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All medications and vaccines have potential risks that must be carefully weighed against the benefits that medications and vaccines offer to prevent illness. Vaccination is one of the most successful public health interventions in reducing disease spread, preventing complications and even deaths from vaccine preventable diseases. The success of vaccines in reducing disease should not suggest that vaccine preventable diseases are no longer a threat. Even though immunizations have significantly reduced vaccine preventable diseases, there were nearly 7,800 reports of vaccine preventable diseases in South Carolina in 2016. Of the 238 disease outbreak investigations that DHEC conducted, 29% of them were outbreaks of influenza, many of which occurred in school and nursing home settings affecting populations of people who are vulnerable to complications from the flu. In fact the age groups with the highest rates of hospitalizations from the flu include those 0 to 4 years of age and those older than 65. There have been 94 deaths from the flu reported in South Carolina during the current flu season. No vaccine offers 100% protection and vaccine efficacy meaning how well a vaccine prevents illness among those vaccinated varies from one type of vaccine to the next and how well a vaccine works also depends on the health status of the person vaccinated. For example, the flu vaccine does not protect the elderly against catching the flu as well as it does in younger people. But very importantly, several studies suggest that elderly people vaccinated against the flu have less severe disease, are less likely to be hospitalized and are less likely to die. We continue to see preventable illness, hospitalizations and unfortunately deaths in South Carolina from influenza, whooping cough, meningitis, hepatitis B, and other diseases. We also continue to see travelers import diseases like measles that are no longer common here but that cause outbreaks in communities with low vaccination rates. Vaccines do have some risk for adverse reaction, the most common being redness and soreness at the injection site or fever and allergic reactions. More serious complications like seizures and the neurologic condition Guillian-Barre are also reported but occur very rarely and far less commonly than the complications and deaths from vaccine preventable diseases.
A rare but serious paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin that is produced by the bacterium, Clostridium botulinum. Botulism toxin can be inhaled or ingested via contaminated food or water. There are five clinical categories: 1) foodborne botulism; 2) wound botulism; 3) infant botulism; 4) adult infectious botulism; 5) inadvertent, following botulinum toxin injection. All forms of botulism can be fatal and are considered medical emergencies. Foodborne botulism can be especially dangerous because many people can be poisoned by eating contaminated food. All people are susceptible to foodborne toxins, but food poisoning can be prevented by properly processing and preserving foods. The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is involved in many aspects of chemical safety.
Phonics is a way of teaching children to read quickly and skilfully. Children are taught how to recognise the sounds each individual letter makes and to identify the sounds that different contributions of letters make such as ‘sh’ and ‘oo’. Children are taught to read by breaking down words into separate sounds or ‘phonemes’. They are then taught how to blend these sounds together to read the whole word. In the summer term all children in Year 1 and some children in Year 2 will take a Phonics Screening check. The National phonics screening check is a statutory assessment that was introduced in 2012 to all Year 1 pupils and is a quick and easy check of your childs phonics knowledge. The Phonic Check comprises of a list of 40 words and nonsense words. It will assess phonics skills and knowledge learnt through reception and year 1. Your child will read one‐one with a teacher. Your child will read up to 4 words per page and they will probably do the check in 10‐15 minutes. They will be asked to ‘sound out’ a word and blend the sounds together. The check is very similar to tasks the children already complete during phonics lessons The assessment will be age appropriate and the adults involved will all be familiar. The children at Chilvers are familiar with the set up as we are constantly reviewing children’s progress in the same way. It should be an enjoyable activity for children which takes no more than 15 minutes. There will be a few practise words at the beginning to make sure your child understands the activity. Nonsense words are words that are phonetically decodable but not actual words with an associated meaning e.g. brip, snorb. These words are included in the check specifically to assess whether your child can decode a word using phonic skills and not their memory. The nonsense words will be shown to your child with a picture of an alien. The children will be asked what the aliens name is by reading the word. This will make the check a bit more fun and provides the children with a context for the nonsense word. Crucially it does not provide any clues, so your child has to be able to decode it. Children generally find nonsense amusing so they will probably enjoy reading these words. You will be informed of your child's progress in phonics and how he or she has done in the screening check, towards the end of the summer term in their annual school report. All of the children are individuals and develop at different stages. The screening check ensures that teachers understand which children need support with decoding. On this page you will find information and resources to help your children
Note: Not guaranteed to come with supplemental materials (access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.) Extend Your Rental at Any Time Need to keep your rental past your due date? At any time before your due date you can extend or purchase your rental through your account. Sorry, this item is currently unavailable. With its balanced approach to reading instruction, Reading and Learning to Read, 4/e, remains a comprehensive, active learning tool that encourages students to teach reading in ways that are both meaningful and reflective. This renowned author team explores how beliefs about reading and writing influence the ways in which teachers work with children in classrooms and provides practical, effective strategies for helping all children learn to read. Table of Contents Knowledge and Beliefs About Reading Early Literacy: From Birth to School Inviting Beginners into the Literacy Club Vocubulary Knowledge and Concept Development Bringing Children and Literature Together Basal Readers and Instructional Materials Making the Transition to Content Area Texts Meeting the Literacy Needs of Diverse Learners Assessing Reading Performance Managing and Organizing an Effective Classroom Appendix A Beliefs About Reading Interview Appendix B The DeFord Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile (TORP) Appendix C Reading and Writing Accomplishments of Young Children by Grade Level Appendix D Trade Books That Repeat Phonic Elements Appendix E Story Frame Example Appendix F Annotated Bibliography of Read-Aloud Books for Developing Phonemic Awareness Appendix G Children's Book Awards Appendix H Recommended Books for Multicultural Reading Experiences
Former versions of the DSM (Diagnostic Manual and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) used the term Stereotypy/Habit Disorder to designate repetitive habit behaviors that caused impairment to the child. The repetitive movements that are common with this disorder include thumb sucking, nail biting, nose-picking, breath holding, bruxism, head banging, rocking/rhythmic movements, self-biting, self-hitting, picking at the skin, hand shaking, hand waving, and mouthing of objects. Childhood habits can appear in various forms, and many people engage in some habits during their lifetime. Habits can range from relatively benign behaviors (e.g.; nail biting) to noticeable or self-injurious behaviors, such as teeth grinding (bruxism). Many habits of childhood are a benign, normal part of development, do not rise to the diagnostic level of a disorder, and typically remit without treatment. When stereotyped behaviors cause significant impairment in functioning, an evaluation for stereotypic movement disorder is warranted. There are no specific tests for diagnosing this disorder, although some tests may be ordered to rule out other conditions. Other conditions which feature repetitive behaviors in the differential diagnosis include obsessive-compulsive disorder, trichotillomania, vocal and tic disorders (e.g.; Tourette syndrome). Although not necessary for the diagnosis, stereotypic movement disorder most often affects children with mental retardation and developmental disorders. It is more common in boys, and can occur at any age. The cause of this disorder is not known. Stereotypic movement disorder is often misdiagnosed as tics or Tourette's. Unlike the tics of Tourette's, which tend to onset around age six or seven, repetitive movements typically start before age 2, are more bilateral than tics, consist of intense patterns of movement for longer runs than tics. Tics are less likely to be stimulated by excitement. Children with Stereotypic movement disorder do not always report being bothered by the movements as a child with tics might. Prognosis depends on the severity of the disorder. Recognizing symptoms early can help reduce the risk of self-injury, which can be lessened with medications. Stereotypic movement disorder due to head trauma may be permanent. If anxiety or affective disorders are present, the behaviors may persist.
Western Europe in the Modern World Modern World History - Lickey Introduction Much of what defines the modern world developed in Western Europe during the last five centuries. During the next three weeks you will study four key historical themes that have profoundly shaped the history of Europe and the entire world. These themes are (1) the development of modern political systems, (2) the Industrial Revolution, (3) European Imperialism, and (4) war in the modern world. As you study each of these historical developments you will actively assess in what ways modernization brought true progress. In addition, you will assess the human costs associated with modernization, judging for yourself if progress is indeed the right world for the modern history of Western Europe. Assigned Reading: Modern World History: Patterns of Interaction – Prologue, Chapters 5,6,7,9,11,13,15 Primary Source Documents: National Assembly Decree of Equality in France, Edmund Burke on the French Revolution, Letter of Women Industrial Workers, White Man’s Burden Terms For Quizzes: #1 Prologue Sec. #1 Ch.5.2 #2 Ch. 7 #3 Ch. 9 #4 Ch. 11 Ch.6.2 3 rd Estate Industrial Revolution direct control Democracy Decl. of Rights of Man Urbanization “Jewel of Crown” Republic Reign of Terror laissez-faire policy Great Trek Louis XIV Bourgeoisie unions Berlin Conference Cardinal Richelieu Meeting Estates General Agricultural Rev. Versailles Comm. Of Pub. Safety Steam Engine’s Impact Enlightenment Vote by Order Railroad’s benefits Solon scorched earth policy +/- Effects of Ind. Philosophes Metternich’s Goals Socialism #5Chapter 13 #6 Ch. 15 #7 Ch. 16, Sec. 1,3,4 Only Militarism Fascism Invasion of Poland “powder keg of Eur.” Mussolini Battle of the Stalingrad Kaiser Wilhelm II Nazi Party Battle of the Bulge Central Powers Axis Kristallnact Fourteen Points Isolationist Final Solution War Guilt Clause Sudentenland Triple Alliance/Triple Entente Tr. Brest-Litovsk Provocative Question: To what extent should the history of modern Western Europe be praised or condemned? Schedule of Lessons: Lesson #1 Activity: Unit Intro, using the Unit Guide, Unit “Cover” in NB Lecture: “From Medieval to Early Modern: the Pedistal” Read: Prologue Sec. #1 Ch.5, Sec. #2 Ch. 6, Sec. #2 HW: Terms List #1 in Notebook* Lesson #2 Activity: Prepare for Panel Discussion on ideal forms of government Asn: Group Presentation questions, scripts, and materials in NB Lesson #3 Activity: Attending a Conference on the Ideal Forms of Government Asn: Note matrix in NB Read: Chapter 7 HW: Terms List #2 in Notebook Lesson #4 Simulation Game: Experiencing the Fervor of the French Revolution Read: Plight of the French Peasants, Emmanuel Sieyes: Distdain for Special Privileges… Lesson #5 Film: “The French Revolution” Asn: Film ?’s and Review Notes Read: Chapter 9 HW: Terms List #3 in Notebook Lesson #6 Activity: Slide Lecture Industrialization Asn: Lecture Notes in NB Read: Sadler Commission: Report on Child Labor Lesson #7 Film: “Credit Where Credit is Due” Asn: film ?’s in NB & Flow Chart assignment Lesson #8 Writing Assignment: Writing an Editorial Evaluating Industrialization Asn: Note Matrix & 5 paragraph essay Read: Chapter 11 HW: Terms List #4 Lesson #8 Lecture: Imperialism What and How Asn: Notes and Map in Notebook Lesson #9 Activity: Pair Work: Why: Exploring Imperial Motives Asn: Note Matrix Lesson #10 Film: “Freedom Now!” Asn: Film ?’s and map in Notebook Read: Chapter 13 HW: Terms List #5 in Notebook Lesson #11 Activity: Multimedia Presentation: Causes of WWI Asn: Notes in Notebook Lesson #12 Multimedia Presentation: Trench Warfare Asn: Notes in Notebook Lesson #13 Activity: Multimedia presentation: Versailles and WWII Asn: Notes in Notebook Read: Chapter 15 HW: Terms List #6 Lesson #14 Response Group Activity: Responding to Fascist Aggression Asn: Group Responses in NB Read: Chapter 16 HW: Terms List #7 in Notebook Lesson #15 Slide Lecture: Fighting WWII on Two of Three or Four Fronts Lesson #16 Slide Lecture: Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust Read: Heredity and Racial Biology for Students, A Jewish Doctor’s Diary, Concentration Camp Life and Death, We Seek Reconciliation Responding to Primary Source Documents: For each of the primary source documents: Give your response a title in your notebook and respond to the reading using the SOAPS protocol. S=subject of the text, O= occasion - historic context that occasioned the piece including time and place, A = author of text, P = purpose – what is the author trying to accomplish, S= historical significance – so what, how did the text affect people’s lives or allow us to understand the period?
Soviet government dominated by: Malenkov's 'New Course': Wanted to improve living standards so he proposed diverting resources from defence to consumer goods. He hoped this would reduce Cold War tension and achieve peaceful coexistence. - In 1953 the Soviet leadership contributed to the peace process in Korea. - 1954 Soviets gave up military bases in Finland - 1955 The Austrian Treaty reunited Austria and made it neutral - The Soviet Army was cut by 20% - Improved relations with Marshal Tito (Yugoslavia) Unrest in East Germany - Unrest in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Soviet zone of Germany - In East Germany there were serious protests against Ulbricht's austere socialist programme which had created low living standards and high inflation. - He also decided to increase work quotas by 10% - The Soviet leadership summoned Ulbricht to Moscow to advise him to modify his policies but he refused. - When new protests broke in June 1953 the Soviets had no choice but to back Ulbrichts regime. - Military forces were sen to crush the anti-communist risings. - This was a propaganda disaster for the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact 1955 A military alliance between the Soviet Union and seven Eastern European satellite states. Formed in response to West Germany joining NATO in 1954 Eisenhower's foreign policy -Quickly initiated Operation Solarium; full review of US policy options. - National security was to include the defence of democratic and capitalist values as well as geographical territory - Achieve appropriate balance between defence needs and other spending priorities. - Cut conventional forces and concentrate on a nuclear aresenal. -Appointed experienced foreign policy team led by Secretary of State, Dulles - Believed that the leaders in the Kremlin would not seek nuclear confrontation. - He had no time for the concept of limited strikes. - He believed the threat of 'massive retaliation' would deter a Soviet offensive The Third World Stopping Communism in the Third World involved: - Covert actions, planned and carried out by the CIA - During Eisenhower's presidency the CIA was expanded from 7 stations across the globe to 47 - Between 1953-58 the CIA intervened in Iran and Guatemala - There was also a failed attempt to remove the Sukarno regime in Indonesia - A network of allianced were also developed such as SEATO and CENTO Problems for Eisenhower - Confused Third World nationalism with communism, so the US missed opportunities to work with nationalist groups. - 1957 Soviets won a propaganda victory; the launch of Sputnik and the successful testing of the intercontinental ballistic missile led to fears of a 'missile gap' Emerged as leader in 1955 - Temperament was unpredictable - Sudden explosions of anger - Didn't always consult collegues - Made wild claims about the Soviet Union's nuclear arsenal - Led to an attempt to remove him from leadership in 1957 - Agreed with Malenkov - Wanted to revitalise economy - Cut defence budget - Inconsistent approach - Threatened to 'bury' the West - Sometimes he was a passionate advocate of peaceful coexistence - Tried to create allies in Asia and Africa - Recognised the Middle East, with vast oil reserves was economically important. - Established links with Egypt's President Nasser and helped fund the Awsan Dam project to challenge western dominance in the area - Built relationship with Castro after the Cuban Revolution in 1959 The Secret Speech, 1956 - Speech began process of destalinisation - Criticised Stalin for establishing a 'cult of personality' - Stated Stalin had abused his position and perverted true Communism Western intelligence obtained a recording and Radio Free Europe broadcast it across the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. It breathed new life into reformist groups and signalled a more liberal approach. But Khrushchev had no intension of losing control of Eastern Europe. Unrest in Poland 1956 Following the Secret Speech, the people of Poland began to challenge communist rule. The first serious uprising took place as Poznan, a mining community. It focussed on: - Food shortages - Lack of consumer goods - Poor housing In response, Khrushchev led a delegation to Warsaw to deal with Poland's communist leader Gomulka Gomulka made it clear that there were demands for reform but emphasised that this wouldnt affect Poland's relationship with the USSR. He had no intention of abandoning communism or the Warsaw pact. The Soviet Union granted Gomulka the reforms his people wanted. Soviet leadership was keen to remove Rakosi, the hardline stalinist ruler of Hungary and replace with a Moscow nominee, Gero. However students demanded a new leader, Nagy; a leading reformer. He initial proposals were moderate but he started to advocate a radical break with communism including: - A multi party election system - Freedom for the press On 4 November Soviet forces began to crush the rebellion and Nagy announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and made a direct appeal to the United Nations for support against Soviet invasion. In the Crisis 2700 died, Western powers were unwilling to act to support democratic reform in the Eastern bloc. Western leaders condemed Soviet intervention but took no action. Eisenhower was unwilling to risk nuclear conflict and only made public statements supporting Nagy. The crisis persuaded the West that the Soviet leaders had no real interest in peaceful coexistence. Geneva Summit 1955 What did it aim to do? - resolve the status of Germany and begin negotiations about arms control What did Khrushchev propose? - A united and neutral Germany; US refused as it was central to defence of West Germany who had just joined NATO - Disbanding of NATO and Warsaw Pact; Eisenhower believed NATO was central to western security and refused. What did Eisenhower propose? - arms limitation treaties backed by an 'open skies' policy; rejected as Khrushchev didnt want to West to 'spy' - limits on superpower military power No agreement was reached but there was an acceptance of the status quo and an understanding neither wanted war. They agreed to meet again in 1960. 14 days before Paris Summit US U2 plane shot down over Siberia. Eisenhower released cover story assuming the plane had been destroyed But Soviet forces had captured the plane and pilot and could prove that Eisenhower had lied Khrushchev had won an important propaganda victory. The Paris Summit 1960 Krushchev demanded apology for U2 incident. Although Eisenhower promised no further missions would take place he refused to apologise. Khrushchev walked out of the Summit Krushchev later singled the U2 incident out as the moment in which Kremlin hardliners lost faith in peaceful coexistence. The Vienna Summit 1961 Berlin, top priority. Under pressure from Ulbricht to stop ecodus of east germans to west germany. Also keen to assert his authority and exploit Kennedy's inexperience. Disarmament. Reduced 'open skies' policy to just 10 annual inspections instead of 20. Failed to reach agreement Khrushchev appeared to threaten Kennedy with military action if the US continued to support West Berlin. Kennedy asserted his harline position and stated that if all else failed 'we will use nuclear weapons' The Berlin Crisis 1958-62 - West Germany was building conventional forces and arguing for access to nuclear weapons which alarmed the USSR which had a deep-seated fear of an economically strong and militarised Germany. - Increasing number of East Germans were also escaping to the west; 1945 2.7 million had left East Germany. Khrushchev made a speech in 1958 delivering an ultimaturm with a six-month deadline to Western powers demanding them to demilitatise West Berlin. Eisenhower made it clear he wouldnt give in to demand and emphasised there would be drastic consequences. - Unable to force demilitarisation so began to build a physical barried in 1961 - It became a symbol of division - Kennedy visited West Berlin and made speech to a crowd of over 300,000 stating the US would stand by West Berlin.
\|INDEX > How many genes are there?\| 3.6 Organelles have DNA \|Key terms defined in this section\| \|Cytoplasmic inheritance is a property of genes located in mitochondria or chloroplasts.\| Maternal inheritance describes the preferential survival in the progeny of genetic markers provided by one parent. The first evidence for the presence of genes outside the nucleus was provided by nonMendelian inheritance in plants (observed in the early years of this century, just after the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance). NonMendelian inheritance is sometimes associated with the phenomenon of somatic segregation. They have a similar cause: NonMendelian inheritance and somatic segregation are therefore taken to indicate the presence of genes that reside outside the nucleus and do not utilize segregation on the meiotic and mitotic spindles to distribute replicas to gametes or to daughter cells, respectively. The extreme form of nonMendelian inheritance is uniparental inheritance, when the genotype of only one parent is inherited and that of the other parent is permanently lost. In less extreme examples, the progeny of one parental genotype exceed those of the other genotype. Usually it is the mother whose genotype is preferentially (or solely) inherited. This effect is sometimes described as maternal inheritance. The important point is that the genotype contributed by the parent of one particular sex predominates, as seen in abnormal segregation ratios when a cross is made between mutant and wild type. This contrasts with the behavior of Mendelian genetics when reciprocal crosses show the contributions of both parents to be equally inherited. The bias in parental genotypes is established at or soon after the formation of a zygote. There are various possible causes. The contribution of maternal or paternal information to the organelles of the zygote may be unequal; in the most extreme case, only one parent contributes. In other cases, the contributions are equal, but the information provided by one parent does not survive. Combinations of both effects are possible. Whatever the cause, the unequal representation of the information from the two parents contrasts with nuclear genetic information, which derives equally from each parent. NonMendelian inheritance results from the presence in mitochondria and chloroplasts of DNA genomes that are inherited independently of nuclear genes. In effect, the organelle genome comprises a length of DNA that has been physically sequestered in a defined part of the cell, and is subject to its own form of expression and regulation. An organelle genome can code for some or all of the RNAs, but for only codes for some of the proteins needed to perpetuate the organelle. The other proteins are coded in the nucleus, expressed via the cytoplasmic protein synthetic apparatus, and imported into the organelle. Genes not residing within the nucleus are generally described as extranuclear; they are transcribed and translated in the same organelle compartment (mitochondrion or chloroplast) in which they reside. By contrast, nuclear genes are expressed by means of cytoplasmic protein synthesis. (The term cytoplasmic inheritance is sometimes used to describe the behavior of genes in organelles. However, we shall not use this description, since it is important to be able to distinguish between events in the general cytosol and those in specific organelles.) Higher animals show maternal inheritance, which can be explained if the mitochondria are contributed entirely by the ovum and not at all by the sperm. So the mitochondrial genes are derived exclusively from the mother; and in males they are discarded each generation. Conditions in the organelle are different from those in the nucleus, and organelle DNA therefore evolves at its own distinct rate. If inheritance is uniparental, there can be no recombination between parental genomes; and usually recombination does not occur in those cases where organelle genomes are inherited from both parents. Since organelle DNA has a different replication system from that of the nucleus, the error rate during replication may be different. Mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations more rapidly than nuclear DNA in mammals, but in plants the accumulation in the mitochondrion is slower than in the nucleus (the chloroplast is intermediate). One consequence of maternal inheritance is that the sequence of mitochondrial DNA is more sensitive than nuclear DNA to reductions in the size of the breeding population. Comparisons of mitochondrial DNA sequences in a range of human populations allow an evolutionary tree to be constructed. The divergence among human mitochondrial DNAs spans 0.57%. A tree can be constructed in which the mitochondrial variants diverged from a common (African) ancestor. The rate at which mammalian mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations is 2¡V4% per million years, >10¡Ñ faster than the rate for globin. Such a rate would generate the observed divergence over an evolutionary period of 140,000¡V280,000 years. This implies that the human race is descended from a single female, who lived in Africa ~200,000 years ago (Cann et al., 1987). \|Cann, R. L., Stoneking, M., and Wilson, A. C. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325, 31-36.\|
Your students will "get" these social scenes because they've experienced them. Teach them how to think about and respond to those experiences appropriately. - Make and keep friends - Detect and interpret nonverbal communication - Consider and respond to other people's perspectives - Identify and solve problems The flexible format of these cards—colorful, spirited illustrations on the front and a variety of stimuli on the back—lets you target a wide range of social skills in groups or individually. Stimulate observation, dialogue, discussion, reasoning, recall, and perspective taking with questions and narratives on the back of every card. Answers are included so you don't have any prep work! Activities are based on research from The Social Language Development Test Elementary and reflect a developmental progression of specific social language skills among 6- to 11-year-olds. The activities complement those in Social Language Training Elementary with more demands on social language comprehension, expression, and reasoning. Skill areas include: - Interpreting Facial Expressions & Gestures—identify, label, and describe emotions; recognize and interpret nonverbal communication appropriately - Multiple Interpretations—make multiple, logical interpretations of a scene based on visual and/or context clues - Solving Problems—analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information to identify and solve problems - Making Inferences—make appropriate inferences based on visual and/or context clues - Friendship—show kindness and respect to others and support friends, even when disagreeing with them - Interpersonal Negotiation—learn to compromise, problem solve, listen, negotiate, and seek mutually-pleasing resolutions to conflicts - Reading Between the Lines—differentiate the true meaning of a spoken comment vs. the surface meaning of only words - Relating Personal Experience—express personal experiences and feelings and realize the value of considering other people's perspectives Copyright © 2011 - Children with limited language skills have particular deficits in identifying the feelings of each participant in a conflict, identifying and evaluating strategies to overcome obstacles, and knowing when a conflict is resolved (Cohen et al., 1998). - Parents and teachers surveyed reported that children with autism showed deficits in initiating, responding to, and maintaining social interactions. Appropriate peer interactions, usually facilitated in a social language group, can play a vital role in enhancing a child's social and language outcomes (Murray, Ruble, Willis, & Molloy, 2009). Social Language Development Scenes Elementary for Group Therapy incorporates these principles and is also based on expert professional practice. Cohen, N.J., Menna, R., Vallance, D.D., Barwick, M.A., Im, N., & Horodezky, N.B. (1998). Language, social cognitive processing, and behavioral characteristics of psychiatrically disturbed children with previously identified and unsuspected language impairments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(6), 853-864. Murray, D.S., Ruble, L.A., Willis, H., & Molloy, C.A. (2009). Parent and teacher report of social skills in children with autism spectrum disorders. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(2), 109-115.
The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics by Stanislaus Dehaene, Oxford University Press 1997 This book, written by a noted neuropsychologist, explores the new field of mathematical cognition. That is, it attempts to root our understanding of the development of mathematics in the biology of the brain. It is one of those rare books written by a pioneering researcher in a scientific field who is also an excellent writer – in English as well as presumably in his native French. I think it is particularly valuable for those of us in education, because in order to teach mathematics we must understand how children actually acquire mathematics. While there is much to learn here, I also found much to disagree with, and I will deal with these points below. Perhaps the major drawback to the book may be its date of publication, since Dehaene indicates that the ten years following the writing of the book promise to be a time of unparalleled scientific advance in the field. The book is organized into nine chapters: Chapter 1, “Talented and Gifted Animals”, discusses scientific research that shows that many animals have innate primitive arithmetic skills, which enable them to add, subtract, and compare small integers. Calculations and comparisons of numbers become less accurate as the numbers involved increase beyond three. Chapter 2, “Babies Who Count”, sets forth the contention, supported by ingenious research, that shows that, similar to animals, human babies as young as a few days old also have innate arithmetic skills, enabling them to understand and manipulate small integers. Chapter 3, “The Adult Number Line”, discusses the conception that human adults have of number. Much of this chapter has to do with discovering the extent to which we can manipulate numbers very quickly, that is, without visible thought. Chapter 4, “The Language of Number”, discusses the ways different cultures name numbers, and the effect this has on calculating abilities. Chapter 5, “Small Heads for Big Calculations”, applies the results covered in the previous chapters to the difficulties of teaching arithmetic to children. Chapter 6, “Geniuses and Prodigies”, presents case studies of a number calculating prodigies and mathematical geniuses, and attempts to show that their abilities are not different in kind from that available to any intelligent adult. Chapter 7, “Losing Number Sense”, discusses the relationship between brain function and number sense as revealed by studying people who have lost various parts of their number sense due to lesions in particular parts of their brains, or to other brain injury. Chapter 8, “The Computing Brain”, shows how modern advances in brain research cast light on relationship between calculation and the brain. The tools of positron emission tomography (PET) and electro- and magnetoencephalograpy are described, and some results obtained by applying these tools to mathematical cognition are discussed. Chapter 9, “What Is a Number?” moves into the philosophy of mathematics. Dehaene tackles questions such as the merits of the formalist, Platonist, and intuitionism theories of mathematics, and the relationship between mathematical truth and reality. A book of this wide coverage is bound to be controversial. I recommend reading it yourself and making up your mind about some of the controversial issues, but I’d like to bring up a few places where I disagree with the author. It seems to me that one of the dangers of neuropsychology is that of reductionism, and although Dehaene is a sophisticated thinker I don’t think he escapes this. I take issue with his apparent assumption, which seems unsupported by data, that ability to perform arithmetic calculations is strongly correlated with the ability to do higher mathematics. Among mathematicians I have known, some excel at arithmetic, some are poor, and many are in between. The type of thinking that is involved in geometry, for example, seems to have little to do with arithmetic ability. I find particularly problematic his discussion of mathematical geniuses, for several reasons. First, he lumps together the self-taught Indian mathematical genius Ramanujan with autistic super-calculators and idiot savants. To me, this is as if one compared Shakespeare with a pre-typewriter clerk who filled thousands of pages of commercial transactions. Both men may have had unusual ability to produce fast legible handwriting, but we would only call one a genius. Second, Dehaene makes clear that he believes that anyone could be a super-achiever in mathematics or arithmetic if they devoted enough time and effort to the enterprise; that there is nothing special about the brain (or mode of thinking) of the genius. This is speculation, and I prefer the opposite speculation of Oliver Sachs, whose prime-number generating autistic twins seem not to calculate but rather to see the integers “directly, as a vast natural scene” or Ramanujan, who described his own mathematical discoveries as being handed to him by a Hindu god while he slept. Non-believers can imagine that Ramanujan’s unconscious mind allowed him to make his discoveries operating in a way that might be totally different from his conscious mind. Another oversimplification is Dehaene’s belief that young Oriental students do better than Western students at learning mathematics because the Eastern languages have shorter more user-friendly names for the digits. He seems to not consider the cultural differences that lead Oriental families to value hard academic work more than Occidental families do, which by itself is enough to explain differences in achievement. In terms of pedagogic implications, Dehaene’s research has led him to the belief that the human brain is not well designed for calculation: “Ultimately, [innumeracy] reflects the human brain’s struggle for storing arithmetical knowledge”. He therefore feels that “by releasing children from the tedious and mechanical constraints of calculation, the calculator can help them to concentrate on meaning.” This is a position I have long shared; however I am now teaching middle-school mathematics teachers, and they mostly report that their students, who have grown up using calculators, are grossly innumerate. Since many algorithms of elementary algebra have counterparts in arithmetic algorithms, these students are not able to progress in algebra. I now advocate getting children to a state of competence in calculation before letting them use the calculator freely. However, I agree with Dehaene on the usefulness of concrete computational representations (manipulatives) in the classroom. Dehaene gives a good description of the basic theories of mathematical epistemology: Platonism (mathematical objects have a reality, and the mathematician discovers this reality rather than inventing it), formalism (mathematics is about the formal manipulation of strings of symbols following basic laws of logic), and intuitionism (mathematics is a construction of the human mind, so that alien intelligences would create different a mathematics different from the human one.) He comes down for intuitionism, but it seems to me that his dismissal of Platonism is entirely too glib. He asks, rhetorically, “If these [mathematical] objects are real but immaterial, in what extrasensory way does a mathematician perceive them?” I would argue that they are perceived in the same way that we perceive a coherent world from the streams of sense data that enter our brains. We create our mental worlds, and this seems to be true whether or not the basis of the world is “material” or whether is grounded in ideas. Both the material and mathematical mental worlds are subject to laws of internal consistency, and both are subject to judgment by members of a community.
How well one can run depends on a number of individual physical and psychological variables. Some thereof are fixed, can not be changed or improved by training; examples are the size and proportions of the skeleton. Many however are trainable, and the goal of running training is to improve them in a desired direction. A list of such improvable variables: A discussion of each of these follows. In general, the "shape" of a movement, and the speed wherewith one can execute it, can be improved by thinking and reading about it to decide the proper form and then performing it many times. The motor nerves involved become faster and more efficient as the movement is executed often. When one often runs long and slow, there is a tendency for one's technique to deteriorate, for the movements to become smaller. One gravitates to smaller movements as those are more efficient on long distances; and because slow running uses only the red muscle tissue, the unused white (fast twitch) fibres become thinner and less powerful, so that one loses muscle mass and strength. Red muscle fibres do not become thicker when used, unlike white fibres. Loss of strength subsequently leads to injuries like knee cap and knee problems. Typical training forms done to get and maintain good coordination and technique are: Such training forms have additional effects like improving strength and making the heart stronger; most training forms affect more than one aspect of running. It is usually not possible to completely isolate one variable. Most of the injuries that bother runners are injuries of these tissues: tendons, nerve fibres, ligaments, cartilage, bone, and periosteum. These tissues have a metabolism but are more or less passive while running in that they do not apply any force by themselves. They have to endure the forces caused by the muscles and by the movements inherent to running. They are mostly able to adapt to these forces by becoming stronger, but this takes time. When the strain increases faster than they can adapt to, injuries occur. About all of these running injuries are repetitive strain injuries. It is important to know that some tissues, like bones and tendons, have such a slow metabolism that they require a month for even the smallest adaptation. That is why injuries often occur while one tries to increase running training by the week. By the month is better. The most purposive way to improve strength in these tissues are long, low-intensity efforts that resemble running, like walking, alternating walking with running, and, for advanced runners, continuous slow running. "Long" may be understood as "90 minutes to several hours". How often one should do such training to improve or maintain this type of strength is an interesting question. Probably at least once a month for maintenance, and at least twice for improvement. More than about three times may be unwise because the long recovery time of these tissues may then keep one from doing other types of training. However, if one chooses to devote say one or two months entirely to this type of training (as a preparation for a subsequent period of more performance-oriented training), there is no objection to four, five, or more such sessions per month. When running long and slow, there is a tendency for certain muscles to become weaker; this happens mainly to those at the front side of the body: the various muscles at the front of the lower leg, the various parts of the quadriceps on the front of the upper leg, and the various muscles on the front of the trunk. Weakness in those muscles is a common cause of chronic injuries, and also makes one slower and spoils one's technique. Many non-running strengthening exercises exist to counteract this and improve strength, either with or without weights, and often done in "circuit" form. Also, running uphill, running over rough terrain, and in general running short and fast improve strength. It is often said that one's numbers or proportions of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres are inborn and not trainable. This is not entirely true. I have read that there are several more types of fibres than just these two, and that at least one thereof can, by training, be specialized into either "fast" (white, anaerobic) or "slow" (red, aerobic) tissue. So some change through training is possible in the number ratio between white and red fibres. Also, the white fibres become thicker and heavier when trained (strength and speed training), while the red do not. So also the mass ratio between white and red tissue is trainable, provided one has some white tissue to start with. And the increase in white muscle mass can be very large if desired, as can be seen in body builders. An increase in white muscle mass may go at the expense of endurance though. The shorter the race distance one is training for, the more white muscle mass one needs. Also, running on rough terrain requires more of it than running on paved roads does, as short climbs and obstacles are typically taken anaerobically (so, using the white muscle tissue). Flexibility determines the maximum length of one's steps or strides and thus plays its role, especially in running fast over short distances, which is done with much bigger steps than those seen in long distance running. It is also said that lack of flexibility is a cause of injuries, but this is less certain. There exist many exercises to improve and maintain flexibility. I believe they are the most effective when done regularly in a separate session, apart from running training. In general, the muscles that are especially inclined to become tighter are those on the rear side of the body. Under stress, pain, or great effort, those muscles instinctively contract. This causes, for instance, the head to go backwards when in sudden pain. This is a combined result of motor coordination, motor speed, technique, muscle strength, amount of white muscle mass, and flexibility. By improving or increasing those variables, sprinting speed is increased. If one only runs long and slow, sprinting speed goes down, except perhaps in people who have almost no white muscle fibres to start with and therefore have nothing to lose. One may ask what the use of sprint training is for someone who only takes part in long distance races. Well, it is obviously of use in a finishing sprint, and also in situations like overtaking, accelerating, and short steep climbs. But most importantly, the fastest long distance runners, with the exception of those with a rare one-sided talent for endurance, are those who "come from the track", who have a background in middle distance running and therefore have done a lot of training to improve their sprinting speed and technique. A lot of short, fast, anaerobic running. That is the natural order: first maximize your basic speed (which means sprinting speed in track language), then work on anaerobic endurance (sustaining that speed over several hundred metres to a kilometre), and finally go to the long distance, where aerobic endurance becomes the most important. In this process, the speed developed through sprint and anaerobic training is transferred as much as possible to a long distance pace. Runners who follow this course become faster on long distances than those who start out with long distance training and have never trained for short distances. Again, with the exception of pure endurance types who have no disposition for sprinting at all. Something to keep in mind when trying to improve speed is that the faster one runs, the greater the need for a strong upper body becomes. The trunk muscles become ever more needed to keep the trunk in position so that one can "hit" one's centre of gravity well, and the shoulder and arm muscles become ever more needed for the arm movements that compensate the leg action. When the abdominal muscles are too weak, the trunk floats backwards when a certain speed is reached, and it becomes impossible to push off and hit the centre of gravity, and one has to slow down until the trunk is back in position again. So those muscles are the first that need to be trained. Then the back muscles need strengthening, because otherwise the now stronger muscles on the front pull the lower back convex, which can cause spinal disks to herniate. Finally the arm and shoulder muscles need to become stronger to deal with the ever greater forces caused by the leg movements. When a high velocity is sustained beyond the natural sprinting distance, an energy system begins to be used that processes glycogen into energy without requiring oxygen, resulting in the formation of lactate or lactic acid. This is uncomfortable and forces one to stop running, after which the lactate is cleaned up by breathing. Through training one can learn to sustain such an anaerobic pace ever longer, beyond a kilometre even, be it that after about 500 or 600 metres the aerobic systems join in so that it becomes a combined anaerobic/aerobic effort. This combined use of anaerobic and aerobic systems is always needed to reach one's maximum performance over a given middle or long distance. Anaerobic training usually consists of repeated fast runs over a few hundred metres with long recovery in between, like several minutes. The number of "repeats" is kept low, like two to six. The distance to start with must be chosen so that one feels significant anaerobic discomfort toward the end. This will be in the order of 250 or 300 metres. After a few such sessions, progress is made by gradually increasing the distance, and not by shortening the recovery intervals or doing ever more repeats. The effects of this type of training are multiple. First, the regeneration of the phosphate energy system, that is used during the first 100 or 150 metres of such a run, improves. These phosphates supply energy without formation of lactate, and are only present in very small amounts, quickly exhausted, and regenerated during the recovery break. Second, the anaerobic threshold shifts to a higher speed, meaning one can run faster before anaerobic discomfort occurs, or has less discomfort at a given pace. Third, one simply learns to endure the discomfort better, similar to practising in holding one's breath. Defenders of pure aerobic training have said, "you can not train oxygen debt". They are wrong in two ways: (1) You can train it, learn to endure it; (2) They ignore the first two effects explained in the previous paragraph. When running for more than about 500-600 metres, the energy is supplied partly or entirely by aerobic systems; that is, by using the inhaled oxygen to convert glycogen and fat into energy. At low intensities such as walking or very slow running, body fat is used, and at higher intensities, glycogen, stored in the muscles and liver, is the fuel. Glycogen is a macro form (polymer) of glucose, that is, it consists of many glucose molecules bound together. The possible improvements through training to these systems are described in great detail in many books, as aerobic endurance is generally considered the most important aspect of running, both for running itself and for general health. In short, it concerns things like the heart, the lungs, the blood, the blood circulation, the red muscle fibres, the fat metabolism, and the amount of glycogen one can store. Training for aerobic endurance is done either by continuous running at a moderate speed (somewhat below the anaerobic threshold) over distances between say 1500 and 18 000 metres (there is of course no true upper limit), or by aerobic forms of intervallic training. Aerobic interval training differs from anaerobic training in that it has a lower intensity (not exceeding the anaerobic threshold), much shorter recovery breaks, many more "repeats", and a greater choice of distances for the repeated runs. Any distance from about 100 to about 2000 metres works (again, no real upper limit, but the number of "repeats" becomes very low with distances over 2000 metres). The total distance run in intervals is usually between 1500 and 10 000 metres. Progress is made by increasing the number of repeats and/or shortening the resting pauses, not by increasing the distance of the runs. If the method of continuous running is used, 1500 metres is a good distance to start with, and progress can be made by gradually increasing the distance, going to 2000, 2500, 3000, 4000, and so on. But even 1500 metres, even once a week, at the pace meant here, has a significant effect on aerobic endurance. It is generally assumed and recommended that one must first maximize one's aerobic endurance, before starting with anaerobic training. I am not entirely certain if that is always true. Perhaps a few semantic remarks are in place: In interval training, the word "interval" refers to the resting break in between the runs (but many use it for the runs). The word "repeats" is often used to indicate the number of runs, but of course the actual number of runs is always one greater than the number of repeats. If you run ten times 100 metres, that is one original and nine repeats. Excess weight only slows one down, so to run as well as possible one's fat percentage must not be higher than needed to maintain good health. This value differs per sex, and I think it also differs per individual and has a genetic basis. If you go under your personal minimum fat percentage, your shape deteriorates and you become unhealthy. Unfortunately it is awkward for the lay person to measure fat percentage the real way, which I think goes with a kind of pliers. Methods to get a rough indication are tables for estimating fat percentage from body mass and height, computing the body mass index (B.M.I.), measuring waist circumference, and computing the waist/hip ratio. A disadvantage of some of those methods is that they do not take muscle mass into account; that they do not allow for the fact that a muscular person must be heavier and have a greater B.M.I. than a slender person. The typical slender long distance runner has a B.M.I. in the order of 18.5 to 20 and weighs less than than 360 grams per centimetre of one's height, but for muscular types this is not true. When trying to lose fat, one must watch out not to lose muscle mass instead, which may happen if one eats to little carbohydrates (and protein, to a lesser extent) after and during training sessions. One may also lose muscle mass if one only runs long and slow and leaves out all speed and strength training. To know if one is eating enough, it is needed to monitor things like body mass and waist circumference regularly. If one loses mass but not fat (e.g. if waist circumference stays the same), something is wrong. The best, safest way to lose fat are long (several hours), low-intensity activities, like walking, cycling, alternating walking with running, and so on. At the same time one must of course not eat significantly more kilojoules than one is burning up. It is not so that with low-intensity activity one uses more energy than with high-intensity activity (some misunderstand it that way), but it is simply so that a high-intensity activity can not be kept up long enough (and without causing injury) to safely use the amount of energy that can be consumed with hours-long low-intensity activity. It pays off to think about and make plans for these aspects of a race, and mentally rehearse them so that they will not be forgotten when the time has come. It starts with choosing position before the start. When there are more than about a hundred people waiting for the starting gun, it is needed to decide beforehand where in that pack one wants to start. For a fast start one must stand near the head of the pack, and for a conservative, slow start, it is better to start in the rear. In a race over a long distance that one has not or rarely run before, a slow start is usually the best approach. Halfway one may then accelerate if one still feels up to it. In short races up to about 5000 metres, or longer distances that one has run often, it is needed to start at a predetermined fast pace to reach one's maximum performance. Once started, one may for several hundred metres be in a situation of overtaking and/or being overtaken, until one is running among others with the same speed. If one is following a fast start strategy, there will come a point where it gets unpleasant as a result of "oxygen debt". One must be mentally prepared for that, and have decided what to do. Often it helps to focus on keeping good (large enough) arm movements, to thus maintain the pace despite discomfort. If one has not decided what to do beforehand, one will probably slow down under oxygen debt and lose much time. Toward the finish, over the last kilometre or the last several hundred metres or the last fifty metres (whichever suits one best), one will want to accelerate insofar still possible. Therefore it is needed to have information about the course, so that one will know where the last kilometre — or whatever — begins. In training, the function of shoes and other clothing is to protect one from injury, cold and rain. Or from heat and sun, in some countries. But in races, what matters is that everything is as light as possible, because lighter means faster. This is especially true for the shoes and socks. When a foot is on the ground, its velocity is zero. After pushing off, it has to catch up with the moving body, so it has to accelerate in a fraction of a second from zero to probably twice the running speed. Acceleration requires force and energy, and computations show that in fast running it can amount to 30 m/s2 or more. In other words, the foot becomes about three times its weight in the acceleration phase. The greater the mass of the foot, the more force and therefore energy are required for the acceleration. This the main reason why light race shoes are faster than training shoes. I have estimated this to be in the order of 50 seconds per 10 kilometres, but of course it depends on the exact weight of the shoes compared, and on how fast one runs. Also it makes sense to wear a watch or stopwatch during races, to observe the time passed at intermediate points along the course. Thus one is as it were guided in one's effort by the knowledge of how one is doing. And a guided vehicle is faster than a freely moving one. In races longer than about 15 kilometres it is needed to drink and perhaps eat while running. This is something that has to be practised, or it will cause cramps in the abdomen during the race. The internal processing of water and food while running can be trained just like running itself. If one has trained well and is looking forward to a race, this may go with great excitement and tension in the hours before the race, and make it hard to sleep in the preceding night. A good precaution is to make sure to sleep well and much in the night before the night before the race. And for race day itself, one may make a plan or list of what has to be done, and what needs to be packed and taken to the race. Thus one is as it were guided through the day, which helps to deal with the tension, the nervousness.
(The answer is coming…but make your guess now!) It’s useful to note that this really is an apples-to-apples comparison. We’re used to thinking of life as being powered by chemical energy—you know, breaking down ATP or burning glucose, or photosynthesis making glucose. It may come as a shock that the energy underlying all these chemical processes is electrical energy—the movement of electrons from high-energy states to low energy states. A surface view of what goes on in a photosynthesizing leaf is that energy from sunlight is used to combine carbon dioxide and water to make glucose. However, a deeper view is that this is an electrical process. Energy from sunlight is used to take a low-voltage electron, one slumming around on a molecule of water, and exalt it to an amazingly high potential. Once energized, the electron can be put onto a carbon atom. This trick is managed by a handful of pigments, including chlorophyll, and a whole mess of protein enzymes. The point of chlorophyll is to do the first part of photosynthesis: use light energy to give an electron a kick in the pants. Chlorophyll absorbs only certain colors of light. It loves blue and red, can use a little green and infrared, but essentially can’t use any of the other UV or other light energy that hits the earth. Different colors of light have different energies, which is why you will get a nasty burn from UV, but not red light. When chlorophyll absorbs blue light, it wastes a bunch of the energy stepping the light down in energy until it’s essentially the same energy as red light. Only then will it energize an electron, and the remaining energy is wasted as heat. So here’s one powerful strike against photosynthesis—it only uses a fraction of the solar energy that hits the earth, and it makes inefficient use of most of that fraction. Compare that with a silicon solar cell: in principle, it can make use of any photon from UV through the visible spectrum to far infra-red. Here’s a chart (very loosely adapted from Blankenship et al) showing how many photons of different colors hit the earth: So, lots of different colors besides the visible ROY G BIV hit the earth. In fact, since a UV photon packs more energy than a visible photon, most of the energy hitting the earth is invisible. How many of these photons—how much of the sun’s energy—can photosynthesis use? The second part of photosynthesis is the synthesis: using a hot-to-trot electron to make glucose. From a casual inspection, this is amazingly efficient—nearly 100% efficient, in that every electron that gets energized finds its way to glucose, without any losses. However, this estimate has to be tempered by biological reality. Unlike solar cells, whose raison d’etre is to make voltage for our use, the point of a plant—a point shaped by billions of years of evolution—is to make another plant. So, this photosynthetic system is not just making glucose for us to burn, it’s making membranes and proteins and pigments and DNA and so on. If we measure efficiency in terms of how much of the original sunlight gets converted into energy we can use, 100% gets whittled down to slightly over 1%. How does this compare with a silicon solar cell? The best of these converts photon energy into voltage with an efficiency of about 18%. If we want to make an apples-to-apples comparison with a leaf, then we can use our solar cell to electrolyse water and make hydrogen gas. This process has some efficiency losses, so it brings the efficiency of a silicon solar cell down to about 14%. OK—did you guess right about which was more efficient? I sure didn’t. But, as the authors say, “the efficiency advantage clearly goes to photovoltaic systems.” So, is silicon really greener than a leaf? Well, yes and no. photosynthesis is an evolved, not a designed system. So, many key elements of photosynthesis were jury-rigged from other parts. And, if you start with a jury-rigged system, there’s going to be severe limits on how much it can be improved. (The authors of this review article use a wonderful euphemism, “legacy biochemistry,” to describe this historical baggage that all living things carry around.) Also, there’s the pesky fact that organisms are interested in making more organisms, not helping us. However, we now know enough about biology to do a little bio-engineering. We have reached a point where we can contemplate taking an inefficient, evolved system and subjecting it to some intelligent re-design. We can make the components more efficient, and make the system’s main purpose energy production rather than reproduction. Chlorophyll is a good start. It’s thought to have evolved on earth at a time when other organisms had already figured out a way to use green wavelengths of light for making energy. (These organisms are still around—they give salt ponds their spectacular purple hue. If you take the spectrum of visible light and absorb all the green and a little yellow-orange, as these guys do, you are left with purple.) Therefore, chlorophyll evolved to make use of the leftovers, blue and red. UV and infrared were eschewed because they’re just too dangerous for living things to deal with. Some researchers have been tinkering with modifications to chlorophyll, and have succeeded in making it absorb new wavelengths of light. The synthesis part of photosynthesis is also subject to tinkering: the enzyme that starts the process of making glucose is notoriously inefficient, since it first evolved on earth when there was a much higher concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, and virtually no oxygen. In this light, it is unsurprising that this enzyme is really inefficient in the presence of oxygen. Certain plants and bacteria have developed work-arounds for protecting this enzyme from oxygen and locally increasing the concentration of CO2, but it’s easy for us to simply grow algae in a bioreactor that’s kept nearly free of oxygen, and pump in lots of CO2 from burning biomass. There are even more radical proposals for bio-engineering photosynthesis. These are pretty far in the realm of science fiction, but who knows—they may be used to power your oft-promised flying car. The authors of this review suggest a re-engineered algae, something that could only grow in a bioreactor, a slave to our demands for energy. It would have a short life span, because its engineered chlorophylls would absorb all wavelengths of light. It would not grow especially well, because most of the energy it absorbed would be used for making fuel, rather than making more cells. And, since glucose isn’t the best fuel to power your flying car, it would energize electrons from water and use them to make hydrogen gas. Such a system may not achieve the same efficiency of a silicon cell, but the peripherals (processing, hazardous waste produced, etc) may well make it much greener. There’s no doubt that, sometime in the next century, big oil will be replaced by something else, and that it will probably be solar. The question is, will it be big silicon or big algae? Robert E. Blankenship et al (2011). Comparing Photosynthetic and Photovoltaic Efficiencies and Recognizing the Potential for Improvement. Science 322, 805-809. a proton also goes along for the ride, and an electron and a proton together make a hydrogen atom—so chemically, it looks like hydrogen is being added to CO2.
What is a geological difference between land and oceans? 1 Answer \| Add Yours One major difference between oceans and land occurs in their respective crust formations. Oceanic crust is in a constant state of renewal. New crust material forms out of ocean vents where the crustal plates are in motion; where the plates push against each other, the crust is pushed up, while where the plates pull away from each other, magma from beneath the crust bubbles up and becomes new crustal material. In addition, the ocean itself constantly moves the lighter and new material around the ocean floor. Because of this, the ocean crusts are simple in formation, containing fewer minerals and elements, while also being both thinner and more dense than continental crust. Continental crust changes much more slowly. Since there are fewer strong forces affecting the continental crust, the land is free to develop sedimentary layers unchanged by the constant movement of the oceanic crust. Continental crust is both thicker and less dense than oceanic crust, and contains many more minerals and elements because of the long development times without constant movement or renewal. This means that the continental crust is a safer place for permanent structures, as they are less likely to be destroyed by the constant movement than on the ocean floor. Join to answer this question Join a community of thousands of dedicated teachers and students.Join eNotes
The Insight Series for 2014 continues! This series focuses on the Eight Great Ancient Capitals of China as defined by the China Ancient Capital Society. These capitals include the cities of Luoyang, Xi'an, Beijing, Kaifeng, Nanjing, Anyang, Zhengzhou and Hangzhou. Each of these cities has served as the Capital between 216 and 1,309 for various governments in China. Kaifeng (simplified Chinese: 开封; pinyin: Kāifēng), known previously by several names, is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, People's Republic of China. It was the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty (960 – 1126) and once one of the greatest cities in the world. There are currently nearly 5 million people living in its metropolitan area. Located along the southern bank of the Yellow River, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and the province of Shandong to the northeast. Kaifeng is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China. As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history. In 364 BC during the Warring States period, the State of Wei founded a city called Daliang (大梁) as its capital in this area. During this period, the first of many canals in the area was constructed linking a local river to the Yellow River. When the State of Wei was conquered by the State of Qin, Kaifeng was destroyed and abandoned except for a mid-sized market town. Early in the 7th century, Kaifeng was transformed into a major commercial hub when it was connected to the Grand Canal as well as through the construction of a canal running to western Shandong. In 781 during the Tang Dynasty, a new city was reconstructed and named Bian (汴). Bian was the capital of the Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of the Five Dynasties Period. The Song Dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou in 960. Shortly afterwards the city underwent further expansion. During the Song Dynasty when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng was the Chinese capital with a population of over 400,000, living both inside and outside the city wall. Typhus was an acute problem in the city. The historian Jacques Gernet provides a lively picture of life in this period in his book Daily Life in China, on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276, which draws on Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital), a nostalgic memoir. In 1049, the Youguosi Pagoda (佑國寺塔), or Iron Pagoda (铁塔) as it is called today was constructed measuring 54.7 metres (179 ft) in height. It has survived the vicissitudes of war and floods to become the oldest landmark in this ancient city. Another Song Dynasty pagoda, Bo Ta (繁塔), dating from 974 has been partially destroyed. Another well-known sight is the astronomical clock tower of the engineer, scientist, and statesman Su Song (1020–1101 AD). It was crowned with a rotating armillary sphere that was hydraulically powered and incorporated an escapement mechanism two hundred years before they were found in the clockworks of Europe. It also features the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive. Kaifeng reached its peak importance in the 11th century when it was a commercial and industrial centre at the intersection of four major canals. During this time, the city was surrounded by three rings of city walls and had a population of between 600,000 and 700,000. It is believed that Kaifeng was the largest city in the world from 1013 to 1127. This period ended in 1127 when the city fell to Jurchen invaders during the Jingkang Incident. It subsequently came under the rule of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, which conquered most of northern China in the Jin–Song wars. While it remained an important administrative centre, only the city area inside the inner city wall of the early Song Dynasty remained settled and the two outer rings were abandoned. One major problem associated with Kaifeng as the imperial capital of the Song Dynasty was its location. While it was conveniently situated along the Grand Canal for logistic supply, Kaifeng was militarily vulnerable due to its position on the flood plains of the Yellow River. Kaifeng served as the Jurchen "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and was reconstructed during this time. The Jurchen kept their main capital further north until 1214 when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee from the Mongol onslaught. In 1232 they succumbed to the combined Mongol and Song Dynasty forces in the Mongol siege of Kaifeng. The Mongols captured the city, and in 1279 they conquered all of China. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, Kaifeng was made the capital of Henan province. In 1642, Kaifeng was flooded by the Ming army with water from the Yellow River to prevent the peasant rebel Li Zicheng from taking over. After this disaster the city was abandoned again. In 1662, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing Dynasty, Kaifeng was rebuilt. However, further flooding occurred in 1841 followed by another reconstruction in 1843, which produced the contemporary Kaifeng as it stands today. Kaifeng is also known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews. It is also a Muslim enclave, and contains what is thought to be China's oldest surviving mosque. In 1969, the former President of the People's Republic of China Liu Shaoqi, died from medical neglect while under house arrest in Kaifeng. Confucian Saying Of The Month Zhìzhě yào shuǐ, rénzhě yàoshān; zhìzhě dòng, rénzhě jìng; zhìzhě lè, rénzhě shòu The wise delight in water, the virtuous delight in mountains. The wise are active, the virtuous stay still. The wise are happy, the virtuous have a long life. Chinese Character Of The Month wisdom; intelligence; resourceful; wise This Chinese character is a phonogram made up with two elements. The upper part (知zhī) means knowledge; the other element (日) means the sun. The character can be used as a noun and an adjective. As a noun, it refers to wisdom or wit; as an adjective, it means wise or clever. 聪明才智 Cōngmíng cáizhì - ability and cleverness 急中生智 Jízhōngshēngzhì - show resourcefulness in an emergency 智者 Zhìzhě- sage; wise man 智囊团 Zhìnáng tuán – brain trust, think tank
University Park, PA -- September 27, 2016 -- In Pennsylvania, we have had an extraordinarily hot and dry summer. Those who make their living from the land are well aware that rain is changing. When it occurs, it is more intense and has seemingly less value to crops. It seems that those less connected to the land celebrate the warm days without rain – another sunny day is not always the best day. Imagine what it is like to have your roots anchoring you in one place and depending on rain from the sky to ensure there is adequate moisture in the soil to keep you working. What kind of work does a tree do, you ask? Well, trees use carbon dioxide from the air, water from the soil, and light from the sun to make sugar through work called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a complex process that requires certain conditions. All of our trees have leaves where the magic occurs. Tree roots collect and move water, which is absolutely essential, along with minerals and nutrients through long soda straw like tubes in the tree’s bole to the leaves. Photosynthesis involves combining carbon dioxide, which enters the leaf through small openings called stomates, water, and light in special cells called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll (the green color in leaves) to make sugars. Stomates are important part of the process as they have the ability to open and close and thus control photosynthesis. Stomates open and close by monitoring the amount of water available and air temperature. If the temperature is too high, then water demand is too high, and the tree stops making sugars necessary for its growth. When that happens, trees have to respirate. That is, they use up sugars to carry out life functions. The relationship between water in the soil and leaves is critical. And, on a hot summer day without rain, a tree might spend more of its time using up its sugars than using them to make wood, seeds, new twigs and buds, repairing damage, and getting ready for winter. There is a lot going on with trees even when they are not growing. If things get really hot and water is too scarce, trees and most other plants will wilt and loose turgor pressure in their leaves. You have seen those wilting leaves. If water comes soon enough or the air temperature drops as it does late in the day and through the night, plants can recover; however, the stress of inadequate water can take its toll. Trees under stress are susceptible to many threats. Insects and diseases are often lurking in the environment to take advantage of tree defense mechanisms negatively affected by heat and inadequate water. Healthy trees are constantly restoring and repairing weakened or damaged defenses. For example, Armillaria mellia, a common root rot, is always present the soil. When roots struggle to find water, they may begin to decline as water is actually pulled from their fine roots by the soil itself. Re-establishing water movement processes from those points to the leaves takes resources, and the roots may lose their battle with the root rot fungus and as a result begin a slow process of decline and, perhaps, death. Across Pennsylvania, trees are showing signs of stress. Already, as you look around the neighborhood, you might see some trees are having leaf loss at the tops of their crowns. Elsewhere in the crown, leaves are detaching and littering the lawn with green rather than autumn colors. You may have also noticed trees on road cuts turning brown or showing premature yellow. These cuts where the soil is shallow or facing south or west are often quick to show moisture stress. When water is scarce, as it is now, it is common to see maple and birch shedding leaves or going brown. Elsewhere, there are reports of patches of oak, red and sugar maple, and even tulip poplar changing color sooner than expected or even appearing dead. It is difficult to interpret what is happening in all cases, but in some, the site might be poor, with shallow soils, or oriented to receive more direct light and heat; trees are responding by casting leaves earlier than expected. Water is essential for plant growth. Heat and lack of rain make for difficult growing conditions. Over the next few years, based on this summer alone, expect trees to struggle even if conditions are better next year. As we approach the end of the growing season, there is not much we can do for individual trees showing stress responses, especially in the forests. Lawn trees might benefit from deep watering. Make sure they get at least two inches of water under their crown spread every 7 to 10 days until the soil freezes. Written by Jim Finley, Ibberson Professor of Forest Management and Director, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
El Nino and La Nina are two phases of a semi-regular temperature cycle in the tropical Pacific Ocean: El Nino is characterized by warmer-than-normal ocean surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific, while La Nina occurs when the ocean is cooler than normal. These fluctuations in water temperature affect the air pressure above the ocean and have a dramatic impact on the weather around the Pacific Ocean and the world. "El Nino" is Spanish for "the boy" — specifically, the baby Jesus — and is so-named because of its appearance near South America around Christmas. It is a phenomenon that has been repeated many times and has been known and observed for generations, at least by the fishing communities affected by the phenomenon. The widely accepted name for its cold counterpart, "La Nina," means "little girl," but the phenomenon has also been called "El Viejo," meaning "the old man." To our eyes, the movement of the oceans appears to take place on the surface, in the form of waves or storms. But in the inky depths there is powerful activity that we are only just beginning to understand. Currents are not merely surface water flows. In truth, they are immensely powerful systems existing in three dimensions. The famous Gulf Stream, for example, forms a closed loop thousands of kilometres long, with warm water on the surface flowing roughly north before cooling off in the Arctic, sinking and returning along its entire length to be warmed again in southern waters. Pump creates weather Not only do the ocean's current affect the temperature of the seawater, but they affect the atmosphere, too. A warm water current heats the air above it. As that warm air rises, cool air is sucked in beneath it. That circulating motion is commonly referred to as a "pump." It behaves like a vast, atmospheric machine, with weather as its product. This pumping action creates much of the world's weather and plays an important role in regulating the planet's temperature. It pushes warm air from the equatorial regions to cooler areas closer to the poles, and in return pulls cool air closer to the equator to be heated. These pumps are a crucial part of the Earth's ecosystem because they regulate and diffuse temperature. The equatorial regions receive much more energy from the sun than the rest of the planet, and the ocean-current pumps serve to cool off the hot regions and warm up the cold ones. Without them, much of the planet would be uninhabitable for human beings. El Nino is a periodic adjustment of one of these crucial pumps, occurring on average once every five years, but can occur at intervals from two years to seven years. Ordinarily, a large region of warm water rests in the area of the Pacific Ocean adjoining Indonesia and Australia. During an El Nino, that body of warm water moves east and sits off the coast of South America. Thus the huge — but intricate — weather systems caused by the current are completely thrown off. Dry areas experience floods. Moist areas, such as Borneo, are hit with droughts. Canada may experience a warmer, more damp winter, resulting in terrible ice storms. Agriculture around the world suffers. Its effect can be felt an ocean away and El Nino has historically been associated with less active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic. However, there have been recent changes in El Nino that aren't fully understood. Forecasters predicted lower-than-average hurricane activity in 2004, which was expected to be an El Nino year. But the season ended up being unusually high — a total of 15 tropical cyclones developed in the North Atlantic, of which 12 were named storms. "This could be part of a natural oscillation of El Nino," said Peter Webster, a professor at Georgia Tech's School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. "Or it could be El Nino's response to a warming atmosphere. There are hints that the trade winds of the Pacific have become weaker with time and this may lead to the warming occurring further to the west. We need more data before we know for sure." Weather isn't alone in being affected by El Nino. With such a large part of the Earth's ecosystem in flux, other systems are also affected. For example, in areas receiving a higher-than-normal rainfall, elevated water levels facilitate the growth of more insects and disease. As well, mould, usually present but invisible, also increases, intensifying allergies for many people. Fish migrate differently, destroying the livelihood of many fishermen. Meanwhile, forest fires rage across the globe as normally steamy rainforests become dry. Forest fires elevate the already high levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and during a recent El Nino many cities in Southeast Asia were enveloped in a smoky haze from the fires. Thousands died in China from flooding that also ruined crops. Russia suffered a disastrous harvest that threatened that nation's economic and political stability that winter. On and on goes the list of hardships caused by the great flows of water and air that, until recently, had been virtually unknown to most of the world's people.
No additional details. Using numbers and the number line, show how you can perform subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponents using just addition as your only operator 1) Subtraction: This is the same as adding the negative value of the number; or using the additive inverse. So the additive inverse of a real number a, is -a. Thus( x-y-x-a-b )= x + -y + -x + -a + -b 2) Multiplication: both numbers on the number line are all Real Numbers: say we have pix = sqrt(2)y x,y,pi and sqrt(2) are real numbers we get infinite series for pi and sqrt 2. pix and sqrt(2)y =(infinite sums of terms for pi)x = (infinite sums for sqrt(2)y = Infinite sum of (pix) + infinite sum (sqrt(2)y) x, y are constant values, the infinite sum terms are constants So we have turned multiplication of two reals = two reals = sum1 = sum2 4) Division (real numbers a,b,c,d, known) such that a/b = c/d -> the integer value of a/b terms (1 + 1 + 1 +1…) + remainder term a/b1 = integer value of c/d terms of 1 + 1 + 1…+remainder pf cd1 so a/b = c/d becomes 1 + 1 + 1 + … + rem(a/b) 1= 1 + 1 + 1 +…+ rem(c/d)1 So here the division turns into addition for all real numbers This is a great question! I'll be glad to help. Subtraction: To subtract by adding, just add negative numbers and thus move left on the number line (subtracting) instead of moving right (adding). Example: 2 - 3 = 2 + (-3) = -1 You start at 2 on a number line and move to the left three numbers. Multiplication: To multiply by adding, you add the first number to itself the same number of times as the second number. Example: 2 x 3 = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6. Notice that you add three 2's together which is the same as 2 x 3. The same works for multiplying by a negative number, in which case you will end up adding negative numbers (see subtracting above) instead of positive. Try it yourself! Example two: The tricky situation is when you mutiply two negative numbers together, so let's try one. One negative number is easy: -2 x 3 = -2 + -2 + -2 = -6. BUT, look at this: -2 x -3 = -(-2) -(-2) -(-2) = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6. See how you subtract -2 instead of adding -2. We do this because we must do the opposite of what a positive 3 would tell us to do; since -3 is the opposite of 3 when we are using addition as our operator. As long as you remember that a negative number times a negative number makes a positive, this should make sense. If not, let me know and I'll explain this a different way. Division: To divide, change the problem into a multiplication problem and then follow the mulitplication example above. Example: 8 / 2 = 8 x (1/2) = (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) + (1/2) = 4. Notice how you add eight (1/2)'s together which is the same as 8 / 2. Again, this works when one of the numbers is negative as well. Exponentiation: Similar to division, we are dealing with another disguise. Exponentiation is a multiplication problem in diguise, and as we know from above, multiplication is addition in disguise. (Below the carrot, "^", is used before any number used as an exponent) Example: 2^3 = 2 x 2 x 2 = (2 x 2) x 2 = (2 + 2) x 2= 4 x 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 After some rewriting in steps two and three, step four multiplies 2 by 2 meaning you add two 2's together. Then you take the resulting 4 and multiply it by 2 meaning you add two 4's together. If the base number is a negative, you will have to follow the second example of multiplication. But, the real tricky one here is when the exponent is negative. Example 2: 2^-3. You have to change the negative power to a positive power by putting the base in the denominator: 2^-3 = 1/(2^3). After that, you should be able to follow other examples above: 1/(2^3) = 1/((2 x 2) x 2) = 1/((2 + 2) x 2) = 1/(4 x 2) = 1/(4 + 4) = 1/8 = 1 x (1/8) = 1/8. The last step you add 1/8 one time, meaning you essentially don't add anything and you stay at the same spot on the number line, at 1/8, which is the answer. Please let me know if any of this is hard to understand. This question is great and I would welcome the chance to disucss it more!
Carbon-free fuel, which can be stored or transported for later use, came a step closer as Siemens prepares to launch its Green Ammonia Energy Storage Demonstrator, in Oxfordshire, UK. The pilot project, developed by Siemens in conjunction with the Science and Technology Facilities Council, the University of Oxford and Cardiff University, has developed the world’s first demonstrator to show the complete cycle of renewable power, storage as ammonia, and conversion back to electricity. Ammonia is already produced in vast quantities, mostly for agricultural fertilisers. Today’s ammonia plants use natural gas or other fossil feedstocks both to provide the energy required to power the synthesis process, and as a source of hydrogen (H2). As a result, ammonia production by these methods releases large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2). The Siemens demonstrator uses water electrolysis to provide a H2 supply, and extracts nitrogen (N2) from the air. The system is designed to use renewable energy to do this, and to combine the two elements in an established Haber-Bosch process to make ammonia. Ammonia produced in this way can be a completely carbon-free and practical bulk energy source. Using renewable electricity to make ammonia for fertiliser manufacturing has the potential to save more than 40 million tonnes of CO2 each year in Europe alone, and over 360 million tonnes worldwide. Furthermore, ammonia can also be used as a fuel for gas turbine engines generating electricity at times when renewable energy is not available, such as on calm days or at night. Siemens said it therefore provides a solution to storing energy in sufficient quantities, for a long enough time, to balance significant demands for power and the availability of renewable energy. When burned, ammonia turns back into N2 and water, and doesn’t suffer the CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuels. Although the presence of N2 in the fuel carries a possibility of additional NOx emissions, low-NOx ammonia combustion is an active research area and there are well-established selective catalytic reduction processes readily available to remove NOx from exhaust gases. Ammonia is already transported in bulk over long distances by sea, allowing exports of low carbon energy to countries with limited local renewable resources. The energy can then be released, either in the traditional way by combustion in a gas turbine, or by ‘cracking’ it back into N2 and H2 and using the H2 in a fuel cell – to power electric vehicles, for example. Ian Wilkinson, Programme Manager, Siemens Corporate Technologies, said, “Meeting our decarbonisation targets is a big challenge for society today and demands a range of complementary solutions, including a variety of storage technologies. “ “Carbon-free chemical energy storage – including green ammonia – has the potential to work alongside other storage methods such as batteries, and help increase the penetration of renewable power into our energy systems.” “This demonstrator, and the work we’ve done with colleagues from academia, shows that green ammonia is a viable option and can help reduce carbon emissions from existing industrial processes as well as provide a means for transporting and storing renewable energy in bulk.” The demonstrator project is a collaborative effort between Siemens, the Science and Technology Facilities Council, Oxford University and the University of Cardiff. It is part of the Innovate UK Decoupled Green Energy project budget and has been funded with approximately £500,000 ($658,000) from Siemens, and £1m ($1.3m) from Innovate UK.
What is assessment? Adrian Tennant takes a look at what is meant by assessment. Many people assume that assessment is simply another word for testing but this article outlines its role as an important aspect of teaching and learning. When people see, or hear, the word assessment they normally react in a fairly negative way. It might be a deep sigh or a cry of Oh no!, but rarely will it be a smile or a cry of joy. Why is it that people feel this way at the mention of assessment? I think the first problem is that people don’t really understand what is meant (or should be meant) by assessment. A second issue could be that they have had fairly bad experiences in the past and this has an influence on them. And, thirdly, it could be that assessment is often seen as a pass or fail thing – and nobody likes to fail. Anchor Point:2So, what do we mean by assessment? the process of making a judgement or forming an opinion, after considering something or someone carefully I think the most interesting thing here is the word process. The purpose of most forms of assessment in the English Language classroom should be to inform people of how much progress a student is making. Assessment can take many different forms and does not need to be limited to tests and exams. Here are two types of assessment: - Activity assessment a) Did you like that activity? b) Was that activity easy or difficult? c) What was the hardest part of that? d) Was the activity useful? How? Why? a) Now I can … b) I still need to work on … c) I’ve improved in … d) Today I learnt … e) In the test I got X and Y wrong. I’m going to study these for homework. As you can see, the onus here is on the students to think about what they’ve done. Unlike tests which are handed out, collected in and marked by a teacher and then handed back, these forms of assessment are about the process of learning rather than only on the product. Anchor Point:3Does this mean that tests are not a valid form of assessment? No, not at all. But they are not the only form of assessment. If students only think of assessment in terms of a formal test or exam then it is likely that they will have negative feelings towards the idea of assessment. It’s also important to emphasize that assessment shouldn’t be about how good or bad someone is at a particular point in time, it should be about the progress they have made, the work they’ve put in and the learning that has taken place. In other words, it should be about the process of learning and not simply the results. One thing that is quite useful to do with formal tests is to actually analyze the process as well as the product. Here are a couple of ideas that can be used for this purpose: - After collecting in the test, hand out a blank copy to each student. Ask them to look at the test and a) say how well they think they did on each particular question; b) say which questions were easy, ok, difficult; and, c) say what score they think they got. Then, when you hand back the marked tests ask them to compare their thoughts to the actual test, i.e. Did they get the questions right that they thought they had?, etc. - After collecting in the test, hand out a blank copy to each student. Ask them to look at the test, choose two questions and tell a partner how they worked out the answer. Anchor Point:4When should assessment take place? The simple answer is that it should take place at every stage of the learning process and that it should be fairly frequent. Of course, there are many different forms of assessment. So, at the start of a course some form of diagnostic assessment should take place to see how much students know. This can then be used as a form of ‘benchmark’ used later on to see how much progress has been made. Throughout a course various forms of assessment can be used, from homework, project work, in class activities to more formal tests. If you are required to give students a certain number of tests each year – say three – then one thing you could do is give them five and tell them that only the best three will be used. This kind of flexibility not only helps students be a little less worried but also takes into account that people have bad days sometimes. In fact, we will see this idea of selection again when we look at portfolios. Anchor Point:5Helping students become comfortable One of our first tasks as a teacher has got to be to help our students become more comfortable with the idea of assessment. Because assessment often has a negative connotation and is equated with tests, passing, failing and scores, this can be quite a challenge. But if we can make our students understand that assessment is actually beneficial then it will make the whole process easier. Here are a few simple ideas aimed at achieving this: - Talk about assessment with your students. a) What is assessment? b) Why do we assess students? c) How are we going to assess them? d) What are the criteria used? Are these criteria clear? - Get students involved in assessment. a) Use self-assessment, i.e. ‘Can do’ statements. b) Use peer assessment. c) Get students to come up with assessment criteria / agree criteria with students. d) Get students involved in picking or designing assessment tasks. - Make assessment part of the teaching and learning process. a) If you can build in a form of assessment regularly, maybe even every lesson, then your students will become used to it and therefore more comfortable. b) Make sure you include the results of any assessment into your teaching. For example, if students have a particular problem with an aspect of grammar then go back over the grammar in a lesson making it clear that you are doing this because it was identified as a problem from the assessment. If students can see that you actually take notice of the assessment, and not simply the score, it will become more meaningful and positive for them We’ll give more specific ideas in some of the subsequent articles. However, the key here is to make students see assessment as part of the teaching and learning process that has a direct influence on what is taught. If students understand that assessment is about the process and not simply about a product (i.e. a score), then they will start to have a more positive attitude towards it. Anchor Point:6And finally … In this series of articles we’ll take a closer look at the following areas of assessment: - Diagnostic tests - 'Can do' statements, self-assessment and peer assessment - Assessing skills - Assessing tasks and lessons - Preparing students for tests and exams - Assessing Young Learners
Science Discovers the People Behind the "Moai" If distance and isolation are a measure of mystery, then Easter Island is the most mysterious place on this planet. 2,400 miles from its nearest neighbour, Easter Island is the most remote inhabited location in the world. Long the subject of conjecture and fascination, recent new scientific and archaeological discoveries have shed light on the people who once inhabited this remote location. A group of hardy seafaring Polynesians first reached the island in about 400 AD. They found a lush tropical island. A paradise of tall palms, clean water and abundant fish. With such gifts from nature a complex civilization soon flourished. The people called themselves and their Island, Rapa Nui. From the original settlers of a few hundred, Rapa Nui culture and population exploded. By the 1500's over 10,000 people inhabited the tiny island. Powerful clans ruled, and they expressed themselves in sculpture, art and by creating a written language. For the Rapa Nui, the future seemed assured. Rapa Nui life revolved around the canopy of giant palms the original settlers discovered. The palms were a source for canoes, food, clothing, tools and they provided the rollers necessary to move the large carved heads from the quarry to the seaside. But by 1700's, the palms were all but cut down, the rains had washed most of the topsoil into the sea and the civilization was threatened. Without canoes to fish or soil to grow, the Rapa Nui faced imminent starvation. The ruling families waged war for what little food remained. Rival groups toppled each other's "Moai." With nowhere to turn for aid, the Rapa Nui social system fell into chaos: cults formed, warriors took what they wanted and cannibalism was rampant. On Easter Island, civilization came to a crashing end. Today but a few hundred of the descendants of the original Polynesian setters remain.
Send the link below via email or IMCopy Present to your audienceStart remote presentation - Invited audience members will follow you as you navigate and present - People invited to a presentation do not need a Prezi account - This link expires 10 minutes after you close the presentation - A maximum of 30 users can follow your presentation - Learn more about this feature in our knowledge base article Do you really want to delete this prezi? Neither you, nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again. Make your likes visible on Facebook? You can change this under Settings & Account at any time. Thermal Energy ~ Heat Transfer Transcript of Thermal Energy ~ Heat Transfer from one substance to another by direct contact. Conduction can take place between solids, liquids, and gases. A conductor is a substance that easily conducts heat. Solids, especially metals, are the best coductors of heat and gases are the poorest conductors of heat. RADIATION occurs when energy is transported by waves that travel through space. An example of radiation is the warmth that you feel coming from the sun. The sun's energy travels through space as a wave in the form of sunlight. CONVECTION occurs when a hot liquid or gas moves from one region to another, carrying heat energy with it. Convection is driven by differences in density. A warmer gas or liquid is less dense than a cooler one. An example of convection is in a pan of boiling water. Hot water at the bottom of the pan becomes less dense than cold water at the top and hot water rises up as the cold water sinks, creating the rolling motions that you observe in boiling water. 3 CONVECTION RADIATION CONDUCTION Thermal energy is transferred in three ways: THERMAL ENERGY CONDUCTION CONVECTION Because of this difference in density, warm materials rise and cool materials sink. This rising and sinking motion forms a circular pattern called a convection current. RADIATION C O N D U C T I O N R A D I A T I O N C O N V E C T I O N If you touch this pan and burn yourself, you have just experienced conduction!
While traveling you may often experience buzzing in your ears or being unable to hear well after the plane takes off or you go into a tunnel. There are many reasons for this and since it’s a common occurence we’ll talk about the Ear first. It is not rare that sometimes this is the case of hearing aids. The ear is equipped with various components that are capable of picking up the external auditory stimulus (sound waves) and turn it into a nervous impulse intensity of a sound that is related to the amount of sound energy that crosses perpendicularly the surface per unit time. The cone shape of the ear allows it to pick up the sounds and direct them to the eardrum which starts to vibrate and these vibrations are transferred to scroll through three tiny bones that amplify the vibrations by twenty times. The spiral is a spiral channel whose membrane that covers the inner surface is formed by sensory cells filiform. When the sound wave reaches this part of the ear, it goes to stimulate, depending on the height of the sound, different cells. High sounds stimulate cells more rigid and thin placed at the mouth of the spiral while the quieter sounds stimulate cells more extensive and flexible placed at the center of the channel. From the stress of every cell is produced an electrical impulse that reaches the brain through the fibers of the auditory nerve. At this point, the brain decodes the sounds and interprets them. The neurons of the auditory nerve can be compared to a very small battery that is downloaded to each stimulus but can be recharged very fast thanks to its metabolism. But because the ears are two? The organism can not only pick up the sound but also to decipher the origin. In fact, the sound reaches the ear before the source of that sound because the nerve impulses to the brain in a different way. This difference, thanks to cerebral cortex, allows the brain to decipher the origin of the sound. Some loud sounds can prevent the perception of others of lesser intensity which however, could be important for the safety of the individual, especially when you are driving a vehicle. Every day the ears are subjected to so many sounds and noises such as road traffic, radio, television, supermarkets, etc.. Each sound helps to raise the minimum sound pressure level required to stimulate the neurons of the auditory nerve known as the hearing threshold, the raising of the hearing threshold reaches its peak in about two minutes of exposure to noise and decreases slowly thereafter. All this not only affects the individual’s activities such as driving a vehicle or taking a flight but causes hearing damage. After a night at the club, the ears have a hearing threshold higher than normal. This can even cause temporary deafness and must be taken into account if you are put on the wheel of a vehicle.
The Science Behind the Beauty: How Diamonds Are Formed Diamonds have been captivating humans for centuries with their exquisite beauty and remarkable hardness. These precious gemstones are not only aesthetically pleasing but also hold great value. But have you ever wondered how diamonds are formed? The process is fascinating and involves intense heat and pressure over millions of years. In this article, we will delve into the science behind diamond formation and explore the most frequently asked questions about these dazzling gems. Diamonds are primarily composed of carbon, the same element found in charcoal or graphite. However, what sets diamonds apart is their crystal structure. Each carbon atom in a diamond is bonded to four neighboring carbon atoms, forming a rigid three-dimensional lattice. This unique arrangement gives diamonds their exceptional hardness, making them the hardest known natural substance. Diamonds are formed deep within the Earth, approximately 100 to 150 miles below the surface. The process starts with carbon-rich materials, such as organic matter and minerals, being subjected to extreme heat and pressure. These conditions are found in the Earth’s mantle, which is the layer between the crust and the core. The most common way diamonds are formed is through a process known as the “diamond stability zone.” This zone exists at depths between 90 and 120 miles, where the temperature reaches around 2,200 to 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,200 to 1,600 degrees Celsius) and the pressure is equivalent to around 725,000 to 870,000 pounds per square inch (5,000 to 6,000 megapascals). Under such intense conditions, carbon atoms start to arrange themselves into the diamond crystal lattice structure. However, the journey of a diamond does not end there. Volcanic eruptions or other geological activities transport these diamonds closer to the Earth’s surface. This occurs through deep-rooted volcanic pipes or kimberlite pipes, which are narrow, vertical channels that bring diamonds and other minerals to the surface. The rapid ascent of these volcanic eruptions allows diamonds to reach the surface before they can transform into other forms of carbon under less extreme conditions. Once at the surface, diamonds are usually found in sedimentary deposits, such as riverbeds or alluvial deposits. They are often mixed with other minerals and rocks, requiring extensive mining and extraction processes to separate the diamonds from the surrounding materials. Q: Are diamonds really forever? A: While diamonds are incredibly durable, they are not indestructible. Although they are resistant to scratching, they can be fractured or chipped if subjected to a hard blow. However, with proper care, diamonds can retain their beauty for generations. Q: Can diamonds be created artificially? A: Yes, diamonds can be created artificially through a process called high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) synthesis or chemical vapor deposition (CVD). These methods mimic the natural conditions required for diamond formation, producing gem-quality diamonds. Q: Why are diamonds so expensive? A: Several factors contribute to the high cost of diamonds. Their rarity, coupled with the labor-intensive mining and extraction processes, drives up their value. Additionally, the demand for diamonds in jewelry and other industries adds to their price. Q: Are all diamonds clear or colorless? A: No, diamonds can come in a range of colors, including yellow, brown, blue, green, and even rare hues like pink or red. The presence of impurities or structural defects during their formation gives diamonds their various colors. Q: Are lab-grown diamonds real diamonds? A: Yes, lab-grown diamonds have the same chemical and physical properties as natural diamonds. They are genuine diamonds but created in a laboratory setting rather than being formed naturally in the Earth’s mantle. In conclusion, the formation of diamonds is an intricate process that involves intense heat and pressure deep within the Earth. Through this natural process, carbon atoms arrange themselves into the unique crystal structure that gives diamonds their exceptional beauty and hardness. Understanding the science behind diamond formation adds to the awe and appreciation of these captivating gemstones that have fascinated humans for centuries.
Printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg. As a political exile, Goldsmith and Inventor Johannes Gutenberg began experimenting with printing in Strasbourg, France in 1440.** He returned to Mainz some years later, and by 1450, he had completed and was ready to sell his printing machine. A printing press is a mechanical device that applies pressure to an inked surface that is sitting on a print medium (such as paper or cloth), causing the ink to transfer. It was a significant advance over previous printing procedures in which the cloth, paper, or other media was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to produce ink transfer, and it sped up the process. The creation and global expansion of the printing press, which was typically employed for texts, was one of the most significant events of the second millennium. The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg’s improved version of the printing press: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly influenced medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work-processes. The fast development in medieval study and literacy among the middle class resulted in an increasing demand for books, which the time-consuming hand-copying process could not meet Prior technologies that contributed to the establishment of the press included the manufacture of paper, the discovery of ink, woodblock printing, and the spread of eyeglasses. At the same time, a variety of medieval items and technical processes had matured to the point that they could be used for printing. Gutenberg gathered these disparate threads, merged them into one full and functional system, and enhanced the printing process at every level by adding a number of his own inventions and innovations: An early modern wine press. In Europe, such screw presses were used for a variety of purposes, including providing Gutenberg with the printing press. This section needs more citations for verification. Please assist this article by including citations to credible sources. Unsourced material will be challenged and removed if it is not properly sourced. This 1568 woodcut depicts the left printer withdrawing a page from the press as the right printer inks the text-blocks. A pair like these might achieve 14,000 hand motions each working day, producing around 3,600 pages. Johannes Gutenberg began working on the printing press in 1436, when he joined with Andreas Dritzehn, a man who had previously tutored in gem-cutting, and Andreas Heilmann, the proprietor of a paper mill. A formal record, however, did not exist until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg; witnesses’ evidence addressed Gutenberg’s types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type moulds. Gutenberg, who had previously worked as a professional goldsmith, made effective use of the metal expertise he had gained as a craftsman. The Printing Revolution happened when the advent of the printing press permitted the widespread dissemination of knowledge and ideas, working as an “agent of change” in the cultures it touched. The mass manufacturing and distribution of printed books Within fewer than four centuries, European book output increased from a few million to roughly one billion copies. Within a few decades following the introduction of mechanical moveable type printing, there was a massive rise in printing activity across Europe. By the end of the 15th century, printing had expanded from a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, to no fewer than 270 locations throughout Central, Western, and Eastern Europe. The printing press also had a role in the formation of a community of scientists who were able to quickly share their discoveries through the founding of widely circulated academic publications, which aided in the onset of the scientific revolution. Authorship became more significant and profitable as a result of the printing press. It was suddenly crucial to know who had said or written what, as well as the exact phrasing and time of composition. Because the printing process assured that the same information appeared on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became commonplace, despite the fact that they were not previously unknown. The reading technique evolved as well, eventually shifting from ■■■■ readings to quiet, private reading over several centuries. Over the following 200 years, the increased availability of written materials resulted in a tremendous increase in adult literacy rates across Europe. The printing press was a significant step toward knowledge democratization. Within 50 or 60 years of the printing press’s development, the whole classical corpus had been reproduced and widely disseminated throughout Europe. The collapse of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increased the variety of published works as a second result of this popularization of knowledge. The written word also contributed to the unification and standardization of these vernaculars’ spelling and grammar, so ‘decreasing’ their variety. The third effect of the popularization of printing was on the economy. Higher levels of city expansion were related with the printing press. The release of trade-related manuals and publications teaching practices such as double-entry accounting boosted the [dependability] \|relationsmip Detweem Allocation Base and Activity Cost \|Number of printing jobs \|Price per job \|Cost of supplies per job \|Direct labor costs per job \|Printing machine-hours per job \|Cost of printing machine operations \|Indirect costs of operating printing machines increase with printing machine-hours \|Setup-hours per job \|Indirect setup costs increase with setup-hours \|Total number of purchase orders \|Purchase order costs \|Indirect purchase order costs increase with number of purchase orders \|Design costs are allocated to standard and special jobs based on a special study of the design department \|Marketing costs as a percentage of revenues \|Demand for administrative resources increases with direct labor costs The mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press remained substantially intact at the outset of the Industrial Revolution, despite the fact that new materials in its construction, among other advancements, had steadily enhanced its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press entirely of cast iron, which decreased the necessary force by 90% while tripling the printed area. The Stanhope press, with a capacity of 480 pages per hour, more than quadrupled the productivity of the old-style press. Nonetheless, the limits of the conventional printing procedure became clear. The use of steam power to operate the equipment, and the replacement of the printing flatbed with rotating motion of cylinders, were two concepts that drastically transformed the design of the printing press. Both aspects were effectively utilised for the first time by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designs created between 1802 and 1818. After moving to London in 1804, Koenig quickly contacted Thomas Bensley and obtained financial backing for his proposal in 1807. Koenig patented a steam press “much like a manual press coupled to a steam engine” in 1810. This model’s initial manufacturing testing took place in April 1811. Richard M. ■■■ devised the steam-powered rotary printing press in the United States in 1843, which eventually allowed millions of copies of a page to be printed in a single day. After the switch to rolled paper, mass production of printed works blossomed because continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a considerably faster speed. ■■■’s initial design ran at up to 2,000 revolutions per hour, depositing four-page pictures every revolution, allowing the press an output of 8,000 pages per hour. By 1891, The New York World and The Philadelphia Item were running presses that could produce 90,000 4-page sheets per hour or 48,000 8-page sheets per hour. In the mid-nineteenth century, there was also a distinct development of jobbing presses, which were compact presses capable of printing small-format components such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average setup time for a small task was less than 15 minutes) and fast production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). At the time, job printing arose as a relatively cost-effective duplicating option for business. Nobody knows when or who created the first printing press, although the first known written text originated in China during the first millennium A.D. The Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist book from Dunhuang, China, published about 868 A.D. during the Tang Dynasty, is said to be the world’s earliest known printed book. The Diamond Sutra was printed using a technique known as block printing, which included printing panels of hand-carved wood blocks in reverse. A printed calendar from approximately 877 A.D., mathematic charts, a vocabulary guide, etiquette training, burial and wedding guides, and children’s educational materials have all survived from Dunhuang. A frame was used to position groups of type blocks on the initial printing machine. These blocks, when combined, form words and phrases; unfortunately, they are entirely in reverse. The blocks are all inked, and then a piece of paper is placed on top of them. All of this is passed through a roller to guarantee that the ink is applied to the paper. Finally, the paper is raised, revealing the inked letters, which now appear normally as a result of the reversed blocks. These printing presses were operated by hand. Later, in the 19th century, other innovators developed steam-powered printing machines that did not require a hand operator. There are several types of printing presses available today, each suited to a certain form of printing. They are as follows: Letterpresses, like Gutenberg’s press, require an operator to set moveable type, ink it, and press paper against it. The entire procedure is carried out by hand. Letterpress printing is popular among tiny, boutique printers because it provides a wonderful handcrafted aesthetic. However, when compared to other printing machines, it is inefficient and costly. The offset press revolutionized the printing business by allowing massive numbers to be printed in a cost-effective and efficient manner. In a nutshell, contemporary offset printing entails creating a plate on a computer and then placing it on a cylinder. Ink is applied to the plate cylinder, which rolls against a rubber cylinder, which rolls the ink onto paper sheets supplied via the press. Offset presses are used to print newspapers, periodicals, books, and other printed products in large quantities. One of the few disadvantages of offset printing is that it is not cheap in low numbers, owing to the high cost of producing plates, which can cost several hundred dollars. Because they do not require plates, digital presses make low-volume printing inexpensive and have similarly changed the printing business. Instead, modern inkjet or laser jet technology is used to transfer ink to paper. The printing process itself isn’t much different than it was during Gutenberg’s day, since printers still employ the original hand-press mechanism. These presses cost around 15 guineas each and may be obtained in any printing shop. The press is basically made up of two parts: a screw and a moveable bar. The various blocks of type that hold the text are placed into frames called coffins, which are then set on wood or stone beds and dragged in and out by hand using the press’s lever. Gradually, improvements have been made in the process, albeit nothing spectacular, demonstrating the originality of Gutenberg’s concept. William Jensen Blaew in Amsterdam changed the screw in the early seventeenth century to provide a more uniform motion in the pressing, and a rolling bed was also added to make the procedure simpler. There were little more modifications made after that until 1798, when the Earl of Stanhope created a frame out of cast-iron instead of wood, which had been used for generations. Despite these minor advancements, the printing procedure remains straightforward: build the type from the given text, cut the paper and place it under the press, conduct the actual pressing, and you have printed text. Of course, the process must be repeated in order to produce the huge amounts of books eaten by the English in the eighteenth century. The printing press’s inventions had an essential part in promoting literature since they aided in the mass production of books. Printing allows ideas to be disseminated quickly and cheaply. The printing press was mostly used for books, periodicals, and newspapers. We now use the printing press for almost everything. Not only did the printing press influence literacy across the world, but it also influenced education and information dissemination. The printing press fundamentally altered people’s perceptions of the world. With the creation of the printing press, the world witnessed the birth of a new mode of communication. People all throughout the world must put forth a lot of effort to learn about things and events that are happening in another region or location. This might be in a different part of the city, nation, or even the planet. People felt powerful when they were given a sneak peek into the events taking place in another city or nation. The knowledge and information we obtain through printed publications is what allowed them to broaden their scope of knowledge. Moveable type print is a printing process that reproduces a page using moveable components. Typically, this consists of letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. Gutenberg’s invention was innovative in that it brought the metal movable type printing press to Europe by casting the type components. This was crucial for European languages since the lesser amount of alphabetic characters required made movable type printing faster than woodblock printing. Metal type parts were also more robust and enabled for more consistent writing, which led to typography and typefaces. The invention of the mechanical movable type print machine disseminated information more widely and quickly than at any other time in history. German goldsmith, Johannes Gutenberg, credited with imagining the print machine around 1436, was a long way from being the first to computerise the book-printing process. Woodblock printing dates back to the ninth century in China, and Korean bookmakers were using moveable metal type a century before Gutenberg. With the newly acquired ability to mass-produce books on every imaginable subject at a reasonable cost, advanced ideas and important antique information were placed in the hands of any skilled European, whose numbers doubled each century. Here, you’ll learn the top ten facts about Gutenberg’s Printing Press – the printing machine that dragged Europe out of the Dark Ages and accelerated human progress. The Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible, or the B42, was the most important book produced in the West using flexible type. Up to the current day, 48 copies of the first edition have been made. Gutenberg did not survive to see his invention’s enormous impact. His most notable accomplishment was the first print run of the Bible in Latin, which took three years to print roughly 200 duplicates, a stunningly quick achievement in the days of hand-copied manuscripts. It was useless, though, if only three individuals in town could read. Gutenberg died impoverished; his presses seized by his creditors. Other German printers moved to brighter pastures, finally settling in Venice, which was the Mediterranean’s key shipping hub in the late 15th century. “If you printed 200 replicas of a book in Venice, you could give five to the skipper of each boat leaving port,” recalls Ada Palmer, a history student who created the first mass-delivery method for printed books. The boats departed Venice carrying religious messages, literature, and breaking news from all across the world. In Venice, printers sold four-page news handouts to sailors. When their vessels arrived in distant ports, local printers would reproduce the fliers and distribute them to riders who would race them to other cities. Because education levels remained low in the 1490s, locals would congregate at the bar to hear a paid peruser deliver the most recent news, which ranged from indelicate embarrassments to war reports. “This radically transformed the use of news,” Palmer adds. “It became routine to monitor the news on a regular basis.” Gutenberg’s lender was a guy called Johann Fust, whose name is spelled Faustus in Latin. The print machine’s discovery was so fresh and perplexing that Fust was accused of black magic — this was because the Gutenberg Bible, stamped in red ink, perplexed the populace when they read it. All of the type in Handmade was changeable, including letter structures, accentuation, and spaces. A few printers created their own fonts, often known as text styles. Some of these text styles are still in use today. Garamond, for example, is found on many PCs and is named after Claude Garamond, a French printer. Gutenberg is credited with the invention of oil-based ink. The ink was more dependable than the previously used water-based ink. He employed both paper and vellum as printing media, both of which were good materials. Gutenberg did a preliminary of shade printing for a couple of the page headings of the Gutenberg Bible, which is only present in selected copies. A subsequent work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, which was likely designed by Gutenberg but disseminated by his heirs Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials. The letterpress printing method was used by the print machine. The goal of the letterpress was not to make an impact. Often referred to as “the kiss,” the type brushed against the paper just enough to exchange ink, but did not leave an impression. Newspapers are one example of this older strategy. Today, some letterpress specialists have a defined goal of exhibiting the imprint of type, which would primarily demonstrate that it is letterpress. Nonetheless, many printers prefer to maintain the dependability of traditional methods. Excessive impression printing is harmful to both the equipment and the type. The print machine was also a role in the establishment of a network of scholars who could immediately transfer their discoveries through the establishment of widely scattered academic diaries, contributing with the initiation of the scientific revolution. Authorship became increasingly relevant and useful as a result of the printing machine. It was now important who had stated or wrote what, as well as the precise plan and time of synthesis — this allowed for the explicit referring to of references, giving the standard, ‘one writer, one heading, and one piece of information.’ Previously, the creator was considered less important. A Parisian copy of Aristotle’s book would be different from one prepared in Bologna. Letterpress became outdated in the 1970s due to the rise of PCs and new independently published print and distribute processes. From the 1980s to the 1990s, several printing foundations went out of business and sold their equipment as PCs superseded letterpress’ powers even more productively. These commercial print firms disposed of presses, making them affordable and available to craftsmen across the country. A printing press is a complex piece of high-precision industrial equipment designed to produce printed material at a high rate of speed and low cost per page. Offset printing presses use several different types of printing technologies, but the most common type is called offset lithography. People ask many questions about Who invented the Printing Press. A few of them are discussed below: - It lowered the price of books. - The amount of time and labour necessary to make each book was reduced. - Multiple copies might be made more easily. Johannes Gutenberg is credited for inventing little metal pieces with raised reversed characters that were assembled in a frame, covered with ink, and pressed to a sheet of paper, allowing books to be printed more rapidly. The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, Mazarin Bible, or B42) was the first large book printed in Europe utilising mass-produced moveable metal type. Stephen Daye was primarily responsible for the development of the printing press. In 1594, he was born in London and worked as a locksmith in Cambridge. Together with Reverend Jose Glover, he intended to create the first printing press in the British colonies. - The printing press made it easier and less expensive to make books, increasing the number of books and lowering the cost of books, allowing more people to learn to read and obtain more reading materials. - It made it simpler to circulate goods during the Renaissance and Reformation periods. - It propagated religious views. The advent of the printing press was a critical role in enabling the Renaissance in Europe. It allowed old literature as well as fresh ideas and publications to be quickly distributed to a vast portion of society. The printing press enables us to swiftly and massively disseminate significant volumes of information. In fact, the printing press has come to be regarded as one of the most important innovations of our time. It had a significant impact on how civilization evolved. The new press would be able to print at a significantly faster rate. Pamphlets could be produced quickly and cheaply, and literature could be printed in the local vernacular rather than Latin. New methods of thinking resulted in innovations and scientific breakthroughs. The influence of the printing press in Europe included: a significant increase in the amount of books produced as compared to handcrafted works. Increased accessibility to books in terms of physical availability and reduced cost. More authors, including those who were previously unknown, were published. Before the printing press, manufacturing books was a long and arduous process, but with the advent of the press, the process of making books was substantially reduced. Books grew cheaper as a result of this speedy procedure, allowing more people to afford books. The creation of the printing press by inventor Johannes Gutenberg was one of the most momentous events of the second millennium. Gutenberg’s printing machine was a considerable improvement over prior printing methods in which the cloth, paper, or other material was continuously brushed or rubbed to generate ink transfer.
Have you ever wonder how an ice-making machine churns out those perfect little cubes you love to add to your summer beverages? It’s much more than just freezing water. In the article “How Do Ice-making Machines Work?” you’ll be guided through the intricate, cool science behind this everyday modern convenience. Armed with this knowledge, you’ll not only appreciate your icy refreshments more, but also understand the fascinating technology that makes it all possible. This image is property of static.wixstatic.com. The Principle Behind Ice-Making Machines Ice-making machines – they’re a fundamental part of restaurants, bars, and any other establishment that requires high volumes of ice. But have you ever wondered how they work? In this article, we’re going to delve into the mechanics and processes that allow these machines to create the crisp, cool cubes we’re so used to. Fundamental working principle of ice machines At the core of any ice-making machine is the principle of heat exchange and freezing. The machine takes in water, reduces its temperature till it reaches freezing, and ejects the ice into a storage bin. Valves and switches control the quantity of water which enters the machine, preventing overflow and ensuring the production of ice cubes of consistent size. Concept of heat transfer involved The process of ice-making involves the fundamental physics of heat transfer. The machine uses refrigeration techniques to transfer heat away from the water, thereby reducing its temperature. This eventually leads to crystallization and the formation of ice, as the temperature drops below the freezing point. Components of Ice-Making Machines The ice-making machine is made up of several essential components each with a crucial role in the ice-making process. The condenser unit The condenser is basically a heat exchanger that expels the harbored heat from the refrigerant gas, converting it back into a cold liquid state. The evaporator unit The evaporator facilitates the freezing process. Through heat transfer, it reduces the temperature of the liquid refrigerant, causing it to evaporate and absorb heat from the surrounding water, which subsequently freezes. A compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant, which in turn elevates its temperature. This high-pressure, high-temperature gas then flows into the condenser for dissipation of heat. The throttle valve The throttle valve works by lowering the pressure of the refrigerant before it enters the evaporator. This essential step ensures a substantial temperature drop, facilitating formation of ice. The Ice-Making Cycle Step by step process of ice-making The ice-making cycle begins with the flow of water into the machine. The compressor, evaporator, and condenser work together to cool down the water until it begins to freeze. The frozen water is then extracted as ice and directed to a storage bin. The cycle repeats as long as the machine is operational and there is a requirement for ice. Role of each component in the cycle In the ice-making cycle, every component plays a significant role. The compressor starts the cycle, the condenser and evaporator handle the cooling, the throttle valve ensures the essential pressure drop, while other components like switches and valves control the water and ice flow. Types of Ice Produced Depending on their use, different shapes and types of ice are desired. The most common types include: Cube ice is the most traditional form of ice and is used in almost every scenario, from chilling drinks to cooling food. Some machines produce clear, gourmet cubes, while others make opaque, regular-size cubes. Flake ice is favored for cooling quickly and for application in presentation and preservation of fresh food and seafood. Nugget ice, also known as pellet or sonic ice, is perfect for smoothies, cocktails, and therapeutic use. It’s softer and easier to chew than traditional cube ice. Gourmet ice is the highest quality option, often found in high-end restaurants and bars. These cubes are large, slow-melting, and crystal clear. This image is property of media.hswstatic.com. Materials Used in Ice-Making Machines Stainless steel components Stainless steel is the preferred choice for most ice-making machines’ parts due to its strength and corrosion resistance. Antimicrobial plastic components Some essential parts of ice machines, like the storage bin, are made from antimicrobial plastics to prevent the foul taste that can emerge due to bacterial contamination. Insulation materials are crucial in maintaining the appropriate temperature inside the machine, ensuring energy efficiency and optimal ice formation. Understanding Energy Efficiency in Ice-Making Machines Energy Star ratings Energy Star ratings are a reliable way to determine the energy efficiency of your ice machine. Machines with good ratings are not only eco-friendly but also cost-saving in the long run. Efficiency of air-cooled machines vs. water-cooled machines Air-cooled machines tend to be more energy-efficient than water-cooled machines due to their ability to reuse hot air for heating applications within the machine. Impact of ice shape on energy efficiency The shape of ice can impact energy consumption. For example, machines that make smaller, nugget ice may require more energy due to the constant, fast production compared to cube ice makers. This image is property of i.ytimg.com. Maintenance of Ice-Making Machines Routine cleaning and descaling Proper cleaning and descaling regularly can extend the life of your machine. This ensures high-quality, odor-free ice and a properly functioning machine. Replacing water filters Water filters should be replaced regularly. This not only improves ice taste and clarity but also prevents any potential scale build-up insides the machines. Preventive maintenance checks Regular maintenance checks help to identify and resolve issues early on, preventing costly breakdowns and ensuring the machine’s optimal performance. Common Problems in Ice-Making Machines Ice not forming When the machine fails to produce ice, it could be due to various reasons such as a failed compressor, lack of refrigerant, or a faulty valve. Machine not turning on Issues with the machines power supply or a faulty power switch could be the reason behind this problem. Unusual noises or vibrations Creaking sounds or incessant vibrations could indicate broken or loose components within the machine. Problems with water supply A blocked or leaking water line can impede the water supply, thereby affecting ice production. This image is property of applianceassistant.com. Troubleshooting Ice-Making Machines Identifying common issues Understanding how your machine works and the signs of trouble can help diagnose and often fix issues before they escalate. Basic troubleshooting steps Troubleshooting may involve checking for power issues, ensuring proper water supply, inspecting for frosts or leaks, and checking machine components for any signs of malfunctions. When to call a professional It’s important to remember that not all problems can be solved through basic troubleshooting. Complex issues involving electrical or mechanical failures may require professional attention. Innovations in Ice-Making Machines New technologies in ice-making machines Modern ice-makers implement advanced technologies such as touch controls, automatic cleaning cycles, and self-diagnostic capabilities for improved efficiency and user experience. Sustainable and energy-efficient models As sustainability becomes the norm, many models are aiming for greater energy efficiency and reduced water consumption. Smart ice machines Smart machines can monitor their own functions, alerting you to any necessary maintenance or refills. Some can even be operated remotely via smartphones or computers. Understanding how ice-making machines work can help you make informed decisions when purchasing and maintaining one. So, the next time you enjoy a chilled beverage, you’ll have a greater appreciation of the intricate process that formed those lovely ice cubes. This image is property of reviewed-com-res.cloudinary.com.
Imagine looking up at the night sky and seeing a gas giant three times the size of our ordinary moon. This is how Kepler-36c, a newly discovered gaseous planet, appears from the surface of Kepler-36b, its rocky neighbor in the Kepler-36 planetary system. The Kepler-36 system is the first planetary group comprised of planets of such strikingly contrasting densities and compositions. “Are we alone in the universe?” This question first captured the imaginations of scientists, theologians, and philosophers hundreds of years ago, and fuels the current exploration of planets outside our solar system. As of now, a total of 838 confirmed extra-solar planets have been discovered. But Kepler-36 mystified astrophysicists who wondered how two vastly different worlds ended up in such close orbit. As Dr. Sarbani Basu of the Department of Astronomy at Yale explained, “The pivotal moment in our project was when we figured out that these two very different planets are orbiting around the same star. That’s when we started to look at the system as a whole, rather than as just two more extra-solar planets.” Extra-solar planets are nothing new to astronomers like Basu, but strikingly different planets in close proximity presented scientists with a yet-undiscovered type of planetary system. “One of These Things is Not Like the Other” Modern astronomy hypothesizes that large gas-giant planets cannot form close to their host stars because stellar wind would blow away most of the surrounding gas in the disc, causing the planet to lose mass quickly. Therefore, this discovery of a massive Jupiter-like extra-solar planet, or exoplanet, near a main-sequence star has opened new horizons to studying planetary formation. When researchers studying this system first landed on the data relayed back from NASA’s Kepler spacecraft, they were no longer surprised to see the gas giant Kepler-36c close to its parent star. They were surprised, however, to see planets as different as Earth-like Kepler- 36b and gas-giant-like Kepler-36c coexisting within such close orbital planes. The discovery of diverse planets separated by a mere 0.013 AU revolutionized astronomical thinking on how planetary systems form and evolve. In our solar system, there is a clear differentiation between rocky and gaseous planets; the former are confined to the inner part of our system, and the latter found in the outer parts. This trend is in accord with condensation theory, which hypothesizes that interstellar dust is an essential ingredient in the formation of planets. Areas closer to the sun are at higher temperatures and are home to the hotter, rocky planets. Farther away from the sun, colder temperatures allow gases to move slowly and are thus more affected by gravity. As a result, interstellar dust grains come together to form the foundation of gas giants. The detection of giant planets close to other stars proves that this pattern is not universal; planetary orbits can indeed change significantly after their formation. Basu’s international team of approximately 40 scientists from five different countries set out to uncover the intricacies of this anomaly: the Kepler-36 system and its two starkly contrasting planetary members. Kepler-36b, nicknamed a “Super-Earth,” is rocky like our home planet but is a staggering 4.5 times more massive with a radius 1.5 times greater than that of Earth. Kepler-36c, is a gaseous planet 8.1 times more massive than Earth with a radius 3.7 times greater. Kepler-36b and Kepler-36c are 20 times more closely spaced and have a larger density difference than any adjacent pair of planets in our solar system. Joining Forces: From Planetary Closeness to Scientific Collaboration The planetary subgroup of the team, led by Josh Carter, a Hubble fellow at the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, discovered the larger planet and its host star during a first quick look at data from the Kepler spacecraft, a space observatory launched by NASA to discover Earth-like planets orbiting other stars. They noticed the the larger planet Kepler-36c as it transited in front of the host star, blocking some of its light to give a characteristic dip or transit signal. However, while Kepler planetary data can tell you how big a planet is relative to its star, it cannot determine how big this planet is with certainty until the size of the star is determined. This is where the stellar physics subgroup that Basu is involved with came in. Using asteroseismology, the study of stars by observing their natural solar-like oscillations that occur as a result of sound wave excitation by turbulence in the star, they determined the properties of the system’s parent star. By measuring various oscillations, the team was able to calculate the size, mass, and age of the host star to exquisite precision. Once the group gave the stellar data to the planetary team, Carter and his colleagues were able to further analyze Kepler-36c to discover its size and composition. The Power of the Human Eye At first, the Kepler-36 team did not realize Kepler-36c had company, let alone close company. The smaller Kepler-36b planet is so small that it does not leave much of a signature in the amount of light it blocked from Kepler-36a. Consequently, it was thus rejected by the automatic code of the Kepler data analysis center, which makes the usual assumption of periodic orbits and cannot detect imprecise periods of relatively smaller planets such as Kepler-36b’s. However, Kepler-36b is so remarkably close to its massive neighbor that it alters the gravitational field felt by the smaller planet and changes the strict period nature of trasits. This is known as transit timing variation. Because this period was not well determined, Carter’s team had to collect data by hand instead of using the usual programs. They used an algorithm known as “quasi-periodic pulse detection” to methodically check planetary systems already in the Kepler data, and in this way stumbled upon Kepler-36b. Basu emphasized that this discovery would never have happened without persistent manual follow-up to the team’s practiced intuitions. “The major implication in my mind is to not believe in automated pipelines. Nothing can substitute for the human eye. If Josh hadn’t looked at this system by eye, we wouldn’t have known that there was this second rocky planet sitting there.” The Future of Kepler-36 The discovery of the close two-planet system has shed light on extreme violations of traditional orbit-composition patterns. The international team studying this system galvanized the astronomy community with greater interest in understanding how planets with such different compositions can fall into such astonishingly close orbits. Kepler-36b and Kepler-36c have managed to achieve orbital stability at fascinatingly close range. The team has announced its determination to continue analyzing more Kepler data to locate similar planetary systems in the hopes of unearthing similar close encounters. About the Author Li Boynton is a junior in Calhoun College double majoring in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology and East Asian Studies. She is the Production Manager for the Yale Scientific, and works in Dr. Anjelica Gonzalez’s lab using bioengineered transmigration models to study immunological responses to inflammatory signals. The author would like to thank Professor Sarbani Basu for sharing her knowledge on astronomy and the Kepler-36 system. Carter, Joshua A., et al. “Kepler-36: A Pair of Planets with Neighboring Orbits and Dissimilar Densities.” Science 337 (2012): 556-59. AAAS. Web. 25 Sept.
Remote Sensing Data Resources Remotely gathered data are available from a range of sources using a variety of data collection techniques. There are many types of high-quality imagery that are readily available at largely subsidized costs, particularly within the United States. NASA worldwide satellite imagery is more readily accessible than satellite imagery from private corporations. Table of Contents - Aerial Photography - Satellite Imagery Aerial photography has two uses that are of interest in class exercises: (1) collection of detailed measurements from aerial photos in the preparation of maps; and (2) to determine land-use, environmental conditions, and geologic information (outcrop locations, lineation, etc). It should be noted that aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth's surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate. Aerial photos commonly display a high degree of radial distortion that must be corrected. Most GIS packages have some mechanism or work flow for correcting this distortion (see georeferencing); many sources also make corrected data available as digital orthophotos. Types of Aerial Photography - Black and White: Older and lower cost surveys are collected on black and white media and coverage over the U.S. is essentially complete. Multiple generations are ideal for comparing for recent change detection of the land surface. - Color: More recent or higher cost aerial photo surveys are on color media and coverage over most key areas of the US are available but not always at zero cost. - Infrared: Primary use is vegetation studies as vegetation is a very strong reflector of infrared radiation. Sources of Aerial Photography Within the United States, 1-3m resolution aerial photography is available from the U.S. Geological Survey and their business partner program and can be found online at the National Map Site (more info) . Imagery ready to load generally comes in the form of Digital Orthophoto Quadrangle (DOQ) or Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quadrangle (DOQQ). These are available from many sources including the US Geological Survey DOQ online order site. There are also a range of commercial organizations that provide low-cost downloads of individual and regional DOQ sets (e.g., Geocommunity). Many states also make DOQs available. Satellite imagery is collected by a host of national and international government, and private agencies. Most of this data is protected by copyright and use access has to be negotiated by individual users or institutions. Free access is possible through collaboration with NASA and NASA funded institutions. Data products span the useful electro magnetic spectrum in a variety of resolutions and it falls upon the instructor to consider the utility of this data in the instructional environment. In many cases, free or low-cost data has a resolution cell size greater than 100m/pixel thus this type of imagery often provides a big-picture regional view but may not provide detailed insight to geologic features found on the ground. Nonetheless, this type of data can be very useful in multi-scale analysis and to help students gain an appreciation for the scale of features on the ground that can have a substantial influence on the bulk reflectivity collected during satellite flyovers. Types of Satellite Digital Imagery Remotely sensed satellite data comes in two basic types, passively collected data and actively collected data. Passive data collection focuses on acquiring intensities of electromagnetic radiation generated by the Sun and reflected off the surface of a planet. Active data collection is largely restricted to devices that send and generate a pulse of energy that is reflected back to the satellite to be recorded. Most of the readily available data is passively collected and is limited to energy not absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Satellite imagery based on passive reflectivity comes in four basic types: visible, infrared, multispectral, and hyperspectral. The type and resolution of data collected is generally a function of the mission of the satellite. Visible data consists of pixels composed of color values of red, green, and blue to make three bands of data on a raster image. Infrared imagery typically consists of the images that include the visible channels as well as some portion of the infrared spectrum. Multispectral data can include as many as 7-12 channels of data, and hyperspectral can contain up to 50 bands or more of data collected over discrete bandwidths of the electromagnetic spectrum. How all of these data are used goes beyond the scope of this site, but it's worth keeping in mind that there are a range of available products, and it may require a great deal of research to determine what type of data is useful in the context of the question/task at hand. As of the spring of 2007, NASA lists over 100 satellites providing imagery for viewing from various online image repositories. Images from Landsat-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, and -7 are by far the most common satellite sources used by geologists in conducting field based research. Landsat-5 and -7 are the only two satellites still in service where the instruments on board consist of a multi-spectral scanner (MSS) and an "Enhanced Thematic Mapper-plus" instrument, respectively. Specific details regarding these instruments and their imagery can be found at the GeoCover Tutorial Site hosted by NASA. Sources of Satellite Digital Imagery Much of the available data can be purchased from a number of commercial sources. One of the best ways to have wide ranging access to NASA related imagery is to collaborate with a NASA scientist. The Jet Propulsion laboratory offers a range of educator resources for individuals who participate in their Higher Education Faculty Program. Other sources suitable for field mapping exercises include the NASA hosted GeoCover Site, which provides imagery through the MrSid format. The National Geologic Map Database provides a help page for working with MrSID images. Additional information on using imagery from the GeoCover site (a.k.a. Zulu) can be found at a GIS online tutorial hosted by the Rocky Mountain Mapping Center of the U.S. Geological Survey. The US Geological Survey provides a informative site dedicated to the Landsat program.
\|TROPICAL CLIMATES AND METEOROLOGIST JEFF HABY NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER The weather in the tropics has many differences from mid-latitude weather. This section will summarize THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND: Because the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces are weaker in the tropics, the wind deviates much more from geostrophic than in the mid-latitudes. Streamlines are used to analyze the wind flow in the tropics instead of isobars and height contours. The wind direction is more constant in the tropics. There are no fronts to cause sudden changes in wind speed and direction. Forecast models are unable to use the geostrophic approximation in The Coriolis force is a minimum at the equator. Therefore, tropical storms do not develop within 5 ° of the equator. There is no earth vorticity to initiate tropical systems close to the equator. Troughs in the tropics have an opposite tilt to those in the mid-latitudes. Mid-latitude troughs dig to the south while tropical trough amplify to the north. This is due to tropical troughs being generally south of high pressure. They also propagate in the opposite direction from mid-latitude troughs. Tropical troughs generally follow the LACK OF FRONTS: Tropical environments have a lack of fronts. Weather is fairly uniform throughout the year as far as temperature goes. At low elevations, temperature is a primary function of cloud cover. During the rainy season, temperatures will tend to be a little cooler. In places where high pressure dominates year round, temperatures only change slightly. This slight change is due to the earth's tilt. The earth's tilt causes precipitation patterns to change throughout the year. In the Northern Hemisphere summer, the ITCZ moves further north and hurricanes become prevalent. Weather systems move from east to west in the tropics. Hurricanes and thunderstorm complexes generally drift toward the west. There are exceptions to this rule, especially as tropical systems move into higher latitudes. In these cases they will be picked up by the westerlies. There are six widely accepted conditions for hurricane development. The first condition is that ocean waters must be above 26 degrees Celsius (79 degrees Fahrenheit). Below this threshold temperature, hurricanes will not form or will weaken rapidly once they move over water below this threshold. Ocean temperatures in the tropical East Pacific and the tropical Atlantic routinely surpass this threshold. The second ingredient is distance from the equator. Without the spin of the earth and the resulting Corioles force, hurricanes would not form. Since the Corioles force is at a maximum at the poles and a minimum at the equator, hurricanes can not form within 5 degrees latitude of the equator. The Corioles force generates a counterclockwise spin to low pressure in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise spin to low pressure in the Southern Hemisphere. The third ingredient is that of a saturated lapse rate gradient near the center of rotation of the storm. A saturated lapse rate insures latent heat will be released at a maximum rate. Hurricanes are warm core storms. The heat hurricanes generate is from the condensation of water vapor as it convectively rises around the eye wall. The lapse rate must be unstable around the eyewall to insure rising parcels of air will continue to rise and condense The fourth and one of the most important ingredients is that of a low vertical wind shear, especially in the upper level of the atmosphere. Wind shear is a change in wind speed with height. Strong upper level winds destroy the storms structure by displacing the warm temperatures above the eye and limiting the vertical accent of air parcels. Hurricanes will not form when the upper level winds are too strong. The fifth ingredient is high relative humidity values from the surface to the mid levels of the atmosphere. Dry air in the mid levels of the atmosphere impedes hurricane development in two ways. First, dry air causes evaporation of liquid water. Since evaporation is a cooling process, it reduces the warm core structure of the hurricane and limits vertical development of convection. Second, dry air in the mid levels can create what is known as a trade wind inversion. This inversion is similar to sinking air in a high pressure system. The trade wind inversion produces a layer of warm temperatures and dryness in the mid levels of the atmosphere due to the sinking and adiabatic warming of the mid level air. This inhibits deep convection and produces a stable lapse rate. The sixth ingredient is that of a tropical wave. Often hurricanes in the Atlantic begin as a thunderstorm complex that moves off the coast of Africa. It becomes what is known as a midtropospheric wave. If this wave encounters favorable conditions such as stated in the first five ingredients, it will amplify and evolve into a tropical storm or hurricane. Hurricanes in the East Pacific can develop by a midtropospheric wave or by what is known as a \|Pressure min (mb) \|Max wind (mph) \|Storm Surge (m) \|74 to 95 \|1 to 2 \|965 to 979 \|96 to 110 \|2 to 2.5 \|945 to 964 \|111 to 130 \|2.5 to 4 \|920 to 944 \|131 to 155 \|4 to 5.5 **PD= Potential Damage (CAT 5 is at least 25 times more destructive than a CAT 1)
Ftp File Transfer Protocol - Pages: 5 - Word count: 1170 - Category: Control A limited time offer! Get a custom sample essay written according to your requirements urgent 3h delivery guaranteedOrder Now File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections between the client and the server.FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For secure transmission that hides (encrypts) the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (“FTPS”). SSH File Transfer Protocol (“SFTP”) is sometimes also used instead, but is technologically different. The first FTP client applications were command-line applications developed before operating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems. Dozens of FTP clients and automation utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardware, and FTP has been incorporated into hundreds of productivity applications, such as Web page editors. While transferring data over the network, four data representations can be used: •ASCII mode: used for text. Data is converted, if needed, from the sending host’s character representation to “8-bit ASCII” before transmission, and (again, if necessary) to the receiving host’s character representation. As a consequence, this mode is inappropriate for files that contain data other than plain text. •Image mode (commonly called Binary mode): the sending machine sends each file byte for byte, and the recipient stores the bytestream as it receives it. (Image mode support has been recommended for all implementations of FTP). •EBCDIC mode: use for plain text between hosts using the EBCDIC character set. This mode is otherwise like ASCII mode. •Local mode: Allows two computers with identical setups to send data in a proprietary format without the need to convert it to ASCII Data transfer can be done in any of three modes •Stream mode: Data is sent as a continuous stream, relieving FTP from doing any processing. Rather, all processing is left up to TCP. No End-of-file indicator is needed, unless the data is divided into records. •Block mode: FTP breaks the data into several blocks (block header, byte count, and data field) and then passes it on to TCP. •Compressed mode: Data is compressed using a single algorithm (usually run-length encoding). FTP login utilizes a normal username and password scheme for granting access. The username is sent to the server using the USER command, and the password is sent using the PASS command. If the information provided by the client is accepted by the server, the server will send a greeting to the client and the session will commence. If the server supports it, users may log in without providing login credentials, but the same server may authorize only limited access for such sessions. A host that provides an FTP service may provide anonymous FTP access. Users typically log into the service with an ‘anonymous’ (lower-case and case-sensitive in some FTP servers) account when prompted for user name. Although users are commonly asked to send their email address instead of a password, no verification is actually performed on the supplied data. Many FTP hosts whose purpose is to provide software updates will allow anonymous logins. An FTP Command List The following is a summary of the commonly used FTP Commands. CommandDescription ! Preceding a command with the exclamation point will cause the command to execute on the local system instead of the remote system. ? Request assistance or information about the FTP commands. This command does not require a connection to a remote system. ascii Set the file transfer mode to ASCII (Note: this is the default mode for most FTP programs). bell Turns bell mode on / off. This command does not require a connection to a remote system. binary Set the file transfer mode to binary (Note: the binary mode transfers all eight bits per byte and must be used to transfer non-ASCII files). bye Exit the FTP environment (same as quit). This command does not require a connection to a remote system. cd Change directory on the remote system. close Terminate a session with another system. debug Sets debugging on/off. This command does not require a connection to a remote system. delete Delete (remove) a file in the current remote directory (same as rm in UNIX). dir Lists the contents of the remote directory.The asterisk (*) and the question mark (?) may be used as wild cards. For example: get WIP help Request a list of all available FTP commands. This command does not require a connection to a remote system. lcd Change directory on your local system (same as CD in UNIX). ls List the names of the files in the current remote directory. mget WIP mkdir Make a new directory within the current remote directory. mput Copy multiple files from the local system to the remote system. (Note: You will be prompted for a “y/n” response before copying each file). open Open a connection with another system. put Copy a file from the local system to the remote system. pwd Find out the pathname of the current directory on the remote system. quit Exit the FTP environment (same as “bye”). This command does not require a connection to a remote system. rmdir Remove (delete) a directory in the current remote directory. trace Toggles packet tracing. This command does not require a connection to a remote system. FTP was not designed to be a secure protocol—especially by today’s standards—and has many security weaknesses.In May 1999, the authors of RFC 2577 listed a vulnerability to the following problems. •Brute force attacks •Packet capture (sniffing) FTP is not able to encrypt its traffic; all transmissions are in clear text, and usernames, passwords, commands and data can be easily read by anyone able to perform packet capture (sniffing) on the network. This problem is common to many of the Internet Protocol specifications (such as SMTP, Telnet, POP and IMAP) that were designed prior to the creation of encryption mechanisms such as TLS or SSL. A common solution to this problem is to use the “secure”, TLS-protected versions of the insecure protocols (e.g. FTPS for FTP, TelnetS for Telnet, etc.) or a different, more secure protocol that can handle the job, such as the SFTP/SCP tools included with most implementations of the Secure Shell protocol. Secure FTP There are several methods of securely transferring files that have been called “Secure FTP” at one point or another. Syntax FTP URL syntax is described in RFC173,taking the form: ftp://[[:]@][:]/ (The bracketed parts are optional.) For example: ftp://public.ftp-servers.example.com/mydirectory/myfile.txt ftp://user001:[email protected]/mydirectory/myfile.txt More details on specifying a username and password may be found in the browsers’ documentation, such as, for example, Firefox and Internet Explorer. By default, most web browsers use passive (PASV) mode, which more easily traverses end-user firewalls.
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
Ancient egypt map assignment follow the directions to complete tasks and questions below. These maps will teach you about a variety of information about geography, landforms, resources, and archaeological sites. This basic geography map worksheet works with students from. This flip book idea can be used to show the different civilizations, the empires, flip book to show old world over new worldmany. Ancient egypt map worksheet for kids student handouts. Egyptian museum in turin, italy, was made during the twentieth dynasty. Below are maps to be used to complete the ancient egypt map assignment to be passed out on september 15. Map of ancient egypt at the beginning of the dynastic period. Record the answers to the following questions in your notebook. Ancient egypt, an introduction article khan academy. The light of the world by gerald massey ancient egypt. Ancient egypt maps for kids and students ancient egypt facts. This flip book idea can be used to show the different civilizations, the empires, flip book to show old world over new world many. This map features the political boundaries of modern egypt, but focuses on ancient egypt. A lot of you have been requesting materials about history. The oldest surviving topographical map from ancient egypt. The light of the world a work of reclamation and restitution in twelve books by gerald massey london t. Click each picture to see the fullsized image or download to your computer. Shortly before the nile reaches the mediterranean sea, it. You could say that egypt provided the building blocks for greek and roman. This map foldable is folded on two lines so that the sides meet in the middle to form a map of ancient egypt. Ancient egypt online maps use the following website learn about the geography of ancient egypt by using different kinds of maps. For a concise general survey of maps in ancient egypt see rold gundlach. What animals might you find in ancient egypt because of the location and geography. Ancient egyptian civilization lasted for more than 3000 years and showed an. These maps of ancient egypt seek to highlight representative aspects of the country. Why would the nile river be so critical to survival. It includes the full commentary, bibliography and an index of all named places noted on the map. The actual assignment you need to complete is attached to this page scroll to the bottom or can be found on the documents page. Thats why im so excited to share this super duper collection of free printables all about ancient egypt. Somewhat confusingly, when you look at a map of this area, lower egypt is the delta region in the north, and upper egypt refers to the southern portion of the.152 347 981 843 922 1109 538 986 1088 1532 543 1376 1214 1432 1037 1128 1545 448 675 982 519 1550 117 1460 1436 1310 341 311 222 1495 502 1227 895 1001 771 601 1368 999 1290 286 1411 662 327
Cars on Curves One of the most common uses of the phenomenon of centripetal acceleration occurs in the design of highways and affects the way a car turns in a curve. When the car is on a level road and turning, all motion is in the horizontal plane. The forces are: We can see from the above that the net force in the y direction is zero, and that the normal force is equal to the weight of the car. In the x-direction, or horizontal axis, the force acting on the car is the friction between the road and the tires. This is the centripetal force. The passengers feel like they are being pushed outward, but there is no centrifugal (outward) force, which is a common misconception. Inertia directs the passengers in a straight line and the car pushes them around the turn. Hopefully, the coffee that was left on the dashboard will also make the turn. But probably not. The direction of the net force continually changes so that it is always directed towards the center. Here is an interesting phenomenon: The friction between the tires and the pavement is static friction. The rolling of the tires is always bringing new tire in contact with the pavement and the coefficient of friction is relatively large. But, if something causes the wheels to lock, then the friction immediately becomes kinetic and the coefficient drops rapidly, causing a loss of control of the car. This is why we have anti-lock brakes. When a car is on a banked curve (that is, the road is not level but is on an angle with the horizontal), there are now forces in both the x and y direction. The important thing to remember here is that the centripetal force is still directed towards the center of the circle, and not down the slope as might be expected. The forces look like: The banking of curves are designed to reduce the chance of skidding because the normal force, which is perpendicular to the road will have a component toward the center of the circle reducing the dependence of friction. The normal force is resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The centripetal acceleration is horizontal and not parallel to the slope of the road. For a given bank angle, there is one speed for which no friction is required where the horizontal component of the normal force toward the center of the curve is equal to the force required to give a vehicle its centripetal acceleration, which is expressed through this formula: FN sinq = mv2 /r Using this information, the formula at which a road should be so that no friction is required can be determined. The formula for a banking angle is: tanq = v2 /rg The banking angle of a road is chosen so that the condition holds for a particular speed, known as the “design speed”. A truck exits the highway on an off ramp. The banking angle of the off ramp is 25° and has a radius of 60m. What is the maximum speed the truck can be traveling at in order to make the turn safely? tanq = v2 /rg tan25° = v2 / (60m) (9.8m/s2) .47 = v2 / 588 v2 = 1251.06 (I've only included the numbers here. You should try this problem on your own - draw a picture, include units with your equations to see how they work out.)
These videos and lessons are designed to provide middle school teachers with free resources for teaching linear equations. Here you can find lessons and videos regarding one and two-step equations, as well as word problems involving linear equations. Students can use these free resources to better understand how to solve simple equations while preparing for the upcoming CRCT test. The following video demonstrates how to solve several one-step equations: The following video demonstrates how to solve two-step equations: Distributive Property & Two-Step Equations In this video you will learn how to apply the distributive property when solving equations. Equation Word Problems The following video demonstrates how to solve a word problem involving equations:
Let’s summarise some of the concepts that we’ve learned in this lecture. It’s all being about motion in three-dimensional space. First of all, we introduced the concept of translational velocity that is the rate of change of the X, Y and Z components of a point in space and we define that with respect to a reference coordinate frame. We introduced the concept of angular velocity and that is a vector quantity. The direction of the vector is the axis about which the body is rotating at that instance in time and the magnitude of the vector is the rate of rotation. Angular velocity has three components: ωx, ωy, and ωz defined with respect to a reference coordinate frame. Translational velocity V and angular velocity ω are combined into a quantity we referred to as spatial velocity or sometimes referred to as twist. It’s a six-element vector. We introduced a skew symmetric matrix. This is a matrix whose transpose is equal to the negative of itself. When we are talking about rotation in three dimensions, the relevant skew symmetric matrix is a 3.3 element matrix which is a function of a vector. There is a really important relationship between the angular velocity of that body and the time derivative of the rotation matrix. For a robot with six joints, we can write a relationship like this, which relates the rate of change of the robot joint angles to this spatial velocity of the robots end effector, and the relationship is in terms of a six by six Jacobian matrix which we denote by the symbol J. The Jacobian matrix is a function of the joint angles themselves. We can write this general relationship between the robot joint angle velocity Qdot and spatial velocity in terms of the Jacobian matrix. If the Jacobian matrix is square, then we can invert the relationship and that allows us to transform a desired spatial velocity for the robot’s end effector into the joint angle rates of the robots’ motors need to attain. The motion of any robot joint affects the spatial velocity of the robot’s end effector. We can think of the columns of the Jacobian matrix as described at that relationship. The first column tells us how the spatial velocity is affected by the first joint. The second column tells us how the spatial velocity is affected by the second joint and so on. We can think of it as a summation of the effect of each of the individual joints, we add them all together to determine the overall spatial velocity of the robot’s end effector. In some cases, the robot Jacobian can be singular and that’s when more than one joint cause exactly the same motion of the robot end effector, that there are two columns in the Jacobian matrix which are identical and that makes the robot singular. For robots that move in three-dimensional space, the Jacobian matrix always has six rows but the number of columns is equal to the number of joints that the robot has. If the robot has six joints, the Jacobian matrix will be square and we can invert it so long as the robot is not in a singular configuration. For a robot with less than six joints which we refer to as an under-actuated robot, the Jacobian is not square. In order to square it up so we can use it for control purposes, we need to eliminate some rows in that Jacobian matrix. For the case of a robot with more than six joints, which we refer to as an over-actuated robot, the Jacobian has many more columns than has rows. If we want to invert it for control purposes, we need to use a technique called the Pseudo Inverse. We can also think about the robot like this as having a large number of spare joints and we can use this to control the configuration with the shape of the robot arm independently of the pose of its end effector. We refer to this as null space motion. We can transform velocity expressed with respect to one frame to velocity with respect to another frame by a Jacobian matrix, and that Jacobian matrix is a function of the relative pose between the two frames. In particular, it’s a function of the relative orientation between the two coordinate frames. We can use that velocity transform technique in order to determine the robot’s end-effector spatial velocity with respect to the end-effector coordinate frame rather than the world coordinate frame, and that’s typically a very useful and convenient thing to have. We can therefore define a variant of the Jacobian matrix which gives us the velocity in frame six, the end-effector coordinate frame. Angular velocity is a somewhat abstract concept that’s a little difficult to visualize. We often talk about the orientation of a body in terms of its roll, pitch, and yaw angles so it’s more intuitive to express the rotational velocity of an object in terms of the rates of change of its roll, pitch, and yaw angles. We can derive a 3x3 Jacobian matrix which transforms roll, pitch, and yaw angle rates into traditional angular velocity. Then we can introduce a variant of a spatial velocity vector and we replace the angular velocity component with a roll, pitch, yaw velocity component. This leads to something called the Analytic Jacobian matrix and this maps robot joint angle rates to the modified spatial velocity vector. We introduced the concept of the velocity ellipsoid in three dimensions. The ellipsoid says something about the ability of the robot to achieve velocity in different directions in three-dimensional space. The end-effector is able to move most quickly in the direction parallel to the longest axis of the ellipsoid and it moves most slowly parallel to the direction of the shortest axis of the ellipsoid. We can describe the overall shape of the ellipsoid in terms of a scalar measure which we call manipulability, and it says something about the compactness of the ellipsoid. If the manipulability is equal to one, the ellipsoid is in fact the sphere, and we refer to this as the isotropic motion case. The robot is able to move equally quickly in any direction. In the case of manipulability is equal to zero, that indicates that motion in one partition direction is not possible and the three-dimensional ellipsoid has been flattened into an elliptical plate. We revisit the important points from this masterclass. This content assumes high school level mathematics and requires an understanding of undergraduate-level mathematics; for example, linear algebra - matrices, vectors, complex numbers, vector calculus and MATLAB programming.
Parnella Pia. Math Worksheets. July 01st , 2021. There are several ways of writing worksheets. Cursive writing worksheets and specialized kindergarten group worksheets are very common amongst the small children. The children get expertise by practicing over with these worksheets and learn the control of hand muscles for writing and follow the pattern of writing, which is helpful for them for their whole life. There are various patterns of the different letter strokes present in these worksheets. The tracing of these patters make the kids to slowly learn the structuring of letter. The first step is to consider the correct or appropriate font to use – the bigger the better. Avoid fonts such as the Roman Script as the curls and curves of the letters may be confusing. For kids, fun fonts such as the Comic Sans MS are advisable. It can be used as standard fonts for worksheets especially when bugger fonts are needed. Note that the font size itself may differ depending on the age of the students. So when writing worksheets for kids, font sizes between 14 and 18 are suggested. Color Recognition – The obvious reason is to teach your child the different colors so that they can recognize them and name them. This is one of the many indicators used to determine whether your child is ready for kindergarten. Letter Recognition – As your child learns sounds, they will also learn to recognize the letters of the alphabet. A great way to teach this is with a printable worksheet that shows the letter, a picture, and the ’name’ of the letter – like Annie Apple! There are many parents, who make use of the writing worksheets for teaching the children about the writing patterns, even before they start their school. There are lots of options available and even online options are prevalent these days. This will make your kids ready for going to high school. Online means are easy for parents and teachers and also interest the children to get the interest in getting the ideas about writing. Students can find that learning comes easy when they can fill in words on a worksheet from a list of available answers. This type of practice enhances memorization. Teachers can go online and create worksheets specific to the topics being studied and to their particular group of students. Your students will find learning easy since they will be able to fill in the word from the available list. Especially when they are still at the formation stages, your students learning will be enhanced a great deal. You can create your own worksheet by following some simple steps. You can be having a template to assist you while creating fonts, shapes of the grid and many more. You can also choose how your letters will be replaced after your students have completely have filled them to ensure that it’s used for learning purposes again. Any content, trademark/s, or other material that might be found on this site that is not this site property remains the copyright of its respective owner/s. In no way does LocalHost claim ownership or responsibility for such items and you should seek legal consent for any use of such materials from its owner.
File Name: understanding major and minor scales .zip Click on the video to view. Now that we know that a major scale is made up of a particular pattern of intervals between the notes W W h W W W h , let's test the formula by building a major scale on the note A, starting with the open A … In order to understand how this was constructed, we need to look at each note: F G A Bb C D E F. Below is a guitar scales chart for the major scales and another for the minor scales. The root notes are highlighted in blue with a square box. They cover the whole fretboard up to the 24th fret. The scales to learn first depend on firstly on what style of music you play. Scales In Thirds Pdf. Pentatonic scales are all the same whether major or minor. Bored out of your skull? Stay with me just a little longer. Rasmussen College, a regionally accredited private college, is hosting its third-annual Virtual Career Fair on Oct. The Minor scales in graphic compilation are available in the member area. In Western music , the adjectives major and minor may describe a chord , scale , or key. As such, a composition , movement , section , or phrase may be referred to by its key, including whether that key is major or minor. Some intervals may be referred to as major and minor. A major interval is one semitone larger than a minor interval. The words perfect , diminished , and augmented are also used to describe the quality of an interval. Only the intervals of a second, third, sixth, and seventh and the compound intervals based on them may be major or minor or, rarely, diminished or augmented. A minor scale's third note is always a half-step lower than the third note of the major scale. These three types of minor scales should be thought of like flavors of ice cream; ice cream is still ice cream regardless of whether it is chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, etc. Instead, these are useful categories primarily for instrumental performers—learning to play the different types of minor scales on instruments allows performers to become familiar with the minor patterns most commonly used in Western classical music. Minor scales are named for their first note, which is also their last note—just like major scales. Be sure to include any accidentals that apply to this note in its name. The major scale is a specific pattern of small steps (called half steps) and larger It is important to understand that major and minor scales always use all the. While major scales have their place in the joyful, the bright, and the hopeful, minor keys are the mastermind behind the music that tears at your heartstrings. Best of all, minor keys do not limit you to songs that are exclusively sad and wistful; you can just as easily evoke feelings of mystery, dread, tension, and even hope and optimism. Believe it or not, countless pop songs are written in minor keys! Several questions arise: why do minor keys usually sound sad? Every major scale has a relative minor scale , and every minor scale a relative major. For example, the C major scale and the A minor scale are relative scales. They have the same exact group of notes only their root note is different. Piano scales are an important part of developing your playing skills and understanding the building blocks of music. They help enormously to understand key signatures. If you have ever wondered why pianists play them, how they work and what the benefits are then you are in the right place. The major and minor scales are an essential step in learning jazz piano. They provide a pool of notes for you to choose from when improvising and set the foundations for further modal scale study. The 12 major scales provide the foundation for further scales study. Learn these scales thoroughly so that you can play them by memory. There are 3 types of minor scale: natural minor, melodic minor and harmonic minor. Each scale has a different use and application in jazz piano. Now for the best part. You can print off each guide totally free! You can also click here to browse the complete list of guides at the bottom of this post. This guide will help you keep them straight. Click here for the printable PDF. Key signatures can be tricky to learn. Each major key uses a different set of notes its major scale. In each major scale, however, the notes are arranged in the same major scale pattern and build the same types of chords that have the same relationships with each other. See Beginning Harmonic Analysis for more on this. So music that is in, for example, C major, will not sound significantly different from music that is in, say, D major. But music that is in D minor will have a different quality, because the notes in the minor scale follow a different pattern and so have different relationships with each other. Но… но это невозможно! - У немца перехватило дыхание. - Я там. У него случился инфаркт. Я сам. Никакой крови. Он старался двигаться быстрее, знал, что где-то позади идет человек с пистолетом. Беккер смешался с толпой прихожан и шел с низко опущенной головой. Собор был уже совсем рядом, он это чувствовал. Толпа стала еще плотнее, а улица шире. Они двигались уже не по узкому боковому притоку, а по главному руслу. Когда улица сделала поворот, Беккер вдруг увидел прямо перед собой собор и вздымающуюся ввысь Гиральду. Barrie peter and wendy pdf pregnancy for dummies pdf download freeReply School of Music. MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES. HALF AND WHOLE STEPS: half-step - two keys (and therefore notes/pitches) that are adjacent on the piano.Reply Speechless aladdin sheet music pdf free demian by hermann hesse pdf in englishReply
A team of researchers has discovered he existence of huge termite mounds that can be seen from space. The mounds were found in Brazil and they are spread over an area that is approximately as large as the entire surface of Great Britain. It is estimated that the fist mounds could have been built 4,000 years ago. It is interesting that the mounds themselves aren’t nests. They are merely the surplus material that was excavated and brought back to the surface by the insects, as they managed to develop a complex underground tunnel system. According to the researchers, there are over 2000 million mounds and most of them measure an average of 2.5m or 8.2 feet in height with a width of 9m or 29.5 feet. An impressive figure comes up when you sum to total amount of excavated earth as it could be used to construct 4,000 pyramids as big as the Great Pyramid of Giza. It is the largest artificial ecosystem developed by a single insect species. Some of the mounds have been cut open and it was revealed that they are filled with soil. It was thought that they could have used in order to ventilate the colonies but that doesn’t seem to be case. The species of termite that inhabits the area feeds exclusively on dead leaves that are dropped by a particular type of vegetation called caatinga. Since the leaves only drop once a year and the vegetation is present on a large area the termites built vast tunnels in order to quickly travel from one zone to another. This allows them to track down their food source and quickly store it for later use. The people that leave in the nearby regions are used to the mounds and they never thought of them as something spectacular. They only became visible from space after a part of the forest that hides them was cut for agricultural needs. As our second lead editor, Anna C. Mackinno provides guidance on the stories Great Lakes Ledger reporters cover. She has been instrumental in making sure the content on the site is clear and accurate for our readers. If you see a particularly clever title, you can likely thank Anna. Anna received a BA and and MA from Fordham University.
A new study published online in the journal Pediatrics found that food insecurity is associated with poor academic achievement in adolescents. However, when these adolescents received school-based food supplementation programs (like free and reduced-price lunch), they performed the same as their peers who were not living in food-insecure households. The authors write that their results suggest that “school food assistant or some aspect of it may well help adolescents thrive during the secondary school years and may be a part of a successful poverty-reduction strategy.” According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 14.7% of households were food insecure at least some time during 2009–the highest recorded rate of food insecurity since 1995 when the first national food security survey was conducted. For more information:
Geography is the study of the life of man, the way humans live, and the way of life that has been established by a human society to sustain life. It is the study of the features of the earth, and the cultures that were developed in the various parts of the world by human beings. The needs of man are universal, but the way these needs have been met, differ. So we have many different peoples around the world who live differently, who have adapted differently to what the world has offered them in different locations. We begin our study with the child with the home culture. We give the child a rich experience of the culture in which he lives. Then we expand from the home culture to other cultures and other places. This helps the child to understand that all humans need to make a way of lie that will support not only life but a good way to live. The geography work has two divisions: physical geography and political geography. The work in these two groups goes parallel to one another. As usual, we will give the child keys For Physical geography, we will give the child the basic forms of landmass. We will use models, pictures, and books to bring this information to the child. We will also talk about climate zones and how they affect the people who live in them. For political geography, we will look at the divisions of the world that have been made by humans. As in Art and Music, the directress will be in charge of giving the information to the children. She must follow the children’s interest and cater to them. It is important for the directress is keep a positive attitude for all cultures, so the child can pick up on the fact that there is value and dignity in each human culture and is to be respected. There will be some direct teaching with the Three Period Lessons and a lot of language work where information is passed on conversationally. The directress will also have to make most of the materials herself. One of the largest pieces of material are the geography folders. These contain two folders for each country. Geography work as a whole is open ended. We must follow each child’s interest and supply him with the information he is seeking. Geography work is done to teach the child about the society in which he lives and others around the world. We want to convey the feeling of people around the world. This will help the child to realize that he is not only a member of his society, but a member of the world. Physical Georgraphy Exercises / Pre-Reading Show the child a photo of the planet. Discuss how beautiful the world is seen from the sky. You may want to give a few quotes from astronauts. Elicit the responses and ideas from the children. Look to see where there are clouds or areas where we can see the land and water masses. Discuss the concept that this is where humans live, it is our home. Because it is our home, we need to take care of it, just as we do in our classroom and out home. This gives the child and his absorbent mind the early idea that we need to take care of our world. See Sensorial Album for how to present this material. Remind the child about the image of the Earth from the sky and how it looks similar. Materials: The material consists of trays with clay models for the following: island and lake, peninsula and gulf, isthmus and straight. A tray with a small bucket, jug, cloth, some blue dye, a spoon, and a sponge are also needed. Presentation: Have the child bring over the material and two tray models. Have the child fill the jug 1/3 of the way full and show him how to put two drops of dye into it. Then stir with the spoon. Pour water into the first tray. Discuss how the water is all around the land. Tell the child that when water is all around a mass of land, we call it an island. Repeat in a similar way for the lake tray. Do the 1st stage of a Three Period Lesson. Pour out the water and dry with the cloth. Then have the child repeat. Do the 2nd and 3rd stage of the Three Period Lesson. The child can then work with the models as presented. And when the child has worked with one set, present him with the next set. Purpose:To heighten the child’s awareness of land and water forms. Age:3 1/2 (after pouring work) Classification cards on the different land and water masses. These come into specialized vocabulary of language section. Refer to the presentation of Classified Cards. Photos and images of the different land and water masses. These are to be presented a few at a time and discussed conversationally. If the child is not familiar with one of them, you must give him information on it. This is a form of language training. These are taught through the use of sets of pictures (such as the Arctic, the Tropics and the Dessert). Each set shows the basic needs of man that are met in the specific climates. This is another form of language training. These are used to outline the land and water masses the child has seen with the model trays. He illustrates any of the land or water masses he has seen. The child can then color a specific landform (such as and island) and using a brown colored pencil, he can color in that specific landform. Physical Georgraphy Exercises / Reading Classified cards seen in the Non-Reading Exercises but this time the presentation includes labels. It is important to keep a good selection of booklets and larger books on geography in the book corner. Rotate the books from time to time to keep the children’s interest. It is also important t have a child’s atlas. Refer to the Sensorial Work for this presentation. See Sensorial Album for presentation. Begin this lesson however, by having a piece of blue play dough that is rolled into a sphere. Discuss how this looks like the globe. Cut it in half and flatten both halves. Discuss how now the world is flat and how it now looks like the map. Move from the map of the world to the map of the home continent, and to the home country. Working with the maps, fill in some information about some of the countries and their flags. Some children might be interested in the history of a specific flag and it is wonderful to give this to the child. If you do not know, feel free to look it up in a book with the child. This is all part of language training. These cards teach the children the parts of the flag. For this oral work, use the cards with no labels. Geography folders with pictures of the home continent and home country. The child can then move out to the other folders on different countries and different continent. Each classroom must have the two folders for each continent. Folders on some of the other countries of the home continent are based on the child’s interest and on the principle of contrast. These folders are presented with the maps. You will want to take out the map of the home continent and place the puzzle piece of the continent in the center of a mat. Place one photo at a time around this puzzle piece. Discuss each one with the child. Add other images to the mat and present them in a similar manner. You may chose to do a few at a time and come back to it at a latter date. Once all of the pictures have been presented, the child can then work alone with the material. This same presentation should be done with each of the folders. These are presented in the same way as other Classified Cards Classified cards with the labels of such cards as the children from around the world and flags. Books about the subjects should also be presented for further information. You have already taught the names of the puzzle pieces of the maps and now the child can take the prepared labels and place them on the Puzzle Maps. You will simply need the appropriate maps and the corresponding labels. For Europe, you may need to take the pieces out to label them since many of the countries are quite small. The child can then check his work with the control maps. Such cards are: – What is the name of the continent that lies to the south of Africa? – How many countries are in Europe? Then check by counting. – How many countries in Europe are peninsulas? – Guess how many countries in Europe do no have a coastline. A wooden map of the home continent with the outlines of each country. There are three holes in each country. One hole has a red circle around it and is for the peg with the capital name. The other two holes are for the flag of the country and the name of the country. You will show the child how to begin by only placing the country nametags where they belong. The child can check his work with the control map. Later, show the child how to place the flags into the appropriate holes. As a last step, you may need to teach the names of the capitals separately (in a Three-Period Lesson) before having the child work with the Wooden Map. Once he does know the capitals, he can use the nametags and the Wooden Map. Use the Puzzle Maps and compare it to the map in the Atlas. For example, you can compare the Puzzle World Map to the World Map in the full Atlas. It is important to celebrate the home country first but all countries can be celebrated in turn. It is nice to show images of the country around the puzzle piece on map. The children can gather around and talk about the country, recite a poem or song from the country, and eat some traditional food. The can compare this globe to the other two globes and with the Atlas. The child is free to discover this alone and at their own rhythm.
The pyroxenes are a group of important rock-forming silicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. They share a common structure comprised of single chains of silica tetrahedra and they crystalize in the monoclinic and orthorhombic system. Pyroxenes have the general formula XY(Si,Al)2O6 (where X represents calcium, sodium, iron+2, and magnesium, and more rarely zinc, manganese, and lithium, and Y represents ions of smaller size, such as chromium, aluminum, iron+3, magnesium, manganese, scandium, titanium, vanadium, and even iron+2). Although aluminum substitutes extensively for silicon in silicates such as feldspars and amphiboles, the substitution occurs only to a limited extent in most pyroxenes. The name pyroxene comes from the Greek words for "fire" and "stranger." It was named that way due to their presence in volcanic lavas, where they are sometimes seen as crystals embedded in volcanic glass; it was assumed they were impurities in the glass, hence the name, "fire strangers." However, they are simply early forming minerals that crystallized before the lava erupted. The upper mantle of Earth is composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene. A piece of the mantle is shown in Figure 1 (orthopyroxene is black, diopside—containing chromium—is bright green, and olivine is yellow-green) and is dominated by olivine, typical for common peridotite. Pyroxene and feldspar are the major minerals in basalt and gabbro. Chemistry and nomenclature of the pyroxenes The chain silicate structure of the pyroxenes offers much flexibility in the incorporation of various cations and the names of the pyroxene minerals are primarily defined by their chemical composition. Pyroxene minerals are named according to the chemical species occupying the octahedral X (or M1) and Y (or M2) sites and the tetrahedral T site. Twenty mineral names are recognized by the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names and 105 previously used names have been discarded (Morimoto et al., 1989). A typical pyroxene has mostly silicon in the tetrahedral site and predominately ions with a charge of +2 in both of the octahedral (X and Y) sites, giving the approximate formula XYT2O6. The names of the common calcium-iron-magnesium pyroxenes are defined in the "pyroxene quadrilateral" shown in Figure 2. The enstatite-ferrosilite series ([Mg,Fe]SiO3) contain up to 5 mol. percent calcium and exists in three polymorphs, orthorhombic orthoenstatite, protoenstatite, and monoclinic clinoenstatite (and the ferrosilite equivalents). Increasing the calcium content prevents the formation of the orthorhombic phases and pigeonite ([Mg,Fe,Ca][Mg,Fe]Si2O6) only crystallizes in the monoclinic system. There is not a complete solid solution in calcium content and Mg-Fe-Ca pyroxenes with calcium contents between about 15 and 25 mol. percent are not stable with respect to a pair of exolved crystals. This leads to a miscibility gap between pigeonite and augite compositions. There is an arbitrary separation between augite and the diopside-hedenbergite (CaMgSi2O6 - CaFeSi2O6) solid solution. The divide is taken at >45 mol. percent Ca. As the calcium ion cannot occupy the Y site, pyroxenes with more than 50 mol. percent calcium are not possible. A related mineral, wollastonite, has the formula of the hypothetical calcium end member but important structural differences mean that it is not grouped with the pyroxenes. Magnesium, calcium, and iron are by no means the only cations that can occupy the X and Y sites in the pyroxene structure. A second important series of pyroxene minerals are the sodium-rich pyroxenes, corresponding to nomenclature shown in Figure 3. The inclusion of sodium, which has a charge of +1, into the pyroxene implies the need for a mechanism to make up the "missing" positive charge. In jadeite and aegirine, this is added by the inclusion of a +3 cation (aluminium and iron(III), respectively) on the X site. Sodium pyroxenes with more than 20 mol. percent calcium, magnesium or iron(II) components are known as omphacite and aegirine-augite, with 80 percent or more of these components the pyroxene falls in the quadrilateral shown in figure 1. Table 1 shows the wide range of other cations that can be accommodated in the pyroxene structure, and indicates the sites that they occupy. In assigning ions to sites, the basic rule is to work from left to right in this table, first assigning all silicon to the T site then filling the site with remaining aluminum and finally iron(III), extra aluminum or iron can be accommodated in the X site and bulkier ions on the Y site. Not all the resulting mechanisms to achieve charge neutrality follow the sodium example above and there are several alternative schemes: - Coupled substitutions of 1+ and 3+ ions on the Y and X sites respectively. For example Na and Al give the jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) composition. - Coupled substitution of a 1+ ion on the Y site and a mixture of equal numbers of 2+ and 4+ ions on the X site. This leads to, for example, NaFe2+0.5Ti4+0.5Si2O6. - The Tschermak substitution where a 3+ ion ocupies the X site and a T site leading to, for example, CaAlAlSiO6. In nature, more than one substitution may be found in the same mineral. - Clinopyroxenes (monoclinic) - Aegirine (Sodium Iron Silicate) - Augite (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminium Silicate) - Clinoenstatite (Magnesium Silicate) - Diopside (Calcium Magnesium Silicate, CaMgSi2O6) - Esseneite (Calcium Iron Aluminium Silicate) - Hedenbergite (Calcium Iron Silicate) - Hypersthene (Magnesium Iron Silicate) - Jadeite (Sodium Aluminium Silicate) - Jervisite (Sodium Calcium Iron Scandium Magnesium Silicate) - Johannsenite (Calcium Manganese Silicate) - Kanoite (Manganese Magnesium Silicate) - Kosmochlor (Sodium Chromium Silicate) - Namansilite (Sodium Manganese Silicate) - Natalyite (Sodium Vanadium Chromium Silicate) - Omphacite (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminium Silicate) - Petedunnite (Calcium Zinc Manganese Iron Magnesium Silicate) - Pigeonite (Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate) - Spodumene (Lithium Aluminium Silicate) - Orthopyroxenes (orthorhombic) - Donpeacorite, (MgMn)MgSi2O6 - Enstatite, Mg2Si2O6 - Ferrosilite, Fe2Si2O6 - Nchwaningite (Hydrated Manganese Silicate) - Schefferite, Ca(Mg,Fe,Mn)Si2O6 - Zinc schefferite, Ca(Mg,Mn,Zn)Si2O6 - Jeffersonite, Ca(Mg,Fe,Mn,Zn)Si2O6 - Leucaugite, Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6 - Calcium-Tschermak's molecule, CaAlAlSiO6 - Farndon, John. 2006. The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's Best Specimens, With Over 1000 Photographs and Artworks. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754815412 - Klein, Cornelis and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. Manual of Mineral Science, 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0471721574 - Morimoto, Nobuo, et al. 1989. Nomenclature of pyroxenes. Canadian Mineralogist 27:143-156. Retrieved April 13, 2007. - Pellant, Chris. 2002. Rocks and Minerals. Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789491060 - Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. Rocks, Gems and Minerals New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 1582381321 All links retrieved June 16, 2019. - Pyroxene Group. Mindat.org. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. 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In this video from the new GMAT tutorial series produced by PrepAdviser and examPAL we are going to focus on algebra by referring to both arithmetic and the use of variables, as both go hand in hand in the test. Because there are so many subtopics, if you are going to study just one thing for the GMAT – algebra should be it. In fact, algebra is even more important than just being the most common subject on the test: the material that is included in algebra is the basis for all other quantitative subtopics. For example, we need to know powers and roots in order to use the Pythagorean theorem in geometry, and we have to have a keen grasp of ratio in order to tackle many word problems. Algebra, more than any other topic, is something we are probably already quite familiar with from school. But while it’s obviously good to have some prior acquaintance with the material, this experience also has a downside. In school, algebra questions are usually solved with one strategy, and one strategy only: simplifying. But here, that impulse can spell trouble. For example, take a look at the following equation: X squared minus (y plus z) squared, divided by z plus y plus x. So, if we want to simplify, we start by opening up the parentheses, which gives us x^2 minus all of that, whose negative we then need to take and we get that, and… quickly we find ourselves in a mess! We have actually drifted farther away from the answer choices. For questions such as this, we have to use cognitive flexibility, which means looking at the question’s characteristics and thinking what could be the most efficient way to solve it. In the GMAT, “efficient” means “fast and correct”. In this case, the question has only variables, and thus we can take the alternative approach of simply choosing any numbers we want that make the equation work, and solving the question with them! For example, we could say that x=1, y=2, and z=3 and, placing these values in the expression, we are going to end up with some specific answer that works with those specific values. In this case, when we simplify, we get a negative 6. Then, we are going to plug these values into the answer choices, hoping that one of them works and four do not. So, going through the answer choices and replacing x, y, and z, with 1, 2, and 3 – we get different results: 0, 0, -6, 4, and 2. So, the only answer which works is (C). Do we understand why it worked? Not exactly. But that doesn’t matter! It’s enough for us to be able to eliminate the four other ones, since we found one example at least for which they definitely do not work. And so, we can confidently pick answer choice (C). As we can see, this was much quicker and easier than simplification. The important point, though, isn’t just that we can use numbers instead of variables. The point is that the GMAT is all about variation, and we always need to be flexible about how we choose the fastest way to solve each question. For example, in the following question, a precise simplification is, once again, possible, but not at all easy. For which of the following values of m is (m^2+ m+ 3) a prime number? In this case, since we are asked about “which of the following values” does something, being cognitively flexible means simply trying the answers out and seeing which works. In A, we get 2 squared plus 2 plus 3, which equals 9 – not a prime number. B gives us 3 squared plus 3 plus, which is 5 – not a prime number either. C is 4 squared plus s 4 plus 3, which is 23 – that is a prime number! No need to check (D) and (E) – that’s our answer! Not very hard at all! And we don’t even have to check all the answers this time – only one answer can be correct. Sometimes, we don’t really have to solve at all, but only to think about the question logically. Negative 99 plus Negative 98 plus Negative 97 plus Negative 96, and on and on right up to 97 plus 98 plus 99 plus 100, equals…? Here once again, simplification is technically possible – but not likely to be rewarding. But let’s just look at the question logically, and look for patterns. When summing up negatives and positives, we would be happy to find for every negative – a positive number that cancels it out. That is, two numbers that when added together, give us zero. We can do that for -99 and 99. We can also do it for -98 and 98, for -97 and 97, and on and on and on as we approach zero. Eventually, the only thing we will be left with is 100 – which is answer choice (B). To summarize, algebra is a wide-ranging, absolutely essential GMAT topic. To handle it successfully, we have to both study a lot of material, and practice being flexible when it comes to picking the fastest solution strategy for each question.
Most preschool math curricula the world over prescribe two essential areas for kindergartners. The first is representing and relating whole numbers to objects. The second is describing shapes and space. (NGA Center & CCSSO 2010). By age 6, children should be able to demonstrate an understanding of shapes through analysis, comparison, composition and creation. Colours and shapes are tangible, recognisable attributes of the outside world and something children can immediately relate to. They provide the vital foundation for understanding concepts in mathematics and science later on. In our Play School App, our first Shapes Game has 2 levels. In Level 1, we introduce shapes to children through the story of Sammy the Starfish. In the presentation section of this game, Sammy the forgetful starfish, goes through the various shapes that he thinks he is. In the practice stage, children are asked to master the names and forms of the different shapes and are finally assessed in the gameplay stage. In Level 2 of the same game, more complex shapes are introduced. Rectangles, trapezoids, the pentagon etc. Again, we bring back our favourite Octopus, Ollie, to present these shapes through song and story to students. Children practice learning these new shapes in a safe area, where they can learn at their own pace and are then asked to produce the shapes through gameplay! Learning shapes lays the foundation for more complex mathematical learning. You can also use flashcards to play a follow-up game, Tic Tac Toe, which familiarises children with all the basic shapes.
According to a new report, researches gravely underestimated the correlation between carcinogenic chemicals in the environment and 6% of all cancers. The report suggests that even in low doses, mixtures of toxic chemicals can work together to target a setoff hallmarks necessary for cancer to fester. It is paramount that regulators start taking this into account. Researchers were able to show how mixtures of chemical can work together to overcome our bodies’ cancer defenses, even if no single chemical in the mix could lead to cancer on its own. According to researchers, there are 10 key steps that are common to all cancers. These step include a cancer developing its own blood vessels and mechanisms for evading the immune system. The report asserts that cancers do not need to get each step from the same chemical, the mixture chemicals is generally the key. Researchers successfully identified 50 different chemicals that contributed to cancer at low doses, even if they don’t necessarily lead to cancer on their own. Most other analysis focuses on whether a single chemical might cause cancer. Unfortunately researchers have never observed other chemicals that act at a lower level. More than 170 researchers participated in this particular study. Overall, the study reviewed 85 difference chemicals. Additionally, a mixture of 23 of those cancer-enabling chemicals are present in detectable levels in our bodies. This discovery was based on a review of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Biomonitoring Program. According to researchers this means that chemicals could be interacting within the human body, even if the body is not exposed to each chemical at the same time. This report completely changes the way researchers looked at chemicals in the environment. If low-dose chemical interactions can cause cancer, the definition of carcinogenic chemicals may need to change.
Figure shows a block diagram of an amplifier and an oscillator. An amplifier is a device, which produces an output signal with similar waveform as that of the input. But its power level is generally high. This additional power is supplied by an external D.C. source. Thus an amplifier is essentially an energy convection device I.e. a device, which gets energy from the D.C. source and converts it into an a.c. energy at the same frequency as that of the input signal. The D.C. to A.C.. conversion is controlled by the input signal. It means that if there is no input signal then no energy conversion take place. Thus there is no output signal. An oscillator is a device, which produces an output signal, without any input signal of any desired frequency. It keeps producing an output signal, so long as the D.C. power is supplied. An oscillator does not require any external signal to start or maintain energy conversion process.
The incidence of asthma in the United States (as well as in many other developed countries) has reached epidemic proportions. In the last two decades, the number of sufferers in the U. S. has doubled to more than 14 million people. In an attack of asthma, the bronchi become constricted, making it difficult to breathe in and — especially — out. The sufferer wheezes and coughs. Severe attacks can be life-threatening. An attack of asthma begins when an allergen is inhaled. The allergen binds to IgE antibodies — those that have binding sites for the allergen — on mast cells in the lungs. Binding triggers exocytosis of the mast cells with the release of Although asthma begins as an allergic response, in time attacks can be triggered by nonspecific factors like cold air, exercise, and tobacco smoke. - cause the smooth muscle cells of the bronchi to contract narrowing the lumen of the bronchi. This is the early phase. - attract an accumulation of inflammatory cells — especially eosinophils — and the production of mucus. This is the late phase. With repeated attacks, the lining of the bronchi becomes damaged. For reasons that are not yet understood, some people have a predisposition to respond to antigens by making antibodies of the IgE class. The trait tends to run in families suggesting a genetic component. These people are said to suffer from atopy. The T helper cells of atopic people are largely of the Th2 type rather that Th1. And mice whose genes for a transcription factor (called "T-bet") used to make Th1 cells have been knocked out Th2 helper cells - make fewer Th1 and more Th2 cells and - suffer the lung changes typical of human asthma even though not exposed to any known allergen. - help B cells make IgE antibodies by synthesizing interleukin 4 (IL-4) and interleukin 13 (IL-13), which promote class switching. - release interleukin 5 (IL-5) which attracts eosinophils and other inflammatory cells to the site, producing the late phase of the response. No one knows for certain. It is certainly not a matter of air pollution. Air pollution can trigger attacks of asthma, but some regions with heavily-polluted air have a much lower incidence of asthma than regions with relatively clean air. One intriguing possibility: sanitation and widespread childhood immunization may enable children to avoid the infections — especially viral — that stimulate the immune system to respond with Th1 helper cells rather than Th2 cells. Children in Europe that give positive DTH responses to tuberculin (a response mediated by Th1 cells) have lower rates of asthma than children who are negative in the tuberculin test. European children growing up on farms where they are exposed to high levels of bacteria and fungi associated with farm animals have a lower incidence of asthma and atopy than their suburban peers. But children in tropical, undeveloped countries, who are often infected with parasitic worms, have high levels of Th2 cells and IgE but a very low incidence of asthma. Perhaps, then, a variety of chronic infections in childhood activate mechanisms (e.g., production of regulatory T cells) that suppress all inflammatory immune responses both Th1- and Th2-mediated. - These drugs (albuterol is a popular example) mimic the action of adrenaline. - They relax the smooth muscle of the bronchi. - They may be inhaled or given by mouth. - While useful in the early phase of an attack, they provide no protection against the longterm damage produced during the late phase. Cromolyn sodium (disodium cromoglycate) - These drugs reduce the inflammation of the late phase of the response. - They may be given in an inhaler (e.g., beclomethasone) or by mouth (e.g., prednisone) Two types of leukotriene inhibitors received FDA approval in 1996. - inhibits exocytosis of mast cells thus blocking the release of histamine and leukotrienes. - It is used mainly to prevent attacks (e.g., triggered by exercise) and is of no use in the early phase of an ongoing attack. - Zileuton (Zyflo®) blocks leukotriene synthesis by inhibiting the action of 5-lipoxygenase. - Montelukast (Singulair®) blocks the leukotriene receptors on the surface of - smooth muscle cells - Anti-IgE antibodies. These interfere with the binding of IgE to mast cells. Omalizumab (Xolair®), a humanized monoclonal antibody produced by recombinant DNA technology, has been approved for use against allergic asthma (but carrying a "black-box" warning of the slight risk of its precipitating an anaphylactic reaction). - Drugs that bind to IL-13 keeping it from promoting IgE synthesis. - Treatments that stimulate the production of Th1 cells by the immune system. Injections of a harmless mycobacterium (a relative of the TB bacillus) might do the trick. Th1 cells secrete interferon-gamma which is a powerful inhibitor of Th2 cells. [Discussion with graphic] Some of these treatments are already in clinical trials. [Discussion of how new drugs are tested] 27 January 2014
NASA's Pioneer 10 and 11 and Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft are headed out of the solar system. Artist Don Davis portrays Pioneer lO, at present the most distant craft, moving outward from the Sun (the brightest star visible) and away from the heart of our Milky Way galaxy. riASA Ames Research Center heliopause to contract. Solar scientists think that the heliopause lies at a distance of 100 to 200 astronomical units—100 to 200 times the Earth's distance from the Sun. Neptune orbits at a distance of 30 astronomical units. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, increasing their distance from the Sun by about 3.5 astronomical units per year, could arrive at the heliopause as early as about 2010. Both craft should continue to have enough electrical power from their nuclear generators for radio transmission and enough fuel for their thrusters to keep their antennae turned toward Earth until about 2010 or 2015. If the heliopause lies at about 100 astronomical units from the Sun, the Voyagers may tell us where. Beyond that point, the Voyagers will continue outward, but they will be mute and passive. Yet even at the heliopause, the Voyagers' journey of departure from the solar system will scarcely have begun. Beyond them will lie the vast cloud of comets, no less members of the Sun's family than the planets The Oort Cloud may begin as close to the Sun as 50 astronomical units and extend as far as 135,000, halfway to the nearest star. Even though the Voyagers are separating themselves from the Sun at about 10 miles per second (16 kilometers per second), it will be 40,000 years until they are beyond the Oort Cloud and have truly crossed the boundary into in- »liar space. Forty thousand years is about the period of time that grates us from Neanderthal Man. 0n its Grand Tour of the giant planets, Voyager 2 was traveling near the yovaQer 2 and . . 0f ¡he solar system. But at Neptune, Voyager 2 passed low over " ¡he planet's north pole, and its course was bent southward to encounter ■fliton So Voyager 2 will be headed out of our solar system on a southerly route. It>s pointed toward a rather drab region of the sky in the con-stelktion Pavo, the Peacock. To see that part of the heavens, we must be in the southernmost United States or farther south. Yet, ironically, Voyager 2's first reasonably close stellar encounter will DOt be with any of the stars in the far southern sky but with a star now located in the northern constellation Andromeda, the Princess. That star, known only by its catalog designation of Ross 248, is a small cool red star with only about one-fifth the mass of our Sun. Find the Great Square of Pegasus and look north one length of the Square—and you will not see Ross 248. With a magnitude of +12.3, it is about 200 times too faint for human eye visibility. Even though Voyager 2 will be traveling south and Ross 248 is located in the north, the two are moving toward one another. While Voyager 2 is consuming 40,000 years in its transit through the Oort Cloud, all the stars in the sky are moving in different directions. The constellations are gradually changing shape beyond recognition. Some of the stars are coming toward us faster than our spacecraft are going to meet them—almost as if they are coming to fetch the Voyagers. Ross 248 is currently 10.3 light-years away, but while Voyager 2 rushes outward at 33,000 miles per hour (14.8 kilometers per second), Ross 248 is approaching our system at more than five times that speed. No sooner will Voyager 2 emerge from the Oort Cloud than, 40,176 years from now, it will encounter Ross 248, passing at a distance of 1.7 light-years, closer to Voyager than to any subsequent star known. Ross 248 will pass the outskirts of our solar system 3.25 light-years from our Sun, 25 percent closer than our nearest stellar neighbors, the three stars of Alpha Centauri, are to us now. Yet even when Ross 248 reaches that close range, it will be four times too faint for people on Earth to see without a telescope. Still, its passage may eventually be seen and even felt indirectly as its gravity warps the orbits of millions of comets and redirects some of them inward toward the Sun where they will provide brilliant displays in the skies of Earth and perhaps even impacts on our planet. Vnvxnrr 7 anH The Mme kind of stellar encounter awaits Voyager 1, even thoush vuyayci x aim traveling toward a very different part of the sky. It is pointed in th d- tion of Rasalhague, the brightest star in the constellation Ophiuch Serpent Bearer. But the star headed for a rendezvous with Voya^' ^ AC+ 79 3888.3 This star, with no name other than its catalog lisfoL' ? currently to be found in the faint constellation CamelopardaBiii Giraffe. This region of the sky is visible all night long to f north of the TVopic of Cancer. AC+79 3888 is just a short distance frro. Polaris, the North Star, and halfway between the bowl of the Big Di * and the W of Cassiopeia. AC + 79 3888 is slightly larger and brighter^ Ross 248, but it too is a small cool red star with only one-quarter the mass of our Sun. At its present distance of 16.6 light-years, AC+79 38jj is an 1 lth-magnitude star, nearly a hundred times too faint for the unaided eye to see. While Voyager 1 is moving outward at 37,000 miles per hour iigg kilometers per second), AC+79 3888 will be traveling toward our sola-system at seven times that speed. In 40,272 years, at the same time that Voyager 2 will be scurrying by Ross 248 more than a quarter of the way around the sky, Voyager 1 will be only a little more than 1.6 light-years from AC + 79 3888, and AC + 79 3888 will be just 3 light-years from the Sun." Even so, AC+79 3888 will still be two times too faint for people on Earth to see without a telescope. . __ Quite by accident, both of these first star encounters by the Voyagers are with single stars like our Sun—a minority in space, where most stars from Earth have one or more gravitationally bound companions. They may well have planetary systems, since we think the process that starts the formation of stars is identical to the process of planet formation. Yet even with a family of planets, it is very unlikely that Ross 248 and AC + 79 3888 provide the right environment for life to exist. Both stars are much smaller than our Sun. They emit so little heat that a planet would have to be at precisely the correct distance with an almost perfectly circular orbit to stay in a habitable zone. Worse still, that planet would be so close to its star that it would be tidally coupled to it, like most moons are to their nearby planets, so that one side of the planet would fry in constant sunlight while the other side would freeze in constant night Most scientists do not expect life to exist in the solar system of a low-mass red dwarf star. Even if both these stars illuminate planets populated by intelligent spacefaring beings, it would be extremely unlikely that they would detect a tiny silent spacecraft passing beyond the fringe of their comet clouds Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. bound out of the solar system, carry sounds and pictures of Earth on a phonograph record to show a civilization that may find the spacecraft what life on our planet is like. Here, a technician is mounting the interstellar message on Voyager 2. HASA And '.he stars are so widely separated that there is a vanishingly small chance that either of the Voyagers will hit or come very close to a star in the next billion years. Still, just on the outside chance that some civilization deep in space may retrieve a Voyager, each craft is equipped with a special record that gives its finders pictures and sounds from the planet Earth. The message was designed for NASA by Carl Sagan, Frank Drake, Ann Druyan, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg, and Linda Salzman Sagan. Attached to the side of each Voyager is a gold-coated two-sided copper phonograph record, complete with enclosed stylus and cartridge and with instructions etched on its aluminum cover. The record should last a billion years On it are greetings in 55 different human languages and one whale language; the sounds of Earth—from thunder to frogs to a newborn baby; 90 minutes of music from around the world; and, encoded as vibrations, 118 pictures of our planet and ourselves.5 For the beings that find a Voyager along its endless journey, the spacecraft will have found a new and eloquent voice—no longer telling its home planet about other worlds but now telling other beings of its origin and the people who sent it outward. Was this article helpful?
Effectively recognizing and understanding cultural resources within a management area can be achieved through research and data collection. Submerged archaeological sites, as part of a region's maritime cultural landscape, can be a reflection of localized habitation, commerce, industry, immigration, transportation, naval actions, and sacred areas. Researching regional maritime history and its interconnection to land-based events can elucidate both broad historic patterns and specific activities that may help locate individual archaeological sites or culturally sensitive areas. Archaeological data collection augments research through diver reconnaissance or the use of specialized remote-sensing equipment to locate and study submerged sites. Newly discovered cultural resources should be carefully evaluated as a means of learning the site's identity, period, and/or cultural affiliation so that a baseline understanding of its condition is well-defined. Cultural heritage research also involves sociocultural, socioeconomic, and political variables of the communities. Ethnographic and other social scientific research is typically used to understand the these dimensions of MPA use, especially where native peoples are involved. The primary techniques for acquiring ethnographic data are through observation and interviews. Periodic monitoring should be implemented to understand and track changes and impacts over time, especially in regions that experience regular industrial expansion, recreational activities, and/or consistent marine traffic. Opportunities and Obligations Developing research to build data sets for historical context and reported sites can aid in understanding and identifying an area's cultural resources and is a crucial step in detection and preservation. Data collection is not only a part of the discovery effort but can also define areas that preclude existence of cultural sites. Knowledge of both site presence and absence is important in developing contextual information for defining culturally sensitive areas. Data collection is instrumental in recording discovered sites, their attributes, history, location, and condition. Criteria outlined in the National Register of Historic Places can be used to help determine significance, and may also be augmented by other additional designations at the state level that can aid in long-term preservation of sites. Monitoring is the most effective method for studying changes to a submerged site over the course of its lifetime. Impacts, both natural and man-made, constitute what is referred to as a site's "formation processes." Systematic monitoring can potentially identify the factors that influence a site's degradation so that preventative measures can be implemented. By understanding the local sociocultural and socioeconomic context in which marine resources are used, planning and programming for conservation can be achieved through stakeholder engagement. A number of critical socioeconomic and cultural indicators are often measured, analyzed, and monitored. Methods and Approaches Developing historic, ethnographic, and archaeological contexts involves research, database management, and effective file management. Geospatial databases, such as ArcGIS, are invaluable tools for creating summary research files that can include diverse and extensive information. Developing such data sets and the related research can be time consuming and sometimes outside of the scope of existing responsibilities. In such cases utilizing volunteer stewards and interns can be crucial for assimilating data, and serves a dual purpose for public outreach and education. Archaeological data collectionand monitoring will vary based on the geophysical setting of the site. Attributes such as visibility, depth, salinity, temperature, and associated biota all affect site preservation and protection potential. Data collection and monitoring is effected through remote-sensing survey methods as well as dive investigations and mapping. Data collection and analysis of sociocultural and socioeconomic phenomena may involve both quantitative and qualitative methods, including direct or participatory observation, open-ended interviews, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups. The evaluation of cultural resources can include federal and/or state designations of significance, including the framework established by the National Historic Preservation Act and its supplemental bulletins that offer additional guidance for specialized topics. For assistance in National Register nominations, and to learn of individual state designations, please contact your State Historic Preservation Officer.
what are snps? SNPs are Copying Errors To make new cells, an existing cell divides in two. But first it copies its DNA so the new cells will each have a complete set of genetic instructions. Cells sometimes make mistakes during the copying process - kind of like typos. These typos lead to variations in the DNA sequence at particular locations, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs (pronounced "snips"). The Consequences of SNPs SNPs can generate biological variation between people by causing differences in the recipes for proteins that are written in genes. Those differences can in turn influence a variety of traits such as appearance, disease susceptibility or response to drugs. While some SNPs lead to differences in health or physical appearance, most SNPs seem to lead to no observable differences between people at all. SNPs as a Measure of Genetic Similarity DNA is passed from parent to child, so you inherit your SNPs versions from your parents. You will be a match with your siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins at many of these SNPs. But you will have far fewer matches with people to whom you are only distantly related. The number of SNPs where you match another person can therefore be used to tell how closely related you are.
Under the influence of ionizing radiation, atoms and molecules of living cells get ionized, which results in complicated physical and chemical processes that affect the nature of human’s further vital activity. There exists an opinion that ionization of atoms and molecules under the influence of radiation emission leads to breaking bonds in protein molecules, which results in cell death and irradiation of the whole body. However, there is a different opinion that radiolysis products of water, which is known to make up 70% of human body mass, take part in the formation of the biological consequences of ionizing emission. When water is ionized, free radicals H+ and OH- are formed, and, if oxygen is present, peroxide compounds, which are powerful oxidants, are formed as well. The latter enter into a chemical reaction with molecules of protein and enzyme, ruining them, and, as a result, compounds not native to living organisms are formed. This leads to violation of metabolism, oppression of enzyme and certain functioning systems, which means the violation of vital activity of the whole human body. The peculiarity of ionizing radiation activity is that the intensity of chemical reactions caused by free radicals is growing, and hundreds and thousands of molecules which are not irradiated are involved. It is also necessary to point out that some peculiarities of ionizing radiation effect on the human body: – sense organs do not respond to radiation; – small radiation doses can sum up and accumulate in the body (cumulative effect); – radiation affects not only the specific living organism, but also its prospective inheritance (genetic effect); - – different organisms have different sensitivity to radiation. The strongest effect is experienced by the cells of the red bone marrow, thyroid, lungs, and internal organs’ that is the organs with the cells that have a high level of division. The same radiation dose affects more cells in children’s organisms than in the adult ones as all the cells of children’s bodies are in the state of division. The level of danger of different radioactive elements for a person is defined by the ability of the body to absorb and accumulate them. Radioactive isotopes get inside the human body with dust, air, food or water, and can behave in many ways, e.g.: – be distributed evenly in the human body (tritium, carbon, iron, polonium) – be accumulated in bones (radium, phosphorus, strontium) – remain in muscles (potassium, rubidium, cesium) – accumulated in thyroid (iodine), liver, kidneys, spleen (ruthenium, polonium, niobium), etc. The effects of ionizing radiation are classified according to kinds of damages and time of manifestation. According to kinds of damages they are classified into three groups: – somatic-stochastic (casual, probable) According to manifestation time, they are classified into two groups: – early (or acute) Early radiation damage can only be somatic. It results in death or radiation sickness. The suppliers of such particles are mainly isotopes with a short lifetime. Acute form is a result of irradiation in large doses within the short period of time. Chronic form develops as a result of long irradiation. Beam cataracts, malignant tumours and other diseases might be the further consequences of radiation injury.
At the beginning of the 19th century, paleontology was a new branch of science. People had been picking up fossils and trying to determine their significance for as long as anyone could recall, but the study of organic petrifactions was something new. Shells and teeth laid down in ancient marine environments were common, but so were strange spiral-shaped bodies. They were often referred to as “fossil fir cones,” as they looked like the cones that fell from pine trees, but geologist William Buckland came to a different conclusion. The fossil “cones” were really petrified dung, which he called “coprolites.” From This Story Buckland was fascinated by the objects, as was one of his artistically-inclined colleagues, Henry de la Beche, who satirized Buckland in a drawing called “A Coprolitic Vision.” The viewer sees Buckland standing before the entrance of a cave, surrounded by prehistoric creatures simultaneously struck by diarrhea. More famous was de la Beche’s vision of ancient Dorset, “Duria Antiquior.” (see above) Featuring ammonites, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and crocodiles, it was one of the first ecological reconstructions of ancient life (albeit one in which nearly every creature was attempting to consume another). As a finishing touch, de la Beche had many of the creatures leaving a trail of fecal deposits that would, in the course of geologic time, become coprolites. (If you look carefully at the image above, you can see some of the droppings under the animals. This was de la Beche’s work as originally intended.) This is not the version of the painting that most people have seen, however. Perhaps the defecating creatures proved to be distasteful to other Victorian scientists, so de la Beche made another version without the trail of dung, and that illustration appeared in books. The drawing without the fecal matter was sold to help support of one of the greatest fossil hunters ever, Mary Anning. She came from a poor family, and most of her rather meager income came from selling fossils. Buckland was one of her patrons. Even though she was not always given due credit for her discoveries at the time, the geologists she knew organized to financially assist her, and the sale of de la Beche’s painting was one such effort. Desire to help a friend was more important than potty humor.
Visual problems are very common with autistic patients and can include lack of eye contact, side viewing, staring at spinning objects or light, and difficulty fixating with their eyes. Autistic patients often use visual information inefficiently and cannot coordinate their central and peripheral vision. They will look to the side of the object instead of directly at the object when tracking. Many autistic patients are tactually or visually defensive. Tactually defensive patients are over stimulated easily through touch and may cause the patient to be always moving and wiggling. Visually defensive persons avoid contact with specific visual input and may have difficulty fixating and frequently rely on a constant scanning of visual information in order to gain meaning from it. Testing of the autistic patient is done while wearing special lenses. For example, observations of the postural adaptations and compensations as the patient sits, walks, stands, and does some physical activities to determine how he/she can see and therefore be helped. Depending on the testing results, lenses to compensate for refractive errors such as astigmatism, nearsightedness, and farsightedness (with or without prism), may be prescribed. Vision therapy for autism can be prescribed to stimulate general visual arousal, enhance visual movement skills, and the central visual system. Vision therapy can organize visual space and gain peripheral stability so that the patient can fixate with the central vision and gain more efficient visual skills and visual information processing. ADD/ADHD & Vision Undetected/untreated vision problems can elicit the same signs and symptoms that are commonly associated with ADHD. New Research in Vision and ADD/ADHD A recent study by the researchers at the Children’s Eye Center, University of San Diego, uncovered a relationship between convergence insufficiency and ADHD. Children with convergence insufficiency, a common vision disorder, are three times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than children without the disorder. 25% of children may have a learning related vision problem. A significant percentage of children with learning disabilities have some type of visual dysfunction. One study uncovered that 13% of children between the ages of 9 and 13 suffer from moderate to marked convergence insufficiency. As many as 1 in 4, or 25%, of school-aged children may have a vision problem that can affect learning. Dyslexia and Vision It is possible that a learning related vision problem can be misidentified as dyslexia because there are similarities between the two. It is more common that children with dyslexia also have a visual component that complicates their difficulties. When a child is struggling with reading and learning, it is important to rule out the possibility of a vision problem. Optometric Vision Therapy for ADHD treats vision problems that could possibly interfere with reading or learning. According to Dr. Debra Walhof, a pediatrician and parent advocate for the National Center for Learning Disabilities, “It is important to remember that normal sight may not necessarily be synonymous with normal vision…That being said, if there is a vision problem, it could be preventing the best tutoring and learning methods from working. Now that certainly doesn’t mean every dyslexic child needs vision therapy, however in my opinion, skills such as focusing, tracking and others are essential foundational tools for reading. In general, if your child has trouble with reading or learning to read, getting a vision evaluation to assess these skills from a qualified Developmental Optometrist” Reading, Writing, and Vision Reading and writing are two of the most common tasks performed at a desk job or in school. Any time we read from a book, a computer monitor, or a sheet of paper, we are performing a visual task. When we read, we need to: - Aim our eyes at the same point simultaneously and accurately - Focus our eyes to clear the reading material - Sustain clear focus - Move our two eyes as a coordinated team equally and accurately across a line of print When writing, we start with an image in our mind and then we code it into words. At the same time, we are moving the pencil continuously to make sense of the written material. We focus our eyes and then move them together as a team, just as in the reading process. Complicated visual procedures are involved with reading and writing. A problem with any of the visual parts described above can interfere in some way with reading or writing. In addition to Optometric Vision Therapy, there are other options of vision therapy for ADHD that will help remedy this problem. If you or a loved one is experiencing any reading or writing issues, please set up an appointment with us. (Link to set up appointment). Brain Injury/Stroke and Vision According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, at least 1.4 million Americans suffer from a traumatic brain injury every year. Vision problems are fairly common after a brain injury, meaning the brain and eyes are not functioning properly together. If you have suffered any head injuries, vision therapy for brain injury and prompt treatment is crucial.
Adult snakes shed between four and eight times per year. However, their activity level, habitat temperature and feeding frequency and amount affect the frequency of shedding. Additionally, young snakes that are rapidly growing may shed more often.Continue Reading Before shedding, a snake may have a period of inactivity that lasts from one to two weeks. During this time, it may become defensive, hide more or stop eating. These normal behaviors may be a response to the snake's inability to see properly. When the process begins, the snake's eye caps loosen in preparation for being sloughed with the rest of the skin. The eyes, then, take on a cloudy, bluish appearance, and the snake may experience reduced vision. As the rest of the snake's skin loosens before shedding, it may begin to look dull and hazy, and the skin on the belly may have a pink tinge. Once ready to shed, the snake seeks rough surfaces to help it rub off the skin. If healthy, it should have no difficulty shedding its entire skin, including the eye caps, in a single piece. Thus, skin that peels away in pieces may indicate sickness, malnutrition or a lack of humidity in the environment. A veterinarian specializing in exotic animals should evaluate pet snakes exhibiting these signs.Learn more about Snakes
“The sun, the darkness, the winds are all listening to what we have to say.” As we move into a month of celebrating the First Nations of our country and the world, a few helpful hints from Oyate, the children’s literature review site, can keep us from doing more harm than good. To turn a critical eye toward any books, videos or films to which we expose our students here are a few guidelines of what to include: - Show only media that present Indians as full human beings, not primitive or simple tribal people. Avoid media that objectifies Indian people such as “counting” or “playing Indians” (Would you have your student “count” or “play” white people?). - Select media where the full range of Indian customs, cultures, dress, religion, language and architecture is shown., - Show media that has authentic, not generic design. “Indian looking” is not accurate. Use books, films and so on that have paid full attention to detail.. - Select media that shows the variety of physical attributes Indian people, like all people, display. Avoid books that simply portray Indians as white people with darker skin.. - Select age appropriate media that are honest about the genocidal policies of the U.S. government. Watch for media that subtly blames Indians for their own dwindling numbers. Show that Native nations actively resisted their invaders.. - Show Indian heroes other than those who “helped” European conquerors.. - Share media that shows present day First Nations as complex, sovereign nations who are not dependent on charity, take care of their families and are creating their own future.. For a fuller list of Dos and Don’ts go to: http://oyate.org Or buy and read the book: “How to Tell the Difference: A Guide for Evaluating Children’s Books for Anti-Indian Bias” by Doris Seale, Beverly Slapin and Rosemary Gonzales
The integration of iPads and iPod Touches into the elementary classroom has completely transformed the learning dynamic. The Apple devices used give students the educational boost they will need to survive, adapt and grow in the 21st century digital world. No matter the students’ academic ability or learning modality, technology engages and accommodates all learners, from those with learning disabilities to the academically gifted. In the third grade classroom alone, reading abilities range from first grade up to seventh grade. Something that helps close the gap is technology. The children can listen to audio versions of books, which gives them a chance to “read” for interest without being restricted by their ability. Students can also record their own versions of books for fluency practice. Students can also lookup a word they don’t know in the dictionary of an ebook, which not only defines the word, but pronounces it for them. A whole classroom library can fit inside one small electronic tool, at a fraction of the cost it would take to continuously update and stock bookshelves. Not only that, but iPods/iPads are utilized during all parts of the school-day, from morning work to science and all subjects in between. One small device that fits into the palm of a child’s hand can take the place of a calculator, dictionary, thesaurus, spell checker, interactive globe, camera and many other learning tools that do not have to be updated or purchased physically. Hundreds of educational applications are available for download, ranging from flashcards to interactive clocks or spelling games that use their actual spelling words. Students can blog, film podcasts or watch learning videos. The tablets put the most relevant and up-to-date research and tools at the Student’s fingertips. The students may read about a city in France in their Social Studies book and instead of simply locating the country on a globe, the children can type it into the iPad and “fly” there with Google Earth. They see the broad continent view, but can zoom it in close enough to peer into a bakery window in a French town square. All of that can be done without students ever leaving their seats. Teachers are challenging students to reason, construct and process information… digitally. Whether they are an astronaut exploring the galaxy or a student taking a field trip to an Australian zoo, technology makes it possible and the creative potential is endless. The underlying factor through it all however, is learning. At the end of the day, it’s not about the technology used, but the learning that is happening. Ashley Alicea is a third-grade teacher at W. J. Gurganus Elementary School.
Verbal reasoning is almost always included in exam papers for selective schools, and relies on a strong vocabulary that goes beyond the primary curriculum. Although verbal reasoning skills are not commonly taught at school, we give children the strategies needed to confidently tackle these types of questions. Word problems, following written instructions Sequencing, algebra, number logic Including synonyms, antonyms, analogies Types of verbal reasoning exams There are two types of verbal reasoning exams your child will take depending on the schools in your local area, and there are a few differences between examination types: GL (NFER) assessments These assessments cover up to 21 different verbal reasoning skills. These may require a child to find the correct answer to a question using their problem-solving abilities or find the answer from a selection of options, such as picking out the correct antonyms or analogies. For children preparing for this exam type we cover all 21 question types during our exam preparation class. The question types tend not to be as clearly defined in the CEM exams. Verbal reasoning skills are commonly assessed as part of the 11 Plus English test. To give your child the best possible practice, our course largely focuses around the most common verbal reasoning question types that have historically appeared in the CEM exams. Support before, during and after the exams For some children, despite never having seen these types of questions before, it just ‘clicks’. Tackling word searches and Sudoku can increase your child’s verbal reasoning skills; however in most cases exposure and practice is key. We use traditional paper-based as well as online activities during our weekly exam preparation sessions so your child will have plenty of practice and preparation for verbal reasoning exams. Our members can also access online activities which are perfect for supporting home practice, as there are endless unique tests your child can have a go at! Meanwhile, their individualised weekly maths and English sessions will be developing their core maths and English skills to help them tackle all elements of the exams. We are also dedicated to ensuring that children have they necessary skills and confidence to succeed in their new school. This is something we are hugely passionate about. For many children, the step up to year 7 can be a daunting one. That’s why from day one our course will develop not only a strong academic foundation for your child, but also their confidence and social skills – ensuring they are fully prepared, and ready and excited for the challenges ahead. Our 11 Plus experts are on hand to answer any questions you might have about how we can help your child prepare for the exams. Verbal reasoning questions Depending on your child’s individual needs we will develop their vocabulary skills in our tailored sessions. Our range of 11 Plus and entrance exam practise resources help your child feel familiar with the different types of verbal reasoning questions they may face. Here are just two examples that could appear in the exams. A four-letter word is hidden at the end of one word and the beginning of the next word. Find the pair of words that contains the hidden word. The probe streaked through outer space. Answer: probe streaked Find the letters that will complete the sentence in the best way. AS is to FV as JL is to __ 11 Plus quiz Want to practise some 11 Plus questions to test your speed and accuracy? Try our 11 Plus quiz to get a better understanding of the kind of maths skills need for the 11 Plus exams. Ready to get started? From finding schools in your area, to practising exam questions and discussing 11 Plus tuition, we can help with your next steps. Over the last 15 years Explore Learning has developed an 11 Plus and Entrance Exam offering that is tailored to suit the schools in the local area. Whether your child is sitting a CEM, GL Assessment, Bond, Avery or local school entrance paper we adapt our tools and advice to prepare for the exam.
Today is the 100th anniversary of the death of the last living passenger pigeon. After the dodo, it is one of the most famous examples of human-caused extinction in the world. To commemorate, I (with some invaluable help and contributions from my Museum colleagues, the Smithsonian Institution, @GrrlScientist and Joel Greenberg's book A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon's Flight to Extinction) have compiled a list of 100 passenger pigeon-related facts. - The scientific name for the passenger pigeon is Ectopistes migratorius. - It was officially described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 as Columba migratoria. - It was later re-classified as Ectopistes migratorius because of its longer wings and tail, and larger overall size, than the dove family Columbidae. - Ectopistes means 'moving about or wandering' and migratorius means 'migrating'. - The first recorded mention of the passenger pigeon was by ship captain Jacques Cartier in July 1534. - Journeying along the shore of Prince Edward Island, Cartier noted in his journal: 'an infinite number of wood pigeons'. He mistook the birds he saw for the wild pigeons he was familiar with in Europe but it was later agreed that what he had seen were passenger pigeons. - The first published depiction of the species is believed to be by Mark Catesby, in The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands volume 1, in 1754, although he called the bird Palumbus migratorius, the pigeon of passage. Mark Catesby's 1754 illustration of a passenger pigeon. Picture courtesy of the Biodiversity Heritage Library. - The passenger pigeon is sometimes called a 'wild pigeon' or 'blue pigeon'. - Its colour is actually a blue-grey, with shades of red-orange and brown also prominent, as well as iridescent markings at the neck. Colours in the male are brighter and more bold than in the female. - The average length of a male passenger pigeon was about 16.5 inches. The female around an inch shorter. - Our Museum holds nearly 80 passenger pigeon specimens in its collection, comprised: - 35 skins, - 3 mounted specimens (two in London, one in Tring), - 2 skeletons (one partial, one complete), - And nearly 40 eggs. - You can see the mounted specimens on display in the Birds gallery in London and Gallery 1 at Tring. Two passenger pigeons on display in the Birds gallery in London: a male (left), and female (right). - While not strictly a specimen, we do have another passenger pigeon - this one is a terracotta sculpture designed by Alfred Waterhouse. You can see it on the Museum side of the pillars in our fence along Cromwell Road. - The terracotta depictions of creatures where placed according to status: extant (i.e. living forms) on the west side; extinct on the east side. - Today there are two notable exceptions to this rule: the passenger pigeon which was alive when the building was erected in the late 1800s, but is now extinct; and the coelacanth, which was thought to have gone extinct 85 million years ago, but was rediscovered in 1938. Waterhouse's terracotta passenger pigeon on one of the Cromwell Road pillars. Now on the wrong - extant - west side of the Museum. - The passenger pigeon was native to North America. - It was a wild bird, not to be confused with the carrier pigeon, a domesticated bird trained to carry messages. - Passenger pigeons were migratory birds. - In winter they would roost in the southern states, from the Gulf Coast to Arkansas and North Carolina. - In spring, they would fly north to nest in the region of the Great Lakes and east to New York. - The passenger pigeon population is estimated to have been somewhere between 3 and 5 billion in the early and mid-1800s. - However, Mark Avery, former conservation director of the RSPB, puts the figure between 5 and 10 billion. - It is thought that the species once constituted 25-40% of the total bird population of the United States. - Alexander Wilson, a great bird observer of the time, estimated a flock he saw contained 2,230,272,000 individuals. - To put that in perspective, the RSPB estimates the UK population of pigeons (wild rock doves [550K] and wood pigeons [5.4m] combined) is about 6 million breeding pairs. - Imagine more than 400 times the entire UK population of pigeons flying together in one group - that's what passenger pigeon flocks were like! - Passenger pigeon flocks were so large they would block out the sun and they would take several days to pass over towns. - Flocks were regularly described in apocalyptical language. - One witness described a flight over Columbus, Ohio, in 1855: As the watchers stared, the hum increased to a mighty throbbing. Now everyone was out of the houses and stores, looking apprehensively at the growing cloud, which was blotting out the rays of the sun. Children screamed and ran for home. Women gathered their long skirts and hurried for the shelter of stores. Horses bolted. A few people mumbled frightened words about the approach of the millennium, and several dropped on their knees and prayed. - Acclaimed bird painter John James Audubon said that passenger pigeons produced, 'by the flappings of their wings a noise like the roar of distant thunder'. - It is claimed that the beating of billions of pairs of wings could create its own cold front below. - The passenger pigeon is estimated to have flown at 60 miles per hour. - Audubon witnessed a passenger pigeon flock on a trip to Louisville in 1813, which he said, 'continued to (pass) for three days in succession.' - He further noted that their, 'velocity would enable one of these birds, were it so inclined, to visit the European continent in less than three days.' - In an 1831 essay Audubon enthused: I cannot described to you the beauty of their aerial evolutions… the dense mass which they form exhibits a beautiful appearance, as it changes its direction, now displaying a glistening sheet of azure, when the backs of the birds come simultaneously into view, and anon, suddenly presenting a mass of rich deep purple. They then pass lower, over the woods, and for a moment are lost among the foliage, but again emerge, and are seen gliding aloft. - The passenger pigeon was immortalised in Audubon's famous Birds of America book, on plate 62. - The Museum holds two complete sets of the 1-metre-tall natural history art book (fewer than 200 copies were ever produced). Audubon's passenger pigeons: female (top), and male (bottom). - Another depiction of the passenger pigeon comes courtesy of Ralph Steadman (perhaps most famous for illustrating Hunter S Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas) in his book Extinct Boids. - Passenger pigeons fed largely on 'mast' - the collective term for beechnuts, acorns, and other hard forest fruits. - They were said to eat the equivalent of half a pint of food a day each. - Not surprisingly, their group size and appetite made them highly destructive to their surroundings. - In 1871 naturalist and writer Arlie William Schorger calculated there was 136,000,000 birds in a Wisconsin nesting area that covered 850 square miles. - Hundreds of nests could be seen in a single tree. - Such was the combined weight of the nesting birds that the limbs of trees would break under their load. - There are reports of entire trees collapsing and crushing to death hundreds of birds in the process. - By the time the birds moved on from a nesting area, the ground would be covered in a blanket of their droppings, inches-thick. - It is said that when flocks flew down to drink, the birds that landed first would drown under the weight of those that came after them. - Most information we have about passenger pigeons from when they were still alive, is about how to catch and cook them. - Experts don't even know for sure how many times a year they bred, although the general opinion is twice per season. Some of the passenger pigeon eggs in the Museum's collection at Tring. - Passenger pigeons made such a tempting target that cities had to ban hunting in town centres. - One ordinance from 1727 claimed, 'everyone takes the liberty of shooting thoughtlessly from his windows, the threshold of his door, the middle of the streets.' - However, hunters didn't even need a gun: passenger pigeons could simply be knocked out of a tree, or even the air, with a pole or club. - Another method of capturing passenger pigeons was to use the cries of another pigeon, fastened to a pole, chair, stool or something similar, to entice them into nets. - This is said to be the origin of the term 'stool pigeon'. - Advances in communication technologies in the 1860s and 1870s meant news of where passenger pigeons were nesting travelled fast. - People would flock from miles around for some easy killing. - The invention of the refrigerated train car in 1878 enabled hunters to operate on an industrial scale. - Tens of thousands of birds could be killed, packed into a boxcar, and sold on at various towns and markets along the railroad. - There is evidence that passenger pigeons were sold at market for as little as 50 cents a dozen. - It should be noted that while the hunting was excessive: - It was in the days before factory farming and supermarkets, when hunting for food was common in rural areas, and - It came on the back of the 1873 financial crisis and the depression that followed, so passenger pigeons represented free food for people with little money. - Also, consider this: today in the UK we eat 2.2 million chickens per day! - 14-year-old Press Clay Southworth from Ohio is credited with shooting the last wild passenger pigeon out of a tree on 24 March 1900. - However, recently Joel Greenberg has discovered evidence of a specimen taken in 1902. - The wild population of the passenger pigeon went from billions to zero in less than 50 years. - But hunting was not the only cause. - The clearing of forests for farmland by early settlers was also a contributing factor in the demise of the passenger pigeon. - The birds' large and highly social flocks likely sped up transmission of infectious diseases too. - And it is also surmised that the passenger pigeon relied on its large flock numbers to find food and for breeding success. - That meant that, as populations diminished, so did the birds' ability to sustain itself and procreate. - Once the population reached a critical low point the species was doomed, even though thousands of individuals may still have remained. - After the great passenger pigeon flocks vanished, theories about where they had gone proliferated. - The journal Science speculated that they were in the desert of Arizona. - Another journal, Auk, suggested they were east of Puget Sound. - Henry Ford was convinced they'd all drowned in the Pacific en route to Asia. - At the beginning of the 20th Century, the only passenger pigeons alive were captive ones held in zoos. - By 1909 only Cincinnati Zoological Gardens still had living passenger pigeons. - This included a pair named George and Martha, after Washington and his wife. - By 1914 Martha was the sole survivor. - Despite authorities offering a reward of US$1,000 for the capture of a mate, none was found. - Martha, the last passenger pigeon in the world, died around 13.00 on 1 September 1914. - She was 29 years old. - Martha's death is one of the very rare occasions when the extinction of a species is recorded down to a specific date and time. - The specific dates (but not times) of a few other animal extinctions are known, such as the Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus) where the last known animal died in Hobart Zoo on 7 September 1936. - After her death, Martha was frozen in a block of ice and sent to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. - Her skin was mounted by Smithsonian taxidermist Nelson Wood. - Her internal parts were preserved in alcohol, and are today part of the National Museum of Natural History's wet collection. - Martha, who was on public display in the NMNH's Hall and Birds of the World displays until 1999, is now kept behind the scenes as part of the Museum's research collection. Martha, the famous, last-of-its-kind passenger pigeon. Photo by Elizabeth O'Brien, Smithsonian Institution. - However, to commemorate the anniversary of her death, Martha has been brought back out to star in NMNH's Once There Were Billions: Vanished Birds of North America exhibition, which runs until October 2015. - Martha has only twice left the Smithsonian (to San Diego in 1966 and Cincinnati in 1874), and on both occasions she was flown first class with an airline attendant escorting her for the entire trip. - There are currently plans afoot to try and resurrect the passenger pigeon. - This is a process referred to as 'de-extinction'. - Various parties are involved in an organisation called Revive and Restore, which has plans to take passenger pigeon genes recovered from museum specimens, combine them with genes from a genetic next of kin, the band-tailed pigeon, and use those genes to modify a chicken to lay a passenger pigeon egg. - A similar genetic engineering project took place in Dubai in 2011 when chicken cells were put into ducks, so that the ducks would produce chicken sperm. When the duck was mated with a chicken it produced normal chicken chicks. - Revive and Restore says of their project, dubbed The Great Passenger Pigeon Comeback: The passenger pigeon is a compelling choice for de-extinction. Humans hunted them to extinction from a population of billions until 1914 when none remained. The return of this iconic species by human hands would be a suitable and extraordinary twist in the story of the passenger pigeon. Want to do something to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the extinction of the passenger pigeon? Arts-based environmental non-profit group The Lost Bird Project has devised an initiative called Fold the Flock, with the aim of making one million origami passenger pigeons this year. You can download an origami pattern on their website and add your own bird to the virtual flock. My origami passenger pigeon for The Lost Bird Project.
The New Jersey Pinelands has very sandy soils. Under the soil is a vast underground water supply named the Cohansey Aquifer. Pollution of the aquifer can happen if people are not careful about how they dispose of oil, pesticides, or other things that we use. This experiment will show you how fast pollution can enter the aquifer. After you try it with sand, use some soil that is not sandy and you should see a difference. Materials that you will need: Two coffee cans (have you r dad or mom punch holes in the bottom of one of the cans) One round coffee filter Enough sand to fill up three-quarters of one of the coffee cans Enough water to almost fill the other coffee can Vegetable food coloring (a dark color is best) A watch that has a second hand Put the coffee filter in the bottom of the can that your dad or mom punched the holes into. Fill it up three quarters of the way with sand. Pour water into the second can and add the vegetable coloring to the water. Hold the can with the sand over a sink and pour the colored water into it. Have you parents or brother or sister time how long it takes for most of the water to drip out of the can with the watch. When the water drips slowly (five or ten seconds between drips), write down how many minutes and seconds it took for most of the water to come out of the can. Is it still dark colored? Now try the same experiment with soil that is not sandy. Does it take less or more time for the colored water to come out of the can? As you now know, sandy soil allows the water to run out of the can quickly, and the dark color, or "pollution" is still there. If you did this on the ground with the sandy soils that cover the Pinelands, the pollutants could go into the underground water supply and make it undrinkable. Even if the experiment took longer with the soil that was not sandy, pollution will still enter underground water supplies. It will just take more time. Did you ever see a movie or cartoon with a mad scientist pouring smoking acid onto a metal plate, and the acid eats away at the metal? We hope you know that you should never play with a can or bottle that says it has strong acid in it because it will cause you harm. All things that are acid, however, aren't really that strong. Soils and water within the New Jersey Pinelands are characterized as being "acidic" meaning that they are the opposite of being "alkaline." Our water doesn't smoke and it isn't even bitter to the taste. In fact, it has won national awards for tasting very good and not containing impurities. It just contains more acid than water in most other places. Our plants and animals are adapted to these acid conditions. It is important for us to protect the Pinelands so that the water will always be pure and not polluted. The measurement that scientists use to find out if something is acid, neutral, or alkaline is called "pH." A pH of 7.0 is a neutral reading. A pH of less than 7.0 means something is acidic, while a reading of more than 7.0 means something is alkaline. Scientists often use sophisticated instruments to measure the exact pH of a substance. You can find out if something at home is acidic or alkaline by doing the following experiment. Materials that you will need: A red cabbage (you can go with mom or dad to get one at the supermarket) A pitcher of hot water (you should let mom or dad prepare the hot water) A tablespoon of baking soda A tablespoon of lemon juice or 1/4 of a glass of lemonade A tablespoon of milk of magnesia or a similar remedy for acid indigestion (please make sure mom or dad are present when getting and using the milk of magnesia) Three cups or small jars A kitchen knife Have your mom or dad cut up about one cup of the red cabbage into one inch square pieces and place then in one of the bowls. Next have one of your parents poor the hot water into the bowl to soak the pieces of cabbage. Let the water cool and wait for it to turn purple. Your family can use the rest of the cabbage for salad one night, or you can feed it to a rabbit if you have one. After the water has turned purple, hold the strainer over the second bowl and separate the water from the cabbage by pouring it through the strainer. Pour the purple water back into the empty pitcher. Now you are ready to conduct your experiment. First, put some lemon juice in a glass. Then, pour a little clear tap water into the second glass, add the baking soda and stir. In the third glass, stir a little clear tap water in with the milk of magnesia. Line up your glasses and fill them half way with the purple cabbage water. If everything has worked properly, the purple water has turned different colors. If it has become pink (as in the lemon juice), it means that the juice is acidic. If it has become blue or green (as in the baking soda and milk of magnesia), it means they are alkaline. Remember, pink is acidic and blue and green are alkaline. Now you can test lots of things in your house like orange juice or other liquids you drink to see if they are acidic or alkaline. Your mom or dad may want you to try to test the soil in your garden because plants often require soil conditions that are neutral - not acidic or alkaline. Just put some soil in a cup with some clear water, let it sit for awhile, and pour in the cabbage water. If the color stays purple, the soil is neutral. If it becomes pink or blue, your parents will have to add something to the soil to make it less acid or less alkaline. The people at the local garden center will tell them what to add. Scientists also use "litmus paper" to do what you just did with the purple water. If you have some purple water left over, you can make your own litmus paper. Just cut some four inch strips of white blotting paper, put them in a dish and pour the purple water on them. When they have become soaked in the liquid, take them out and let them dry. When you want to test something for acidity or alkalinity, dip the purple paper into it. The paper will turn pink, blue or green just like the purple water did. This way you don't need to go out and buy red cabbage every time you want to conduct this experiment. Good luck with your experiments.
I have seen this question asked a lot but never seen a true concrete answer to it. So I am going to post one here which will hopefully help people understand why exactly there is "modulo bias" when using a random number generator, like rand() in C++. Now what happens if you want to generate a random number between say 0 and 2. For the sake of explanation, let's say So when does So how do we solve this problem? One way is to keep generating random numbers until you get a number in your desired range: Hope that helps everyone! Works cited and further reading: Keep selecting a random is a good way to remove the bias. We could make the code fast if we search for an x in range divisible by The above loop should be very fast, say 1 iteration on average. There are two usual complains with the use of modulo. Using something like to generate a random number between 0 and n will avoid both problems (and it avoids overflow with RAND_MAX == INT_MAX) BTW, C++11 introduced standard ways to the the reduction and other generator than rand(). As the accepted answer indicates, "modulo bias" has its roots in the low value of So there are 4 outputs of 0's (4/10 chance) and only 3 outputs of 1 and 2 (3/10 chances each). So it's biased. The lower numbers have a better chance of coming out. But that only shows up so obviously when A much better solution than looping (which is insanely inefficient and shouldn't even be suggested) is to use a PRNG with a much larger output range. The Mersenne Twister algorithm has a maximum output of 4,294,967,295. As such doing I wrote a tool to demonstrate the bias when using a PRNG and modulo: https://gitorious.org/modulo-test/modulo-test/trees/master You can see a demonstration of the tool in the following question: mathematics behind modulo behavor With this tool you choose an input range (power of two) and an output range. With the correct number of iterations, it will return the probability for each output value and you will be able to see the the bias. @user1413793 is correct about the problem. I'm not going to discuss that further, except to make one point: yes, for small values of Unfortunately, the implementations of the solution are all incorrect or less efficient than they should be. (Each solution has various comments explaining the problems, but none of the solutions have been fixed to address them.) This is likely to confuse the casual answer-seeker, so I'm providing a known-good implementation here. Again, the best solution is just to use If you don't have Here is the OpenBSD implementation: It is worth noting the latest commit comment on this code for those who need to implement similar things: The Java implementation is also easily findable (see previous link): I just wrote a code for Von Neumann's Unbiased Coin Flip Method, that should theoretically eliminate any bias in the random number generation process. More info can be found at (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_coin) Modulo Bias is the inherent bias in using modulo arithmetic to reduce an output set to a subset of the input set. In general, a bias exists whenever the mapping between the input and output set is not equally distributed, as in the case of using modulo arithmetic when the size of the output set is not a divisor of the size of the input set. This bias is particularly hard to avoid in computing, where numbers are represented as strings of bits: 0s and 1s. Finding truly random sources of randomness is also extremely difficult, but is beyond the scope of this discussion. For the remainder of this answer, assume that there exists an unlimited source of truly random bits. Let's consider simulating a die roll (0 to 5) using these random bits. There are 6 possibilities, so we need enough bits to represent the number 6, which is 3 bits. Unfortunately, 3 random bits yields 8 possible outcomes: We can reduce the size of the outcome set to exactly 6 by taking the value modulo 6, however this presents the modulo bias problem: Rather than rely on random bits, in theory one could hire a small army to roll dice all day and record the results in a database, and then use each result only once. This is about as practical as it sounds, and more than likely would not yield truly random results anyway (pun intended). Instead of using the modulus, a naive but mathematically correct solution is to discard results that yield Use more bits: instead of 3 bits, use 4. This yield 16 possible outcomes. Of course, re-rolling anytime the result is greater than 5 makes things worse (10/16 = 62.5%) so that alone won't help. Notice that 2 * 6 = 12 < 16, so we can safely take any outcome less than 12 and reduce that modulo 6 to evenly distribute the outcomes. The other 4 outcomes must be discarded, and then re-rolled as in the previous approach. Sounds good at first, but let's check the math: That result is unfortunate, but let's try again with 5 bits: A definite improvement, but not good enough in many practical cases. The good news is, adding more bits will never increase the chances of needing to discard and re-roll. This holds not just for dice, but in all cases. As demonstrated however, adding an 1 extra bit may not change anything. In fact if we increase our roll to 6 bits, the probability remains 6.25%. This begs 2 additional questions: Thankfully the answer to the first question is yes. The problem with 6 is that 2^x mod 6 flips between 2 and 4 which coincidentally are a multiple of 2 from each other, so that for an even x > 1, Thus 6 is an exception rather than the rule. It is possible to find larger moduli that yield consecutive powers of 2 in the same way, but eventually this must wrap around, and the probability of a discard will be reduced. Proof of Concept Here is an example program that uses OpenSSL's libcrypo to supply random bytes. When compiling, be sure to link to the library with I encourage playing with the
A definition is a sentence that has the structure shown in the table below: \|WORD TO BE DEFINED \|\|IS / ARE / WAS / WERE \|\|DESCRIBING CLAUSE BEGINNING WITH THAT / WHICH / WHO \|\|that is sweet and gives us energy. \|\|a famous scientist \|\|who discovered the Theory of Relativity. \|\|that lived on earth millions of years ago and are now extinct. A list is a series of words. Usually they have a similar concept or theme. - List the common names of six insects. - ant, bee, fly, mosquito, cockroach, grasshopper - List the planets in order from the sun. - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto To state something is to repeat a rule, a law or a learned fact exactly as you learnt it. - State the rule for speed. - Speed = Distance / Time - State the scientific name for humans. - Homo sapiens - State the Law of Conservation of Energy. - Energy cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be changed from one form to another. To describe an object or a living thing in science is to write relevant scientific terms that relate to the appearance or behaviour of the object or living thing as in the examples below: - Describe the metal called iron. - Iron is a metal that is shiny, silver in colour, hard, strong, magnetic, conducts heat and electricity, has a high melting point, has a high boiling point, and corrodes or 'rusts' in air. - Describe an insect. - An insect has an external skeleton or 'shell', has 3 body parts, has 3 pairs of jointed legs, has 1 pair of antennae, and has a changing body temperature. Explain why / Account for / Give reasons for ... An explanation is a sentence or a paragraph with clear and detailed reasons why something happens. - Explain why popcorn 'pops'. - Popcorn 'pops' because the small amount of water contained in the original corn kernel expands over 300 times when it changes from water liquid to water gas (steam) as the corn kernel is heated. This force makes the corn kernel rapidly break apart. - Give a reason why paint 'dries'. - The reason why liquid paint dries is because the solvent (e.g. turpentine) evaporates leaving behind the dried coloured layer of paint. Infer / Draw a Conclusion ... To 'infer' or 'draw a conclusion' means to explain why something happened or what will happen next. - Carbon dioxide is found in only the solid ('dry ice') and the gaseous states. What conclusion can be drawn from this? - Not all substances change from solid to liquid to gas when heated, and gas to liquid to solid when cooled. Carbon dioxide is an exception in that it does not have a liquid form. - Horses and donkeys both have similar characteristics such as fur, teeth type, and head and body shape. Using your knowledge of evolution, infer why this could be so. - Horse and donkeys possibly evolved from a common ancestor that had the same characteristics as both the horse and the donkey. Compare and Contrast ... 'Compare' means to write the similarities and differences between 2 things. 'Contrast' means to highlight the differences between 2 things. - Compare and contrast the horse and the cow. - The main similarities between a horse and a cow are that they are both mammals and herbivores. The main differences between a horse and a cow are that the horse has faster movement and is not used for meat or milk production, whereas the cow has slower movement and provides meat and milk for humans to consume. - Compare and contrast the radio and the microwave oven. - The main similarity between a radio and a microwave oven is that they are both electrical appliances, but the main differences between the radio and the microwave oven is that the radio receives radio waves to make sound and the microwave oven makes microwaves for heating food. - A discussion is an argumentative paragraph or short essay that contains at least one sentence / paragraph stating the reasons for or the advantages of a particular item or idea, and at least one sentence / paragraph stating the reasons against or disadvantages of the item or idea. The paragraph / essay may also contain a sentence in conclusion stating an opinion based on factual evidence. - An example is: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Australia's use of solar energy. - The advantages of using solar energy are that it is renewable, abundant and non-polluting. The disadvantages of using solar energy are that it is only suited to areas where there is little cloud cover, is expensive to set up and is not very efficient. Australia should use solar energy to a greater extent in the future as we have almost constant sunshine and have the research and development skills to improve the efficiency of solar devices.
\|HISTORY OF SCIENCE FRICTION\| Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) was one of the first scholars to study friction systematically. He realized how important friction is for the workings of machines. He focused on all kinds of friction and drew a distinction between sliding and rolling friction. The sketches represents four types of antifriction bearings. The conical- shaped pivot of a rotating vertical shaft meets with greater or less resistance when resting on: (a) three ball-bearings, Leonardo stated the two basic laws of friction 200 years before Newton even defined what force is. Da Vinci simply stated that: Note that the first statement is counterintuitive; most of us would assume that friction does depend upon the cross-sectional area. Leonardo made the observation that different materials move with different ease. He surmised that this was a result of the roughness of the material in question; thus, smoother materials will have smaller frictions. Leonardo Da Vinci did not publish his theories, so he never got credit for his ideas. The only evidence of their existence is in his vast collection of journals. Guillaume Amontons (1663-1705) rediscovered the two basic laws of friction that had been discovered by Leonardo Da Vinci, and he also came up with an original set of theories. He believed that friction was predominately a result of the work done to lift one surface over the roughness of the other, or from the deforming or the wearing of the other surface. For several centuries after Amontons' work, scientists believed that friction was due to the roughness on the surfaces. Charles August Coulomb (1736-1806) adds to the second law of friction; "strength due to friction is proportional to compressive force", "although for large bodies friction does not follow exactly this law". Coulomb published the work referring to Amontons. The second law of friction is known as the "Amontons-Coulomb Law" referring to work done by the two scientists in 1699 and 1785 respectively. The Amontons-Coulomb law of friction holds for many different material combinations and geometries but unlike Newton’s first law, nothing fundamental can be derived from it. F. Philip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) gave a physical explanation for the laws of friction. They determined that the true area of contact is a very small percentage of the apparent contact area. The true contact area is formed by the asperities. As the normal force increases, more asperities come into contact and the average area of each asperity contact grows. The frictional force was shown to be dependent on the true contact area—a much more intuitively satisfying argument than what the Amontons-Coulomb law allows. Bowden and Tabor argued that within these asperities all of the dynamics of friction take place. The friction hypothesis from dragging one surface up the roughness of the other surface is dismissed. Adhesion was up till now dismissed because for it true friction would have to be proportional to the cross-sectional area. Further study is concentrated on micro scale contacts formed between single and multiple asperities with deformation and adhesion considered. The invention of the atomic force microscope (AFM) in 1986 enabled scientists to study friction at atomic scale. With the basic mechanisms of friction at atomic scale understood it must be studied how these mechanisms change with the contact area at macroscopic scale.
Euclid's Elements organized the geometry then known into a systematic presentation that is still used in many texts. Euclid first defined his basic terms, such as point and line, then stated without proof certain axioms and postulates about them that seemed to be self-evident or obvious truths, and finally derived a number of statements (theorems) from the postulates by means of deductive logic. This axiomatic method has since been adopted not only throughout mathematics but in many other fields as well. The close examination of the axioms and postulates of Euclidean geometry during the 19th cent. resulted in the realization that the logical basis of geometry was not as firm as had previously been supposed. New axiom and postulate systems were developed by various mathematicians, notably David Hilbert (1899). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
The Magic School Bus Taking Flight Ms. Frizzle's class does some flying and gliding during their adventure. With this Magic School Bus activity, your students will see how gliders coast by exploring the way different paper objects fall to the ground. - Grades: 1–2, 3–5 Field Trip Notes Wanda and Tim are testing their remote-control plane when Ms. Frizzle decides that the class should experience flight firsthand. She shrinks several students, and they take off in the remote-control plane for the wild blue yonder. But things go haywire when the kids on the ground accidentally break the remote control. How will the kids in the air get back to school on their own? As they try to understand flight, the class discovers that the air rushing across the wings is pushing the plane up. They also learn that they need a source of power to propel the plane forward. Arnold steers the plane by its tail. Can the kids use their crash course in flight to come in for a safe landing? Falling, Floating, Gliding Time: 30 minutes Group size: Four The Frizzle's class does some flying and gliding during their adventure. Here, your students will see how gliders coast by exploring the way different paper objects fall to the ground. What You Need - Copies of Falling, Floating, Gliding (PDF) - Sheets of 8- by 10-inch notebook paper Talk About It Ask: What are some things that glide? (hang gliders, gliders, some birds) Ask: What is the difference between gliding and flying? (Gliding is coasting freely on the air while being pulled downward by gravity; sustained flight needs a power source for propulsion.) What To Do - Ask: What paper gliders does your group know how to make? Have each group make a glider, following the activity page instructions or using their own designs. - Show students a glider, a flat sheet of paper, and a crumpled paper ball. Ask: How might shape change the way something falls? Have them record their predictions of how the three shapes will fall. - Have three kids in each group hold the shapes above their heads and drop them at the same time. The fourth child records observations. Test three times. - Have students thrust their gliders forward. How is this different from when they dropped the gliders? What if they thrust harder? (more air moving over and under wings) Challenge students to make gliders glide farther (by folding them differently, cutting flaps, changing wing size, etc.).
NCP for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a severe, potentially deadly infection spread by certain species of mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti). Four different dengue viruses are known to cause dengue hemorrhagic fever. Dengue hemorrhagic fever occurs when a person catches a different type dengue virus after being infected by another one sometime before. Prior immunity to a different dengue virus type plays an important role in this severe disease. Worldwide, more than 100 million cases of dengue fever occur every year. A small number of these develop into dengue hemorrhagic fever. Most infections in the United States are brought in from other countries. It is possible for a traveler who has returned to the United States to pass the infection to someone who has not traveled. Risk factors for dengue hemorrhagic fever include having antibodies to dengue virus from prior infection and being younger than 12, female, or Caucasian. Early symptoms of dengue hemorrhagic fever are similar to those of dengue fever, but after several days the patient becomes irritable, restless, and sweaty. These symptoms are followed by a shock -like state. Bleeding may appear as tiny spots of blood on the skin (petechiae) and larger patches of blood under the skin (ecchymoses). Minor injuries may cause bleeding. Shock may cause death. If the patient survives, recovery begins after a one-day crisis period. Early symptoms include: - Decreased appetite - Joint aches - Muscle aches Acute phase symptoms include: - Restlessness followed by: - Generalized rash - Worsening of earlier symptoms - Shock-like state - Cold, clammy extremities - Sweatiness (diaphoretic) Nursing Care Plan for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Nursing Assessment for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever is a tropical disease that often causes the death of children, adolescents and adults (Effendi, 1995) - Main Complaint Patients complain of fever, headache, weakness, heartburn, nausea and decreased appetite. - History of Disease Now Medical history showed headache, muscle pain, aches throughout the body, pain when swallowing, weakness, fever, nausea, and decreased appetite. - Previous Disease History No illness is specific. - Family Health History History of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever disease in other family members is crucial, because the disease Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever is a disease that can be transmitted through the bite of mosquito Aedes aegipty. - Environmental Health History Normally less clean environment, lots of clean water puddles like tin cans, old tires, a dirty bathtub. - Historical Growth - Assessment Per System - Respiratory System Shortness of breath, bleeding through the nose, shallow breathing, epistaxis, symmetrical chest movements, resonant percussion, auscultation sounds ronchi. - Neural System In grade III patients with anxiety and a decline in awareness and in grade IV can occur Dengue shock syndrome. - Cardiovascular System In grde I Hemo concentrations can occur, positive tourniquet test, thrombocytopenia, grade III to circulatory failure, rapid pulse, weakness, hypotension, cyanosis around the mouth, nose and fingers, in grade IV no palpable pulse and blood pressure can not be measured . - Digestive System Dry mucous membranes, difficulty swallowing, pain when the press in the epigastric, enlarged spleen, enlarged liver, abdominal stretch, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, pain on swallowing, can hematemesis, melena. - Urinary System Urine production declines, sometimes less than 30 cc / hour, will reveal pain when urinating, the colour of urine is red. - Integumentary System An increasing body temperature, dry skin, the grade I have a positive tourniquet test, occurred pethike, in grade III bleeding can occur spontaneously in the skin. - Respiratory System
South African scientists and collaborators from around the world have recently discovered the first ever evidence that suggests a comet has hit the Earth. Millions of years ago a comet entered Earth’s atmosphere, exploded, then rained down it’s fiery debris which destroyed everything in its path. This recent discovery in the Sahara, which will soon be published in Earth and Planetary Science Letters, could help scientists understand the early secrets of our solar system’s formation. The recently discovered evidence of the comet had entered Earth’s atmosphere some 28 million years ago. As it entered the atmosphere it exploded just above Egypt. As it got closer it heated the sand beneath it to about 2000 degrees Celsius. This caused the sand to form into yellow silica glass which was spread out over a 6000 square kilometer area in the Sahara. Interestingly enough, some of this yellow glass was polished by ancient jewelers and used in Tutankhamun’s brooch. A strange black pebble found years earlier by an Egyptian geologist in the area of the silica glass is what sparked this whole investigation. After several chemical analyses the possibility of it being a meteorite was ruled out in favor of it being the first ever specimen of a comet’s nucleus. But a little black pebble isn’t the only result of the impact. The explosion also produced microscopic diamonds. “Diamonds are produced from carbon bearing material. Normally they form deep in the Earth, where the pressure is high, but you can also generate very high pressure with shock. Part of the comet impacted and the shock of the impact produced the diamonds,” says Jan Kramers of the University of Johannesburg. Material from comets have only been been found in the atmosphere and as microscopic particles. Carbon-rich comet dust has also been found in Antarctic ice. So this recent discovery has excited and reimagined the way scientists study comets. “Comets contain the very secrets to unlocking the formation of our solar system and this discovery gives us an unprecedented opportunity to study comet material first hand,” says Professor David Block of Wits University. The research was conducted by a collaboration of geoscientists, physicists and astronomers including David Block, lead author Professor Jan Kramers of the University of Johannesburg, Dr Marco Andreoli of the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation, and Chris Harris of the University of Cape Town. Information provided by Wits University
Infant & Toddler (3-24 months) From three to twenty-four months, infants and toddlers begin to display a spurt in growth and curiosity. The class is uniquely designed to promote this spirit of inquiry. Mobile toddlers are shifting from feeling secure to exploring their environment and eventually to developing an identity. We understand the natural developmental of children and develop our curriculum according to their needs. Fine Motor Skills/Art Children are given plenty of opportunities to play with different textures: water, play dough, fingerprint, shaving cream, and more. They are exposed to art materials such as paint and paintbrushes, crayons and paper, chalk, and clay. Students are introduced to simple and varying levels of shaped puzzles (some with knobs on the pieces) and materials are rotated to provide variety. Active Physical Play Children participate in crawling through tunnels, balancing, climbing, playing ball, and more. Carts and wagons are provided, riding toys for children to push, pull and ride. Outdoor play is required on a daily basis with a minimum of 30-45 minutes of physical active play. Music and Movement Musical toys, instruments, and genres of music are introduced to children from the very beginning. Children are exposed to various types of music: classical and popular, music characteristic of different cultures, and songs sung in different languages. Students learn to dance, clap to rhythm of songs, or even sing along. Wooden and board blocks, including transportation toys, people, signs, and animals, are important materials to promote a child’s imagination and develop spatial and mathematical relationships. Child-sized play furniture and props represent what children experience in everyday life (household routines, work, transportation). Teachers pretend with children in play (talk to child on toy telephone, talk to baby doll). Pretend play with real and/or pretend objects such as pots and pans, typewriters, or phones. Students are exposed to dolls representing different races/cultures. Sand and Water Play Children can explore a variety of activities with sand or water. Each day can be a different focus: water used for washing dolls, observing floating toys, develop hand eye coordination for pouring, or simply having fun playing with moon sand and water! Children are expose to experiences with living plants or animals indoors/outdoors. Daily exploration of the world around us, such growing plants or flowers in the classroom, studying animals, examining the texture of a tree bark, and sorting various types of sea shells. Have a look at the photo gallery below for a peek at some of our recent activities, and to get an idea of what our rooms look like.
Class of Nonviolence Lesson 2, Reading 2 by Sanford Krolick and Betty Cannon The theory of nonviolence as an offspring of democracy is still in its infancy. Mohandas Gandhi, the master of this philosophy and its methods, was educated in Britain as a lawyer and learned well the principles of democracy. Throughout his years in South Africa and in the campaign for Indian independence, his efforts in dealing with conflict were consistent with the basic beliefs of democracy. While others fought revolutions promising that victory would bring democracy, Gandhi brought about revolutions using democratic principles and techniques; his victories were signified by the acceptance of democracy. Gandhi never tired of talking about the means and ends, claiming that the means used in settling the dispute between the Indian people and the British Government would determine the type of government India would evolve. He was fond of saying that if the right means are used, the ends will take care of themselves. Gandhi called his philosophy satyagraha. In the United States it has been called nonviolence, direct action, and civil disobedience. These terms are inadequate because they only denote specific techniques Gandhi used. However, for the purposes of this discussion, we will use nonviolence to designate the philosophy and resisters to designate those who adopt. this$ philosophy and carry out its methods. The basic principle of nonviolence is to seek negotiations. The goal of a nonviolent movement is to establish an atmosphere that leads co a successfully negotiated agreement and thereby establishes the basis for compromise in the settlement of future conflicts. The first step in a nonviolent campaign is for the resisters to define the minimum terms that they would accept in negotiations. Their minimum demands must be precisely that; every effort should be made to ensure that all resisters and opponents clearly under, stand this, because once at the negotiation table, these demands must not be conceded. They should reflect the fundamental principle involved. The price of bus fare was irrelevant to the freedom riders. The right of each individual to choose where he wished to sit was fundamental to the recognition of the principle of equal treatment regardless of race. There are pragmatic as well as philosophical reasons for demanding the minimum terms. A statement of maximum demands can put the opponent on the defensive, and perhaps make him feel that the resisters have mapped out a master plan for the future that affords little latitude for expressing his ideas and ~ needs. He would then believe that negotiations would result in his being forced to capitulate rather than in his gaining an honorable agreement. Too many demands may be confusing. Dissatisfaction and disunity can result if serious negotiations reveal that the leaders and participants have different priorities. Furthermore, the opponent might seek a solution to what he believes is the main point but which is only of marginal importance to the resisters, and thus end up disgusted when his efforts do not yield settlement. More important, the opponent must clearly understand that the resisters cannot be “bought off” by minor or irrelevant concessions that do not recognize the fundamental principles involved. Thus the minimum demands must be stated at the beginning, repeated continuously, and upheld throughout the negotiations. The resisters must not accept any settlement that fails to recognize these demands un, less they become convinced their position is incorrect If the resisters are purists, as Gandhi was, they will also refuse to abide by an agreement to which the opponent concedes (possibly out of frustration) if he – is not convinced of the validity of the resisters’ position. Publicity about the movement and its objectives is essential for educating the opponent, the participants, and the public. Resisters should pursue publicity with unrelenting enthusiasm, either on their own using a duplicating or copying machine or through newspapers and national television. They must publish the objectives, the strategy, and the tactics of the campaign. Secrecy has no place in a nonviolent campaign; it serves only to destroy communications with the participants and invite suspicion from .the public and the opponent. In a nonviolent campaign the opponent must al, ways be informed ahead of time of the precise course of any action that is planned-for example, the exact route a demonstration intends to follow. This is particularly important if confrontation is likely since it reduces the possibility of violence through panic on either side. Of course, the authorities can thwart action by arresting resisters ahead of time, but plans that have been well publicized can arouse sympathy’ and attract support. Publicity should also be understood as a form of communication that lays the groundwork for agreement. Until the opponent agrees to formal negotiations, publicity should be treated as a substitute. Honesty and accuracy are critical, as is the avoidance of any derogatory or slanderous statements. Insults from the opponent are best ignored. The movement will be judged by the honesty and fairness with which its case is presented. The resisters’ communications should indicate that they are listening as well as talking and are willing to admit a mistake or miscalculation. These steps’ must be continued throughout the movement until final agreement is reached. They are the basic tools for airing differences and settling disputes within a democratic framework. Such activities may evoke a violent response from authorities who hope to quell the movement quickly. They might also bring a sympathetic offer to negotiate. However, it is most likely they will bring no response at all. Most nonviolent groups are destroyed by neglect, not by action. Finding their proposals are ignored, not even dignified by a response or reaction, resisters become stifled and the movement dissolves. Perhaps this is why pacifism has been considered weak and ineffective in America. It is all too easy for frustration to lead to violence. When this happens the resisters have lost the initiative. Keeping the Initiative Gandhi’s most important contribution to the theory of nonviolence was his insistence that the resisters must keep the initiative at all times. While the opponent must be given ample opportunity to consider the proposals, he must not be allowed to ignore them. Gandhi fully understood that half the battle, indeed often the most difficult part of the battle, js to convince the opponent that he must deal with resisters. Even in using force the opponent becomes involved in a relationship with the movement and makes a commitment to resolving the issue. . If the minimum demands of the resisters have been clearly formulated and extensively publicized, and if every avenue to the establishment of negotiations has been tried but the opponent has either refused to negotiate or will not deal with the minimum demands, then nonviolent direct action is necessary if the resisters are to keep the initiative. Direct action should be pursued only when all other alternatives, with the ‘exception of violence, have been tried. The focus of the action must be carefully chosen, for it must both demonstrate the problem and elicit a response from the opponent. The action must leave the opponent latitude for response; above all, it must allow for face saving. While action should be dramatic, it should not be presented in a way that calls for surrender or capitulation of the opponent. A creatively negotiated settlement between equals remains the objective. No matter what the response of the opponent may be, he must always be treated with the respect and dignity that the resisters are seeking for themselves. In actual practice, there are only a few times during a nonviolent campaign when direct action is truly necessary. During 25 years of almost continuous nonviolent activities, Gandhi used organized direct action fewer than 10 times. The major techniques of direct action fall under two headings: noncooperation and civil disobedience. The techniques of noncooperation include mass rallies, strikes, picketing, and boycotts. The grape workers’ campaign led by Cesar Chavez illustrates these techniques. The aim of the grape workers was honorable negotiations. They wanted to be recognized as a union with the right to bargain collectively with growers for wages, hours, and benefits. The workers established a union hall and held mass meetings throughout the campaign. When the growers were not willing to negotiate, the workers voted to go on strike, refusing to cooperate in harvesting the crop. The growers responded by hiring other migrants and some seasonal workers from Mexico. The resisters then established picket lines near the farms in hope of gaining the cooperation of the strike breakers. Although this tactic continued daily for many months, it was not successful in preventing the harvest or in gaining negotiations with the growers. Chavez then decided to initiate a nationwide boycott of grapes. He sent the young people who had come to California to offer their support to the movement back to the cities to organize the boycott. This move widened the issue by creating interest and involvement across the nation. The individual shopper’s decision about purchasing grapes was less crucial than the involvement of established union members who refused to cross picket lines to ship and handle grapes. In September 1966 the grape workers voted for the union with which the growers agreed to bargain. The second method of direct action, more suitable to situations that do not involve economic relationships, is civil disobedience. This involves noncooperation with respect to a specific law or set of laws. In using this technique it is essential that all participants disobey only the law or laws specified, while obeying all others. The point is not to bring the opponent to his knees but to the negotiating table. Great care must be taken in selecting the law to be contravened. It can be central to the grievance or symbolic of it. The more important determinant is the involvement of the participants. From the resister’s viewpoint, it should be a law that has regularly affected large groups. The number of people affected by the injustice is more important than the injustice done. This was understood by Martin Luther King Jr., in singling out public lunch counters that refused service to black customers as the issue of the Birmingham, Alabama civil disobedience demonstration. Such humiliation had been experienced by many blacks. The issue emphasized the demand for equal treatment, and the action pointed to the local laws that violated the rights of black citizens. Civil disobedience is serious business. The deliberate violation of law is virtually guaranteed to evoke response from governmental authorities. The strength, determination, and cohesiveness of the resisters will be tested. Typically, arrests will be made. The ability of the movement to continue with disciplined resisters once the leaders are arrested is crucial. The aim is “to fill the jails,” thus jamming the courts while retaining public interest and sympathy. In Birmingham, King initiated the movement with only 20 resisters. Through nightly mass meetings, volunteers came forth in increasing numbers to fill the places of the men who were jailed. King testified that the turning point came when he called upon high school students to join the march to city hall, challenging the police barricades and courting arrest. The news service coverage of the march included a picture of a six-year-old being arrested. On May 7, 1963, the Senior Citizens Committee of 125 business leaders of Birmingham met with King. As they walked out on the street for lunch, … “there were square blocks of Negroes, a veritable sea of black faces. They were committing no violence. They were just present and singing. Downtown Birmingham echoed to the strains of the freedom songs.” King states that when the meeting reconvened. “One of the men who had been in the most deter, mined opposition cleared his throat and said: ‘You know, I’ve been thinking this thing through. We ought to be able to work something out.’ “ In their civil disobedience campaigns, both Gandhi and King focused on the ambiguity between the officially stated democratic principles and the clear violation of these principles in practice. “These campaigns compelled the government authorities to choose between ideals and actions. Either they had to renounce their democratic ideals and suppress the resisters by force in order to maintain their dominance, or they had to affirm their ideals, honestly negotiate, and replace dominance with compromise. As the choice became increasingly clear, the response of the authorities to the resisters depended in part on the reaction of the majority of citizens. In this, nonviolence paid tremendous dividends. By 1947 the majority of British citizens were unwilling to support massive repression of India. In 1960 many in the South and North were unwilling to support massive repression of civil rights marchers. In a direct action campaign it is essential that the resisters avoid using violence in any form. This is not an end in itself; it is a means of breaking the cycle of fear and repression in order to establish a basis for trust and democratic negotiation. . An. action cannot be characterized as nonviolent if it is performed out of fear, for that may lead to submission. As Gandhi was fond of saying, the mouse does not exercise nonviolence in allowing the pussycat to eat him. Gandhi also insisted that when one saw no choices except to respond with violence or to submit, violence was the better choice because it afforded more self-respect than did cowardly submission. He emphasized the third alternative, nonviolent resistance, as a conscious choice. Nonviolence is sterile unless it is coupled with a program to bring about change. A firm commitment to refuse to respond with violence or to submit to fear comes from strength, courage, and self-discipline. Nonviolence is truly the conquest of violence. Actors and Roles in Nonviolent Confrontation Perhaps a clearer understanding of nonviolence can be gained if the conflict is viewed in terms of individuals. The average individual approaches a new relationship with mixed feelings. He hopes to gain understanding, respect, and appreciation; he fears that he may suffer rejection, disgrace, or humiliation. Most relationships contain a mixture of these feelings and reactions. The direction in which a relationship develops depends in large part on how conflicts that arise are resolved. If resolution based on understanding, mutual respect, and honesty is found, then a basis of trust is initiated. Each conflict that is resolved by these methods increases the trust and reinforces feelings of respect and understanding. In contrast, if a conflict is not settled or is settled in a manner that leads one or both parties to believe that his basic rights and self-respect have been damaged, then feelings of misunderstanding and anger jeopardize the basis of trust. If this pattern is repeated in future conflicts, these feelings are reinforced. The ineffective means of resolving one conflict lays the foundation for dealing with the next, and this has a spiraling effect. Distrust, apprehension, and fear that stem from a lack of trust can come to govern the course of the relationship. As tension mounts each person becomes increasingly suspicious of the’ other’s motives. Each then becomes afraid to yield his power and position because he imagines that his opponents will take advantage of him. Each clings to what he has, refusing to make concessions. Each believes any gain by the other is his loss. Each side thus becomes locked into a position, unable to move for fear of giving the advantage to the other. Yet the strange part of such a relationship is that each becomes increasingly dependent upon the other. The negative feelings of distrust, anger, and fear tie them together like an invisible bond. Each perceives that he could or would change if he could trust the other, each looks to the other to make the first move for compromise, and each sees the possibility of resolving the situation as depending upon the other. The result is that both are deadlocked in a relationship that they find uncomfortable and threatening, yet one in which each has surrendered his own ability to solve the problem by assigning the other the responsibility for making the first move to end the deadlock. Each blames the other for the situation, which is only another way of assigning the opponent the power and responsibility for resolving the dispute. H the opponent has the power to create the problem, then he should have the power to resolve it. The ability to exercise creativity, individuality, and initiative is gone. If the situation escalates, anger and fear build. Each party in the dispute begins to think of the other in dehumanizing ways. Each begins to imagine that the other is ‘evil, and think and talk of him as sinister, scheming, devoid of human sympathy and honor. These thoughts can give rise to self-fulfilling actions; as each opponent spends considerable time scheming, entertaining uncharitable thoughts, and plotting revenge, he does become sinister and increasingly devoid of charity. Total victory-the ability to force the opponent into complete submission-is seen as the only way out of the situation. The appalling fact is that violence can so dehumanize people that they are willing to sacrifice their own lives in order to destroy an opponent. Nonviolence is a program for breaking the cycle of fear while, at the same time, achieving the desired social or political ends. But it is not without its own risks. Personal injury, legal sanctions, and social criticism are always possibilities. Resisters have to weigh these costs when deciding whether their protest is worth it. Charles Evers, civil rights leader from Mississippi, weighed his participation this way: “My life would be safe if I shuffled and tommed and said, ‘Yassuh, Mr. Charlie, we niggers is real happy.’ But then I’d be dead already. I’d rather die on my feet than live on my knees.” In summary, we have presented the basic tenets of nonviolence. Our object has been to describe those tactics that resisters need to follow if they are to engage in nonviolent protest. These include seeking negotiations (where minimum terms have been defined and the objectives of the protest made clear) and keeping the initiative both at the ‘negotiating table and, if necessary, in the streets. Direct action such as noncooperation or civil resistance should be used only if the paths to negotiation are blocked. These tactics are bound to create tensions in a democratic society. Obviously, if many actions were protested, the society would be in turmoil and the government would probably resort to more and more force to maintain order. Democracy might soon be ended under the guise of protecting it. On the other hand, if governmental decisions and social mores could not be protested, then the system could hardly be called democratic. While majority rule is a fundamental principle, so is the right of a minority to defend itself, its rights, and its interests. Jefferson proclaimed this in 1776. But unlike the tactics that he and his fellow colonists used, the nonviolent resisters of this ‘century have protested within the structure and, for the most part, the rules of the system. For the sake of democracy, it is well that they have done so. Violence threatens the character of the system; nonviolence is a democratic means of conflict resolution. This reading is from The Class of Nonviolence, prepared by Colman McCarthy of the Center for Teaching Peace, 4501 Van Ness Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016 202.537.1372
Soot is number two cause of global warming Soot is the second-biggest human contributor to global warming behind carbon dioxide, and its impact on climate change has until now been sharply underestimated, a new study has revealed. In the study published Tuesday in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, researchers admit that the uncertainties on the impact of soot are “substantial” — meaning it could be an even greater threat than estimated. The new estimate of the environmental impact of soot, which is based on new computer models, is double that put forth in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the UN’s climate panel. Soot, or black carbon, is generated by the incomplete combustion of oil, coal, wood or other fuels. Sources range from diesel engines to wood-burning stoves. For the new study, scientists took into account the accumulation of soot in the atmosphere and the amount of solar heat that the particles absorb. Soot only remains in the atmosphere for seven to 10 days, meaning that efforts to reduce the quantity of black carbon emissions could have a quick and dramatic impact on global warming. In contrast, limiting global warming by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide is more of a long-term goal, given the accumulation of the greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, where it can remain for decades. The uncertainties about the impact of soot are rooted in the fact that researchers do not fully understand how black carbon interacts with clouds. Soot is a main target of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants — a multinational initiative backed by the United States, Canada and Mexico, among others. The soot study came on the same day that US scientists announced that global temperatures were above average for the 36th straight year in 2012. Last year was the ninth or 10th warmest on record, depending on the measurement.
Roots of Empathy is a school-based program targeting students in kindergarten through eighth grade. A parent and infant visit classrooms along with a certified instructor who uses the parent-infant interaction as a basis for teaching the children about empathy and other aspects of social-emotional development, such as attachment, emotions, and social inclusion. The program is designed to decrease physical and indirect aggression and increase pro-social behavior. A randomized control trial found that ROE impacted all three outcomes immediately following the intervention when teacher-reported data were used, but few impacts were found when student-reported data were considered. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAM Target population: School children in kindergarten through 8th grade Roots of Empathy (ROE) is a classroom-based program that aims to raise the social-emotional competence and empathy of school-age children through a structured, age-appropriate curriculum delivered at the classroom-level by certified instructors. The curriculum consists of 27 sessions that allow students to observe real parent-infant interactions and teaches the concepts of early brain development, attachment, temperament, reading emotional cues, labeling and communicating thoughts and feelings, and social inclusion. ROE is based on the theory that when children are able to identify their own and others’ emotions, they will increase their pro-social skills, including empathy, decrease their aggression, and ultimately prevent violence. Specifically, ROE seeks to impact the following outcomes: physical aggression (including threatening violence), indirect aggression (e.g., trying to get others to dislike someone), and pro-social behaviors (e.g., inviting others to join a game). The curriculum is not available for purchase, but is leased to instructors upon completing the training process for as long as the instructor delivers the program. EVALUATION OF PROGRAM Santos, R.G., Chartier, M.J., Whalen, J.C., Chateau, D., & Boyd, L. (2011). Effectiveness of School-Based Violence Prevention for Children and Youth. Healthcare Quarterly, 14, 80-91. Evaluated population: Eight school divisions in Manitoba, Canada were stratified by grade (kindergarten, grade 4, grade 8) and randomly assigned to the treatment group or wait-list control group. The treatment group consisted of five school divisions, for a total of 17 schools, 24 classrooms, and 445 students. The wait-list control group had three school divisions, with a total of 10 schools, 12 classrooms, and 315 students. At baseline, data were collected from children and teachers pertaining to children’s physical aggression, indirect aggression, and pro-social behavior. No data were reported describing children’s sociodemographic characteristics, but the participating schools were all part of Manitoba’s public school system. Approach: The schools from the eight school divisions interested in ROE were cluster-randomized into treatment (n=5) or wait-list control (n=3). Before randomization, each school division selected classrooms and stratified those classrooms across three grade levels (kindergarten, grade 4, and grade 8) to ensure an equal representation across grades in the final sample. The primary outcomes–physical aggression, indirect aggression, and pro-social behavior—were measured by teacher-report and student-report. At baseline, the teacher-reported outcomes were significantly different between treatment and control groups; the treatment group children were rated lower on physical aggression and indirect aggression, and higher on pro-social behavior, than their control group peers. According to the child-reported data, however, there were no baseline differences between treatment and control groups for any of the three outcomes. The researchers used multi-level modeling to account for three levels of variability: within-student change over time, between-student differences based on gender, and between group differences based on treatment condition and grade level. Results: It is important to note that teacher ratings and student ratings were not highly correlated (Pearson r = 0.30, 0.20, and 0.28 for physical aggression, indirect aggression, and pro-social behavior, respectively). Using the teacher-reported data at the immediate follow-up data collection, ROE had a significant positive impact on all outcomes (reducing physical aggression [effect size = -0.25] and indirect aggression [effect size = -0.51)] and increasing pro-social behavior [effect size = 0.21]). However, these results were non-significant for the student-reported data, although in the expected direction for indirect aggression (effect size = -0.20, p = 0.07). Three years following implementation of ROE, no additional impacts were found, regardless of the data source (teacher or student). Teacher-reported outcomes were maintained for physical and indirect aggression after three years, but the gains in pro-social behavior found immediately following ROE were beginning to decline (pro-social behavior differences between treatment and control from post-test through three-year follow-up, effect size = -0.12, p < 0.01). SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION Santos, R.G., Chartier, M.J., Whalen, J.C., Chateau, D., & Boyd, L. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based violence prevention for children and youth. Healthcare Quarterly, 14, 80-91. Roots of Empathy 250 Ferrand Drive, Suite 800 Canada, M3C 3G8 KEYWORDS: Children, Adolescents, Elementary, Middle School, Males and Females, Aggression, Bullying, Social Skills/Life Skills, School-Based Program information last updated on 07/09/13.
Presentation on theme: "Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds. Describe the formation of ionic bonds. Write formulas for ionic compounds and oxyanions. Apply naming conventions."— Presentation transcript: Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds Describe the formation of ionic bonds. Write formulas for ionic compounds and oxyanions. Apply naming conventions to ionic compounds and oxyanions. The electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound is called an ionic bond. Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic compounds. Binary ionic compounds contain only two different elements—a metallic cation and a nonmetallic anion. When writing names and formulas for ionic compounds, the cation appears first followed by the anion. A formula unit represents the simplest ratio of the ions involved. Monatomic ions are one-atom ions. Oxidation number, or oxidation state, is the charge of a monatomic ion. The symbol for the cation is always written first, followed by the symbol of the anion. Subscripts represent the number of ions of each element in an ionic compound. The total charge must equal zero in an ionic compound. Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that have an overall charge. Since polyatomic ions exist as a unit, never change subscripts of the atoms within the ion. If more than one polyatomic ion is needed, place parentheses around the ion and write the appropriate subscript outside the parentheses. An oxyanion is a polyatomic ion composed of an element (usually a non-metal), bonded to one or more oxygen atoms. Chemical nomenclature is a systematic way of naming compounds. 1. Name the cation followed by the anion. 2. For monatomic cations use the element name. 3. For monatomic anions, use the root element name and the suffix –ide. 4. To distinguish between different oxidation states of the same element, the oxidation state is written in parentheses after the name of the cation. 5. When the compound contains a polyatomic ion, name the cation followed by the name of the polyatomic ion.
Scaling is the branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units. Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and education to measure "unmeasurable" constructs like authoritarianism and self esteem. In many ways, scaling remains one of the most arcane and misunderstood aspects of social research measurement. And, it attempts to do one of the most difficult of research tasks -- measure abstract concepts. Most people don't even understand what scaling is. The basic idea of scaling is described in General Issues in Scaling, including the important distinction between a scale and a response format. Scales are generally divided into two broad categories: unidimensional and multidimensional. The unidimensional scaling methods were developed in the first half of the twentieth century and are generally named after their inventor. We'll look at three types of unidimensional scaling methods here: - Thurstone or Equal-Appearing Interval Scaling - Likert or "Summative" Scaling - Guttman or "Cumulative" Scaling In the late 1950s and early 1960s, measurement theorists developed more advanced techniques for creating multidimensional scales. Although these techniques are not considered here, you may want to look at the method of concept mapping that relies on that approach to see the power of these multivariate methods. Copyright �2006, William M.K. Trochim, All Rights Reserved Purchase a printed copy of the Research Methods Knowledge Base Last Revised: 10/20/2006
The first Romans reached Mogontiacum, which is located in present-day Germany, in 57 or 56 BCE during the Gallic War—a series of military campaigns waged by Julius Caesar against Gallic Tribes. With its location at the confluence of the Rhine and Mainz Rivers, the region quickly became and area of strategic importance to the Roman Empire. After the end of Roman rule, the settlement continued, becoming the city of Mainz, Germany. The artifacts in Life on the Roman Frontier were collected in Mainz by University of Tennessee historian Arthur Haas in the early 1960s from the rubble and landfill created by urban renewal. From building materials and sacred goddesses to dishes and military boots, the objects in this exhibit give us a glimpse into the everyday lives of soldiers and civilians who lived in the area.
A small hole in the nuclear envelope through which substances pass between the nucleus and the cytoplasm rough endoplasmic reticulum System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm smooth endoplasmic reticulum A network of membranes inside eukarytoic cells invovled in lipid synthesis (steroid in gonads), detoxification (in liver cells), and/or Ca2+ storage (muscle cells). Organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and send proteins to their final destination Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis a membrane-bound sac within the cytoplasm that is filled with water and dissolved substances. stores metabolic wastes and gives a plant cell support by means of turgor pressure One of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope; play a role in cell division. newly discovered organelle that is thought to play a role in the transport of molecules (such as mRNA) from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Threadlike strands of DNA and protein in a cell nucleus that carry the code for the cell characteristics of an organism. The collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles; includes the nuclear membrane, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles. A meshwork of fine fibers in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell; includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules The thinnest of the three main kinds of protein fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a solid, helical rod composed of the globular protein actin An intermediate-sized protein fiber that is one of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments are ropelike, made of fibrous proteins. The thickest of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a straight, hollow tube made of globular proteins called tubulins. These form the basis of the structure and movement of cilia and flagella. A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea. A type of cell that has a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles. All organisms except bacteria and archaea are composed of eukaryotic cells. This says that all living things are made of cells, that cells are the basic unit of structure and function and that cells only come from other cells. A sticky layer that surrounds the cell walls of some bacteria, protecting the cell surface and sometimes helping to glue the cell to surfaces. Open channels in the cell wall of a plant through which strands of cytosol connect from an adjacent cell. The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded, consisting of protein and polysaccharides A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that prevents the leakage of material between cells
California’s coastal waters are getting more acidic. Fall-run chinook salmon populations in the Sacramento River are declining. Conifer forests on Sierra Nevada slopes are growing at higher elevations. That’s just a snapshot of how the California Environmental Protection Agency, summarizing studies looking back over several decades, says climate change is affecting the state’s natural resources. John Christy, an atmospheric sciences professor at the University of Alabama at Huntsville, has a different view: He says the California EPA report “vastly overstates the impacts of greenhouse gases.” Average annual temperatures across the state have shown a slight increase over the past century, but he’s right that many questions remain about how recent trends compare with the climate centuries ago, before human activities had much impact on the environment. The California EPA reports that butterflies in the Central Valley are emerging from hiding earlier in spring, glaciers in the Sierra Nevada have shrunk, and spring runoff from snowmelt has declined because of smaller snowpacks. Levels of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases in the state apparently increased between 1990 and 2011, but more recently decreased slightly because of industries and vehicles becoming more energy efficient. Meanwhile, in southern Africa, the Namibian desert is getting even drier: One local police chief, Olani Imanul, said, “It has not rained for over two years here.” The drought in this arid corner of Africa may be the worst in three decades. Families are selling their livestock, eating less, and migrating to cities to find work. “An estimated 778,000 Namibians, a third of the population, are either severely or moderately food insecure,” UNICEF said in an online report. Such effects emerge from the interplay of processes in the air, on land, and in the ocean that we still understand only partially. Weather extremes like droughts do not by themselves prove or disprove climate change, but long-term measurements show that climates, like our bodies, are fearfully and wonderfully made.
April 24, 2012 Visible and Infrared Spectrograph (VIRS) of the Mercury Atmosphere and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS), and Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS) VIRS Color Composite Wavelengths: 575 nm as red, 415 nm/750 nm as green, 310 nm/390 nm as blue Crater Mena (upper left of mosaics) is 15 km (9 mi) across The top image is a MASCS VIRS instrument color composite over a region of cratered plains on Mercury that includes craters Mena (upper left), Cezanne, Philonexus, Chu Ta, and the unnamed "blue tongue" impact crater (lower right). Below is a contrast enhanced version of the MDIS mosaic without the VIRS overlay. In the VIRS color composite, the young rays of Mena and the blue tongue crater appear in yellows and oranges. Other colors in the VIRS composite are related to degree of space weathering and iron content of the surface materials. The VIRS composite shows hundreds of individual footprints compiled over dozens of orbits, with MESSENGER viewing the surface from different directions and at different altitudes. In locations where multiple footprints cover the same area, the footprint with the best illumination for mineralogical interpretation (usually the lowest incidence angle where shadows are minimized) is used for making the map. In the MDIS mosaic some brightness variation are due to tiling of images taken at different illuminations. The MESSENGER spacecraft is the first ever to orbit the planet Mercury, and the spacecraft's seven scientific instruments and radio science investigation are unraveling the history and evolution of the Solar System's innermost planet. Visit the Why Mercury? section of this website to learn more about the key science questions that the MESSENGER mission is addressing. During the one-year primary mission, MESSENGER acquired over 1.8 million VIRS spectra and extensive other data sets. MESSENGER is now in a yearlong extended mission, during which plans call for the acquisition of more than 1.5 million additional spectra to support MESSENGER's science goals. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington For information regarding the use of MESSENGER images, see the image use policy.
Carotid artery disease (also called cerebrovascular disease) affects the vessels leading to the brain. Like the heart, the brain's cells need a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood. This blood supply is delivered to the brain by the 2 large carotid arteries in the front of your neck and by 2 smaller vertebral arteries at the back of your neck. The right and left vertebral arteries come together at the base of the brain to form what is called the basilar artery. A stroke may occur when the carotid arteries become blocked and the brain does not get enough oxygen. Carotid artery disease increases the risk of stroke in 3 ways: - By fatty deposits called plaque severely narrowing the carotid arteries. - By a blood clot becoming wedged in a carotid artery already narrowed by plaque. - By plaque or a clot breaking off from the carotid arteries and blocking a smaller artery in the brain (a cerebral artery). What is carotid endarterectomy? Carotid endarterectomy is a type of surgery used to remove plaque from the carotid artery. It is the third most common kind of cardiovascular surgery in the United States. During the operation, the surgeon peels the plaque away from the carotid artery. Once the plaque is removed from the carotid artery, more oxygen-rich blood can flow through the artery to the brain, reducing the risk of stroke. Your doctor may want you to have a carotid endarterectomy if a carotid artery is narrowed 70% or more and if the narrowing may have caused - A transient ischemic attack (TIA) or "mini stroke." TIAs are episodes of dizziness, tingling, numbness, blurred vision, confusion, or paralysis that can last anywhere from a few minutes to a couple of hours. - A stroke marked by loss of vision, persistent weakness, or paralysis. Your doctor may also recommend the operation if you have not had a TIA or stroke, but your carotid arteries are narrowed 80% or more. Patients with mild blockages of 50% or less usually do not need the operation, unless they have some of the symptoms mentioned above. Carotid endarterectomy can prevent a future stroke and help ease the symptoms of TIAs. Studies have shown that a carotid endarterectomy works better than medicines alone in preventing a stroke in people with blockages in the carotid arteries. But a carotid endarterectomy may not be suitable for everyone, because the procedure can be risky for patients whose overall health is poor. Patients may not be candidates for carotid endarterectomy if they have - TIAs that are a result of narrowed blood vessels in the back of the head and not the carotid arteries. - Severe coronary artery disease. - High blood pressure that is not controlled by medicines. - Severe hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) in many places in the body. - Heart failure. - Kidney failure. What to Expect The operation will be scheduled at a time that is best for you and your surgeon, except in urgent cases. Be sure to tell your surgeon and cardiologist about any changes in your health including symptoms of a cold or the flu. Any infection may affect your recovery. Also, review all medications (prescription as well as over-the-counter and supplements) with your cardiologist and surgeon. Before surgery, you may have to have an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) [no link], blood tests, urine tests, and a chest x-ray to give your surgeon the latest information about your health. If you smoke, your doctor will want you to stop at least 2 weeks before your surgery. Smoking before surgery can lead to problems with blood clotting and breathing. The night before surgery, you will be asked to bathe to reduce the amount of germs on your skin. A medicine (anesthetic) will make you sleep during the operation. This is called "anesthesia." Because anesthesia is safest on an empty stomach, you will be asked not to eat or drink after midnight the night before surgery. If you do eat or drink anything after midnight, it is important that you tell your anesthesiologist and surgeon. You will get complete instructions from your cardiologist and surgeon about the procedure, but here are some basics you can expect as a patient. Day of Surgery Most patients are admitted to the hospital the day before surgery or, in some cases, on the morning of surgery. Small metal disks called electrodes will be attached to your chest. These electrodes are connected to an electrocardiogram machine, which will monitor your heart's rhythm and electrical activity. You will receive a local anesthetic to numb the area where a plastic tube (called a line) will be inserted in an artery in your wrist. An intravenous (IV) line will be inserted in your vein. The IV line will give you the anesthesia during the operation. You will be given something to help you relax (a mild tranquilizer) before you are taken into the operating room. After you are completely asleep, a tube will be inserted down your windpipe and connected to a machine called a respirator, which will take over your breathing. Another tube will be inserted through your nose and down your throat, into your stomach. This tube will stop liquid and air from collecting in your stomach, so you will not feel sick and bloated when you wake up. A thin tube called a catheter will be inserted into your bladder to collect any urine produced during the operation. The surgeon will make a cut (called an incision) in the neck to get to the carotid artery. The surgeon places a tube (called a shunt) into the artery above and below the blockage. The shunt lets blood flow around the blockage to nourish the brain. The surgeon then peels the plaque from the inside of the carotid artery. When all of the plaque is removed, the shunt is removed, and the incision in the artery is closed by stitching a patch of fabric (Dacron) or vein into the incision. A carotid endarterectomy can also be done by a technique that does not require blood flow to be rerouted. In this procedure, the surgeon stops the blood flow just long enough to peel the blockage away from the artery. The surgery takes about 1 to 2 hours. You can expect to stay in the hospital for about 1 to 3 days, including 1 day in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU). During that time in the hospital, you will need to lie flat and not move your head too much. You may find that your neck aches, and this may last for up to 2 weeks. Try to avoid physically demanding activities for about 1 week. It may take as long as 2 weeks before you are totally healed. Life After Carotid Endarterectomy After a carotid endarterectomy, you should limit the fat and cholesterol in your diet. Your doctor may want you to start an exercise program. Other lifestyle changes include quitting smoking, limiting how much alcohol you drink, and controlling your blood pressure and cholesterol levels. See also on this site: Heart Surgery Overview See on other sites: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute What Is Carotid Endarterectomy? American Heart Association What Is a Carotid Endarterectomy? (Downloadable PDF) Updated August 2016
Send the link below via email or IMCopy Present to your audienceStart remote presentation - Invited audience members will follow you as you navigate and present - People invited to a presentation do not need a Prezi account - This link expires 10 minutes after you close the presentation - A maximum of 30 users can follow your presentation - Learn more about this feature in our knowledge base article Slope Intercept Form Transcript of Slope Intercept Form Hon. Alg II project March 18 2011 By: Brycen K. + DaeShaun S. In the formula Y=mx+b , m is the slope (which is rise over run) And b is the y intercept (where the line crosses the y axis) The X and Yare any given point on the line. IN OTHER WORDS.. m tells you how to move and b tells you where to start. LETS TRY THIS THANG! You might get a problem like this..... Solve for Y and use the resulting equation to find the slope of a line. -3x+y=9 This is what you would do! -3x+y=9 You get the Y on a side by itself to get the equation in slope intercept form. Its Simple! Now all you do is look at the equation and tell what the slope is.. Remember before we said that the m was the number that means slope. In the equation m was next to X so whatever number is next to x is the slope! In our problem above, 3 is next to X so that makes it the slope. Hint: Since the slope is rise over run, if the number is not already a fraction, you should but it as a fraction making the denominator 1. The top number is the rise (how far up you go) and the bottom is the run(the distance left and right you go.) +3x +3x y=3x+9 Somtimes you might get a problem that wants you to graph the line using slope intercept form. Sounds hard? Dont worry. Its a piece of cake! LETS GIVE IT A TRY Using y=3x+9 , Graph a line. First you will mark your Y intercept on the y axis. In our case it is a +9 so we will go up on the Y axis 9 times. This will be the point you start your line at. From here you use the slope to make the line. In our case we will be moving up 3 and over one. (Rise over run). Since lines never end, you can go the same rise over run in the opposite direction. And there goes your line :) Somtimes you might have to take the information about a line and write it in slope intersept form. Confusing ? Lets try it.! Write an equation in slope intercept form for the line that passes through the point (6,4) and is parallel to the line with the equation Y=-2x-3. HInt: If a line is parallel they have the same slope. You got to try to get the Y=mx+b form so you plug in what you got and solve for the missing values.. Like this. Y=mx+b Y=4 X=6 m=-2 4=(-2)(6)+b You use the point they give you and plug it in for X and Y (duhh) And use the slope of the parallel line for m. Since they didnt give us b, that will be the term you slove for. 4=-12+b +12 +12 16=b You solve it just like a regular math equation and find out that the value of b is 16! Now you have the slope of the line (2) and the y intercept (16) so you can write the equation. If the problem asks you to graph this you would go up 16 times on the Y axis and mark it then go down 2 and right one. ANOTHER HINT: If the slope is negative the line will point in the opposite direction. Lets say the slope of a line is -7 and the y-int is 3. To graph this line you go up 3 on the y-axis and then down 7 and one over to the left. If the 7 would have been possitive you would have went right instead of left. This is the direction a possitive sloping line should go. And this is the direction a negative sloping line should go LETS SUM IT ALL UP! Slope intercept form(Y=mx+b) is the formula for a line. The X and Y are any point on the line and the m is the slope(rise over run). B is the Y- Intercept(Where the line crosses the y axis). The ways to solve slope intercept problems is by taking the equation of a line and graphing it using the slope and y int. The other way to solve it wa by taking the information given to you and solving for missing values to get the equation y=mx+b. You may also get a line and have to take the information off the line to get the equation. LETS DO THISS!!! On this line we can see that the Y int. is 2 because that is where it crosses the y axis. The slope of this line is 1 because if you go up one and over one you will touch the line.. In that case, the equation of this line would be Y=1x+2. EASY AS 123 And the other way to solve Slope intercept form problems is by using a line and getting the information off of it to get the equation y=mx+b WORD PROBLEMS!! You are visiting Baltimore MD, and a taxi company charges a flat fee of $3 for using the taxi and an additional .75c per mile. Write an quation that you could use to find the cost of a taxi ride. Let X represent the number of miles and Y represent the total cost. How much would a 8 mile ride cost. OKAY. You are trying to take the information given and make a Y=mx+b equation. The flat fee in the problem will be the Y int.(b) because it is only added once and stays the same. The .75c will be the slope(m) because it will be multiplied to the amount of miles. (also the word per means its the slope.). So here is our equation. The problem asks us to find the price of a 8 mile taxi ride. Its simple. Just put the 8 in the place of the x and multiply. Y=(.75)(8)+3 Y= 9 PROBLEM SOLVED! Lets try a few more word problems. A plumber charges a few if 50 dollars to make a house call. He also charges 25 dollars an hour for labor. Write an equation to model the above situation. Let x represent the # of houes for labor and y represent the total cost. How much is it for a house call that requires 2.5 hours of labor? Answer : Y=25x+50 $112.50 A mutual fund company charges 50 dollars a year to hold the fund and then an additional 2%(.02) of the profits made for that year. Write and equation that can be used to determine how much one would pay to the mutual fund company in a year. X= profit Y=Total cost. What if the yearly profit was 1800? Answer: Y=.02x+50 Slope intercept form started out as x/a + y/b = 1 but modernated over time. It is not known who discoverd slope intercept but it is thought to be a French person be cause of m meaning slope and the word monter means to clind in french. Slope intercept form has been around for a very long time because Descartes used it in one of his lituratures in 1637 Write the following in slope intercept form. Y=2/3x-3 Write an equation in slope intercept form for the line that satisfies the following condition. The slope is 5 and a point on the line is (2,12) ANSWER: y=5x+2 Graph the equation from above. ANSWER: Use the information off this line to find the equation. ANSWER: Y=1x+3 THANKS FOR PAYING ATTENTION. NOW LETS TAKE A LOOK AT THIS COOOL RAP
What is Exemplary Science Teaching? High school education has come a long way since I was in secondary education. However, the most drastic difference has been in the high school science classroom. I believe that the mission of exemplary teaching of science has not only become more complex, but has also improved in quality and effectiveness. So what does exemplary science teaching look like? Exemplary science teaching will have 3 core features: - The use of differentiated instruction (DI) - Open inquiry and investigation - The integration of science, technology, society, and the environment (STSE) At the heart of these 3 features is one fundamental theme: reflecting students in the curriculum. The result of supporting this theme is greater student participation and access to higher order, critical thinking. Photo on left by Rbut Differentiated Instruction (DI) DI can be explained as a teaching strategy that provides various options for students to learn based on how they learn best. Reflecting back on my secondary education, science was only ever taught to a narrow group of students. If you learned best using logic or mathematics you probably would have done very well in science; if not, you may have struggled. Today’s science teacher will need to be aware of the multiple intelligences (MI, teachers love acronyms!) that exist in the classroom and use DI to engage all the different types of learners. As a part of inclusive education, it is also important for science teachers to modify their pedagogy to teach all kinds of learners, especially with the many perspectives, behavioural, and cultural differences that exist in the classroom. When an educator teaches as if all students have the same cultural background or the background that the educator is familiar with, they can unknowingly marginalize students. This marginalization especially occurs when teachers fail to recognize their biases. A crucial idea in using DI involves both the student learning about themselves and the teacher learning about and from the student. How can you best teach a student if you don’t get to know more about them? One of the ways I like to start the process is by giving students (as early in the term as possible) a multiple intelligence quiz as well as an interest survey. The MI quiz helps both the student and teacher learn more about how that student learns best. It’s not about how smart they are, but rather how they are smart. Moreover, it helps the teacher not only offer options for the student to learn based on their strengths but also offer opportunities to help them positively improve their weaknesses. These options can be presented by giving students the ability to choose the content of the learning task, the process by which the task is done, the end product of the task, or the environment in which the task takes place — while assessing the same curriculum goals for all students. The interest survey I administer asks the students questions like: - What is your favourite activity or subject in school? - What are three things you like to do when you have free time? - Do you prefer to work individually, in small groups, or in large groups? This gives me vital information that I use when preparing to present curriculum to the students. By representing the student’s interest and learning styles in the curriculum, I can create learning tasks that the students find interesting and engaging. The importance of differentiated instruction should not be played down by science teachers; implementing DI is an excellent way to build community and a positive, supportive learning environment in the classroom. Open Inquiry and Investigation Curiosity and discovery of the unknown are central driving forces in the field of science. Exemplary science education should be based on facilitating these driving forces. Thinking back on my science education, tasks that involved investigation and inquiry were often pre-determined, highly structured tasks that only required students to confirm results and perform the final steps of a lab experiment. Today’s example of exemplary science teaching will involve methods that move away typical cookie-cutter, “recipe” types of inquiry to more open, amorphous types of inquiry [PDF]. In an open inquiry experiment, educators provide guidance and facilitation toward the learning goals while allowing the students to develop the experiment themselves and discover the methods, questions, and results. In my teaching practice, I hope to use open inquiry-based learning as a tool to help students draw on prior knowledge, perform analysis, and achieve engagement in a fun and pleasurable way. Especially in way that encourages creativity by allowing them to make mistakes and take risks. I hope to be able to facilitate the process of learning by giving problems to students and allowing them to solve them by relying on their own thinking while guiding students through questioning. Furthermore, I’ll need to focus on the process of the investigation and not entirely on the final result. As an educator, it’s sometimes hard to give up control in the classroom. However, I believe an important feature in exemplary science teaching is putting the classroom focus on the students rather than the teacher — allowing the students’ interests to guide the direction of the inquiry. This is a necessary element of reflecting students in the curriculum. Integration of Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE) Science is traditionally seen as an emotionless field reserved for science professionals and “nerds”. However, science has far reaching implications in our world, ones that affect families, the environment, politics, economics, and technology. There may be a widespread lack of scientific literacy and critical science thinking in our society and thus a responsibility lies with educators to correct misconceptions and make science relevant and relatable. Exemplary science teaching addresses these concerns by integrating science with issues in technology, society, and the environment (STSE – yay another acronym!). Encouraging students to address the impact of science on these issues will help connect science to human values and everyday life. STSE education involves understanding science concepts, engaging in open inquiry, and critiquing the role of science. In my teaching practice, I’ve seen firsthand how students are able to engage in higher level critical thinking by implementing STSE in the classroom. During my first practicum in a Grade 11 Chemistry class we discussed political, economical, environmental, and social issues surrounding the horrific Bhopal accident of 1984. The students were able to critique the science decisions made during the accident and think critically about the social decisions regarding the fallout. The activities helped to raise their consciousness around social justice and the role that science can play in who benefits or loses in society. STSE education helps students make informed, educated, science literate decisions by giving students an opportunity to see the world from a multiplicity of views and cultural contexts. It gives meaning and relevance to science by allowing students to incorporate their opinions and values with the way science is done. Science can now be related to everyday actions and decisions and helps to increase science literacy. In my pedagogy as a science teacher, I aim to pursue exemplary science teaching; teaching that first and foremost reflects the students in the curriculum. To take it a step further, students should be the curriculum. I look forward to implementing differentiated instruction is a way that helps students learn more about themselves and allows me to get to know more about them. I hope to show students the value in making mistakes and taking risks by providing a variety of continuous assessments, providing feedback and direction. I hope to provide inquiry and investigations that are less structured and more open, encouraging students to think and analyze instead of just following directions. In addition, the implementation of STSE will be a focus in my science pedagogy personalizing science for students and preparing them to be science-literate stewards of the future. With continuous reflection and analysis, I hope to continue learning more about being a great science teacher and to dynamically improve and tweak my pedagogy to best achieve student success.
Blending fantasy and reality, this animated short is a bold inquiry into an as yet unresolved problem - the nature of human identity. When a scientist creates a machine that can make copies of physical objects, including humans, a number of ethical questions arise. Is the technique moral? What of its safety? A film by Oscar-winning filmmaker John Weldon (who also wrote the catchy banjo tune that punctuates the story's changing moods). Ages 12 to 18 Study Guide - Guide 1 Ethics and Religious Culture - Ethical Values Health/Personal Development - Bullying & Discrimination Health/Personal Development - Identity Technology Education - Science and Technology Warning (if any): Idea of a person dying or ceasing to exist Brief “lesson launcher type” activity or a series of inquiry questions with a bit of context: Animated film depicting a scientist who invents a magical cloning machine and invites a woman to come test it out. Are some things “too good to be true”? How does that relate to this story? How does this story relate to the concept of cloning? How did the feelings of the scientist and the woman change when they had to watch the death of the second scientist? Can you draw any connections between this and how people treat others online versus in person? Why does the woman feel “guiltless” after she clones herself? Are there any similar situations when things like this happen today?
Preventing Meningitis: Understanding, Vaccination, and Hygiene Meningitis is a serious medical condition characterized by inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It can be caused by various pathogens, including viruses and bacteria. While some types of meningitis are viral and generally less severe, bacterial meningitis can be life-threatening if not treated promptly. The good news is that many cases of meningitis can be prevented through vaccination, good hygiene practices, and awareness. In this article, we will delve into strategies for preventing meningitis and provide references to support the information. To effectively prevent meningitis, it’s essential to understand its causes and transmission. Meningitis can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites, but the most common culprits are viral and bacterial infections. - Viral Meningitis: Most cases of viral meningitis are caused by enteroviruses, which are typically spread through respiratory secretions and fecal-oral contact. Practicing good hygiene, such as frequent handwashing, can help reduce the risk of viral meningitis. - Bacterial Meningitis: This form of meningitis is often caused by bacteria such as Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcal), Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal), and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). Bacterial meningitis can spread through respiratory secretions, making close contact with an infected person a risk factor. a. Meningococcal Vaccines: There are different types of meningococcal vaccines available, including MenACWY and MenB vaccines. These vaccines are recommended for adolescents and young adults and can provide protection against certain strains of meningococcal bacteria. b. Pneumococcal Vaccination: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines (PPSVs) can help prevent meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. These vaccines are recommended for children, older adults, and individuals with certain medical conditions. c. Hib Vaccine: The Hib vaccine is part of the routine childhood vaccination schedule and provides protection against Haemophilus influenzae type b, a leading cause of bacterial meningitis in young children. Maintain Good Hygiene: a. Frequent handwashing with soap and water can help prevent the spread of viruses and bacteria that can cause meningitis. b. Avoid close contact with individuals who are ill, especially if they have respiratory symptoms. c. Practice safe sex to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections that can lead to meningitis. a. Educate yourself and your family about the symptoms of meningitis, which can include fever, headache, stiff neck, and rash. b. Seek medical attention promptly if you suspect meningitis, as early diagnosis and treatment are crucial. - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). Meningitis. Link - World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). Meningococcal vaccines: WHO position paper – November 2011. Link - American Academy of Pediatrics. (2021). Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine: What you need to know. Link In conclusion, preventing meningitis involves a combination of vaccination, good hygiene practices, and awareness. By taking proactive steps and staying informed, individuals and communities can reduce the risk of this potentially devastating illness. Consult with healthcare professionals to determine the appropriate vaccination schedule for you and your family members, and always prioritize good hygiene to protect against infections.
If dinosaurs died millions of years ago, how can their fossils still contain soft tissue? Scientific debates often can be rather dry, filled with unfamiliar terms and minute details difficult for the lay reader to follow. But over the last five years, a shocking discovery has taken center stage in an intense debate that even children can follow. Soft, unfossilized blood vessels and red blood cells have been discovered in dinosaur fossils! How could soft tissues survive after being buried in rock? In 2005, a team of scientists led by paleontologist Mary Schweitzer published a paper in which they described an unusual femur (upper leg bone) of a Tyrannosaurus rex.1 While the outer bone was completely fossilized, the interior regions were somehow sealed off from fossilizing fluids. Inside the T. rex femur were intact blood vessels and red blood cells. Once freed from the bones, the blood vessels could be stretched—and even snapped back into place! The paper produced a storm of media and scientific attention. At issue: the T. rex fossil is believed by evolutionists to be 68 million years old. How could these biological structures survive intact? Shortly after, Schweitzer and her colleagues made more headlines with a second paper. This one described intact proteins from the T. rex femur.2 The problem: laboratory tests and theoretical research have shown that proteins similar to those seen in the T. rex fossil degrade too quickly—even in ideal laboratory conditions—to survive for more than a few thousand years.3 In 2008, a paper by paleontologist Thomas Kaye and colleagues challenged Schweitzer’s original findings at their core.4 These researchers had discovered similar soft structures in a whole range of other fossil animals, including several from the same geologic layers as the T. rex (the Hell Creek Formation). Instead of vertebrate blood vessels and cells, this paper documented that all the structures were formed by bacteria some time after fossilization happened. For example, the “stretchy” blood vessels in their samples were actually tough films, secreted by bacteria. These films looked like blood vessels because the bacteria had coated the holes where the blood vessels once were, leaving behind false “blood vessels.” Kaye’s team also discovered inside these bacterial “vessels” round pyrite (fool’s gold) crystals. They concluded that Schweitzer’s team must have mistaken these for red blood cells (which are round in reptiles and birds, but flattened in mammals). They also discovered similar kinds of organic chemicals as Schweitzer’s team, but from substances made by bacteria. Kaye’s paper seemed to counter most of the Schweitzer team’s evidence that they had found original T. rex tissues. But in early 2009, Schweitzer and colleagues struck again with a new paper.5 Now a duck-billed dinosaur from the Judith River Formation (below the Hell Creek, and supposedly 80 million years old) was described with a host of soft-tissue structures. Furthermore, the analyses of this fossil were done by multiple, independent labs. Several vertebrate-specific proteins (collagen, elastin, and hemoglobin) were discovered, as were unambiguous osteocytes (bone-forming cells seen only in vertebrate animals). No one expected soft tissue to be found in dinosaur fossils, but these discoveries really make sense if the bones were buried only a few thousand years ago during Noah’s flood. The Schweitzer team’s latest paper clearly answers all the challenges posed by Kaye’s bacterial-origin hypothesis.6 In both of Schweitzer’s reports, the claim of dinosaur soft tissue is real. But this still leaves the bigger question: how could soft tissues survive for millions of years? No experimental results support long-age survival, as the last paper by Schweitzer’s team readily admits. And honestly, no young-earth creationists expected soft tissue to be found in dinosaurs. Perhaps that expectation was an artifact of our training (which is often in evolution-dominated schools). Sometimes evolutionary assumptions are in places we haven’t recognized. Yet the discovery really makes sense if the bones were buried only a few thousand years ago during Noah’s Flood. One thing is for sure: more creationists will be looking inside more bones to see what treasures are hidden there.
How do we help our children develop the confidence they need to succeed? Empowering young minds and nurturing their self-confidence is a cornerstone of healthy child development. When children believe in themselves, they are more likely to face challenges, learn from their experiences, and ultimately, lead fulfilling lives. As parents and educators, we want our kids to feel comfortable taking risks and trying new things. We want them to understand that it’s okay to fail sometimes—because that means they’re learning! It’s important for us as parents not only to encourage our children but also model this behavior ourselves by showing them how we cope with failure ourselves. When they see us being brave and taking chances despite setbacks or failures, they’ll know that it’s okay for them too! In this blog, we’ll explore a range of activities designed to foster confidence in children, setting them on a path towards a bright and successful future. Encourage Creative Expression Creative outlets are vital for a child’s self-expression and self-esteem. Providing them with the tools and space to explore their creativity, whether through art, music, or writing, allows them to discover their unique talents and capabilities. It also helps them develop important skills like critical thinking and problem solving that will benefit them in the future. A creative approach can be applied to any subject matter and can help children learn more effectively because it requires them to take ownership of the learning process rather than just memorizing facts. The best way to encourage creative expression is by modeling your own creativity. Let your child see you cooking dinner with fresh ingredients or drawing with colored pencils when you’re stressed out at work—you don’t have to be an artist or musician yourself! You’ll encourage your child to think outside of the box while they’re doing something as simple as eating dinner together or waiting in line at the movies. Promote Problem Solving Independent thinking and problem-solving skills are important for everyone, but especially children. Children need to be able to find solutions to their own challenges and figure out how the world works on their own terms, rather than just following instructions from adults. This fosters a sense of autonomy and self-assurance that many people never achieve. A great way to encourage this kind of thinking is by letting your child take on a challenge, any challenge! Let them figure out how they’re going to solve it, then give them time and space to do it. You may be surprised at what they come up with! Support Their Interests Nurturing a child’s interests and passions provides them with a sense of purpose, accomplishment, and confidence. Whether it’s sports, art, or science, investing in their hobbies helps build a strong foundation of confidence. This is important because children need to feel like they can accomplish things independently. When they have an interest or hobby that they enjoy doing, they will be more likely to try new things as they grow older and continue on their path toward adulthood. The key is finding activities that both you and your children can enjoy together! Resilience is a crucial trait that empowers children to bounce back from setbacks. Encourage them to view failures as learning experiences, emphasizing that mistakes are a natural part of growth. Help kids develop this skill by helping them become more aware of their feelings when they experience failure. Talk about how they felt when they didn’t get a good grade on their test or couldn’t get the ball down in soccer, for example. Then explain how you felt when something similar happened to you and how you dealt with it. When your child makes a mistake, try not to be too critical or judgmental of him. Instead, acknowledge how hard he worked on his project or how much time he spent practicing soccer before letting him know what needs improvement in order for him to succeed next time around. Promote Physical Activity We know it can be tough to get your kids to play outside. After all, they’re always on their phones and iPads, and they’re always begging you to let them watch TV. But there’s something important that happens when we move our bodies: we feel better about ourselves and get into better moods. And that’s why it’s so important that you encourage your kids to get outside, even if it’s just for a little bit each day! There are tons of ways for your kids to stay active, even when they’re inside. They can dance around in the living room or play tag in their bedrooms. If they have an Xbox or PlayStation game console, they can run around while playing video games—it doesn’t matter if they’re just pretending! And if all else fails? You can always turn on some music and dance with them! Volunteer or Community Service Volunteering and community service are important to children’s development. When you volunteer, your child will be exposed to a diverse group of people, and this can help them develop empathy for those who are different from them. It can also give them the sense that they have an impact on the world around them—and that they’re capable of making a difference. You might even find that volunteering together as a family has some surprising benefits! For example, kids who do volunteer work tend to have higher self-esteem than their peers who don’t volunteer. And research shows that volunteering at school helps students stay engaged in their studies—even when they’re older! Practice Mindfulness and Self-Care Mindfulness and self-care are essential to a healthy life. When you’re stressed out, it’s easy to forget the importance of taking care of yourself. But the truth is, if you don’t take care of yourself, then how can you be the best version of yourself for others? You already know how important it is to practice mindfulness and self-care in your daily life—and now it’s time to start teaching that lesson to your kids too! Here are some simple ways to start: Teach them relaxation techniques like deep breathing or meditation. Encourage healthy habits like exercise, proper nutrition, and adequate sleep. Model these behaviors for them by making time for these activities in your own life! Provide Constructive Feedback As a parent, you have a lot on your plate. It can be hard to make sure that the feedback you give your kids is positive, helpful and constructive. But it’s vital that you try! The most important thing to remember is that kids need to know what they did wrong—but they also need to know how they can improve. When you focus on helping them improve rather than criticizing them, it makes it easier for them to accept your feedback with grace and gratitude. And that’s something they’ll carry with them into adulthood! That’s it, folks! You’ve got everything you need to help your child become a confident, capable person. Remember to celebrate their achievements and help them be independent—this will help them feel empowered and proud of who they are. And remember that every child is unique: tailor these activities to suit their individual personalities. RUCHI RATHOR Founder & CEO Payomatix Technologies Pvt. Ltd. FOUNDER AND INVESTOR \| PAYMENTS PROCESSING EXPERT \| MERCHANT ACCOUNT SOLUTIONS \| WHITE LABELLED PAYMENT GATEWAY \| Dreamer, Creator, Achiever, Constantly Evolving Website Ruchi Rathor: https://ruchirathor.com Website Healing Heart https://thehealingheart.me/
This lesson highlights the importance of monitoring speech. The children identify positive and negative effects of the words they use and are encouraged to use speech only for good. Filter by subjects: Filter by audience: Filter by unit » issue area: find a lesson This lesson will introduce the concept of tikkun olam and teach of its importance. It will show youth that everyone has the ability to do tikkun olam, and that it can be accomplished in a variety of ways. This lesson guides students to recognize the importance of taking care of the world by reducing trash. Students will recognize the benefits of recycling and reusing. In civil society, different people come together to form community. While differences may cause conflict, for the sake of the common good, we practice empathy and respect for others. We use literature to talk about how people from different perspectives see the same thing. We discuss how to... Unit: Best Day Ever! Youth make a chart of how they typically spend a free day and then envision what that same free day would look like when it is infused with philanthropy. They plan a free day, substituting their usual routine with activities that serve the community. They discuss the benefits and... Unit: Cultural Competence Unit: Lunchroom Recycling Plan Students organize and implement a school-based recycling plan based on a one-day lunchroom waste audit. Adapt this one-period lesson plan and follow it with a simple and powerful service project for Earth Day. The reflection... Unit: Earth Keepers Unit: Grow Involved K-2 Children listen to and respond to stories about the value of a home and the difficulties of not having a home. They make painted rocks or other comfort items and give them to a friend or donate them to a local shelter.
Home >> Resources >> Articles >> Climate Anxiety: Raising Awareness Climate Anxiety: Raising Awareness Climate anxiety, or anxiety caused by concern for the effects of climate change, was named the “biggest pop culture trend of 2019” by Grist magazine. Although some may be sceptical of its existence, climate anxiety is real, and it’s having a big impact on the young people of today. With increased media coverage of events such as the United Nations COP26 summit and Extinction Rebellion protests, young people have been called to arms against global warming by inspiring young activists like Greta Thunberg. With increasing concern for the future, young people are frustrated and are demanding positive action against climate change. So, what is climate anxiety? How is it impacting mental health? And what can we do to support young people as they navigate an uncertain future? What is climate anxiety? Climate, or eco-anxiety, is anxiety caused by the perception of climate change. Ranging from a fear of losing homes to an existential concern for the future, climate anxiety can affect anyone who has an awareness of climate change. However, it seems to be particularly prevalent in young people. When the Lancet surveyed 10,000 young people (aged 16-25) across the globe, 100% said they were worried about climate change, with 45% reporting that climate anxiety is having a negative impact on their daily life and functioning. Feeling sad, anxious, angry, powerless, helpless, and guilty, young people are incredibly worried about the future. Perhaps they should be. Climate anxiety is not an unreasonable response to climate change. It may even be necessary to enact movement towards climate positive measures. However, when the anxiety becomes all-encompassing and is significantly impacting day-to-day life, measures should be put in place to manage the negative consequences. Climate anxiety and mental health Climate change is having both direct and indirect effects on young people’s mental health. While increased natural disasters (e.g., wildfires, droughts, hurricanes, heatwaves) can be directly associated with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and/or substance abuse, the uncertainties associated with climate change may also interfere with a young person’s sense of security and purpose. Someone experiencing climate anxiety may feel worried, nervous, or scared for the future. They may also experience low mood related to feelings of hopelessness and/or powerlessness. While these difficulties can develop into a disorder, in most cases, they can be managed at home: If you’re a parent/carer: - Validate the young person’s feelings. Climate change is scary and unpredictable. Avoid reassuring a young person that “everything is going to be ok” … the truth is, you don’t know what’s going to happen. Instead, validate their feelings, acknowledging that climate change is a real threat, and it makes sense to be concerned, but they are not alone. Once validated, help them to gain perspective and ensure they have accurate information about the likely effects of climate change. For example, “Bristol will probably see more rain and hotter summers” is more precise and less scary than “the world is going to burn up and we’re all going to die”. - Empower young people to get involved with climate conscious activities. Whether that’s planting a vegetable patch, volunteering for charity, or litter picking in a local park, engaging in positive climate action will boost mood, motivation, and sense of purpose. If you’re a young person: - Spend time in nature. Multiple studies have shown that nature positively impacts mood and mental health. As well as boosting mental and physical wellbeing, connecting with nature is a great way to stay motivated and hopeful. If you want to do this with others, why not join a local group of young people? - Stay active. Exercise is a powerful tool for reducing stress and anxiety and has been shown to lower the risk of depression. - Keep a thought diary to record any negative thoughts and feelings. What triggered those thoughts? Are they real worries that you can deal with or imagined worries that are out of your control? Take these thoughts to court and assess the evidence for whether they are worth focussing on or not. - Try grounding and relaxation techniques such as deep breathing to reduce anxiety. Off the Record have provided several techniques you could try. - Talk about your concerns with parents and peers. Many people around you are also worried about climate change and talking about it can help you to feel less alone in your concerns. Anxiety is a rational response to climate change. However, whether due to a fear of uncertainty, or predicting the worst, it’s easy for the negative thoughts and feelings to become unbearable. While we can’t predict the future, we can help safeguard our mental health against it by raising awareness and supporting each other to reconnect with ourselves and the world around us. - Visit the BBC Children in Need website for useful links, information, and programmes about climate change and managing climate anxiety (suitable for young children). - Watch David Attenborough’s documentary about climate change, and what we can do about it. - Read about this young person’s experience with climate anxiety, with suggestions on how to cope with the negative emotions. - Listen to a young person describing what it’s like to navigate youth at a time of climate change. - Listen to Verity Sharp and Caroline Hickman as they discuss eco-anxiety and whether it should be reinvented as eco-empathy. - Free support and information can be accessed at Off the Record (Bristol and South Gloucestershire). Article date 26th September 2022 Article written by Imogen Clifford, Assistant Psychologist, Bristol CBT Clinic
While development of renewable energy sources, and how the energy produced may be distributed over our national grids, is advancing at a rapid rate, one problem still remains – what happens to our energy production from renewable sources when the sun sets and the wind stops blowing? One obvious solution would be to use a large energy storage means (e.g. batteries) to help even out energy production when supplies from renewable are low, with such storage mean storing excess energy during times of high production. To provide power for large populous areas or even entire countries, the scale of any such such storage means needs to be huge, and distribution networks set up for varying energy provision between renewable sources and storage batteries. Ultimately though, being able to store energy from renewable sources for hours or even days at a time, and then being able to distribute said energy in times of low supply would be a huge step forward in the use of clean power. It is proposed that new types of iron-based batteries might be up to the task. Oregon-based ESS, who has been investigating national grid storage and supply style batteries, whose batteries can store energy for between 4 and 12 hours, has recently launched its first grid-scale projects. Additionally, Massachusetts-based Form Energy has also recently developed batteries that store power for up to 100 hours. Its first installation will be a one-megawatt pilot plant in Minnesota, slated to be completed this year. Interestingly, both companies rely on batteries that use iron, one of the most abundant materials on the planet. This means that their offerings could eventually be cheaper than other grid storage candidates, like lithium-ion and vanadium flow batteries. Form Energy further believes that its batteries could ultimately cost just $20 (approx. £16) per kilowatt-hour, lower than even optimistic projections for lithium-ion batteries in the next several decades. While many challenges of iron based batteries still need to be addressed, such as the fact iron batteries typically have low efficiency, meaning a good fraction of the energy that’s put into them can’t be recovered, and unwanted side reactions can also degrade them over time, if such iron-based batteries can be deployed widely, at a low enough cost, they could provide a huge step forward in powering more of the world with renewable energy.
What Memories Are Made Of - Published1 Oct 2021 - Source BrainFacts/SfN The brain stores memories by changing how neurons talk to each other. When one neuron fires an actional potential, another neuron activates. Over time, this connection gets stronger. Scientists can watch this play out in real time by stimulating and recording slices of brain tissue. This is a video placed first in the 2021 Brain Awareness Video Contest. Created by Tanja Fuchsberger CONTENT PROVIDED BY The capacity of the brain to learn new information and remember experiences is essential to our existence. Our memory connects our past to the present and prepares for us for the future. It helps animals and humans to adapt to the environment. Almost everything we do relies on it — finding food and knowing how to get it or remembering how to get home. So, the question is: how does the brain store new information? Let's take a look inside! In 1949 the Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb suggested that learning and memory occurs when two connected neurons are activated at the same time or close in time, leading to strengthening of the connection between them. This is often paraphrased as “neurons that fire together, wire together.” A neuron sends an action potential along its axon, causing it to release a neurotransmitter, which the other neuron receives at the synapse, the connection between them. Let's do an experiment where we look at changes in synaptic strength called long term potentiation, or LTP. Here we study this in a rodent brain, but it has been observed in several different species. We prepare brain slices, and the cells in the brain tissue can be kept alive in oxygenated artificial brain fluid for several hours. We pick up a brain slice and place the tissue under a microscope. We look for an area called the hippocampus, which is known to be important for memory. For our experiment, we place an electrode onto the slice to stimulate axons that are connected to a neuron that we will record from. This technique is called patch clamp. First, we position the stimulation electrode. Then we increase the magnification on the microscope so that we can see the cell bodies of individual neurons. We place the patch pipette on the slice. Tiny movements are controlled with a micromanipulator. We now establish a connection between the patch pipette and the membrane of the neuron at the cell body. We open the cell, and we can now monitor and control its electrical activity. But before we start our experiment, let's take a look inside the screen. This is a 3D reconstruction of the neuron. While the patch pipette is located on the cell body, we will be recording signals that the neuron receives far out at its synapses. Now let's start our experiment. We have placed the stimulation electrode on axons and connected it to a stimulation box. The patch pipette is connected to an amplifier, and we can now monitor the activity of the cell. We apply current and induce an action potential. On the postsynaptic cell we record the synaptic response, called excitatory postsynaptic potential, or EPSP. Ion channels and receptors transmit the signals. The amount and location of receptors in the synapse is dynamically regulated and determines the strength of the connection. When a neuron fires an action potential, glutamate is released and opens receptors to let ions flow in. This induces the synaptic potential that we record. To induce LTP here we will use spike-timing dependent plasticity. For this, we induce an action potential in the presynaptic neuron, and immediately after, we induce an action potential in the connected neuron. This protocol is based on Hebb's postulate. But so what does the coincident activation of the two neurons actually do? One important mechanism for LTP is that we have a coincidence detector in the synapse, the NMDA receptor. It is normally blocked by magnesium. However, when the neuron becomes activated, this block is briefly removed. If in this very moment the presynaptic neuron fires an action potential, the receptor opens and allows ions to flow in. This induces downstream signals that lead to the incorporation of more AMPA receptors in the synapse, which increases synaptic strength. We now resume the same stimulation as before the LTP induction. And the magic has happened! The synaptic response has become larger. Synaptic changes are likely determining which cells are activated together and belong to a neuronal ensemble. So maybe this is why the cat knows that there is food in the blue ball!
Soil, or all the “dirt” between the plants and living matter and the bedrock at the bottom, is unbelievably important for forests and all of life on earth. The amount of soil in any given place is constantly changing. Soil builds up from decay and the breakdown of dead plants and animals, and eroding rocks. When rain falls, water runs through the soil and erodes and washes it away. This is an important element of understanding soil health: soil can erode, but it can also be built back up through actions like collecting compost, mulching leaves and grass instead of bagging them, etc. You might think the ground under your feet is solid, but it’s ever-changing. Soil erosion, or the loss of all that important stuff, is a natural phenomenon caused by water and wind but can become more of a problem as humans inhabit and develop more of the planet. If unchecked, erosion can strip away valuable soil and negatively affect the water we consume, our ability to grow food, and the plants, animals, and land around us, all of which depend on soil. Fortunately, there are many ways to encourage soil development and prevent and mitigate the effects of soil erosion, and the subject is one your students will find highly engaging and applicable. Why We Should Be Concerned About Soil Erosion Topsoil is the uppermost layer of soil from which you see plants sprout. Topsoil is critical for 95% of humankind’s food supply and many interdependent plants and animals that rely on it. On much of the world’s most productive agricultural land, almost half of the rich topsoil has disappeared in the last 150 years. Human activities, such as poor farming practices like overgrazing and improper tilling contribute to soil erosion. Climate change also exacerbates soil erosion due to more intense rainfalls and droughts. When soil erosion happens on a large scale, it can also create human-made deserts by forcing out topsoil and leaving behind sandy particles that don’t retain moisture or nutrients well. Sandy soil is more likely to wash away, get carried off in the wind, and become a desert in times of drought. Soils also protect waterways from potentially harmful agricultural chemicals, preventing runoff from harming fish or polluting drinking water sources. Soils that are stripped away of plant vegetation next to waterways can erode, causing sedimentation build-up that may be harmful to fish spawning beds, and can cause costly and dangerous road blockages and potential flooding. Exercise – Geology, Science: This e-booklet from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations includes fun activities and lab experiments for middle and high school students that delves into the topics of soil and erosion. Also consider giving your students a deeper understanding of the soil beneath their feet with these great resources for grades K-12 from the Soil Science Society of America. Younger students will enjoy our hands-on Soil Stories family activity (available for download in either English or Español) by placing soil into a jar with a lid and adding two cups of water. Ask them to predict what will happen if they shake the closed jar and let it settle for a few hours. Then, try it. Have children draw a picture of the layers formed by their soil shake, or collect and test soil samples from other areas (forest, field, yard) for comparison. Next, challenge children to complete the “Soil Composition” diagram, reminding them that the largest particles fall to the bottom first. Soil Erosion Caused by Water There are four types of soil erosion caused by water : - Rill erosion. Water flows over the ground and lifts soil along with it, creating small channels, or rills, that pick up more soil before they deposit sediment in streams and reservoirs. - Gully erosion. Water moves with such force that smaller channels can widen into gullies and cause water to erode even deeper layers of soil. - Sheet erosion happens when water flows downwards and detaches an entire layer of soil. - Bank erosions: This type of erosion happens as water in drainage channel banks cause progressive undercutting, scouring, and slumping, as channel banks fall into the waterway and are washed away. Water erosion also happens along streams or riverbanks when the water flows so powerfully that it picks up chunks of soil along its way. This can alter the surrounding landscape and even the course of a river. Factors that affect the rate of water erosion: - Rainfall intensity. When it rains, water droplets dislodge finer components of soil like sand, silt, and clay. Rainfall that comes down harder or longer is more likely to carry off larger particles of soil like sand and gravel. - Soil condition. Soil’s makeup determines its ability to absorb water. Generally, soil that absorbs water faster and consists of more organic matter or more advanced soil structure has the best resistance to erosion. Soil with richer nutrients is home to fungi, bacteria, rodents, insects, worms, and other organisms that help make it more erosion-resistant. - Slopes. Surface water runoff occurs whenever there’s a slope and excess water can’t be absorbed into the soil. The steeper or longer the slope, the faster water travels and the more sediment it gathers along its way. It’s increased by soil compaction, including when it’s frozen. - Vegetation. Plants can intercept falling rain before it hits the soil, slow water runoff, and their roots bind the soil’s components. Soil Erosion Caused by Wind Wind has its own powerful way of transporting soil. It’s even carried sands from the Sahara Desert in Africa all the way to the Southeastern United States. Wind affects a smaller percentage of land (mainly loose, dry, and bare soil found in arid conditions) by picking up particles of soil in three ways: - Suspension: Tiny particles float high in the air where they can linger for days. If wind scatters seeds or covers seeds and plants in layers of sand, crops can become ruined. When smaller particles blow away from the ground, the soil surface deflates to become lower and rockier. Soil nutrients, along with fertilizer or potentially harmful surface chemicals, can also be carried away with soil or dust and negatively impact elsewhere. - Saltation: Larger particles, like sand, stay close to the ground as the wind moves them in short bursts. When wind drops larger particles onto land, it can damage vegetation and dislodge soil and even seeds. Rocks can roll away, and a topsoil layer can become damaged by partially blowing away or become covered when the wind blows other particles on top of it. - Creep: Wind pushes particles larger than sand along the ground. Wind works as an abrasive and can blow and scrape sediment like sand against rocks and other surfaces, forming interesting shapes. This can also damage young plants. Factors that affect the rate of wind erosion: - Wind speed and duration. The higher the wind speed and the longer the wind blows, the more force it has to carry away soil. - Soil condition. The drier or looser the soil, the greater its risk of blowing away. - Vegetation. Plant roots hold soil together and foliage provides added wind protection. Poor Tillage Practices Tillage erosion can actually do more erosion damage than water or wind alone because some farmers frequently remove such great amounts of soil. As soil is continually tilled, nutrients may be exposed to the air and lost. Improper tilling can also disturb organic and plant life that strengthens the soil, leaving it more erosion-prone. When farmers till their crops up and down slopes, this also creates easy pathways for water runoff and heightens the risk of water erosion. Exercise – Geology, Research, Critical Thinking: What major landscapes were formed by wind and/or water erosion? Compile a list of a few notable examples with your class. Then, ask your students how they believe each landscape was formed. Consider having older students look up these answers themselves or write a research paper on how the landscape of their choice was shaped by water and/or wind erosion. With younger students, look up the answers as a class. How to Prevent Soil Erosion Here are key ways to prevent soil erosion to share with your learners: Revegetate Critical Areas Land is much stronger when plants add roots, nutrients, and coverage to protect it from rainfall and wind. If revegetating, consider choosing trees, shrubs, grasses, or other plants that are native to your area, that develop extensive roots, and cover the ground for the longest amount of time in a year. Laying plant matter like mulch on a landscape can also ease the ground’s ability to absorb water and improve erosion resistance. Exercise – Geology, Science, Critical Thinking: What kind of vegetation might be suitable to help control erosion in your community? What are methods that can help encourage the growth of new vegetation, especially along slopes? Have you seen any of these methods used in your community or where you’ve traveled? If you have ever seen a sign advising you to stick to a trail, what did you think at the time compared to what you think about it now? Support Organizations That Minimize Erosion It’s far easier to prevent soil erosion from happening rather than repair its damaging effects later. Exercise – Civics, Science, Critical Thinking: Are there any organizations you might support in your community, country, or nationwide that work to prevent or fix damage caused by erosion or deforestation? Do you know of any organizations working to vegetate critical areas? Are there any companies you could contact to ask them to take steps to lessen their contribution to soil erosion? For inspiration, discover how these young environmentalists advocated for environmental improvements. One second-grader even changed the way McDonald’s sources their paper products to minimize deforestation in his state! Support Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable agriculture works in greater harmony with the environment. Generally, it values: - Recycling resources as much as possible. This includes converting waste into fertilizer to increase the nutrients in the soil for crops. - Using minimal resources beyond what nature already provides (sun, soil, water, and biodiversity). - Raising a diversity of crops and animals on the same farm. Their interactions benefit each other. - Practicing resilience methods like contour farming to minimize erosive damage. Contour farming involves tilling along row patterns wrapped horizontally along a hill’s contours instead of up and down. Exercise – Agriculture, Science, Critical Thinking: Check out this great resource from the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future: Foodspan for lesson plans for high schoolers that cover important sustainable agriculture topics. Lesson 6 is a particularly great resource and that can be adapted for younger learners. Discover what it looks like when farming nourishes natural ecosystems. Support sustainable farming by incorporating a few simple steps as you see fit: - Eat local and organic. - Contact farmers, agricultural organizations, or university agricultural programs to ask how they’re incorporating techniques like proper tillage, zero net deforestation, sustainable pasturing practices, and what they’re doing to prevent climate change, pollution, and erosion. You can simply listen to increase awareness or take it a step further and advocate that they incorporate more sustainable farming practices to minimize these issues. - Contact local legislators to advocate for sustainable agriculture. - Limit your consumption of meat and animal products. Envision and Build Structures that Control Erosion When designing a project like a road, it’s important that engineers carefully consider environmental factors like slope length, steepness, and underlying and surrounding soil types when creating ways to properly drain or contain excess runoff. Continued maintenance of these structures is critical. Something so small as a crack in a concrete drain can cause water to rush through it and cause a landslide. Some notable water containment or drainage structures include: - Sediment basins - Ditches (Can include rocks for better water flow) - Silt fences. - Specialized ditches (Like a J ditch or drainage interceptor ditch) - Drains (Can be optimized to prevent clogging) Exercises – Science, engineering: Next time you see a parking lot, try predicting where water will drain during the next storm, or will it just pool? What are some other notable examples of human-made methods that minimize the impact of soil erosion in communities or farming? Are there any examples in your own community? Can any of these methods be combined for more efficient erosion control? Can you think of a new method? Let students investigate for themselves which erosion control methods are most effective in this energizing lesson. Fight Climate Change Through Education and Action Rising temperatures contribute to soil erosion in the form of increased weather events: from more frequent and intense hurricanes to less snow and more rain, too much water can increase sediment erosion. Combating climate change can also help prevent soil erosion. Exercises – Art, language arts, music, technology, civics, etc.: - PLT’s Carbon & Climate E-Unit provides activities and resources to help educators introduce students to some of the complex issues involved in climate change. You can also download a free worksheet from the e-unit. - Teaching About Climate Change: Water, Trees, and Wildlife is a reference guide for activities from Project Wet, Project Learning Tree, and Project Wild that can help you explore the topic of climate change with your students. - The National Association of Conservation Districts’ 2019 Poster Contest and Stewardship Week theme was “Life in the Soil: Dig Deeper.” Check out their webpage containing free activity worksheets for Grades K-8, coloring pages, and additional teaching resources. Encourage your students to take action for soil health with these resources: - Climate Kids: What Can We Do to Help?, from NASA, is designated for students in grades K-8. Games, activities, animations, and the latest news on climate change are featured in a kid-friendly format. - Get involved with reuse, reduce, and recycle efforts that help alleviate climate change. Check out this blog for more resources and relevant activities in every subject area. - Incorporate students’ top passion with a way to advance climate justice and journal to discover how they might want to help. Could they film a video that increases awareness of how healthy soil can mitigate climate change? Are they a leader who can create a club working to create change in their school and community? What about creating recycled art projects to draw attention to some important environmental issues? Layers of Soil Graphic (education vector created by brgfx – www.freepik.com) OMAFRA Factsheet: Soil Erosion – Cause and Effect. Order No. 12-053 (link here)
In Chapter 1, we used histograms to analyze a single variable. Can we use them to visualize the relationship between two variables? Or do we need another type of chart to do that? Let's see. Below, there are two histograms, each representing one variable: Can you answer the questions we asked earlier by using these charts? Look at the questions again and then try the exercise. - Is there a relationship between a country's wealth and its alcohol consumption? - What is the relationship? Do wealthier countries drink more or less alcohol than the others? - Are there any untypical countries or groups of countries? For example, are there wealthy countries with a high consumption of alcohol when most wealthy countries have a low consumption? - What values does each variable take? What are the minimal and maximal levels of alcohol consumption and wealth in the country? - Which is the most frequent value?
Prepared by the California Milk Advisory Board Acidity – In cheese, a tart flavor caused by lactic acid. The byproduct of lactose fermentation, lactic acid also helps preserve cheese. All cheeses are tart, each in their own way, except for some fresh, unripened Hispanic-style cheeses. Affinage – The art and science of cheese ripening. It involves providing the right environment, conditions and handling to develop the full flavor of a cheese. An affineur is an individual – typically a middleman, not a cheesemaker – skilled in ripening cheese after it is produced. Aging – Another term for cheese “ripening.” Also used to mean “maturation” or “curing.” (See Ripening) Aged Cheese – Describes a cheese that generally has been aged (or ripened) six months or more. Aging typically causes cheeses to develop a sharper, stronger flavor, which is why the terms aged and sharp are often used interchangeably. (However, some cheeses become milder and sweeter over time.) Artisan Cheese – Refers to cheeses that are handmade in small quantities with respect for the tradition of the cheese. Artisan cheeses can be, but are not necessarily, made from milk obtained from animals located on the farm where the cheese is made. (See Farmstead Cheese) Bacteria – The smallest microscopic organism. Bacteria occur widely in nature and multiply rapidly. Certain species are active agents in fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria are important for cheesemaking as they transform the milk sugar, lactose, into lactic acid and help generate flavor during cheese ripening. Brine – A saturated solution consisting of salt and water used to wash and salt some cheese varieties during cheesemaking. Brine is used to begin forming a rind on cheese and to help inhibit the growth of undesirable bacteria. Brining refers to the process of immersing the cheese in brine, allowing it to slowly absorb salt over time. Casein – The most important protein in milk for cheesemaking. Coagulated casein can hold moisture like a sponge, then shrink and expel moisture when exposed to acid and heat. It is modified during the fermentation and ripening of cheese to create the structure and flavor of the cheese. California Cheese Categories – California cheeses are commonly organized into five categories: Fresh, Soft & Soft-Ripened, Semi-Hard & Hard, Very Hard, and Spiced & Flavored. Cheddaring – A cheesemaking technique, used for Cheddar and some other types, where the drained curds are allowed to mat and knit and then are stacked on top of each other. Cheddaring helps to raise the acidity level in the curd and converts the curd into a firmer structure before milling and pressing. Cheese Sizes & Shapes– There are a number of terms that describe the various sizes and shapes in which cheeses are produced and sold to foodservice and retail. Some common terms are: Block: A standard cheese size weighing 20 or 40 pounds Daisy: Cylinder-shaped wheel of cheese weighing approximately 20 pounds Loaves: Blocks of cheese cut into five-pound sizes Longhorn: Cylinder-shaped cheese weighing approximately 13 pounds Clabber – Clabber essentially means the same thing as curdle, except that clabbered milk is allowed to curdle naturally by souring without adding any rennet or starter culture. It often refers to an old-fashioned version of thickened cream. Coagulation – A process of thickening milk into a custard-like gel by introducing acid or rennet to milk. Coagulant enzymes can be from plant, animal or laboratory sources. Commodity Cheese–Describes popular varieties of cheese typically produced in large quantities with a flavor profile that appeals to the majority of consumers. These cheeses are sold in supermarkets, either as branded products or under private labels, or distributed for foodservice use. In California, Cheddar, Jack and Mozzarella (low-moisture, part-skim form) are popular commodity cheeses. Complexity – Refers to the complexity of a cheese that shapes its flavor. The cheesemaker controls a cheese’s complexity by carefully managing the enzymes in the curd. These enzymes come from the presence of a wide variety of beneficial bacteria introduced through the milk or the starter culture. Further complexity can be created by using good quality raw milk if the cheese is to be aged over 60 days. Creams – as in Single, Double and Triple – Cream refers to the fat-enriched portion of milk. In the U.S. and France, single cream cheese is one that contains 48 to 50 percent butterfat in the dry matter (i.e., after all the water is removed). Double and triple creams are made by enriching milk with cream – double cream is 60 percent butterfat in dry matter and triple cream is 75 percent. (Note: the percentage of butterfat in dry matter can be a confusing guide for understanding how much butterfat you may be eating. The softer the cheese, the higher its moisture content will be. For example, Camembert and Brie contain up to 50 percent water, while hard cheeses like Cheddar contain much less water. So an ounce of Brie may contain less fat than an ounce of Cheddar). Cultured – Describes a food product, like cheese, to which bacterial cultures have been added to develop flavor. Curd – The solids formed in curdled (or coagulated) milk from which cheese is made. Curing – Another term for “ripening.” (See Ripening) David Jacks – A Monterey businessman, landowner and dairyman who in 1882 became the first to commercialize the popular California farmstead cheese that today bears his name – “Monterey Jack.” (See Queso del Pais) Enzymes – Complex compounds released by bacteria during the cheesemaking process that help to break down proteins (proteolytic) or fats (lipolytic). Some enzymes in cheese originate from milk; others such as rennet are added to milk during cheesemaking. Enzymes contribute greatly to flavor complexity. Farmhouse Cheese or Farmstead Cheese – Cheese made on the same farm where the milk is produced. Fat Content – The proportion of fat in a cheese, usually given as a percentage of the dry-matter content of the cheese (i.e. without moisture). Fermentation – The biochemical process by which a microorganism breaks down a complex substance into simpler ones. With cheese, the fermenting agent is beneficial bacteria from the starter culture. The process is called lactic fermentation and refers to the controlled conversion of milk sugar (lactose) into lactic acid. (See Acidity) Fresh Cheeses – A category of California cheeses that are not aged or ripened and retain much of the flavor of fresh milk. These are very soft cheeses and have a water content ranging from 40 to 80 percent. These cheeses should be stored and handled like fresh milk and kept in the refrigerator until use. California makes a wide range of fresh cheeses. Some are excellent for eating, such as Cottage Cheese or water-packed Mozzarella (also called “fresh Mozzarella”), while others are mainly used as ingredients in cooking, such as Mascarpone, Fromage Blanc, Quark and Ricotta. Some Hispanic-style cheeses are fresh cheeses including Queso Fresco (which means fresh cheese) and Panela. Grating Cheese – Generally describes any cheese aged sufficiently to become firm enough to grate, such as Dry Jack and Parmesan. Several Hispanic-style cheeses, such as Cotija Añejo and Enchilado, are dry, crumble easily and are used as a grating cheese in many Mexican dishes. Hard & Semi-Hard Cheeses – A category of California cheeses that includes the broadest range of varieties and styles, including many of the cheeses commonly called table cheese. These include cheeses that may seem fairly soft and creamy, such as Monterey Jack aged up to several weeks, to moderately firm cheeses, such as Gouda aged a month or more, to fairly hard cheeses such as sharp Cheddar that have been aged for many months. Cheeses in this category typically have a water content ranging from 35 to 45 percent. Hispanic-style Cheeses – A broad family of cheeses produced in California that reflect the cheesemaking styles and traditions brought to California from Mexico, Central and South America, and Spain. California is the country’s leading manufacturer of Hispanic-style cheeses, producing more than 25 varieties and styles. A characteristic of some types of Hispanic-style cheeses is that they soften but don’t melt when used in cooking. Lactic Acid – A colorless organic acid (C3H6O3) created by the fermentation of the milk sugar lactose by beneficial lactic acid bacteria in a starter culture used to turn milk into cheese. It gives cheese its acidity and helps preserve cheese. Lactose Sensitivity – A sensitivity some people have to the lactose (milk sugar) in milk. However, most lactose-sensitive people can eat aged, hard cheeses because these cheeses lose all or most of the lactose during the cheesemaking process. Cheeses that are completely or nearly free of lactose include natural hard and semi-hard cheeses, such as Cheddar, Monterey Jack and Gouda, soft-ripened cheeses like Brie, and aged very hard cheeses including Parmesan and Dry Jack. People who are lactose-sensitive are advised to refrain from eating fresh cheeses such as Mozzarella (water-packed), Ricotta and Mascarpone due to their levels of lactose. Lipase – A fat-splitting enzyme added to some varieties of cheese to produce a sharp or piquant flavor. Lipase may be of calf, kid or lamb origin. Lipase is used in cheeses such as Feta, Blue, Romano and Provolone. Milk – A nutritious fluid mammals produce to feed their young. Milk is rich in protein, fats, lactose, vitamins and minerals. The properties vary depending on the species and breed of animal. Cow’s milk is the most common type used for cheesemaking in the U.S. At the retail level, there are several common types of cow’s milk: Whole milk contains about 3.5 percent milk fat. Low- fat milk can be 2 percent milk fat or 1 percent. Nonfat milk (also called skimmed milk) by law must contain less than a half percent of milk fat. Mold – A member of the fungi family that appears on some cheeses by design and on others as a result of improper handling or storage. In certain types of cheese, mold growth – either on the rind or inside of the cheese – is essential to proper flavor and texture development. Most molds that grow on the surface of cheese are harmless and can easily be removed by cutting at least ¼-inch beneath the mold before consumption. It is best to prevent mold growth on cheese (in which mold is not desired) by properly packaging cheese. (See Rind) Natural Cheese – A term used to describe cheese that is made from milk to which salt, enzymes and flavorings can be added. It is the result of the fermentation of milk by adding starter culture, making it a food that changes in flavor and texture over time. Pasta Filata (or Stretched Curd) – A cheesemaking technique in which the curd is stretched or kneaded in hot whey or water to produce a firm, elastic texture. Examples include Mozzarella, Provolone, String Cheese and Oaxaca. Pasteurization – In cheesemaking, a process of heating raw milk to a specific temperature for a set period of time to destroy disease-causing and other undesirable organisms. High Temperature Short Time (HTST) pasteurization involves heating the milk to 161oF (72oC) for 15 seconds, followed by rapid cooling to below 50°F (10oC ). Low Temperature Long Time Treatment (LTLT) pasteurization involves heating the milk to 145oF (63oC) for 30 minutes. Some of the naturally occurring organisms that are important to flavor in cheese are destroyed during pasteurization and are replaced by adding starter cultures (See Starter Culture). Pasturage – Refers to the practice of feeding a milk-producing animal by allowing it to graze on grass growing in a pasture. Planned pasturage describes controlled planting of the fields to standardize feeding. The pasture grasses may later be dried as hay or fermented for winter feed. Natural pasturage describes encouraging native vegetation along with any introduced grasses, thereby creating local, seasonal variations in the milk. (See Silage) pH – The scientific symbol of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. pH 7 is defined as neutral, with declining numbers indicating increased acidity and numbers higher than 7 indicating an alkaline solution. As lactic acid is produced in cheese, the pH decreases. pH is easy to measure and is the most widely used indicator of acid production in cheesemaking. Protein – A complex natural substance composed of amino acids useful in cheesemaking to form the web that holds the nutrients in the cheese and as a food source. (See Casein) Pressing – A cheesemaking term that refers to the process of placing soft, wet cheese curds under pressure to remove whey and minimize fat loss. Many California cheeses, including Monterey Jack, are pressed. Queso – The Spanish word for cheese. Queso del País – A Spanish term describing the simple farmstead-style cheese (literally, “country cheese”) that originated in the late 1700s with the California missions. This type of cheese evolved as a California farmstead cheese and eventually became commercialized under the name “Monterey Jack” cheese in the 1880s. (See David Jacks) Real California Cheese Seal – A seal awarded to California cheesemakers by the California Milk Advisory Board. This seal on cheese packaging assures consumers that they are purchasing a natural cheese, made in California exclusively from California milk. Rennet (Chymosin) – Milk-clotting enzyme added to coagulate milk. Rennet can be either of animal origin (e.g. enzyme from a calf stomach) or microbial origin. Rind – The outer surface of cheese that creates a seal and helps control moisture loss during ripening. Cheese typically falls into four basic categories. - Natural Rinds are created by wiping the surface of the cheese with lard, vegetable oil or olive oil so molds carefully cultivated in the aging room will develop only on the rind. - Rindlesscheeses are made without a rind and vary from fresh cheese (Cream Cheese or Fromage Blanc) to cheese wrapped in leaves or vacuum sealed in plastic. - Smooth Rinds are relatively impervious rinds that seal in moisture and seal out unwanted microbes. - Surface Ripened Rinds fall into two categories. Washed Rind: created by washing the surface of the rind with whey, brine or a beverage such as beer to encourage moisture-loving bacteria, yeasts and molds to colonize on the surface. White or Bloomy Rind: created by adding white mold strains to the curd or wiping the surface. Ripening – Nurturing cheese under ideal conditions and with proper handling to control its development over time. Proper ripening is fundamental to enabling many cheeses to fully develop characteristic flavor, color and texture. Fresh cheeses are not aged. Other terms used for ripening are aging, maturation and curing. Salting – A cheesemaker adds salt during the cheesemaking process to slow the fermentation of lactic acid bacteria and dry the curd by drawing out the whey. Salt enhances flavor and creates surface environments advantageous to rinds. Salt can also be added through the brining process. (See Brine) Silage – Animal feed consisting of chopped corn that is allowed to ferment anaerobically, although wheat, barley, vetch and alfalfa are also used. In most places it is used year-round as part of the feed given to many dairy cows, always in combination with other forms of feed. Soft & Soft-Ripened Cheeses – A category of California cheeses that are typically soft, with a high moisture content (50 to 75 percent water), but have been allowed to mature to various degrees. Soft-ripened cheeses, such as Brie and Camembert, ripen inside of a fluffy white rind caused by adding bacteria, yeast or mold to the surface of the rind. Mild when young, these usually develop a fuller flavor with age and become softer and creamier. Soft cheeses are similar to soft-ripened but do not have the fluffy white mold rind. Teleme is a popular soft cheese created in California. Some soft cheeses are not ripened, such as Cottage cheese, Ricotta, Quark and Mascarpone. Specialty Cheese – A Specialty Cheese is a natural cheese that commands a higher price than a commodity cheese because of its high quality, limited production and value-added production techniques or ingredients. Specialty cheeses can be unique varieties of cheese (i.e. Camembert, St. George, Teleme) or specialized versions of popular cheeses such as Cheddar, Jack or Mozzarella (i.e. raw milk Cheddar, Dry Jack, high-moisture Mozzarella). This category also includes artisan and farmstead cheeses. Specialty cheeses are typically sold as branded products in specialty food stores and in supermarket gourmet cases. Spiced & Flavored Cheeses – A category of California cheeses that includes natural cheeses to which the cheesemaker has added natural spices, herbs or vegetables during the cheesemaking process. A number of popular California cheeses are produced in spiced and flavored forms. Popular flavors include jalapeno, garlic, herb, pesto and black pepper. California produces more than 80 types of spiced and flavored cheeses. Starter Culture – Selected strains of harmless living bacteria – mostly lactic acid bacteria – that are added to milk as one of the first steps in the cheesemaking process in order to preserve the nutrients from spoilage through controlled fermentation. These bacteria consume the milk sugar lactose, transforming it into lactic acid, while enzymes in the culture transform proteins to build the structure that holds the nutrients. Starter enzymes contribute to flavor development in cheese. Terroir – A French term meaning “of the soil” that is commonly used to refer to the many diverse natural influences on a food’s flavor development – soil composition, microclimate, geographical location, native microbiology and even local cultural practices. In Europe, terroir has a more precise meaning with somewhat different connotations than it does in the U.S. Very Hard Cheeses – A category of California cheeses that includes aged cheeses that are hard enough to grate or crumble. Romano is included here, as is Dry Jack, a popular California original often used in place of Parmesan. Cotija Añejo and Enchilado are Hispanic-style very hard cheeses. Water content of very hard cheeses will be 30 percent or less. Washed-Rind – A cheese whose surface is sprayed or rinsed regularly with water, brine, beer, wine or other liquid during ripening. This technique encourages the growth of certain micro- organisms and affects flavor and texture. Examples of California washed-rind cheese are Schloss and Red Hawk. (See Rind) Whey – The liquid byproduct of producing cheese. Because whey contains significant proteins, lactose and minerals, it is increasingly being used as an ingredient in producing other foods. Whey is often used to make Ricotta.
Europa has been in the news a lot this past week, with the discovery of apparent plumes of water vapour erupting from its surface, similar to those on Saturn’s moon Enceladus. An exciting find, given that this moon has a global ocean of water covered by its icy crust. There was also the first detection of clay-type minerals on Europa’s surface. Now, another discovery shows that Europa may be similar to Earth in yet another way – the first other known world to have active plate tectonics, it was announced last Friday at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco. Why is this significant? Plate tectonics can provide a way for nutrients to be carried from the surface down into the waters below, just as they do on Earth. According to planetary scientist Alyssa Rhoden, a NASA postdoctoral program fellow, “What’s exciting is that this would be the only other place outside of Earth where a plate-tectonic-style system is occurring.” Scientists have known for some time that Europa has a relatively young surface which is being replenished somehow by new, fresh ice. It is thought that this ice is coming up through features called dilational bands, which are long cracks on the surface. There are thousands of them, making Europa look like a giant cracked eggshell. The new ice also keeps Europa’s surface remarkably smooth with very few craters. New studies now suggest that the dilational bands behave in a similar way to Earth’s tectonic plates. New ice rises up through the cracks to the surface, but where does the old ice go? Planetary scientist Simon Kattenhorn of the University of Idaho explained what they think is happening during their presentation for the AGU meeting: “Unless Europa has been expanding within the last 40 to 90 million years, there has to be some process on this icy moon that’s able to accommodate a large amount of new surface area being created at dilational bands.” That process would be similar to what happens along mid-ocean ridges on Earth, where crustal tectonic plates meet together. New crust, or in Europa’s case, ice, is forced upward through the spaces between the plates where it forms newer crust. Older crust in turn is then forced back down into the Earth’s mantle in places where a continental plate meets an oceanic plate. In this process, called subduction, the oceanic plate is pushed below the continental plate. This whole exchange is an efficient global recycling between old and new material. Now for the first time, what appear to be subduction zones have been identified on Europa as well, by Kattenhorn and his colleagues. This is important, since organic material, also just found on Europa’s surface for the first time, and nutrients could then have a way of making it down below the surface and into the water deep below. This of course has a direct bearing on the possibility of life in Europa’s ocean. Minerals necessary for life are likely present on the rocky ocean bottom as well since the rocky mantle is thought to be in direct contact with the ocean water just like on Earth. There may still be another explanation for the observations, but this and other evidence continues to show that Europa is a geologically active little world instead of just a frozen ice ball as once believed. And maybe, just maybe, a living one as well. This article was first published on Examiner.com.
Jami McLing, BHP Teacher Instinctively, teenagers can be argumentative. They think they’re always right and most don’t shy away from a verbal fight. However, their argument often lacks “bite” and consists of opinions fueled by emotion. The debate activity Has the Scientific Revolution Ended? from Lesson 8.3 provides a terrific opportunity for students to learn how to argue with purpose. Our students love the activity because it’s an excuse for them to practice their argumentation skills, and in the context of a juicy question. They’re challenged to think critically about questions that have seemingly obvious answers (like, “what counts as science?”) and consider their role in historical narratives. This is the first time many of our students have debated so we are careful about how we set it up: - Ask Questions: After introducing the debate question, groups answer a set of questions. a. How do you define a scientific revolution? b. What counts as science? c. What is a revolution? d. How do we know if we are in the midst of a revolution? e. How do we know when something in history began and ended? - Research: Students spend a day gathering evidence to support their position using BHP’s claim testers—authority, evidence, logic, and intuition. We check in with each group frequently to remind and encourage them to support their claims with concrete evidence from the Big History site or by using credible outside sources. This is always a fun step because preconceived notions about a position can be changed, much to a student’s surprise. - Debate: Each group gets 5 minutes to present their opening statement, rebuttal, and closing statement. Because this is the first time most of our students have been exposed to debating, we modify the debate format presented in Unit 8. Instead of giving 5-15 minutes for rebuttals, we give 20-25 minutes. - Reflection: After the debate, students vote on which side made the best argument and write up a short reflection on why that side “won” and how they could’ve made their argument even stronger. Not only does this activity help develop a student’s argumentative, research, and presentation skills, but it also provides an exciting opportunity for them to go head-to-head with their peers and battle it out. After all, who doesn’t love a good dose of healthy competition. About the author: Jami McLing has been teaching history at her middle school in Idaho Falls, Idaho, since 2007. She has been teaching Big History since 2013. She teaches the year-long BHP course to eighth graders in two 50-minute classes per day.
Division Lesson Plans \|Math Trails\|\|Division Word Problems\| \|Division Crossnumbers\|\|Tic Tac Toe Division Math\| \|Division Starter Workbook\|\|Division Theme\| \|Division Bingo\|\|Division Worksheets\| \|Math Puzzle Maker\| - Checking Division- Students learn that multiplication is the inverse operation of division. - Connecting Division And Multiplication- Understand the relation between division and multiplication. Verbally state what an makes up an inverse operation and a fact family. Identify an example of a fact family. - Divisions of Generosity- This lesson uses THE DOORBELL RANG, by Pat Hutchins to teach the concepts of generosity and fairness. Students apply the concept of generosity and fairness to a lesson on division. - Double This- Does doubled mean to multiply? Does quotient mean subtraction or division? This activity will provide students practice in changing verbal expression to algebraic equations. - Dynamic Divisibility- Students learn the rules of divisibility for the numbers 2,3,5,6,9 and 10. Students use these rules to check large numbers for their divisibility. - Manipulating Formulae...Using Recipes To Understand- The student will develop a tentative understanding of writing and using formulae. - Fact Family Connection- Students explore the relationship of multiplication and division using arrays. - Family at Home- Students write a family of multiplication and division facts on a piece of paper cut in the shape of a house. - Far Out Fact Families- The student explores related multiplication and division facts. - Gearing Up- In mathematics, a ratio is a comparison of two numbers by division. A gear ratio can be expressed as a ratio to solve real-world problems. - Learning to Use Division (Division Unit Rationale)- Division is a profound topic that is of great importance in a student's learning career. To some, it is one that is learned with great ease and without obstacles to surpass along the way, while for others it is the topic that makes them cringe and never want to look at a single math problem ever again. - Long Division - Students will solve long division problems with whole numbers and/or decimals. - Long division and why it works- The ideas in this division lesson are taken from Multiplication Division 2 ebook. - Making Cents of Division- Students will use pennies as manipulatives to solve simple division problems. They will create division number sentences to correspond with each exercise. - Multiplication & Division Word Problems Made Easy- This lesson helps students determine when to multiply or divide when solving real-world problems. The student will explore why they multiply or divide. - On Target- Students recall division facts. - Relating Division And Subtraction Lesson Plan- Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able to relate the process of division to subtracting equal groups - Roll a Fact- Students will write multiplication and division fact families for two given numbers. - Shopping for Skills- The students will solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers and decimals using a grocery flyer from the newspaper. The students will select the appropriate operation to solve specific problems. - What to Do with Leftovers- Students use unifix cubes to explore division with remainders to solve real world story problems. - Which Way Am I Walking?- Students learn the concept of inverses through a real-world example, then relate it specifically to multiplication and division. - Yummy Division- Students divide M&M's into groups and write division sentences to show what they have done.
All schools in England must be able to demonstrate how well they support children’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. This is something that is of particular importance to Ofsted.These aspects of education teach pupils to understand, be part of and contribute to their local and global communities. SMSC helps pupils to define who they are, the part they play in the world, and their own motivations and perspective on life. Educational school trips can help facilitate SMSC development in various ways. What does SMSC mean for schools? Firstly, what do each of the different aspects of spiritual, moral, social and cultural development mean, and what are primary pupils expected to understand? Spiritual: The opportunity to explore beliefs and faiths (religious or otherwise), feelings and values; learning how to respect other faiths; enjoy learning about oneself, others and the world; use imagination and creativity and reflect on experiences. Moral: The opportunity to recognise and learn what is right and wrong and apply this understanding; respect the law; understand consequences; investigate moral and ethical issues; offer reasoned views and appreciate the views of others. Social: The opportunity to use a range of social skills in different contexts to participate in the local community and beyond; appreciate diverse viewpoints; participate, volunteer and cooperate; resolve conflict; develop and demonstrate skills and attitudes that will allow them to participate fully in and contribute positively to life in Britain. Cultural: The opportunity to explore and appreciate cultural influences and the range of different cultures they will meet; appreciate the role of Britain’s parliamentary system; participate in cultural opportunities; understand, accept, respect and celebrate diversity. An understanding of British values through SMSC development is also an Ofsted requirement. The fundamental British values are: The rule of law Tolerance of those of different faiths and beliefs How SMSC school trips contribute to pupil development Educational school trips often cover a particular subject area, but many trips will also contribute to pupils’ SMSC development. Visits to local places of worship will ensure that pupils have a good understanding of different religions by experiencing them first-hand. They will have an awareness of others’ beliefs and learn to show empathy with them. Also, places and objects of natural beauty can create a sense of awe and wonder in children, for example, a trip to the Eden Project or The Heights of Abraham. Any school trip will provide pupils with the opportunity to socialise with peers they may not normally socialise with, as well as others. They will meet new people, and build relationships and friendships. School trips widen pupils’ horizons, encourage collaboration, and allow pupils to get involved in what may be a completely new experience. By visiting art galleries, museums, and places of historical significance pupils develop an understanding of a world and a time outside their own. These types of trips provide opportunities for surprise and wonder and to see how the modern world has evolved. Pupils become culturally aware of their heritage, modern Britain and the world. For an SMSC school trip focusing on culture, we would recommend Shakespeare’s Family Homes, or National Galleries Scotland. Share your thoughts on how SMSC school trips contribute to pupils’ overall SMSC development in the comments below, on Facebook or on Twitter.
Ultra-high vacuum refers to pressures lower than 10−7 pascal or 100 nanopascals (one ten-millionth of a pascal). By comparison, atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (kilopascals), more than a billion times greater, the pressure inside a light bulb is about 1 pascal, and the pressure in the walls of a thermos is about 0.1 pascals. Even outer space in the area around Earth isn't an ultra-high vacuum, as it has a pressure of about 100 micropascals, a thousand times greater than in an ultra-high vacuum. In an ultra-high vacuum, the mean free path of each gas molecule is 40 km, so these molecules will collide many times with the walls of their chamber before colliding with each other. Ultra-high vacuum is primarily used for surface analytic techniques, such as Auger electron spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, thermal desorption spectroscopy, angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy, and thin film growth techniques requiring high purity, such as molecular beam epitaxy and UHV chemical vapor deposition. Ultra-high vacuum is also used in particle accelerators to create an empty beam path. Creating an ultra-high vacuum requires extraordinary measures. Special chamber designs minimize surface area, high-speed pumps, including parallel pumps, must be used, high conductance tubing is used for pumps, pits of trapped gas (as in bolt threads) must be eliminated, chamber walls must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures to avoid sublimation of gases trapped in nanoscopic pockets, all metal parts must be electropolished, low-outgassing materials such as stainless steel must be used, and the system must be baked at 250 °C to 400 °C (482 °F to 752 °F) to remove hydrocarbon or water traces. Outgassing — the slow intrusion of gas molecules through tiny cracks in the chamber — can be a major problem. Some chambers may be incapable of producing an ultra-high vacuum because of the way they were fabricated, and the hardware must be thrown out and replaced. For all these reasons, achieving ultra-high vacuum can be expensive and difficult. Although ultra-high vacuum may seem extreme, some environments are an even better vacuum, including the surface of the Moon and interstellar space. Some regions of space, such as the Boötes void, are so rarefied that there is only one atom per cubic meter.
Machine Learning has become very popular in computer engineering circles, and it is one of the integral concepts of Artificial Intelligence. Whether you are someone from the computer science field or an outsider, if computers, smartphones are a part of your life, you must’ve heard the term several times by now. So what is Machine Learning? Technically speaking, Machine learning is nothing but a specific subset of AI. Learning here stands for the machine and not the coder. It is the process of training a machine to learn. AI and Machine Learning are vital for each other’s existence. Their coexistence makes AI devices a possibility. If you have been using the internet and smart devices for quite some time, these are some of the questions that you might have asked yourself several times: - How does Facebook know which item I last viewed on Amazon? - How does Instagram know which restaurant I visited last time? - How do Tesla cars drive on their own? - How are streaming platforms like Netflix able to generate streaming recommendations? The answer to all these questions and many more similar questions in Machine Learning. Reading mere definitions is not enough to understand Machine Learning, and it is best understood through its applications. To start with, machine learning is now a new concept. It has always been there since the invention of computers. The great thing about Machine Learning is that it backs the theory that computers can learn without being programmed to perform specific tasks. Now, programming is certainly one of the most complex tasks, if not the most complex tasks in the world of computing. For every specific task, thousands of lines of code have to be written, which is why for any new problem, the industry has to spend a lot of time finding the right logic for writing the problem-specific program. Machine Learning eradicates all these problems, and concepts like Big Data play an important role in it. Why is Machine Learning Important? The importance of Machine Learning has been realized by one and all. It contributes to an increase in available data varieties, helps develop cheaper and more powerful computational processing, and provides affordable data storage. These are the very few of many advantages that Machine Learning has. There are certain requirements for creating good machine learning systems. These requirements are: - Automation and iterative processes - Data preparation capabilities - Ensemble Modelling Technical Terms in Machine Learning Label: Label is the technical term for a target. Feature: Feature is nothing but what we know as a variable in statistics. In today’s world, every official work involves the use of computers, and this has paved the path for the entry of machine learning in different sectors. Some of the sectors that will see extensive use of Machine Learning in the future include - Government Operations - Oil and gas - Financial Services There are several methods used in Machine Learning. We’ll see 4 main methods. Supervised Learning: Supervised learning is the type of learning where algorithms are trained using labeled examples. This is used in cases where the desired output is unknown. In such a case, the output depends on the input. This means that there can be different outputs based on the input. In such a case, the learning algorithm receives inputs along with the corresponding correct outputs. Equipped with inputs and outputs, the algorithm actually finds the error by comparing actual output with correct outputs. The model is then automatically modified, and methods like classification, regression, prediction, and gradient boosting are used to predict the label’s values on additional unlabeled data. This type of learning is mainly used when there is a requirement for future predictions based on historical actions. Unsupervised Learning: Unsupervised learning is quite the opposite of Supervised learning. It is used in cases where the data has no historical labels. The system doesn’t have the “right answer,” and it is up to the algorithm to figure out what is shown. The learning is aimed at finding some structure or pattern within after analyzing the data. Unsupervised Learning is particularly used in the case of Transactional data. This is very helpful in cases where you can classify more segments with similar attributes. It may be anything like the age group of people going for a walk at 10 AM. Similarly, learning can also be used to find attributes that separate people of the same age group from each other. Self-organizing maps, nearest-neighbor mapping, k-means clustering, and singular value decomposition are some popular techniques used in this learning. These are the two main types of learning. Apart from this, there are two main learnings, namely Semi-Supervised learning and Reinforcement learning.
Today I asked the children to retell The Very Hungry Caterpillar using props on the whiteboard. We had days of the week labels and next to each day we put the foods that the caterpillar ate. The children are showing a good understanding of the story now and are able to repeat the story succinctly. Following the retell we talked about what a cycle is and that it is like a circle. I asked the children to remember back to the beginning of the story and what the caterpillar started out as. They said it started as an egg and then hatched into a caterpillar. I told the children that that was the larva stage and when the caterpillar goes into the cocoon that it’s called a pupa. The adult caterpillar is a butterfly. We went to the activity tables and used a paper plate to make a butterfly life cycle. We cut out two leaf shapes and used tiny foam balls as eggs. We wrapped a pipecleaner around a pencil to make the caterpillar. We drew a cocoon onto brown card and cut it out. The butterfly was a piece of tissue paper with a second pipecleaner wrapped around it. Earlier in the week we had watched Eric Carle’s 40th anniversary talk on YouTube. In the short video he showed how he used tissue paper to make the caterpillar in his story. We used tissue paper to create some of our own caterpillars in a similar style. We added a red head first and drew on facial features and antennae. Then we glued on two different shades of green circles to form the caterpillar’s body. We added legs to the base and hairs on top to make our caterpillars fuzzy. They came up a treat, each with their on individual characteristics. We put them on display with the paper chain caterpillars we made earlier in the week. At the end of the day we used some cards I had made up to once again retell the story. I made these cards by doing a colour photocopy of the pages of the book and then gluing them to black card. They are backed with Velcro so they will stick to the felt boards. The children enjoyed a new way of showing that they knew the story well.
Proportional Area Chart (Half Circle) A Proportional Area Chart (Half Circle) is a variation of Proportional Area Chart (Circle), where one measure is represented as a circle. Representing two data sets in one circle (half circle each), this visualisation is useful for comparing two data sets (I,II in the input type) within one category and as well between different categories (A,B,C in the input type). Two data sets are often two different years or two contrary concepts (A/A’, male/female, etc.) It is also possible to use it for only one category (one circle).
Wild Earth: Thunderstorms This week, start learning about our wild Earth by exploring thunderstorms! Each image below links to a strand of learning: - Use the ‘All About Thunderstorms’ Powerpoint to make notes and learn new facts - Use the ‘How Thunderstorms Happen’ activity sheet to apply what you are learning and create your own thunderstorms diagram - Use the ‘Further Research’ website to add to your notes. Once finished, think about what skills you can use to present this learning? Will you create a weather report for the local news or a news broadcast detailing a particularly bad thunderstorm? Use video or voice recording to help you! - Watch the ‘BBC Bring the Noise’ video to inspire you to make home-made instruments – can you make instruments at home using boxes, containers, dry pasta or rice to create a rainmaker? How will you create thunder? Video your ‘thunderstorm’ instruments when complete! Wild Earth: Natural Disasters This week, continue learning about our wild Earth by exploring natural disasters! Each image below links to a strand of learning: - Use the ‘Tsunamis’ Powerpoint and YouTube video to make notes and learn new facts - Use the ‘Tsunami Experiment ‘ sheet to make your own model of a working tsunami! - Use the ‘Further Research’ website to add to your notes. Learn about the ‘Ring of Fire’ as well as further detail of tsunamis around the world. Can you write an explanation text on what creates a tsunami or even record a news report based on one of the tsunamis that have happened around the world? - How do you create waves in artwork? Watch the video below showing how to paint waves using acrylic paints – can you use different art supplies at home to create your own images of waves? Use paint and bubbles, or chalks and crayon: the possibilities are endless! Tweet your art work when you’re done! The Romans: Invasions This week, start learning about The Romans by exploring invasions! Each image below links to a strand of learning: - Use the ‘The Invasions’ Powerpoint and the linked resources (The Roman Invasion of Britain & The Spread of the Roman Empire) to make notes and learn new facts - Use the ‘Roman Soldiers’ task sheet to learn about their armour and the ways in which they kept themselves safe - Use the ‘Further Research’ website to add to your notes. What do you think it would have been like to live through the Roman Invasion? Can you write letters or diary entries as if you lived through the time? - Make your OWN Roman Shield! Click the image, watch the video and follow the instructions for some Design & Technology: Roman style! The Romans: Boudicca This week, continue learning about The Romans by finding out all about Boudicca’s Rebellion! Each image below links to a strand of learning: - Learn who Boudicca was and what lead to her rebellion using the Powerpoint - Use the two linked resources to the Powerpoint about Boudicca to learn about the people involved at the time and begin to write from their perspectives - Click the ‘Further Research’ to watch a video linked to Boudicca and the Roman Invasion. Add to your notes – can you create an information text of your own sharing what you have learnt? Or perhaps write a speech from Boudicca’s perspective? - Learn all about Roman Mosaics – read the information before carrying the written activity and finally designing and making your OWN mosaic. We’d love to see your finished Mosaics on Twitter!
Diving as a lifestyle has evolved many times in the animal kingdom, and the ecology of all diving animals is essentially shaped by how long they can hold their breaths. According to new research, the world’s diving animals — from small insects to giant whales — are all governed by a number of similar principles. Using the largest dataset ever compiled, an international team of scientists has examined how metabolic constraints govern the diving performance of air-breathing aquatic species, all of which have evolved to maximise the amount of time they can spend underwater. They discovered that maximum dive duration increases predictably with body mass in all animals, but the rate at which this happens depends on metabolic mode. Ectotherms — cold-blooded creatures such as amphibians, reptiles and insects — can remain submerged for longer at a given body mass, but the impact of an increase in body mass on dive duration in warm-blooded endotherms — including birds and mammals — is far more pronounced. Writing in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, scientists say their findings constitute a new fundamental principle of evolutionary physiology, showing that the same ‘rules’ govern the evolution of diving in animals as different as water beetles and walruses. They also say it may partly explain why many warm-blooded diving animals — including modern whales but also extinct reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs — evolved relatively large body sizes, as increases in size led to greater relative increases in dive duration. The research was completed at the University of Plymouth (UK), and led by an international team of scientists now based at Radboud University (Netherlands), Université du Québec à Rimouski (Canada) and Plymouth’s School of Biological and Marine Sciences. They compiled and analysed 1,792 records for 286 species, including 62 ectotherms and 224 endotherms, and tested whether the globally recognised oxygen store/usage hypothesis — which suggests that larger animals are able to dive for longer and deeper — applies to all diving animals, irrespective of their evolutionary origin and metabolic mode. Lead author Dr Wilco Verberk, an Assistant Professor at Radboud University, said: “Our work provides an unprecedented analysis of the ecology of diving behaviour from a metabolic perspective, with far-reaching implications. It demonstrates that body mass and temperature affect dive duration in a similar manner in species as evolutionarily distant as insects, reptiles, birds and mammals. This shows the same general physical and physiological principles have shaped the evolution of diving in all animal groups, both ancient and modern, constituting a new fundamental principle for evolutionary physiology.” Senior author David Bilton, Professor of Aquatic Biology at the University of Plymouth and an expert on aquatic beetles, added: “Our results change our understanding of diving in animals significantly, and help us better disentangle what shapes the ecology and evolution of both extant and extinct divers. It shows that large body size and the increased oxygen storage capacity that goes with it, permit longer dives, opening many previously inaccessible aquatic ecosystems to large bodied air breathers and provides a possible explanation as to why many warm-blooded diving animals tend to be relatively large.”
I recently wrote an article on the urinary system. In that article I mentioned the kidneys as one of the organs involved in that system. This article focuses exclusively on the kidneys and entails specific information and facts about the kidneys. What are the kidneys The kidneys are organs of the renal system. They are two (2) bean-shaped organs that play a major role in this system. They are located on either side of your spine, below the ribs and behind the abdomen. Each kidney is about four to five inches long, which is roughly the dimensions of a hefty fist. What Do the Kidneys Do The kidneys assist the body pass waste as urine. They also help filter blood before returning it back to the heart. The kidneys perform many critical functions, including: regulating and filtering minerals from blood, maintaining overall fluid balance, generate hormones that help produce red blood cells, filtering waste materials from food, medications, and toxic substances, promote bone health, and regulate blood pressure. All of the blood of the body passes through them a number of times a day. How Do the Kidneys Function Blood flows into the kidney, waste gets removed, and salt, water, and minerals are adjusted, if needed. This filtered blood returns back into the body. The waste gets turned into urine that collects in the kidney’s pelvis which is a funnel-shaped structure that drains down a tube called the ureter a tube of muscle that pushes urine into the bladder. Each kidney has around a million (1,000,000) tiny filters called nephrons. Nephrons are the most important part of the kidneys. They absorb blood, metabolize nutrients, and help pass out waste products from filtered blood. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons and each has its own internal set of structures. After blood enters a nephron, it goes into the Malpighian body, also called a renal corpuscle. The renal corpuscle contains two additional structures: - The glomerulus. This is a collection of capillaries that take in protein from blood traveling through the renal corpuscle. - The Bowman capsule. The residual fluid, called capsular urine, proceeds through the Bowman capsule into the renal tubules. The renal tubules are a sequence of tubes that begin after the Bowman capsule and end at collecting ducts. Each tubule has several parts: - Proximal convoluted tubule. This section takes up water, sodium, and glucose and places them back into the blood. - Loop of Henle. This section further takes up potassium, chloride, and sodium and places them into the blood. - Distal convoluted tubule. This section takes in more sodium into the blood and takes in potassium and acid. By the time fluid reaches the tip of the tubule, it’s diluted and crammed with urea. Urea is byproduct of protein metabolism that is released in urine. Disorders of the Kidneys As you can see, the kidneys perform a major in the overall function of the body. The body simply becomes overloaded with toxins if the kidneys can’t do their regular job. Because of all of the crucial functions the kidneys execute and the toxins they meet, the kidneys are subject to various problems. Some of these conditions are: Chronic renal disorder – is the progressive and irreversible destruction of the kidneys. As mentioned earlier each kidney contains about 1 million tiny filtering units, called nephrons. Any disease that injures or scars the nephrons is capable of causing kidney disease. Both diabetes and high blood pressure (hypertension) can damage the nephrons. High blood pressure can also damage the blood vessels of the kidneys, heart, and brain. The kidneys are highly vascularized, meaning they contain a lot of blood vessels. So, blood vessel diseases in general are dangerous to the kidneys. Autoimmune diseases such as lupus can damage blood vessels and can make antibodies against kidney tissue. There are various other causes of CKD. For example, renal disorder may be an explanation of CKD. Glomerulonephritis can be due to lupus. It can also appear after a streptococcal infection. The risk of CKD increases for individuals older than age 65. The condition is also hereditary. It is more likely to occur in African-Americans, Native Americans, and Asian-Americans. Other risk factors for CKD include: - cigarette smoking - high cholesterol - kidney stones - diabetes (types 1 and 2) - cirrhosis and liver failure - narrowing of the artery that supplies your kidney - obstructive kidney disease, including bladder obstruction caused by benign prostatic autoimmune disease - kidney cancer - bladder cancer - kidney infection - systemic lupus erythematosus - vesicoureteral reflux, which occurs when urine flows back into the kidney Kidney stones – Also known as renal calculi, are solid masses made of crystals. They usually originate in the kidneys. However, they can develop anywhere along the urinary tract, which consists of: Kidney stones are one of the most painful of medical conditions. The causes of kidney stones differ according to the type of stone. Not all kidney stones are made up of the identical crystals. The different types of kidney stones include: Calcium – These are the most common. They are often made from calcium oxalate (though they will contain calcium phosphate or maleate). Eating fewer oxalate-rich foods can reduce the risk of developing this type of stone. High-oxalate foods include: - potato chips However it is important to note that, even though some kidney stones are made of calcium, getting enough calcium in your diet can prevent stones from forming. Uric acid – This type of kidney stone is more widespread in men than in women. They can arise in people with gout or those going through chemotherapy. This form of stone develops when urine is just too acidic. A diet heavy in purines can raise urine’s acidic level. Purine a colorless substance found in animal proteins, like fish, shellfish, and meats is the culprit. Struvite – This particular type of stone is found mostly in women with urinary tract infections (UTIs). These stones are often large and cause urinary obstruction. They are a consequence from a kidney infection. The treating of an underlying infection can prevent the progression of struvite stones. Cystine – Cystine stones are rare. They occur in both males and females who have the genetic disease cystinuria. With this type of stone, cystine — an amino acid that materializes naturally in the body, leaks from the kidneys into the urine instead of remaining in the bloodstream. The greatest risk factor for kidney stones is making under 1 liter of urine per day. Kidney stones are most presumably to occur in people between the ages of 20 and 50. Different factors can increase the risk of developing a stone. In the US, Caucasian people are more likely to be inflicted with kidney stones than African American people. Sex additionally plays a role. More men than women develop kidney stones, consistent with the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). A history of kidney stones can increase the risk. So does a family history of kidney stones. Other risk factors include: - hyperparathyroid condition - gastric bypass surgery - a steady diet with excessive levels of protein, salt, or glucose - inflammatory bowel diseases that increase calcium absorption - consuming medications like triamterene diuretics, antiseizure drugs, and calcium-based antacids Symptoms of kidney stones may not occur until the stone begins to maneuver down the ureters. Kidney stones are known to cause severe pain. This severe pain is called renal colic. There may be pain on one side of the back or abdomen. In men, the pain may expand to the groin area. The pain of this condition comes and goes, but is intense. Individuals with renal colic tend to be restless. Other symptoms of kidney stones can include: - discolored or foul-smelling urine - blood in the urine (red, pink, or brown urine) - urinating small amounts of urine - frequent need to urinate Other kidney conditions include: - kidney failure - acute nephritis - polycystic kidney disease - urinary tract infections - kidney cysts - nephrotic syndrome Symptoms of a Kidney Disorder Kidney disorders can cause a range of symptoms. Some general ones include: - back pain - trouble sleeping - inability to concentrate - increased or decreased urination - dry, itchy skin - blood in urine - constant foamy urine - foot or ankle swelling - puffiness around the eyes - reduced appetite - muscle cramps An individual that experiences any of the above symptoms should contact their physician. Depending on the symptoms, he or she may do some kidney function tests to make a diagnosis. Maintaining Healthy Kidneys The kidneys are crucial organs and they affect many other body parts, including the heart. If we follow these tips it will help to keep them working efficiently: Exercise – High blood pressure (Hypertension) is a known risk factor for chronic renal disorder. Regular exercise, even for just 20 minutes each day, can help reduce hypertension. Stay hydrated – Drinking adequate amounts of water helps the kidneys perform one of their most important functions: removing toxins. Learn more about what proportion of water you ought to be drinking a day. Use medications with caution – Regularly taking certain over-the-counter medications like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, can cause kidney damage over time. Occasionally taking them is all right, but work together with your doctor to seek out alternatives if you’ve got a condition that needs pain management, such as arthritis. - Eat less red meat – Red meat contains a hefty amount of iron, which can be really good for overall health, however, eating too much of it can damage the kidneys over time. This may be due to the fact that red meat produces too much dietary acid. - Drink less soda – Soda contains copious amounts of sugar, artificial color, and sodium. It has very little nutritional value. Staying hydrated is crucial for kidney health, but it is better to get hydration from water rather than sugary sodas. Drinking two or more sodas a day doubles the risk of kidney disease. Cola in addition contains phosphoric acid which has been confirmed to increase the risk of developing kidney disease. It is wise to limit soda intake to one can per week. - Eat less shellfish – Fish and shellfish are a good source of protein, but, a 2014 study in the Journal of the American Society of Nephrology found that shellfish contain a toxic chemical called domoic acid. A condition:“Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning” can occur when too much shellfish is consumed, and this toxin can do irreparable harm to the kidneys. It’s the kidneys’ job to flush out toxins from your body, excessive amounts of this domoic acid passing through the kidneys, can simply overtax the system. - Consume less salt – Eating too much salt can considerably increase the risk of developing kidney disease. Consuming excessive salt changes the level of sodium in the blood which can cause the kidneys to struggle to flush out excess water. It is wise to reduce salt intake, by eating fewer processed foods, cook at home more instead of eating out, and use herbs to add flavor to food to avoid relying too heavily on salt. Processed foods also contain high amounts of potassium and phosphorus. - Limit energy drinks – Energy drinks contain lots of caffeine. Excess caffeine yields high blood pressure and stress, both of which lead to kidney damage. Another worry circles around the amino acid taurine. Frequently found in energy drinks and sports supplements, taurine tackles the kidneys head-on and is potentially dangerous to those with chronic kidney disorders. - Beware of painkillers – Taking too many pain relievers can lead to a decrease in kidney function. According to a study in the New England Journal of Medicine, excessive use of pain relievers like Tylenol results in an outcome of 5,000 cases of kidney failure in the U.S. annually. These painkillers are most damaging to the kidneys when taken on an empty stomach. These painkillers should be consumed in moderation, and on a full stomach. - Limit alcohol intake – Alcohol is a toxin that your body eventually needs to filter out. Drinking too much can put a real strain on the kidneys. The National Kidney Foundation defines over-drinking as “more than four drinks daily.” One drink equals a single glass, 12-ounce bottle, or shot. Not need to stop completely. Actually, a 2007 study found that people who drink in moderation actually reduce their risk of developing kidney disease by 30%. - Don’t stop the flow – Holding urine is dangerous. It may sound strange but holding in urine is a primary cause of kidney problems. Urine contains bacteria, and the longer it stays in the body, the more bacteria it produces. It is very unhealthy for all of that bacterium to travel back up to the kidneys. - Beware of butter – A recent health trend promotes replacing margarine with butter. In terms of the kidneys, this is not a good option. Butter contains saturated fats which, in high amounts, can damage the kidneys. According to the National Kidney Foundation, these fats raise LDL cholesterol (the “bad” kind) that harms the kidneys. It’s okay in small amounts. If margarine is used instead, it’s best that it be one with no Trans fat or “hydrogenated” fats. Trans fats are worse than saturated fats in raising LDL cholesterol. - Watch the muscle building – Athletes who use steroids may gain muscle, but they’ll damage their kidneys. During a 2009 study, researchers found that nine out of ten bodybuilders resulted in kidney scarring from bodybuilding medications. When they ceased using these steroids, their kidneys healed over time. The American Society of Nephrology advises against steroids. They can elevate cholesterol levels, lower protein in the blood, and cause swelling–all of which harm the kidneys. While steroids can be used for some kidney treatments, it is not advisable to take bodybuilding medications recreationally. There are more but bottom line: everything can have an effect on the kidneys because everything passes through them by way of the blood making them vulnerable to damage. Moderation is the key. Too much of anything can affect the kidneys. While there is so much in what we consume that is good for us, too much of a good thing is a bad thing. Good balance is the key to life! Any question comment or concern is welcomed below.
Although the historic Buenos Aires Zoo is in the process of being transformed into a modern eco-park, visitors can still appreciate its original Victorian-era architecture. The pavillions, which have been declared national historic monuments, reflect the traditional architecture of the countries that the different animals came from – with Moorish, Indian, Chinese and Greek/Roman-style buildings. Buenos Aires Ciudad President Domingo Sarmiento was responsible for the laying out of the Parque Tres de Febrero in land previously owned by Juan Manuel de Rosas. The project was begun in 1874; the park was opened on November 11, 1875, and included a small section dedicated for animals. This area was owned by the Federal Government until 1888 when it was transferred to the City of Buenos Aires. In that year, Mayor Antonio Crespo created the Buenos Aires Zoo, and separated it from the rest of the park. Its first director Eduardo Ladislao Holmberg was appointed in 1888 and stayed in that position for 15 years. He was the major designer of the zoo. Holmberg completed the assignment of the different parks, lakes and avenues, and began the exhibition of the 650 animals that the zoo had at that time. In that period zoos around the world did not have the same function as they do today; their main goal was recreational, and they had less space for animals and a large recreational area for visitors. Clemente Onelli was the director from 1904 to 1924 and promoted the Zoo Gardens. Onelli added pony, elephant and camel rides to the zoo and increased the number of visitors (from 1,500 to 15,000) during his first year of office. He is also responsible for most of the Romanesque buildings at the zoo.

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