migration times. "We're really indebted to the people who kept that record going for so long," said Eric Ward of the Northwest Fisheries Science Center. "It turns out to be very valuable in understanding how species are responding to the changing climate." Researchers in the new study used the weir data to examine the relationship between migrations of salmon and Dolly Varden from year to year. They found the timing of Dolly Varden migration more closely related to the presence and timing of the salmon than on environmental variables such as temperature and precipitation that are often seen as driving animal migrations. In short, the Dolly Varden are shifting their migration to follow their food instead of following temperatures or other environmental cues that, as the climate changes, might otherwise lead them to migrate at a different time than the salmon that provide their most important food. The researchers cautioned that it's unclear whether other salmon predators could adjust their timing to follow salmon as effectively as Dolly Varden do, apparently by watching salmon passing by or detecting salmon eggs through smell. But the adaptability of Dolly Varden suggests that at least some species may be more resilient to climate-induced changes in migration timing than ecologists might assume.
The Venus of Willendorf is one of the earliest images of the body made by humankind. It stands just over 4 ½ inches high and was carved some 25,000 years ago. It was discovered on the banks of the Danube River, in Austria, and it was most likely made by hunter-gatherers who lived in the area. The environment at that time was much colder and bleaker then present-day, a remnant of Europe's last ice age. The people who made this statue lived in a harsh ice-age environment where features of fatness and fertility would have been highly desirable. The question is why were prehistoric humans stimulated by an exaggerated image such as this? The answer, according to neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran and others, lies in the workings of the human brain, in a neurological principle known as the "peak shift." The people who made this statue lived in a harsh ice-age environment where features of fatness and fertility would have been highly desirable. In neurological terms, these features amounted to hyper-normal stimuli that activate neuron responses in the brain. So in Paleolithic people terms, the parts that mattered most had to do with successful reproduction - the breasts and pelvic girdle. Therefore, these parts were isolated and amplified by the artist's brain.
Cooler weather is on its way folks! What temperature do plants freeze? How cold is too cold? There is no easy answer to this... Different plants freeze and die at different temperatures. That is why they are given a hardiness rating. Some plants produce special hormones that keep them from freezing, and these plants have a lower hardiness rating (meaning they can survive colder weather) than plants who produce less of this hormone. That being said, there is also different definitions of survival. A plant may lose all of its foliage during a freeze and the plant can regrow from the stems or even the roots. So, while the leaves cannot survive a certain temperature, other parts of the plant can. With the expectation of a light freeze in the next few mornings, you may be able to protect plants in a freeze simply by covering them with a sheet or a blanket. This acts like insulation, keeping warm air from the ground around the plant. The warmth may be enough to keep a plant from freezing during a short cold snap. For added protection when you protect plants in a freeze, you can place plastic over the sheets or blankets to help keep warmth in. NEVER cover a plant with just plastic however, as the plastic will damage the plant! Make sure that a cloth barrier is between the plastic and the plant. Be sure to remove the sheets and blanket and plastic first thing in the morning after an overnight cold snap. If you do not do so, condensation can build up and freeze again under the covering, which will damage the plant. If you have a little time to prepare before the freeze, you can also create insulation barriers around a plant as a way how to protect plants from freezing. Tie up the plant as neatly as possible. Drive stakes that are as tall as the plant into the ground around the plant. Wrap the stakes in burlap so that the plant appears to be fenced in. Stuff the inside of this fence with hay or leaves. Again, you can place milk jugs of warm water on the inside, at the base of this fence each night to help supplement the heat. A string of Christmas lights wrapped around the plant can also help add additional heat. As soon as the freeze passes, remove the covering so that the plant can get the sunlight it needs. Watering the soil (not the leaves or stems of the plants) will also help the soil retain heat and can help the plant’s roots and lower branches survive. We are probably at the time when it is best to pick the tomatoes off the vine and have them ripen indoors. The light green or pink tomatoes will ripen indoors as long as they are not placed in direct sunlight and the temp indoors does not dip below 55 degrees. Another way to ripen the fruit is to pull the whole plant out of the ground and hang upside down in indirect light (you can also store geraniums this way through the winter months).
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) Since the 1970s, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) have saved thousands of lives and have helped cut the number of home electrocutions in half. GFCIs are electrical safety devices that trip electrical circuits when they detect ground faults or leakage currents. A person who becomes part of a path for leakage current will be severely shocked or electrocuted. These outlets prevent deadly shock by quickly shutting off power to the circuit if the electricity flowing into the circuit differs by even a slight amount from that returning. A GFCI should be used in any indoor or outdoor area where water may come into contact with electrical products. The National Electrical Code currently requires that GFCIs be used in all kitchens, bathrooms, garages, and outdoors. *From: Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI)
At present, most of Bord na Móna’s biomass is used for co-firing. Co-firing refers to the dilution of energy peat with biomass materials. This mix is then fired to produce heat, which in-turn produces electricity. Sustainability is top of our agenda when considering biomass types and sources. We look at the full carbon lifecycle of the biomass we use. Great time and effort has been taken to measure carbon emissions at every step of the supply chain, including harvesting, processing, and transportation. We have been co-firing with biomass at our Edenderry Power Plant since 2008, and have increased our use of biomass every year since then. In 2015, our biomass procurement and supply reached a record 320,000 tonnes. Already, this increased use of biomass has produced impressive results, with Bord na Móna’s carbon footprint reduced substantially over the past five to six years. Sustainable forests have a number of by-products, including sawdust, bark from felled trees, and trees that are too small for milling. These by products are milled and mixed together to produce a type of sawdust. This is then compressed under tremendous pressure to produce pellets or briquettes. In this form, the biomass can be transported easily. The term energy crops refers to vegetation which is grown to be later processed into electricity or fuel. This source of biomass is not as common as the previous examples set out above, but may become more popular in time. If Ireland’s demand for sustainable sources of biomass increases in the future, energy crops may have an important role to play. The most common forms of energy crops include woody vegetation like willow and grassy forms like miscanthus, also known as elephant grass.
So what is a neuron, exactly? A neuron is a type of cell. Your body is made up of cells, 10 trillion of them! That over 100 brains’ worth of cells. Neurons are a type of special type of cell that send, receive, and store electrical and chemical information. A neuron has three parts: \|A neuron. The neurons in the visual, motor, memory and language centers of my brain, as well as in my eyes and muscles, all had to talk to each other so that I could draw this picture.\| The soma is the neuron’s control center. It keeps the neuron healthy, produces all the proteins and chemicals that a neuron needs to function, and holds the neuron’s DNA. The axon sends information to other neurons. It can be extremely long. You have an axon that goes from your spinal cord all the way to the tip of your big toe. The axon conducts information much like an electrical wire. (More on this in a future post.) The dendrite receives information from other neurons. It joins up with another neuron’s axon at a junction called a synapse, which is a whole big future blog post in itself. Dendrites are shorter than axons, and highly branched. They look a lot like trees, which is why we often call them “dendritic arbors.” (“Arbor” means “tree”.) When one neuron has an important message to send (like, “Ow-wow! Get your hand off that hot plate!”), it sends the message as an electrical signal down its axon. This message is called an action potential. The dendrite of the next neuron in line (I’ll call it neuron #2) picks up the signal and sends it to its soma. If the signal is strong enough, it triggers a new action potential in neuron #2’s axon, which signals to the dendrite of neuron #3, and so on until you pull your hand off the hot plate. That’s Neurons 101. Coming up are how the action potential works, what’s a synapse, and more about how your muscles respond to that hot plate.
Sketchpad Resources \|\| Main CIGS Page Modeling a Ferris Wheel Using Translations and Animation Physical devices can be modeled using dynamic geometry. A vital tool for moving objects around in the model are the isometries, or distance-preserving transformations. This model of a Ferris wheel provides a good example. Begin with a circle and a template for the chair. - Start a new sketch and draw a circle; then add point C as a Point on Object that slides around the circle. - Also, create a chair-shaped blob as a Polygon Interior. An animation button for C. - We wish to animate C so that it runs around its circle. Select the point C and also the circle (by shift-clicking). - Now we choose an item on a submenu. Press the mouse button down on the Action Button Item of the Edit menu and then slide the mouse to the right and down to choose Animation.... - You will get a dialog box with some choices. This time just click on the button that says Animate. - An animation button appears in the sketch. Double-click on the button to send the point C running around the circle. - To stop the animation, click with the mouse anywhere in the sketch (you may have to hold down the button a while to get the animation to stop). - Add a segment. Construct the radial segment AC and double-click the animation button again. What happens to the segment? Attach a chair at point C using a translation. - We will mark a vector from a vertex of the blob to point C. Select one on the vertices of the blob and then point C. Now choose Mark Vector . - Translate the blob by the marked vector. Where does the blob move? What happens when you drag point C. Why? - Now double-click the animation button again. What happens? Why? In the figure, can you tell which vertex on the blob was selected when marking the vector? Adding more seats. This Ferris wheel has just one seat. Let's add more seats. We will do this by constructing 3 more points on the circle to which we will attach the seats. These points, along with C, will make four points, equally spaced 90 degrees apart around the circle. - Construct these points by constructing the line AC and then the line through A perpendicular to line AC. The points of intersection of these lines with the circle are the four equally spaced points. - Run the animation again to see how the four points move in unison. Hide the two lines for esthetic reasons. - Now in turn mark the vector from the same vertex of the blob as before to each of these three new points. Each time you mark a vector, translate the blob by this vector. - Now double-click the animation button again to see your Ferris wheel. Refinements and Extensions. - Adjustable seats. Since this construction is dynamic, we can make changes. Drag some vertices of the original blob to reshape the "seat." Can you make the seats face the opposite way as before? - A three-seater. Make another Ferris wheel with three seats. Home \|\| The Math Library \|\| Quick Reference \|\| Search \|\| Help
Freerunning sleep can be sleep which is not adjusted, entrained, to the 24-hour cycle in nature. Sleep which is entrained to 24 hours but is not artificially regulated by alarm clocks etc. can also be called freerunning sleep. Scientific experiments[change \| change source] Animals which are kept in a laboratory for research in constant conditions, that is in constant light or constant dark, will freerun. They live by their built-in circadian rhythms. Each day will be a little bit shorter or a little bit longer than 24 hours. It will be shorter if the animal's natural cycle is less than 24 hours long. The animals sleep and are active as usual, but their timing gets to be farther and farther off. Scientists let the animals freerun and then do experiments to see what sort of signals are most effective at entraining them. They also experiment to see how long or short a cycle that animal can be entrained to. Some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day. Sometimes people stay in a laboratory for a few days in very low light without any knowledge of the time. Such experiments show that adults, both older and younger, have a circadian cycle which is 24 hours and 11 minutes, on average. People freerunning[change \| change source] Illness[change \| change source] Some people have a condition, a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, which makes them freerun all the time, even if they get out into daylight and eat regular meals. Many of these people are blind, but some of them can see. They have a long circadian cycle and they do not entrain. Scientists do not yet know why. Intentional freerunning[change \| change source] Some people believe they will be more healthy if they do not sleep on a regular schedule. They try to go to bed only when they are sleepy. They do not use alarm clocks. They call this freerunning, but since they are exposed to daylight and dark, it's not the same as freerunning as the scientists use the term.
Southern California’s fire ecology is unlike that of anywhere else in the United States. Fire control strategies developed for mountain forests don’t have the same results here. So can science help uncover new answers to help Southern California communities manage and live with wildfires? The fires in Southern California are genuinely different than in the rest of the United States, breaking the well-established rules of fire control developed elsewhere in the country. Research into what makes these fires so different is critical to more effective firefighting. Fires in Escondido, California on Thursday May 15, 2014. Image credit: Gregory Bull/AP I know what you’re going to say: Clear firebreaks! Build with stone! Set controlled burns! Southern California is different. Those techniques don’t always work in the unusual geography, or aren’t earthquake-safe. Read on to learn why you really shouldn’t scoff at California for being so flammable. Southern California is coastal desert with more deserts inland, not at all like the mountainous forests that regularly catch fire in other parts of the country. This geography leads to Santa Ana winds that drive fires over firebreaks. Meanwhile the chaparral scrublands don’t respond well to controlled burns. Not only do the controlled burns not reduce the risk of another fire, but flat-out removing vegetation just causes invasive weeds to grow that burn hotter and faster than the native plants! Luckily, a research program is dedicated to looking at just fires in Southern California, learning how they’re different and using that statistical data to develop new plans on how to best mitigate the risk. Last year, the U.S. Geological Survey produced an educational video on just why fires in Southern California are so different than elsewhere, and how they’re using data to develop new strategies in fire prevention and fire science. Given the severe drought in California and the potential for a hot El Niño summer, let’s hope some of the science helps firefighters generate ideas for more effectively combatting fires this summer. If you dislike learning via video, the USGS also provides a full transcript you can read instead. The MODIS Satellite managed to get some rapid-response images of the scene. Smoke is clearly visible in the true-colour image, but the fire damage is easier to spot as magenta splotches in a sea of bright green in the false-colour image. Smoke Cyclones and Fire Tornados Even small temperature differences are enough to spawn a funnel. If a column of hot air rises rapidly inside a pool of cool air, through the conservation of angular momentum any rotation will amplify as the tower of air grows. More hot air gets pulled horizontally along the ground before rising within the column, feeding the funnel. Air cools as it rises, eventually tumbling down the outside of the tower. This cooler air reinforces the structure by stabilizing it and keeping it contained. Santa Ana Winds Southern California is subject to adiabatic winds, more commonly known as the Santa Ana winds. They’re driven by the pressure differential between the hot, dry interior, and the cooler, moist coast. The pressure difference draws air up and over the mountains. As winds flow down-slope, they compress, heating up as they gain speed. The result is very strong, hot, dry winds blasting the coast. During fire season, these winds make a bad situation worse by drying out vegetation into fuel. The strong gusts quite literally fanning the flames, building flare-ups into raging fires. Take a swirling dust devil, pick up some tumbleweeds, add fire, and the result looks like an elemental monster straight out of a video game. But it isn’t a computer-generated effect; it’s 100% real science. Thomas Rogers was working on a controlled burn at Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge when a dust devil spawned and quickly evolved into a swirling mass of hot air, drawing in the fire and nearby tumbleweeds to create a swirling inferno. The science behind this incredible, bizarre video of earth, wind and fire Most people are familiar with (or have even seen) a dust devil before. Dust devils are rapidly rotating columns of air that form over large, flat patches of land on days with hot temperatures and light winds. Under the right conditions, the land may be able to heat up enough to cause the air immediately above the surface to quickly start to rise. When the winds are just right, it may cause the rising column of air to begin to rotate much in the same way that a tornado does. As the column of air continues to rise, it stretches out, causing the column of air to spin more quickly, which kicks up dust and dirt and creates a dust devil. Some dust devils can reach the intensity of an EF-0 tornado, blowing around light objects and doing damage to poorly constructed buildings. Several people are known to have died from flying debris caused by dust devils. The same general principle extends to firenadoes. When the right conditions are present, the incredibly intense heat caused by the wildfire allows the air to quickly rise, stretch out, and rotate, creating the “tornado” of fire and smoke. Regarding the question of whether or not they’re dangerous…it’s a spinning column of fire reaching a hundred feet into the sky. Of course it’s dangerous. The whirl wouldn’t be able to survive outside of the wildfire itself, so it wouldn’t spread beyond the fire to terrorize a town, but the intense winds are enough to help spread the fire and send it further out of control. Firenadoes have made the news several times in the last few weeks, including the one spotted in California (pictured at the top of this post), and an incredible shot of one in Missouri . This is not a new phenomenon. The odds of people spotting firenadoes increases with the frequency of wildfires. Not only do more fires provide more chances for these whirls to form, but the fact that almost everyone has a smartphone these days allows people to take a picture and share it with the world the moment they spot one. As terrifying as the tumbleweed firenado is, the firefighters were prepared for the possibility of accidental fires as part of their controlled burn. Check the CalFire official map and incident updates for the latest information on the California fires. Use their guide on how to reduce your fire hazard, and learn how the hazard can be reduced through controlled burns.
MCAT Biochemistry Review Chapter 11: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism 11.5 Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids. The carboxyl carbon is carbon 1, and carbon 2 is referred to as the α-carbon. Fatty acids found within the body occur as salts that are capable of forming micelles or are esterified to other compounds, such as the membrane lipids discussed in Chapter 8 of MCAT Biochemistry Review. When describing a fatty acid, the total number of carbons is given along with the number of double bonds, written as carbons:double bonds. Further description can be given by indicating the position and isomerism of the double bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. Humans can synthesize only a few of the unsaturated fatty acids; the rest come from essential fatty acids found in the diet that are transported in chylomicrons as triacylglycerols from the intestine. Two important essential fatty acids are α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. These polyunsaturated fatty acids, as well as other acids formed from them, are important in maintaining cell membrane fluidity, which is critical for proper functioning of the cell. The omega (ω) numbering system is also used for unsaturated fatty acids. The ω designation describes the position of the last double bond relative to the end of the chain and identifies the major precursor fatty acid. For example, linoleic acid (18:2 cis,cis-9,12) is the precursor of the ω-6 family, which includes arachidonic acid.α-linolenic acid (18:3 all-cis-9,12,15) is the primary precursor of the ω-3 family. Double bonds in natural fatty acids are generally in the cis configuration. Trans double bonds are uncommon in natural fatty acids; they predominate in fatty acids found in margarine and other foods that use partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils in their preparation. Compared with liquid oils, these partially hydrogenated fatty acids are solids at room temperature. These fatty acids contribute to arterial diseases and decreased membrane fluidity. Fatty acids used by the body for fuel are supplied primarily by the diet. In addition, excess carbohydrate and protein acquired from the diet can be converted to fatty acids and stored as energy reserves in the form of triacylglycerol. Lipid and carbohydrate synthesis are often callednontemplate synthesis processes because they do not rely directly on the coding of a nucleic acid, unlike protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Fatty acid biosynthesis, shown in Figure 11.5, occurs in the liver and its products are subsequently transported to adipose tissue for storage. Adipose tissue can also synthesize smaller quantities of fatty acids. Both of the major enzymes of fatty acid synthesis, acetyl-CoA carboxylase andfatty acid synthase, are also stimulated by insulin. Palmitic acid (palmitate) is the primary end product of fatty acid synthesis. Figure 11.5. Fatty Acid Synthesis from Glucose Following a large meal, acetyl-CoA accumulates in the mitochondrial matrix and needs to be moved to the cytosol for fatty acid biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA is the product of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and it couples with oxaloacetate to form citrate at the beginning of the citric acid cycle. Remember that isocitrate dehydrogenase is the rate-limiting enzyme of citric acid cycle; as the cell becomes energetically satisfied, it slows the citric acid cycle, which causes citrate accumulation. Citrate can then diffuse across the mitochondrial membrane. In the cytosol, citrate lyase splits citrate back into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate can then return to the mitochondrion to continue moving acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is activated in the cytoplasm for incorporation into fatty acids by acetyl-CoA carboxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase requires biotin and ATP to function, and adds CO2 to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA. The enzyme is activated by insulin and citrate. The CO2 added to form malonyl-CoA is never actually incorporated into the fatty acid because it is removed by fatty acid synthase during addition of the activated acetyl group to the fatty acid. Fatty Acid Synthase Fatty acid synthase is more appropriately called palmitate synthase because palmitate is the only fatty acid that humans can synthesize de novo. Fatty acid synthase is a large multienzyme complex found in the cytosol that is rapidly induced in the liver following a meal high in carbohydrates because of elevated insulin levels. The enzyme complex contains an acyl carrier protein (ACP) that requires pantothenic acid (vitamin B5). NADPH is also required to reduce the acetyl groups added to the fatty acid. Eight acetyl-CoA groups are required to produce palmitate (16:0). Fatty acyl-CoA may be elongated and desaturated, to a limited extent, using enzymes associated with the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The steps involved in fatty acid biosynthesis are shown in Figure 11.6 and include attachment to an acyl carrier protein, bond formation between activated malonyl-CoA (malonyl-ACP) and the growing chain, reduction of a carboxyl group, dehydration, and reduction of a double bond. These reactions occur over and over again until the sixteen-carbon palmitate molecule is created. Many of these reactions are reversed in β-oxidation. Figure 11.6. Action of Fatty Acid Synthase Reactions include activation of the growing chain (a) and malonyl-CoA (b) with ACP, bond formation between these activated molecules (c), reduction of a carbonyl to a hydroxyl group (d), dehydration (e), and reduction to a saturated fatty acid (f). Triacylglycerol (Triglyceride) Synthesis Triacylglycerols, the storage form of fatty acids, are formed by attaching three fatty acids (as fatty acyl-CoA) to glycerol. Triacylglycerol formation from fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate occurs primarily in the liver and somewhat in adipose tissue, with a small contribution directly from the diet, as well. In the liver, triacylglycerols are packaged and sent to adipose tissue as very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), leaving only a small amount of stored triacylglycerols. Fatty acid synthesis and β-oxidation are reverse processes. Both involve transport across the mitochondrial membrane, followed by a series of redox reactions, but always in the opposite direction of one another. Understanding one process will enable you to answer questions about both pathways. Most fatty acid catabolism proceeds via β-oxidation that occurs in the mitochondria; however, peroxisomal β-oxidation also occurs. Branched-chain fatty acids may also undergo α-oxidation, depending on the branch points, while ω-oxidation in the endoplasmic reticulum produces dicarboxylic acids. You should be aware that these processes exist; however, the mechanisms are beyond the scope of the MCAT. We will take an in-depth look at β-oxidation, which will be much more heavily tested. Insulin indirectly inhibits β-oxidation while glucagon stimulates this process. When fatty acids are metabolized, they first become activated by attachment to CoA, which is catalyzed by fatty-acyl-CoA synthetase. The product is generically referred to as a fatty acyl-CoA or acyl-CoA. Specific examples would be acetyl-CoA containing a 2-carbon acyl group, or palmitoyl-CoA with a 16-carbon acyl group. Fatty Acid Entry Into Mitochondria Short-chain fatty acids (two to four carbons) and medium-chain fatty acids (six to twelve carbons) diffuse freely into mitochondria, where they are oxidized. In contrast, while long-chain fatty acids (14 to 20 carbons) are also oxidized in the mitochondria, they require transport via a carnitine shuttle, as shown in Figure 11.7. Figure 11.7. Fatty Acid Activation and Transport Carnitine acyltransferase I is the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation. Very long-chain fatty acids (over 20 carbons) are oxidized elsewhere in the cell. β-Oxidation in Mitochondria β-Oxidation reverses the process of fatty acid synthesis by oxidizing and releasing (rather than reducing and linking) molecules of acetyl-CoA. The pathway is a repetition of four steps; each four-step cycle releases one acetyl-CoA and reduces NAD+ and FAD (producing NADH and FADH2). The FADH2 and NADH are oxidized in the electron transport chain, producing ATP. In muscle and adipose tissue, acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle. In the liver, acetyl-CoA, which cannot be converted to glucose, stimulates gluconeogenesis by activating pyruvate carboxylase. In a fasting state, the liver produces more acetyl-CoA from β-oxidation than is used in the citric acid cycle. Much of the acetyl-CoA is used to synthesize ketone bodies (essentially two acetyl-CoA molecules linked together) that are released into the bloodstream and transported to other tissues. Figure 11.8. β-Oxidation The four steps of β-oxidation, illustrated in Figure 11.8, are: 1. Oxidation of the fatty acid to form a double bond 2. Hydration of the double bond to form a hydroxyl group 3. Oxidation of the hydroxyl group to form a carbonyl (β-ketoacid) 4. Splitting of the β-ketoacid into a shorter acyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA This process then continues until the chain has been shortened to two carbons, creating a final acetyl-CoA. Fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms undergo β-oxidation in the same manner as even-numbered carbon fatty acids for the most part. The only difference is observed during the final cycle, where even-numbered fatty acids for the most part. yield two acetyl-CoA molecules (from the four-carbon remaining fragment) and odd-numbered fatty acids yield one acetyl-CoA and one propionyl-CoA (from the five-carbon remaining fragment), as shown in Figure 11.9. Propionyl-CoA is converted to methylmalonyl-CoA by propionyl-CoA carboxylase, which requires biotin (vitamin B7). Methylmalonyl-CoA is then converted into succinyl-CoA by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, which requires cobalamin (vitamin B12). Succinyl-CoA is a citric acid cycle intermediate and can also be converted to malate to enter the gluconeogenic pathway in the cytosol. Odd-carbon fatty acids thus represent an exception to the rule that fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose in humans. Figure 11.9. The Propionic Acid Pathway Until now we've been discussing the oxidation of saturated fatty acids. In unsaturated fatty acids, two additional enzymes are necessary because double bonds can disturb the stereochemistry needed for oxidative enzymes to act on the fatty acid. To function, these enzymes can have at most one double bond in their active site; this bond must be located between carbons 2 and 3. Enoyl-CoA isomerase, shown in Figure 11.10, rearranges cis double bonds at the 3,4 position to trans double bonds at the 2,3 position once enough acetyl-CoA has been liberated to isolate the double bond within the first three carbons. In monounsaturated fatty acids this single step permits β-oxidation to proceed. Figure 11.10. Reaction of Enoyl-CoA Isomerase In polyunsaturated fatty acids, a further reduction is required using 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase to convert two conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position, where it will undergo the same rearrangement as monounsaturated fatty acids, as shown in Figure 11.11. Figure 11.11. Reaction of 2,4-Dienoyl-CoA Reductase MCAT Concept Check 11.5: Before you move on, assess your understanding of the material with these questions. 1. Draw the following fatty acids: palmitic acid, 18:3 (all-cis-9,12,15), ω-6. 2. What are the five steps in the addition of acetyl-CoA to a growing fatty acid chain? 3. How does β-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids differ from that of saturated fatty acids? 4. True or False: Fatty acids are synthesized in the cytoplasm and modified by enzymes in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
There are several characteristics that all good teachers have in common. They are patience; concern for their students; willingness to adapt, and; knowledge of the subject being taught. If these characteristics are lacking, a teacher cannot be an effective educator.Patience may be the most important characteristic of all. It is most important for teachers of subjects in science and mathematics. Some students can comprehend this subject material with minimal effort, while others may require more extensive explanations that may have to be repeated a number of times. As a college professor, I have had more students express anxiety over having to take basic college algebra over any other subject. When questioned about the reasons for this anxiety, the overwhelming response was that their high school math teachers were terrible. Their main critique of math teachers was their inability to explain solutions to math problems in a clear and concise manner. When these students would continue to state their lack of understanding, the teachers would lose their patience, and simply tell them to go home and practice more problems. When some students requested extra help, their teachers informed them they were unavailable for tutoring after class. Teachers of math and science generally have extensive knowledge of the subject matter they teach. Most were able to master those subjects with minimal effort. Some, however, lack the capability of appreciating the fact that each student may display different levels of aptitude for different subjects. A good teacher will possess this understanding, and be willing to take the time to reach those students who don’t display strong aptitudes in certain subjects. Reaching these students may help them overcome their anxieties over certain subjects, and may even stimulate greater interest in those students to further their education in math and science. Concern for their students is another required characteristic for being a good teacher. This concern should not only apply to interested learners who actively participate in class. It is more important to show concern for those students who sit in the back of the class, and act disinterested. Teachers who show interest in their students will be rewarded with students showing improved performance on exams and class assignments. Willingness to adapt to different classroom situations is another requirement for a good teacher. Students vary from class to class. Some may be attentive, while others may be trouble-makers. Others aren’t disruptive, only because they may be busy texting their friends while sitting in the back of the classroom. Different learning strategies may have to be employed, depending on the students in each class. Some students excel in role-playing, while others prefer to quietly write notes and listen. A good teacher knows how to engage students in the learning process.Finally, the teacher should be knowledgeable in the subject being taught. The teacher is regarded by students as the expert of his or her specialty area. There may be situations in which a teacher of a different subject may have to teach other subjects. It is the teacher’s responsibility to acquire the knowledge of the subject matter that has to be presented in the lesson plan. If extra preparation is required to teach the class, the good teacher will make the necessary effort.Good teachers are a valuable asset to any school; whether it is a pre-school, or a respected university. They inspire their students to learn, long after they complete their formal education.(17)
Blog entry 2 – Every Word Counts! All writers are familiar with the concept of “every word counts.” For writers of children’s picture books and beginning readers, every word literally counts. Most picture books published today have about 300 words. Many editors won’t even read a picture book manuscript much longer than that. Level 1 beginning readers are even shorter, with about 100 words. Keep in mind that, despite the low word count, a good story needs an arc, a plot, humor, and character development. It might seem like these stories are written quickly, and perhaps the first idea is written in a short period of time, but getting the text ready for publication can take many days, weeks, months, or longer to get right. Each word and every sentence is reviewed and revised many times. Here are some of the questions an author (and an editor) considers with each word and sentence: Is the word necessary? Is it the right word to convey the meaning you intend? (Does the word have more than one meaning?) Do the challenging words have contextual clues to allow the reader to infer the definition? Is the word count within the guidelines? In an early beginning reader, an author needs to follow additional guidelines: The words need to be simple enough for an emerging reader to pronounce and understand. Contractions should be spelled out. The words should be no more than two syllables. Complex sentences should not be used. The majority of the words in the text should be repeated, as you can’t introduce too many new or challenging words to an emerging reader. I’ve been heartened to see that even someone as talented, prolific, and well known as James Marshall didn’t get every word right on his first few drafts. In looking through the dummies and drafts of his stories, I’ve enjoyed seeing his notes and eraser marks as he struggled to search for the best word. For example, a George and Martha story usually has between 100 -150 words, but there is still much humor and character development packed into each simple story. In one of my favorites, “The Trick” in George and Martha Back in Town, George can’t resist playing tricks on Martha, so Martha plans a trick of her own. Even at the final galley stage of the book, Marshall was still requesting changes to the text. For example, the sentence “And when she discovered that the house slippers had been nailed to the floor, she was not amused.” was changed at the galley stage to: “And when she found her house slippers nailed to the floor, she was not amused.” The final sentence is much more succinct and flows better, while still maintaining the humor. Every galley page I’ve viewed has author edits similar to this page. In the picture book The Cut-Ups Carry On, the cut-ups Spud Jenkins and Joe Turner take dance lessons and end up entering a contest with one of them dressed as a girl. In a dummy for the book Marshall describes the scene as Spud and Joe arrive at the studio for the contest: At the T.V. Studio, Mary Frances and Charles Andrew Frothingham were just finishing up a superb tango. “Superb” is crossed out and “flashy” is written above it. Then “flashy” is crossed out and “dazzling” is written, which is the final version in print. At the T.V. Studio, Mary Frances and Charles Andrew Frothingham were just finishing up a dazzling tango. “Dazzling” is a great choice that combines the essence of both “superb” and “flashy.” In a dummy for The Cut-Ups Crack Up, Marshall describes Spud and Joe as they speed around town in a “borrowed” car. At the corner of Maple and Elm, they passed by an astonished Mary Frances and Charles Andrews. In the final version, “passed” was changed to a much better action verb: “sailed.” At the corner of Maple and Elm, they sailed by an astonished Mary Frances and Charles Andrew. Again, this is a very simple word change that greatly improves the sentence. In the dummy for the beginning reader Three Up A Tree, the story begins with the characters looking at a tree house: Some big kids down the block had made a treehouse. The final version reads: Some big kids down the street had built a swell treehouse. Three word changes, “block” to “street”, “made” to “built”, and the addition of “swell” give this sentence a boost. Now the reader can imagine the kids building a treehouse, and adding “swell” shows how much they admire it. Marshall paid so much attention to words that he even made suggestions on other author’s manuscripts that he was illustrating. His notes and papers make it clear that he shared suggested changes to words and sentences with the authors Harry Allard (of the Miss Nelson and the Stupid series) and Jeffrey Allen (Nosey Mrs. Rat, Bonzini, and the Mary Alice stories). In Nosey Mrs. Rat the story begins with Mrs. Rat spying on her neighbor in the bath. Allen’s original manuscript read: “I see that you are using lilac bubble bath,” Shirley Foster said. “I personally prefer rose.” Mrs. Davis stepped out of the bath and locked the window. Marshall’s suggestion for changing the last line was as follows: Mrs. Davis pulled down the shade. This sentence was used in the final text. With fewer words Marshall made a funnier sentence and one that also worked better for the humor in the illustration. It is easier and funnier to show a shade being pulled down than to show a window being locked. As you can see from the image, Marshall made many suggestions to Nosey Mrs. Rat. Many of them were used, including changing the title and main character from Nosey Shirley Foster to Nosey Mrs. Rat. It is rare for an illustrator to suggest text changes to the author. Most of the authors I know have never had an illustrator suggest changes. It is obvious that Marshall paid just as much attention to words, both his and others’, as he did to his illustrations. Although revising a manuscript over and over again can be tedious, Marshall’s papers and ultimately the success of his books remind me that every revision is worthwhile because every word does count, especially for the youngest readers. That said, I probably could have made this blog post a bit shorter! I will certainly be revising my work again before I send it out.
When Will The Sun Explode? This is one of the most common questions thrown to astronomers and scientists. Many of us know that our Sun is a star and a star’s final moment is through a very powerful explosion known as a supernova. This is such a very dreadful scenario; however, the Sun will not experience the same fate as that of the other stars. But how is this possible if the Sun is also a star? Mass is the deciding factor if a star will explode at the end of its life cycle. To qualify for a supernova ending, the Sun should have a mass that is four times its current mass. Fortunately, its mass will remain unchanged until its end. The Sun has a relatively low mass, thus it is classified as a dwarf star. If it is not going to explode, how it is going to end its life? Astronomers and scientists predict that in about 5 billion years, the Sun will be depleted of its hydrogen fuel. By that time, the Sun’s gravity will still be powerful to enable the continuous fusion reactions in its core. However, the helium will be turned into carbon, oxygen and nitrogen. Although this is the very same process for a supernova explosion, the Sun does not have enough mass to support an explosive fusion reaction in its core. What will happen is that the Sun will just blow off its outer layers leaving a carbon rich white dwarf core. It will cool down over billions of years until it reaches the very same temperature as with the universe. Other astronomers theorize that in about 5 billion years, when the Sun has depleted its hydrogen fuel, other gases will be out of control, especially the helium, which shall make all objects here on Earth to melt down and burn.
CureSearch for Children's Cancer funds and supportstargeted and innovative children's cancer research with measurableresults, and is the authoritative source of information and resourcesfor all those affected by children's cancer. Osteosarcoma in children is a cancer of the bone. It starts in immature bone cells that normally form new bone tissue. Osteosarcoma destroys local tissue and weakens the bone. Childhood osteosarcoma destroys local tissue and weakens the bone. It can occur, very rarely, as a tumorof the soft tissues of the body, outside the bone itself. Most of the time, osteosarcoma begins in the hip or shin bones. The second most common place for osteosarcoma to begin is in the upper arm bone, close to the shoulder. However, osteosarcoma can develop in any bone in the body. Many procedures and tests may be performed to see if and where cancer cells are present. If a bone tumor is suspected, it is important that the child is diagnosed and treated by a team experienced in working with children with cancer. The information gained from these tests will help doctors better define the location and size of the cancer, and identify whether it is interfering with other structures in the body. These are helpful pieces of information in making decisions about how to treat the cancer. In addition to scans, a biopsy will also be performed. During the biopsy, a piece of the tumor is removed and is examined under a microscope by a pathologist to identify the types of cells present. It is imperative that the biopsy be performed by an experienced surgeon with knowledge of sarcomas to assure that the appropriate biologic tests are done on the sample and that the biopsy does not interfere with future surgical planning. Osteosarcomas are described by their location: central tumors arise inside the bone while surface tumors arise on the outer surface of the bone. Each type has a number of subtypes. Conventional central osteosarcomas account for the vast majority of osteosarcomas in children and adolescents. Before treating a tumor, doctors need to know exactly how much of the cancer is present in the body both at the site of the tumor and elsewhere in the body. To evaluate this, a variety of tests may be performed, including scans of other parts of the body, such as the lungs, to see if the tumor has spread. Doctors use the following terms to describe osteosarcoma and develop treatment plans. Osteosarcoma is probably caused by a combination of genetic changes that together cause immature bone cells to become cancer cells instead of developing into bone. The same gene that is commonly abnormal in patients that develop eye tumors called retinoblastoma (the RB gene) may also be associated with osteosarcoma. The RB gene is a "tumor suppressor" gene that normally controls the growth of cells. When it becomes changed, or mutated, it can no longer control cell growth and tumors can form. Defects in another tumor suppressor gene, P53, can also predispose individuals to osteosarcoma or other cancers. These gene disturbances are very rare. Despite this information, only a few risk factors for osteosarcoma are known for sure. There is an increased risk following radiation treatment for a previous cancer. Children who receive x-rays to diagnose a medical condition, such as a broken bone or tooth decay, are NOT at increased risk. Children with some genetic syndromes are more likely to develop osteosarcoma than other children. The syndromes are hereditary retinoblastoma, Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Rothmund-Thomson syndrome. Children with these genetic conditions are more at risk for osteosarcoma, but these account for only a small fraction of cases. These syndromes usually require medical care, so you would know if your child had one of them. Further, researchers know that most osteosarcomas develop in people who have no other diseases and no family history of bone cancer. Osteosarcoma may be triggered by an over activity of bone cells. In a very small number of families, siblings of children with osteosarcoma can develop osteosarcoma. These families may be studied to see if a rare genetic defect may be causing the tumor. If such a defect is found, it may help doctors identify other family members that may be at risk and understand the process by which cancer develops in other patients with osteosarcoma.
History of Medicine Origins of the Origin Darwin and the Beagle Voyage continued Drawing of evolutionary tree of life, from Darwin’s Notebook B. After arriving back to England, in 1836, Darwin quickly hit upon his theory of evolution. He threw himself into the work of distributing to specialists the specimens he had collected, writing up the scientific accounts of his explorations, and pondering what he had seen. Charles Lyell (1797-1875), circa 1870 By the summer of 1837, the pieces began to fall into place: Darwin used the idea of the “tree of life” to consider that variations within species slowly diverged one from another until new and distinct species form. In fall 1838, he read An Essay on Population by Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)—and the disparity between resources and fruitfulness struck him forcefully. He extended Lyell’s method of understanding geological change to living matter. Instead of wind and water, the shaping force was the scarcity of resources; instead of volcanoes or earthquakes, the uplifting force was the fecundity of nature. Between the two, living matter was sculpted no less than cliffs and valleys. Darwin saw “a force like a hundred thousand wedges [pushing] every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of the oeconomy of nature . . . ,” as he recorded in his notebook. [Darwin, Notebook D, Transmutation of Species, July through October 1838, p. 135e, 28 September 1838] He could posit “the origination of fresh species” by using the forces that nature herself supplied.
A rocky super-Earth exoplanet has been found orbiting a nearby M dwarf star, 39 light years away from our Sun, scientists have announced. They have called it LHS 1140b and said that it probably formed in its current location in a similar way to our planet. M dwarf stars are characterised by the fact that they have masses less than 60% that of the Sun. They are the most common stars in the Galaxy, making up 75% of its population of stars. When Earth-sized exoplanets pass in front of those stars, scientists are able to identify them. In a study now published in the journal Nature, scientists report their observations of an M dwarf star called LHS 1140. The scientists used the MEarth-South telescope array to monitor the brightness of the star LHS 1140, starting in 2014. This work led them to discover the planet they call LHS 1140b, transiting the small cool star with a circular orbit. "We found this planet through transit methods. When it passed between the star and the Earth, it dimmed the light of the star, and we were able to measure this dimming and to identify LHS 1140b," lead author Jason Dittmann, from Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (US), told IBTimes UK. A habitable planet? Using radial-velocity measurements, the scientists were able to determine a number of the exoplanet's distinctive features. They measured the mass of the planet to be 6.6 times that of Earth, which is consistent with a rocky bulk composition. Furthermore, they established that LHS 1140b receives an insolation of 0.46 times that of Earth. In a 2013 study, another team of scientists had found that a planet orbiting an M dwarf star could have surface temperatures that allow liquid water, if it receives between 0.2 and 0.8 times the insolation that Earth receives from the Sun. Thus, LHS 1140b is located in the so-called "habitable zone", the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water. The discovery is quite unique because LHS 1140 is a small cool star, not as active energetically as other stars which other exoplanets have been found to orbit. "Most exoplanets that have been found before orbit stars that are quite active energetically, which may be having an impact on the stability of potential organisms on their surface. This star that LHS 1140b orbits seems to be quiet, so it's not going to damage the planet's atmosphere or anything on its surface," Dittmann explained. Since the star it orbits is quite small and relatively close to us, it may be possible for current telescopes and those currently under construction to determine if the planet has an atmosphere. Scientists could then search for and identify specific gases in this atmosphere, via a technique called transmission spectroscopy (see box). "The next step will be to find out if this planet has an atmosphere and to look for things that are familiar to us – oxygen, CO2, ozone or water. We will need to learn about the planet's atmosphere before we can conclude on whether life could be harboured on the planet," Dittmann said. What is transmission spectroscopy? It is a method is used by scientists to find out about the chemical composition of the atmosphere of a transiting exoplanet. When the light from the star passes through the atmosphere of these planets, some of it is absorbed by the atoms and molecules present in the atmosphere. Scientists are able to get a transmission spectrum by plotting the size of the exoplanet as a function of wavelength. The shape of this transmission spectrum can indicate which components are present in the atmosphere of the planet. You may be interested in: - Follow astronaut Chris Hadfield on a journey through the Solar System in new documentary - Dental disease led legendary man-eating lions of Tsavo to kill humans - Cannabis-based oil reduces seizures in patients with hard-to-treat epilepsy - New rocky planet discovered 39 light years away from our Sun lies in "habitable zone"
Nucleosome Model of Chromosome Does the DNA really need to FOLD inside the nucleus? A diploid human cell contains approximately 6.4 billion base pairs. These 6.4 billion base pairs are distributed in our 23 pairs (2n = 46) of chromosomes. We know that each chromosome contain a single linear segment of DNA. According to Watson and Crick model, the distance between each base pair in a DNA double helix is 0.34 nm. Thus, the 6.4 billion base pair will constitute a total length of about 2.2 m DNA strand. The total length of DNA of a single human cell is approximately 2.2 meters long (when all 46 DNA strands are joined end to end). The size of the nucleus in which the chromatin situated is about 10 µm in diameter. Thus, it is evident that the 2.2 m long DNA should fold several times to fit in the nucleus of 10 µm diameter. The exact nature and pattern of folding of DNA strands in the nucleus disclose the organization of genetic material in the cells.
Cognitive skills are the basic mental abilities used for thinking, studying and learning. It includes a wide range of mental processes essential in thinking, memory recall, and logic and reasoning skills. Parents play a key role in promoting cognitive skills in children. Toddlers need a lot of love and nurturing so that they are able to accomplish developmental tasks. However, parents need to be certain that as a child takes interest in his environment, he can do so in a safe manner. Children during this stage are very eager to explore their surroundings. Parents need to provide the right stimulation, so that a child can develop his cognitive skills. Play is a big part of a toddler’s life. Thus, providing him age-appropriate toys are essential for his reasoning, thinking and memory skills. Providing him the right toys is essential because if a toy is too advanced, it may only frustrate a child. Ideal toys include building blocks, sorting and pounding toys, thick-paged picture books, and art materials. Choose pencils and crayons suited for little hands or for a toddler’s fisted grip. Moving toys are also recommended because it promotes eye –hand coordination. Since establishing routines are ideal for this age, try to spend time with your child in doing a particular activity each day. The activity has to be short but stimulating because toddlers may not be able to sit for long periods of time. An example is by allowing your child to scribble on paper with crayons or pencil. You can also help him out in coloring a simple pattern on a coloring book. Always praise your child for his work, and provide reassurance whenever he feels frustrated. Try to modify the activity as time passes so that your child will not grow tired of doing it. Reading to your child is also an ideal activity. Research has shown that children, whose mothers read to them daily, had better language comprehension, higher cognitive scores, and more expressive vocabularies. Other activities that may improve your child’s cognitive skills are singing songs, and playing pretend games. Play activities that involve classifying objects and recognizing patterns are also recommended. Children learn quickly especially if they are given all the opportunities to explore. Parents can do a lot in order to help a child develop the skills needed during this stage. Toys need not be expensive, in order for it to be educational. Sometimes the most important thing for parents to do is to spend time with the child. Try to make each bonding moment a learning activity as well. The growth and development of each child is different. Some children can be advanced while others may have a slow start. Parents should not push their children too hard, as to what they are capable of doing. While it may be good to have learning activities, too much stimulation may also not help a child at all. Children are wired differently, and parents need to be supportive, as they accomplish tasks in their own ways. Children nowadays can get entertained by so many things, that they may no longer find books appealing. If you try to examine your practices at home, are you providing opportunities for your child to develop an interest in books? Does your child have access to picture books, and any other age-appropriate books in your home? […] When my brother was two years old, my parents noticed that he had very good memory skills. As a toddler he could already sing the national anthem without missing any word and with proper pronunciation at that. Further, he was also able to memorize every word from his story books, which naturally scared the wits […] The first five years of a child’s life are crucial because it is the time of rapid brain development. For this reason, many parents are always on the look out for the latest materials that can stimulate their baby’s mind. With so many educational books, videos and toys available to do just that, it can […] It’s truly a joy to witness a child go through different milestones. As a parent, I can’t help but marvel at how my preschool daughter is learning new skills each day. Ever since she started attending school, she has taken more interest at writing. Her interest has already gone past scribbling because she has […] A child’s behavior during play may vary, and it can greatly depend on his developmental stage. A young child may refuse to play with others, while some kids may easily have conflicts with kids of the same age. Even if you provide plenty of materials to play with, conflict may still be inevitable for some […]
Math Addition: 6-10 In these addition worksheets, students practice simple addition by completing five different worksheets that add six to a number, seven to a number, eight to a number, nine to a number, and ten a number. 3 Views 23 Downloads Grade 1 Supplement Set A4 Number & Operations: Equivalent Names Engage young mathematicians in developing their basic arithmetic skills with these great hands-on activities. Using Unifix® cubes to model a variety of single digit addition and subtract problems, children build a basic understanding of... K - 2nd Math CCSS: Adaptable Math Stars: A Problem-Solving Newsletter Grade 2 Develop the problem solving skills of your young learners with this collection of math newsletters. Covering a variety of topics ranging from simple arithmetic and number sense to symmetry and graphing, these worksheets offer a nice... 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable Water: The Math Link Make a splash with a math skills resource! Starring characters from the children's story Mystery of the Muddled Marsh, several worksheets create interdisciplinary connections between science, language arts, and math. They cover a wide... 1st - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Ten-Frames – A Games Approach to Number Sense "How can you help students visualize numbers in a way that is compatible with our base-ten number system?" The answer is simple: use ten-frames. Whether they're being used as a part of classroom routines or as instructional tools, this... K - 3rd Math CCSS: Adaptable Solve Addition Problems: Using Complements of 10 In a base ten number system, knowing the complements of ten is a huge help when learning addition with larger numbers. The third video is this series models how these special pairs of numbers can be used along with expanded notation to... 5 mins 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Designed
Privacy from Government in a Transparent Society Individuals face a greater threat to their privacy from government than from the private sector. In general, people have little or no control over what information is collected, how much is shared or how securely it is stored. If a business refuses to keep private information about one's consumer preferences secure, consumers can take their business elsewhere. But they hardly have the same opportunity when it comes to the Department of Motor Vehicles or the Internal Revenue Service. Government Information Collection Government (federal, state and local) collects and shares more personal information about individuals than any other entity. A recent study by the privacy organization Privacilla found that during an 18-month period beginning in September 1999, federal agencies announced 47 times that they would exchange and merge personal information from databases about American citizens. [See the figure .] - The Social Security Administration announced involvement in 21 different information-sharing arrangements. - The Internal Revenue Service participated in information-sharing arrangements on eight different occasions. - The Department of Justice and the Department of Education were involved in five and nine different arrangements, respectively. - Many of these arrangements were broad, dealing with multiple state or federal agencies. Federal agencies routinely share information with other agencies. The Privacy Act of 1974 was supposed to protect individuals from the unauthorized use of records collected by federal agencies. Yet, agencies often violate the Privacy Act's requirement that data be collected directly from the individual rather than surreptitiously through mining another agencies' records. Recent reports illustrate just how much the government knows about individuals: - In order to create safe roads, states maintain information on licensed drivers including photos, physical descriptions and, sometimes, medical information. Much of this information is sold or considered public record. - As a result of a well-meaning program to track dead-beat dads, the Department of Labor knows where you work and how long you've worked there. - If you are on Medicare or Medicaid, the Department of Health and Human Services has information about your medical history. Government computers are often filled with highly sensitive, very personal information. Your medical records, banking records - maybe even your life history - might be floating around government bureaucracies without your knowledge or against your wishes. The Internet raises additional questions about what information government should collect. For example, government Web sites have been known to collect information on persons who thought they were anonymously reporting information about crime. Experts worry about how closely bureaucrats follow privacy standards for what is collected and how securely information is stored. - A study by the General Accounting Office found that 97 percent of federal government Web sites failed to meet the privacy standards (notice, choice, access, and security) recommended by the Federal Trade Commission for private sector Web sites. - These sites included the Food and Drug Administration, the Health Care Financing Administration, the Veterans Health Administration and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. - A Veterans Affairs Oversight Subcommittee reported security problems within the Department of Veterans Affairs. Nor is the threat always from the federal government. James K. Glassman, a Senior Fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, reports that the state of Florida wanted to sell drivers license data, including photos with names, addresses and vital statistics. Public outcry forced the state to abandon its plan. Not long afterward, the Florida Legislature voted to sell the state Labor Department's records (including salary information) on 6.5 million workers to consumer-reporting companies. Other states have similar programs. Government Exemption from Privacy Protection The new federal medical privacy regulations limit the use of medical information by private sector entities, but require doctors, hospitals and other health care providers to share patients' personal medical records with the federal government. In addition, government tends to exempt itself from regulations on information collecting. For example, the Privacy Act of 1974 has public sector exceptions. Although the Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act of 1988 described the manner in which federal agency computer matching could be performed (adding certain protections for individuals), it had the unintended consequence of "institutionalizing" the sharing of data among federal government agencies. Government Abuse: Rogue Employees Even when privacy protection rules are in place, government employees can make them meaningless. At the IRS, for example: - More than 500 employees were caught browsing through the tax records of acquaintances, friends and public figures (and only 1 percent were fired for this offense). - A former official historian for the IRS reported that the agency once compiled its own "enemies list" of 11,000 Americans who criticized government policies. Abuses occur at other levels of government, too. For example, in 1994, medical records department employees at Parkland Memorial Hospital, a county-operated hospital in Dallas, were accused of selling medical information on patients to outsiders who could profit from its use. Government Abuse: Threats to Human Rights The classic example is the use of U.S. Census data at the outset of World War II to identify citizens of Japanese ancestry to be rounded up and placed in internment camps. There is also a danger that authorities, using a technique called data mining, might identify seemingly unrelated traits often associated with criminal activities and use these to target people never accused of a crime. Similarly, demographic data might be used to target neighborhoods for racial profiling. Government Abuse: Excessive Enforcement Less understood is how information may be gathered today and used in the future to allow overzealous enforcement of laws. Many laws are often (at least partially) ignored because society only supports a certain level of enforcement. For example, drivers routinely exceed the speed limit slightly, yet most people expect only the most flagrant violators to be cited. Yet global positioning satellite technology makes it possible to track all speed limit violations. Likewise, most people don't expect teenagers to report low-level earnings to the IRS for occasional baby-sitting or lawn mowing services, but soon it will be easy to record all personal service transactions and match them with spending habits. Government Abuse: Coercion The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution protects us from unreasonable search and seizure, and the Fifth Amendment protects us from incriminating ourselves. However, both protections are under threat if authorities can surreptitiously gain access to databases of information with personal profiles from health care providers, bankers and retailers, or if officials use technology that passively discovers information about individuals without their knowledge. Although some degree of information sharing is undoubtedly beneficial, information in the hands of government can pose a threat to individual rights. Individuals have less recourse to a remedy when government inappropriately invades their privacy than when the offender is a business or another individual. If Congress wants to expand or enhance privacy protections, the best place to start is with the government's own information collection and sharing policies. Devon Herrick is Research Manager for the National Center for Policy Analysis.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Environmental Science © 2013 is a comprehensive program that provides a wealth of resources to meet the needs of high school learners with varied interests and learning styles. This interactive textbook, developed specifically for high school students, offers unparalleled motivating and supportive features related to current environmental issues. The book includes compelling case studies and a balanced, unbiased approach to environmental topics. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Environmental Science presents comprehensive coverage of ecology, Earth science, health, and policy topics. High-interest, relevant feature articles, field-study activities, and in-text labs are included to engage 21st-century learners and foster an active interest in the world around them. The 21 chapters are organized into 6 Units. 1. Introduction to Environmental Science 4. Water, Air, and Land 5. Mineral and Energy Resources 6. Our Health and Our Future
Seismic reflection surveying is the most widely used geophysical technique to explore for hydrocarbons. The measurement of the Earth’s gravity and magnetic fields are also used to determine the geometry and depth of particular subsurface areas, known as sedimentary basins, where oil and gas are typically located. The collection of seismic data involves sending small acoustic pulses into the ground and measuring the sound waves that are reflected from the rock layers deep within the ground. These reflections are processed and formed into images of the subsurface using supercomputers. The technology is similar to the use of a sonogram in the medical field. The acoustic pulses are typically generated by vibrating the Earth with specially equipped trucks, a technology known as Vibroseis that was invented by ConocoPhillips about 50 years ago. After gathering the seismic data and processing it into an image, 3-D computer models of the reservoir can be created. These detailed models allow our geologists and geophysicists to map the subsurface geology in great detail, helping us to better predict where oil and gas is located and determine where best to drill an exploratory well. Marine seismic surveys are conducted using specially equipped vessels that tow both the marine seismic source and the recording systems in the water behind the vessel. The recording systems typically consist of one or more sensor cables, known as streamers. The streamers are deployed just beneath the surface of the water and are usually towed a few hundred feet behind the vessel. The streamers can be up to 20,000 feet long. The marine seismic source, usually an air gun, releases compressed air in pulses into the water column. The sound waves from these pulses travel down into the subsurface and are reflected from the rock strata to be recorded by the streamer systems. Marine seismic acquisition is not limited to the use of towed sensors or streamers. It is also possible to lay recording devices, known as geophones and hydrophones, on the sea bed and record data from energy generated by a separate source vessel. Sea-bed recording is usually used when water depth or infrastructure make acquiring a towed-streamer survey difficult. We are continually innovating and improving our core exploration and production business by developing and applying state-of-the-art seismic data acquisition and processing techniques, such as life-of-field, time-lapse seismic data collection, which monitors long-term performance and development of subsea producing reservoirs. We are also able to create better reservoir images beneath salt and other sound-blocking materials, using detailed geological architecture and hydrocarbon quality analyses. The development and application of these geologically integrated seismic-imaging technologies produce higher-quality images that help reduce exploration risk and maximize resource recovery. Variations in the Earth’s gravitational field can be used to map changes in the density of formations in the Earth. Gravity surveys can be used to map the extent or depth of sedimentary basins or even individual hydrocarbon prospects. ConocoPhillips geophysicists also use a technique known as gravity gradiometry to measure the density of the subsurface – or the rate of change of rock properties. From this information it is possible to build a picture of subsurface anomalies which can then be used to more accurately target oil, gas and mineral deposits. Variations in the Earth’s magnetic field can be used to determine the extent and depth of sedimentary basins, as well as to differentiate between different types of rock such as rocks formed by the cooling of lava and certain sedimentary rocks such as salt. In addition to gravity gradiometry, geophysicists also utilize the magnetotelluric technique (MT). MT is an electromagnetic geophysical method of imaging the Earth’s subsurface by measuring natural variations of electrical and magnetic fields at the surface.
Cleft lip is a condition of congenital abnormalities characterized by a gap or cleavage on the upper lip. The gap may be in the middle, left, or the right side of the lips. In addition to the upper lip, cleft can also occur on the roof of the mouth. This condition is commonly called the cleft palate. Cleft lip and cleft palate occur because the tissue on the baby's lips or in the baby's palate when in the womb does not coalesce, leaving a crack. Normally the unification process occurs in the second and third months of pregnancy. Cause of Cleft Lip Until now not known exactly what causes cleft lip and palate cleft. But experts believe that this condition occurs due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Some of the following factors may increase the risk of having a baby born with a cleft. Among others are: - Genetic. Babies born to elderly people with cleft lip and cleft palate or having relatives with these conditions are more at risk of experiencing the same condition. - Gender. A baby boy is twice as likely to have this birth defect as a baby girl. In male infants, cleft lip can occur with or without a cleft palate. While cleft palate without cleft lip is more common in baby girl. - Diabetes. There is some evidence to suggest that women diagnosed with diabetes before pregnancy have a high risk of delivering babies with cleft lip. - Obesity during pregnancy. Babies of obese mothers are at risk of being born with cleft lip or cleft palate. - Exposure to certain substances during pregnancy. Mothers who smoke and consume alcohol during pregnancy are at risk of delivering babies with cleft lip and palate. In addition, consumption of corticosteroid tablets and antikejang drugs in early pregnancy was also associated with some cases of cleft lip. - Lack of folic acid during pregnancy. Are You Know? How To Make Money From Home How To Root Android ( Complete Step Guide ) How To Lower Cholesterol ( Complete Articles ) Symptoms Cleft Lip Generally, cleft lip and cleft palate can be seen immediately at birth, marked by: - The presence of a gap in the upper lip or in the palate can affect one or both sides of the face. - The presence of a gap in the lips that can look like a small tear or a tear extends from the lips to the upper gums and the palate down to the nose. - The existence of a gap in the palate that does not affect the look of the face. There is also a rare type of cleft, the submucosal cleft. This cleft is found only on the soft palate and covered by the lining of the mouth. This type of cleft is not visible at birth and can not be diagnosed until the signs appear, such as: - Difficulty receiving food intake. - Difficulty swallowing food (food and drink consumed can get out of nose). - Chronic ear infections. - The nasal voice. Diagnosis of Cleft Lip Cleft lip can be known through the ultrasound examination of pregnancy at the 18th week until the 21st week of pregnancy. If undetected by the examination, the cleft lip will be visible as soon as the baby is born or through a physical examination in the first 72 hours since the baby is born. Treatment of Cleft Lip Cleft lip can be treated with surgery. The goal of cleft lip surgery is to improve the child's ability to eat and drink, to talk and listen normally, and to have normal facial appearance. In general, surgical procedures performed include: - Cleft lip surgery . To close the gap on the lips, the doctor will make an incision on both sides of the crack and create a tissue fold which is then put together by sewing. This operation will make the appearance and function of the lips to be better. The right time for cleft lip surgery varies, depending on the child's body condition, weight, and age of the child. Usually cleft lip surgery performed when the child aged 10 weeks - 1 year. When necessary, surgery on the nose is also done at the same time. - Operation of cleft palate . Surgery may be performed several times to close the gap and fix the palate, both soft and hard parts. The doctor will make an incision on both sides of the crack and rearrange the tissue and muscle position of the palate, then stitched. Cleft palate surgery is recommended for 6-18 months. Then, continued surgery for cleft palate can be done at the age of 8-12 years. The follow-up surgery is bone grafting for the palate to support the maxillary structure and articulation of speech. - Ear tube mount operation. For children with cleft palate, ear tubes are installed at 6 months of age. This action is done to reduce the risk of hearing loss and can be done simultaneously with cleft lip surgery or cleft palate surgery. - Surgery to improve appearance. Additional surgery may be needed to improve the appearance of the mouth, lips and nose. This operation can be performed until the age of adolescence before adulthood. Cleft Lip Complications Some of the complications that may be experienced by babies who suffer from cleft lip are: - Hearing disorders. Stacking of fluid in the ear and recurrent ear infections is at risk for hearing loss . - Dental growth problems. If the cleft extends to the upper part of the gum, the baby's teething will be disturbed. - Difficulty in sucking milk. - Difficulty in communicating. Cleft lips can make the sound of the child's voice disturbed and will sound nasal. - Treatment of ear infections. - Orthodontic treatment, such as braces. - Speech therapy to improve speech difficulties. - Hearing aids for children who are hearing loss. - Use special bottles or other tools to feed the child.
Middle school math and science quality resources and powerful connections for math and science in the middle grades main menu. Projects our blogs my learn nc newsletter critical thinking in science by daniell difrancesca attention users. Students will experiment with the practicing their critical thinking skills in an of the critical thinking in science unit and relies on the. Thinking critically with psychological science your teaching strategies and critical thinking (p 9) can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life. Higher order thinking skills in a science classroom computer simulation by critical thinking. Science for kids: exploring how water travels even more activities to inspire creativity and critical thinking exploring how water travels through leaves. Math and science go they’ll use many of the same problem-solving and critical thinking skills our videos introduce kids to fun science experiments and give. Food for today food science experiments sion making skills, critical thinking skills, and the abil-ity to investigate and seek out answers that can prepare. Stanford research shows how to improve students' critical thinking about simple pendulum experiment gain critical thinking skills in science education, but. The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out as in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous. To the teacher critical thinking/problem solving worksheets in this booklet exercise the students’ abilities to apply thinking skills to situations related to. The digital bits science labs are fun science before trying any of these science experiments science' fiction, critical thinking and. Earlier in the experiment “teaching content alone is not likely to lead to proficiency in science but critical thinking documents similar to crit thinking. An evidence-based guide to science for kids: think critically, experiment, explain their is that kids benefit from explicit lessons in critical thinking. Encourage kids to think out of the box and sharpen their logical reasoning and problem-solving skills with our fun critical thinking activities for kids. The purpose of this study was to examine whether using task-based learning in chemistry experiment teaching can develop students’ critical thinking dispositions in. Nothing gets kids more excited about science than doing science experiments as well as develop good critical thinking and matter and change lab stations. Critical thinking psychologists as a experiment with ideas opposite to those when the national science foundation in the united states surveyed public. Critical thinking, a is significantly different than analyzing findings after a science experiment critical thinking activities for middle school related. Introduction: students will learn and implement experimental design vocabulary while practicing their critical thinking skills in an inquiry based experiment. Stanford research shows how to improve students in a simple pendulum experiment gain critical thinking skills that in science education, but. This dancing raisins science activity for kids is such a great way to build on children's natural curiosity and encourage critical thinking. Critical thinking in science scientists use critical thinking skills throughout the student decides to conduct an experiment to determine if their soda. Can you spot the scientific method critical thinking/problem solving name _____ date c test the hypothesis with an experiment. Science, critical thinking and skepticism science a thought experiment about managing budgets as a looking glass into political the scientific skeptic. S cience is the study of the universe and the beginning of that study is in critical thinking not only in science but in up an experiment.
Discover the wonderful world of plants with our fantastic collection of teaching, activity and classroom display resources. Includes a child-friendly guide to plant growth, pollination, photosynthesis, classification, adaptation and much more! Help your children to explore the wonders of space with our enormous teaching resource pack! It’s filled with child-friendly reference materials, eye-catching display posters and a wide range of activity resources. Learn about the human body with our child-friendly eBook, activity resources and display materials! They’re full of fascinating facts, clearly labelled diagrams and interactive features to help your children to learn all about their bodies! Over the past week, we have published two new resource packs… bursting with printable goodies to use in your Literacy and Science lessons! Our next pack will contain a huge collection of teaching resources to help your children learn lots of different Science Vocabulary. Coming soon! The Science Vocabulary Pack contains everything that you need to help children in your class remember the meaning of hundreds of Science words.
Synthesis of a Triglyceride: Since glycerol, (IUPAC name is 1,2,3-propantriol), has three alcohol functional groups, three fatty acids must react to make three ester functional groups. The three fatty acids may or may not be identical. In fact, three different fatty acids may be The synthesis of a triglyceride is another application of the ester synthesis reaction. To write the structure of the triglyceride you must know the structure of glycerol and be given or look up the structure of the fatty acid in the table - find lauric acid. The simplified reaction reveals the process of breaking some bonds and forming the ester and the by product, water. Refer to the graphic on the left for the synthesis of trilauroylglycerol. First, the -OH (red) bond on the acid is broken and the -H (red) bond on the alcohol is also broken. Both join to make HOH, a Secondly, the oxygen of the alcohol forms a bond (green) to the acid at the carbon with the double bond oxygen. This forms the ester functional group. This process is carried out three times to make three ester groups and three water molecules. QUES. Practice writing out a triglyceride of stearic acid. Again look up the formula of stearic acid and use the structure of glycerol.
SIFT is an algorithm in computer vision to detect and describe local features in images (“interest points”). The goal is to identify known objects in new images. Applications include robotics, navigation, image search, 3D scene modeling, a lot of what we’ve been talking about in Representing Earth… The algorithm is rather technical, and more detailed descriptions are readily available for those interested, but the gist of it is to find repeatable and invariant features that can be matched between images. - Each SIFT feature is described by its location, orientation, scale, and a keypoint descriptor (accounts for shape distortion and changes in illumination) - New images are recognized by computing SIFT features on the input image and comparing these to a database of SIFT features from known (“training”) images. Note: Amazon recently bought a company called SnapTell, which had implemented a recognition system using their own features that presumably were modeled on SIFT, but didn’t use SIFT code. Google Street View also uses their own image matching, probably similar to SIFT, but using their own code. 4D Cities project
The causes of the Peloponnesian War stretch back for decades. After the Persian navy was destroyed at the battle of Mycale, the Athenians founded the Delian League to punish the Persians by taking their colonies in the Aegean and adding them to the Athenian Empire. With no navy to defend them, the Persians were soundly defeated, and within 30 years, the Athenians controlled a vast maritime empire containing most of the islands in the Aegean and much of the coast of Asia Minor. Meanwhile, back at home, as Athens grew ever richer and more powerful, the Spartans were feeling increasingly nervous about Athens' imperial ambitions. As I wrote in my history, 'The growth of the power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon (Sparta), made war inevitable.' Causes of the Peloponnesian War flashcards \| Quizlet In this lecture, Professor Kagan focuses on the causes of the Peloponnesian War and the possible motivations for Thucydides' book, The History of the Peloponnesian War. Concerning the first point, Professor Kagan parts ways with Thucydides and argues that the war was not inevitable and that the Athenians under Pericles followed a policy of deterrence, which was aimed at peace. Similarly, he points out that there were a number of Spartans who did not want war as well. Therefore, according to this line of reasoning, war broke out due to a number of factors that were avoidable. Concerning the second point, Professor Kagan argues that Thucydides was a revisionist historian. In other words, Thucydides was writing not as a disinterested historian, but as a historian with a point to make, namely, that the war was inevitable and that Athens was only a democracy in name under Pericles. Finally, Professor Kagan acknowledges that his two points are debatable. The Causes of the Peloponnesian War: Part 3 – The Megarian Decree Thucydides explains the next contributing factors for the cause of the Peloponnesian War was the dispute over the Corcyraeans. The dispute over Corcyra was a result from the dispute of the Epidamnus, and leads to the dispute of the Potidaea. The Corinthians were not backing down, following the war against the Corcyraeans, Corinthians spent time and money building new ships and trained rowers from the Peloponnese to fight against Corcyra. The Corcyra never joined the Athenian League or the Spartans, which made them nervous to fight the Corinthians because they did not have enough man power or allies. Knowing the Corinthians might have a chance to win in a second battle, Corcyra sought the help of Athens. Ironically, Athens was already a party to the Peace Treaty of the Peloponnesian, and had ties to the Corintheans because they too were involved in the treaty. Regardless of the treaty, Athens decided to hear both sides of the argument before deciding which city to side with. The hearing in Athens between the Corinthians and the Corcyraeans was a major factor of the Peloponnesian War because Athens took the Corcyraeans side and put their own city at risk and in an unsettling position. The True Cause of the Peloponnesian War - JSTOR
Less than a year ago, the Hubble Space Telescope’s Wide Field Camera 3 captured an amazing image – a giant lensed galaxy arc. Gravitational lensing produces a natural “zoom” to observations and this is a look at one of the brightest distant galaxies so far known. Located some 10 billion light years away, the galaxy has been magnified as a nearly 90-degree arc of light against the galaxy cluster RCS2 032727-132623 – which is only half the distance. In this unusual case, the background galaxy is over three times brighter than typically lensed galaxies… and a unique look back in time as to what a powerful star-forming galaxy looked like when the Universe was only about one third its present age. A team of astronomers led by Jane Rigby of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland are the parties responsible for this incredible look back into time. It is one of the most detailed looks at an incredibly distant object to date and their results have been accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal, in a paper led by Keren Sharon of the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago. Professor Michael Gladders and graduate student Eva Wuyts of the University of Chicago were also key team members. “The presence of the lens helps show how galaxies evolved from 10 billion years ago to today. While nearby galaxies are fully mature and are at the tail end of their star-formation histories, distant galaxies tell us about the universe’s formative years. The light from those early events is just now arriving at Earth.” says the team. “Very distant galaxies are not only faint but also appear small on the sky. Astronomers would like to see how star formation progressed deep within these galaxies. Such details would be beyond the reach of Hubble’s vision were it not for the magnification made possible by gravity in the intervening lens region.” But the Hubble isn’t the only eye on the sky examining this phenomenon. A little over 10 years ago a team of astronomers using the Very Large Telescope in Chile also measured and examined the arc and reported the distant galaxy seems to be more than three times brighter than those previously discovered. However, there’s more to the picture than meets the eye. Original images show the magnified galaxy as hugely distorted and it shows itself more than once in the foreground lensing cluster. The challenge was to create a image that was “true to life” and thanks to Hubble’s resolution capabilities, the team was able to remove the distortions from the equation. In this image they found several incredibly bright star-forming regions and through the use of spectroscopy, they hope to better understand them. Original Story Source: Hubble News Release.
This simple and fun sensory activity can easily be adapted to make it suitable for children of all ages. You will need: - Wicker baskets - Lengths of different material - Wooden Spoons - Metal Containers - Varying size linked chains - Straw baskets - Coconut shell - Any other natural seasonal objects such as leaves, acorns, fur cones, conkers, etc. Depending on the age of the children place all the suitable materials into the wicker baskets and allow the children to pull them out exploring the textures, smells etc. Older children can talk about the objects, what they feel like, look or smell like. Also discuss what they are made of or where they can be found. If possible take the older children on a nature walk and gather leaves, conkers, fur cones and acorns etc to put into the treasure baskets so that they are able to understand where these objects come from. Areas of learning covered: - Knowledge and Understanding of the World - Personal and Social development - Language, Literacy and Communication skills
Objective: The objective of this experiment is to study bending loss. Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss. - Connect function generator square wave output to LED (emitter). - Connect optical fiber between LED output and PIN (detector) input. An oscilloscope is connected to PIN (detector) output. - Select the number of turn by clicking the options given. First click “1 Turn optical fiber” button. - Click run continuously button to run the experiment. - The received signal can be seen in the oscilloscope. Measure the amplitude of the received signal and name it V1. - Then change the number of turns to 2 by clicking the option “2 turn optical fiber”. - Measure the amplitude of the received signal by oscilloscope and name it V2. - Compare the value obtained previously with the latest one. It can be seen easily that due to bends, loss occurs in the cable. - Explain through sketch how bending loss occur? - How are micro bending losses reduced? - Gerd Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.
Scientists use supercomputer to model plasma turbulence, and solve a 50-year-old mystery For more than 60 years, fusion scientists have tried to use "magnetic bottles" of various shapes and sizes to confine extremely hot plasmas, with the goal of producing practical fusion energy. But turbulence in the plasma has, so far, confounded researchers' ability to efficiently contain the intense heat within the core of the fusion device, reducing performance. Now, scientists have used one of the world's largest supercomputers to reveal the complex interplay between two types of turbulence known to occur in fusion plasmas, paving the way for improved fusion reactor design. Plasma turbulence in conditions with long wavelength turbulence (top) are compared with those exhibiting long and short wavelength turbulence (bottom). The top condition is representative of the standard model. The bottom model demonstrates the clear impact of capturing long and short wavelength turbulence simultaneously. Credit: N. T. Howard Years of careful research have shown that fusion devices are plagued by plasma turbulence. The turbulence quickly pushes heat from the hot fusion core to the edge, cooling the plasma in the process and reducing the amount of fusion energy produced. While turbulence has been identified as the culprit, the measured heat losses in many fusion devices are still commonly higher than scientists' leading theories of turbulence. Thus, even after more than half a century of research, the origin of this "anomalous" heat loss in experimental fusion plasmas remained a mystery. To tackle this problem, scientists had to create a model that captured the different types of turbulence known to exist in fusion plasmas. This turbulence can roughly be grouped into two categories: long wavelength turbulence and short wavelength turbulence. Most prior research has assumed a dominant role for long wavelength turbulence, often neglecting short wavelength turbulence altogether. Although scientists were aware they were missing the contributions of the small eddies, simulation of all the turbulence together was too challenging to undertake...until now. Using one of the world's largest supercomputers (the NERSC Edison system) and experimental data obtained from the Alcator C-Mod tokamak, scientists from the University of California, San Diego and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology recently performed the most physically comprehensive simulations of plasma turbulence to date. These simulations capture the spatial and temporal dynamics of long and short wavelength turbulence simultaneously, revealing never before observed physics phenomena. Contrary to many proposed theories, long wavelength turbulence was found to coexist with short wavelength turbulence, in the form of finger-like structures known as "streamers" (Figure 1). In many experimental conditions, the large scale turbulent eddies were found to interact strongly with the short wavelength turbulence, transferring energy back and forth. Most significantly, these simulations demonstrated that interactions between long and short wavelength turbulence can increase heat losses tenfold above the standard model, matching a wide variety of experimental measurements, and likely explaining the mystery of "anomalous" heat loss in plasmas. Pushing the limits of supercomputing capabilities has changed scientists' understanding of how heat is pushed out of fusion plasmas by turbulence, and may help explain the 50-year-old mystery of "anomalous" heat loss. The study, currently submitted to the journal Nuclear Fusion, required approximately 100 million CPU hours to perform. For comparison, this is approximately the same as the latest MacBook Pro running for the next 3,000 years. Ultimately, these results may be used to inform the design of fusion reactors, allowing for improved performance, and hopefully pushing us closer to the goal of practical fusion energy. Contact: N. T. Howard, (617) 253-4785, [email protected] Abstracts: NI3.00001 The Role of ITG/TEM/ETG Cross-Scale Coupling in Explaining Experimental Electron Heat Flux and Profile Stiffness 9:30 AM-10:00 AM, Wednesday, November 18, 2015 Session NI3: MFE Transport and Turbulence 9:30 AM-12:30 PM, Wednesday, November 18, 2015 Room: Oglethorpe Auditorium Saralyn Stewart \| EurekAlert! Molecule flash mob 19.01.2017 \| Technische Universität Wien Magnetic moment of a single antiproton determined with greatest precision ever 19.01.2017 \| Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz 19.01.2017 \| Event News 10.01.2017 \| Event News 09.01.2017 \| Event News 19.01.2017 \| Earth Sciences 19.01.2017 \| Life Sciences 19.01.2017 \| Physics and Astronomy
Close Call: Feared Asteroid Will Miss Earth, NASA Says A collision would have released 100 megatons of energy. While some folks were speculating about 2012 being the year we'd see the end of the world, NASA had its focus on another year. In 2040, researchers had thought there was a remote, but possible, chance less than an asteroid would hit Earth. After a request for more observation, new research from NASA's Near-Earth Object Program Office in Pasadena, Calif., has found that the Earth's position is not in range of the asteroid's path after all. The asteroid, which is 460 feet in diameter is said to be at least 550,000 miles away from Earth -- twice that of the distance to the moon. That's far enough away to avoid a collision with Earth which, if possible, would release about 100 megatons of energy, or several thousand times more powerful than the atomic bombs that ended World War II. (CNN)
Scientists from the University of Bristol have found that dung beetles can help farmers by reducing the development and survival of parasites in cowpats that cause serious illness in cattle during the summer months. The study was led by Bryony Sands from the School of Biological Sciences, a NERC-funded PhD student and is published today in the Journal of Applied Ecology. Artificial cow pats were made using faeces collected elsewhere and were manipulated by adding dung beetles and varying simulated rainfall. After two weeks, parasitic larvae were taken from vegetation surrounding the cow pats. The numbers of parasitic larvae found on vegetation around pats increased over the first six weeks, and remained high for at least ten weeks. At first, there were more parasites found around pats that were colonised by dung beetles as opposed to un-colonised pats. However, after eight weeks, fewer parasitic larvae were found around pats that were colonised by dung beetles. This pattern persisted for the rest of the ten week experiment. Increased rainfall was achieved by periodically watering the pats. This led to more parasitic larvae being found on the pasture, suggesting that reduced development and survival of livestock parasites as a result of dung beetle activity can be overridden by heavy rainfall. It was suggested that dung beetle activity ventilates cow pats, providing the right initial conditions for parasite egg hatching. However, parasite survival was reduced overall in pats with more beetles. Larvae require moist conditions, and dung beetle activity dries cow pats out rapidly, leading to parasite death. On average, almost 200 insects naturally colonised each cow pat, including 20 Aphodius dung beetles, which permanently live within dung. Bryony Sands said: "Dung beetle conservation is vital for the welfare of our farm animals. "The conservation of dung beetles on farmland today is extremely important for their role in dung degradation, nutrient cycling, pasture fertility, and because now we have seen that they can contribute to reducing economically deleterious livestock parasites on farms. "These beetles may be important in cow welfare, as cows are severely affected by parasites found in their intestines." Current control against parasites involves insecticide chemicals which the cows do not fully digest, resulting in contaminated cow pats. Bryony Sands added: "These pats are toxic to dung beetles, even though these critters may provide natural control against the same parasites the chemicals are fighting. Controlling parasites is expensive, and these beetles could provide a natural way to keep cows worm-free."
Short Essay Questions The 60 short essay questions listed in this section require a one to two sentence answer. They ask students to demonstrate a deeper understanding of the text. Students must describe what they've read, rather than just recall it. Short Essay Question - Chapters 1 through 13 1. Who is the woman who shows up at Martha Boyle's front door at the beginning of the story and what does the woman give to Martha? 2. What must Olive's mother know about her daughter regarding any friendship with Martha? 3. What is important to Olive's mother about what Martha must have done at some time? 4. What does Martha recall about Olive's death? 5. How did Martha know Olive? 6. What does Martha learn about Olive by reading the first... This section contains 894 words\| (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
Humbling as it seems, even whole galaxies can be ripped apart—as is the one in the red area near the center of this image. The culprit? A quasar (yellow), a galaxy with a supermassive black hole at its center that creates so much radiation it outshines everything else in the universe. Until now, astronomers have had a hard time getting much of a look at these cosmic beacons, because their light obscures everything around them. But this quasar, known as SDSS J0123+00, is obscured by a thick doughnut of dust called a torus (inset). That's allowed astronomers to sneak a peak at the beast as it rips away giant clouds of gas (green) from a nearby galaxy. The finding, reported in an upcoming issue of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomy Society, confirms a long-held theory about quasars: They power their intense luminescence by dining on the gas of other galaxies. See more ScienceShots.
Search Within Results Common Core: Standard Common Core: ELA Common Core: Math Topic: Common Core Learning Standards No Results Found Your search did not match any content. Some suggestions: - Double check your spelling. - Try searching for an item that is less specific. You can always narrow your search results later. - Try searching with fewer keywords.
Parkinson disease results from degeneration in the part of the brain that helps coordinate movements. Often, the most obvious symptom is a tremor that occurs when muscles are relaxed. Muscles become stiff, movements become slow and uncoordinated, and balance is easily lost. Doctors base the diagnosis on symptoms. General measures (such as simplifying daily tasks), drugs (such as levodopa plus carbidopa), and sometimes surgery can help, but the disease is progressive, eventually causing severe disability and immobility. (See also Overview of Movement Disorders Overview of Movement Disorders Every body movement, from raising a hand to smiling, involves a complex interaction between the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), nerves, and muscles. Damage to or malfunction... read more .) Parkinson disease is the second most common degenerative disorder of the central nervous system after Alzheimer disease. It affects Parkinson disease commonly begins between the ages of 50 and 79. Rarely, it occurs in children or adolescents. Parkinsonism Parkinsonism Parkinsonism refers to symptoms of Parkinson disease (such as slow movements and tremors) that are caused by another condition. Parkinsonism is caused by brain disorders, brain injuries, or... read more has the same symptoms as Parkinson disease, but the symptoms are caused by various other conditions, such as multiple system atrophy Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) Multiple system atrophy is a progressive, fatal disorder that makes muscles stiff (rigid) and causes problems with movement, loss of coordination, and malfunction of internal body processes... read more , progressive supranuclear palsy Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) Progressive supranuclear palsy is characterized by slow movements, muscle stiffness (rigidity), problems moving the eyes, and a tendency to fall backward. Progressive supranuclear palsy progresses... read more , stroke Overview of Stroke A stroke occurs when an artery to the brain becomes blocked or ruptures, resulting in death of an area of brain tissue due to loss of its blood supply (cerebral infarction) and symptoms that... read more , head injury Overview of Head Injuries Head injuries that involve the brain are particularly concerning. Common causes of head injuries include falls, motor vehicle crashes, assaults, and mishaps during sports and recreational activities... read more , or certain drugs. In Parkinson disease, nerve cells in part of the basal ganglia (called the substantia nigra) degenerate. The basal ganglia are collections of nerve cells located deep within the brain. They help do the following: When the brain initiates an impulse to move a muscle (for example, to lift an arm), the impulse passes through the basal ganglia. Like all nerve cells, those in the basal ganglia release chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) that trigger the next nerve cell in the pathway to send an impulse. A key neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia is dopamine. Its overall effect is to increase nerve impulses to muscles. When nerve cells in the basal ganglia degenerate, they produce less dopamine, and the number of connections between nerve cells in the basal ganglia decreases. As a result, the basal ganglia cannot control muscle movement as they normally do, leading to tremor, slow movement (bradykinesia), a tendency to move less (hypokinesia), problems with posture and walking, and some loss of coordination. Locating the Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia are collections of nerve cells located deep within the brain. They include the following: The basal ganglia help initiate and smooth out voluntary muscle movements, suppress involuntary movements, and coordinate changes in posture. In Parkinson disease, synuclein (a protein in the brain that helps nerve cells communicate) forms clumps called Lewy bodies in nerve cells. Lewy bodies consist of misfolded synuclein. Synuclein can accumulate in several regions of the brain, particularly in the substantia nigra (deep within the cerebrum) and interfere with brain function. Lewy bodies often accumulate in other parts of the brain and nervous system, suggesting that they may be involved in other disorders. In Lewy body dementia Dementia With Lewy Bodies and Parkinson Disease Dementia Dementia with Lewy bodies is progressive loss of mental function characterized by the development of Lewy bodies in nerve cells. Parkinson disease dementia is loss of mental function characterized... read more , Lewy bodies form throughout the outer layer of the brain (cerebral cortex). Lewy bodies may also be involved in Alzheimer disease Alzheimer Disease Alzheimer disease is a progressive loss of mental function, characterized by degeneration of brain tissue, including loss of nerve cells, the accumulation of an abnormal protein called beta-amyloid... read more , possibly explaining why about one third of people with Parkinson disease have symptoms of Alzheimer disease and why some people with Alzheimer disease develop parkinsonian symptoms. About 10% of people with Parkinson disease have relatives who have or have had the disease. Also, several gene mutations that can cause Parkinson disease have been identified. There is growing evidence that Parkinson disease is part of a more widespread disorder. In this disorder, synuclein accumulates not only in the brain but also in nerve cells in the heart, esophagus, intestines, and elsewhere. As a result, this disorder causes other symptoms such light-headedness when a person stands up, constipation, and difficulty swallowing, depending on where synuclein accumulates. Usually, Parkinson disease begins subtly and progresses gradually. The first symptom is Tremors typically have the following characteristics: Are coarse and rhythmic Usually occur in one hand while the hand is at rest (a resting tremor) Often involve the hand moving as if it is rolling small objects around (called pill-rolling) Decrease when the hand is moving purposefully and disappear completely during sleep May be worsened by emotional stress or fatigue May eventually progress to the other hand, the arms, and the legs May also affect the jaws, tongue, forehead, and eyelids and, to a lesser degree, the voice In some people, a tremor never develops. Sometimes the tremor becomes less obvious as the disease progresses. Parkinson disease typically also causes the following symptoms: Stiffness (rigidity): Muscles become stiff, making movement difficult. When a doctor tries to bend the person's forearm back or straighten it out, the arm resists being moved and, when it moves, it starts and stops, as it is being ratcheted (called cogwheel rigidity). Slowed movements: Movements become slow and smaller and are difficult to initiate. Thus, people tend to move less. When they move less, moving becomes more difficult because joints become stiff and muscles weaken. Difficulty maintaining balance and posture: Posture becomes stooped, and balance is difficult to maintain. Thus, people tend to topple forward or backward. Because movements are slow, people often cannot move their hands quickly enough to break a fall. These problems tend to develop later in the disease. Walking becomes difficult, especially taking the first step. Once started, people often shuffle, taking short steps, keeping their arms bent at the waist, and swinging their arms little or not at all. While walking, some people have difficulty stopping or turning. When the disease is advanced, some people suddenly stop walking because they feel as if their feet are glued to the ground (called freezing). Other people unintentionally and gradually quicken their steps, breaking into a stumbling run to avoid falling. This symptom is called festination. Stiffness and decreased mobility can contribute to muscle ache and fatigue. Having stiff muscles interferes with many movements: turning over in bed, getting in or out of a car, and standing up from a deep chair. Usual daily tasks (such as dressing, combing the hair, eating, and brushing the teeth) take longer. Because people often have difficulty controlling the small muscles of the hands, daily tasks, such as buttoning a shirt and tying shoelaces, become increasingly difficult. Most people with Parkinson disease have shaky, tiny handwriting (micrographia) because initiating and sustaining each stroke of the pen is difficult. People may mistakenly think of these symptoms as weakness. However, strength and sensation are usually normal. The face becomes less expressive (masklike) because the facial muscles that control expression do not move as much as they normally would. This lack of expression may be mistaken for depression, or it may cause depression to be overlooked. (Depression is common among people with Parkinson disease.) Eventually, the face can take on a blank stare with the mouth open, and the eyes may not blink often. Often, people drool or choke because the muscles in the face and throat are stiff, making swallowing difficult. People often speak softly in a monotone and may stutter because they have difficulty articulating words. Parkinson disease also causes other symptoms: Sleep problems, including insomnia Insomnia and Excessive Daytime Sleepiness (EDS) The most commonly reported sleep-related problems are insomnia and excessive daytime sleepiness. Insomnia is difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, waking up early, or a disturbance in... read more , are common, often because people need to urinate frequently or because symptoms worsen during the night, making turning over in bed difficult. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder Parasomnias are unusual behaviors that occur just before falling asleep, during sleep, or when waking up. (See also Overview of Sleep.) Various unconscious and largely unremembered behaviors... read more commonly develops. In this disorder, the limbs, which normally do not move in REM sleep, may move suddenly and violently because people are acting out their dreams, sometimes injuring a bed partner. Lack of sleep may contribute to depression, impaired thinking, and drowsiness during the day. Urination problems may occur. Urination may be difficult to start and to maintain (called urinary hesitancy). People may have a compelling need to urinate (urgency). Incontinence Urinary Incontinence in Adults Urinary incontinence is involuntary loss of urine. Incontinence can occur in both men and women at any age, but it is more common among women and older people, affecting about 30% of older women... read more is common. Difficulty swallowing Difficulty Swallowing Some people have difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). In dysphagia, foods and/or liquids do not move normally from the throat (pharynx) to the stomach. People feel as though food or liquids become... read more can develop because the esophagus may move its contents more slowly. As a result, people may inhale (aspirate) mouth secretions and/or food they eat or liquids they drink. Aspiration can cause pneumonia. Constipation Constipation in Adults Constipation is difficult or infrequent bowel movements, hard stool, or a feeling that the rectum is not totally empty after a bowel movement (incomplete evacuation). (See also Constipation... read more can develop because the intestine may move its contents more slowly. Inactivity and levodopa, the main drug used to treat Parkinson disease, can worsen constipation. A sudden, excessive decrease in blood pressure may occur when a person stands up (orthostatic hypotension Dizziness or Light-Headedness When Standing Up In some people, particularly older people, blood pressure drops excessively when they sit or stand up (a condition called orthostatic or postural hypotension). Symptoms of faintness, light-headedness... read more ). Scales (seborrheic dermatitis Seborrheic Dermatitis Seborrheic dermatitis is chronic inflammation that causes yellow, greasy scales and dandruff to form on areas of the skin that have a high number of oil glands such as the scalp and face, along... read more ) develop often on the scalp and face and occasionally in other areas. Dementia Dementia With Lewy Bodies and Parkinson Disease Dementia Dementia with Lewy bodies is progressive loss of mental function characterized by the development of Lewy bodies in nerve cells. Parkinson disease dementia is loss of mental function characterized... read more develops in about one third of people with Parkinson disease, usually late in the disease. In many others, thinking is impaired, but people may not recognize it. Depression Depression A short discussion of prolonged grief disorder. Depression is a feeling of sadness and/or a decreased interest or pleasure in activities that becomes a disorder when it is intense enough to... read more can develop, sometimes years before people have problems with movement. Depression tends to worsen as Parkinson disease becomes more severe. Depression can also make movement problems worse. Hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia can occur, particularly if dementia develops. People may see or hear things that are not there (hallucinations) or firmly hold certain beliefs despite clear evidence that contradicts them (delusions). They may become mistrustful and think other people intend them harm (paranoia). These symptoms are considered psychotic symptoms because they represent loss of contact with reality. Psychotic symptoms are the most common reason people with Parkinson disease are put in an institution. Having these symptoms increases the risk of dying. Mental symptoms, including psychotic symptoms, may be caused by Parkinson disease or by a drug used to treat it. The drugs used to treat Parkinson disease (see table Drugs Used to Treat Parkinson Disease Drugs Used to Treat Parkinson Disease Parkinson disease is a slowly progressive degenerative disorder of specific areas of the brain. It is characterized by tremor when muscles are at rest (resting tremor), increased muscle tone... read more ) can also cause problems, such as obsessive-compulsive behavior or difficulty controlling urges, resulting, for example, in compulsive gambling or collecting. Parkinson disease is likely if people have the following: Mild, early disease may be difficult for doctors to diagnose because it usually begins subtly. Diagnosis is especially difficult in older people because aging can cause some of the same problems as Parkinson disease, such as loss of balance, slow movements, muscle stiffness, and stooped posture. Sometimes essential tremor Essential tremor A tremor is an involuntary, rhythmic, shaking movement of part of the body, such as the hands, head, vocal cords, trunk, or legs. Tremors occur when muscles repeatedly contract and relax. (See... read more is misdiagnosed as Parkinson disease. To exclude other causes of the symptoms, doctors ask about previous disorders, exposure to toxins, and use of drugs that could cause parkinsonism. During the physical examination, doctors ask people to do certain movements, which can help establish the diagnosis. For example, in people with Parkinson disease, the tremor disappears or lessens when doctors ask them to touch their nose with their finger. Also, people with the disease have difficulty performing rapidly alternating movements, such as placing their hands on their thighs, then rapidly turning their hands over back and forth several times. No tests or imaging procedures can directly confirm the diagnosis. However, computed tomography Computed Tomography (CT) In computed tomography (CT), which used to be called computed axial tomography (CAT), an x-ray source and x-ray detector rotate around a person. In modern scanners, the x-ray detector usually... read more (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a strong magnetic field and very high frequency radio waves are used to produce highly detailed images. MRI does not use x-rays and is usually very safe... read more (MRI) may be done to look for a structural disorder that may be causing the symptoms. Single-photon emission computed tomography Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) In radionuclide scanning, radionuclides are used to produce images. A radionuclide is a radioactive form of an element, which means it is an unstable atom that becomes more stable by releasing... read more (SPECT) and positron emission tomography Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Positron emission tomography (PET) is a type of radionuclide scanning. A radionuclide is a radioactive form of an element, which means it is an unstable atom that becomes more stable by releasing... read more (PET) can detect brain abnormalities typical of the disease. However, SPECT and PET are currently used only in research facilities and do not distinguish Parkinson disease from other disorders that cause the same symptoms (parkinsonism). If the diagnosis is unclear, doctors may give the person levodopa, a drug used to treat Parkinson disease. If levodopa results in clear improvement, Parkinson disease is likely. General measures used to treat Parkinson disease can help people function better. Many drugs can make movement easier and enable people to function effectively for many years. The mainstay of treatment for Parkinson disease is Other drugs are generally less effective than levodopa, but they may benefit some people, particularly if levodopa is not tolerated or is inadequate. However, no drug can cure the disease. Two or more drugs may be needed. For older people, doses are often reduced. Drugs that cause or worsen symptoms, particularly antipsychotic drugs, are avoided. The drugs used to treat Parkinson disease can have troublesome side effects. If people notice any unusual effects (such as difficulty controlling urges or confusion), they should report them to their doctor. They should not stop taking a drug unless their doctor tells them to. Deep brain stimulation, a surgical procedure, is considered if people have advanced disease but no dementia nor psychiatric symptoms and drugs are ineffective or have severe side effects. Various simple measures can help people with Parkinson disease maintain mobility and independence: Physical therapists Physical Therapy (PT) Physical therapy, a component of rehabilitation, involves exercising and manipulating the body with an emphasis on the back, upper arms, and legs. It can improve joint and muscle function, helping... read more and occupational therapists Occupational Therapy (OT) Occupational therapy, a component of rehabilitation, is intended to enhance a person's ability to do basic self-care activities, useful work, and leisure activities. These activities include... read more can help people learn how to incorporate these measures into their daily activities, as well as recommend exercises to improve muscle tone and maintain range of motion. Therapists may also recommend mechanical aids, such as wheeled walkers, to help people maintain independence. Simple changes around the home can make it safer for people with Parkinson disease: For constipation, the following can help: Difficulty swallowing may limit food intake, so the diet must be nutritious. Making an effort to sniff more deeply may improve the ability to smell, enhancing the appetite. Traditionally, levodopa, which is given with carbidopa, is the first drug used to treat Parkinson disease. These drugs, taken by mouth, are the mainstay of treatment for Parkinson disease. But when taken for a long time, levodopa may have side effects and become less effective. So some experts have suggested that using other drugs first and delaying use of levodopa might help. However, evidence now indicates that the side effects and reduced effectiveness after long-term use probably occur because Parkinson disease is worsening and are not related to when the drug was begun. Still, because levodopa may become less effective after several years of use, doctors may prescribe another drug for people under 60, who will be taking drugs to treat the disease for a long time. Other drugs that may be used include amantadine and dopamine agonists (drugs that act like dopamine, stimulating the same receptors on brain cells). Such drugs are used because production of dopamine is decreased in Parkinson disease. Levodopa reduces muscle stiffness, improves movement, and substantially reduces tremor. Taking levodopa produces dramatic improvement in people with Parkinson disease. The drug enables many people with mild disease to return to a nearly normal level of activity and enables some people who are confined to bed to walk again. Levodopa rarely helps people who have other disorders that can cause symptoms similar to those of Parkinson disease (parkinsonism Parkinsonism Parkinsonism refers to symptoms of Parkinson disease (such as slow movements and tremors) that are caused by another condition. Parkinsonism is caused by brain disorders, brain injuries, or... read more ), such as multiple system atrophy Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) Multiple system atrophy is a progressive, fatal disorder that makes muscles stiff (rigid) and causes problems with movement, loss of coordination, and malfunction of internal body processes... read more and progressive supranuclear palsy Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) Progressive supranuclear palsy is characterized by slow movements, muscle stiffness (rigidity), problems moving the eyes, and a tendency to fall backward. Progressive supranuclear palsy progresses... read more . Levodopa is a dopamine precursor. That is, it is converted into dopamine in the body. Conversion occurs in the basal ganglia, where levodopa helps compensate for the decrease in dopamine due to the disease. However, before levodopa reaches the brain, some of it is converted to dopamine in the intestine and in the blood. Having dopamine in the intestine and blood increases the risk of side effects such as vomiting, orthostatic hypotension, and flushing. Carbidopa is given with levodopa to prevent levodopa from being converted to dopamine before it reaches the basal ganglia. As a result, there are fewer side effects, and more dopamine is available to the brain. Domperidone can be used to treat the side effects of levodopa (and other antiparkinsonian drugs), such as nausea, vomiting, and orthostatic hypotension. Domperidone, like carbidopa, reduces the amount of levodopa that is converted into dopamine in the intestine and cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels), where levodopa increases the risk of side effects. To determine the best dose of levodopa for a particular person, doctors must balance control of the disease with the development of side effects, which may limit the amount of levodopa the person can tolerate. These side effects include Involuntary movements (of the mouth, face, and limbs) called dyskinesias Hallucinations and paranoia (psychotic symptoms) Changes in blood pressure Obsessive or compulsive behavior or difficulty controlling urges, for example, resulting in compulsive gambling or uncontrollable spending Occasionally, levodopa is needed to maintain movement even though it is causing hallucinations, paranoia, or confusion. In such cases, certain antipsychotic drugs Treatment of mental symptoms Parkinson disease is a slowly progressive degenerative disorder of specific areas of the brain. It is characterized by tremor when muscles are at rest (resting tremor), increased muscle tone... read more (such as quetiapine or clozapine) are used to lessen these side effects. After taking levodopa for 5 or more years, more than half the people begin to alternate rapidly between a good response to the drug and no response—called on-off effects. Within seconds, people may change from being fairly mobile to being severely impaired and immobile. The periods of mobility after each dose become shorter, and symptoms may occur before the next scheduled dose—the off effects. Also, symptoms may be accompanied by involuntary movements due to levodopa use, including writhing or hyperactivity. One of the following can be used to control the off effects for a while: However, after 15 to 20 years, the off effects become hard to suppress. Surgery is then considered. A formulation of levodopa/carbidopa (available in Europe) can be given using a pump connected to a feeding tube inserted in the small intestine. This formulation is being studied as treatment for people who have severe symptoms that cannot be relieved by drugs and who cannot be treated with surgery. This formulation appears to greatly reduce the off times and increase quality of life. Other drugs are generally less effective than levodopa, but they may benefit some people with Parkinson disease, particularly if levodopa is not tolerated or is insufficient. Dopamine agonists, which act like dopamine, may be useful at any stage of the disease. They include Side effects may limit the use of dopamine agonists taken by mouth. In 1 to 2% of people who take them, these drugs may cause compulsive behavior, including compulsive gambling, excessive shopping, and overeating. In such cases, the dose is reduced, or the drug is stopped and another drug substituted. Pramipexole and ropinirole are given by mouth. They can be used first instead of or with levodopa in people who are under 60 and have early Parkinson disease. However, when used alone. they are rarely effective for more than a few years. Or the drugs can be used with levodopa in people with advanced Parkinson disease. These drugs are usually taken 3 times a day. Daytime sleepiness is a common side effect. A rotigotine skin patch is applied once a day. The patch is worn continuously for 24 hours, then removed and replaced. The patch should be placed in different locations each day to reduce risk of skin irritation. Rotigotine is used alone, early in the disease. Because apomorphine is quick-acting, it is used to reverse the off effects of levodopa—when movement is difficult to initiate. Thus, this drug is called rescue therapy. It is usually used when people freeze in place, preventing them, for example, from walking. Affected people or another person (such as a family member) can inject the drug up to 5 times a day as needed. In some countries, apomorphine is available in a formulation that can be given using a pump to people who have severe symptoms when surgery is not an option. The pump is a small device that can be clipped to a belt or put in a pocket. A small tube from the pump is inserted under the skin. Apomorphine is pumped from the device through the tube under the skin. This system provides apomorphine automatically on a regular schedule. Rasagiline and selegiline belong to a class of drugs called monoamine oxidase inhibitors Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) Agomelatine, a new type of antidepressant, is a possible treatment for major depressive episodes. Several types of drugs can be used to treat depression: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors... read more (MAO inhibitors). They slow the breakdown of levodopa into dopamine, thereby prolonging dopamine’s action in the body. These drugs can be used alone to postpone the use of levodopa, but they are often given later to supplement levodopa. Theoretically, if taken with certain foods (such as certain cheeses), beverages (such as red wine), or drugs, MAO inhibitors can have a serious side effect called hypertensive crisis Classification of blood pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more . However, this effect is unlikely when Parkinson disease is being treated because the doses used are low and the type of MAO inhibitor used (MAO type B inhibitors), particularly rasagiline, is less likely to have this effect. Catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors (entacapone, opicapone, and tolcapone) slow the breakdown of levodopa and dopamine, prolonging their effects, and therefore appear to be a useful supplement to levodopa. These drugs are used only with levodopa. Tolcapone is seldom used now because rarely, it damages the liver. However, tolcapone is stronger than entacapone and may be useful if off effects are severe or long-lasting. Some anticholinergic Anticholinergic: What Does It Mean? Drugs, the most common medical intervention, are an important part of medical care for older people. Without drugs, many older people would function less well or die at an earlier age. Older... read more drugs are effective in reducing the severity of a tremor and can be used in the early stages of Parkinson disease or later to supplement levodopa. Commonly used anticholinergic drugs include benztropine and trihexyphenidyl. Anticholinergic drugs are particularly useful for very young people whose most troublesome symptom is a tremor. Doctors try to avoid using these drugs in older people because they also have troublesome side effects (such as confusion, drowsiness, dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, constipation, difficulty urinating, and loss of bladder control) and because these drugs, when taken for a long time, increase the risk of mental decline. They may reduce tremor because they block the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and tremor is thought to be caused by an imbalance of acetylcholine (too much) and dopamine (too little). Occasionally, other drugs with anticholinergic effects, including some antihistamines and tricyclic antidepressants, are used, sometimes to supplement levodopa. However, because these drugs are only mildly effective and because many anticholinergic effects are troublesome, these drugs are seldom used to treat Parkinson disease. Nonetheless, tricyclic antidepressants Heterocyclic (including tricyclic) antidepressants Agomelatine, a new type of antidepressant, is a possible treatment for major depressive episodes. Several types of drugs can be used to treat depression: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors... read more with anticholinergic effects may be useful in younger people who have depression and Parkinson disease. Amantadine, a drug sometimes used to treat influenza, may be used alone to treat mild Parkinson disease or as a supplement to levodopa. Amantadine probably has many effects that make it work. For example, it stimulates nerve cells to release dopamine. It is used most often to help control the involuntary movements (dyskinesias) that are side effects of levodopa. If used alone, amantadine often loses its effectiveness after several months. People with involuntary movements or on-off effects due to long-term use of levodopa may benefit from deep brain stimulation. Tiny electrodes are surgically implanted in part of the basal ganglia. The electrodes send small amounts of electricity to the specific area of the basal ganglia responsible for the tremors. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) is used to locate the specific area to be stimulated. By stimulating this part, deep brain stimulation often greatly reduces involuntary movements and tremors and shortens the off part of the on-off effects. Deep brain stimulation is available only at special centers. Focused ultrasound surgery uses MRI to identify areas of the brain affected by Parkinson disease. Then concentrated ultrasound waves are applied the targeted area to destroy it. This procedure does not involve invasive surgery. In some countries, doctors surgically remove a small part of the brain that is severely affected or use a tiny electrical probe to destroy that part of the brain. These procedures may lessen symptoms. If these procedures are unsuccessful, deep brain stimulation of a different part of the brain may be done. Psychotic and other mental symptoms, whether caused by Parkinson disease itself, a drug, or something else, are treated. Certain antipsychotic drugs—quetiapine, clozapine, or pimavanserin—are sometimes used to treat psychotic symptoms in older people with Parkinson disease and dementia. These drugs, unlike other antipsychotics, do not worsen the symptoms of Parkinson disease. They are well-tolerated by younger people and help control the psychotic symptoms that occur in people with Parkinson disease dementia Dementia With Lewy Bodies and Parkinson Disease Dementia Dementia with Lewy bodies is progressive loss of mental function characterized by the development of Lewy bodies in nerve cells. Parkinson disease dementia is loss of mental function characterized... read more or that may be caused by some of the drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Clozapine is most effective, but its use is limited because it has serious side effects (such as a low white blood cell count) and requires frequent blood tests to check for these effects. Recent evidence suggests that pimavanserin can effectively treat psychotic symptoms without worsening the symptoms of Parkinson disease. Also, frequent blood tests are not required. Antidepressants are used to treat depression. Antidepressants with anticholinergic effects (such as amitriptyline) are sometimes used. They may also help lessen the tremor. However, many other antidepressants are very effective and have fewer side effects. They include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Agomelatine, a new type of antidepressant, is a possible treatment for major depressive episodes. Several types of drugs can be used to treat depression: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors... read more (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine, paroxetine, citalopram, and escitalopram, and other antidepressants Drug therapy for depression A short discussion of prolonged grief disorder. Depression is a feeling of sadness and/or a decreased interest or pleasure in activities that becomes a disorder when it is intense enough to... read more , such as venlafaxine, mirtazapine, selegiline, and bupropion. Treatment of mental symptoms can help lessen problems with movement, improve quality of life, and sometimes delay the need to be put in an institution. Because Parkinson disease is progressive, people eventually need help with normal daily activities, such as eating, bathing, dressing, and toileting. Caregivers can benefit from learning about the physical and psychologic effects of Parkinson disease and about ways to enable people to function as well as possible. Because such care is tiring and stressful, caregivers may benefit from support groups. Eventually, most people with Parkinson disease become severely disabled and immobile. They may be unable to eat, even with assistance. Dementia develops in about one third of them. Because swallowing becomes increasingly difficult, death due to aspiration pneumonia Aspiration Pneumonia and Chemical Pneumonitis Aspiration pneumonia is lung infection caused by inhaling mouth secretions, stomach contents, or both. Chemical pneumonitis is lung irritation caused by inhalation of substances irritating or... read more (a lung infection due to inhaling fluids from the mouth or stomach) is a risk. For some people, a nursing home may be the best place for care. Before people with this disease are incapacitated, they should establish advance directives Advance Directives Health care advance directives are legal documents that communicate a person’s wishes about health care decisions in the event the person becomes incapable of making health care decisions. There... read more , indicating what kind of medical care they want at the end of life. The following are some English-language resources that may be useful. Please note that THE MANUAL is not responsible for the content of these resources. American Parkinson Disease Association, Inc. (APDA): This web site provides information to support and teach people who are affected by Parkinson’s disease, including caregivers. It also provides links to resources, such as support groups and exercise classes. The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research: This web site provides information about its work to make sure government policies accelerate the development of new, improved therapies for Parkinson disease and about ways to increase quality of life for people with Parkinson disease and their families, including support groups and telemedicine. Parkinson's Disease Foundation (PDF): This web site describes Parkinson disease and its symptoms and provides tips for living with Parkinson disease and an opportunity for online community with other people who have Parkinson disease.
Have you ever wanted to learn how exactly passwords are generated? In this workshop, we're going to dive deep into cybersecurity, and along the way we'll make a secure password generator with Python. Once your repl spins up, you should be dumped into an empty file called main.py. This is where you'll be writing all of the code for this project. Now we're ready to start coding! Start by importing the hashlib module from the built-in Python library. This will allow us to hash and salt our passwords using a popular hashing algorithm called SHA256. Under the import statement, add: choice = input('Are you\n(1) Signing Up\n(2) Signing In?: ') This asks the user what they want to do. In Python, input() prompts the user for input and stops until they input something. After getting the user's choice, ask them for their password: pwd = input("Password: ") For now, we're going to store the password in plaintext in a temporary variable. But as you'll find out in a second, we'll need to do a lot more than that if we want our password generator to be secure. Under the last line you wrote, add this: pwd = hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', pwd.encode('utf-8'), b'salt', 100000) This creates a SHA256 hash of the password and adds a "salt" at the end. Note that we are resetting the pwd variable so that the raw string password is deallocated from memory, and is therefore unhackable. pbkdf2_hmac()function's first parameter is the way we will hash the password. In our case, we use the SHA256 method. - The second parameter is the string we want to hash. In our case, it's the pwdvariable. We have to encode this to 'utf-8' before passing it into the hash function. - The next parameter is the salt we want. We use the 'b' character before the string to convert it to bytes. - The final parameter in the hash function is the length of the derived key. This is unimportant for this workshop and a little beyond the scope, so in the interest of keeping this workshop consise, I will not be going into what this derived key parameter does. Now WHAT the hanky panky is all this???? To understand hashing, you first need to know what encryption is. Every character on your keyboard (yes, look down at your keyboard) is assigned to an integer value, which is called an ASCII value. When someone encrypts a file, they will generally turn the characters held within a file into their ASCII values, and increment them in some way. So basically, if the character 'A' is in an encrypted file, it might look like 'C'. Of course, these files cannot be understood by humans after encryption, so people use decrypters to get encrypted files back into their normal ASCII form. Simply put, hashing is a form of encryption that involves converting a piece of data to another format that makes it computationally infeasible to decrypt. More broadly, a hashing algorithm is a type of trapdoor function. For passwords specifically, that means that you can super-easily run a password through a hashing algorithm, and if an attacker were to find the password, it would be impossible for them to convert the hashed string back into a password. The cool thing about hashing is that the same string will always result in the same hash—for example, password, when run through the SHA256 hashing algorithm, will always output 5E884898DA28047151D0E56F8DC6292773603D0D6AABBDD62A11EF721D1542D8. This is how websites know if your password is correct or not even if it's stored as a hash in their database. This is also why websites make such a big deal about you choosing a "secure" password and enabling multi-factor authentication—if your password is common or easy to brute-force attack, hashing doesn't make a big difference. Salting is an extra level of security that adds randomness to each password. It basically adds a unique string to the password that is hashed along with it. Whew, that was a lot of information to digest. But now that we're past it, let's keep coding! pbkdf2_hmac() function returns bytes, so we need to convert these bytes to a string. Under all of the previous code you wrote, add: pwd = pwd.hex() hex() function digests a bunch of bytes and returns a string! After that, we will check for what to do based on the player's initial input, which we stored in the choice variable. To do so, we will be using the flow control 'if' statement: if(choice == '1'): If the player inputted 1 as their choice, we know that they want to sign up. Therefore, we would like to save their hashed password. Inside this if statement, add: if (choice == '1'): results = open('save.dat', 'w') results.write(pwd) results.close() open()function opens a file called save.dat, and sets the mode to w, or "write". - Then, we write the hashed password to the - Finally, we close the file to save our changes. To add a little flair at the end, we will add some colored text to confirm that the user successfully signed up. On the left side of repl.it, create a new file named The colors we will be using are referred to as ANSI escape sequences. Each sequence represents either a color, background, or style. These codes are used in terminals, including the Windows Command Prompt! Let's define some constant strings. Each string will represent an ANSI escape sequence for a certain terminal color. It is a convention to capitalize all letters in a constant variable. Let's define these colors in RED = '\u001b[31m' GREEN = '\u001b[32m' BLUE = '\u001b[36m' The codes in the strings are known as ANSI escape codes, which allow us to bring color to the terminal! Now, go back to main.py, and add these lines to the end of your if statement: if (choice == '1'): # code we wrote before print() print(FColor.BLUE + 'Sign Up Complete!') Printing an ANSI escape code will change the terminal text color to the color we print out. In order to make this work, we need to import our FColor file. So, at the top of the main.py file, add: import hashlib import FColor Here's what your main.py file should look like so far: import hashlib import FColor choice = input('Are you\n(1) Signing Up\n(2) Signing In?: ') pwd = input("Password: ") pwd = hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', pwd.encode('utf-8'), b'salt', 100000) pwd = pwd.hex() if(choice == '1'): results = open('save.dat', 'w') results.write(pwd) results.close() print() print(FColor.BLUE + 'Sign Up Complete!') If you click the green "Run" button at the top of your repl, here's what you should see: Now that we have created a system in which the user can save their hashed password to a file, we will create a system where the user can log in using the password they signed up with. To do so, we will create an elif statement under our if statement. The elif block will only run if the user wants to sign in. main.py file, after the if statement, add: elif(choice == '2'): try: with open('save.dat', 'r') as file: for line in file: If the user is signing in, we read the saved password from the save.dat file. Then, we loop through each line in the file. When the program reads each line, it'll occasionally find \n, which denotes a new character. Let's strip each line of \n to get the pure text. Inside the for loop, add: line = line.replace('\n', '') This will replace every \n, or newline, character with a blank character After this, let's create an empty print statement to format a newline. Still inside the for loop, add: Now we will check whether or not the password the user initially inputted is the same as the one the user made an account with. To do so, we will compare the two variables with an if statement. print() statement, still in the for loop, add: if(hash_data == line): print(FColor.GREEN + "Correct Password") else: print(FColor.RED + f'Incorrect Password') We again take advantage of our fancy terminal color setup to print in green if the password is correct and red if it's incorrect. Then, to finish off our try block, we will make an except block. If you leave a try block open without an except block, your code will error! This will only run if we fail to open up the saved password file. At the bottom of the file, in the same indentation as the try block, add: except: print(FColor.RED + "Couldn't read file 'save.dat'") The final code should look like this: import hashlib import FColor choice = input('Are you\n(1) Signing Up\n(2) Signing In?: ') pwd = input("Password: ") pwd = hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', pwd.encode('utf-8'), b'salt', 100000) pwd = pwd.hex() if(choice == '1'): results = open('save.dat', 'w') results.write(pwd) results.close() print() print(FColor.BLUE + 'Sign Up Complete!') elif(choice == '2'): try: with open('save.dat', 'r') as file: for line in file: line = line.replace('\n', '') print() if(pwd == line): print(FColor.GREEN + "Correct Password") else: print(FColor.RED + f'Incorrect Password') except: print(FColor.RED + "Couldn't read file 'save.dat'") Here's the result of running your code: Woohoo! You have successfully created a secure password system! You can use this to create secure login pages and sign up pages without ever getting hacked! If you want to take this project even further, here are a few examples of ways you can do so: - This example prints out the hashed password in both byte format and string format for you to see and compare! - This example stores the hashed password using a different hash algorithm (md5) and a custom salt! - This example takes this workshop to the next level, using repl.it's database system, repldb. It stores the hashed passwords, using the username as a key. Then, a user can sign into their account, but only with the correct password.
Nasutoceratops is an extinct genus of ceratopsian dinosaur. It is a basal centrosaurine which lived during the late Cretaceous period (late Campanian, about 76.0-75.5 Ma) in what is now southern Utah, USA. Nasutoceratops was a large, ground-dwelling, quadrupedal herbivore with a short-snout and unique rounded horns above its eyes that have been likened to those of modern cattle. Extending almost to the tip of its snout, these horns are the longest of all the members of the centrosaurine subfamily. The presence of pneumatic elements in the nasal bones of Nasutoceratops are a unique trait and are unknown in any other ceratopsid. Nasutoceratops and Diabloceratops are the only two centrosaurine dinosaurs from the American southwest. Nasutoceratops is known from the holotype UMNH VP 16800, a partially associated nearly complete skull, a coronoid process, a syncervical, three partial anterior dorsal vertebrae, a shoulder girdle, an associated left forelimb, parts of the right forelimb and skin impressions. Two specimens were referred: UMNH VP 19466, a disarticulated adult skull consisting of an incomplete premaxilla, maxilla and nasal, and UMNH VP 19469, an isolated squamosal of a subadult. The holotype was discovered and collected in 2006 during the Kaiparowits Basin Project, initiated by the University of Utah in 2000. It was recovered from channel sandstone from the middle unit of the upper Kaiparowits Formation within the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, in sediment that dates to the late Campanian stage of the Cretaceous period, approximately 75 million years ago. It was first named and described in a thesis by its discoverer Eric Karl Lund in 2010 as Nasutuceratops titusi, remaining at first an invalid nomen ex dissertatione. Scott D. Sampson, Lund, Mark A. Loewen, Andrew A. Farke and Katherine E. Clayton validly named it in 2013, emending the generic name to Nasutoceratops. The type species is Nasutoceratops titusi. The generic name comes from nasutus in Latin meaning "large-nosed", and ceratops, "horned-face" in Greek. The specific name honors Alan L. Titus for recovering fossils of Nasutoceratops from the GSENM. The holotype skull is approximately Template:Convert in length. Its body length is estimated at Template:Convert. Nasutoceratops has several unique derived traits or autapomorphies. The part of the snout around the nostril is strongly developed, representing about three quarters of the skull length in front of the eye sockets. The rear of each nasal bone is hollowed out by a large internal cavity. The contact surface between the maxilla and the praemaxilla is exceptionally large. The maxilla also has a large internal flange contacting the praemaxilla via two horizontal facets. The brow horns at their bases are pointed forwards and outwards, then curve inwards, and ultimately twist their points upwards. Nasutoceratops also shows a unique combination of in themselves not unique traits. The horn on the nose is low and narrow, with an elongated base. The squamosal has a high ridge on its upper surface, running from the direction of the eye socket towards the squamosal rim. The skull frill is more or less circular with its widest point at the middle edge. The osteoderms on the frill edge, the epiparietals and episquamosals, do not have the form of spikes but are shaped like simple low crescents. The rear frill edge is not notched but instead has an epiparietal on the midline. Nasutoceratops has a short and high snout. The nasal bones of Nasutoceratops exhibit internal cavities that the authors consider to represent pneumatic excavations, invading the bone from the nasal cavity. This is noteworthy because pneumatic nasals are unknown in any other ceratopsid, which supports that this feature represents a unique derived trait of this genus. Nasutoceratops had as many as 29 tooth positions in the maxilla, each occupied by several stacked teeth. The skull roof between the eye sockets is vaulted and is markedly higher than the snout region. The curved horizontally projecting brow horn arrangement was by paleontologist David Hone likened to that of modern cattle. The brow horns span approximately 40% of the total length of the skull, almost reaching the level of the snout tip, and with a bone core length of up to 457 millimetres are the longest known of any centrosaurine, both in absolute and relative terms. The epijugal (cheek horn) is with a length of 85 millimetres also the largest known among centrosaurines. The skull frill is moderately long and at each side pierced by a large kidney-shaped parietal fenestra. Apart from the midline epiparietal there are seven epiparietals at each side and about four to five episquamosals. In the forelimb, the ulna is exceptionally robust with a large olecranon process. Of the three patches with skin impressions found near the left shoulder, one shows a pattern of large, eight to 11 millimetres wide, hexagonal scales surrounded by smaller triangular scales. Nasutoceratops was in 2013 assigned to the Centrosaurinae, in a relatively basal position. A phylogenetic analysis performed by Sampson et al. (2013) found Nasutoceratops to be the sister taxon of Avaceratops. The cladogram presented here follows this analysis. Clade names within Centrosaurinae follow Fiorillo & Tykoski (2011). According to the 2013 study, the existence of Nasutoceratops would support the hypothesis of faunal separation between the north and south of Laramidia. Its clade would differ from the northern centrosaurines in the retention of long brow horns and a short nose horn, combined with developing, convergent with the Chasmosaurinae, low epiparietals. The only known specimen of Nasutoceratops was recovered at the Kaiparowits Formation, in southern Utah. Argon-argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76.1 and 74.0 million years ago, during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. During the Late Cretaceous period, the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway, a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses, Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east. The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps, ponds and lakes, and was bordered by highlands. The climate was wet and humid, and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms. This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world. Nasutoceratops shared its paleoenvironment with theropods such as dromaeosaurids, the troodontid Talos sampsoni, ornithomimids like Ornithomimus velox, tyrannosaurids like Albertosaurus and Teratophoneus, armored ankylosaurids, the duckbilled hadrosaurs Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus and Gryposaurus monumentensis, the ceratopsians Utahceratops gettyi and Kosmoceratops richardsoni and the oviraptorosaurian Hagryphus giganteus. Paleofauna present in the The Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans (sharks and rays), frogs, salamanders, turtles, lizards and crocodilians. A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates, marsupials, and insectivorans.
Laws and policies not only reflect policy-makers’ knowledge about cultural norms but laws and policies also actively shape our cultural norms as well (Benabou & Tirole, 2011). Inclusive laws and policies may negate the reinforcement of discrimination of marginalized groups by changing attitudes towards said groups over time. This is especially true of the disability community. Prior to the enactment of inclusive policies, persons with disabilities could be legally and explicitly discriminated against in the fields of education, medicine, and employment. Persons with disabilities still face discrimination, but the following laws make strides toward shaping the United States into a more inclusive for persons with disabilities, and these laws have played a key role in shaping cultural norms regarding these issues. Civil and political rights are protected by many different laws for all Americans; however, key pieces of legislation pertain specifically to persons with disabilities. Currently, three major federal laws protect persons with disabilities in the United States: the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1975, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. Additionally, the United Nations also has implemented the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), an international commitment to promote accessibility on the global scale. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 The Rehabilitation Act was the first piece of civil rights legislation to explicitly identify the rights of persons with disabilities and outlaws the discrimination on the basis of disability in Federally-funded programs. This includes barring programs conducted by Federal agencies, programs receiving Federal financial assistance, and Federal employment from discriminating against persons with disabilities. The Rehabilitation Act also: - Defines persons with disabilities as those who have a physical or mental impairment that limits a major life activity, such as walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, learning, or working. - Gives students with disabilities the right to appropriate education. - ‘appropriate education’ is defined in this context as education that meets the unique educational needs of a student. - Requires parents must be notified if their children are tested for learning difficulties, are identified as having a disability, or placed into special education programs. Parents are also given the option to object to their child’s evaluation results through a formal, impartial hearing. - Mandates students with disabilities should be educated with their non-disabled peers when appropriate. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) The IDEA requires children with disabilities receive a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their individual needs and provides financial incentives for public education institutions complying with federal disability laws. IDEA also requires the implementation of Individualized Education Programs (IEP’s) for each child. These programs are developed by a team of individuals knowledgeable about the child’s situation (typically the child’s teacher, the parents, the child, and oftentimes an agency representative who is qualified to provide special education) and are required to be reviewed annually. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act also: - Protects children (up to age 21) deemed eligible for special education services. - Allocates funds assisting states and other education agencies to meet special education requirements. - Requires children in special education programs have a written IEP. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) The ADA prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, state and local government, public accommodations, commercial facilities, transportation, and telecommunications and also applies to the United States Congress. The Americans with Disabilities Act also: - Prohibits explicit discrimination in recruitment, hiring, promotions, training, pay, social activities, and other privileges of employment and restricts questions that can be asked about an applicant’s disability before a job offer is made for employers who possess more than 15 employees. - Requires employers “make reasonable accommodations to the known physical or mental limitations of otherwise qualified individuals with disabilities, unless it results in undue hardship”(29 CFR Parts 1630, 1602 (Title I, EEOC)). - Requires state and local governments follow specific architectural guidelines in the new construction and alteration of their buildings. - Provides a telephone hotline if disability-related complaints need to be filed. These complaints are filed with the Department of Justice, who may provide mediation programs if necessary. - Requires all public transportation services (such as city buses and public rail transit) are fully accessible. - Requires common carriers establish interstate and intrastate telecommunication relay services 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. - Requires closed captioning of federally-funded public service announcements. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) The CRPD and its Optional Protocol were adopted by the United Nations in 2006. With 82 signatories to the Convention, 44 signatories to the Optional Protocol, and 1 ratification to the Convention, the CRPD has the highest number of signatories in history to a United Nations Convention. It is also the first legally binding, international treaty protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. The CRPD is the first human rights treaty of the 21st century and is the first to allow both regional economic integration organizations and civil society are parties to negotiations of a Convention. The UN defines the CRPD as “a human rights instrument with an explicit, social development“. This document reaffirms persons with disabilities (not restricted to physical and/or visible disabilities) must enjoy all fundamental freedoms and human rights. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also: - Is the fastest growing treaty in the history of the UN. - Embraces a human rights-based approach (HRBA) of disability. HRBA shifted the approach to disability from “objects” of charity, social protection, and medical treatment towards a doctrine of human rights, envisioning persons with disabilities should make their own decisions about life, the future, and claim rights on their own behalf. - Defines disability as an evolving and open concept. - Encourages the participation of civil society, particularly persons with disabilities and their related organizations. This follows the Convention’s slogan, “Nothing about us without us.” - Protects persons with disabilities from direct and indirect discrimination and provides reporting mechanisms if a person’s rights are violated within the context of the CRPD. Why Disability Laws and Policies are Needed There are more than 1 billion people in the world are currently living with a disability; about 59.7 million of them live within the United States. Batavia (2001) asserts civil rights legislation, such as those aforementioned, open doors for persons with disabilities that were otherwise sealed shut while also normalizing persons with disabilities in the workplace and beyond. It is apparent that such legislation has moved the United States and the world toward a more inclusive and accessible world, but there is still work to be done. Batavia (2001) points out less than 20% of complaints filed under the ADA end up ruling in favor of the defendant. This is the typical average for complaints filed under anti-discrimination laws in the United States; however, Batavia also argues the percentage for the ADA specifically should be much higher due to the uniqueness of each individual disability and necessary accommodations for them. Society oftentimes reinforces views of persons with disabilities as a ‘burden’ or ‘incapable’; one way to break these negative stigmatizations is via policy and respecting those policies as citizens. If laws are changed, then public opinion toward a particular subject may change along with it. However, this change takes time; when sodomy was decriminalized in the United States in the 1950s, public opinion on same-sex and other queer couples began to shift. The shift over time pressured the Supreme Court to rule in favor of Queer Rights when same-sex couples gained the right to marry in 2015. The LGBTQ+ community still faces many obstacles today, but they are substantially less than those faced before favorable legislation was passed. Without a tireless effort, laws such as the ADA or the CRPD may have taken a much longer time to manifest. These efforts must continue in order to eradicate the stigma surrounding persons with disabilities. Batavia, Andrew I., and Kay Schriner. “The Americans with Disabilities Act as Engine of Social Change: Models of Disability and the Potential of a Civil Rights Approach.” Policy Studies Journal 29.4 (2001): 690-702. Benabou, Roland, and Jean Tirole. Laws and Norms. No. w17579. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011. Keep up with the latest announcements related to the upcoming Symposium on Disability Rights by following the IHR on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
ASPCA, National Shelter Outreach Reducing Animal Stress in Kenneling Situations Stress plays a major role in the spread of disease in shelters. Stress can be physical, emotional or environmental. - Animals which are malnourished, pregnant, lactating or injured are physically stressed. - New environments, unfamiliar faces and noises, new animal companions and overcrowding contribute to emotional stress. - Environmental stresses are found in shelters that lack the proper ventilation, are too warm or too cold. - An animal that is stressed has a lowered resistance to illness, and this can lead to epidemics of infectious disease. The healthiest shelter environments are ones which have a good health program, sound management practices, and make effort to minimize stress to each individual animal as well as the entire group. - Kenneling restricts the dog’s use of its senses - Vision is limited. Kennel walls block vision. Can lead to jumping up. - Noise levels are accentuated. Try to keep noise from radios, banging gates, and other animals to a minimum. - Smells of food preparation causes excitement. Try to prepare food in a separate area. - Bitches in heat. Keeps intact males in constant anticipation. - Separate or neuter males, if possible. Signs of Stress - A dog may pace the kennel, spin or jump against the walls. - They may shiver, pant or have a very taut face. - They may chew bedding or kennel fixtures. - Hiding in corners behind beds or under bedding. - They may bark incessantly, start self-mutilation or become aggressive. - Signs can also be physical: loss of weight, diarrhea, loss of appetite, vomiting of bile, mental depression with little or no response to stimuli. - Dogs look for a calm leadership position to be taken by kennel staff. A nervous handler confuses dogs by being inconsistent. - Kenneling dogs alone deprives them of the comfort of a pack. - An incorrect mix of dogs in one pack can be even more stressful. - Know past history of dog to help assess dog’s temperament. - Provide the dog with appropriate play group. - Exercise dogs — leash walks, play groups. - Providing bed and bedding gives comfort. - Toys to prevent boredom (Kong(c), Buster Cube(c)) - Noise control — radio volume, banging bowls, slamming doors… - Establishing a daily routine — cleaning and feeding. - Same caretakers should take care of the same animals, as much as possible. - Speak softly and reassuringly. - Don’t stare. - Never hover or loom over animals. - Don’t force or drag animals in and out of cages. - Go in the cages with animals — show them their space. - Talk with the animals. - Remember their keen sense of smell — clean up immediately. 424 East 92nd Street New York, NY 10128-6804
Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. It involves two cell divisions and produces four haploid cells. Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous genetic variation in offspring. Does mitosis produce offspring? Some organisms can use mitosis to reproduce asexually. The offspring of asexual reproduction are genetically identical to each other and to their parent. NGSS Performance Expectations: \|Number of new cells\|\|2 identical cells\|\|4 unique cells\| Does meiosis make offspring? The overall process of meiosis produces four daughter cells from one single parent cell. Each daughter cell is haploid, because it has half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. Does mitosis or meiosis produce offspring? Mitosis and meiosis are both processes by which cells reproduce, but there are distinct differences between the two. While new cells are generated during mitosis, meiosis is a special type of cell division that produces sex cells for reproduction. The two processes were discovered by different scientists. How many offsprings do mitosis and meiosis produce? ~Mitosis produces 2 identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces 4 genetically different cells. 15. What type of reproduction results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent? Does mitosis or meiosis divide once? The cell plasma membrane pinches, to leave two daughter cells with separate plasma membranes. In meiosis, cytokinesis must occur twice: once after telophase I and again, after telophase II. \|Metaphase\|\|The two centrosomes are now located at opposite poles of the cell.\| What happens to DNA during mitosis? This process involves replication of the cell’s chromosomes, segregation of the copied DNA, and splitting of the parent cell’s cytoplasm. … The outcome of binary fission is two new cells that are identical to the original cell. Why is meiosis 2 necessary? The cells are diploid, therefore in order to distribute the chromosomes eqully among the daughter cells so that they contain half the chromosome , Meiosis II is necessary. … It reduces the chromosome number to half so that the process of fertilisation can restore the original number in the zygote. What happens to daughter cells after meiosis? Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells. The process results in four daughter cells that are haploid, which means they contain half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cell. … What occurs in mitosis but not meiosis? The daughter cells produced by mitosis are identical, whereas the daughter cells produced by meiosis are different because crossing over has occurred. The events that occur in meiosis but not mitosis include homologous chromosomes pairing up, crossing over, and lining up along the metaphase plate in tetrads. Which is more important mitosis or meiosis? This makes them both vital processes for the existence of living things that reproduce sexually. Meiosis makes the cells needed for sexual reproduction to occur, and mitosis replicates non-sex cells needed for growth and development. Together, they provide the cellular basis for healthy growth and sexual reproduction.
The prosperity of our society depends on a functioning energy supply. Modern life would be unimaginable without electricity, warmth, and mobility. The aim of the Energiewende is to realise a stable supply of energy, which is economically viable and environmentally friendly. This is why the German Federal Research Ministry emphasizes research on technologies and social concepts that ensure sustainable energy production, conversion, and distribution. The realisation of a sustainable energy supply depends on a reduction in our consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal. The burning of fossil fuels generates heat and releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide - a serious pollutant and major contributor to global warming. The key to climate mitigation is an Energiewende that reduce our consumption of fossil fuels, through the increased use of renewable energies and a more efficient use of fossil fuels. On the Road to Increased Energy Efficiency As the Energiewende continues renewable energies, such as hydroelectrics and solar power, wind and geothermal power, and regenerative resources are replacing fossil fuels. By 2050 renewable energies should make up 60 percent of the gross final consumption of energy, and 80 percent of the gross electricity consumption. The second pillar of the Energiewende, following the expansion of renewable energy supplies, is a significant increase in energy efficiency. Potential solutions range from the modernisation of power stations, to energy efficient motors and energy saving industrial processes, to energy efficient building renovation and household goods. The goal is a 20 percent reduction primary energy consumption by 2020, and a 50 percent reduction by 2050, compared to 2008. An essential tool in increasing energy efficiency is, for example, power-heat coupling, where exhaust heat from the production of electricity is used for heating, or in production processes. Developing Storage Solutions New storage concepts and intelligent power grids are central elements of a renewable energy based energy system. Wind and solar power are not continuously available meaning the supply of energy is less stable compared to large power stations. We need storage solutions and smart power grids, to deal with excess energy produced during peaks in solar and wind power production. Accumulators bridge the gap between energy production and energy consumption. The “Energy Storage Funding Initiative” aims to deliver the necessary technological breakthroughs and to facilitate a speedy market launch of new energy storage technologies. One promising approach to a future with an emphasis on regenerative electricity production is the concept of Power-to-Gas. In this concept, excess electricity generated by wind and solar technologies will be used to split water. The hydrogen released in this process could then be converted back into electricity with fuel cells or fed into the natural gas grid. It is also conceivable that excess wind or solar power could be converted into heat (Power-to-Heat), into liquid fuels (Power-to-Fuel), or into basic chemicals (Power-to-Chemicals). Decentralised Supply is the Future The nature of our energy supply system is changing from a system reliant on conventional, centralised large power stations, to a decentralised structure with numerous smaller power generation systems. As the transformation continues, regional and municipal distribution networks must change too. The trend is towards smart grids that connect producers, consumers, storage facilities, and network structures. Research into the expansion of the grid infrastructure and the increased use of renewable energies in the transmission and distribution networks, is being carried out as part of the research initiative “Smart Electricity Grids”. Materials research is necessary, not just for the improvement of energy production plants, but also for an increase in energy efficiency and the adaptation of fossil fuel power plants to the Energiewende. These materials can contribute to the stability of wind turbines and make their components energy efficient and cost effective. New materials for energy production, such as photovoltaics, and energy storage, for example for hydrogen generation, are also being explored. These issues are the focus of the “Material Research for the Energy Transition” funding initiative. Research for the Energiewende More than 180 universities and 120 non-university research institutions are driving the Energiewende forwards. Their work covers every step of the research process, from basic research, to application oriented research and development, to pilot plants. The German Federal Ministry of Research is supporting basic research, the prerequisite for new technologies and innovations. The Research Ministry is also responsible for institutional research at the Helmholtz Association (excluding the German Aerospace Center), the Fraunhofer Society, the Max-Plank, and the Leibniz Association.
Influenza, commonly known as “the flu”, is an infectious disease caused by the influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: a high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children there may be nausea and vomiting but these are not common in adults. Nausea and vomiting occur more commonly in the unrelated infection gastroenteritis, which is sometimes inaccurately referred to as “stomach flu” or “24-hour flu”. Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure. Usually, the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes.This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances. It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes. A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are sick. The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat, sputum, or nose for the virus. Influenza spreads around the world in a yearly outbreak, resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. In the Northern and Southern parts of the world outbreaks occur mainly in winter while in areas around the equator outbreaks may occur at any time of the year. Death occurs mostly in the young, the old and those with other health problems. Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent. In the 20th century three influenza pandemics occurred: Spanish influenza in 1918, Asian influenza in 1958, and Hong Kong influenza in 1968, each resulting in more than a million deaths. The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A/H1N1 to be a pandemic in June of 2009. Influenza may also affect other animals, including pigs, horses and birds. Frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection because the virus is inactivated by soap. Wearing a surgical mask is also useful. Yearly vaccinations against influenza is recommended by the World Health Organization in those at high risk. The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza. It is usually well tolerated. A vaccine made for one year may be not be useful in the following year, since the virus evolves rapidly. Antiviral drugs such as the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir among others have been used to treat influenza. Their benefits in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than their risks. No benefit has been found in those with other health problems.
Learning through small skill based projects is always fun! This activity is a blend of messy play and provides multiple opportunities to the parents. They can easily integrate multiple learning objects as per the age and ability of their children. The material used is easily available and can also be alternated with similar material if you don’t find the ones mentioned in the video. Mess is sign of learning! This project is based on skills sensories and you can always involve more learning into it as you like. The best part is, it’s going to be really messy; so make sure if you are doing this activity your kids and you are mentally prepared because it is going to be a lot of mess out there. We are going to make a tile made up of cement and add designs, letters, numbers, shapes, whatever you like. Step 1: Take the strainer and refine the sand, so you can have a smooth mix and avoid cracks. an old flat metal, wooden or plastic tray or pan & make the surface smooth. Step 2: Take some dry grass & cut it into tiny small pieces. Step 3: Now, take a container, add half scoop of grass, one scoop of cement & three scoops of the refined sand. Mix them all evenly & add water to make a mixture. Step 4: Make sure not to make the mixture too watery or too thick, it has to be sloppy. Step 5: Place the lid of the can the table and spread the mix evenly. Add a leaf or your designed element and gentle press it. Step 6: Let is set for a couple of hours and then take off the leaf. Let it completely dry over night. Paint and decorate your tile as you like. - Does cement has glue? - If we do not add cement, will the sand still make a tile with water? - Why do we have to refine sand? - Why is the tile gray, when we added more sand and less cement? - Can we write our names on the tiles? - Why did we add grass?
For orbits centered about planets other than Earth and Mars, the orbit names incorporating Greek terminology is less commonly used - Mercury orbit (Hermocentric or hermiocentric): An orbit around the planet Mercury. - Venus orbit (Aphrodiocentric or cytheriocentric): An orbit around the planet Venus. - Jupiter orbit (Jovicentric or zenocentric): An orbit around the planet Jupiter. - Saturn orbit (Kronocentric or saturnocentric): An orbit around the planet Saturn. - Uranus orbit (Oranocentric): An orbit around the planet Uranus. - Neptune orbit (Poseidocentric): An orbit around the planet Neptune. Altitude classifications for geocentric orbits - Low Earth orbit (LEO): geocentric orbits with altitudes below 2,000 km (1,200 mi). - Medium Earth orbit (MEO): geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,200 mi) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometers (22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. These are used for Global Navigation Satellite System spacecraft, such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou. GPS satellites orbits at the height of 20,200 kilometers (12,600 mi) with an orbital period of almost 12 hours. - Geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and geostationary orbit (GEO) are orbits around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. Although terms are often used interchangeably, technically a geosynchronous orbit matches the Earth's rotational period, but the definition does not require it to have zero orbital inclination to the equator, and thus is not stationary above a given point on the equator, but may oscillate north and south during the course of a day. Thus, a geostationary orbit is defined as a geosynchronous orbit at zero inclination. Geosynchronous (and geostationary) orbits have a semi-major axis of 42,164 km (26,199 mi). This works out to an altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Both complete one full orbit of Earth per sidereal day (relative to the stars, not the Sun). - High Earth orbit: geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit (35,786 km or 22,236 mi). For Earth orbiting satellites below the height of about 800 km, the atmospheric drag is the major orbit perturbing force out of all non-gravitational forces. Above 800 km, solar radiation pressure causes the largest orbital perturbations. However, the atmospheric drag strongly depends on the density of the upper atmosphere, which is related to the solar activity, therefore the height at which the impact of the atmospheric drag is similar to solar radiation pressure varies depending on the phase of the solar cycle. There are two types of orbits: closed (periodic) orbits, and open (escape) orbits. Circular and elliptical orbits are closed. Parabolic and hyperbolic orbits are open. Radial orbits can be either open or closed.
102 - Roman Dacia The modern Rumanians are generally regarded as the descendants of the Dacians, a branch of the ancient Thracians; they dwelt north of the Danube in the territory now known as Transylvania, and formed at the beginning of the Christian era a comparatively well-organized state. Under the rule of able princes (e. g. Decebalus) they frequently threatened the Roman civilization between tbe Adriatic Sea and the Danube. Trajan first succeeded after several campaigns (102-06) in bringing the country under the Roman dominion: the new Roman province received the name of Dacia, and embraced the modern Transylvania, Banat, and Rumania. To replace the Dacians, a portion of whom had emigrated northwards, Trajan introduced colonists into the land from every part of the Roman Empire, especially from the neighbouring Illyrian provinces; these settlers soon converted the Dacian territories wasted by the wars into one of the most flourishing Roman provinces, which was shortly known as "Dacia felix". From the fusion of the remaining Thracians and the Roman colonists, who possessed a higher culture, issued in the course of the third and fourth centuries the Daco-Rumanian people. As early as the second century began the assaults of the Germanic tribes on the Roman Empire. After several unsuccessful attempts, the Goths occupied the Dacian province in the third century, and in 271 Emperor Aurelian formally ceded the territory to them. In the fourth century the Goths were followed by the Huns, who in similar fashion brought the Romans and Goths into subjection after several campaigns. In the fifth century came the Gepidse, and in the sixth the Avars, who occupied Dacia for two centuries. Under the dominion of the Avars the Slavs made their appearance, settling peacefully among the inhabitants; they left many traces of their presence in the names of places and rivers. Gradually, however, they were absorbed and Romanized, so that the Latin character of the language was preserved. The influence of the Slavs was greater on the right bank of the Danube, where they overwhelmed the Thrace-Roman population by weight of numbers, and denationalized the Finnic Bulgars who settled in the country in the seventh century. In this way the Romanic population of the Balkan Peninsula was divided by the Slavs into two sections; the one withdrew northwards to the Carpathians, where people of kindred race had settled, while the other moved southwards to the valleys of the Pindus and the Balkan Mountains, where their descendants (the modern Aromuni or Macedo-Vlachs) still maintain themselves. In the history of the Southern Rumanians the erection of the Rumano-Bulgar Empire by the brothers, Peter, Jonita, and Asen at the end of the twelfth century is especially noteworthy; this empire disintegrated in the middle of the thirteenth century on the extinction of the Asen dynasty. The Bulgar dominion over ancient Dacia exercised a decisive influence on the ecclesiastical development of the country. Christianity had been introduced - especially into the modern Dobrudja, where there was a strong garrison - by Roman colonists and soldiers, the Latin form and liturgy being employed. In Tomi (now Constanta) existed an episcopal see, nine occupants of which between the fourth and sixth centuries are known. During the dominion of the Bulgars the ancestors of the Rumanians with their lords came under the jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, and were thus drawn into the Greek Schism. Consequently, even to-day the vast majority of the inhabitants of Rumania belong to the Orthodox Church. The immigration of the Bulgars was followed by the campaigns of the Magyars, who however made no permanent settlement in the land, choosing for settlement the plain between the Danube and the Theiss. At the beginning of the tenth century the country was subjected to the repeated attacks of the Peshenegs, and in the middle of the eleventh to those of the Cumans. During the migrations and invasions of various tribes, the population of the country was strongly impregnated with Slav and other elements, and only in the wooded hills of Northwestern Moldavia and Transylvania did the original Daco-Rumanian population remain pure and unmixed. After peace had been restored, the people descended from these remote retreats, and united with the inhabitants of the plains to form the Rumanian people. During the tenth and eleventh centuries small principalities called Banats were formed in the territory of ancient Dacia; those which extended from Transsylvania northwards and westwards to the valley of the Theiss came gradually under the sway of the Magyars, while those extending eastwards and southwards from the Carpathians maintained their independence. From the latter originated the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. By uniting the smaller districts on both sides of the River Olt, Voivode Bassarab (d. 1340) founded toward the end of the thirteenth century the Grand Banat, Little Wallachia, and successful wars against Charles I, King of Hungary, and Robert of Anjou enabled him to preserve his independence and to extend his authority to the Danube and the Black Sea. \|Join the GlobalSecurity.org mailing list\|
Assign this text to deeply engage your students! Actively Learn provides free ELA, science, and social studies digital content—short stories, primary sources, textbook sections, science articles, novels, videos, and more—and embeds them with assignments aligned to standards for all 50 states that you can assign immediately or customize for your students. Whether you’re looking for “The Tell-Tale Heart,” The Hate U Give, “The Gettysburg Address,” or current science articles and simulations, Actively Learn is the free go-to source to help you guide your students' growth in critical thinking all year. Starting as early as 1663, slaves were organizing revolts to regain their freedom. Hundreds of minor uprisings occurred on American plantations during the two and a half centuries of slavery. Most of the uprisings were small in scope and were put down easily. Some were larger in ambition and sent a chill down the spines of countless Southern planters. Two of the most famous revolts were in the early nineteenth century. One was led by Denmark Vesey and the other was led by Nat Turner.
Children with autism experience difficulties in the way they process information or interact with those around them, and it’s been shown that different types of occupational therapy benefit autistic children. Occupational therapists can help kids with autism to navigate their environment and to attend to their everyday activities more successfully. Keep reading to find out more about the kinds of interventions and strategies OTs utilize in their work with autistic clients. About Occupational Therapy Occupational therapists are experts in human development, particularly with regard to the ways in which people interact with the world around them. They are well-versed in the ways in which an illness, injury or disability can affect normal function. It is their job to apply that knowledge to devise individual plans to help their clients compensate in ways that allow them to independently perform their daily routines. OTs don’t work alone, though. They benefit from the input of teachers, parents and other important figures in the child’s life. Such feedback allows the occupational therapist to create child-specific goals for behavior, academics and social interactions. Occupational Therapy and Autism There are a number of ways in which occupation therapy benefit autistic children. Once the therapist has observed the child’s behaviors and received information from those closest to the child, he or she can then develop a treatment plan to specifically work on each of the goals set for the client. Therapists will obviously vary, depending on the goals and needs of the child. However, some types of interventions are common with children on the autism spectrum. For example, play therapy can be used to model appropriate social interaction and communication. Hands-on developmental activities like brushing teeth and hair are often modeled and practiced to help children toward a sense of autonomy and accomplishment regarding his or her daily routine. Adaptive strategies are ones in which compensation of some type is made to assist children in overcoming difficulties. One example may be providing verbal prompts to prepare a child for upcoming transitions. These are just a few activities that have shown to help autistic children to navigate their world. Benefits of Occupational Therapy for Autism The goal of occupational therapy when used with autistic populations is to improve the individual’s overall success in all aspects of life. This is accomplished through the teaching and modification of daily life skills which leads to increased independence. Through the teaching and practice of these skills, the hope is that the child will eventually be able to independently accomplish such things as: - Focus on academic tasks - Maintain reciprocal relationships - Engage in cooperative play - Manage self-regulation - Express emotions appropriately - Delay gratification Related Resource: What Causes Autism? An occupational therapist can utilize a number of other strategies to teach children with autism to perform daily life tasks more efficiently. The types of occupational therapy that benefit autistic children are vast, and the results can transform lives in ways parents often couldn’t have imagined.
April 8, 2013 report Researchers seeking to redefine difference between solids and liquids (Phys.org) —Charles Radin a mathematical physicist with the University of Texas and one of his former student's David Aristoff, have built a 2D model material made of disks to represent atoms. In their article published in Notices of the American Mathematical Society, they suggest that their model shows that defining the difference between a solid and a liquid should be more a matter of measuring the way a material responds to shear, than looking at the way its atoms are arranged. For most people, the difference between a solid and liquid is easy to discern—liquids move, they flow, they take the shape of whatever they are put in. Solids on the other hand, are rigid and don't slosh around. For physicists however, things are not quite so simple, especially since 1984 when Dan Shechtman discovered what are now known as quasicrystals (for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011)—materials that appear rigid but upon closer inspection reveal a non-repeating pattern in the arrangement of their atoms. Thus, they're neither liquid nor solid according to the traditional definition (solids are supposed to be arranged in a crystal lattice), which muddles the very definition of the state of matter. Because of that, physicists and mathematicians have been looking for a new way to clearly differentiate between a solid and a liquid. Radin and Aristoff suggest that measuring shear in a material is the way to go. In physics, shear is witnessed as a body part being deformed and can be expressed mathematically as the sidewise displacement between two points in parallel planes divided by the distance between those planes. In building their model, they found that at low densities, materials show no response to shear, but as the atoms move closer to one another and eventually become densely packed together, they do show shear, and also tend to result in expansion of the material. It's where it crosses over, the two say, that the definition of solid versus liquid resides. Another team, this one in France, has another idea—they say matter can be defined as solid or liquid by measuring its viscosity, or ability to flow. They note that glass actually flows, very slowly of course, and so does diamond, though they note researchers would have to measure it over the course of the age of universe to see it flow due to Earth's gravity. In either case, redefining what constitutes the different states of matter is important because without clear terminology, material descriptions can lose their meaning. © 2013 Phys.org
Activity: Lens 3: Use of technology Activity designed for the OULDI-LSBU workshop May 2010 Cloud created by: 10 May 2010 In this activity you will look at your learning design with a focus on your use of technology. For this exercise the term ‘technology’ can be broadly interpreted. Ensure that pedagogy informs your choice of technology, not the other way round! Choose whether you want to explore the use of technology for 1) curriculum design, or 2) course delivery and/or assessment Tools and resources Your whole module outcomes(s) Your Course Map CompendiumLD stickers (see below) and an A3 piece of paper (option 1) Scissors and pens (option 1) eTivity templates (option 2) Option 1: CompendiumLD Task Swimlane Activity (25 mins) - Choose just one week from your Storyboard to focus on - Using the CompendiumLD stickers (and the guide if you like) map out the weeks’ learning as far as you can at this stage - Using the different technology stalls and the Pheobe teaching and learning guidance, choose technologies that are pedagogically appropriate - In the ‘Intent and challenges’ column explain why you have chosen the technologies you have and the challenges you may face in implementing them. Option 2: Using eTivities for delivery and/or assessment (25 mins) - Examine your Storyboard for an opportunity to use an eTivity to engage the students in a learning or assessment activity. - With reference to the Salmon 5 stage model (in your pack), design an activity that takes account of the stage of the students, according to the model. - Use the eTivity (spark; purpose; task; response) template to set out the activity. Be sure to set clear parameters, including deadlines, for the activity. - In the ‘Intent and challenges’ frame, briefly set out why you have chosen this activity and list the resources that will need to be employed in its execution. To finish (5 minutes) - Transfer your notes to your Storyboard - Check to see if your Course Map needs updating based on the work you have just done - Identify action points for your plan
Please download and share the documents below to help raise awareness of The Big Sunflower Project. - The Information Point and The Big Sunflower Project - The Big Sunflower Project 2020 - Join in - Site notice - Site notice 2 - How to grow sunflowers Growing sunflowers is a great way to teach children. - Gardening with children Shows how growing sunflowers links to the national curriculum. - The Tiny Seed by Eric Carle Picture book dramatising the life cycle of all plants, as one tiny seed grows into an enormous sunflower, which then produces more seeds in its turn. - If I Were a Bee by Dolores Keaveney The journey of a honeybee making its’ way across garden, field and meadow. - I can grow a sunflower by the RHS An introduction to plant life and nature, revealing the life cycle of a sunflower and facts about ladybirds, worms, bees and butterflies. You could also use your sunflower seeds to start conversations about equality and diversity. The websites below may be useful when doing this. - Disability Action Alliance Supports raising awareness of disability amongst children with information, activities and videos. Educational resources for teachers to promote equality, celebrate diversity, and tackle discrimination. - Letterbox Library Children’s bookseller and education supplier, bringing teachers, librarians and parents the best in inclusive children’s books. - Listen to our stories Step into the lives of some thirty young adults and children with disabilities = contributors include young people; girls, boys, young women, and young men between the ages of five and twenty-one.
October 8, 2018 – Cancers pose the greatest danger when they become invasive and then spread from their originating tissues throughout the body. Although scientists have long known that cells have a chemical means of breaking free, Stanford researchers have discovered that breast cancer cells can also physically push their way out of their normal confines to become invasive tumors. The work could point to new ways of preventing cancers from spreading. The findings, published in Nature Communications, could also apply to prostate, liver, skin and many other cancers that arise from the epithelium, the thin layer of cells that lines the outer edge of many bodily organs. The epithelium is surrounded by a mesh-like structure known as the basement membrane, a thin matrix that encloses, protects and separates epithelial cells from the surrounding tissue. Ovijit Chaudhuri, the assistant professor of mechanical engineering who led the study, said the work reveals a previously unknown mechanism cancerous cells use to break through the basement membrane, allowing the tumor to become invasive. New strategy route “Showing how cells can physically invade the basement membrane suggests new therapeutic strategies for blocking invasion,” said Chaudhuri, who collaborated with a team of engineers and medical scientists on this interdisciplinary research. Previous research had shown that epithelial cancers use chemical tricks to invade nearby tissue. They do this by forming protrusions called invadopodia, which secrete chemicals that act like an acid to burn through the basement membrane. Katrina Wisdom, a graduate student in Chaudhuri’s lab and co-author on the paper, said the team’s work shows invadopodia can also use physical force to punch through the basement membrane rather than simply relying on chemicals, known as proteases. The group made its discovery by embedding breast cancer cells in a gelatin-like biogel that mimics the basement membrane – with one major exception. The biogel was not susceptible to protease secretions. Having nullified chemical action as an escape mechanism, the researchers used time-lapse microscopy to track the cancer cells and see whether they could move through the gel. If yes, the cells must have something other than just chemical means of escape. As it turned out, the cells could burrow through the gel. The time-lapse microscopy revealed how. Wisdom said the images show that cancer cells used their invadopodia like stiff arms to tear tiny holes in the biogel. Time and again the cancer cell formed and retracted its invadopodia until the repeated physical battering created an opening large enough for the entire cancer cell to scoot through. (See animation of this battering process.) Chaudhuri said the experiments revealed a previously unknown process because the biogel more accurately mimicked human tissue. It was based on the emerging idea that human tissue, especially cancerous tissue, can be somewhat malleable, like Silly Putty, rather than elastic like rubber bands. Force applied to malleable tissue imparts a permanent effect while elastic materials snap back into shape when force is released. In prior experiments predicated on the assumption of tissue elasticity, the tissue was not susceptible to breaching by a mere physical attack. But in Chaudhuri’s malleable biogel, invadopodia were able to punch out escape tunnels by brute force. Chaudhuri said the discovery of a physical role for invadopodia, independent of their previously known protease secretions, might explain why cancer drugs known as protease inhibitors haven’t been effective. After scientists discovered the chemical action of invadopodia, cancer researchers developed these drugs known to stanch protease activity. But Chaudhuri said clinical trials of those drugs proved disappointing. With the new findings about a physical means of escape, Chaudhuri is working with researchers at Stanford Medicine on strategies for blocking both the physical and chemical escape mechanisms, in the hopes that this will lead to new ways of preventing cancers from becoming dangerous. Ovijit Chaudhuri is a member of Stanford Bio-X and faculty fellow of Stanford ChEM-H. Katrina Wisdom is now a postdoctoral scholar at the University of Pennsylvania. Other authors include Robert West and Ninna Struck Rossen of Stanford Medicine; Marjan Rafat of Vanderbilt University; postdoctoral scholar Joanna Lee and doctoral candidates Kolade Adebowale, Julie Chang and Sungmin Nam of Stanford Engineering; Rajiv Desai of Harvard; and Louis Hodgson of Albert Einstein College of Medicine. The work was funded by the American Cancer Society, the National Institutes for Health and the National Cancer Institute.
Teaching synonyms helps students gain a deeper understanding of words and their relationships to each other. In addition, synonyms help expand a child's vocabulary from an early age and improve reading and comprehension skills. Students who are adept at using synonyms also have stronger writing skills and are often able to think more critically. If you need help downloading the printables, check out these helpful tips. Farm Synonym Worksheet Once young children learn to read you can begin to teach synonyms. Before doing the synonym worksheet, make sure that all of the children understand what a synonym is. Write several synonym examples on the board. Read all of the words on the synonym worksheet and make sure that the children know what each word means. Some students may need help with cutting. Garden Synonym Worksheet Students in second and third can improve their reading and comprehension skills by learning synonyms. Teach basic dictionary skills by having students look up any words for which they do not know the meaning. Once students are finished with the garden worksheet, ask for volunteers to read the story. Choose the Best Word Synonym Worksheet Once children reach fourth and fifth grades, they should be challenged to find synonyms out of a group of words. Both synonyms and antonyms help to expand vocabulary and improve reading and sentence structure skills. Allow students to use a dictionary to find the meaning of any words they are not familiar with. "RE" Synonym Worksheet Students in 6th grade have a rapidly expanding vocabulary and combining a continued understanding of synonyms with prefixes and suffixes helps to round out many basic language arts concepts. Have the children write the dictionary definition of each word before they begin the worksheet. This will make completing the sheet easier. Synonyms for Better Language Arts When your student is finished with the worksheets, put the sheets in a binder, and use them as a mini-thesaurus to help students improve their writing skills. Encourage students to use stronger synonyms for weaker ones. In addition, help your student figure out which words are weaker and which ones make for stronger writing. All of this not only helps improve writing skills, but it goes a long way to improve reading comprehension as well.
Lack of Clean Water In 2018, it is estimated that 663 million people live without clean water throughout the world and 844 million people live without access to safe water, that’s 1 in 9 people. Alleviate aims to raise funds for projects to bring sustainable solutions to affected communities overseas. 2.3 billion people do not have access to improved sanitation and 1 in 3 people lack access to toilets which equates to more people having a mobile phone than a toilet. Every 90 seconds, a child dies from a water related disease. The third leading cause of death in children is diarrhoea. Diarrhoea caused by dirty water and poor toilets kills a child under 5 every 2 minutes. Diarrhoea is estimated to cause 1.5 million child deaths per year, mostly among children under five living in developing countries. Every minute a newborn dies from infection caused by the lack of safe water and an unclean environment. To be considered “safe”, a source of drinking water must be free from pathogens and high levels of harmful substances. Globally, the main health concern is faecal contamination, which is identified by the presence of bacteria such as E.coli. In many places, a water point is designed to protect against contamination, but the water from it might still have traces of E.coli. The groundwater may be contaminated by faulty latrines, or the containers people use to carry and store water may contain traces of the bacteria. - Lack of access to safely managed drinking water. - Lack of safely managed sanitation services. The Assembly recognised the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 litres of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable; (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 metres of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes). Of the 4.5 billion people who do not have safely managed sanitation, 2.3 billion still do not have basic sanitation services. This includes 600 million people who share a toilet or latrine with other households, and 892 million people – mostly in rural areas – who defecate in the open. Due to population growth, open defecation is increasing in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania. Basic services mean having a protected drinking water source that takes less than thirty minutes to collect water from, using an improved toilet or latrine that does not have to be shared with other households, and having handwashing facilities with soap and water in the home. 844 million people lack even a basic drinking-water service, including 159 million people who are dependent on surface water. Globally, at least 2 billion people use a drinking water source contaminated with faeces. Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio. Absent, inadequate, or inappropriately managed water and sanitation services expose individuals to preventable health risks. This is particularly the case in health care facilities where both patients and staff are placed at additional risk of infection and disease when water, sanitation, and hygiene services are lacking. Globally, 15% of patients develop an infection during a hospital stay, with the proportion much greater in low-income countries. Yet, diarrhoea is largely preventable. Where water is not readily available, people may decide handwashing is not a priority, thereby adding to the likelihood of diarrhoea and other diseases. In many parts of the world, insects that live or breed in water carry and transmit diseases such as dengue fever. Some of these insects, known as vectors, breed in clean, rather than dirty water, and household drinking water containers can serve as breeding grounds. The simple intervention of covering water storage containers can reduce vector breeding and may also reduce faecal contamination of water at the household level. Access to Clean Water Access to safe water turns time spent into time saved, giving people time to pursue education and work that will help break the cycle of poverty. In general, most of the people who have access to water don’t have access at home. In some regions, especially sub-Saharan Africa, many people spend more than 30 minutes and some more than an hour on each trip to collect water. This burden still falls mainly on women and girls as they are responsible for this task in eight in 10 households that don’t have a piped supply. Mongolia is the only country where men and boys have primary responsibility for collecting water. Many people spend more than 30 minutes and some more than an hour on each trip to collect water. Reducing collection times and increasing the number of people who have water sources within their home will be crucial in achieving other goals related to poverty, health, and education. Safe and readily available water is important for public health, whether it is used for drinking, domestic use, food production or recreational purposes. Improved water supply and sanitation, and better management of water resources, can boost countries economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction. In 2010, the UN General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation. Everyone has the right to sufficient, continuous, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable water for personal and domestic use. When water comes from improved and more accessible sources, people spend less time and effort physically collecting it, meaning they can be productive in other ways. This can also result in greater personal safety by reducing the need to make long or risky journeys to collect water. Better water sources also mean less expenditure on health, as people are less likely to fall ill and incur medical costs, and are better able to remain economically productive. “If opportunity doesn’t knock, build a door” – Milton Berle
A dentist is someone who diagnoses and treats issues with teeth and oral tissues, also giving advice and care to help prevent problems in the future. They educate patients on the proper diet, how to brush and floss, how to use fluorides, and other ways to care for teeth. A dentist also treats tooth decay, cavities, repair teeth, and straighten them. Often, they are required to perform dental surgery as well. Types of Dentists Most dentists are general practitioners, but some may become specialists. Here are some specialist areas that a dentist may opt to go for the family dentist near me recommended by your relatives and friends after all it is a matter of your dental care. Orthodontists: They straighten teeth using braces and retainers. Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons: They operate on the jaws and mouth. Pediatric Dentist: They are dentists who work with children. Periodontists: This is a branch of dentistry that treats the gums and bones that support the teeth. Prosthodontists: They replace missing teeth with bridges and dentures. Endodontists: They perform root canal treatment. Public Health Dentists: They are responsible for good oral health in communities. Oral Pathologists: They diagnose dental conditions and diseases. Oral and Maxillofacial Radiologists: They diagnose diseases in the neck and head region using different imaging techniques. A Typical Day in a Dentist’s Life So what does your average dentist normally do? Here are some of the duties a dentist has been known to perform: - Examine, diagnose, and treat patients to the fullest extent possible. - Examine and interpret dental x-rays. - Compare different treatment methods and explain the different options to patients, so that they can choose the best suited method. - Educate patients on dental health and hygiene. - Supervise auxiliary dental personnel in their proper handling of dental equipment and supplies. - Provide professional opinion when part of a dental team. - Refer patients to specialists for advanced care. - Take care of patients to ensure their satisfaction. A Dentist’s Work Environment Most dentists have their own practice, that is, they own their business and work on their own, or employ a small number of people. Some dentists work with partners while some others work for other dentists as associate dentists. The work days for a dentist are usually four to five days in a week. Some dentists may work during evenings or even weekends to accommodate patients’ needs. The number of hours a dentist works usually vary . The normal average hours a dentist works in a week is 35 to 40. People who have just begun practice tend to work more than experienced dentists. Education Required to Become a Dentist Most dental schools have a prerequisite of two years of pre-dental college education for admission. Dental students usually complete their bachelor’s degree before pursuing dentistry. Some may start dental training while doing their college graduation and complete it alongside the dental course. Courses in biology, physics and chemistry, along with another additional subject in the Science group should be chosen by high school or college students who want to become dentists. Dental school usually takes about four years to complete. The first two years comprise classroom training and laboratory work. Students begin to treat patients during the last two years, under the supervision of licensed dentists. Licensing for Practicing as a Dentist If you want to practice as a dentist, you would require a license. This involves passing written and practical examinations. Most license allows dentists to practice general as well as specialized dentistry. A good dentist has excellent manual skills and diagnostic sense. Dentists also need to have a good visual memory and good judgement with respect to shape, size, and color, manual dexterity, and scientific abilities. Also, skills like good business sense, self-discipline, and communication go a long way to ensure a successful private practice for a dentist.
The law of nature is the concept that the natural world provides a certain level of legal rights. Based on this theory, it stands to reason that these legal conditions provided by the natural order are consistent across geographical regions and political borders, meaning everyone in the world has the same natural rights. Natural law transcends the legal authority of a given community, state or national government. At its core, the law of nature is the prevalent morality of society. Much of the concepts of natural law have their origins within Greek philosophy. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all spoke of the existence of the law of nature, with the latter writing extensively in his book Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle in particular broached the theory that the best politically-minded societies adopted the concept of natural law to rule its populace. He also pointed out that while human laws were fallible, natural laws were not. This became the basis of stoicism, the ideology that became the centerpiece of Roman legal theory. Throughout history, the law of nature has had a profound influence over the standards of modern society and political theory. Thomas Hobbes postulated the social contract theory using the law of nature. This addressed the natural predisposition of humans to establish states in an effort to create natural social order. Likewise, John Locke used the principles to contend the importance of liberalism and the idea that liberty and equality were part of the natural order. In Great Britain, the law of nature became highly important in the 17th and 18th centuries. English common law adopted the philosophy through its decisions in courts and tribunals. The concept was also adapted into the fundamental justification of the American Revolution. In particular, the United States Declaration of Independence addressed human freedom as a product of natural law. In philosophy, the law of nature is the antithesis of positive law, those legal rights issued by humans upon one another. Often referred to as natural justice, these rights do not need the authorization of a government or document. Positive law, on the other hand, requires the will of the people or an entity with authority to justify its existence. In terms of the general political spectrum, more liberal philosophies often side with the law of nature, while more conservative values support positive law.
\|Part of a series on\| Halakha (//; Hebrew: הֲלָכָה, Sephardic: [halaˈχa]; also transliterated as halacha, halachah or halocho) (Ashkenazic: [haˈloχo]) is the collective body of Jewish religious laws derived from the Written and Oral Torah. It includes the 613 mitzvot ("commandments"), subsequent talmudic and rabbinic law and the customs and traditions compiled in the Shulchan Aruch (literally "Prepared Table", but more commonly known as the "Code of Jewish Law"). Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and non-religious life; Jewish religious tradition does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. Halakha guides not only religious practices and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day life. Halakha is often translated as "Jewish Law", although a more literal translation might be "the way to behave" or "the way of walking". The word derives from the root that means to behave (also to go or to walk). Historically, in the diaspora, halakha served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of law - both civil and religious law, since there is no differentiation in classical Judaism. Since the Age of Enlightenment, emancipation, and haskalah many have come to view the halakha as less binding in day-to-day life, as it relies on Rabbinic interpretation, as opposed to the pure, written words written in the Jewish bible. Under contemporary Israeli law, however, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are under the authority of the rabbinic courts and are therefore treated according to halakha. Some differences in halakha itself are found among Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, Sephardi, Yemenite and other Jews who historically lived in isolated communities, (such as in Ethiopia,) which are reflective of the historic and geographic diversity of various Jewish communities within the Diaspora. - 1 Etymology and terminology - 2 Laws of the Torah - 3 Sources and process - 4 Views today - 5 Codes of Jewish law - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 Bibliography - 9 External links Etymology and terminology The name "Halakha" is derived from the Hebrew helekh (הָלַךְ) meaning "behavior" (in a different pronunciation, "halakh" - "to walk" or "to go"). Taken literally, therefore, "halakha" translates as "the way to behave" rather than "law". "Halakha" is used to refer to the corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of religious law. Halakha is often contrasted with Aggadah ("the telling"), the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical, mystical and other "non-legal" texts. At the same time, since writers of Halakha may draw upon the aggadic and even mystical literature, there is a dynamic interchange between the genres. Halakha also does not include the parts of the Torah not related to commandments. Halakha constitutes the practical application of the 613 mitzvot ("commandments", singular mitzvah) in the Torah, as developed through discussion and debate in the classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud (the "Oral law") and as codified in the Mishneh Torah ("A repetition of the Torah") or Shulchan Aruch ("Code of Law"). The Halakha is a comprehensive guide to all aspects of human life, both corporeal and spiritual. Its laws, guidelines, and opinions cover a vast range of situations and principles, in the attempt to realize what is implied by the central Biblical commandment to "be holy as I your God am holy". They cover what are claimed to be better ways for a Jew to live, based on what is not stated, but has been derived from the Hebrew Bible ("Torah"). Because Halakha is developed and applied by various Halakhic authorities rather than one sole "official voice", different individuals and communities may well have different answers to Halakhic questions. Controversies lend rabbinic literature much of its creative and intellectual appeal. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because during the disaspora (age and place of exile) Jews have lacked a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for Halakha. Instead, Jews interested in observing Halakha typically choose to follow specific rabbis or affiliate with a more tightly structured community. This factor has also been a central core in the development of the Hasidut.[clarification needed] Halakha has been developed and pored over throughout the generations since before 500 BCE, in a constantly expanding collection of religious literature initially consolidated in the Talmud. First and foremost it forms a body of intricate judicial (rabbinical) opinions, legislation, customs, and recommendations, many of them passed down over the centuries, and an assortment of ingrained behaviors, relayed to successive generations from the moment a child begins to speak. It is also the subject of intense study in yeshivas; see Torah study. Laws of the Torah Broadly, the halakha comprises the practical application of the commandments (each one known as a mitzvah) in the Torah, as developed in subsequent rabbinic literature; see The Mitzvot and Jewish Law. According to the Talmud (Tractate Makot), there are 613 mitzvot ("commandments") in the Torah; in Hebrew these are known as the Taryag mitzvot תרי"ג מצוות, an Hebrew Alphabet numerical value of 613. There are 248 positive ("thou shall") mitzvot and 365 negative ("thou shall not") mitzvot given in the Torah, supplemented by seven mitzvot legislated by the rabbis of antiquity; see rabbinical commandments. Jewish law may be categorized in various ways. Besides the basic categories applied to the mitzvot in antiquity, during the medieval period Jewish law was classified by such works as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah and Joseph Karo's Shulchan Aruch. Classical Rabbinic Judaism has two basic categories of laws: - Laws believed revealed by God to the Jewish people at Mount Sinai (e.g. the written Torah, also called "The books of Moses" and Pentateuch), and also elucidations therefrom, Halacha l'Moshe miSinai); - Laws of human origin including rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc. This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments (mitzvot) may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation. Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all Halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist and that the first category is immutable, with exceptions only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances. A second classical distinction is between the Written Law - laws written in the Hebrew Bible, and between the Oral Law, laws believed transmitted orally prior to compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and Rabbinic codes. Commandments are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of divine and human punishment. Positive commandments (of which tradition holds there are 248) require an action to be performed and are considered to bring the performer closer to God. Negative commandments (traditionally 365 in number) forbid a specific action, and violations create a distance from God. In striving to "be holy" as God is holy, a person attempts so far as possible to live in accordance with God's wishes for humanity, striving to more completely live with each of these with every moment of one's life. A further division is made between chukim ("decrees" — laws without obvious explanation, such as shatnez, the law prohibiting wearing clothing made of mixtures of linen and wool), mishpatim ("judgments" — laws with obvious social implications) and eduyot ("testimonies" or "commemorations", such as the Shabbat and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical authorities have classified some of the 613 commandments in various other ways. A different approach divides the laws into a different set of categories: - Laws in relation to God (bein adam laMakom, literally "between a person and The Place"), and - Laws about relations with other people (bein adam le-chavero, literally "between a person and his friend"). There is a notion in Halakha that violations of the latter are more severe, in certain ways, because of the requirement that one must obtain forgiveness both from the offended person and also from God. Within Talmudic literature, Jewish law is divided into the six orders of the Mishnah, which are categories by proximate subject matter: Zeraim ("Seeds") for agricultural laws and prayer, Moed ("Festival"), for the Sabbath and the Festivals, Nashim ("Women"), dealing primarily with marriage and divorce, Nezikin ("Damages"), for civil and criminal law, Kodashim ("Holy things"), for sacrifices and the dietary laws, and Tohorot ("Purities") for ritual purity. However, Talmudic texts often deal with laws outside these apparent subject categories. As a result, Jewish law came to be categorized in other ways in the post-Talmudic period. In the major codes of Jewish law, two other main categorization schemes are found. Maimonides' Mishneh Torah divides the laws into fourteen sections. The codification efforts that culminated in the Shulchan Aruch divide the law into four sections, including only laws that do not depend on being physically present in the Land of Israel. The generic Hebrew word for any kind of sin is aveira ("transgression"). Based on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) Judaism describes three levels of sin: - Pesha — an "intentional sin"; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God's commandants - Avon — a "sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion, committed against one's will and is not in line with one's true inner desires". It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God - Chet — an "unintentional sin" Relatedly, the three terms – Chayyav, Patur, Mutar – in the Gemara (literally: "the finished [word]") and Halakhic codes classify the permissibility of an action or the severity of its prohibition and punishment. - Chayyav (חייב), (literally "obligated" or "must") means the one who transgresses the prohibition is responsible for his/her criminal actions, and therefore ought to pay the price for them. - Patur (פטור) means "exempt" of liability to punishment, however the action is forbidden. - Mutar (מותר) means the action is permitted. Judaism understands that the vast majority of people, aside from those who are termed Tzadikim and those termed Tzadikim gemurim (Hebrew: צדיק, "the righteous" and "the completely righteous"), will succumb to sin in their lives. A sin or a state of sin does not condemn a person to damnation; there is always a road of teshuva (Hebrew: תשובה; repentance, literally: "return"). There are some classes of people for whom this is exceedingly difficult, such as those who commit adultery, as well as those who slander others. In earlier days, when ancient Jews had a functioning court system (the beth din and the Sanhedrin high court), courts were empowered to administer physical punishments for various violations, upon conviction by extremely high standards of evidence, far stricter than those required in western courts today. These punishments included execution, corporal punishment, incarceration, and excommunication. However, since the fall of the Second Temple, executions have been forbidden. Since the fall of the autonomous Jewish communities of Europe, most other punishments also have been discontinued. Today, then, one's accounts are reckoned solely by God. The Talmud says that although courts capable of executing sinners no longer exist, the prescribed penalties continue to be applied by Providence. For instance, someone who has committed a sin punishable by stoning might fall off a roof, or someone who ought to be executed by strangulation might drown. Gentiles and Jewish law Judaism has always held that people who are not Jews are only obliged to follow the seven Noahide Laws; these are laws that the Oral Law derives from the covenant God made with Noah after the flood, which Judaism holds apply to all descendants of Noah, i.e., all living people. Four of the seven laws are also listed in the Ten Commandments. The Noahide laws are derived in the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 57a), and are listed here: - Murder is forbidden. - Theft is forbidden. - Sexual immorality, including homosexuality, is forbidden. - Eating flesh cut from a still-living animal is forbidden. - Belief in and worship of, or prayer to, "idols" is forbidden. - Blaspheming against God is forbidden. - Society must establish a fair system of legal justice to administer law honestly. The details of these laws are codified from the Talmudic texts in the Mishneh Torah. They can be found mainly in chapters 9 and 10 of Hilkhoth Melakhim u'Milhamotehem in Sefer Shoftim, the fourteenth book of the Mishneh Torah. Sources and process The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the Halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of Halakha as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions. The major sources and genre of Halakha consulted include: - The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the Mishna and the Babylonian Talmud) with commentaries; - Talmudic hermeneutics: the science which defines the rules and methods for the investigation and exact determination of the meaning of the Scriptures; includes also the rules by which the Halakhot are derived from and established by the written law. These may be seen as the rules by which early Jewish law was derived. - Gemara – see particularly Gemara#Argumentation and debate there – the Talmudic process of elucidating the Halakha - The post-Talmudic codificatory literature, such as Maimonides's Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch with its commentaries; - Regulations and other "legislative" enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies: - Minhag: Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis; - The she'eloth u-teshuvoth (responsa, literally "questions and answers") literature. - Dina d'malchuta dina (literally "the law of the king is law"): an additional aspect of Halakha, being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to a law in Judaism. This principle applies primarily in areas of commercial, civil and criminal law. In antiquity, the Sanhedrin functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature (in the US judicial system) for Judaism, and had the power to administer binding law, including both received law and its own rabbinic decrees, on all Jews — rulings of the Sanhedrin became Halakha; see Oral law. That court ceased to function in its full mode in 40 CE. Today, the authoritative application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability. In branches of Judaism that follow Halakha, lay individuals make numerous ad-hoc decisions, but are regarded as not having authority to decide certain issues definitively. Since the days of the Sanhedrin, however, no body or authority has been generally regarded as having the authority to create universally recognized precedents. As a result, Halakha has developed in a somewhat different fashion from Anglo-American legal systems with a Supreme Court able to provide universally accepted precedents. Generally, Halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed. When a rabbinic posek ((literally "he who makes a statement", "decisor") proposes an additional interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by other rabbis and members of other Jewish communities. Under this system, there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining Halakhic interpretation and innovation: On the one hand, there is a principle in Halakha not to overrule a specific law from an earlier era, after it is accepted by the community as a law or vow., unless supported by another, relevant earlier precedent; see list below. On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the posek handling a then-current question. In addition, the Halakha embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem). Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in Halakha. Notably, poskim frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a "change" in Halakha. For example, many Orthodox rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, as electricity is deemed to be a form of fire. In contrast, Conservative poskim consider that switching on electrical equipment is physically and chemically more like turning on a water tap (which is permissible by Halakha) than lighting a fire (which is not permissible), and therefore permitted on Shabbat. The reformative Judaism in some cases explicitly interprets Halakha to take into account its view of contemporary society. For instance, most Conservative rabbis extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activities to women (see How halakha is viewed today below). Within certain Jewish communities, formal organized bodies do exist. Within Modern Orthodox Judaism, there is no one committee or leader, but Modern USA-based Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the Rabbinical Council of America. Within Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly has an official Committee on Jewish Law and Standards. Note that, Takkanot, the plural form of Takkanah above, in general do not affect or restrict observance of Torah mitzvot. (In common parlance sometimes people use the general term takkanah to refer either gezeirot or takkanot.) However, the Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Sages had the authority to "uproot matters from the Torah". In Talmudic and classical Halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be biblically sanctioned (shev v'al ta'aseh, literally thou shall stay seated and not do). Rabbis may rule that a specific mitzvah from the Torah should not be performed, e.g. blowing the shofar on Shabbat, or taking the lulav and etrog on Shabbat. These examples of takkanot which may be executed out of caution lest some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating a Sabbath melakha. Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions. In some cases, the Sages allowed the temporary violation of a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole. This was part of the basis for Esther's relationship with Ahasuerus (Xeres). (Sanhedrin) For general usage of takkanaot in Jewish history see the article Takkanah. For examples of this being used in Conservative Judaism see Conservative Halakha. The antiquity of the rules can be determined only by the dates of the authorities who quote them; in general, they cannot safely be declared older than the tanna (from Aramaic, literally "repeater") to whom they are first ascribed. It is certain, however, that the seven middot (literally "measurements", and referring to [good] behavior) of Hillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than the time of Hillel himself, who was the first to transmit them. The Talmud gives no information concerning the origin of the middot, although the Geonim ("Sages") regarded them as Sinaitic (given by God to the people of Israel at the time of the Sinai presence). Modern historians believe that it is decidedly erroneous to consider the middot as traditional from the time of Moses on Sinai. The middot seem to have been first laid down as abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they were not immediately recognized by all as valid and binding. Different schools interpreted and modified them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways. Akiba and Ishmael and their scholars especially contributed to the development or establishment of these rules. Akiba devoted his attention particularly to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ishmael developed the logical. The rules laid down by one school were frequently rejected by another because the principles that guided them in their respective formulations were essentially different. According to Akiba, the divine language of the Torah is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact that in the former no word or sound is superfluous. Some scholars have observed a similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture. For example, Saul Lieberman argues that the names (e.g. kal vahomer (literally a combination of the archaic form of the word for "straw" and the word for "clay" - "straw and clay", referring to the obvious [means of making a mud brick]) of rabbi Ishmael's middot are Hebrew translations of Greek terms, although the methods of those middot are not Greek in origin. Orthodox Judaism holds that halakha is the divine law as laid out in the Torah (five books of Moses), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined. The rabbis, who made many additions and interpretations of Jewish Law, did so only in accordance with regulations they believe were given for this purpose to Moses on Mount Sinai, see Deuteronomy 17:11. See Orthodox Judaism, Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition. Conservative Judaism holds that halakha is normative and binding, and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on Sinaitic Torah. While there are a wide variety of Conservative views, a common belief is that halakha is, and has always been, an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period. See Conservative Judaism, Beliefs. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism both hold that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the traditionalist wing of these movements believe that the halakha represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counterproductive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong, and even heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism. Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors. They do not believe "that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old". The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned. Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values. Despite its internal rigidity, halakha has generally been a flexible system, addressing issues on the basis of circumstance and precedent. The classical approach has permitted new rulings regarding modern technology. These rulings guide the observant about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays within the parameters of halakha. Indeed, many scholarly tomes have been published and are constantly being reviewed ensuring the maximum coordination between electrical appliances and technology with the needs of the religiously observant Jew, with a great range of opinions. Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is to "consult your local rabbi or posek". Modern critics, however, have charged that with the rise of movements that challenge the "divine" authority of halakha, traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits, than traditional Rabbinical Judaism did prior to the advent of Reform in the 19th century. Differences between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism Orthodox Jews maintain halakha is derived from the divine law of the Torah (Bible), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined. As such it should be adhered to as an unalterable authority. They also believe there are traditional formulas that date back to Moses on how the divine law may be interpreted – see above, "Rules by which early Jewish law was derived". While Conservative Jews have varied views regarding the origin of the Torah and its authority today, and believe it can be continuously reinterpreted. Their view of halakha has given rise to substantial differences in approach as well as result. Orthodox Jews believe that halakha is a religious system, whose core represents the revealed will of God. Although Orthodox Judaism acknowledges that rabbis made many decisions and decrees regarding Jewish Law where the written Torah itself is non-specific, they did so only in accordance with regulations given to them by Moses on Mount Sinai (see Deuteronomy 5:8–13). These regulations were transmitted orally until shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple. They were then recorded in the Mishnah, and explained in the Talmud and commentaries throughout history, including today. Orthodox Judaism believes that subsequent interpretations have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. The most widely accepted codes of Jewish law are known as Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch. No rabbi has the right to change Jewish law unless he clearly understands how it coincides with the precepts of the Talmud and later codes of Jewish law. Later commentaries were accepted by many rabbis as final; however, other rabbis may disagree. Orthodox Judaism has a range of opinions on the circumstances and extent to which change is permissible. Haredi Jews generally hold that even minhagim (customs) must be retained and existing precedents cannot be reconsidered. Modern Orthodox authorities are generally more inclined to permit limited changes in customs, and some reconsideration of precedent. All Orthodox authorities, however, agree that only later rabbinical interpretations are subject to reconsideration, and hold that core sources of Divine written and oral law, such as the Torah the Mishnah and the Talmud, cannot be overridden. One view held by Conservative Judaism is that while God is real, the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, in this view the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. In this view, traditional Jewish law is still seen as binding. Jews who hold to this view generally try to use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are in some cases more willing to change Jewish law in the present. A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its rabbinical body's powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by takkanah (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements or views of ethics. The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the "driving teshuva", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on Mamzer status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral. The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of Kavod HaBriyot permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on homosexual conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the Bible and that this remained prohibited). Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the role of women in Judaism, including counting women in the minyan and ordaining women as rabbis. The latter was accomplished by simple vote on the faculty of the JTS. Orthodox Judaism holds that takkanot (rabbinical decrees) can only supplement and can never nullify Biblical law, and significant decisions must be accompanied by scholarly responsa citing sources and halakhic precedent. An example of how different views of the origin of Jewish law inform Conservative approaches to interpreting that law involves the CJLS's acceptance of rabbi Elie Kaplan Spitz's responsum decreeing the Biblical category of mamzer as "inoperative", in which The CJLS adopted the Responsum's view that of how, in the Conservative view of halakha, the "morality which we learn through the unfolding narrative of our tradition" informs the application of Mosaic law: We cannot conceive of God sanctioning undeserved suffering ... When a law of Torah conflicts with morality, when the law is 'unpleasant,' we are committed to find a way to address the problem… We are willing to do explicitly what was largely implicit in the past, namely, to make changes when needed on moral grounds. It is our desire to strengthen Torah that forces us to recognize, explicitly the overriding importance of morality, a morality which we learn from the larger, unfolding narrative of our tradition The responsum cited several examples of how, in Spitz's view, the rabbinic sages declined to enforce punishments explicitly mandated by Torah law. The examples include the "trial of the accused adulteress (Sotah)", the "Law of the Breaking of the Neck of the Heifer" and the application of the death penalty for the "rebellious child". Spitz argues that the punishment of the Mamzer has been effectively inoperative for nearly two thousand years due to deliberate rabbinic inaction (with a few rule-proving counterexamples, including the 18th century Orthodox rabbi Ismael ha-Kohen of Modena, who decreed that a child should have the word "mamzer" tattooed to his forehead). Further he suggested that the rabbis have long regarded the punishment declared by the Torah as immoral, and came to the conclusion that no court should agree to hear testimony on "mamzerut". His motion was passed by the CJLS. The decision represented a watershed for Conservative Judaism because it represented an explicit abrogation of a Biblical injunction on the grounds of contemporary morality, as distinct from exigency. The dissenters, who included rabbi Joel Roth as well as a partial concurrence by rabbi Daniel Nevins, argued for reaffirming the classical halakhic framework in which human decrees inform and often limit but never wholly abrogate law believed to be of Divine origin, stating that "we should acknowledge that God's law is beyond our authority to eliminate", but should continue the traditional approach of applying strict evidentiary rules and presumptions that tend to render enforcement unlikely. He also argued that the current framework is moral, both because proving mamzer status sufficiently beyond all doubt is already so difficult that it is rare, and because the mere existence and possibility of mamzerut status, even if rarely enforced, creates an important incentive for divorcing parties to obtain a get (Jewish religious divorce) to avoid the sin of adultery. He cited a responsum by prominent Haredi Orthodox rabbi Ovadiah Yosef as an example of how the traditional approach works. Rabbi Yosef was faced with the child of a woman who had left a religious marriage without religious divorce and had a child in the second marriage, seemingly an open-and-shut case of Mamzer status. Rabbi Yosef proceeded to systematically discredit the evidence that the former marriage had ever taken place. The Ketubah was mysteriously not found and hence disqualified, and the officiating rabbi's testimony was never sufficiently corroborated and hence not credible. Rabbi Yosef then found reason to doubt that the new husband was ever the father, finding that because the ex-husband occasionally delivered alimony personally, an ancient presumption (one of many) that any time a husband and wife are alone together the law presumes intercourse has taken place governed the case. He held that Jewish law could not disprove, and hence had to conclude, that the original husband really was the child's father and there was no case of Mamzer status. Codes of Jewish law The Torah and the Talmud are not formal codes of law: they are sources of law. There are many formal codes of Jewish law that have developed over the past two thousand years. These codes have influenced, and in turn, have been influenced by, the responsa; History of Responsa thus provides an informative complement to the survey below. The major codes are: - The Mishnah, composed by rabbi Judah the Prince, in 200 CE, as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud's dialectic analysis of the content of the Mishna (gemara; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later halakhic decisions and subsequent codes. - Codifications by the Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud. An early work, She'iltot ("Questions") by Achai of Shabcha (c. 752), discusses over 190 Mitzvot — exploring and addressing various questions on these. The first legal codex proper, Halakhot Pesukot ("Decided Laws"), by Yehudai Gaon (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman. (It was written in vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into Hebrew as Hilkhot Riu). Halakhot Gedolot ("Great Law Book"), by R. Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later, contains extensive additional material, mainly from Responsa and Monographs of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure. (Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established Ashkenazi communities.) The She'iltot was influential on both subsequent works. - The Hilchot of the Rif, rabbi Isaac Alfasi (1013–1103), summations of the legal material in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excludes all Aggadic (non-legal, homiletic) matter. The Hilchot soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. - The Mishneh Torah (also known as the Yad HaHazaka for its 14 volumes; "yad" has a numeric value of 14), by Maimonides (Rambam; 1135–1204). This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system — in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters — with each halakha stated clearly. The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim. It also includes a section on Metaphysics and fundamental beliefs. (Some claim this section draws heavily on Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of Saadia Gaon.) It is the main source of practical halakha for many Yemenite Jews — mainly Baladi and Dor Daim — as well as for a growing community referred to as talmidei haRambam. - The work of the Rosh, rabbi Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?–1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the Tosafists. This work superseded rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. - The Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The "SeMaG") of rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (first half of the 13th century, Coucy, Northern France). "SeMaG" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time. Sefer Mitzvot Katan ("SeMaK") by Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil is an abridgement of the SeMaG, including additional practical halakha, as well as agaddic and ethical material. - "The Mordechai" — by Mordecai ben Hillel, d. Nuremberg 1298 — serves both as a source of analysis, as well of decided law. Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and Italian communities. Although organised around the Hilchot of the Rif, it is, in fact, an independent work. It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482. - The Arba'ah Turim (The Tur, lit. "The Four Columns") by rabbi Jacob ben Asher (1270–1343, Toledo, Spain). This work traces the halakha from the Torah text and the Talmud through the Rishonim, with the Hilchot of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the Tur covers only those areas of Jewish law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the Tur's arrangement of material. - Orach Chayim: "The Way of Life" worship and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle. - Yoreh De'ah: "Teach Knowledge" assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning menstrual impurity. - Even Ha'ezer: "The Rock of the Helpmate" marriage, divorce and other issues in family law. - Choshen Mishpat: "The Breastplate of Judgment" The administration and adjudication of civil law. - The Beit Yosef, and the Shulchan Aruch of rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575). The Beit Yosef is a huge commentary on the Tur in which rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining thirty-two authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of rabbi Israel Isserlein). The Shulchan Aruch is, in turn, a condensation of the Beit Yosef — stating each ruling simply (literally translated, Shulchan Aruch means "set table"); this work follows the chapter divisions of the Tur. The Shulchan Aruch, together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of halakha since the Talmud. In writing the Shulchan Aruch, rabbi Karo based his rulings on three authorities — Maimonides (Rambam), Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered the Mordechai in inconclusive cases. Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the Shulchan Aruch as the basis for their daily practice. - The works of rabbi Moshe Isserles ("Rema"; Kraków, Poland, 1525 to 1572). Rema noted that the Shulchan Aruch was based on the Sephardic tradition, and he created a series of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Aruch for cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed (based on the works of Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein, and Israel Bruna). The glosses are called Hamapah, the "Tablecloth" for the "Set Table". His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the Shulchan Aruch, typeset in a different script; today, "Shulchan Aruch" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. Isserles' Darkhei Moshe is similarly a commentary on the Tur and the Beit Yosef. - The Levush Malkhut ("Levush") of rabbi Mordecai Yoffe (c. 1530–1612). A ten volume work, five discussing halakha at a level "midway between the two extremes: the lengthy Beit Yosef of Caro on the one hand, and on the other Caro's Shulchan Aruch together with the Mappah of Isserles, which is too brief", that particularly stresses the customs and practices of the Jews of Eastern Europe. The Levush was exceptional among the codes, in that it treated certain Halakhot from a Kabbalistic standpoint. - The Shulchan Aruch HaRav of rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to recodify the law as it stood at that time — incorporating commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch, and subsequent responsa — and thus stating the decided halakha, as well as the underlying reasoning. The work was written, partly, so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law. Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is the basis of practice for Chabad-Lubavitch and other Hasidic groups, and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works, Hasidic and non-Hasidic alike. - Works structured directly on the Shulchan Aruch, providing analysis in light of Acharonic material and codes. The Mishnah Berurah of rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the "Chofetz Chaim", Poland, 1838–1933) is a commentary on the "Orach Chayim" section of the Shulchan Aruch, discussing the application of each halakha in light of all subsequent Acharonic decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period. Aruch HaShulchan by rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1888) is a scholarly analysis of halakha through the perspective of the major Rishonim. The work follows the structure of the Tur and the Shulchan Aruch; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as Aruch HaShulchan he'Atid. Kaf HaChaim on Orach Chayim and parts of Yoreh De'ah, by the Sephardi sage Yaakov Chaim Sofer (Baghdad and Jerusalem, 1870–1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah. Yalkut Yosef, by rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of halakha, based on the rulings of rabbi Ovadia Yosef. - "Layman oriented" digests of halakha. The Kitzur Shulchan Aruch of Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804–1886), based on the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century, became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity. This work is not binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulchan Aruch. It is still popular in Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice. Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam by Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748–1820) are similar Ashkenazi works, but are regarded as a more appropriate basis for practice. The Ben Ish Chai by Yosef Chaim (Baghdad, 1832–1909) is a corresponding Sephardi work. Peninei Halachah by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed (15 volumes thus far) covers a wide range of subjects, from shabbat to organ donations, and in addition to clearly posing the practical law - reflecting the customs of various communities - also discusses the spiritual foundations of the Halakhot. - Temimei Haderech ("A Guide To Jewish Religious Practice") by rabbi Isaac Klein with contributions from the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly. This scholarly work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view. It is not accepted among Orthodox Jews. - "Halacha". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. - Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit, History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary, p.3, citing Solomon Zeitlin, The Jews. Race, Nation, or Religion? ( Philadelphia: Dropsie College Press, 1936). - Ketubot 30b - Rema Choshen Mishpat Chapter 25 - Lieberman, Saul. "Rabbinic interpretation of scripture" and "The hermeneutic rules of the aggadah" in Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (NY, 1950) See also, Daube, David. "Rabbinic methods of interpretation and Hellenistic rhetoric" HUCA 22 (1949) 239ff. - "Vail course explores origins of Judaism". Vail Daily. July 13, 2015. “Just as science follows the scientific method, Judaism has its own system to ensure authenticity remains intact,” said Rabbi Zalman Abraham of JLI’s New York headquarters<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "FAQ for Humanistic Judaism, Reform Judaism, Humanists, Humanistic Jews, Congregation, Arizona, AZ". Oradam.org. Retrieved 2012-11-08.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - J. David Bleich, Contemporary Halakhic Problems (5 vols), Ktav. ISBN 0-87068-450-7, ISBN 0-88125-474-6, ISBN 0-88125-315-4, ISBN 0-87068-275-X, Feldheim ISBN 1-56871-353-3 - Menachem Elon, Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri (trans. Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles ISBN 0-8276-0389-4), Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0-8276-0537-4 - Jacob Katz, Divine Law in Human Hands — Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility, Magnes Press. ISBN 965-223-980-1 - Moshe Koppel, "Meta-Halakhah: Logic, Intuition, and the Unfolding of Jewish Law," ISBN 1-56821-901-6 - Mendell Lewittes, Jewish Law: An Introduction, Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-302-6 - Daniel Pollack ed., Contrasts in American and Jewish Law, Ktav. ISBN 0-88125-750-8 - Emanuel Quint, A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law (11 vols), Gefen Publishing. ISBN 0-87668-765-6, ISBN 0-87668-799-0, ISBN 0-87668-678-1, ISBN 0-87668-396-0, ISBN 0-87668-197-6, ISBN 1-56821-167-8, ISBN 1-56821-319-0, ISBN 1-56821-907-5, ISBN 0-7657-9969-3, ISBN 965-229-322-9, ISBN 965-229-323-7, ISBN 965-229-375-X - Emanuel Quint, Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources & Modern Applications , Taylor and Francis. ISBN 3-7186-0293-8 - Steven H. Resnicoff, Understanding Jewish Law, LexisNexis, 2012. ISBN 9781422490204 - Joel Roth, Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis, Jewish Theological Seminary. ISBN 0-87334-035-3 - Joseph Soloveitchik, Halakhic Man, Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan. ISBN 0-8276-0397-5 - "Halakhah". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Gilman, D. C.; Thurston, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Halacha". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Halakha\| - Full-text resources of major halakhic works - Mishneh Torah - Arba'ah Turim - Hebrew: wikisource - Shulchan Aruch - Shulchan Aruch HaRav - Aruch HaShulchan - Hebrew: wikisource - Kitzur Shulchan Aruch - Ben Ish Chai - Kaf HaChaim - Mishnah Berurah - Chayei Adam - Hebrew: daat.ac.il - Chochmat Adam: - Hebrew: daat.ac.il - Peninei Halachah: - Yalkut Yosef - Hebrew: yalkut.info - A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice: - A Halacha Wiki
teaching properties of polygons to 5th graders How to Teach Geometry to 5th Graders. In fifth. and recognize polygons and solid figures. To teach geometry to fifth graders. or graph paper to teach addition properties. Polygon Area Geometry and Measurement, Fifth 5th Grade Math Standards, Grade Level. Concept of Triangle and the Properties of Polygons. Teacher Training \| Make. Teaching Introducing Polygons Lesson Printable Worksheet Elementary Students Activities. 3rd Grade 4th Grade 5th Grade . Excerpt Today we are going to meet the polygons. Polygon Area \| Geometry and Measurement 5th Grade Math Standards Fifth grade Geometry: Regular and irregular polygons IXL - Regular and irregular polygons (5th grade math practice) What are the properties of polygons? Learn all about geometry polygon with these study. 1st Grade; 2nd Grade; 3rd Grade; 4th Grade; 5th Grade; Middle School; High School Properties of Polygons Study Guide \| Education.com Worksheets for teaching coordinate grids, ordered pairs. Polygon Worksheets for 2nd grade; 3rd grade; 4th grade; 5th grade teaching properties of polygons to 5th graders Polygons - free geometry lesson plan from HomeschoolMath.net 6th Grade Math: Polygons Help Classifying Polygons Lesson Plans & Activities Grade 5 Math - Welcome to Bowling Green City Schools, Ohio Introducing Polygons - LessonSnips - Teaching Lessons, Lesson. Polygons - free geometry lesson plan from HomeschoolMath.net 5th Grade Geometry Lines & Polygons .
The Greek word telos means goal, end, or purpose, and teleology is the study of goals, ends and purposes. A moral theory is regarded as teleological to the extent that it defines and explains right actions in terms of the bringing about some good state of affairs. For example, a moral theory that maintains that the rightness of an action is one which achieves the goal of maximizing happiness counts as a teleological theory. The two main types of theory brought under the rubric of teleological ethics are Utilitarianism and the varieties of ancient Greek virtue ethics. Aristotle’s ethics is the most influential example of a virtue ethical theory, and the most well known example of a Utilitarian moral theory is Classical Utilitarianism. Teleological ethics may be contrasted with non-teleological ethics, of which deontological theories provide the best-known example. Ethical theories are often divided into two groups: teleological and deontological theories. One standard way of drawing the teleological/deontological distinction is in terms of how moral theories specify the relation between the two central concepts of ethics: the good and the right. The concept of the right is, roughly, the concept of duty, the concept of which actions we ought to perform, which it would be wrong not to perform. The concept of the good (the target of the theory of value, or axiolology (Greek: axios = worthy; logos = study of)) is concerned with the morally good properties of human beings, as well as states such as pleasure, and the experience of beauty, both of which are thought to be intrinsically good things. Although different moral theories (or normative theories) embody different approaches to the concepts of the "good" and the "right," each must have something to say about these concepts and the way in which they are related. In other words, every ethical theory will propose a theory of right action and a theory of value, and explain how these theories connect up to one another. The theory of right action is an investigation and an attempt to answer the question: what ought I to do? The "ought" in this question is to be interpreted as a moral ought, and may be understood as equivalent to the question, "what is the right thing to do?" The theory of value provides an account of what things are good, what states of affairs ought to be promoted, or what we would like to have realised. These states include things such as pleasure, freedom, and knowledge. On a standard taxonomy, moral theories divide up according to how they specify the relation between the "right" and the "good." In other words, moral theories may be classified according to how their theory of value and their theory of right relate to one another. There are, it is said, two possible ways in which the theory of value may connect up with the theory of right action. This is either a teleological connection or a not a teleological connection. The Greek word telos means goal, end, or purpose, and teleology is the study of goals, ends and purposes. A teleological connection between the theory of right and the theory of value, therefore, emphasises that morality is oriented toward bringing about a certain goal. A non-teleological connection denies this. Let us try to make this more precise: All this may seem rather technical but should become clearer by considering an example of a teleological and a non-teleological theory. Firstly, consider Classical Utilitarianism as an example of a teleological moral theory. Classical utilitarianism can be broken down into two main components: a theory of value (or the "good"), and a theory of right action. Classical Utilitarianism endorses hedonism as theory of value. Hedonism then, is meant to spell out what is good. A Classical Utilitarian would formulate this in terms of utility; quite literally, utility is that which is useful to human beings. Secondly, Classical Utilitarianism endorses consequentialism as a theory of right action. A theory of right action specifies what actions moral agents ought to perform; and consequentialism says that the rightness of an action is determined by its consequences. This is incipient, if not fully articulate, in Mill’s formulation of the Principle of Utility, which he regards as the fundamental moral principle: “The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.” Classical Utilitarianism is called a teleological moral theory because it defines right action in terms of the promotion of pleasure. (Pleasure, for the Classical Utilitarian, is the good.) The right action is the one which beings about (as its goal; hence the connection to telos) the most overall pleasure for everyone concerned. Now, contrast this example of a teleological moral theory with an example of a deontological theory. A deontological theory (e.g. Kant’s) maintains that the wrongness of (some) actions is intrinsic, or resides in the kind of action that it is, rather than the consequences it brings about. So, for example, an act of killing an innocent man is wrong because it is the killing of an innocent man, rather than because it deprives someone of future happiness and causes grief to a family. So deontological theories do not define the notion of right action in terms of the promotion of good consequences. The rightness of an action is not determined by the goal it achieves, and this makes it non teleological as a moral theory. This classification outlined above, while common enough, is a bit misleading for the relation between the theory of the right and the theory of value is not quite as straightforward as might initially be thought. Firstly, ancient Greek ethical theories are usually considered as teleological moralities, but do not fit easily into the above schema [Def: TM]. The above schema [Def: TM] says that a moral theory is teleological to the extent that it defines right action in terms of the promotion of good states of affairs. In shorthand, this is to say that teleological theories define the "right" in terms of the "good." To see the problem, we shall need to consider some details of ancient Greek ethics, of which, perhaps, the most well known example is Aristotle’s virtue theory. According to Aristotle, the goal of ethics is to explain how one achieves the good life for human beings. Aristotle considers the good for man to be eudaimonia, which is most often translated as happiness. He argues that the good for man, (i.e., eudaimonia), is achieved by means of virtuous activity. Very roughly, he thinks that living virtuously is the best way of securing a happy (or eudaimon) life. His idea is that by possessing certain characteristics such as courage and wisdom, one will be equipped with the skills necessary to live well and succeed in living the best possible life one’s circumstances will permit. It is noteworthy, then, that Aristotle’s theory is based around the notion of virtue rather than right action. It is concerned foremost with the states of a good person (virtues and vices), rather than which actions are right and which are wrong. This is not to say that he neglects right action, but only that he is most centrally concerned with virtuous character. Now, given this brief characterization, it is easy to see why Aristotle’s theory is usually regarded as a teleological morality. This is because Aristotle says that virtuous activity is activity which enables a person to live the good and happy life. In this respect, the concept of a virtue is that of which enables its possessor to achieve a certain goal, namely happiness. This makes it reasonable to regard Aristotle’s theory as a teleological moral theory; and much the same applies to the other Greek moral philosophers (see the article on eudaimonia). The problem however is that the schema [Def: TM] outlined above does not include Aristotle’s theory as a teleological theory because Aristotle does not define the right in terms of the good. For him, the right action is part of virtuous action; it is the action which a virtuous person, or more particularly, a practically wise person would do. So the problem is that our criterion for a teleological morality seems to exclude Aristotle’s theory, which is generally regarded as a paradigmatic example of a teleological theory. One way of solving this problem is to relax our definition of a teleological theory somewhat. Earlier we said that a teleological theory defines the right in terms of the good. We may widen this definition by saying that a teleological theory defines normative properties in terms of the good. Normative properties include concepts such as rightness, wrongness, virtue, and praiseworthiness. This is consistent with the spirit of normative ethics since it is not exclusively concerned with the rightness of actions, but is also interested in understanding and explaining properties such as "virtuous," "praiseworthy," and "blameworthy." By broadening the schema beyond rightness, we may propose that a moral theory is teleological to the extent that it explains normative properties in general in terms of the promotion of some good. More precisely, we shall emend our earlier definition: Consider what this entails with reference to Classical Utilitarianism. Since rightness is but one normative property amongst many, this does not exclude theories which focus on right action from being teleological moral theories. So by widening the definition of teleological moral theories Classical Utilitarianism remains where it seems to belong. Secondly, a Utilitarian, while focusing primarily on right action need not ignore other normative properties such as virtue. Our definition allows the Classical Utilitarian to treat virtues teleologically by saying (e.g.) that a trait of character is to be considered a virtue to the extent that it tends to produce happiness. A trait such as courage, for example, is a virtue because of a person with courage makes everyone happier. And this coheres quite nicely with what Utilitarians (Mill for example)have said about virtue as opposed to right action. Another advantage of [Def 2: TM] is that it also enables us to understand Aristotle’s theory as teleological in a similar way. Aristotle says that trait of character is a virtue to the extent that it contributes to the happiness (eudaimonia) of its possessor; and since virtue is normative property, we have brought Aristotle’s theory within the range of a teleological morality, where it would seem to belong. Finally, we should note another implication of the adoption of [Def 2: TM] as the criterion of distinction for teleological theories. The point encapsulated in [Def 2: TM] is that the category of teleological ethics need not be too concerned with actions rather than (e.g.) states of character, and normative properties in general. But this possibility of treating normative properties other than rightness teleologically entails that the proper contrast to teleological ethics is not deontological ethics; rather, deontological ethics refers to accounts of right action and therefore is best thought of as a subset of non-teleological accounts. Deontology is a non-teleological account of right action, and does not cover non-teleological accounts of (e.g.) virtuous character. All links retrieved January 21, 2020. This article began as an original work prepared for New World Encyclopedia and is provided to the public according to the terms of the New World Encyclopedia:Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Any changes made to the original text since then create a derivative work which is also CC-by-sa licensed. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Under Charlemagne, much of western Europe was ruled as one vast country, but within 40 years of his death, in 814, the Holy Roman Empire had fragmented. Charlemagne was a brilliant leader, and his kingdom stretched from the North Sea to Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor, he was expected to rule Europe like a Roman emperor, but with a new responsibility for the safety and prosperity of the Church and the Pope. Charlemagne was a great patron of learning, inviting the most famous scholars of the day to his main court at Aachen. His advisers and friends included Peter of Pisa, Agobard of Lyons, and Alcuin of York. Under Charlemagne, rare manuscripts were collected, the text of the Bible was revised, and grammars, history books, and ballads were published. By 843 Charlemagne’s empire had split into three kingdoms, each of which was ruled by a member of his family. Following Charlemagne, there was no Holy Roman Emperor until Otto I was crowned in 962. After 1438, all but one of the holders of the prestigious title were Habsburg monarchs. In 1806 Napoleon abolished the title.
In spring 2010, the research icebreaker Polarstern returned from the South Pacific with a scientific treasure -- ocean sediments from a previously almost unexplored part of the South Polar Sea. What looks like an inconspicuous sample of mud to a layman is, to geological history researchers, a valuable archive from which they can reconstruct the climatic history of the polar areas over many years of analysis. This, in turn, is of fundamental importance for understanding global climatic development. With the help of the unique sediment cores from the Southern Ocean, it is now possible to provide complete evidence of how dust has had a major influence on the natural exchange between cold and warm periods in the southern hemisphere. An international research team under the management of the Alfred Wegener Institute in Bremerhaven was able to prove that dust infiltrations there were 2 to 3 times higher during all the ice ages in the last million years than in the warm phases in climatic history. "High large-area dust supply can have an effect on the climate for two major reasons," explained Dr. Frank Lamy, geoscientist at the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, about the findings. "Trace substances such as iron, which are essential for life, can be incorporated into the ocean through dust. This stimulates biological production and increases the sea's capacity to bind carbon. The result is that the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is taken out of the atmosphere. In the atmosphere itself, dust reflects the sun's radiation and purely due to this it reduces the heat input into Earth's system. Both effects lead to the fact that the Earth cools down." Lamy is the main author of the study which will be published in the journal Science on the 24th January 2014. Other participants included geochemist Gisela Winckler from the US Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the Bremen Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences MARUM. The influence of dust supply on the climate changes between ice ages and warm periods has long been suspected. Climatic researchers always found particularly high dust content containing iron when Earth was going through an ice age, both in Antarctic ice cores and in sediment cores from the Atlantic part of the Southern Ocean. However, up to now there was no data available for the Pacific section, which covers 50% of the Southern Ocean. "We can now close this central gap" is how Lamy underlines the importance of the new study. "The result is that we are now finding the same patterns in the South Pacific that we found in cores from the South Atlantic and the Antarctic ice. Therefore, the increased dust input was a phenomenon affecting the southern hemisphere during colder periods. This means that they now have to be considered differently when assessing the complex mechanisms which control natural climate changes." What sounds almost incidental in Lamy's words is something of considerable relevance for research. This is because up to now many scientists were convinced that dust supply to the Pacific area could not have been higher during the ice ages than during warmer periods of Earth's climate history. Where could larger dust quantities in this area of Earth's oceans come from? Up to now, South Patagonia was suspected as a geological dust source since it is the only landmass in the Southern Ocean, intruding into it like a huge finger. However, since the wind predominating in this part of the world comes from the West, any dust particles in the air originating from South America mostly drift towards the Atlantic. For this reason, data from the South Pacific has been on scientists' wishlists for a long time. However, the Pacific section of the Southern Ocean has remained something of a "terra incognita" for researchers despite modern technology. It is considered to be one of the most remote parts of the world's oceans. "The region is influenced by extreme storms and swells in which wave heights of 10 m or more are not uncommon. The area is also complicated from logistic point of view due to the huge distance between larger harbours" is how AWI scientist Dr. Rainer Gersonde, co-author and at the time leader of the Polarstern expedition, explains the extraordinary challenges faced by the research voyage. The Polarstern made a voyage of 10,000 nautical miles or 18,500 km through this particularly inhospitable part of the Antarctic Ocean in order to obtain high quality and sufficiently long sediment cores. The question is, however, where did the historic dust freight towards the South Pacific come from, and why did the phases of increased input take place at all? Frank Lamy believes that one of the causes is the relocation or extension of the exceptionally strong wind belts prevalent in this region towards the Equator. The entire Southern Ocean is notorious amongst sailors for its powerful westerly winds -- the "Roaring Forties" and the "Furious Fifties." It is considered to be one of the windiest regions in the world. The scientists' theory is that a relocation or extension of this powerful westerly wind belt towards the North could have caused the extended dry areas on the Australian continent to be influenced by stronger wind erosion. The result was higher dust infiltration into the Pacific Ocean -- with the consequences described above. On top of this, New Zealand was an additional dust source. The extended glaciation of the mountains there during the ice age provided considerable quantities of fine-grained material which was then blown far out into the South Pacific by the winds. "Our investigations have now proved without a doubt that colder periods in the southern hemisphere over a period of 1 million years always and almost everywhere coincided, , with lower carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere and higher dust supply from the air. The climatic history of the Earth was, therefore, written in dust." The above story is based on materials provided by Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. - F. Lamy, R. Gersonde, G. Winckler, O. Esper, A. Jaeschke, G. Kuhn, J. Ullermann, A. Martinez-Garcia, F. Lambert, R. Kilian. Increased Dust Deposition in the Pacific Southern Ocean During Glacial Periods. Science, 2014; 343 (6169): 403 DOI: 10.1126/science.1245424 Cite This Page:
Mary Elizabeth Walton was a nineteenth-century American inventor who was awarded two patents for pollution-reducing devices. In 1879, Walton created a method for reducing the environmental hazards of the smoke emitted from locomotive, industrial and residential chimneys. Her system deflected the emissions being produced by factory smokestacks into water tanks, where the pollutants were retained and later flushed "into the sewer, or into other suitable channels for conducting them to a distant or any desired locality". Mary Walton also invented a system for reducing the noise produced by the elevated railway systems that were rapidly expanding in New York City, where she lived near the Sixth Avenue Line. Her system deadened the noise caused by trains running over the tracks by cradling the tracks in a wooden box lined with cotton and filled with sand. The rights to her invention, patented in 1881, were sold to the Metropolitan Railroad for $10,000 and the system was soon adopted by other elevated railway companies. - Walton, Mary E. (1879). Improvement in Locomotive and Other Chimneys. U.S. Patent 221,880, filed October 6, 1879 and issued November 18, 1879, retrieved 17 October 2012 - Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Nov 1996). "Mary Walton". Inventor of the Week. Retrieved 23 Oct 2012. - Walton, Mary E. (1881). Elevated Railway U.S. Patent 237,422, filed January 7, 1879 and issued February 8, 1881, retrieved 23 October 2012 - Stanley, Autumn (1995). Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology. Rutgers University Press. p. 334. ISBN 978-0-8135-2197-8. Retrieved 7 October 2012. \|This article about a United States engineer, inventor or industrial designer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
This is a core subject, basic knowledge of which is required by all engineers. This course aims at developing an understanding of the behavior of fluids in motion or at rest and the subsequent effects of the fluid on the boundaries. The study of this subject will develop analytical abilities related to fluid flow. The students should be able to have Conceptual understanding of fluids and their properties. Understanding of fluid statistics, fluid kinematics and fluid dynamics. Basic knowledge of dimensional analysis and similitude. Understanding of laminar and turbulent flows and flow measurement. 1. Fluid and their properties : Concept of fluid, difference between solids, liquids and gases; ideal and real fluids; Continuum concept of fluid: density, specific weight and relative density; viscosity and its dependance on temperature; surface tension and capillarity, vapour pressure and cavitation: compressibility and bulk modulus; Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. 2. Fluid Statics : Concept of pressure, Pascal’s law and its engineering hydrostatic paradox. Action of fluid pressure on plane (horizontal, vertical and inclined) submerged surface, resultant force and center of pressure , force on a curved surface due to hydrostatic pressure. Buoyancy and floatation, stability of floating and submerged bodies, Metacentric height and its determination, rotation of liquid in a cylindrical container. 3. Fluid Kinematics: Classification of fluid flows, velocity and acceleration of fluid particle, local and convective acceleration, normal & tangential acceleration streamline, pathline and streakline, flow rate and discharge mean velocity continuity equation in Cartesian co-ordinates. Rotational flows- Rotational velocity and circulation, stream & velocity potential functions. 4. Fluid Dynamics :- Euler’s equation, Bernoulli’s equation and steady flow energy equation; representation of energy changes in fluid system, impulse momentum equation, kinetic energy and momentum correction factors, flow along a curved streamline, free and forced vortex motions. 5. Dimensional Analysis and Similitude: Fundamental and derived units and dimensions, dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh’s and Buckingham’s Pi method for dimensional analysis, dimension less number and their significance, geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity, model studies. 6. Laminar and turbulent Flows: Flow regimes and Reynolds number, critical velocity and critical Reynolds number, laminar flow in circular cross section pipes.Turbulent flows and flow losses in pipes, Darcy equation minor head losses in pipe fittings, hydraulic and energy gradient lines. 7. Flow Measurement:- Manometers, Pitot tubes, venturimenter and orifice meters, orifices, mouth pieces, notches and weirs.
Step 14: control system The microcontroller has to be connected to the motor controller (OSMC) so it tells the OSMC how much power to send to the motor, and in which direction - forwards or reverse. There is a safety signal that tells the OSMC whether to lie dormant or go "live", there are two other pairs of wires controlling the type of pulsed signal to send to the motor. The microcontroller sends a pulse width modulated signal (on and off very fast) at 5V to the OSMC. The OSMC then sends a high power equivalent of this signal to the motor, so controlling its speed. This so called PWM signal is such that the more of the time the +5V is "on" relative to it being "off" i.e. 0V, the more power is sent to the motor. This "on/off" PWM signal cycles very fast e.g. 20KHz which incidentally is why the motor makes a high pitched whine. Here you can see the ribbon cable from the microcontroller running to the OSMC.
[Short Notes] NCERT class VII : Our Environment – Inside Our Earth – Chapter 2 The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all the layers.The earth’s crust is made up of various types of rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock. Types of Rocks- - Igneous rocks-When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They are also called primary rocks. There are two types of igneous rocks: Intrusive rocks-slow cooling of molten lava inside earth’s surface leading to rock formation, forms large grain structure, eg.Granite Extrusive rocks– rapid cooling of molten lava on earth’s surface and turns to solid, fine grained structure eg.Basalt, found in deccan plateau - Sedimentary rocks-Igneous rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken down into small fragments. These smaller particles are called sediments, when sediments are compressed and hardened sedimentary rocks are formed. eg. sandstone from sand - Metamorphic rocks– turning of sedimentary & igneous rocks due to high temperature & pressure into a very strong rock. Crust is about 35 km. on the continental masses and only 5 km. on the ocean floors. The main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica and alumina (sial). The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium; (sima). Beneath the crust is the mantle which extends up to a depth of 2900 km. below the crust. The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km. It is mainly made up of nickel and iron(nifa).It has high temperature & pressure. The radius of the earth is 6371 km.
New research suggests the Earth was pummelled by four gigantic asteroids measuring at least 600 miles across in its early days — impacts that would have rebooted the surface, boiled off the oceans, and extinguished any fledgling life. Here's what we now know about the Late Bombardment Era and its affect on our planet's geology. Top image: An artistic conception of the early Earth, showing a surface recently scarred by a large impact. The collision resulted in the ejection of deep-seated magma onto the surface. But at the same time, the distal portion of the surface would have been able to retain liquid water. Simone Marchi. During the geologic Hadean eon, an era that transpired some 4 to 4.5 billion years ago, our planet was hit by large asteroids on an all too frequent basis. These massive collisions facilitated the regular reprocessing of the surface — impacts that melted, mixed, and buried sizeable portions of our planet. A new model developed by an international team of researchers and government institutions — including NASA's Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute (SSERVI) — shows how these repeated impacts buried Earth's earliest and oldest rocks. What's more, the research shows how our planet bounced back from these disasters and how this healing process eventually allowed for habitability. Welcome to the Late Bombardment Period Our planet went through at least three distinctive formative phases. The first was the accretion of planetesimals over the course of many tens of millions of years. This was followed by a giant impact by a large protoplanet that led to the formation of our moon. Finally, there was the Late Bombardment Period (LBP) — a time when giant asteroids several tens to hundreds of miles in size periodically struck the ancient Earth. There have been severe impacts since then, including a 36 mile-wide (58 km) rock that struck 3.26 billion years ago and the relatively tiny 6 mile-wide (10 km) asteroid that contributed to the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, but the frequency of these later collisions — and their monumental size — simply doesn't compare to what went on during the LBP. Indeed, the sheer size of these asteroids boggle the imagination. The researchers found that, on average, Hadean Earth was hit by at least one to four impactors more than 600 miles wide (965 km). These collisions would have resulted in complete global sterilization. They also believe the Earth was struck by at least three to seven impactors measuring more than 300 miles wide (482 km). These sizeable impacts would have vaporized the planet's oceans. Credit: Simone Marchi et al. 2014 "During that time, the lag between major collisions was long enough to allow intervals of more clement conditions, at least on a local scale," noted study co-author Simone Marchi in a NASA statement. "Any life emerging during the Hadean eon likely needed to be resistant to high temperatures, and could have survived such a violent period in Earth's history by thriving in niches deep underground or in the ocean's crust." Fascinatingly, Marchi used the Moon's crater record to develop a computer model of Earth's bombardment history. The model combines simulations of impacts with theories of planetary formation and data from samples of lunar and terrestrial rocks. The team was also able to estimate the total volume of asteroids that hit the Earth and Moon by measuring the amount of elements such as gold and osmium in their crusts. A Force For Geological Evolution The researchers say that all the accretion during the LBP contributed to less than 1% of the Earth's present-day mass. Still, the impacts had a profound effect on the geological evolution of the early Earth. Prior to the end of the LBP, the Earth was continually resurfaced by voluminous impact-generated melt. These impacts would have also repeatedly boiled away existing oceans into steamy atmospheres. At the same time, and despite the heavy bombardment, the findings are consistent with the suggestion that liquid water existed on the Earth's surface in large volumes as early as 4.3 billion years ago. In addition to affecting our planet's geology, these collision also played a major role in the subsequent evolution of life. "Prior to approximately four billion years ago, no large region of Earth's surface could have survived untouched by impacts and their effects," said Marchi. "The new picture of the Hadean Earth emerging from this work has important implications for its habitability." The best evidence we have suggests that microbial life didn't emerge until about 3.8 billion years ago, which is after the LBP. But that doesn't mean life didn't exist before then. As noted in Nature News: John Valley, a geochemist at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, says that the study does not show definitively that Earth was uninhabitable 4.3 billion years ago. He points out that the effects of each impact would have been short-lived, leaving habitable spells between blasts, and impacts would not necessarily have melted the entire surface of the planet. Life could have started multiple times, or existed in rocks more than 1 kilometre below the oceans, he adds. Without a doubt, though, if life did exist back then, it would have been extremely hardy. Read the entire study at Nature: "Widespread mixing and burial of Earth's Hadean crust by asteroid impacts". Additional information via NASA. Top image: Simone Marchi Follow me on Twitter: @dvorsky
Depleted Uranium (DU) is the material left after most of the highly radioactive uranium-235 is removed from uranium ore for nuclear power and weapons. - DU is used for tank armor, armor-piercing bullets and as weights to help balance aircraft. - DU is both a toxic chemical and radiation health hazard when inside the body. On this page: About Depleted Uranium If someone asked you what uranium is used for, you would probably think of reactor fuel and nuclear weapons. However, uranium has other uses. Some of these other uses happen after the most radioactive parts of uranium ore have been extracted for nuclear reactor fuel and nuclear weapons. The left over part of the ore is called depleted uranium, or simply DU. Uranium ore is a radioactive mineral that is abundant in nature. It is dense (1.7 times denser than lead) and actually contains several forms of uranium. Uranium-235 (U-235) is the most radioactive form and makes up only a small part of the ore. U235 is removed from the ore for use in nuclear reactor fuel and nuclear weapons. The DU that is left is 40 percent less radioactive than the original uranium ore. The high density of DU makes it valuable for both industrial and military uses. In the 1970s, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) began to search for a very dense metal that could penetrate the strong armor of tanks. The metals tungsten and DU were the top two choices. At the time, the U.S. Department of Energy was operating facilities that produced DU as a waste product. This meant DU was plentiful and cheap and therefore, it was chosen. DoD used DU to make bullets and mortar shells, very strong armor for tanks and weights to balance aircraft. DU mainly emits alpha particle radiation. As a result, exposure to the outside of the body is not considered a serious hazard. However, inside the body, DU is a health hazard. Inside the body, the radiation it emits (alpha particles) directly affects living cells, and its chemical toxicity can cause kidney damage. The first major use of DU in the battlefield was during the Persian Gulf War in 1991. During the war, approximately 20 U.S. soldiers were hit with DU fragments that became permanently embedded in their bodies. To date, studies have shown that these soldiers have not experienced health problems related to DU. In addition, their children, who were born after the war, have not shown any DU-related health problems, such as birth or developmental defects. There continues to be veterans with imbedded DU fragments under their skin, but health surveillance by the Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center shows no medically significant health effects so far. DU contamination of spent shells and shell fragments is a problem at some military firing ranges. However, due to its density, DU is only found as fine particles near facilities that manufacture or process the material that DU is made from (uranium hexafluoride or UF6). DU's high melting point and high density help to ensure that it is not very mobile in air. However, fine DU particles can contaminate soil and water. Rules and Guidance U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) DoD monitors soldiers who have or may have been exposed to DU. They provide DU education programs as part of soldier's training. DoD also cleans up many firing ranges where DU projectiles have been scattered. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) DOE has a Depleted UF6 (Uranium) Management Program to ensure that its DU supply is handled in a way that protects workers, the public and the environment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) It is unlikely that the average person would come into contact with DU. However, EPA has taken steps to protect people from exposure. EPA sets Maximum Contamination Levels (MCLs) for uranium in drinking water. These MCLs apply to DU as well. EPA also sets limits for exposure by inhalation of DU around production plants. EPA has provided cleanup managers with recommendations that help keep their workers safe during the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous materials, including radioactive materials. EPA also collected a list of methods for testing soil and other samples for DU. This list helps people who clean up contaminated sites understand the special requirements for testing radioactive samples. What you can do It is highly unlikely for most people to come into contact with large amounts of DU. All people have uranium present in their environment and body at all times, from food, water and air. Because most DU is stored at government facilities away from the public, the chance of coming in contact with it is extremely low. Where to learn more \|“Depleted Uranium: Technical Brief.” [EPA-402-R-06-011](48 pp, 948K) August 12, 2014. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency In this document, you can read more about the chemical and radiological properties of depleted uranium. You also can read about its management. In addition, you can learn how it moves through the environment (fate and transport). Learn also how DU contamination is measured and how it is cleaned up. \|Depleted Uranium Uses: Research and Development August 12, 2014. Department of Energy On this site you can read about DOE’s research into uses for DU resulting from the conversion of uranium floride. \|DU Library: Depleted Uranium Information August 12, 2014. Department of Defense Force Health Protection & Readiness Policy and Programs Here you can read about depleted uranium and its effects on military personnel. August 12, 2014. Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses This page describes the possible hazards that depleted uranium can pose to humans. \|Depleted Uranium: Questions and Answers August 12, 2014. International Atomic Energy Agency This site provides common questions and answers regarding uranium and depleted uranium.
The word loci is the plural form of locus, which means place. The loci strategy is based on your familiarity with a place, such as your home. The strategy helps you remember lists of items through organization, visualization, and association. It can work well for you if you are good at visualizing (picturing) things in your mind. Here are the steps in the loci strategy along with an example. In this example, one of the items you must remember is "nature." First, identify a place with which you are very familiar. In this example, you decide to use the kitchen where you live as the place. Second, visualize that place and its features in your mind. In this example, one of the features you visualize is a coffeepot on the kitchen stove. Third, associate each item to be remembered with a particular feature of that place. In this example, to remember "nature," you visualize a plant growing out of the coffeepot. The more unusual your association, the more likely you are to remember it. Fourth, visualize each feature of the place and the association you formed for an item to be remembered. In this example, by visualizing the coffeepot with a plant growing out of it, you will remember the item "nature." To complete this example, here are the other items you must remember: pigeon, somersault, invasion, lemon, and puddle. Here are the associations with features of the kitchen you could visualize to help you remember the items: To remember the entire list of items, visualize each kitchen feature and the association you created for it. The loci strategy was invented by the ancient Greeks. It remains just as useful today as it was long ago.
Create Amazing Alebrijes Ages: Toddlers, preschoolers Materials: Paper, pencil, crayons, markers, colored pencils In the 1930s, Mexican artist Pedro Linares became very ill. During his sickness, he dreamt of strange creatures like a donkey with the wings of a butterfly, a rooster with an eagle’s head, and other weird animal combinations. He called these creatures “alebrijes” because they were scary like nightmares. When Pedro was well again, he created papier mache sculptures that combined features from different animals, just like the creatures he had seen in his dream. Meet the world’s first giraphant! Above is an example of a giraphant, a combination of a giraffe and an elephant. The giraphant’s trunk is useful for reaching things on the ground and high in the air. It doesn’t strain its neck when it bends to reach items on the ground. Its giraffe body makes it fast so it can run from predators. Its big ears allow it to hear predators coming from far away. It’s great to have a giraphant in the neighborhood. It can help you rescue kittens out of trees or wash the house. But it’s almost impossible to find a car big enough to take a giraphant to the vet. Create an alebrije with your children 1. Ask them what animals they wish to combine. (They can name their favorite animals or choose from the drawings below.) 2. Encourage them to use their imaginations to draw and color their very own alebrije. 3. Ask your children to describe their unique creature—what is its name, what are some of its interesting characteristics, what makes it unique, etc. This activity is a great way to develop your children’s artistic skills and expand their imagination!
NHM Health Focus: Healthy Lung Month "A slice of normal lung looks like a pink sponge-filled with tiny bubbles or holes. Around each bubble is a fine network of tiny blood vessels. These bubbles, surrounded by blood vessels, give the lungs a large surface to exchange oxygen (into the blood where it is carried throughout the body) and carbon dioxide (out of the blood). This process is called gas exchange. Healthy lungs do this very well." (National Heart Lung Blood Institute) Unfortunately, not everyone has healthy lungs. "Lung disease is the number three killer in America, responsible for one in seven deaths. Lung disease and other breathing problems are the number one killer of babies younger than one year old. Today, more than 35 million Americans are living with chronic lung disease such as asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis." American Lung Association."Each day you breathe about 25,000 times, and by the time you're 70 years old, you'll have taken at least 600 million breaths." (KidsHealth) With each breath, the oxygen rich fresh air meets the carbon-dioxide rich blood carried from all parts of your body. It is in the lungs that blood cells lose carbon dioxide, a waste product, and gain oxygen. Oxygen rich blood carries its life giving load of oxygen to your heart, your brain, your liver, and all other parts of your body. For more about the structure and function of healthy lungs, please see "Looking at Your Lungs", "Human Respiratory System" or one of the other links in the sidebar. Lung disease may Lung disease may be caused by From asthma, bronchitis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), to SARS and tuberculosis, the list of lung diseases is long. Many of these conditions can be avoided, or their effects minimized by early detection and prompt treatment. Access Excellence @ the National Health Museum has these resources related to lung health:
This is the seventh of nine lessons in the 'Visualizing and Understanding the Science of Climate Change' website. This lesson addresses climate feedback loops and how these loops help drive and regulate Earth's unique climate system. This lesson covers different aspects of the major greenhouse gases - water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and CFCs - including some of the ways in which human activities are affecting the atmospheric concentrations of these key greenhouse gases. This is lesson six in a nine-lesson module about climate change. This activity covers the role that the oceans may play in climate change and how climate change may affect the oceans. It is lesson 8 in a nine-lesson module Visualizing and Understanding the Science of Climate Change. This hands-on activity is a kinesthetic game illustrating the dynamics of the carbon cycle. Acting as carbon atoms, students travel from one carbon reservoir to another; at each reservoir they determine, by rolling dice, how long they stay in the reservoir or how likely it is that they will move to another carbon reservoir. In this interactive, regionally-relevant carbon cycle game, students are challenged to understand the role of carbon in global climate change. They imagine that they are carbon molecules and travel via different processes through carbon reservoirs on the Colorado Plateau (the Four Corners area of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah). This game can be adapted to other regions. On September 27, 2013, Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) presented its report to member governments for approval and acceptance. The report is the first of four that will make up the IPCC's 5th Assessment. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) December 28, 2012 The CDIAC is the primary global-change data and information analysis center of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). It contains information on concentrations of carbon dioxide and other radioactively active gases in the atmosphere; the role of the terrestrial biosphere and the oceans in the biogeochemical cycles of greenhouse gases; emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere; long-term climate trends; the effects of elevated carbon dioxide on vegetation; and the vulnerability of coastal areas to rising sea level. In this activity, students work in groups, plotting carbon dioxide concentrations over time on overheads and estimating the rate of change over five years. Stacked together, the overheads for the whole class show an increase on carbon dioxide over five years and annual variation driven by photosynthesis. This exercise enables students to practice basic quantitative skills and understand how important sampling intervals can be when studying changes over time. A goal is to see how small sample size may give incomplete picture of data.
Infection in Pets The bacteria that cause Leptospirosis are spread through the urine of infected animals, which can get into water or soil and can survive there for weeks to months. Humans and animals can become infected through contact with this contaminated urine (or other body fluids, except saliva), water, or soil. The bacteria can enter the body through skin or mucous membranes (eyes, nose, or mouth), especially if the skin is broken from a cut or scratch. Drinking contaminated water can also cause infection. Infected wild and domestic animals may continue to excrete the bacteria into the environment continuously or every once in a while for a few months up to several years. If your pet has become infected, it most likely came into contact with the bacteria in the environment or was exposed to infected animals. Your pet may have been drinking, swimming, or walking through contaminated water. Because of increased building and development into areas that were previously rural, pets may be exposed to more wildlife, such as raccoons, skunks, squirrels, opossums, or deer that are infected with leptospirosis. Dogs also may pass the disease to each other, but this happens very rarely.
A Person of the People Kind of Activity: Students will consider the merits and mistakes of using celebrities as representatives or symbols. Common Core Standards: The chapter about Joe Louis’ fight acts as a bridge between Maya’s small town environment and the larger United States. It is clear in this chapter that for many Black Americans, he was a symbol of Black power, strength, and excellence. Clear connections were made between Louis’ failures during the fight, and the violence pedestrian Black people experience in America. In this activity, students will discuss... Join Now to View Premium Content GradeSaver provides access to 1030 study guide PDFs and quizzes, 7912 literature essays, 2227 sample college application essays, 341 lesson plans, and ad-free surfing in this premium content, “Members Only” section of the site! Membership includes a 10% discount on all editing orders.
Michele McArdle Stephens The Caste Wars of the Yucatán tore apart the peninsula between 1847 and 1901. While the violence was not constant throughout the more than five decades between the start and conclusion of the war itself, the threat of rebel hostilities was ever present. Scholars have debated the origins of the war for many decades, with most recent academic treatments focusing on heavy tax burdens, poor working conditions for Yucatán’s peasantry, and the loss of land that occurred during the second half of the century. Tensions between political leaders exacerbated relations with the Mayas in particular and the peasantry more generally. The emergence of the breakaway state of Chan Santa Cruz, in the southeastern part of Yucatán, allowed rebel forces to coalesce between 1850 and the early 1870s. Here, a “Speaking Cross” oracle gave direction to the rebellious Mayas, who crushed their enemies and exacted revenge against those who would not support their cause. The emergence of Porfirio Díaz as President of Mexico in 1876 led to a gradual “reconquest” of the areas held by the cruzob, or “people of the Cross.” By 1901, the Mexican military ended the Caste Wars, though violent episodes still marred Yucatán until the early 1930s. Emiliano Zapata led the Liberating Army of the South during the Mexican Revolution. Zapata’s movement began with a demand for land reform, and his beliefs are most often captured by reference to the Plan de Ayala, which he promulgated in 1911. It was largely because of the Zapatistas (Zapata and his adherents) that land reform was written into the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Later, especially under President Lázaro Cárdenas, (1934–1940), the Mexican government carried out major land redistribution, which helped earn the post-revolutionary state legitimacy in the countryside. Over the course of nearly a decade fighting in the revolution, Zapata’s vision for remaking Mexico extended far beyond the Plan de Ayala and land reform to include judicial reform, decentralization of power, political democracy, the redistribution of wealth, and the promotion of the interests of rural workers and small agricultural producers while protecting Mexican sovereignty against powerful foreign interests. Zapata, however, led the most poorly armed of the main factions in the revolution and was unable to realize his goals. His enemies received large amounts of foreign military supplies, while he received no assistance from abroad. The inability of his poorly equipped volunteer army, mostly peasants and hacienda workers, to carry out large pitched battles dictated that they had to fight a grueling guerilla war. Zapata was unable to win on the battlefield, but was never totally defeated. He was assassinated in 1919. Although his larger vision for the future of Mexico did not prevail, his fight for land reform helped shape modern Mexico. Friedrich E. Schuler General Victoriano Huerta (1850–1916) stands out as the bête noire of twentieth-century Mexico. He was a career army officer who had attained the rank of general. Other generals and the old economic and social hierarchy supported him as a transitional national leader who could restore order following Francisco Madero’s revolution and presidency. Huerta has become the national bête noire because of his assumed responsibility for the assassination of Madero and his vice president, along with several governors and congressmen of the revolutionary regime. His seizure of power resulted in a new phase of the Mexican Revolution, the U.S. occupation of Veracruz, and his involvement with German Mexico and the area along the border with the United States. After going into exile, he attempted to return to power by invading Mexico. He was arrested by U.S. officials and interned at Fort Bliss, in El Paso, Texas, where he died during emergency surgery. Monica Duarte Dantas Scholars have long studied the rebellious movements that rattled Brazil after its independence and during the so-called Regency period. The scholarship has mainly focused on understanding the political and economic elites who led the revolts by joining or fighting the rebels, or whose interests were at stake. Comparatively little attention has been paid to those who actually fought in the battles: namely, the impoverished free and freed people who comprised the majority of the country’s population. These women and men took up arms and, occasionally, led the rebellions, notably during the First Reign and the Regency. Historical accounts of such revolts are limited, however, and those that speak to upheavals that occurred from the 1850s on are even scarcer. In the past decades, new interpretations of popular revolts during the Empire have enabled scholars to reappraise how free and freed poor (of Portuguese, African, or Native American descent) experienced the innovations brought by the country’s independence, and the long process of state-building. Even if the country’s Charta was given by the first emperor, and not duly written and approved by a legislative body, it followed quite strictly the liberal creed that inspired so many other contemporary constitutions. According to the 1824 Charta, all of the country’s natural born were henceforth made citizens, regardless of whether they were free or freed, with constitutionally guaranteed rights. Although one should never mistake the letter of the law for its actual enforcement, its existence should also not be dismissed. This is especially important when trying to understand the history of a country whose elites kept on fighting not only over the Constitution’s true meaning, but also over governmental control. Battling for independence and state power meant publicizing mottos about freedom, emancipation, the people’s rights, and the overcoming of oppression across the country—words that were spoken out loud and printed in newspapers and gazettes, reaching as far as the Brazilian backlands. One must always factor into any historical equation the specifics of a country’s population. By the time Brazil became independent, slaves amounted to roughly 31 percent of the population, where most of the remaining 69 percent were composed of free poor, freed people, and “domesticated” Indians; all of whom became citizens when the 1824 Charta was enforced (with constitutional Rights, according to the law, and even, depending on one’s gender, age, income, and status—as a free or a freed man—to vote and be voted). Considering all those specifics, this article analyzes the involvement of free and freed peoples in 19th century rebellions, riots, and seditions; movements that broke out all over the country, rattling regions as far as Maranhão and Rio Grande do Sul, from the 1820s to the 1880s. Regarding the role played by popular revolts in 19th century Brazil, one must go beyond the boundaries set by a traditional historiography to understand how the experience of protesting was directly related to the process of state building, and how the lower strata of society learned to fight for their demands as citizens of a representative constitutional monarchy. This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. Please check back later for the full article. The success of the Diaz regime was based on a modus vivendi between prominent political cultures that emerged after Mexico’s War of Independence. On the one hand, was a culture that Octavio Paz described as “de la ciudadanía,” or “of the citizenry”: in short, a culture of liberalism and constitutionalism in all their variations. On the other hand, were the complex networks of patronage that supported the Caudillo, which Paz called the culture “de la pirámide”—the exercise of personal power through hierarchical authority rather than the institutions of the state, which was (and still is) so common in the Hispanic world. Susie S. Porter From la Adelita to the suffragette, from la chica moderna to the factory girl dressed in red shirt and black skirt—the colors of the anarchist—women’s mobilization in the midst of Mexican Revolution was, to a large degree, rooted in their workforce participation. The evolution of gendered occupational segregation of the workforce, sex-typing of occupations, and gendered wage differentials marked women’s experiences and the way they organized to take control of their lives and to shape working conditions and politics. While women’s employment nationwide contracted during the period 1890–1930, it was nevertheless a moment of significant cultural change in the recognition of women’s work outside of the home. Women shifted public debates over their right to work and mobilized around the issues of maternity leave, equal pay for equal work, and respect for seniority. Across the workforce, women fought for the application of the rights afforded by the Mexican Constitution (1917) and then, in the 1930s, by federal labor law. By the fact of their work and because of their activism, women shifted the conversation on the rights of women—single or married, mothers or not, and regardless of personal beliefs or sexual morality—to dignity at work and the right to combine a life of work with other activities that informed their lives and fulfilled their passions.
Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (ESR) is a spectroscopic technique that permits the detection of unpaired electrons originating from radicals, including those induced by irradiation or from paramagnetic ions in an applied external magnetic field. A typical ESR spectrum from an irradiated biological substance was first reported in 1955.1 In 1971, ESR was considered a detection tool for irradiated food.2 Figure 1 – ESR spectra of radiation-induced radicals: a) cellulose radical, b) crystalline sugar radical, c) hydroxyapatite radical. ESR has been accepted as a standard method by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). European Standards EN 1787:2000 (cellulose),3 EN13708:2001 (crystalline sugar),4 and EN 1786:2001 (bone)5 are based on electron spin resonance. The European Standards have been adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.6 An ESR spectrum of the radiation-induced free radicals can be one of three types (Figure 1): - Cellulose (cellulosic) radicals in food materials of plant origin containing cellulose such as seeds, peels, some herbs, and spices - Sugar radicals from dried fruits containing D-fructose, D-glucose, and D-saccharose as the main components - Hydroxyapatite radicals produced from bone-containing foods; CO2–1, CO3–3, and CO3–1 are the key carbonate-derived radicals that define typical radiation-induced spectra. Principle of ESR In principle, ESR finds paramagnetic centers (e.g., radicals) that may or may not be radiation induced. A strong external magnetic field generates a difference between the energy levels of the electron spins, ms = +½ and ms = –½, which results in resonance absorption of an applied microwave energy (Figure 2). Measurement of the g value of the ESR signal, which is the frequency to the magnetic field strength values ratio (hν/βB0, where h is Planck’s constant, ν is the microwave frequency, β is the Bohr magneton, and B0 is the magnetic field), is used for the identification of irradiated samples. The ESR spectra are presented as the first derivative of the absorption with respect to the applied magnetic field (EN 1787, 2000).3 Radiation-induced paramagnetic species can remain stable in the rigid and dehydrated parts of a food sample for a long time in comparison to the shelf life of that food. Figure 2 – Principle of electron spin resonance spectroscopy for the detection of irradiated food and energy level of electrons in a magnetic field. Applications of ESR In food materials of plant origin, irradiation can generate free radicals in cellulose and crystalline sugars, which could serve as irradiation detection markers in ESR analysis.7 Radiation-induced radicals generally occur in the solid and dry fractions of food. The rigid structure of the matrix is able to trap free radicals or excited states of the electrons and inhibit them to react with each other or with food components present in wet portions of the food. Foods containing bone, seeds, shells, etc., have low moisture content, and radicals remain sufficiently stable for ESR analysis. In general, it is difficult to apply the ESR technique to foods containing high-moisture content, since free radicals produced during the irradiation process disappear very rapidly. ESR spectroscopy can also be utilized for the identification of irradiated fruits and vegetables. 8 In high-moisture products like fruits and vegetables, the irradiation-induced radicals are not stable; however, hard parts that hold low moisture can be utilized to detect irradiation treatment because the free radicals are relatively stable there. Raffi and others studied the ESR signal of strawberry seeds; the signal increased with irradiation dose and was largely affected by water content.9 Figure 3 – Block diagram of a simple ESR spectrometer. For ESR measurements, the sample is placed in a quartz ESR tube (5 mm diam); the tube is sealed with paraffin film and stored in the dark in a desiccator at 40 ± 5% relative humidity. The sample is subjected to the simultaneous action of a magnetic field and an electromagnetic microwave of very high frequency (Figure 3). ESR signals are measured as described in the European Standard Protocols.3–5 A number of research studies have reported the radiation-induced signals in plant materials containing cellulose with two side peaks having g values (g =2.0201 and g =1.9851), linked with a central signal (Figure 1a).10 On the other hand, irradiated sugar standard markers showed the multicomponent unparalleled radiation-induced signals that are characteristic of the hydroxyalkyl radical in crystalline carbohydrates as reported in irradiated rice noodles,11 irradiated wheat,12 dried mushrooms,13 and dried fruits (Figure 1b).4 Barabas et al. reported the nature of paramagnetic centers in marine carbonates.14 CO2–1, CO3–3, and CO3–1 are key carbonate-derived radicals used to define typical radiation-induced spectra. In particular, generation of CO2–1 from carbonated materials upon irradiation is important with g = 1.9996, which is more specific than other radicals (Figure 1c). Effect of drying treatment on ESR spectra Effective drying techniques are required as pretreatments to reduce the moisture content in order to obtain clear or improved ESR spectral features 15 Recently, Akram et al. reported the significant effects of different sample pretreatments such as freeze drying, alcohol extraction, and water-alcohol extraction to characterize different irradiated sauces using the ESR technique (Figure 4).16 The alcohol extraction pretreatment of irradiated sauce samples demonstrated improved applicability of the ESR technique in comparison to the freeze drying pretreatment. Figure 4 – Effects of different sample pretreatments on ESR signals from 10 kGy irradiated tomato ketchup. FD, freeze drying; AE, alcohol extraction; WAE, water washing followed by alcohol extraction. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 16.) Previously, de Jesus et al. reported water extraction by alcohol for fruit pulps of kiwi, papaya, and tomato containing high moisture content.7 In another study, de Jesus et al. observed the dose-dependent increase in radiation-induced cellulose radical signals in the flesh of irradiated vegetables analyzed by the ESR technique after different sample pretreatments.17 Similarly, nitric acid hydrolysis was found to be the most suitable treatment for better ESR detection in irradiated sprout seeds.18 Freeze drying effectively reduced the moisture content but did not result in any compositional changes in the matrix. On the other hand, ethyl alcohol extraction was also unable to separate the residual solid from complex materials. However, acid hydrolysis proved successful in digesting the interfering compounds with a weak acid concentration (5%) in sprout seed samples, and cellulose or crystalline sugar-based ESR signals were detected upon analysis (Figure 5). Figure 5 – ESR spectra of irradiated broccoli sprout seeds after nitric acid (5%) extraction. Lee et al. compared the ESR spectral characteristics of radiation-induced radicals in irradiated standard materials (cellulose, sugars, and hydroxyapatite) using different ESR spectrometers, such as the JES-300 (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan), Miniscope MS-400 (Magnettech, Berlin, Germany), and e-scan™ food analyzer (Bruker, Billerica, MA).19 All irradiated standard marker materials gave characteristic radiation-induced ESR signals that were distinguishable based on their shape and respective g values. However, each standard marker material showed different sensitivity to ESR detection corresponding to the composition and crystallinity of saccharides. Instrumental variations in signal intensity, spectral shapes, and detection applicability were observed and should be taken into consideration from a practical point of view. Advantages and limitations of ESR ESR has become increasingly popular all over the world, and efforts are being made by researchers to extend the application of ESR methodology to identify several types of irradiated food. ESR is a nondestructive technique that can detect paramagnetic ion and free radicals in a variety of materials. ESR is specific, quick, and user friendly, and can also be employed for quantitative estimation. The technique has also been used successfully for herbs, nuts, spices, and meat. However, ESR results are affected by the nature of food and its water content. - Gordy, W.; Ard, W.B. et al. Microwave spectroscopy of biological substances. I. Paramagnetic resonance in X-irradiated amino acids and proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1955, 41, 983–4. - Boshard, J.A.P.; Holmes, D.E. et al. An inherent dosimeter for irradiated foods: papayas. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 1971, 22, 316–18. - Foodstuffs—Detection of Irradiated Food Containing Cellulose by ESR Spectroscopy; EN1787; European Committee of Standardization (CEN): Brussels, Belgium, 2000. - Detection of Irradiated Food Containing Cellulose by ESR Spectroscopy; EN13708; European Committee of Standardization (CEN): Brussels, Belgium, 2002. - Detection of Irradiated Food Containing Cellulose by ESR Spectroscopy; EN1786; European Committee of Standardization (CEN): Brussels, Belgium, 1997. - General Methods for the Detection of Irradiated Foods; CODEX STAN 231-2001, Rev. 1-2003; CAC 2003; Codex Alimentarius Commission: Rome, Italy. - Delincée, H.; Soika, C. Improvement of the ESR detection of irradiated food containing cellulose employing a simple extraction method. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 2002, 63, 437–41. - de Jesus, E.F.O.; Rossi, A.M. et al. An ESR study on identification of gamma-irradiated kiwi, papaya and tomato using fruit pulp. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 1999, 34, 173–8. - Raffi, J.J.; Agnel, J.P.L. et al. Electron spin resonance identification of irradiated strawberries. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday T. 1988, 84, 3359–62. - Raffi, J.; Stocker, P. Electron paramagnetic resonance detection of irradiated foodstuffs. Appl. Magn. Reson. 1996, 10, 357–73. - Sudprasert, W.; Sahakan, M. et al. Identification of irradiated rice noodles by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Radiat. Meas. 2012, 47, 640–3. - Shimoyama, Y.; Ukai, M. et al. ESR detection of wheat flour before and after irradiation. Spectrochim. Acta A 2006, 63, 888–90. - Malec-Czechowska, K.; Strzelczak, G. et al. Detection of irradiation treatment in dried mushrooms by photostimulated luminescence, EPR spectroscopy and thermoluminescence measurements. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2003, 216, 57–65. - Barabas, M.; Mudelsee, M. et al. Dose-response and thermal behavior of the ESR signal AT g = 2.0006 in carbonates. Quat. Sci. Rev. 1992, 11, 173–9. - Akram, K.; Ahn, J.J. et al. Analytical Methods for the Identification of Irradiated Foods. In: Ionizing Radiation: Applications, Sources and Biological Effects; Belotserkovsky, E.; Ostaltsov, Z., Eds.; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, 2012; pp 1–36. - Akram, K.; Ahn, J.J. et al. Characterization of electron spin resonance spectroscopy of irradiated sauces with different sample treatment. Food Chem. 2013, 138, 1878–83. - de Jesus, E.F.O.; Rossi, A.M. et al. Identification and dose determination using ESR measurements in the flesh of irradiated vegetable products. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 2000, 52, 1375–83. - Shahbaz, H.M.; Kwon, J.H. et al. In: Improved Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy with Different Sample Treatments to Identify Irradiated Sprout Seeds. Proceedings Book of 17th International Meeting of Radiation Processing: Shanghai, China; p 187. - Lee, J.H.; Ahn, J.J. et al. Comparison of ESR spectra of irradiated standard materials using different ESR spectrometers. J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol. Chem. 2012, 55, 407−11. The authors are with the School of Food Science & Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea; tel.: +82 53 950 5775; fax: +82 53 950 6772; e-mail: jhkwon@ knu.ac.kr.
Fats are one of the main classes of food, alongside proteins and carbohydrates. They are made up of molecules called triglycerides. Fats all have a similar chemical structure consisting of three zigzagged fatty acid chains stuck on glycerol molecule to become a triglyceride. These fatty acid chains are long strands of carbon atoms, carbon atoms which have the ability to make four chemical bonds – by attaching to the carbon atoms behind and in front of them, and the others two slots to be filled with hydrogen atoms. Now, carbon bonds can be long or short, and the bonds can be single or double. Fatty acids with single bonds (linking to the hydrogen atoms to become hydrogenised), are called ‘Saturated Fats’ while those with double bonds are called ‘Unsaturated Fats’. Unsaturated fats are of two types – monounsaturated, in which there one double bond, and poly-unsaturated, in which there are more than one double bond. Generally, unsaturated fats are better than saturated fats because they may increase the overall LDL cholesterol, and the LDL particle size. There is also, a fourth type of fat which is actually a type of unsaturated fat, except they are partially hydrogenised which make them even more - They have single bonds. - They stack easily on each other because of their regular zigzag pattern and so solidify at room temperature - They have high melting points - This kind is the bad type of fat, especially when consumed in excess. - Have a single carbon-to-carbon double bond - Could be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated - Examples are olive oil, peanut oil, almonds, hazel nuts, canola oil, avocados, and most nuts, as well as high-oleic safflower and sunflower oils, pumpkin seeds POLY UNSATURATED FATS - They have two or more double bonds in its carbon chain - They are essential fats. Good for the body but the body can’t make them - Examples are flax seeds, corn, soya seeds, fish, - These are the worst kind of fats - They are a conversion of good fats to ‘hydrogenated fats’ to prevent them from becoming rancid - Eating foods rich in trans fats increases the amount of harmful LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream and reduces the amount of beneficial HDL cholesterol - Examples are some packaged pastries and snacks, and foods with shortening or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils written on their labels. So…unsaturated fats are the best, saturated fats should be taken moderately and transfats should be avoided. Above all, moderation is key.
THIS IS ANCIENT VERSION OF CALCULLA.COM LEFT HERE FOR ARCHIVAL PURPOSES. ALL CALCULATORS SHOULD STILL WORK, BUT YOU CAN'T BE SURE. WE ALSO DON'T UPDATE THEM, SO EXPECT OUTDATED INFO. OUR SUGGESTION IS TO MOVE TO RECENT VERSION OF CALCULLA.COM BY CLICKING THE LINK: Fractions: inverse (reciprocal) Fractions: inverse (reciprocal) Calculator finds multiplicative inverse of given fraction or number. - "Multiplicative inverse" and "reciprocal" is the same thing - To invert a number X you have to divide 1 by that number. So, multiplicative inverse of X is 1/X. - To invert fraction you simply need to swap its nominator with denominator. For example inverse of 3/4 is improper fraction 4/3. - Inverse of number X is Y, when X · Y is equal to one. For example inverse of number 2 is fraction 1/2 because 2 · 1/2 = 1. So, whatever number X times inverted X equals one ! - There is no inverse of zero. This also means: any fraction with zero in nominator has no inverse too - no matter what is denominator. Do not be fooled! - When you invert number lower than one, you get number greater than one and vice versa. - The inverse of number 1 is 1. - If you invert some number twice, then you will get the same number. In other words, if you invert the number X and then invert the result again - you get X ! How to use this tool Enter fraction (number), which you want to invert and calculla will present you the step-by-step inversion. To find fraction (number) inverse you need to do below steps: - I. Remove wholes part. If you want to invert mixed number (or integer number), then you need conver it to improper fraction. For example: 2 1/2 should be converted to 5/2. In other case i.e. when there is no wholes part part, nothing to do in this step. After this step your number will be ready to invert. - II. Invert fraction i.e. swap its numerator and denominator. - III. Pull out wholes part. If inverted fraction is improper (numerator greater than denominator) convert it to mixed number. Links to external sites (leaving Calculla?) Tags and links to this site
Recycling & Waste Management Recycling is one of the easiest, most effective, and most rewarding challenges you can take on in your school! Recycling paper, for example, can save vast proportions of landfill space considering the fact it constitutes 40% of the waste we generate, according to the EPA . And that’s only paper—think of how much waste we generate by other means. The EPA estimates that 14 million tons of plastic, 13.2 million tons of glass, and 2 million tons of aluminum waste were produced in 2006. Imagine the recycling potential for 29.2 million tons of non-paper products! Recycling aluminum alone can save 95% of the energy needed to produce it in the first place. But, these are just items we normally think of when we think of recycling. Computers and electronics can also be recycled, along with hazardous waste , batteries, and organic materials such as scrap food and lawn trimmings. Some rights reserved. There are many more opportunities to recycle than there were just 10 years ago. But, if you’re like most Americans, you might not know where to start! Have you ever wondered if you can recycle certain bottles that aren’t soda bottles? Or, what are the differences in the grades of paper? How do you start a recycling program in your school? We got the answers that you need! Here’s a peek of what the different sections of this chapter offer. Click on a link here or in the toolbar to get the full scoop! 1. UPLOAD KNOWLEDGE— 2. TAKE SOME ACTION— 3. GO THE EXTRA MILE—

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.