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The anterior–posterior (AP) axis is the most ancient of the embryonic axes and exists in most metazoans. Different animals use a wide variety of mechanisms to create this axis in the early embryo. In this study, we focus on three animals, including two insects (Drosophila and Tribolium) and a vertebrate (zebrafish) to examine different strategies used to form the AP axis. While Drosophila forms the entire axis within a syncytial blastoderm using transcription factors as morphogens, zebrafish uses signaling factors in a cellularized embryo, progressively forming the AP axis over the course of a day. Tribolium uses an intermediate strategy that has commonalities with both Drosophila and zebrafish. We discuss the specific molecular mechanisms used to create the AP axis and identify conserved features. WIREs Dev Biol 2012, 1:253–266. doi: 10.1002/wdev.25 Germ size difference between Drosophila and Tribolium. In long germ‐band insects such as Drosophila, the embryonic germ anlagen occupies the majority of the egg (a), whereas in the short germ‐band Tribolium, the anlage is only a fraction of the egg (b). In long germ‐band insects, the entire AP body axis is specified by the end of the blastoderm stage. In short germ‐band insects, only the anterior body is specified, and the rest of the posterior body forms through a process of posterior growth in the growth zone, which will eventually form the abdomen. Comparison of Drosophila and Tribolium AP patterning. (a) Protein gradients establish the AP axis in Drosophila. Several of the factors in AP specification, including Bcd, Hb, and Cad are transcription factors and act as morphogens. (b) The syncytial blastoderm is essential for allowing transcription factors to act as diffusible morphogens. (c) After cellularization, the entire AP axis has been specified. (d) Tribolium also utilizes protein gradients to establish the anterior body. Notable differences in Tribolium are the lack of Bcd and the unknown function of Nos, as well as the anterior specifying role of Otd. (e) A syncytial blastoderm is also essential for the morphogenetic patterning of the anterior body of Tribolium. The position where nuclei will converge to form the embryo is shown as a dashed line. (f) After cellularization, only the anterior body is specified. The posterior end consists of a growth zone that requires Wnt and Cad function for posterior body formation. (g) During the posterior growth phase, the posterior body is formed sequentially. Fate map of the zebrafish embryo. At top is shown a fate map of the zebrafish embryo at the start of gastrulation (called the shield stage). The organizer is at the equator, on the dorsal side of the embryo. The most posterior cells of the body are at the ventral pole. The 31‐h postfertilization (hpf) embryos shown at bottom demonstrate a more lateral view at left, showing the muscle, and a midline view at right showing the spinal cord and notochord. Note that slow muscle (dark blue; only a portion is shown in the 31 hpf embryo), ends up in a more lateral position in the body than the fast muscle (the transverse section). The arrows in the embryos at bottom show the position of the transverse section. In the shield stage embryo, A and P refer to anterior and posterior, respectively, in the transverse section, A, aorta; V, Vein, P, pronephros. Initial patterning of the zebrafish embryo. Maternal β‐catenin is stabilized on one side of the embryo. Together with Nodal signaling at the equator, the organizer (Or) is established. The organizer secretes a variety of Bmp and Wnt inhibitors that keep these signals from functioning in the region of the embryo that will form the head. Bmp and Wnts, together with Nodals, pattern the rest of the mesoderm. The region that will form the brain (Figure 3) expands over time toward the animal pole because of the movement of the inhibitors toward the animal pole during gastrulation. Maintenance of the mesodermal progenitors. The mesodermal progenitors (red) are located at the most posterior end of the embryo, and they move anteriorly as they differentiate (blue color) and join the somites. Neural progenitors are also located in this region (green), and they differentiate (light green) to join the neural tube. Brachyury works in the mesodermal progenitors to maintain wnt transcription and to induce transcription of cyp26a1, which degrades the somite‐produced retinoic acid (RA), that would otherwise inhibit brachyury transcription. Shown is the most posterior end of a somitogenesis‐stage embryo. The bipotential neuromesodermal cells are not shown. Models for Hox gene regulation. Left: gradient model. As the embryo extends, the concentration of a secreted factor increases which provides a signal for the expression of more posterior Hox genes. It is also possible that a signal decreases as the embryo extends. Right: chromatin model. As the embryo extends, the chromatin opens up progressively in a 3′ → 5′ direction, allowing more posterior Hox genes to be expressed. earned her Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania and has been at Duke University since 1993. She earned her endowed professorship, the James B. Duke Professor of Cell Biology, for the meaningful discoveries she has made since her postdoctoral work in genetics at the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The broad goal of the research in Dr. Capel’s laboratory is to characterize the cellular and molecular basis of morphogenesis – how the body forms. She uses gonadal (gender/sex) development in the mouse as her model system and investigates a gene she helped discover, Sry, the male sex determining gene. Gonad development is unique in that a single rudimentary tissue can be induced to form one of two different organs, an ovary or testis, and she is learning all she can about this central mystery of biology.
by Ryan McMaken, Mises Institute Early Americans feared the federal government would overwhelm the states with a large standing army and better-armed military force. To prevent this, many supported a decentralized system of state militias which would provide the bulk of military land forces within the United States. Over time, though, the federal government has increasingly centralized military power and diminished the role of state governments in military funding and planning. While privately-owned firearms have their role in balancing against federal power, the decentralized militia system — now defunct — was intended to play a much larger role in preventing the establishment of an overwhelming federal military force. The Early Years: A “Well-Regulated Militia” As originally conceived in the 1770s, the United States was a confederation of independent states assembled for the purposes of military defense. Thus, it is not surprising that the text of the first US Constitution — the so-called Articles of Confederation — is primarily concerned with foreign and military affairs. Most of the document deals with arming an army and navy, and conducting international affairs such as making treaties, appointing military officers, and funding military equipment. The framers of the document, however, were careful to allow states opportunities to veto federal actions. According to the text: The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances … nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same. In other words, a super-majority of nine member states — more than two-thirds of the states — was necessary for approval of any military actions on the part of the central government. This did not mean the states were defenseless, otherwise. The document was clear that the states themselves were to provide most of the land forces: [E]very State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. Those familiar with the Second Amendment will recognize the phrase “well-regulated … militia” which was eventually incorporated into the new Constitution as part of the Bill of Rights. This phrase reflected what was, by the late eighteenth century, a commonly accepted political reality in the United States. Namely, that state militias were the primary means of dealing with threats from neighboring governments, Indian tributes, and internal rebellions. The United States maintained a permanent professional military force, but it remained small and inadequate to address any large scale military operations. As designed, the militias were to be the means by which threats from an excessively powerful central government were to be repulsed. We see this in Patrick Henry’s own arguments against the new constitution when he concluded that without locally-controlled arms to oppose the armies of a national government, the member states themselves would be defenseless. In response to the suggestion that citizens could assert their rights by assembling the people in a legislative body, Henry sarcastically declared: Oh, Sir, we should have fine times indeed, if to punish tyrants, it were only necessary to assemble the people! Your arms wherewith you could defend yourselves are gone. … Did you ever read of any revolution in any nation, brought about by the punishment of those in power, inflicted by those who had no power at all? A [federally-controlled] standing army we shall have also, to execute the execrable commands of tyranny: And how are you to punish them? Will you order them to be punished? Who shall obey these orders? During the ratification period for the new Constitution, anti-federalists frequently expressed concern that the new federal government may be strong enough to raise a standing army that would dwarf the power of the state-controlled militias. Standing armies, of course, had long been synonymous with abusive government, and targeted by liberals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Anti-federalists understood the importance of a decentralized and locally-controlled military power as a check on centralized political power. The Purpose of a Decentralized Militia For this reason, the anti-federalists demanded the adoption of what we now know as the Second Amendment which reflected their view that state control of military resources was an important defense against the power of Congress and the federal executive power. Nowadays, many opponents of gun control often support the idea that the militia is — to use George Mason’s words — “all men capable of bearing arms.” This is no doubt one (correct) interpretation of the term “militia” as used by the anti-federalists. But it is not the only interpretation. The anti-federalists — and the framers of the earlier constitution — assumed the necessity of a “a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered” by the state governments themselves. They assumed this precisely because it was such an established part of the status quo in the late eighteenth century. In times of war, it was also assumed that the states themselves would supply a sizable number of the troops and armaments necessary for defense. That is, the federal government would be partially dependent on the state governments for supplying troops to wars. This situation endured through the nineteenth century, during which, in many cases, the states themselves would continue to play an active and independent role in supplying military forces. We see this in the text of the current constitution itself where it gives Congress the power “To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions.” State Opposition to “calling forth the militia” While the Constitution of 1787 does not provide an explicit veto on the use of state militias, there were nevertheless both statutory and customary barriers to presidents drawing upon local troops without local consent. In some cases, state governments asserted control over state militia troops when federal orders conflicted with state agendas. For example, during the War of 1812, the governor of Vermont Martin Chittenden attempted to recall Vermont troops that had been federalized by the US government and sent to New York. Chittenden declared “[It] has been ordered from our frontiers to the defence of a neighboring state … [and] placed under the command, and at the disposal of, an officer of the United Sates, out of the jurisdiction or control of the executive of this state.” During the same conflict, the state legislature of Connecticut issued a declaration passed by both houses: “it must not be forgotten, that the state of Connecticut is a FREE, SOVEREIGN, and INDEPENDENT state; that the United States are a confederacy of states; that we are a confederated and not a consolidated republic.” (emphasis in original) At the time, the governor of Connecticut refused to comply with a requisition request from the United States Secretary of War. The governor condemned the federal attempt at nationalizing the militia and wrote: “By the principles of the proposed plan … our sons, our brothers and friends are made liable to be delivered, against their will and by force, to the marshals and recruiting officers of the United States, to be employed not for our defence, but for the conquest of Canada …” The state assembly concluded that the federal demands were “not only intolerably oppressive, but subversive of the rights and liberties of the state, and the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the same, and inconsistent with the principles of the constitution of the United States.” According to William Chauncey Fowler, writing in his book Local Law in Massachusetts and Connecticut: The Governor of Connecticut took the ground that, by the constitution fot he United States, the entire control of the militia is given to the state, except in certain specified cases, namely: to execute the laws of the union, the suppress insurrection, and to repel invasions, and he contended that neither of these cases actually existed. He also took the ground that the militia could not be compelled to serve under any other than their own officers, with the exception of the president himself, when personally in the field. The state legislature concurred. Kentucky Declares Neutrality Another notable case of a state asserting control over its own military resources is Kentucky’s insistence on neutrality in the early days of the American Civil War. By 1860, demographic and economic changes in Kentucky had made it a semi-industrialized state with a declining reliance on the slave economy. Kentucky had close economic ties with both Northern and Southern states. Although the Kentucky governor Beriah Magoffin was a Southern sympathizer, he was unwilling to support secession and insisted on neutrality in the war. Magoffin announced “I will send not a man nor a dollar for the wicked purpose of subduing my sister Southern States,” and he refused a federal demand for four regiments from Kentucky to be added to the Union army. Magoffin was not alone in neutralist views, and former Kentucky Senator Archibald Dixon urged local citizens “to stand firm with her sister Border States in the centre of the Republic to calm the distracted sections.” By this, Dixon claimed, Kentucky “saves the Union and frowns down Secession.” Similarly, an assembly of voters in Louisville convened a public meeting on the matter in Louisville and concluded it was the “duty of Kentucky … to maintain her present independent position, taking sides not with the [Lincoln] Administration, nor with the seceding states, but with the Union against them both.” Reflecting on the extent to which Kentucky had separated itself from both the North and the South during this period, Lowell Harrison has suggested that, at the time, “a bewildered observer from abroad might well have concluded that the United States had become three countries: the Union, the Confederacy, and Kentucky.” Predictably, Lincoln himself — who had concluded he must avoid military intervention to force Kentucky’s compliance — took a dim view of Kentucky’s neutrality, declaring the doctrine of “armed neutrality” to be “disunion completed,” while neutrality “recognizes no fidelity to the Constitution, no obligation to maintain the Union” and as “treason in effect.” Lincoln would eventually obtain political support from Kentucky, but not because he won the constitutional or legal argument. Eventually, Unionists took control of the state government and sided with the Union over the confederacy, ending the debate. Nevertheless, the Kentucky case merely continued the established practice of state governments vetoing federal use of state militias and military resources. In the case of Kentucky, the assertion that state governments could prevent federalization of local troops had worked as intended: Unionists — both in Washington and locally — were forced to win political support for the Northern side among Kentuckians before state resources could be used to prosecute the war. Technically, Lincoln faced this problem in every northern state, although most state governments willingly sent state-organized troops to the war effort because they were ideologically aligned with the anti-secession movement. Had Lincoln failed to win political support from the individual states, however, he would have lacked the resources necessary to prosecute the war. At the time, the federal government simply lacked the resources necessary to carry on a large military operation of the type needed to invade the Southern states. The Twentieth Century: State Militias Nationalized By the early twentieth century, the federal government began to consolidate control over military resources in the states. The first large step toward consolidation came in the form of the Militia Act of 1903 which for the first time began the use of the phrase “National Guard” in federal statutes. This new legislation also paved the way for the use of National Guard units to be used outside the territory of the United States, with a 1906 amendment specifically creating a provision for the use of militia units “either within or without the territory of the United States.” This provision was later contested on constitutional grounds, but the Congress responded with the National Defense Act of 1916 which made it even easier for the president to call up state troops for federal purposes. Over time, the line between state militias and federal troops became increasingly blurred, and today, with the exception of the “state defense forces” state National Guard units today do not function independently of the United States government in any meaningful way. The final nail in the coffin of local control came in 1987 courtesy of Mississippi Congressman Gillespie Montgomery. Montgomery introduced a provision in the 1987 National Defense Authorization Act whichspecifically states that “The consent of a Governor … may not be withheld (in whole or in part) with regard to active duty outside the United States, its territories, and its possessions, because of any objection to the location, purpose, type, or schedule of such active duty.” In the nineteenth century, of course, this measure would have been considered to be blatantly unconstitutional. But in 1990, the US Supreme Court, reflecting dominant opinion among American politicians, sided with the Congress and its Montgomery Amendment, and ruled against attempts by governors in California and Minnesota to stop deployments of state troops overseas. Thus, the Montgomery Amendment ended any remaining ability of states to veto federal use of state “militias.” By the mid twentieth century, though, state militias had already been dwarfed by the national army and air force that could function totally independently of states. Thanks to the federal income tax, the federal government no longer need rely on state resources to prosecute large and expensive wars. State reserve forces offer augmentation to the federal standing army, of course, but they no longer provide the essential core of any national fighting force. Why Military Decentralization is Important Modern opponents of gun control often claim the need for private ownership of guns as a balance against state military power. Yet, these same people will often also support a powerful, centrally-controlled national military. These two positions are directly at odds with each other. Moreover, it is not a terribly convincing claim that unorganized and untrained private gun owners by themselves could offer anything other than token resistance to federal military forces as they currently exist. While private firearms ownership does have value in this respect, its value pales in comparison to the need for a means of decentralizing federal military forces and providing a way for local institutions to deny federal institutions access to state military forces. If gun control opponents were serious about limiting military power, they would advocate for a radical change to the balance of military power in the United States with an eye toward creating a federal dependence on state-controlled militaries that can only be deployed with the consent of state governments. (As with all attempts to decentralize political power, devolution to the state level should, of course, not be viewed as the end-all-be-all of decentralization, but only as a step in the right direction toward even more radical decentralization and localism.) It has long been apparent that as long as the federal executive has direct access to immense amounts of military resources, it can send troops anywhere in the world at will, and the Congress lacks the political tools to stop it. The War Powers Act, for example, has never provided any meaningful opposition to presidential military action. Moreover, with the Libya invasion of 2011, the president established that the White House can launch wars in foreign countries without so much as a non-binding Congressional debate. Given current legal realities and access to enormous amounts of tax revenue, it is likely presidents can continue to launch wars unimpeded by Congress or any other political institution. Given the sheer amount of wealth directly controlled by the federal government, National Guard units would not even be essential to many military conflicts, even if states refused to participate. Thus, any meaningful opposition to federal military power would need to come in the form of both radical cuts to federal revenues — and federal military spending — and increases in state and local autonomy over military resources. Additionally, If the federal government were to decide to use the American military against a state or group of states in the US, there is no practical or constitutional obstacle to prosecuting a war on American soil against Americans. The Posse Comitatus Act is a weak reed on which to hang hopes for limiting federal military actions against American citizens. This post was originally published at Mises.org and is reposted here under a CreativeCommons, Non-Commericial 3.0 license.
Thus far in this series about horses we have we have explored some of the interpretations of the fossil record of horses and demonstrated the difficulty of defining the boundaries of species of modern horses. We have observed that evolutionary theory and most modern young earth creationists propose that the domestic horse, the donkey and the zebra all shared a common ancestor in the past albeit the former millions of years ago and the latter just 4500 years ago. But what does the Bible itself have to say about the origins of horse diversity? There are many—hundreds in fact—references to horses in the Bible but what Biblical evidence is there of rapid evolution of horses from a common ancestor within the time-frame that 24-hour day Ken Ham and most young-earth creationists believe the Bible demands? Well, none that I or anyone else have found. The Bible contains clear observational evidence that multiple species of horses existed throughout the time-frame that Biblical events took place. This includes the wild donkey that made its home in the wilderness, the domesticated donkey, the mule (a horse x donkey hybrid) and multiple types (pale, white, black) of domestic horses. For example we find as early as Genesis 12 a record of Abram’s travels to Egypt in which he brought donkeys: “And for her sake he dealt well with Abram; and he had sheep, oxen, male donkeys, male servants, female servants, female donkeys, and camels”. (Genesis 12:15, English Standard Version). By young-earth accounting of Biblical chronology this occurred only 400 years after Noah. Near the end of Genesis we find that Pharaoh had many thousands of horses that pulled his chariots. Exodus 9:3 (ESV) shows that donkeys and horses were clearly distinguished from one another at this time: Behold, the hand of the LORD will fall with a very severe plague upon your livestock that are in the field, the horses, the donkeys, the camels, the herds, and the flocks. In the book of Job we find descriptions of the wild donkey in addition to the domesticated horse. God describes to Job the behavior of the horse especially vividly: Hast thou given the horse strength; Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: He goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; Neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, The glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage: Neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; And he smelleth the battle afar off, The thunder of the captains, and the shouting.” (Job 39:19-25 KJV) What do the hundreds of references to these equines in the Bible tell us? If nothing else they tell us that even in the earliest Biblical times these animals looked and behaved just as these animals do today. From the Biblical record alone we can go back to at least 2000 BC and find donkeys and horses. From cave paintings and other archaeological sites we can find definitive evidence of multiple species of modern equine species much further back in time. If there were only two horses on the ark that diversified into all of the modern species (zebras, donkeys, quaaga, onager, kiang, and horses) plus 100 or more extinct species the lack of any physical or eyewitness evidence of these radical changes from one to another is rather stunning.* Are we to believe that all this change happened in a just a few hundred years after the Flood and went unrecorded or left any other physical evidence? There isn’t a plausible genetic scenario known whereby such dramatic divergence could take place in such a short period of time. The Bible gives us no evidence of missing links and transition species that would give so much as a hint of this fast evolutionary scenario that creationists have been promoting. Ironically, creationists have ignored this “Biblical” evidence in constructing their fantastic claims of rapid post-flood evolution of hundreds of species from common ancestors on the ark. What we see here is a case where creationists are chasing their own tails trying to explain biological diversity in hopes to compress thousands of living species into a few species on Noah’s ark to make the ark more feasible. But rather than providing greater clarity, they have done nothing but highlight the bankrupt nature of their theological and scientific assumptions. The Bible provides no accounting of what animals were on the ark aside from a few mentioned by name (dove, raven etc..). Putting fewer animals on the ark may help the ark seem more scientifically feasible but by doing so creationist have put themselves in the position of having to propose radical and untenable evolutionary theories for the origin of tens of thousands of species from only a few individuals. This is not only scientifically ridiculous but doesn’t even fit any of the evidence from the Bible itself. Every animal in the Bible is described in a fashion that makes it apparent that these species were fundamentally the same then as they are today. In summary, the authors of the Bible treat the animals around them as if they are the same ones that God created from the beginning of the world (see my series Consider the Ostrich) not some radically morphed versions of a prototype or “ideal” kind. There is no evidence of super-fast adaptation/evolution in the Bible and neither is there even any extra-biblical evidence of such rapid speciation from which to draw support. *We should also add that we have other evidence that the horses in the Bible were the same species of domesticated horse we have today rather than any of a hundred extinct species. We have DNA extracted from bones from archaeological sites that are very old that demonstrate that they were the same type of horse that we are familiar with today.
Most of us take eating for granted. However, when you analyze it, eating is more difficult that walking or talking and it takes 26 muscles and 6 cranial nerves to produce a single swallow. It is a vital function for survival and growth. When pediatric feeding difficulties are present, the child cannot thrive either physically, cognitively or emotionally. Sucking and swallowing are only instinctual in the first few weeks of life. After that, these actions must be learned and early intervention becomes critical. However, there is a general lack of awareness on how to diagnose and treat pediatric feeding difficulties and families are often bounced around from one medical professional to another trying to figure out what is wrong and how to fix it. If the sucking, eating and swallowing actions are not learned properly, it then makes learning language almost impossible. Over a million children have been diagnosed nationwide, with many thousands who do undiagnosed. There are also 80% of children with developmental disabilities who have feeding issues. Certified treatment modalities: - › Beckman Oral Motor Exercises - › Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES) - › Therapeutic Taping - › Sequential Sensory Oral approach (S.O.S) to feeding Frequently Asked Questions - › Food/drink refusal - › Inability to chew/swallow - › Inability to drink from a bottle/breast feed - › Fear associated with food or swallowing - › Excessive drooling or food spilling from the mouth - › Food selectivity (by type or texture) - › Coughing/choking or increased congestion during a meal - › Mealtime behavior problems (increased fussiness, crying, tantrums, lengthy meals) - › Recurrent gagging or vomiting. - › Arching or stiffening of the body - › Poor weight gain - › Alternative means of nutrition 9nasogastric or gastronomy tube dependent) - › Frequent, recurrent respiratory infections or pneumonia Although many infants seem to be born with an innate ability to suck and feed successfully, some may experience varied levels of difficulty ranging from mild fussiness, reduced intake (resulting in poor weight gain), to unable to feed by mouth that requires artificial means of nutritional support such as a nasogastric tube. Causes of feeding issues in infants are commonly associated acid reflux, inadequate oral muscular development (such as in premature infants), or immature neurological system (for example, congenital disorders or fetal alcohol syndrome/drug withdrawn). Children with complex medical diagnosis (Cerebral Palsy, Cardiac conditions, Craniofacial anomalies, genetic syndromes, metabolic disorders, etc) may also have accompanied swallowing disorders. Most pediatricians now understand and advocate introducing semi-solid foods like baby cereals at around 5-6 months old, instead of anytime earlier, because a baby’s gastric system does not mature until then to handle supplemental foods. Once semi-solids are introduced, progression over textures should occur over the next 6-7 months, allowing older babies to develop oral skills from munching increasingly thicker textures to chewing soft cooked foods that resemble cut-up table foods. Feeding difficulties at this stage typically result in rapid weight loss (if the baby also begins to loss interest in bottle or breast-feeding), or the child may exhibit excess gagging, vomiting, and food refusal behaviors and has a hard time transitioning to more advanced textures. For young children, feeding issues may become evident at this age as they previously have gained weight well on formula/breast milk and have been eating some baby foods or crunchy, quickly dissolved textures like crackers, cookies, and cereals. However, they did not broaden the food types they accept and often continue with a extremely limited foods relying largely on milk for protein and caloric intake, or their weight begins to drop and may later be diagnosed as Failure to Thrive. These children may have oral sensory dysfunction and oral motor delays that interfere with their ability to accept and manage wet, soft, or mushy textures. Some, however, may also have underlying neurological disorders such as Cerebral Palsy and Autism. Feeding disorder in older children often manifests as extremely limited food selectiveness, avoiding or omitting an entire or several food groups such as absence of vegetables or meats. Although the child’s weight may be stable, it tends to be on the light side. Mealtime anxiety and struggles may also become common. Eating out with family sometimes becomes impossible.
Flashcards in chapter 2 Deck (38) what are the two essential beliefs when it comes to scientific principles? the universe operates according to certain natural laws, such laws are discoverable and testable what approach does the scientific method rely on? deductive reasoning (reasoning from broad basic principles applied to scientific situations) who was first to question deductive reasoning and why? francis bacon, too bias what is inductive reasoning? reasoning proceeding from specific situations to general truths, avoids bias what are empirical observations? what builds on both inductive and deductive approaches? hypothetico- deductive reasoning (scientists begin with an educated guess, then design small controlled observations) what are the steps to the scientific method approach? observations, hypothesis, test, build theory what did german philosopher Emanuel kant suggest? psychology is empirical and very close to real science what was eugenics? a social movement that improves the human race by encouraging reproduction with desirable traits. what is pseudopsychology? psychology can provide answers to all of lifes major questions what is the main idea behind psychological research? to isolate relative contribution factors and to think about how these factors come together to influence human behaviour. what are the 6 steps psychologists use when conducting research? 1. identify questions of interest 2. develop testable hypothesis 3. select research method, participants and collect data 4. analyze data and accept or reject hypothesis 5. seek scientific review 6. develop theory what is the difference between and independent and dependent variable? factor in changing a condition or event, condition or event that changes as a result what does it mean to operationalize variable? working definition of a variable that allows you to test it what is the best way to select a sample of people for research? random selection (everyone in a population has equal chance of being involved) what does random selection minimize? what are descriptive research methods? case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys how is experimental research different from descriptive research? involves manipulation and control of variables. what are naturalistic observations? observing people while they behave like they normally do. (more reflective on human behaviour) may be subject to research bias. what is the hawthorne affect? when people are being observed during study or at their work place they will preform better, because they are being watched or studied. what is a disadvantage of a survey? people don't always answer honestly, they answer according to what is socially acceptable. (participant bias) what is the difference between the control group and the experimental group? experimental group ( exposed to the independent variable) control group (hasn't and wont be exposed to independent variable) *(both measure change in dependent variable) what is a demand characteristic? an undesired affect in which the participants are unintentionally aware of the expected outcome what is the double blind procedure? neither the researcher or the participant knows the treatment being received. what is a correlation? a predictable relationship between two or more variables what is used to express the strength and relationship between two variables? correlation coefficient (-1 to +1) what is the difference between positive and negative correlation? (+)on average scores between two variables increase together, (-) scores on one variable increases while scores decrease on another what is perfect correlation? a score of either -1 or +1, two variables are exactly related what is the most likely range for correlation in psychology? 0.3 and above
Think you may have the initial signs of hearing loss? Changes in hearing often occur gradually throughout a lifetime. Many times individuals will compensate for these changes in hearing often without knowing it.Take the Quiz There are many different causes of hearing loss, a few include: Hearing loss can be caused by an event or just be a decrease in your ability to hear over time. It can range anywhere from mild to severe and will either be permanent or temporary. Hearing loss is most common in adults but gradual loss of hearing can be found in people of any age. The most common cause of hearing loss is age and exposure to noise. The Two Types of Hearing Loss - Conductive and Sensorineural It is easier to understand the two types of hearing loss if you know a little about how the ear is structured. The ear has three parts: - The Outer Ear includes the Pinna (the visible part of the ear) and the ear canal - The Middle Ear includes the three ossicle bones, eardrum, and the Eustachian Tube - The Inner Ear includes the cochlea and the semicircular canals Think you may be suffering from hearing loss? Take our quiz to find out how bad your hearing is. Conductive Hearing Loss Conductive hearing loss occurs when sound is having trouble traveling through the outer and middle ear. You may have a harder time hearing soft sounds and loud sounds may be muffled. Conductive hearing loss can sometimes be cured by medicine or surgery. In someone without hearing loss, sound is easily passed through the outer and middle ear to the ossicle bones. The ossicle bones then pass the sound to the inner ear. Conductive hearing loss occurs when there is a mechanical problem getting the sound waves through the outer and middle ear to the ossicle bones and into the inner ear. Causes of Conductive Hearing Loss - Earwax or foreign object in the ear - Outer ear infection or inflammation (also called Otitis Externa or Swimmer's Ear) - Abnormality in the outer ear from trauma or heredity - Holes or perforation of the eardrum from trauma, pressure or infection - Middle ear infection or inflammation (Otitis Media) - Fluid in the middle ear - Changes in the ossicle bones also known as Otosclerosis Sensorineural Hearing Loss Presbycusis or sensorineural hearing loss is the result of damage to the hairs in the cochlea or the auditory nerve which transmits signals to the brain. Unlike conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss takes place in the inner ear and accounts for 90% of hearing loss. When you have sensorineural hearing loss speech may sound quieter, soft sounds may be harder to hear, some loud sounds may be distorted, and low frequency vowel sounds will be easier to hear than higher pitched sounds. Causes of Sensorineural Hearing Loss - Noise Exposure (Most Common) - Aging(Most Common) - Diseases such as autoimmune disease of the inner ear, multiple sclerosis, and Meniere’s disease - Viruses such as mumps, measles, or meningitis - Drugs that are toxic to hearing - Hereditary hearing loss - Congenital conditions like premature birth or malformation of the inner ear - Trauma to the head or ear - Excessive loud noise exposure I think I have hearing loss. What do I do now? To correctly diagnose your hearing loss and the causes of it, you should see an ENT specialist. If you have noticed any kind of change in your hearing, do not delay. When it comes to hearing loss, scheduling an appointment as soon as possible is crucial. Dr. Driskill can identify your hearing loss and create a treatment plan that is right for you.Schedule today!
Researchers Have Mapped Out How Plants Sense Our World While the sensory processes of plants are complex and mysterious, researchers gleaned insights into 200 of the proteins involved. Plants may lack our facial features, but the fact that they don’t have eyes, ears, or noses has not stopped them from developing ways to see, hear, and smell potential threats around them. While plants’ sensory processes are complex and mysterious, a new study mapping out protein interactions has given researchers new insights. Rather than growing sensory organs like mammals do, plants use proteins that are stationed at their cells’ outer membranes to detect chemicals around them or the proteins from pathogens or hormones released from another organism. These detections will trigger a warning signal into the cell. The focus of the study, published in Nature, was a type of membrane protein that are crucial to this process: leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases, or LRR-receptor kinases. There are hundreds of varieties of LRR-receptor kinases that contribute to plant’s development, growth, and immunity, as well as its ability to responded to different stresses. Our understanding of how all of these proteins work together has been very limited, but this new research by an international team, including Shahid Mukhtar, Assistant Professor of Biology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, has mapped out the interactions of 200 of these proteins. “This is a pioneering work to identify the first layer of interactions among these proteins,” Mukhtar said in a press release. “An understanding of these interactions could lead to ways to increase a plant’s resistance to pathogens, or to other stresses like heat, drought, salinity or cold shock. This can also provide a roadmap for future studies by scientists around the world.” The researchers generated the map by cloning the LRR-receptor kinases’ extracellular domains (the parts that sense molecules outside of the cell), then tested them in pairs to see if they would interact. When the proteins did interact, they added the information to the protein network, which revealed that a few critical proteins acted as “master nodes” for sensory protein interaction. It also brought to light several previously unknown LRR-receptor kinases that seem to be key for plant sensory pathways. The researchers confirmed their findings by engineering plants that did not have some of the proteins that were prominent in the network. These plants had impaired development and immune systems, underlining the importance of the identified proteins. This new understanding of plant systems could help us genetically engineer heartier plants — and even plants that could be used by the military as remote sensors. Additionally, since humans have proteins that are structurally similar to LRR-receptor kinases, new information about plants’ biological mechanisms could also provide insight into certain human diseases.
Cars, toys, balls, people: Right now Baby is keenly aware of the way items around her move through her world. Learn more about your child in week 20. Baby’s Brain in Week 20 Note how intently Baby tracks the dog darting across the lawn in front of her, or the way the vacuum passes along the carpet and around furniture. At about five months, your child is enraptured by the way objects move across the floor and ground. But why? As you know, infants’ lives are all about survival—and they’ll likely survive with more ease if they can predict how objects move and whether that movement may affect them. Once babies make these predictions (and those guesses are verified after much trial and error), they become more comfortable with happenings in the world around them—and they’re free to satisfy their curiosity about other matters in the home environment. What the Research Shows From the following study, researchers know that five-month-old babies are highly interested in trajectory, the path a moving object follows through space. Five-month-olds were placed in front of a screen. They could see a toy car being pushed from one side of the screen, and watched as the car then would travel behind the screen and soon reappear on the other side. The researchers would repeat the car’s path several times. Then the researchers enacted the same sequence again, except this time they stopped the car from reappearing on the other side of the screen. When they did so, the babies would appear perplexed: “Where did the car go?” They sensed something was wrong, as by now they understood the car’s trajectory and expected it to reappear as always. Taking the experiment one step further, researchers then pushed a car behind the screen and had a toy duck come out on the other side. The five-month-old babies didn’t care. Even though a completely different item appeared after they saw the car disappear, they didn’t flinch. They were expecting something to reappear but didn’t care what it was. Movement alone was what these five-month-olds were concentrating on and learning about. Further trials revealed that when babies who are a bit older—12 months—see a car go in and a duck come out, they are perplexed. By one year, babies are able to focus not only on movement but also on what is moving. Week 20 Brain Booster Since your baby is learning about movement, set objects in motion around her. With her propped up on the floor so she can see, roll balls around the room. Race toy trucks in front of her and behind her back. At the post office, purchase a tube used for mailing rolled-up papers: Once home, roll balls and other small toys through the tube. This activity will elicit smiles for days, weeks, and possibly months as your child masters the laws of trajectory.
The History of Corrective Lenses People have been using tools to help them see clearly since at least 60 A.D. Roman philosopher Seneca is recorded to have used a glass globe of water to magnify text, while Emperor Nero would use a magnifying emerald to see gladiator fights better. We no longer need to resort to using water bowls or gemstones, and it’s pretty cool to see how far we’ve come in vision correction since then. Corrective Lenses Evolving Over the Centuries In the 10th century in Europe, monks made the next leap forward in corrective lens technology. They needed to be able to see tiny details to do their beautiful illuminated calligraphy, and they discovered that polished domes of transparent quartz worked very well. They called these “reading stones.” Another couple of centuries would pass before anyone would try attaching reading stones to wearable frames for easier use. We don’t know the identity of the first person to do this, though we often credit Florentinian man Salvino D’armati. Glasses for the Lower Classes The earliest spectacles could only be made out of expensive materials like crystal, making them a status symbol for the wealthy but far too pricey for anyone else to afford. As literacy rates skyrocketed across Europe following the invention of the printing press in 1440, demand increased for affordable reading glasses. Production became cheaper when they began using glass for the lenses instead of expensive crystal. Prescription Lenses and Foldable Frames Glasses in the next couple of centuries were still pretty limited. The frames had to perch on the nose or be held with a handle, and there was only so much fine-tuning glass blowers could do with the lenses. Correcting for specific refractive errors wasn’t really possible (imagine wearing someone else’s glasses). Then, in the 1700s, temples (the portion extending past the ear) were added and glasses became hands-free. We give Benjamin Franklin credit for inventing bifocals, which was also when hinges were introduced, making glasses foldable for compact storage. Eye doctors were making headway in tailoring lenses to patients’ specific needs, including the invention of cylindrical lenses for astigmatism in the early 1800s. Finally, Herman Snellen, a Dutch eye doctor, invented the “big E” chart, standardizing vision correction across the field of optometry. We’re incredibly fortunate to have glasses (not to mention contact lenses) that precisely address our vision problems — tailored not just to each patient, but to each eye! And modern glasses don’t just work well, we can choose frames in any shape, color, or material we want to fit our style. We as modern optometrists are proud to stand on the shoulders of giants. We’re happy to help if you need a prescription update so you can pick out your next pair of glasses!
Powder metal is soft and can be formed in a variety of shapes with proper sintering. Powder metal is a popular choice of material for parts with magnetic properties, and its magnetism can be enhanced through the sintering process. A wide range of industries utilize solid metal parts made of powdered metal. Powder metallurgy is important to applications to industries such as construction and structure, lawn and garden, computer, electronics, hardware, jewelry making and automotive manufacturing. Powder metal parts include magnetic assemblies, filtration systems, structural parts, sharp gemstone grinding blades and auto metal components like powder metal gears, bearings and bushings. Powdered metal is also popular as a finishing coating for products that need to endure harsh climates and heavy industrial usage. In addition to increased corrosion resistance, powder coatings can create a desired surface aesthetic or texture. The process of creating powder metal parts, powder metallurgy, did not become common until after the Industrial Revolution. However, in some form or another it has been in use since at least 3000 BC. The Egyptians offer us examples of some of the earliest powder metal parts and they sintered items using powder iron. By around 300 BC, the Inca living in present-day Colombia and Ecuador were sintering jewelry and various practical objects (e.g. fish hooks) from powdered precious metals including gold, silver, and platinum. After a period of declined use, people began using powder metallurgy again in the 1800s. First, engineers used powdered platinum to fabricate lab instruments. Next, in the service of Thomas Edison, William Coolidge designed a lamp filament that called for sintered powdered tungsten. He later used tungsten powder to create fibers for brighter electric lamps. Powdered metals really began to come into their own in the 20th century, starting with the mass production of lightbulbs, followed by the invention of welding. Powder metal parts also proved indispensable in the new industries of aviation and automotive manufacturing. By the 1930s, engineers were making powder metal bearings, powder metal electrical contacts and cemented carbides. By the 1940s, they were making metal powder refractories and powder steel. During World War II, powder metallurgy reverted to being used for only major products, automotive self-lubricating gears. In 1944, to streamline and legitimize the industry, several manufacturing companies got together to form the Metal Powder Association, or MPA, which later became the Metal Powder Industries Federation, or MPIF. With the formation of the group, new manufacturing groups were able to learn about powder metallurgy and expand its uses. Today, powdered metal parts are still quite popular and are used in more industries than they were at their inception. Manufacturers can even incorporate powder metal parts into biomedical implants. Bronze, steel, iron, brass, copper, and aluminum are just a few of the many metals that can be converted to powder and undergo the metallurgy process. The sizes of these powder materials are categorized by mesh powder, which is a measure based on the size of mesh openings through which the powder can pass. Aluminum is frequently used because it is highly flammable, highly conductive, and light in weight. Aluminum is a popular material to use in structural applications and pyrotechnics. Copper is highly conductive both electrically and thermally and is popular for use in electrical contractor or heat sink applications. Iron contains a graphite additive and is frequently used to fabricate bearings, filters, and structural parts. Steel, used for tool steel or stainless steel powders, is very high in strength. One of the applications for which it is frequently used is automobile weight reduction. Bronze is a metal that is higher in density and has a higher mechanical performance than brass. Bronze metal parts are commonly utilized to fabricate self-lubricating bearings. The creation of powder metal parts (powder metallurgy) involves three main steps: powder formulation, pressing, and sintering. Sometimes, the product also requires secondary operations, such as machining, deburring, sizing, or heat treatment. 1. Powder Formulation During this part of the process, manufacturers take raw metal material and make it into powder by way of atomization, mechanical alloying, electrolytic techniques, chemical reduction, and pulverization. They then mix the powder with a lubricant, which helps reduce friction between the powder material and the pressing dies. The next step involves forming, in which the material is molded, forged, or pressed. During the high-temperature process of sintering, manufacturers take the compacted raw materials, also known as green parts, and melt them down in a furnace. When the green parts are melted, the particles are bonded together while still retaining the part’s shape. The finished parts may appear solid, but they are actually made up of tiny capillaries that are interconnected with each other. Thus, the parts have a porosity of 25%. During the design of powdered metal parts, manufacturers consider application specifications such as desired shape, desired size, complexity of shape, application environment (temperature, abrasion, corrosive substance exposure, etc.), frequency of use, required material properties, and product volume. Using these considerations, they put together a plan regarding the metallurgy process, material composition and mold design. For your convenience, metallurgists can offer some customization. For one, they can alter material composition during the powder phase so that it exhibits more of the qualities you need (e.g. tensile strength, corrosion resistance, solvent resistance, etc.). They can create custom molds and will only manufacture parts that can meet any and all standard requirements. Some machinery used during powder metallurgy are pressing dies, continuous belt furnaces, and standard plastic injection molding machines. Pressing dies are used to compress and shape powder metal components. The pressing die is usually made from steel or carbide. Continuous belt furnaces are common components of sintering. Their job is melt and fuse the powdered metal mix into a solid piece. Also, they make sure that the newly compressed metal powder is evenly and thoroughly heat treated. Standard plastic injection molding machines are used during metal injection molding. They are generally equipped with CNC programming. CNC molding machinery has greater precision, more uniformity, higher efficiency, and lower secondary costs. Variations and Similar Processes The two main processes manufacturers use to make powder metal parts are sintering and metal injection molding. To a lesser extent, manufacturers also use powder forging and powder spraying. Sintered metal products have many advantages over parts that are fabricated through other processes. Sintering uses roughly 97% of materials, and therefore does not produce as much waste. Sintered products are not sensitive to the shapes in which they are formed, and they frequently do not need to undergo any secondary operations. A few great examples of components that work best when sintered are metal gears, bearings, and bushings. Powder metal gears are inherently porous and they naturally reduce sound, making them a suitable component to the sintering process. Bearings and bushings can be sintered, though they may require a secondary sizing operation because their fabrication leaves little room for error. Metal Injection Molding Metal injection molding is a powder metallurgy process that combines powder metallurgy and plastic injection molding. In short, the metal injection molding process involves adding wax, resin, or polymers to powdered metal, heating the mixture to a pliable state, and formed within a mold. When manufacturers use metal injection molding, it goes before the sintering step. Also, during this process, they only use standard plastic injection molding machines. During metal injection molding, the first step is to mix the metal powder not only mixed with lubricants, but also with thermoplastic resins. After mixing the powder metal, manufacturers use chemicals or thermal energy and an open pore network to remove the thermoplastics from the parts. Finally, they put the parts through sintering and, if necessary, secondary procedures. Manufacturers frequently use metal injection molding to produce metal parts that are smaller, more complex, high density, and higher performing. Examples include parts used in industries such as electronics, computer, hardware, firearms, dental, medical, and automotive. Metal injection molding allows for more freedom in detailing and design, reduces waste, and offers products that are magnetic, more corrosion-resistant, stronger, and denser. However, this process is only used in making thinner, smaller parts, and is more costly than regular powder metallurgy. During powder forging, manufacturers apply intense pressure to the powder in order to compress it. Then, they insert it into a die and apply heat. Metal forged parts are especially strong. During powder spraying, manufacturers take powdered metal, melt it, then atomize it. They then spray the atomized droplets onto a preform. This variation is used to create powder metal products such as cladding. The powder metallurgy process and powder metal parts offer many advantages. First, it is highly efficient. This is especially true because it is automated. Second, it is low cost. In addition, the process creates little waste. Another great benefit of powder metallurgy is the fact that it can create such uniform and well mixed metal parts. Powder metal parts have controlled porosity, enabling them to self-lubricate and filter gases and liquids. Powdered metal parts can be very complex while maintaining close tolerances. For that reason, powder metallurgy is a highly recommended process in fabricating parts that require intricate bends, depressions, and projections. Finally, powdered metallurgy is versatile. Metallurgists can use a wide variety of composites, alloys, and other materials during the sintering process to fabricate products of numerous designs and shapes. How to Find the Right Manufacturer If you are interested in ordering powder metallurgy parts, you need to consult with an experienced manufacturer. To help you on your way, we’ve put together a list of those powder metal parts manufacturers we trust. You will find their profiles cushioned in between these information paragraphs. Before you check them out, we recommend you create a list of your application specifications and your questions. Make sure to include things like your budget, your timeline, any standard requirements, and your custom requests. Once you’ve got your list together, you can begin to browse. As you look over their services, double check your list. Pick three or four that appear to be good fits, and then reach out to them. Discuss your application at length and don’t be afraid to ask questions! Take notes as you speak and once you’ve spoken with each of them, compare and contrast your notes. Determine which manufacturer is right for you, then get started. Good luck! Powdered Metal Parts Informational Video
Flood irrigation is an ancient method of irrigating crops. It was likely the first form of irrigation used by humans as they began cultivating crops and is still one of the most commonly used methods of irrigation used today. Very simply, water is delivered to the field by ditch, pipe, or or some other means and simply flows over the ground through the crop. Although flood irrigation is an effective method of irrigation it is certainly not efficient compared with other options. With flood irrigation it is generally assumed that only half of the water applied actually ends up irrigating the crop. he other half is lost to evaporation, runoff, infiltration of uncultivated areas, and transpiration through the leaves of weeds. Although flood irrigation will never be as efficient as other types of irrigation there are several techniques that can be used to improve its efficiency: - Leveling fields – because water is transported using gravity it won’t reach high spots in the field - Surge flooding – rather than releasing water all at once it is released in intervals allowing each release to infiltrate the soil before releasing additional water. - Recycling runoff – water that runs off the end and sides of the irrigated are is captured in low-lying areas and pumped to the top of the field where it can be reused. List four disadvantages of flood irrigation system are: - Uneven distribution of water to crops - Little control of water supplied to crops - A lot of water is lost through evaporation - Leveling of land is required which may be expensive It is common for flood irrigators to release water until the entire field is covered. By flooding the entire field all at once, irrigators fail to take advantage of capillary movement of water through the soil, particularly in clay soils. This results in significant runoff, anaerobic conditions in the soil and around the root zone, and deep irrigation below the root zone that is unavailable to the plants. Soil moisture sensors provide irrigators with a useful tool when used in conjunction with surge irrigation (also known as cut-off irrigation). Strategic placement of sensors near the end of the irrigated area and at selected depths alert the irrigator when the soil is saturated and irrigation should be cut off to take advantage of the infiltration that occurs. This type of irrigation is similar to the ‘cycle and soak’ irrigation recommended for spray irrigation systems and provides similar benefits.
Find the number x, which if it increases by 2, then its square increases by 21 percent. We will be pleased if You send us any improvements to this math problem. Thank you! Thank you for submitting an example text correction or rephasing. We will review the example in a short time and work on the publish it. Tips to related online calculators You need to know the following knowledge to solve this word math problem: Related math problems and questions: Suppose the square's sides' length decreases by a 25% decrease in the content area of 28 cm2. Determine the side length of the original square. - Square sides If the square side increases by 28%, the square circumference increases by 11.2 meters. Find the length of the original square side. - Unknown number 7 Calculate unknown number whose 12th power when divided by the 9th power get a number 27 times greater than the unknown number. Determine the unknown number. - Square side If we enlarge the square side a = 5m, its area will increase by 10,25%. How many percent will the side of the square increase? How many percent will it increase the circumference of the square? - The ball The ball has a radius of 2m. What percentage of the surface and volume is another sphere whose radius is 20% larger? - Cuboid enlargement By how many percent increases the volume of cuboid if its every dimension increases by 30%? - Unknown number 4 I think number. When I divided its square root by its 1/9, I get a number 1. What number am I thinking? - Completing square Solve the quadratic equation: m2=4m+20 using completing the square method - Two pipes How long will the pool be filled with a double supply pipe if it takes the pool to fill the first pipe by 4 hours longer and the second pipe 9 hours longer than both pipes open at the same time? - Find the 2 Find the term independent of x in the expansion of (4x3+1/2x)8 - Unknown number 7 16% of the unknown number is by 21 less than unknown number itself. Determine the natural unknown number. - The sum The sum of the squares of two immediately following natural numbers is 1201. Find these numbers. - Two-digit number Digit sum of thinking two-digit natural number is 11. When it exchanging a sequence of digits, given a number which is 27 less than the thinking number. Find out which number I think. - The number 72 The number 72 increase by 25%. By how much % will you have to reduce the number you created to get the number 72 again? If the number of elements increase by 3, it increases the number of combinations of the second class of these elements 5 times. How many are the elements? - Trapezoid 15 Area of trapezoid is 266. What value is x if bases b1 is 2x-3, b2 is 2x+1 and height h is x+4 - Substitution method Solve goniometric equation: sin4 θ - 1/cos2 θ=cos2 θ - 2
Editor’s Note: This is the second in a series of guest posts that will be appearing on this blog about teaching math to English Language Learners. I’ll be posting them over the next six weeks, and adding each one to The Best Resources For Teaching Common Core Math To English Language Learners. The first in the series was “Speaking of Math: It’s time to talk in class” by Alycia Owen by Cindy Garcia Cindy Garcia serves as the district wide instructional specialist for Bilingual/ESL Mathematics PK-6 in Pasadena ISD. Cindy previously served as campus mathematics coach and bilingual third grade teachers in PISD. Mathematics much more than good computational skills. Students’ reading skills can support or hinder their understanding of mathematics embedded in context. In order for mathematics to be more accessible to English Learners (ELs) it is critical for students to be explicitly taught how to read mathematics and how that differs from reading in other situations. A recommendation is for teachers to make the time for quick spotlight lessons focusing on the following high leverage strategies: - Understand Language Organization In mathematics, text is not just words read left to right and top to bottom. For example, when analyzing graphs it is common to read a combination of words, numbers, and symbols from bottom to top and right to left in order to understand all of the data presented. Assumed directionality when reading could lead to students committing an error when reading that breaks down their understanding of a foundation concept. For example 21<57> 13 could be read by a student as 21 is less than 57 greater than 13 rather than 21 is less than 57, 57 is greater than 13. The second statement is precise and supports students understanding of the meaning of the comparison symbols. - Interpret the Meaning and Purpose of Prepositions Prepositions such as on, after, for, below, at, to, over, and in can lead to student misconceptions when reading because they might not understand that these small words can change the implied meaning of another word or add precision to a phrase. Take at the following problem situation. Sam save a total of $6 over 3 weeks. In this example the meaning of over refers to extend periods of time. Without spotlighting prepositions, students might not understand that the $6 must last all 3 weeks. - Recognize Proper Nouns In mathematics, proper nouns rarely make a big impact on a mathematical concept. Students should spend their time grappling with the concept rather than trying to read Shioban’s Sundae Shop. Students can practice locating proper nouns and renaming them with easier words to read and pronounce or just use the initials of the proper nouns. - Use Cognates (Spanish Speakers) Cognates can be a powerful tool to use with vocabulary previously learned in Spanish. Students need to be aware that they already know the meaning of words such as angle, perimeter, area, volume, minute and decimals because it looks and means the same as the words ángulo, perímetro, área, volumen, minuto, and decimales. - Recognize Polysemous Terms In mathematics we encounter words that have various meanings in mathematics, other subject areas, and everyday life. Students need the opportunity to find these words in order to make sense of their meaning in mathematics. Sometimes if students do not fully understand a concept they define important terms with definitions or examples unrelated to the concept being taught. For example, the word degree can refer to unit of measurement of angle (mathematics), unit of measurement for temperature (science), or an academic rank (everyday life). - Chunk the Text For some students mathematics can seem overwhelming before getting to the math just by looking at piece of text that mixture of words, numbers, symbols, and graphics. Students can practice reorganizing text by creating bullet points. Bulleting mathematics text makes it easier to understand the math because each action, step, question, and piece of data is its own line of text. The complexity of the English language when students are reading independently can increase the difficulty level of mathematics. Students can feel defeated by the words before they are able to dig in deep into the math. Short (3-5 minute) spotlight lessons that focus on a feature of the English Language will impact students greatly and make mathematics more accessible.
The foundation of moral laws can be regarded as the right action or behaviour. The Virtue Ethics that deal with an individual’s moral acts are based on these laws. Therefore, in Chapter 12 of the book The Aspect of Moral Philosophy written by James Rachels, I respond to the ethics of virtue. This chapter deals with the concept of the virtues and their elements, the meaning and benefits of virtue ethics, the relationship between virtue and action and radical virtue’s ethics objections. All of this leads to a strong view of the concept of virtue ethics. Virtue Ethics are traced from Nicomachean Ethics that were developed by the Aristotle, and it consists of the central aspect of a character. It states that goodness of a man is judged by his character traits which are expected to match with virtues. In asking the right thing to do to be considered as a good person, there are theories of rightness and obligations such as Ethical Egoism, Social contract, Utilitarianisms, and Kant. Aristotle defined virtue as a trait of character that is demonstrated by the habitual actions of someone. The partial list of virtues consists of the qualities such as courage, friendliness, and generosity that are considered to be the right attributes that fulfill the desirable characters of a human being. Doubts about the “ideal” of impartiality and Moral motivation are the advantages of Virtue Ethics, and the radical virtue ethics are believed to the complete moral theory independently. I have some questions concerning Virtue Ethics as discussed in the text. The first question is regarding the criteria that were used to classify certain qualities as the right ones and discredit others. For instance, despite that courage is taken as the right character; however, a vicious leader of a nation can use his/ her his courageous qualities to commit massacre that would have an adverse impact on many people. In that situation, courage quality has been misused to bring happiness and satisfaction to a limited number of people. The other question is concerning the aspect of the virtue and conduct where an individual compromise his/ her beliefs of doing the right things to perform certain actions that might bring harm to many people. For example, there can be one person in a crowd that thinks that thinks should be done ethically; however, the entire group members might experience disaster after the implementations that proposals. There are some quotations from the texts that I felt they were interesting. “An honest person never deceives or lies except in certain circumstances,” the priority of lies and deception should be based on the general good of the society (165). A clear justification for telling lies or deceiving should be appropriate for it to be considered. Therefore, lying or deceiving sometimes can be deemed to be right when the intention behind it would benefit many people. Further, I agree with the author on the moral motivation as one of the advantages of virtue ethics based on the explanation provided. “Friends should be looking after the welfare of each other, not to demonstrate willingness but as a fulfillment of an obligation” (166). The duty is based on the demonstration of loyalty which is a critical element that binds friendship. However, I disagree with the explanation on why virtues should not apply to all individuals in the society. The author states that it is because people have “different social roles” in the society which makes the virtues not be universal (168). I think this notion is not applicable in the modern society where all people are presumed to be equal. Virtue ethics has a significant connection in my life experience. As a young person, I was taught to be courageous so that to overcome threats in life to attain prosperity. Further, I realized that being honest helps in the fight against corruption as integrity people would not be willing to engage in fraudulent activities. Moreover, I would always expect my friends to support me in both worst and good circumstances not as a favor, but as a demonstration of loyalty that exists between us. There are some comments that I like while there are others that I entirely dislike. I like the idea that an individual is allowed to be dishonest especially in critical events because, in some situations, people are motivated to lie or deceive for them to remain alive. However, I dislike the argument that everybody needs friends for them to be comfortable in life. It is because life is full of betrayals as those people whom you show loyalty today would be your worst enemies in future. Rachels, James, and Stuart Rachels. The elements of moral philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015. 8th Edition ISBN 978-0-07-811906-4.
Scientifically Speaking \| How large animals beat cancer Cancer is a collection of over 100 diseases that result from mutations in our DNA. Most of the mutations that cause cancer arise from mistakes made when DNA is copied during cell division. A few mutations are inherited from parents. Cancer is mainly a disease of the elderly because mutations accumulate over time. More cell divisions means more chances of mistakes during the copying process. The DNA of an adult has been copied a whopping 30 trillion times and with each division comes an increased risk of cancer. There is a remarkable correlation between body size and lifespan among most vertebrate animals. A small fish such as the pygmy goby lives for only 59 days. A large animal such as the bowhead whale lives for 211 years. Long-lived animals often run into the mechanical barriers of how long their organs can function. After a certain number of beats, hearts tend to give out. Long-lived animals also have to deal with cancer. One animal that beats the odds is the naked mole rat. Mice, which are roughly the same size as naked mole rats, live for around four years; on the other hand, naked mole rats can live for more than 35 years. Researchers who study these long-lived animals have found that they have developed ways to prevent cancer. What about large animals? Cells vary in size, but larger animals have more cells. Long-lived animals also have more cells that have undergone divisions. If the rate of mutations across cells is roughly similar for different animals, we can expect small and short-lived animals to have a lower risk of cancer than large long-lived animals. But this isn’t always the case. To put it another way, if large animals such as whales and elephants had the same risk of getting cancer as humans, then young animals of those species would never survive into adulthood. But these animals do exist and they get quite large: in fact an adult blue can weighs 136,000 kilograms! Also Read \| The untapped green potential of agroforestry This contradiction between observed body size in some animals and expected cancer risk is known as Peto’s Paradox. What this tells us is that large animals have found ways to beat cancer. By gleaning the biological details of how they do it, the hope is that we will find treatments for people too. Some studies have already started to show the way. In 2015, researchers found that elephants have a much lower risk of cancer than people do, and they have 20 copies of an anti-cancer gene called TP53. This gene gives rise to a tumour suppressor protein, which causes damaged cells to destroy themselves by a process known as programmed cell death. In humans, the TP53 gene prevents cancer. Conversely, mutations that damage TP53 are some of the most common causes of cancer. A newer study found that elephants aren’t the only large animals with many copies of the TP53 anti-cancer gene. Other large relatives such as mastodons and woolly mammoths had this gene too. Just this year, in an article in eLife, researchers looked at the entire elephant genome and found that they had many copies of other anti-cancer genes, apart from TP53. And not all large animals have many copies of TP53. Whales, for example, have other means of keeping their cancer risk low. Taken together, we now know that large animals have evolved many different mechanisms to reduce the risk of cancer, which has helped them to increase in size. To be sure, even though their cancer risk is reduced, large animals still succumb to other diseases. Take for example, elephants, which have six sets of teeth. If elephants live longer than the sixth, they have a hard time chewing food and are prone to starvation. In fact, loss of teeth is the leading cause of death in mature elephants. While it might seem farfetched right now, the different biological mechanisms that animals use to reduce cancer risk might someday help in increasing lifespan and in improving human health too. Anirban Mahapatra, a microbiologist by training, is the author of COVID-19: Separating Fact From Fiction. The views expressed are personal Please sign in to continue reading - Get access to exclusive articles, newsletters, alerts and recommendations - Read, share and save articles of enduring value
Topic: We are covering two topics this half term, We will be looking at Climate change and how this affects our local area. We will then move on to study the amazing Ancient Greeks! Although Climate change is only a short topic for us we will study in detail how the area of Haughton Green and Denton is affected. We will also make weather vanes to study the wind. During our Ancient Greece topic we will also complete lots of art work and use clay to try and recreate some of the beautiful vases and sculptures they created. English: This term we will be looking at a range of writing styles. Firstly, we will be writing a balanced argument about children using mobile phones. The children will explore both sides of the argument equally. Secondly, we will use the video Francis from literacy shed. Using this video we will create some setting descriptions and then move on to produce a newspaper report about the disappearance of the girl in the video. In SPaG lessons we will be revising all areas of punctuation and continuing to work on all the aspects of grammar to make your written work better. Remember the children have weekly spellings to learn, using Spelling Shed. Maths: In our maths lessons we will be covering the Year 6 objectives from the maths Curriculum. You will be continuing to work hard to achieve your targets in a variety of aspects of maths, trying to become more fluent and developing your reasoning and problem solving skills. We will be focussing on the using and applying aspect of maths through problem solving, reasoning, explaining and investigating. You will also be continuing to learn all your times tables so that you know all the multiplication and division facts to 12 x 12 to become and taking part in the Battle of the Bands. Classifying Living Things: In this unit children will learn how to classify living things using the major classification kingdoms. They will identify and describe the observable characteristics of a range of classification groups including micro-organisms, plants and animals. Children will make careful observations to identify the characteristics that help scientists classify all living things, such as whether a living thing has a backbone and how they reproduce. Children will also be able to use their observations to construct classification keys of increasing complexity. They will use evidence from their investigation to predict and investigate how to accelerate the rate of decay. We will complete this unit in the summer term. Evolution and Inheritance: In this unit children will have worked towards answering the Quest question ‘How do living things evolve?’ They will have investigated how living things have changed over time and that fossils provide information about living things that inhabited the Earth millions of years ago. They will have had the opportunity to make a visit (real or virtual) to a Natural History museum and they will have constructed a geological timeline. Children will have identified how animals and plants are adapted to suit their environment in different ways and that adaptation may lead to evolution. They will have explored the principal of inheritance, recognising that living things produce offspring of the same kind, but that normally such offspring vary and are not identical to their parents. Children will have researched how plants and animals are adapted to suit their environment in different ways and they will have identified some beneficial adaptations that may lead to evolution. They will have explored natural selection through drama and designed their own species. Computing– We will continue our work on coding, using the Scratch 3 program. We will also continue on creating and editing videos. Computing will also be used in a cross-curricular manner too in a variety of other curriculum areas to enhance learning. We will be using Book Creator, Powerpoint, imovie and Keynote to present our work in other subjects in different ways. The children will continue to get English and maths homework every week. We will always set the homework on a Friday and it must be brought back into school by the following Wednesday. This can either be set on googleclassroom or paper copies are available. The children will also be bringing home their reading books every day and it is vitally important that they read every day. We are really working on the children’s comprehension skills so it would be great if you could ask them questions about their books every time you read with them. We keep track of the homework and reading on charts in the classroom that are linked to the assertive mentoring scheme that we use in school. In order to achieve a green mark their homework MUST be completed and handed in on WEDNESDAY. We will be doing P.E. on Tuesday, so the children need their kits in school on these days. Just a reminder that school P.E. kit comprises of a white t-shirt, black shorts and pumps and if P.E. is taking place outside and the weather is cold, the children are allowed to wear dark jogging bottoms and trainers. All jewellery must be removed for P.E. We are looking forward to sharing all these exciting learning opportunities with you. Don’t forget to keep in contact using Blogs!
Music Learning for Hearing Impaired and Deaf Children: Capabilities and Effects Introduction and Background The uOttawa Piano Pedagogy Research Laboratory, in collaboration with researchers from uOttawa Audiology and the ENT and Otolaryngology clinic at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO), has been running a research program to investigate the abilities of cochlear implant (CI) recipients in learning and performing music, and the effects of music learning on their hearing system and well-being. Music plays an important role in the everyday life of normal-hearing children: special lullabies and other songs of comfort are part of parental nurturing. During the preschool years, children are often invited to take part in informal music activities for enjoyment or as part of preschool programming. During the elementary school years, children sing songs, move to music, and possibly start learning to play a musical instrument. The inability to hear music may contribute to a decreased quality of life as the pleasure derived from music and the social enjoyment of music is often missing for people with profound or severe hearing impairment.1–3 Support and training for hearing impairment vary and depend on the severity, cause, and impact of the impairment. The earlier a child who is deaf or hard-of-hearing starts getting services, the more likely the child's speech, language, and social skills will reach their full potential. Hearing aids and CI are the most common intervention tools for children with hearing impairments. The cochlear implant is primarily designed to assist with speech perception, however, when parents decide that their child should receive a cochlear implant, they often expect that their child will also be able to become involved in a wide range of musical activities.4 There is also an indication that music might have an effect on the central auditory system and that it might improve other auditory skills.5 For that reason, studies on how CI recipients engage in music-making, how they enjoy formal music lessons, and the effects on the central auditory system are an important research area to investigate. Project 1. The Response of Hearing-Impaired Children To Piano Lessons: Engagement and Enjoyment of Music To begin our research program we conducted a preliminary exploratory study. The purpose of this study6 was to establish the groundwork for further study, confirming if young children with cochlear implants can successfully learn to play piano, and feel engaged in the process. CI children and normal-hearing children received six months of formal individual piano lessons where aural modeling (Suzuki) was the main teaching method. Engagement was measured by a daily practice logbook indicating the number of days of practice a week, the duration of each practice session, and the number of days listening to the audio modeling CD. The engagement shown by hearing-impaired children was comparable or better to the two normal-hearing children who had lessons during the same period; results are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Practice and Interest Level Metrics Derived from Weekly Forms for Children with Cochlear Implants (CI) And Normal-Hearing Children (NH) \|Days per week\|\|5.1\|\|5.4\| \|Minutes per week\|\|54.9\|\|36.7\| \|Minutes per session\|\|13.6\|\|7.1\| \|Listening (days per week)\|\|3.7\|\|3\| \|Interest level metrics\| \|Child seemed excited\|\|4.4\|\|4.6\| \|Child sat at piano willingly\|\|4.8\|\|4.5\| \|Child went to piano outside of practice time\|\|4.3\|\|4.8\| Practice quality was rated on a 3-point Likert scale (3 = most positive), while the other parameters were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (5 = most positive). This study suggests that it is possible for hearing impaired children to learn to play the piano and to enjoy music making. The children’s diligence in practice and overall performance accomplishments were most strongly evident at a formal students’ recital in a concert hall, where the CI users played along with many other regular normal hearing students. Furthermore, according to the teacher, all parents reported increases in their children’s musical self-confidence, social interactions with peers, and singing within the home. Most surprising to parents was that all of the CI students signed up for their school’s end-of-year talent show and performed in front of the whole school. The parents reported a positive correlation between social acceptance and piano lessons. This study was the first attempt we are aware of to examine how children with a profound hearing deficit respond to piano lessons in terms of engagement and enjoyment. Project 2. The Effect of Piano Lessons on Deaf and Hearing-Impaired Children This study, currently in the planning stage, is a continuation of the pilot study mentioned above. The objective is to investigate the effects of learning piano on the central auditory system of hearing impaired and deaf children. We plan to explore the changes caused by piano lessons on the type of brain wave called ‘auditory evoked potentials’ (AEPs) at the cortical and subcortical level in children with and without hearing impairment. This will be a longitudinal study with periodic testing over five years. During the 5 years, participants will attend weekly lessons and practice regularly at home. The participants will undergo a full audiological evaluation and AEPs recordings before commencing piano lessons, and once per year during lessons. In addition to investigating for effect on the central auditory system, we will test for changes in music perception abilities and emotional speech prosody using existing testing batteries.7 The results of this research will further our understanding of the functioning of the central auditory system in hearing impaired and deaf children and may benefit audiologists in their clinical practices. Project 3. A Case Study of an Advanced Violinist with Cochlear Implants Our third project (in progress) is to build a case study of a profoundly deaf violinist with cochlear implants. The violinist is a first-year undergraduate music student. It is quite remarkable that someone with such a degree of hearing loss can play a musical instrument at an advanced level, and more remarkable still that it is possible on a violin which is generally regarded as an instrument that requires very acute hearing to play well. Four sets of data are being collected for this case study: (1) interviews with the violinist in question as well as his parents and violin teachers; (2) music perception test data including a comparison with a control group of violinists at a similar level and age; (3) questionnaire data used to evaluate music students’ motivation levels; (4) the violinist's medical records including detailed audiometric data, surgical history, and auditory rehabilitation techniques and schedule. This work will demonstrate what deaf people are capable of concerning music learning, and what one individual's path towards mastery of a musical instrument entailed. This case study will be of particular value to children with cochlear implants and their parents as an example of the possibilities that exist despite being deaf. Enjoyment of music through listening and performing is enriching and beneficial for anyone, but especially those that have had to deal with the limitations of deafness in their lives. Our work in this area will contribute to the body of knowledge on the effects of music learning on the deaf and hearing-impaired and spread awareness of what deaf people are capable of concerning music learning. We have discovered that young children with cochlear implants can be very motivated to learn to play a musical instrument and that their music-making was an enjoyable, rewarding experience. Our current research will help to deepen our understanding of the functioning of the central auditory system in hearing impaired and deaf children and potentially indicate whether exposure to music for children with hearing impairment can positively influence their neural responses. There are innumerable benefits in learning a musical instrument, and we hope to contribute to bringing the world of music to hearing-impaired children. - Lassaletta L, Castro A, Bastarrica M, et al. Does music perception have an impact on quality of life following cochlear implantation? Acta Oto-Larynogologica 2007;127(7):682–86. - Wright R and Uchanski RM. Music perception and appraisal: Cochlear implant users and simulated cochlear implant listening. J Am Acad Audiol 2012;23(5):350–65. - Zhao F, Bai Z, and Stephens D. The relationship between changes in self rated quality of life after cochlear implantation and changes in individual complaints. Clin Otolaryngol 2008;33:427–34. - Gfeller K, Witt S, Spencer LJ, et al. Musical involvement and enjoyment of children who use cochlear implants. Volta Rev 1998;100:213–33. - Chen JK-C, Chuang AY-C, McMahon C, et al. Music training improves pitch perception in prelingually deafened children with cochlear implants. Pediatrics 2010;125(4):793–800. - Comeau G, Koravand A, and Markovic S. Response of hearing impaired children to piano lessons: Engagement and enjoyment of music. Canadian Music Educator/Musicien Educateur Au Canada 2017;58:12–18. - Good A, Gordon KA, Papsin BC, et al. Benefits of music training for perception of emotional speech prosody in deaf children with cochlear implants. Ear Hear 2017;38(4):455.
“Cryopreservation is the use of very low temperatures to preserve the cells and tissues that are structurally intact.” Table of Contents - Embryo Cryopreservation - Oocyte Cryopreservation - Sperm Cryopreservation What is Cryopreservation? Cryopreservation is the method of keeping the live cells, tissues and other biological samples in a deep freeze at subzero temperatures for the storage or preservation. The sample is commonly kept at −196°C. At such low temperatures, all the biological activities of the cells stop and the cell dies. Cryopreservation helps the cells to survive freezing and thawing. The ice formation inside the cells can break the cell membrane. This can be prevented by regulating the freezing rate and carefully choosing the freezing medium. In this process, biological materials including cells, oocytes, spermatozoa, tissues, ovarian tissues, pre-implantation embryos, organs, etc. are kept in extremely cold temperatures without affecting the cell’s viability. Dry Ice and liquid nitrogen are generally used in this method. The complete procedure steps involved in preserving the obtained biological samples are as follows: Harvesting or Selection of material– Few important criteria should be followed while selecting the biological materials such as – volume, density, pH, morphology, and without any damage. Addition of cryo-protectant – Cryoprotective agents such as glycerol, FBS, salts, sugars, glycols are added to the samples as it reduces the freezing point of the medium and also allow slower cooling rate, which reduces the risk of crystallization. Freezing – Different methods of freezing are applied in this method of cryopreservation to protect cells from damage and cell death by their exposure to the warm solutions of cryoprotective agents. Storage in liquid nitrogen– The cryopreserved samples are stored in extreme cold or -80°C in a freezer for at least 5 to 24 hours before transferring it to the storage vessels. Thawing- The process of warming the biological samples in order to control the rate of cooling and prevent the cell damage caused by the crystallization. Further Reading: Cell Theory Cryopreservation of Embryos During the infertility treatment, hormones are used to stimulate the development of eggs. The eggs are then taken out and fertilized in the lab. More embryos can be created and transplanted to the woman’s uterus. These embryos can be cryopreserved and can be used at some later date. By this, the female can get an additional transfer of embryo in future, without spending on another IVF cycle. In the vitrification method, the eggs freeze rapidly so that there is less time available for the formation of ice crystals. New cryoprotectants are used with a high concentration of products with anti-freeze property. The oocyte is first placed in a bath containing a low concentration of anti-freeze like cryoprotectant. Some sucrose is added to help draw some water out of the egg. The egg is then shifted to high concentration anti-freeze cryoprotectant for very few seconds and then immediately transferred to liquid nitrogen. When the egg is thawed and used for the transplantation into the woman. Cryopreservation of Sperm The semen sample is mixed with a solution, which provides protection during freezing and thawing. Followed by transfer to plastic vials, which are then kept in liquid nitrogen for freezing. This process ensures the chances of conception in future. The sperm can also be deposited, froze and stored in cryobanks for less than a year. These sperms can later be used for certain infertility treatment procedures. Benefits of Cryopreservation There are many benefits of cryopreservation technique. These include: Minimal space and labour required. Safety from genetic contamination. Safeguards genetic integrity of valuable stains. Safeguards the germplasm of endangered species. Biological samples can be preserved for a longer period of time. Protects the samples from disease and microbial contamination. Prevents genetic drift by cryopreservation of gametes, embryos, etc. Applications of Cryopreservation Cryopreservation is a long-term storage technique, which is mainly used for preserving and maintaining viability of the biological samples for a longer duration. This method of preservation is widely used in different sectors including cryosurgery, molecular biology, ecology, food science, plant physiology, and in many medical applications. Other applications of cryopreservation process are: In vitro fertilization. Storage of rare germplasm. Freezing of cell cultures. Conservation of endangered plant species. This was an introduction to Cryopreservation, its Applications, process, and advantages. For more information, stay tuned with BYJU’S. Articles of Interest - Exocrine Glands - Germ Theory Of Disease - VNTR (Variable Number Of Tandem Repeats) - Foster’s Rule - Allee Effect - Placebo Effect Frequently Asked Questions Which chemical is used in cryopreservation techniques? Liquid nitrogen is used in cryopreservation technique. How are the cells placed in liquid nitrogen revived? The cryovials containing frozen cells are revived by placing them in a water bath of 37°C. The vials are thawed until negligible ice is left in the vial. The vial is then transferred to the laminar flow.
Pearson Correlation Tool The Pearson Correlation tool uses the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (sometimes referred to as the PMCC, and typically denoted by r) to measure the correlation (linear dependence) between two variables X and Y, giving a value between +1 and −1 inclusive. It is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two variables.* Correlation (often measured as a correlation coefficient, ρ) indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two random variables. Correlation values ranges from –1.00 (a perfect negative correlation) to +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation). Zero indicates no correlation at all. The Pearson coefficient is obtained by dividing the covariance of the two variables by the product of their standard deviations.* - Generate correlation for selected variables: Select two or more fields from the input stream to run the correlation on. Fields must be numeric. Columns containing unique identifiers, such as surrogate primary keys and natural primary keys, should not be used in statistical analyses. They have no predictive value and can cause runtime exceptions. - Specify the type of calculation to run. Choices are: - Calculate Correlation: Measures the Pearson Correlation. - Calculate Covariance: Measures the Covariance between different fields. The type of covariance is "sample covariance", which is the same as the Excel statistical formula "COVARIANCES". The Pearson Correlation Coefficient tool expects non-Null values. If there are nulls in the data, it is a good idea to use the Imputation Tool to replace the nulls first.
Mealtimes can be a great opportunity for children to increase their vocabulary and learn some of the skills that are necessary for engaging in conversations, such as listening to others and taking a turn to talk. Here are some general suggestions. Get your children to help prepare part of the meal There are many opportunities for learning and using vocabulary such as ‘wash’, ‘spread’, ‘tear’, ‘mix’, ‘stir’, ‘rinse’, and ‘peel’. At mealtime, ask each child to tell the rest of the family what they did to help. Set a good example Talk about your own day in simple terms. Highlight one thing that you really liked about your day and then ask what each child really liked about his or her day. Telling one good thing about the day could become a routine at every dinner and provides a clear topic of conversation. Try asking questions For example, ask: ‘If you could only eat one food for a whole week, what would you eat?’ or, ‘What is the spiciest thing you have ever eaten?’ Give an opinion and ask for opinions For example, say: ‘Spaghetti and tomato sauce is my favourite meal. What is your favourite meal?’ or, ‘I like apple pie. What is your favourite dessert?’ Don’t forget to give your child enough time to come up with a response. If this kind of question seems difficult for your child, narrow it down by giving a choice. E.g. ‘Do you like ice cream or pudding the best?’ Build your child’s vocabulary by modelling language Comment on the food: the taste ‘This cookie tastes sweet’, the texture ‘My carrot is crunchy’, the colour ‘I have a red pepper’ and the temperature ‘The soup is hot. You may have to blow on it.’ Talk about who is hungry or thirsty and when everyone is full. Offer your child small amounts and wait to allow him/her the opportunity to ask for more. Use category labels such as ‘vegetables’, ‘fruits’, ‘meats’ or ‘grains’. Talk about where the food comes from and add a comment: ‘We get milk from cows. Remember when we went to see the cows at the Experimental Farm?’ ‘Bananas don’t grow in Canada. They grow in countries where the weather is warm all year.’ Introduce logical thinking skills For example, ask: ‘We have five people at the table so how many cups do we need?’, ‘What should we do if we spill our milk?’, ‘What happens after we eat lunch?’ and ‘Do we eat our dessert first or last?’ For example, ask: ‘Do you want grapes or yogurt?’ or ‘Do you want a little bit of casserole or a lot?’ Most importantly, keep it as enjoyable as possible All of us are more likely to want to communicate when we are relaxed and having a good time. Bronwen Jones, M.A., S-LP, Reg. CASLPO
Lab Report- Nursing Lab: Using the Microscope Before starting your lab assignment: Please read/watch the below. How to use a Microscope: How to use a Microscope: BioNetwork Common Microscope Mistakes Elodea Plant and How to Make a Wet Mount: Some great information about plant cells Microscopic Images of Cells Loyola University Microscope and Cellular Diversity web page: • To view images, scroll down the webpage. • Click on each image to view a larger picture. Pond Life Video Gallery: Nikon Purpose: Purpose restated in your own words (1 sentence max). Key Terms: Please define the following terms. Remember to restate the terms in your own words. Low to high rule- Defined in your own words (1 sentence max). Cover slip- Defined in your own words (1 sentence max). Objective lens- Defined in your own words (1 sentence max). Diaphragm- Defined in your own words (1 sentence max). Stage- Defined in your own words (1 sentence max). Questions about how to use the microscope 1. Name 4 general suggestions for focusing your microscope. When increasing in magnification, do you increase or decrease the amount of light? When are the course and fine focus knobs used during focusing? Response in your own words 2. Describe the procedures for using the oil immersion lens (100X objective lens). Response in your own words 3. The second microscope video showed several microscope mistakes. List the mistakes and how to correct them. Response in your own words Loyola University Microscope and Cellular Diversity web page 4. Compare microscopic images of a plant cell and an animal cell (Elodea Leaf and Human Epidermal Cells). State your observations including the following: Responses in your own words Color of cells? Shape or structure of cells? Can internal cellular structures such as the cell nucleus, chloroplasts, vacuole be observed? 5. Examine the microscopic images of bacteria (middle row of images on the Loyola University webpage). Compare the relative size of bacterial cells to plant cell. A quick and easy comparison is to compare the magnification of the bacterial and plant images. What observations can you make? Response in your Compare the three microscopic images of bacteria? Record your observations regarding shape and structure of cells, color of cells (cells were stained for microscopic imaging) and any other observations. Response in your own words Use the Pond life gallery resource to watch the movement of living protozoan. Fifteen different examples of protozoans (single celled eukaryotes, representative species include Amoebas and Paramecium) are shown towards the bottom of the webpage. 6. Pick two different protozoans and list the protozoan name and 2 observations regarding either cellular shape and structure of a description of the movement, feeding or another activity. Response in your own words Are you overwhelmed by your class schedule and need help completing this assignment? You deserve the best professional and plagiarism-free writing services. Allow us to take the weight off your shoulders by clicking this button.Get help
Antennas are literally everywhere. It is a common piece of equipment that it has become a natural part of our environment so that we have stopped noticing them. They might be invisible to us but a great part of our wireless communication depends on their presence. Antennas act as core parts of modern devices, cars, phones, notebooks or even smart home devices developed by FIBARO. Not having them would keep our lives back just as it was in early 20th century. We took a deep insight to the world of antennas and ask some questions during a thorough conversation with one of our experts – Robert Giżycki, the Senior Hardware Engineer FIBARO. Przemysław Kaczorowski: Robert, tell us more about the antennas, what is their role in IoT devices, including those developed by FIBARO? Robert Giżycki: The antenna is usually made of metal of a certain shape and size. Physical features of its structure define its properties and performance — including the range. Antenna is the final part of the radio system, which is designed to effectively convert the electrical power supplied to its input into an electromagnetic wave (EM) that spreads freely in space reaching distant devices — it carries information. The nature of the antennas is that they work simultaneously in both directions, the thing is that they are simultaneously a transmitter and a receiver of an EM wave. A pair of antennas distant from each other is connected by an “invisible cable” connecting devices and letting them communicate. The main difference is that an ordinary wire (usually connects two devices, and the antennas radiate in all directions allowing to connect multiple devices at different locations and at the same time. Of course, there are directional antennas, however, in IoT devices, including FIBARO smart devices, a uniform radiation in all directions is what we are exactly aiming at. Wired connection is stable and has virtually identical attenuation as a function of time or position change. In the case of antennas it is completely different, the attenuation between the two antennas is not constant. It strongly depends on the mutual location of the devices relative to each other, on the material to which they are attached, the structure of the building, and also, interestingly, on the location of the people in the building. Of no small importance is the phenomenon of reflection and summation of the wave, which locally can manifest itself as a large disappearance of the signal. Our research conducted in FIBARO R&D department showed that attenuation fluctuations between antennas can be up to 20-30dB (differences 100-1000 times). This means that the range between the same devices in a certain building can equal 30 meters while in another one it will be only 15 meters and all this is caused by a set of external factors. PK: What do FIBARO smart home users need to remember to make their devices range stable? What are the rules the installer should keep in mind when installing the system?? RG: FIBARO devices are designed in a way the user does not have to worry about losing range. However, in some cases it is good to remember certain rules. For example, devices with an external antenna have a better range performance if the antenna is straghtened and separated (straightened and stand-off) from the device. The more curled and hidden is the antenna, the worse range we have. Remember not to close the devices in metal boxes or close to any metal surface as this greatly reduces the efficiency of the antenna. PK: What is the process of designing antennas in FIBARO and what kind of antennas are used in our smart devices? RG: We approach the radio track design process comprehensively. At the very beginning it is to place the antenna in the best part of the device. Basically, it can’t be covered by large metal elements that can affect the shape of radiation characteristics. It should not be too close to the housing as it is prone to detuning due to inaccuracy of the housing assembly. If there is a lot of space in the housing, we use antennas printed on the PCB – they are the most advantageous from an economical and functional point of view. A perfect example is the 433MHz antenna in Home Center 3. If there is not much space to work on, the chip or external antenna make a perfect alternative, as in FIBARO The Heat Controller. Our engineers use an electromagnetic simulator to modelling and verifying PCB antenna resonance frequency. Rest of the parameters are tested on a prototype in the FIBARO R&D department. Another step is to determine the efficiency of the antenna, its maximum amplification (gain) and design the matching circuit, which usually consists of several coils and capacitors. If any of the parameters is unsatisfactory, another revised version is designed. Throughout the entire process, we do not forget about impulse voltage regulators which are the source of interference entering the antenna (integrated circuit) that turn the higher voltage into a lower one these are the most popular elements in any electronic device. The team tries to locate the loudest tracks in the regulator circuit and next modify it to obtain the lowest antenna noise floor. Monopole antenna is the most popular type used across our devices. PK: Speaking of design, can you specify the conditions and what tests are carried out on FIBARO devices? RG: It is our aim to make the antenna band and its impedance optimal for the nominal operating conditions. Each product undergoes efficiency tests including the antenna radiation characteristics performance test. If the parameters obtained with the first prototype are poor, we design a new one. Sometimes it takes four or five different antenna designs to develop a proper product. Vector network analyzer helps us measure impedance and separation between antennas. On the other hand, the efficiency and characteristics of radiation are examined in the GTEM chamber (equipped with) automatic manipulator. The idea of measurements in the GTEM chamber has been developed earlier. Our team have developed a measurement system from scratch and had personalized it to improve FIBARO smart home devices examination. PK: What parameters are most important for you and what problems do you encounter most often during your daily work? RG: The main thing is to develop omni-directional radiation characteristics. This will provide a proper range in every direction. Secondly, the antenna efficiency. Our goal is to exceed 50% which is quite realistic for antennas working in the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands. A lot more challenging are antennas designed for small devices operating at 433MHz or 868MHz frequencies (e.g. 868MHz frequency of FIBARO Keyfob). Size of the device determines the efficiency of the antenna where for smaller devices lower values are accepted. It is desirable that the antenna has a wide bandwidth and is not particularly prone to detuning. Antenna polarization is no longer so important because in the real system the devices are mounted in different ways and the transmission inside the building causes additional changes in this area. Therefore, it is very difficult to define the requirements in this area. The antenna itself is not everything, its surroundings are also crucial. As a sensitive receiver of the electromagnetic field, FIBARO devices record everything that happens around. This happens quite often: the spectrum of the output signal contains noise hills generated by DC/DC converters and also discrete peaks being harmonics of digital signals. Problems occur even if the electromagnetic emission of the device is low and meets all the required standards. The thing is that the sensitivity of the current radio systems is very high, and if antenna receive unwanted system noise, ability to the lowest signals reception disappears. Now comes the interesting part of the engineer’s work. Every single recovered decibel of sensitivity is a great success to an engineer. End user gets a strong and stable network within all smart devices. PK: How did you manage to hide the antenna in Home Center 3 device? What was the goal of having such design and features? RG: Home Center 3 has more than one antenna. Initially, there were seven of them, because we considered the use of the LTE interface. Finally, there are six antennas that support Z-Wave, ZigBee, WiFi 802.11abgn, BLE and Nice interfaces. We gave up the LTE interface and added an antenna that supports the 433MHz band, which is responsible for working with the Nice group products. The integration of so many antennas is a rather complicated process. Including the optimization, the whole process took us around two months. At first, we defined the size of the device which would be acceptable in terms of design and price. Engineering team wanted to maintain large device size to achieve better antenna performance in the lower frequency range (433-870MHz). Large size of the PCB gave us some flexibility when it comes to optimizing antennas separation, what allowed us to keep low intermodulation distortion. After that, we have focused on measuring radiation characteristics and optimizing antenna impedance. High efficiency and relatively uniform radiation characteristics were our priority. PK: Do you remember the case of 2010 iPhone 4 losing their GSM range? Is it probable it will happen again? RG: Yeah, I am familiar with the subject. It’s an issue of today’s engineer. Engineers are the ones who need to define what typical use really means to a certain product and conduct research to fit the requirements. It may happen that someone does not capture a certain property of the antenna and, as a result, the user will be struggling with a range problem. Smartphones are a good example of what can exactly go wrong. Users handle phones in a different manner by holding them in their hands or by making a call – current position of the device makes a huge difference to the antenna performance. Our researchers say it is impossible to examine all possible scenarios, especially when they are getting short on research time. Customer’s demand made us push hard on every single product launch and they are expecting one every 6 months. Combined design teams with experienced testers are essential. If they can figure out the worst case scenario, the team is able to develop a solution to it. If not, it will surely be pointed out by the users. Of course, it is not guaranteed that there will be no problems at all. If someone decides to place the active part of the antenna outside the housing, they must reckon with the fact that its impedance can take extreme values and, as a result, the efficiency of the solution may vary. PK: FIBARO devices operate in the so-called mesh network – can you explain how does it work? What does it consist of and what are the benefits? RG: The point is that devices that are not in direct range with the smart home gateway (e.g. Home Center Lite, Home Center 2 or Home Center 3) are connecting via other devices using the same network. Method of this kind builds a strong Z-Wave network range which is reliable even in big apartments or houses. It is also worth remembering that the retransmitted information block (exploits) the radio channel a little longer than the direct communication, so the better range is achieved at the expense of retransmission and lowering of the radio channel bandwidth. PK: Is Home Center Lite enough for a 40m2 apartment? Can it handle the range? How would you assess the need for individual FIBARO smart home gateways depending on the home size? RG:Home Center Lite will easily manage the range in an apartment with an area of 40m2. However, it should be remembered that each case is different, as I mentioned earlier. When it comes to range, both the Home Center 2 and Home Center Lite have similar range, however, Home Center 2 provides more system configuration capabilities. Home Center 3 smart home gateway has an additional power amplifier module and LNA and its range performance is second to none. I’m pretty sure it provides a two time better range coverage from the previous gateways versions. There is no doubt that technological development and users increasing requirements force more advanced solutions. To be able to fully enjoy the possibilities offered by the FIBARO smart home you should observe some important issues and entrust the installation to a professional installer. This connection guarantees reliability, and in case of any doubts – almost immediate help.
Black HolesBlack Holes are theoretical objects in the Universe which, by their very nature, are almost impossible to directly detect. A black hole is an object which has so much mass and such a high density that nothing, not even light, can escape its gravitational clutches. Hence it is black. Black Holes may form as the result of the collapse of a very massive star at its death. Just as neutron stars form during a supernova explosion of a very massive star so do black holes. But in the black hole case the initial star was so massive that not even the quantum mechanical pressures that keep neutrons from collapsing can halt the force of gravity's pull. All the matter of the star's core is crushed to an infinitely small point, a singularity. A black hole is shielded from the outside world by what is called an event horizon. This is a sphere around the black hole where the escape velocity is the speed of light. Interior to this horizon the escape velocity is greater than light, and since nothing may move faster than light everything that crosses the event horizon is gone forever. Despite the blackness of black holes there has been evidence of their existence. If a black hole forms near a star it may pull matter from that star's surface off. The matter spirals toward the black hole in an accretion disc. This accretion disc will emit X-rays. Such X-ray sources have been detected and some show evidence that the object accreting the matter is so massive that it must be a Black Hole. Other such methods have led some to believe that many if not most galaxies harbor supermassive black holes in their cores. These black holes have gobbled so much matter that they have the mass of billions of suns. What would it be like to enter a black hole? None too pleasant. First, as you approach the black hole the difference in the gravitaional pull on your head compared to your feet (known as tidal forces) would literally rip you apart. But suppose you survived that. Once you cross the event horizon there is no turning back and the only thing to do is avoid the black hole itself at all costs. If you run into that singularity it will crush every atom, every proton, neutron, electron, quark, etc. of your body right out of existence. Interestingly, if people from Earth were observing your decent into a black hole they would never see you cross the event horizon. Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity says that as you approach a black hole your time slows down. The closer you get to the black hole the more you appear to be in slow motion as seen by Earth observers very far away. Eventually you appear to be frozen in time as you cross the event horizon. Of course, you notice nothing different whatsoever. But if you were to suddenly change your mind right before crossing the event horizon and return to Earth you would find it in the very distant future. You've become a time traveler! Neat huh?
The Google X lab has been launching balloons into the stratosphere in an attempt to provide internet access to underserved parts of the world. This effort is called Project Loon, and was first announced in the summer of 2013. The first balloons stayed aloft for about 5 days, and increasing their flight time has been the primary challenge of the project ever since. This past summer, the lab launched a balloon into the stratosphere over Peru that stayed aloft for 98 days. Fighting the balloon’s natural tendency to simply float away has been the biggest obstacle to keeping them in the air long enough to provide viable internet access. As with a hot air balloon, the navigation system of these balloons are only able to move them up and down, relying on (or avoiding) weather patterns, since more complex navigation systems (like jet propulsion) would be too heavy and expensive. When the project got started, the team used handcrafted algorithms, prepared to respond to a fixed set of variables such as altitude, location, and wind speed. To get results such as with the Peru balloon, the project turned to artificial intelligence. These new algorithms use machine learning to analyze huge quantities of data, and in the process actually learn over time. With more control over the navigation of these balloons, the project is able to use fewer balloons to provide internet. Instead of launching huge quantities, and essentially hoping for the best, they are able to launch a few balloons with improved navigation to stay where they are needed. Google, along with other leading companies such as Facebook and Twitter, have increasingly turned towards the concept of deep neural networks – algorithms which loosely model the network of neurons in the human brain. Instead of engineers needing to hand-code each algorithm, they are able to learn on their own, and expand their capabilities. While the Project Loon navigation does not use deep neural networks exactly, it employs a similar but simpler approach to machine learning, called Gaussian Processes. It uses data from over 17 million kilometers of balloon flights since the start of Project Loon, to predict whether the balloon should be navigated up or down at any given time. To deal with the unpredictable nature of the weather the team has encountered, they’ve added reinforcement learning to the process. This allows the AI to collect additional data on what actions work and which don’t, to continue to modify future behavior. The project’s navigation systems rely on access to massive Google data centers. Access to such vast oceans of data is improving the capabilities of all sorts of technologies, and will continue to reshape people’s lives, and relationships to technology. Providing internet access to formerly ignored regions of the globe is just the beginning.
The KRT4 gene provides instructions for making a protein called keratin 4. Keratins are a group of tough, fibrous proteins that form the structural framework of epithelial cells, which are cells that line the surfaces and cavities of the body. Keratin 4 is found in the moist lining (mucosae) of the mouth, nose, esophagus, genitals, and anus. Keratin 4 partners with a similar protein, keratin 13 (produced from the KRT13 gene), to form molecules known as intermediate filaments. These filaments assemble into strong networks that provide strength and resilience to the different mucosae. Networks of intermediate filaments protect the mucosae from being damaged by friction or other everyday physical stresses. At least six mutations in the KRT4 gene have been found to cause white sponge nevus, a condition that results in the formation of white patches of tissue called nevi (singular: nevus) that appear as thickened, velvety, sponge-like tissue. These nevi most often occur on the mouth (oral) mucosa (plural: mucosae). Rarely, white sponge nevus occurs on the mucosae of the nose, esophagus, genitals, or anus. The KRT4 gene mutations that cause white sponge nevus disrupt the structure of keratin 4. As a result, keratin 4 does not fit together properly with keratin 13, leading to the formation of irregular intermediate filaments that are easily damaged with little friction or trauma. Fragile intermediate filaments in the oral mucosa might be damaged when eating or brushing one's teeth. Damage to intermediate filaments leads to inflammation and promotes the abnormal growth and division (proliferation) of epithelial cells, causing the mucosae to thicken and resulting in white sponge nevus. - cytokeratin 4 - keratin 4, type II - keratin, type II cytoskeletal 4 - type-II keratin Kb4
What is Numerator? When numbers are written in the form of a fraction, it can be represented as a , where a is the numerator and b is the denominator. For example, 4 is a fraction, and the line separating the numbers 4 and 5 is the fraction bar. Here the number above the fraction bar is the numerator, and the one below the fraction bar is the denominator. A numerator represents the number of parts out of the whole, which is the denominator Here is an example of a numerator: Out of a pizza having 6 slices, Rena gets 1 slice. That means the fraction for Rena is 1⁄6 , where 1 is the numerator. In other words, she gets one-sixth of the pizza. Likewise, in 4⁄5 , 4 is the numerator; in the fraction 25⁄49 , 25 is the numerator and so on. So anything that is above the fraction bar or on the top in a fraction is the numerator. Misconceptions about Numerator: It is always smaller than the denominator. The numerator is not necessarily smaller than the denominator. For example, 45⁄32 is a fraction, wherein 45 is the numerator, and is greater than the denominator. Such fractions are called improper fractions and are always greater than 1. Fun Facts About the Numerator: If the numerator is 0, then the entire fraction becomes zero, no matter what the denominator is! For example, 0⁄100 is 0; 0⁄2 is 0, and so on. The word “numerator” is derived from the Latin word numerātor, which means counter. If the numerator is the same as the denominator, the value of the fraction becomes 1. For example, if the fraction is 45⁄45 , then its value will be 1.
The effect of bacterial ice nuclei April 22, 2016 The freezing point of water is anything but a clear subject. Small droplets of the purest water only freeze at minus 37 degrees Celsius. Crystalization nuclei such as bacteria with ice-forming proteins on their surface are required for ice crystals to develop at just under 0 degrees Celsius. Researchers at the Max Planck Institutes for Chemistry and for Polymer Research have now elucidated the molecular mechanism how proteins congeal water molecules. According to the researchers, the proteins create ordered structures in the water and remove heat from the water. The findings not only help to facilitate a better understanding of the conditions under which frost damage occurs on plants. Since the bacteria are also airborne in the atmosphere, where they promote the formation of ice crystals, they also play a role in formation of clouds and precipitation – a major factor of uncertainty in weather and climate forecasts. A water droplet in a cloud does not freeze at 0 degrees Celsius. Water forms ice only at the temperature which is commonly known as freezing point, if it is in contact with large surfaces with many and large ice forming parts – for example in a vessel or a lake. It has been known for some time that ice formation in water droplets is promoted by bacteria by specific protein molecules at their surface. Until recently, however, the molecular mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon have been unclear. The graphics shows surface proteins (green arrows) that are surrounded by water molecules (red-white). [less] The graphics shows surface proteins (green arrows) that are surrounded by water molecules (red-white). Certain amino acid sequences increase the order of water Max Planck researchers have now unraveled the interactions between water and protein molecules at the bacterial surface. A team around Tobias Weidner who heads a research team at the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research and Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky, head of a research group at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, shows how ice-active bacteria influence the order and dynamics of water molecules. Together with American colleagues, the Mainz researchers have reported in the latest edition of the scientific journal Science Advances that the interactions of specific amino acid sequences of the protein molecules generate water domains with increased order and stronger hydrogen bonds. Additionally, the proteins remove thermal energy from the water into the bacteria. As a result, water molecules can aggregate into ice crystals more easily. Ice-active bacteria are of great importance to scientists from a variety of different perspectives. On the one hand they can cause frost damage on the surface of plants. On the other hand, when carried by wind into the atmosphere, they can trigger as crystalization and condensation nuclei the formation of snow and rain and thus influence the hydrological cycle. The spread of ice-active bacteria and other biological aerosol particles in the atmosphere and their impact on the formation of clouds and precipitation is a much-debated topic in current climate and Earth system research. Findings about the ice forming effect of bacteria can help to better understand their role in the climate system. Pseudomonas syringae is used commercially To understand how bacterial proteins stimulate the formation of ice crystals, the researchers concentrated on the ice-active bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. This bacterium can trigger the formation of ice in water droplets beginning at -2 degrees Celsius, while mineral dust usually triggers the freezing process only below -15 degree Celsius. Due to their high ice nucleating ability, devitalized Pseudomonas syringae are used for the production of artificial snow in the commercial product “Snomax”. The scientists utilized the so-called sum frequency generation spectroscopy for their studies. By use of laser beams this technology allows the investigation of water molecules at the bacterial or protein surface. Making ice formation mechanisms usable for applications Thanks to the new findings, it appears possible to imitate the bacterial ice nucleating mechanism and make it usable for other applications. “For the future it is conceivable to produce artificial nano-structured surfaces and particles to selectively influence and control the formation of ice,” says Tobias Weidner. Encouraged by the positive results, the two Max Planck research groups want to extend their cooperation. “We plan to examine the ice-nucleating proteins in isolated form. Currently, we are still analyzing whole bacterial cells and cell fragments. Additionally, we want to extend the analyses to fungal ice nuclei,” explains Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky, whose working group specializes in the characterization of biological ice nuclei and has an extensive collection of both ice-active bacteria and cultures from ice-active fungi available.
People who have dementia experience a gradual worsening in the ability to think clearly, and this affects their day to day life. Rather than being a medical condition in and of itself, "dementia" is a term used to describe a range of symptoms, including impairments in memory, reason and judgment, visual perception, communication, language and focus. The symptoms of dementia can be present with various medical conditions, the most common of which is Alzheimer’s disease. Causes and Types of Dementia Dementia develops because of damage to the cells in the brain, which can occur for a variety of reasons. Some people assume that dementia is a natural part of getting older, but that is not the case. Though some age-related forgetfulness is to be expected, if it becomes serious and affects daily life, the person should be seen by a doctor and treated for a medical condition. Some forms of dementia are irreversible. This includes Alzheimer’s disease, ischemic vascular dementia, Parkinson’s dementia and others. In some cases, however, the symptoms of dementia can be reversed. For example, some people begin to develop dementia symptoms because of their use of certain medications, emotional distress, nutritional deficiencies or other problems. Often, correcting these problems with the body and mind can lead to an improvement in the symptoms of dementia. Treatment of Dementia Following an overall healthy lifestyle, maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly, not smoking and staying socially and mentally active are all steps that might play a role in preventing dementia. Once dementia is present, treatment may be able to keep the disease from progressing as rapidly. Medications are available to slow the progression of Alzheimer’s disease and other irreversible dementias. In addition, treating any other health problems that are present may help with dementia, as well. SOURCES: Alzheimer’s Association; Family Caregiver Alliance Good Oral Hygiene May Decrease The Risk of Many Serious Diseases. Women who have fewer reproductive years at higher risk of dementia. What you eat during middle age may not impact your dementia risk. Air pollution may up the risk of dementia.
Although the waves which describe quantum particles are abstract, they still have all the typical properties of waves: they can add up, cancel one another out and more. Louis de Broglie (Figure 2) postulated in 1924 that each particle has a wavelength which is inversely proportional to its momentum. A fast, heavy particle therefore has a very short wavelength; a slow, light particle has a much longer wavelength. For example, the wavelength of fast electrons is considerably smaller than the diameter of an atom. Today, it is therefore possible to depict nanometer-sized samples at the atomic level using the best electron microscopes (see here). Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is one of the cornerstones of quantum physics. It is often misunderstood as the inability to exactly measure certain properties of quantum objects. In fact, it is an inherent property of nature itself. This article focuses on the meaning and effects of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. In 1927 Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle (Figure 1). This principle states that for certain value pairs of quantum objects both values cannot be exactly defined at the same time. The most well-known pair is position and momentum (momentum being the mass times the speed of a particle). Quantum particles therefore cannot have an exactly specified speed and exactly specified position at the same time. As a consequence there also cannot be an exactly specified particle path. Another such value pair – there are many others – is energy and time. Therefore, it is impossible to state that a quantum particle has exactly energy Y at point in time X. One analogy to help understand the uncertainty principle comes from music: In order to determine the exact pitch of a guitar string the string must vibrate long enough to allow the measurement of the duration of the oscillation period. However, if this was measured over a certain period of time, it would be impossible to define the exact time of the measurement. This means the exact point in time of the measurement and the exact pitch are mutually exclusive. This is the uncertainty principle at work in the field of music. However, as quantum mechanics describes particles as waves, the relevance of this analogy can be seen shortly. An exact position for a particle is described by a wave packet which only shows a high amplitude at this position and vanishes elsewhere. A wave packet comprises a higher number of waves of different wavelengths the narrower it is. Figure 3 shows on the left a wide wave packet which comprises a few waves of different wavelengths. To the right is a considerably narrower wave packet which contains many more waves of different wavelengths. It is easy to imagine that a very narrow wave packet must consist of an almost infinite number of different wavelengths. A narrow wave packet therefore consists of many waves with different wavelengths. Consequently, the momentum – which is inversely proportional to the wavelength – has no sharply defined value but a wide distribution. For measurements this means that we measure very different momentum values despite identical preparation of the particles. We can summarize this as follows: If the position of a quantum object is exactly defined its momentum and speed must be undetermined and vice versa. This has many consequences: Atoms are approximately 0.1 nanometers in size, which means that their electrons are limited to this space. It follows that the uncertainty of the speed of the electrons is in the order of magnitude of 1000 kilometers per second. Electrons can therefore have no defined orbits. Instead they form standing waves around the atomic nucleus. These standing waves are called orbitals. The absolute square value of the wave amplitude at each position gives the probability of finding the electron in this position. If the atom was to be squeezed down to one tenth of its original size this would mean that the momentum of the electron would increase ten-fold and its energy would increase approximately one-hundred-fold. This amount of energy would need to be applied to the atom in order to squeeze it down. This is not possible under normal conditions on Earth, thus explaining the stability of the atoms. However, on neutron stars – these are burnt out stars with a remaining mass in the order of magnitude of our sun, but with a diameter of only approximately 30 kilometers – the force of gravity is so strong that the electrons are squeezed into the nucleus. A piece of neutron star the size of a sugar cube therefore weighs several hundred million tons. With light-based analytical instruments the designers of the optics have to struggle with the uncertainty principle. The more they limit the diameter of a light beam, the more the position of the photons becomes exactly defined perpendicular to the beam direction. Therefore their momentum perpendicular to the beam direction becomes increasingly less defined. This has consequences: If a light beam is shone through an aperture with a diameter of a tenth of a millimeter, the diameter of the beam one meter behind the opening is already 10 millimeters, one hundred times larger than the opening itself. This effect, however, is not always a problem. It can be used to determine the dimensions of the structures which restrict the beam. Whereas in the previous section for Figure 3 discussed the spatial dimension in the horizontal direction, now the dimension of time is discussed. Figuratively speaking we observe the wave packet through a narrow gap and see how it moves past us and record the height of the amplitude over time. The following is true: the shorter the wave packet, the more waves of different frequencies it contains. According to Max Planck the energy is proportional to the frequency. Therefore, a wave packet which is short in time has a wide energy distribution. This explains the time-energy uncertainty. The time-energy uncertainty allows particles to borrow energy from nature as long as they restore this energy quickly enough. This allows them to overcome barriers which require more kinetic energy than they actually have. This so-called tunnel effect is what makes nuclear fusion in the sun possible, creating heat and light. The time-energy uncertainty is also found in spectroscopy. It is well-known that electrons in atoms and molecules have a ground state with minimum energy and excited states with higher levels of energy. These energy levels correspond with the previously mentioned orbitals. When moving from one state to another the energy difference is absorbed or radiated as photons with characteristic wavelengths. In spectroscopy this is used to identify atoms or molecules (Figure 4) or to determine their concentrations. The spectral lines of these transitions are broadened by disturbances such as the thermal movement of atoms and molecules. However, even if we could remove all disturbances the spectral lines would not be completely sharp. As a result of the time-energy uncertainty the spectral lines show the natural line width. If the energy difference was exactly defined, the corresponding transition time would be infinitely large and therefore there would be no transitions between the states. Although Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle seems far removed from reality, the consequences affect many – if not all – parts of life. That it is possible to master its effects is demonstrated by products from Anton Paar. With Alcolyzer an alcohol meter using infrared spectroscopy, the spectral properties of beverages are resolved on the nanometer scale in order to determine the alcohol content accurately. The new SAXSpoint™ uses X-rays to investigate the dimensions of the outer and inner structures of materials on the nanometer scale. In both cases the dispersion of the photons resulting from the uncertainty principle helps to exactly determine the properties of samples. The uncertainty principle therefore allows us to gain a sharp picture of nature.
Hummingbirds are great subjects for evolutionary biologists because they are so extreme. They live at a fast pace, wings a blur, tongue darting in and out of flowers at a frenetic pace, often 15 or 20 times a second. And, according to Alejandro Rico-Guevara at the University of Connecticut: “They’re just fascinating. They are so bold.” Dr. Rico-Guevara, who just published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B a description of how the hummingbird’s tongue works to draw up nectar, said that when working in the middle of the forest, he has often had hummingbirds approach him. “They just come to hover right in front of your face.” He said it is as if they are asking, “Why are you here?” Dr. Rico-Guevara could have explained that he had reasons beyond his delight in the birds, which he said were everywhere when he was growing up in Colombia. He was researching how their tongues work, with his colleagues Tai-Hsi Fan and Margaret A. Rubega, also at the university. Scientists had studied hummingbirds for a long time, he said, but had not reached a clear understanding of how they drink nectar. In the recent work and earlier experiments with Dr. Rubega, he and his colleagues showed that the tongues, which are forked, open up in the flower to trap nectar in the tongue and to pump nectar up two grooves in the tongue. It was once thought that capillary action, the force behind fluid rising in a narrow straw even without suction, propelled the nectar up the tongue. But high speed video of the tongues at work showed that the nectar is drawn up too fast for capillary action. The tongue is compressed until it reaches nectar. Then it springs open and that rapid action traps the nectar and it moves up the grooves. Capillary action does not play a role. The findings could affect thinking about how flowers and hummingbirds have evolved together, since the shape of the flower, the composition of the nectar and the shape and workings of the tongue must all fit together for the system to work.
Inductive type definition, each constructor can take zero or more arguments. When applied to pattern matching, each constructor could be destructed back into parts. Generalizing the definition of pairs, we notice that a list of numbers is either an empty list or a pair of a number and another list, much like a natural number is either zero or the successor of another natural number. We could tell Coq how to parenthesize expressions involving multiple uses of binary operators using Notation. For example, this statement… Notation "[ x ; .. ; y ]" := (cons x .. (cons y nil) ..). …gives an expression like nil a clear meaning. To prove a proposition $P(l)$ that holds for all lists $l$, we could reason as follows: This strategy works because larger lists can always be broken down into smaller ones, eventually reaching We could use Search command to search for theorems, using wildcards like _), or using ?x) if we want a more precise search. Sometimes, an operation is not valid, such as taking the first element out of an empty list; in such cases, we could create a new data-type “wrapping around” the original type T, with two constructors None, together with a function for unwrapping. Coq doesn’t have a built-in boolean type, any inductive type defined with exactly two constructors are considered a boolean; the guard is considered true if it evaluates to the first constructor and false if it evaluates to the second. Partial maps are constructed similar to lists, with an “empty” constructor and the other constructor taking an id, a value, and the rest of the partial map (also a partial map). Updating a partial map can be achieved by simply adding a record to the front; the new record shadows the original one.
Social capital is the value that can be created through networking and trust built within and between people and organisations. Characteristic of a network of shared norms and values that shape the attributes of a community’s interactions, social capital can facilitate cooperation amongst groups and enable collective action. Building cohesiveness within a community lowers the transaction costs of working together and enhanced trust can enable communities to overcome societal dilemmas. Increasing evidence demonstrates that building social capital is vital for societies to prosper economically and to develop sustainably. Social capital may even be the most important resource available to communities of poor smallholder farmers burdened with low incomes, limited education and few physical assets. Strong social networks can serve as safety nets to help resource poor individuals or communities cope with shocks, especially when formal types of risk management such as credit or insurance are unavailable. Within farming communities, social capital can also improve productivity because it is a pre-requisite for the management of natural resources or the adoption of new practices and technologies. Trust and cooperation are fundamental for implementing natural resource management projects such as maintaining irrigation systems or restoring forests because they require collective action. Building social capital for smallholders can also positively impact the adoption of new technologies such as the use of improved seeds, soil and water conservation practices, and agroforestry. The trust that is established with strong social cohesion and connectedness encourages knowledge sharing and reduces aversion to risk-taking. Local institutions, agricultural value chains and agricultural cooperatives create the social infrastructure for relationships to be developed and strengthened, forming the basis for building social capital.,, Institutions are the rules that structure social interactions and incentives. Both formal (policies and laws) and local informal (customs, traditions and values) institutions provide the framework within which farmers, value chains and agribusinesses operate. Depending on how they are structured, they can either encourage or discourage productive behaviour. Value chains – the sequence of production, marketing and consumption where at each stage of the process exists the opportunity to add value – must become more accessible and beneficial for smallholder engagement. Forming or joining cooperatives can help smallholder farmers improve their negotiating power and increase their access to suppliers of knowledge and extension services; productive assets such as seeds and tools; and marketing information and skills. In this way they can capture greater value from the sale of their products.
This week we celebrate a uniquely American holiday – Thanksgiving. While thanksgiving celebrations occurred in North America as early as 1541, our current celebration is generally modeled after the one at Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621. The Pilgrims, having survived their first winter (during which about half of them died), invited their local Indian friends to join with them in several days of religious activities, feasting, and athletic competition. Thanksgiving became a festival celebrated annually across New England but did not spread to all the colonies until the American Revolution, when the Continental Congress called for official days of thanksgiving and prayer. The first federal Thanksgiving proclamation was issued by President George Washington in 1789. Why would he issue that proclamation? He explained: It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor. Over the next 80 years, national thanksgiving celebrations occurred only sporadically, although they were still celebrated annually across New England. Beginning in the 1840s, Sarah Hale, a mother of five children and an editor of Godey’s Lady’s Book persistently campaigned for an established national Thanksgiving – such as in this editorial from 1852: The American people have two peculiar festivals, each connected with their history, and therefore of great importance in giving power and distinctness to their nationality. The Fourth of July Is the exponent of independence and civil freedom. Thanksgiving Day is the national pledge of Christian faith in God, acknowledging him as the dispenser of blessings. These two festivals should be joyfully and universally observed throughout our whole country, and thus incorporated in our habits of thought as inseparable from American life. She faithfully contacted various presidents with that request. Finally, in 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued a national Thanksgiving proclamation in response to her letter to him. Subsequent presidents followed Lincoln’s example in setting aside a day of Thanksgiving, but it was not until 1941 that Congress passed a law establishing Thanksgiving as an official national holiday to be celebrated every year on the Fourth Thursday in November. As you celebrate Thanksgiving this year with your family and friends, take time to reflect on all the reasons you have to be truly thankful – take time to thank God and specifically recall to Him some of His many blessings on us. You might even outline your prayer to Him by the four items George Washington mentioned in America’s original federal Thanksgiving proclamation: You can also share with others the history of and the reason for this great holiday. There are several resources on our website that you might find helpful: Acknowledge the providence of Almighty God; Obey His will; Be grateful for His benefits; and Humbly implore His protection and favor. From all of us at WallBuilders, we wish you and your family a very blessed and happy Thanksgiving! See Thanksgiving Proclamations issued by the Continental Congress in 1777, 1781, 1782, and many other historic proclamations. Learn more about the history of this holiday. (Search our website for more articles, including Celebrating Thanksgiving in America.) Read the 1795 Thanksgiving Sermon by the Rev. Thomas Baldwin in response to George Washington’s call for a Day of Thanksgiving.
Long before the world's largest gypsum dunefield formed, the Tularosa Basin looked very different. In fact, before the Pleistocene epoch ended about 12,000 years ago, there were giant lakes, streams, and grasslands here! The climate was wetter and cooler, producing a lot more rain and snow than today. All this water created one of the largest lakes in the southwest, called Lake Otero. This lake covered 1,600 square miles - that's larger than the state of Rhode Island! Under this wetter environment, the basin teemed with life. Along with the small rodents and rabbits we have today, there were also enormous ice age mammals that roamed the shores of Lake Otero and the surrounding grasslands. Mammoths, ground sloths, ancient camels, dire wolves, and saber-toothed cats, all of these once crossed the Tularosa Basin where the white sands dunes lie today. How do we know these incredible animals were here? Well, they left fossil footprints (trace fossils)! As these ancient giants walked the muddy shores of Lake Otero, their body weight compressed the wet clay and gypsum, creating footprints that that can be found today! In the ever-changing environment of our shifting sands, these fragile tracks are uncovered by the wind before rapidly eroding away, with many tracks having disappeared only after two years. Who knows what is still out there for us to discover? During the Pleistocene Epoch, lions did not just live in Africa like African lions today. Large, lion-like cats lived throughout the world, like the American lions found in North America. Some debate exists about whether American lions were actually lions or a completely separate species, but whatever they were, they were surely fierce predators. About four feet (1.2 m) tall at the shoulder and possibly weighing over 500 pounds (230 kg), American lions were large, with long, slender legs well-suited for chasing down prey. They would have likely hunted by ambush, preying on animals like deer, camels, ground sloths, bison, and even young mammoths. Camels are commonly associated with Africa, but did you know they actually originated in North America? Several now-extinct camel species once roamed this continent, such as the ancient western camel. This Pleistocene giant probably looked a lot like modern, one-humped dromedary camels, but it boasted longer legs, standing up to seven feet (over two meters) tall at the shoulder. These camels were opportunistic herbivores and ate whatever plant material they could find. They grazed and browsed over large ranges, leaving behind distinctive footprints like the ones found here at White Sands. Once one of the most common large predators in North America, dire wolves were large wolves that lived in North and South America during the Pleistocene epoch. Standing at about 2.6-2.8 feet (80-85 cm) tall and weighing 130-150 pounds (60-68 kg), they were about the same size as modern gray wolves, but with a heavier, more muscular build. They had powerful jaws, with a stronger bite than modern wolves, and probably hunted in packs. This pack-hunting, combined with their bulky frames, would have allowed dire wolves to hunt large prey, like horses and bison. Harlan’s Ground Sloth One of the more bizarre animals of the Pleistocene epoch, ground sloths were ancient relatives of modern tree sloths, armadillos, and anteaters. The Harlan’s ground sloth, however, would have dwarfed any modern relatives. This massive animal stood 10 feet (three meters) tall when upright and weighed over a ton (about 2,200-2,400 pounds or 1000-1090 kilograms)! These giant herbivores lived in grasslands with permanent water sources. They had a slow, waddling walk and left kidney-bean shaped footprints, created as their back feet rotated inwards while walking. Some prints even appear bipedal, possibly caused by the large hind feet covering the tracks of the smaller front feet. This has caused ground sloth tracks in the past to be mistaken for tracks of a giant human! Columbian mammoths are responsible for the mammoth tracks found here at White Sands. These mammoths were massive animals, standing at up to 14 feet (over four meters) tall at the shoulder and weighing 18,000-22,000 pounds (8,000-10,000 kilograms)! Like modern elephants, they had large tusks and ridged teeth for eating plants. Because of their massive size and herbivorous diet, they would have had to eat a lot; some scientists say this could have added up to 16 to 18 hours a day of eating! One surprising thing about these giant herbivores is that they probably didn't have much hair. Unlike the more well-known woolly mammoths, who evolved in colder regions, Columbian mammoths evolved in North America, covering a range from Canada to Nicaragua and Honduras. Climates here were warmer, so they would not have needed such thick coats. One of the most well-known predators of the last ice age, saber-toothed cats are famous for their oversized canine teeth, which could reach seven to ten inches (17-20 cm) in length! These teeth may look intimidating, but biting into the strong muscles of a prey’s back or neck could have actually broken the long, thin canines. Because of this, saber-toothed cats likely used their teeth more for slashing at prey’s throats or bellies in ambush attacks. Standing around 3 feet (one meter) tall and possibly weighing up to 750 pounds (340 kg), saber-toothed cats would have had a bulky, muscular build that allowed them to take down large prey, like sloths, bison, and even young mammoths. Some fossil evidence suggests they may have even hunted in packs. Last updated: March 7, 2019
Susanne Kurze, Doctoral student, Functional and Tropical Plant Ecology The decline of Lepidoptera species is a well-known trend in Central and Western Europe and correlates with the intensification of agriculture in the recent decades. Lepidoptera species are affected by the loss of habitat structures, fragmentation and changes in the land-use intensity. However, fertilization as one important factor going along with agricultural intensification receives almost no attention as potential reason for the decline of Lepidoptera species. This is intriguing, since speculations about its influence on Lepidoptera species exist for several years. Lepidoptera species as herbivorous insects strongly depend on the nutrient quality of their host plants, which is influenced by agricultural fertilization. Plants use carbon compounds as tissue building blocks and therefore offer only an inadequate diet for herbivorous insects due to their low nitrogen contents. Insects in turn need nitrogen to build proteins as tissue building blocks. Nitrogen is thus considered as the most important nutrient for herbivorous insects. Several studies confirmed that higher nitrogen contents in the diet increase the performance of Lepidoptera species, i.e. the individuals have shorter development times, higher pupal weights or the survival rate of the larvae increases. However, most of these studies considered pest species and the fertilization treatments were not related to agricultural fertilization. This was the starting point for our investigation focusing on the question how common Lepidoptera species respond to host plants receiving fertilizer quantities commonly used in agriculture. In our study we considered four butterfly and two moth species, which inhabit different habitats, tolerate different land-use intensities and feed on two different host-plant families. Larvae of these six species were fed either with unfertilized or fertilized plants receiving 150 and 300 kg N ha−1 year−1, respectively. These fertilization treatments correspond to quantities usually applied in agriculture. The survival rate of the larvae in all six species feeding on fertilized plants decreased of at least one-third compared to the control group. In the most sensitive moth, the difference of the survival rate between the control group and the 300 kg N ha−1 year−1 treatment was about 70%. This negative response of all six study species undermines the common assumption that Lepidoptera species benefit from plants with higher nitrogen contents. Instead, the study provides the first evidence that under an experimental setup nitrogen enrichment in plants due to agricultural fertilization significantly increases the mortality of common Lepidoptera species. It is very likely that this effect, which receives so far almost no attention, contributes to the range-wide decline of Lepidoptera species in Western and Central Europe. Lycaena tityrus (Brauner Feuerfalter) on Helichrysum arenarium (Sand-Strohblume) © Thomas Fartmann Larva of Lycaena phlaeas (Kleiner Feuerfalter) © Susanne Kurze \|Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Bayreuth:\| Bayreuther Marmor - Edle Dekorsteine in Kirchen und Schlössern der Barockzeit Insektensterben – Fakten und Hintergründe Pflanzen, die durchs Feuer gehen: Pyrophyten Wer singt denn da? Vogelstimmen im ÖBG (mit LBV) Der ÖBG zum Kennenlernen: Allgemeine Gartenführung Glückwunsch! Preiswürdige Ideen bringen den Nahverkehr in Hochfranken ins Rollen Nitrogen enrichment in host plants increases the mortality of common Lepidoptera species
The United States Department of Agriculture, along with the Department of Health and Human Services, is responsible for setting dietary guidelines for Americans over the age of 2. The USDA also provides nutrition assistance to millions of Americans through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP. The nutritional guidelines set forth by the USDA and the HHS are evidence-based findings used to promote healthy eating among Americans. A Dietary Guidelines Committee is responsible for revising the guidelines every five years. According to the current guidelines, a healthy diet is plant-based and rich in fruits and vegetables and whole grains. Saturated and trans fats and sodium intake should be kept to a minimum. A healthy weight is best met by balancing caloric intake with physical activity. In 2010, the Food Pyramid was replaced by the MyPlate visual aide. Both were based upon the idea of dividing the foods you consume into groups -- five to be exact. These groups consist of fruit, vegetables, proteins, dairy and grains. The MyPlate scheme meant to help Americans plan their meals. According to MyPlate, half your plate at mealtime should comprise fruits and vegetables, one-quarter should comprise lean protein and one-quarter should comprise grains, preferably whole grains. The glass of milk on the side represents the serving of dairy recommended with each meal. Eat Healthy, Be Active Community Workshops The USDA has also put together a series of workshops based on their Dietary Guidelines for Americans and Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Each of the six workshops is designed for educators and dietitians or nutritionists to educate their community about the basics of a healthy diet and exercise. Each workshop includes a lesson plan, videos and handouts. The USDA workshops cover nutrition topics ranging from enjoying healthy food on a budget to making quick meals and snacks. Eating well to lose weight is also covered, along with making healthy eating a part of your lifestyle and how to be active your way. The SNAP Program In 2011, more than 50 million Americans received assistance from SNAP, also commonly referred to as “food stamps.” SNAP became a vital resource for many American families in the U.S. after the calamitous downturn of the economy in recent years. Over 50 percent of food stamps, a critical tool for helping feed low-income populations, go to children and the elderly. - Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images - Examples of Codes of Ethics for Nonprofit Employees - The Disadvantages of Becoming a Registered Dietitian - Benefits of Chickpeas - The 1,000-Calorie Vegetarian Diet Plan - Eating in Moderation to Lose Weight - Serving Size Amounts - What Is the Caveman Model for Nutrition? - How to Lose Weight for Army Basic Training With Atkins
Have your children ended up doing combating with the confusing standards and vague amounts of variable based math numerical explanations? Grasp this request can be a perplexed enterprise for a few youths. In any case, this is less plain than fundamental increase and extension. Then again, once they make sense of how to consider the numbers, experimental accomplishment won’t a long way from them. There are unmistakable steps which safeguard them out to do variable based Middle School Maths Tutor easily and more beneficially. - Solve logarithmic issue like an enigma:kids can’t handle extensive issues till you limited down the issues in particular parts. Young children are always arranged to do engaging things, so you need to research assorted contemplations relating to their learning. While dealing with a fundamental logarithmic issue, first you need to comprehend your youth that math issue are just conundrums to be unwound. Like any questions there are pieces so you can demonstrate to them best practices to see the numbers and pictures for the placeholders that they are make the course of action a great deal less requesting. This strategy will help your youths with perceiving numbers viably and most speedy than whatever other methodology. - Find missing numbers: other system which can be used is to find the missing numbers in an issue where the last answer is given. Missing numbers are implied as a variable and they are not defining the word rather they are endeavoring to discover number or entire number. Case in point, ___ + 5=10, let your adolescents to settle this numerical articulation. In this examination missing number is 5, in light of the fact that 5 notwithstanding 5 is proportional to 10 that is drawing in clear for them. - Learn key explanations of variable based math:when your children know the lingo of science, they can grasp what they are being asked for that do while unwinding numerical articulations. Deciding a variable can consolidate two ways; 1) figuring and 2) streamlining. Increasing in order to compute insinuates lighting up a numerical explanation and division steps while enhancing suggests extension and subtracting an examination. Both are using as a piece of numerical proclamations to notwithstanding any pointless steps to get nearer to the course of action. - Compact the key issue:your children should be understood that how to decrease a key issue to down to its minimum complex portions. Case in point, 6 x 4= 2y, this correlation might be shaky to light up for them, yet they can partition or component both sides to get a basic interpretation of the scientific proclamation. - Retain submitted:once your children have these crucial downs then more dynamic logarithmic thoughts will come more viably. Regardless, the most crucial part is to getting the building squares so your youths need to take after some major rules: - Anything to do to the opposite side of a scientific explanation, whether it is incorporate, subtract, copy or parcel, they need to do the inverse side of correlation. - Always make sure to watch their solicitation of operations when they are performing underground creepy crawly operations. A not too bad way to deal with survey for them is PEMDAS that suggests Parentheses, Exponents, copy, Divide, Subtract. This will help them with recalling the course of action of philosophies while understanding a logarithmic mathematical statements.
Date: September 16 – November 30, 2019 Course #:Â LR 288:719 Instructor: Eriece Landrum Colbert & Sarah Moore This course will help educators understand how to analyze challenging behaviors in order to identify appropriate prevention and response strategies. Components of this course include helping participants with building strong relationships, deciding what a behavior is attempting to communicate, choosing the best level of response, and how a culturally responsive approach can help educators with student behavior and classroom management. This course is presented in a blended format.Â Our face to face component includes the interactive problem-solving to help participants strengthen their ability to prevent and respond to challenging behaviors specific to their classrooms. Between our face to face meetings, there will be an online component which participants will read and respond to the text and complete additional activities that will facilitate their learning. Anderson, M. (2019). What we say and how we say it matter: Teacher talk that improves student learning and behavior. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Outcomes and Objectives: The educator will demonstrate an understanding and be able to apply multiple strategies when addressing challenging behaviors in the classroom in order to meet the needs of all learners with a culturally appropriate response. By the end of the course the participants will be able to:
Only a small number of the predatory species are definitely known to engage in unprovoked attacks on humans. The largest and most feared of these is the great white shark, which may reach 20 ft (6 m) in length and is probably responsible for more such attacks than any other species. Other sharks reputed to be especially dangerous are the tiger and blue sharks and the mako. Sharks are extremely sensitive to motion and to the scent of blood. Swimmers in areas where dangerous varieties occur should leave the water quietly if they are cut; spearfishing divers should remove bleeding fish from the water immediately. In some places bathing areas are guarded by nets. A number of substances have been used as shark repellents, including maleic acid, copper sulfate, and decaying shark flesh, but their effectiveness is variable. An electrical repellent device, exploiting the shark's sensitivity to electrical fields, has been developed in South Africa. Sharks usually circle their prey before attacking. Since they seldom swim near the surface, an exposed dorsal fin is more likely to be that of a swordfish or ray than that of a shark. More on shark Predation from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Vertebrate Zoology
Central sleep apnea Central sleep apnea is a sleep disorder in which breathing stops over and over during sleep. Sleep apnea - central; Obesity - central sleep apnea; Cheyne-Stokes - central sleep apnea; Heart failure - central sleep apnea Central sleep apnea results when the brain temporarily stops sending signals to the muscles that control breathing. The condition often occurs in people who have certain medical problems. For example, it can develop in someone who has a problem with an area of the brain called the brainstem, which controls breathing. Conditions that can cause or lead to central sleep apnea include: - Problems that affect the brainstem, including brain infection, stroke, or conditions of the cervical spine (neck) - Severe obesity - Certain medicines, such as narcotic painkillers If the apnea is not associated with another disease, it is called idiopathic central sleep apnea. A condition called Cheyne-Stokes respiration can affect people with severe heart failure and can be associated with central sleep apnea. The breathing pattern involves alternating deep and heavy breathing with shallow, or even not breathing, usually while sleeping. Central sleep apnea is not the same as obstructive sleep apnea. With obstructive sleep apnea, breathing stops and starts because the airway is narrowed or blocked. But a person can have both conditions, such as with a medical problem called obesity hypoventilation syndrome. People with central sleep apnea have episodes of disrupted breathing during sleep. Other symptoms may include: - Chronic fatigue - Daytime sleepiness - Morning headaches - Restless sleep Other symptoms may occur if the apnea is due to a problem with the nervous system. Symptoms depend on the parts of the nervous system that are affected, and may include: - Shortness of breath - Swallowing problems - Voice changes - Weakness or numbness throughout the body Exams and Tests The health care provider will perform a physical exam. Tests will be done to diagnose an underlying medical condition. A sleep study (polysomnography) can confirm sleep apnea. Other tests that may be done include: Treating the condition that is causing central sleep apnea can help manage symptoms. For example, if central sleep apnea is due to heart failure, the goal is to treat the heart failure itself. Devices used during sleep to aid breathing may be recommended. These include nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) or adaptive servo-ventilation (ASV). Some types of central sleep apnea are treated with medicines that stimulate breathing. Oxygen treatment may help ensure the lungs get enough oxygen while sleeping. If narcotic medicine is causing the apnea, the dosage may need to be lowered or the medicine changed. How well you do depends on the medical condition causing central sleep apnea. The outlook is usually favorable for people with idiopathic central sleep apnea. Complications may result from the underlying disease causing the central sleep apnea. When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your provider if you have symptoms of sleep apnea. Central sleep apnea is usually diagnosed in people who are already severely ill. Ryan CM, Bradley TD. Central sleep apnea. In: Broaddus VC, Mason RJ, Ernst JD, et al, eds. Murray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 89. Somers VK. Sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease. In: Mann DL, Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Braunwald E, eds. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2015:chap 75. Zinchuk AV, Thomas RJ. Central sleep apnea: diagnosis and management. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017:chap 110. Reviewed By: Allen J. Blaivas, DO, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, VA New Jersey Health Care System, Clinical Assistant Professor, Rutger's New Jersey Medical School, East Orange, NJ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
This page uses content from Wikipedia and is licensed under CC BY-SA. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). It represents the force that the heart generates each time it contracts. For example, if resting blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg, then the pulse pressure is 40 mmHg. Pulse pressure is the systolic pressure minus the diastolic pressure. Theoretically, the systemic pulse pressure can be conceptualized as being proportional to stroke volume, or the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle during systole and inversely proportional to the compliance of the aorta. The aorta has the highest compliance in the arterial system due in part to a relatively greater proportion of elastin fibers versus smooth muscle and collagen. This serves the important function of damping the pulsatile output of the left ventricle, thereby reducing the pulse pressure. If the aorta becomes rigid in conditions such as arteriosclerosis or atherosclerosis, the pulse pressure would be very high. A pulse pressure is considered abnormally low if it is less than 25% of the systolic value. The most common cause of a low (narrow) pulse pressure is a drop in left ventricular stroke volume. In trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss (insufficient preload leading to reduced cardiac output). Usually, the resting pulse pressure in healthy adults, sitting position, is about 30–40 mmHg. The pulse pressure increases with exercise due to increased stroke volume, healthy values being up to pulse pressures of about 100 mmHg, simultaneously as total peripheral resistance drops during exercise. In healthy individuals the pulse pressure will typically return to normal within about 11 minutes. For most individuals, during aerobic exercise, the systolic pressure progressively increases while the diastolic remains about the same. In some very aerobically athletic individuals, for example distance runners, the diastolic will progressively fall as the systolic increases. This behavior facilitates a much greater increase in stroke volume and cardiac output at a lower mean arterial pressure and enables much greater aerobic capacity and physical performance. The diastolic drop reflects a much greater fall in total peripheral resistance of the muscle arterioles in response to the exercise (a greater proportion of red versus white muscle tissue). Individuals with larger BMIs due to increased muscle mass (body builders) have also been shown to have lower diastolic pressures and larger pulse pressures. If the usual resting pulse pressure is consistently greater than 100 mmHg, the most likely basis is stiffness of the major arteries, aortic regurgitation (a leak in the aortic valve), arteriovenous malformation (an extra path for blood to travel from a high pressure artery to a low pressure vein without the gradient of a capillary bed), hyperthyroidism or some combination. (A chronically increased stroke volume is also a technical possibility, but very rare in practice.) While some drugs for hypertension have the side effect of increasing resting pulse pressure irreversibly, other antihypertensive drugs, such as ACE Inhibitors, have been shown to lower pulse pressure. A high resting pulse pressure is harmful and tends to accelerate the normal aging of body organs, particularly the heart, the brain and kidneys. A high pulse pressure combined with bradycardia and an irregular breathing pattern is associated with increased intracranial pressure and should be reported to a physician immediately. This is known as Cushing's triad and can be seen in patients after head trauma related to intracranial hemorrhage or edema. Examples: (these are examples of WIDENING pulse pressure causes) Recent work suggests that a high pulse pressure is an important risk factor for heart disease. A meta-analysis in 2000, which combined the results of several studies of 8,000 elderly patients in all, found that a 10 mm Hg increase in pulse pressure increased the risk of major cardiovascular complications and mortality by nearly 20%. Heightened pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that this helps to explain the apparent increase in risk sometimes associated with low diastolic pressure, and warn that some medications for high blood pressure may actually increase the pulse pressure and the risk of heart disease. Pulse pressure readings can be taken on a home blood pressure monitoring device. These devices display systolic and diastolic blood pressure (from which pulse pressure can be calculated) and pulse rate readings. Monitoring at home can be helpful to a medical provider in interpreting in-office results and progression of disease processes. A 2005 study found that 5 mg of folate (Vitamin B9) daily over a three-week period reduced pulse pressure by 4.7 mm of Hg compared with a placebo, and concluded that folic acid is an effective supplement that targets large artery stiffness and may prevent isolated systolic hypertension. A longer-term (2 year) study in 158 clinically healthy siblings of patients with premature atherothrombotic disease also found an effect of folic acid (5 mg) plus pyridoxine (250 mg) on pulse pressure, but the effect was not independent of mean arterial blood pressure, and there was no effect on common carotid artery stiffness.
Polar bears are able to switch up their diet in order to help them survive the warming Arctic, according to a new study. Scientists at the American Museum of Natural History performed a three-part study that shows how polar bears switch up plant and animal food sources as they face the changing climate. Arctic sea ice is beginning to melt earlier and freezing later each year, so polar bears are having a limited amount of time to hunt ringed seal pups, their preferred prey, and are having to spend more time on land. The new studies find that some polar bears are switching their foraging strategies while on land by prey-switching and eating a mixed diet of plants and animals. “There is little doubt that polar bears are very susceptible as global climate change continues to drastically alter the landscape of the northern polar regions,” Robert Rockwell, a research associate in the Museum’s Department of Ornithology, said in a statement. “But we’re finding that they might be more resilient than is commonly thought.” The United States Endangered Species Act lists polar bears as a threatened species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources’ Red List lists the animals as “vulnerable.” Climate change is shrinking the bears’ Arctic habitat, and an alteration in diet means that bears may not get that extra layer of fat reserve they need to survive the harsh conditions. Researchers gathered video data on polar bears as they pursued, caught and ate adult and juvenile snow geese during the mid-to-late summer. Polar bear scat revealed that some of the polar bear diet has changed from what it was 40 years ago, before climate change was affecting the Hudson Bay lowlands. Scat samples also showed polar bears are consuming a mixed diet of plants and animals. The team said that the polar bears’ flexible foraging behavior likely stems from a shared genetic heritage with brown bears. “For polar bear populations to persist, changes in their foraging will need to keep pace with climate-induced reduction of sea ice from which the bears typically hunt seals,” said Linda Gormezano, a postdoctoral researcher in the Museum’s Division of Vertebrate Zoology. “Although different evolutionary pathways could enable such persistence, the ability to respond flexibly to environmental change, without requiring selective alterations to underlying genetic architecture, may be the most realistic alternative in light of the fast pace at which environmental changes are occurring.” Gormezano said that their findings suggest the flexibility polar bears possess could help them cope with rapidly changing access to their historic food supply. The team published their findings in the journals Polar Ecology, Ecology and Evolution and BMC Ecology. Source \| http://www.redorbit.com
A quark is a tiny particle which makes up protons and neutrons. The atom is made up of protons and neutrons and electrons. The quark makes up the neutrons and protons. Atoms are made of neutrons, protons, and electrons. It was once thought that neutrons, protons and electrons were fundamental particles. Fundamental particles cannot be broken up into anything smaller. After the invention of the particle accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not. Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are held together by gluons. There are six types of quarks. The types are called flavours. The flavours are up, down, strange, charm, top, and bottom. Up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +2⁄3, while down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -1⁄3. Each quark has a matching antiquark. Antiquarks have a charge opposite to that of their quarks; meaning that up, charm and top antiquarks have a charge of -2⁄3 and that down, strange and bottom antiquarks have a charge of +1⁄3. Only up and down quarks are found inside atoms of normal matter. Two up quarks and one down make a proton (2⁄3 + 2⁄3 - 1⁄3 = +1 charge) while two down quarks and one up make a neutron (2⁄3 - 1⁄3 - 1⁄3 = 0 charge). The other four flavours are not seen naturally on Earth, but they can be made in particle accelerators. Some of them may also exist inside of stars. When two or more quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, the particle formed is called a hadron. Quarks that make the quantum number of hadrons are named 'valence quarks'. The two families of hadrons are baryons (made of three valence quarks) and mesons (which are made from a quark and an antiquark). When quarks are stretched farther and farther, the force that holds them together becomes bigger. When it comes to the point when quarks are separated, they form two sets of quarks, because the energy that is put into trying to separate them is enough to form two new quarks. The idea (or model) for quarks was proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Other scientists began searching for evidence of quarks, and succeeded in 1968. The superparticle of a quark is called a "squark." Other websites[change \| change source]
At St. John’s RC we aim to develop: • The ability to think independently and raise questions about working scientifically and the knowledge and skills that it brings. • Confidence and competence in the full range of practical skills, taking the initiative in, for example, planning and carrying out scientific investigations. • Excellent scientific knowledge and understanding which is demonstrated in written and verbal explanations, solving challenging problems and reporting scientific findings. • High levels of originality, imagination or innovation in the application of skills. • The ability to undertake practical work in a variety of contexts, including fieldwork. • A passion for science and its application in past, present and future technologies At St. John’s ICT and computing are a big part of our learning. With constantly changing technologies and exciting learning possibilities we are lucky to be able to use interactive whiteboards and iPads in our classrooms. We have a great ICT curriculum which covers all areas of ICT from research and internet use to coding and programming. We are very conscious of e-safety at St John’s and all children are taught about the importance of this in every year group. We have e-safety assemblies and our school council have attended meetings with the Manchester Healthy Schools trust to talk about our e-safety policy and its importance. Key Stage 1 Pupils should be taught to: - understand what algorithms are; how they are implemented as programs on digital devices; and that programs execute by following precise and unambiguous instructions - create and debug simple programs - use logical reasoning to predict the behaviour of simple programs - use technology purposefully to create, organise, store, manipulate and retrieve digital content - recognise common uses of information technology beyond school - Use technology safely and respectfully, keeping personal information private; identify where to go for help and support when they have concerns about content or contact on the internet or other online technologies. Key stage 2 Pupils should be taught to: - design, write and debug programs that accomplish specific goals, including controlling or simulating physical systems; solve problems by decomposing them into smaller parts - use sequence, selection, and repetition in programs; work with variables and various forms of input and output - use logical reasoning to explain how some simple algorithms work and to detect and correct errors in algorithms and programs - understand computer networks including the internet; how they can provide multiple services, such as the world wide web; and the opportunities they offer for communication and collaboration - use search technologies effectively, appreciate how results are selected and ranked, and be discerning in evaluating digital content - select, use and combine a variety of software (including internet services) on a range of digital devices to design and create a range of programs, systems and content that accomplish given goals, including collecting, analysing, evaluating and presenting data and information - use technology safely, respectfully and responsibly; recognise acceptable/unacceptable behaviour; identify a range of ways to report concerns about content and contact
Children’s moral behavior and attitudes in the real world largely carry over to the virtual world of computers, the Internet, video games and cell phones. Interestingly, there are marked gender and race differences in the way children rate morally questionable virtual behaviors, according to Professor Linda Jackson and her team from Michigan State University in the US. Their research1 is the first systematic investigation of the effects of gender and race on children’s beliefs about moral behavior, both in the virtual world and the real world, and the relationship between the two. Jackson and her team asked 515 12-year-old children (one-third African American, two-thirds Caucasian American) to fill in a written questionnaire looking at their moral behaviors and attitudes in the real world, and their view of morally questionable behavior in the virtual world. Measures of moral behavior in the real world included whether or not children had lied to parents and/or teachers, whether they had ever cheated, and whether they had ever bullied someone. Examples of morally questionable behavior in the virtual world were sending emails with threats, using sexually explicit or violent language in chat rooms and/or in text messages, hacking computers, and violence in video games. Overall, African American children were more caring and more flexible about rules when personal goals were at stake than Caucasian American children. More specifically, Caucasian American girls and African American boys and girls viewed morality in the real world from the perspective of the individual’s well-being. In contrast, Caucasian American boys’ morality in the real world was more rule-based. When it came to rating virtual behaviors, African American children were more likely than Caucasian American children to find acceptable virtual behaviors that result in real-world harm, for example emailing friends answers in advance of tests or sending text messages during class. The African American children were also more likely to find viewing online pornography acceptable. For all groups, morality in the real world was related to morality in the virtual world. In other words, the more important good moral character in the real world was, the less acceptable morally questionable virtual behaviors were. There were however some race differences. African American children found some virtual behaviors that might advance individual goals in the real world more acceptable than did Caucasian American children. In contrast, the morality of Caucasian American boys, and to a lesser extent girls, was more rule-based in the virtual world. The frequency of exposure to information technology also had an effect. The more children used the Internet, the more they found invasion of privacy online, videogame violence and online pornography acceptable. The authors conclude that: “Educational interventions that are culturally sensitive need to be developed to assure that all children, regardless of race or gender, understand that certain virtual behaviors are unacceptable and in fact may be psychologically harmful, such as video game violence, or physically dangerous, like contacting strangers online.” Cite This Page:
Principle of operation Although the basic principles of the piano’s operation are simple, the refinements required in developing the powerful yet sensitive modern piano make it also the most complex of all mechanical instruments except the organ. The strings of the piano are struck by a felt-covered hammer that must rebound from the strings instantaneously or it will dampen their vibrations in the very act of initiating them. The hammer must thus be allowed to fly freely toward the strings. For the pianist to retain maximum control of loudness, the distance of the hammer’s free flight must be as small as possible; but, if the distance is too small, the hammer will bounce back and forth between the strings and the part of the mechanism that pushed it, producing a stuttering sound whenever the keys are struck firmly. As a consequence, all truly simple piano mechanisms—those in which, say, a rigid rod at the back of the key simply pushes the hammer upward until the key is stopped by a rail and the hammer flies free—must be adjusted to provide a large distance for free flight and can therefore give the pianist only limited dynamic range and control. Piano mechanisms as unsophisticated as that described above continued to be devised and built throughout the 18th century. Nevertheless, the first successful piano—made in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori—solved the problems inherent in such simple mechanisms, as well as nearly every other problem facing piano builders until well into the 19th century. Cristofori reportedly experimented with a “harpsichord with hammers” in 1698. By 1700 one of these instruments, together with six of his harpsichords and spinets, was included in an inventory of instruments belonging to the Medici family in Florence. In 1711 the instrument was described in detail in the Venetian Giornale de’ letterati d’Italia by Scipione Maffei, who called Cristofori’s invention gravicembalo col piano e forte (“harpsichord with soft and loud”)—whence the present names pianoforte and piano. In the three surviving examples of Cristofori’s pianos, which date from the 1720s, the mechanism, or “action,” differs somewhat from that described and pictured by Maffei; however, rather than merely representing an earlier phase of Cristofori’s work, Maffei’s diagram may be in error. In the surviving instruments a pivoted piece of wood is set into the key. The pivoted piece (which in a modern piano would be called a jack and should not be confused with the jack in a harpsichord) lifts an intermediate lever when the key is depressed. The lever, in turn, pushes upward on the hammer shaft near its pivot in a rail fixed above the keys. When the key is pressed completely down, the jack tilts and disengages itself from the intermediate lever, which then falls back, permitting the hammer to fall most of the way back to its rest position, even while the key is still depressed. This feature, called an escapement, is the heart of Cristofori’s invention; it makes possible a short free flight for the hammer, after which the hammer falls so far away from the string that it cannot rebound against it, even when the keys are struck firmly. Cristofori provided a check (a pad rising from the back of the key) to catch and hold the falling hammer. At the end of the key he included a separate slip of wood, resembling a harpsichord jack, to carry the dampers that silence the string when the key is at rest. Utilizing an intermediate lever to act on the hammer near one end of its shaft provides an enormous velocity advantage, and the hammer flies upward toward the string much faster than the front end of the key descends under the pianist’s finger, adding to the crispness and sensitivity of Cristofori’s action. In addition to his innovative mechanism, Cristofori also introduced a unique double-wall case construction that isolated the soundboard from the pull of the strings. The sound of his instruments is strongly reminiscent of the harpsichord. The dynamic range is surprisingly wide, but it should be emphasized that the instrument’s loudest sounds are softer than those of a firmly quilled Italian harpsichord and do not begin to approach the loudness of a modern piano. German and Austrian pianos As a piano builder Cristofori had few immediate successors in Italy, but word of his invention became known in Germany through a translation of Maffei’s account published in 1725. Before 1720 there had been independent attempts in France as well as in Germany to devise hammer mechanisms, although none was comparable to Cristofori’s in sophistication or practicality. In the 1730s Gottfried Silbermann, of Freiberg in eastern Germany, a builder of organs, harpsichords, and clavichords, began constructing pianos patterned on Cristofori’s. The surviving ones, probably from the 1740s, appear to have been directly copied from an instrument imported into Germany rather than derived from Maffei’s description, but the ones he made earlier (and of which Bach is said to have disapproved in 1736) may have owed their failure to an attempt to follow Maffei’s diagram exactly. By 1747 Silbermann had sold several of his pianos to King Frederick II the Great of Prussia, and one of these is reported to have met with Bach’s approval in 1747. Subsequent German piano building did not follow the path charted by Silbermann. Instead, various German builders attempted to devise actions that were simpler than Cristofori’s, generally adapting them to the clavichord-shaped instruments now called “square” pianos. In the most characteristic German actions, the hammers point toward, rather than away from, the player, and, instead of being hinged to a rail passing over all the keys, they are attached individually to their respective keys. As the front of the key is depressed, the back rises, carrying the hammer with it. A projecting beak at the rear of the hammer shank catches on a fixed rail above the back of the keys, so that the hammers are flipped upward as the keys are stopped by a second rail set just above them. This action had no escapement, and (on the evidence of a letter of 1777 from Mozart to his father) many German instruments of the 1770s still lacked this highly important feature. Johann Andreas Stein of Augsburg in southern Germany is generally credited with devising the first German action to include an escapement. As a replacement for the fixed rail that caught the projecting beaks at the rear of the hammer shanks, Stein provided an individually hinged and sprung catch for each key. As the back of the key reaches its highest point, this catch (the escapement) tilts backward on its hinge and releases the beak at the back of the hammer shank. The hammer is then free to fall back to rest position even when the key is still depressed. This action is often called “Viennese,” because it was used by all the important 18th- and early 19th-century piano makers in Vienna, including Stein’s daughter and son-in-law, Nannette and Johann Andreas Streicher; Anton Walter, Mozart’s favourite piano builder; and Conrad Graf, maker of Beethoven’s last piano. It was used in German-speaking countries until the late 19th century, when it was replaced by mechanisms derived from a Cristofori-based action developed in England. Although the tone of a piano by Stein or Walter is not loud, it is very sweet, with a singing treble and a clear tenor and bass that blend superbly with the sound of stringed instruments. The touch is extremely light and shallow: the force required to depress a key is only one-fourth that required on a modern piano, and the key need only be depressed half as far. In their sensitivity to the finest differences in touch and their singing tone, the Viennese pianos suggest the responsiveness of a clavichord, although producing a louder sound. Austrian and German pianos of the early 19th century often feature an array of pedals. Only one of Cristofori’s surviving pianos has any special effects: levers on the underside of the instrument permit the player to shift the action sideways so that the hammers strike only one of the two strings provided for each note. By the time Silbermann built his pianos for Frederick the Great, a second special effect had been introduced—a mechanism to lift the dampers from the strings so that they could vibrate freely whether or not the keys were depressed. (These two effects, the sideways sliding of the action—to produce a softer sound and different tone colour—and the lifting of the dampers—to produce a louder, more sustained sound and another variation in tone colour—are the only ones found on all modern grand pianos.) Silbermann’s pianos had hand levers for raising the treble and bass dampers separately and an additional hand lever for muting the strings. Stein’s pianos normally had two knee levers for raising the treble and bass dampers and a third knee lever that interposed a strip of cloth between the hammers and the strings to produce a velvety pianissimo. Later instruments might have five or more pedals that, for example, pressed a roll of parchment against the bass strings to produce a buzzing sound or rang small bells and banged on the underside of the soundboard in imitation of the cymbals and drums of the then-fashionable “Turkish” music. The English action In the late 1750s a number of German piano builders emigrated to Britain, and one, Johann Christoph Zumpe, invented an extremely simple action for the square pianos he began building in the mid-1760s. Zumpe’s action goes back to the Cristofori-Silbermann system in which the hammers point away from the player and are hinged to a rail over the keys. A metal rod tipped with a padded button is driven into the back of the key. When the key is depressed, the rod pushes the hammer upward; the key is stopped by a padded rail over its back end, and the hammer then flies freely. Despite the lack of an escapement, Zumpe’s square pianos were an enormous commercial success and were copied in France, the Low Countries, and Scandinavia. Zumpe had worked for the harpsichord builder Burkat Shudi when he first came to England, and around 1770 three other workmen in Shudi’s shop, John Broadwood, Robert Stodart, and Americus Backers, devised for grand pianos an adaptation of Zumpe’s action that included an escapement. This important development made London a major centre of piano building and created a characteristic English piano of fuller and louder sound than the Viennese piano but with a heavier, deeper touch and a consequent inability to play repeated notes as rapidly. In the English grand-piano action, the fixed rod of Zumpe’s square-piano action was replaced by a pivoted jack, similar to that in Cristofori’s action. The upper end of the jack fits into a notch at the base of the hammer shank, slipping out of the notch as the back of the key reaches its highest point; the hammer then flies free, strikes the string, and falls back to be caught by a hammer check even when the front of the key is still held down. The tone of a typical 18th-century English grand piano is surprisingly reminiscent of the tone of an English harpsichord, suggesting that the English piano makers were, like Cristofori, seeking to make an expressive harpsichord, unlike the German builders who, in effect, appear to have been trying to build a louder clavichord. Unlike their Austrian and German counterparts, English pianos had two or, at most, three pedals. One of the two ordinary pedals shifted the keyboard sideways so that the hammers struck two or only one of the three strings provided for each note. The second pedal raised all the dampers. It was sometimes replaced by two pedals—one for the treble dampers, the other for the bass dampers—or, occasionally, by a single damper pedal divided into two parts that could be depressed separately or together with one foot, as on the piano presented by Broadwood to Beethoven in 1817. Although the pianos of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were perfected instruments ideally suited to the music of their period, the increasing popularity of public concerts in large halls and concerti with large orchestras stimulated attempts by piano builders to produce an instrument of greater brilliance and loudness. Their efforts gradually created today’s vastly different piano. In recent years, the special merits of the earlier instruments (sometimes called “fortepianos” to distinguish them from modern pianos) have come to be appreciated, and several builders have begun to make replicas of them. Other early forms As previously mentioned, many 18th-century pianos were “squares,” built in a form resembling the clavichord. More compact and less expensive than wing-shaped grands, the square piano continued through much of the 19th century to be the most common form of piano in the home. But as square pianos became larger and larger, these advantages diminished, and the square piano was eventually replaced by the upright. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, upright pianos (i.e., pianos with vertical strings and soundboard) took three different forms. In the “pyramid piano” the strings slanted upward from left to right, and the case above the keyboard took the form of a tall isosceles triangle. Or a grand piano was essentially set on end with its pointed tail in the air, producing the asymmetrical “giraffe piano.” Placing shelves in the upper part of the case to the right of the strings yielded the tall rectangular “cabinet piano.” Because the lower end of the strings, which ran nearly vertically, was about at the level of the keyboard, all such instruments were very tall. Although there were attempts to construct lower instruments by, in effect, positioning a square piano on its side, the American builder John Isaac Hawkins made the first truly successful low uprights in 1800 by placing the lower end of the strings near floor level. Robert Wornum in England built similar small uprights in 1811, and in 1842 he devised for them his “tape check” action, the direct forerunner of the modern upright action. Development of the modern piano In the early 19th century, piano makers were principally concerned with two problems whose solutions led to the modern piano. These were the relatively small volume of sound that could be produced from the thin strings then in use and the difficulty of producing a structure that could withstand the tension even of such light strings once the range of the instrument exceeded 5 1/2 octaves. Bracing and frame Like 18th-century harpsichords, the pianos of the 18th and early 19th centuries were constructed entirely of wood, with the case (supported by a structure of internal wooden braces) sustaining the entire stress exerted by the strings. The only metal bracing in such instruments appears in the form of flat or arched pieces bridging the gap through which the hammers rise to strike the strings. These braces eventually proved insufficient when the walls of the case itself and the pinblock (the long piece of wood into which all the tuning pins were driven) were incapable of withstanding the increasing tensions placed upon them. For this reason, ever-increasing quantities of metal bracing came into use, first in the form of individual bars running parallel to the strings from the side of the case to the pinblock but finally in the form of a single massive casting that took the entire tension of the strings upon itself. The one-piece cast-iron frame was first applied to square pianos by Alpheus Babcock of Boston in 1825, and in 1843 another Bostonian, Jonas Chickering, patented a one-piece frame for grands. With the adoption of such frames, the tension exerted by each string (about 24 pounds [11 kilograms] for an English piano of 1800) rose to an average of approximately 170 pounds (77 kilograms) in modern instruments, the frame bearing a total tension of 18 tons. The strings in early pianos, like those in harpsichords or clavichords, ran parallel to one another, causing the grand pianos of the 18th and early 19th centuries to retain much of the graceful shape of the harpsichord. In the 1830s it was realized that the bass strings could be made longer and their tone improved if they were made to fan out over the treble strings. This idea was first applied to square pianos, but in 1855 Steinway & Sons built a grand piano with a complete cast-iron frame embodying this “overstrung” plan, in which the strings of the treble and the middle registers fan out over most of the soundboard and the bass strings cross over them, forming a separate fan at a higher level. Because the bass strings fan out, the tail of the modern grand piano is far wider than that of the earlier “straight-strung” instruments. Modifications in the action The gradual strengthening of the piano’s structure to permit the use of heavier strings eventually gave rise to hitherto unforeseen problems. The thicker strings could yield the louder sound of which they were capable only if they were struck by heavier hammers; any increase in the weight of the hammer, however, required a manyfold increase in the force required to depress the keys. This difficulty was present to a minor extent even in the 18th-century English grand-piano action, and the touch on these instruments was both deeper and heavier than on Viennese pianos. Moreover, the deeper touch meant that it took longer for a key to return to rest position so that a note could be restruck. Consequently, English pianos were not capable of the rapid repetition of Viennese instruments. This problem became quite severe as the hammers grew heavier and as musicians wished increasingly to use tremolo effects in imitation of orchestral music. What was necessary was an action that would permit a note to be restruck before the key returned to rest position. The first successful action of this type was devised by the Frenchman Sébastien Érard, who as a young man had built a harpsichord with a particularly elaborate system of pedals and knee levers and in 1810 devised the system of pedals still in use on the harp. Érard’s first “repetition” or “double-escapement” action was patented in 1808, and an improved version that is the basis of the modern action was patented in 1821. A further consequence of the use of thicker strings was that, if the sound of the instrument were not to become unduly harsh, the hammers had to be softer than those used on 18th-century instruments—light slips of wood covered with a few layers of thin leather. Felt-covered hammers were patented in 1826 by the Parisian builder Jean-Henri Pape, who also contributed a number of other ingenious and important improvements, but the use of felt instead of leather did not become universal until after 1855. With the adoption of the one-piece cast-iron frame, overstringing, and felt hammers, the piano achieved its modern form in all but a few details. One was the invention in 1862 by Claude Montal of Paris of a pedal that kept the dampers off the strings only for notes already held down. Individual notes could thus be sustained without the overall blurring caused by raising all the dampers by the ordinary damper pedal. On three-pedal pianos, this device is included as the middle pedal, with the damper (“loud”) pedal at the right and the action-shifting (una corda, or “soft”) pedal at the left. Types of modern piano Since the abandonment of the square piano, only upright and grand pianos are regularly manufactured. The grands range in length from a minimum of about 5 feet (150 centimetres) for a “baby” grand to a maximum of about 9 feet (270 centimetres) for a “concert” grand, although both shorter and longer instruments have been constructed. Among upright pianos, the models over 4 feet (120 centimetres) tall—which frequently had an excellent tone because of their relatively long bass strings—have largely been superseded by the lower models, the “console” (about 40 inches [100 centimetres] high) and the “spinet” (about 36 inches [90 centimetres] high). Because the spinet’s case rises such a small distance above the keyboard, it usually has “drop” action, most of which lies below the level of the keys. Modern piano actions In 1636 Marin Mersenne, the author of the treatise Harmonie universelle, quoted a remark that the harpsichord of his time contained 1,500 different parts. The modern piano contains 12,000, most of which are found in the action. The modern grand piano action is a simplified version of Érard’s double-escapement action of 1821, and, although different manufacturers’ actions differ in detail, they all work in much the same way. When the key is depressed, its back end rises, lifting the wippen. The wippen raises a pivoted L-shaped jack that pushes the hammer upward by means of a small roller attached to the underside of the hammer shank. The hammer flies free when the back of the L-shaped jack touches the adjustable regulating button. At the same time, the upper end of the repetition lever—through which the upright arm of the jack passes—rises until it is stopped by the drop screw. When the hammer rebounds from the string, the roller falls back until it is stopped by the intermediate lever, enabling the tip of the jack to return to position beneath the roller, even if the key is still partially depressed. The jack is then ready to raise the hammer again should the player restrike the key before it returns to rest position. In the meantime, the hammer is prevented from bouncing back up toward the strings by the padded hammer check, and the damper is raised above the strings by a separate lever lifted by the extreme end of the key. The history of automatically playing stringed keyboard instruments dates at least to the 16th century. The inventory of musical instruments owned by King Henry VIII at his death in 1547 included “an instrument that goethe with a whele without playing upon,” and three spinets equipped with a pinned barrel like that of a music box or barrel organ survive from the workshop of the Augsburg builder Samuel Bidermann (1540–1622). The most common type of player piano operates by means of a roll of punched paper that controls a pneumatic system for depressing the keys. Its heyday was the 1930s, and it was largely rendered obsolete by the increasing popularity of the phonograph and the radio. In the 1980s, electromagnetic player-piano actions equipped with laser sensors and computer controls were developed, allowing a pianist to record and immediately play back or edit his performance. Such sophisticated player pianos are especially useful in recording and teaching studios.
Pre-reading Strategy Introduction One of the most powerful things that you can do to make reading part of your content-area instruction is planning purposeful pre-reading instruction and activities. In this module, we will present strategies that you can choose from. By the end of this module, you will have strategies for examining the texts that you have selected for your project, and for making the content easier for students to read and learn. In order to do that, we will have to consider the nature of comprehension as a cognitive process. Then we will introduce strategies to choose and use. As you go through this content, we will ask you to prepare some materials. It is in your best interest if you use the texts and concepts from your unit as you complete these short exercises. Read the passage below. What details stand out to you? The two boys ran until they came to the driveway. "See, I told you today was good for skipping school," said Mark. "Mom is never home on Thursday," he added. Tall hedges hid the house from the road so the pair strolled across the finely landscaped yard. "I never knew your place was so big," said Pete. "Yeah, but it's nicer now than it used to be since Dad had the new stone siding put on and added the fireplace." There were front and back doors and a side door that led to the garage which was empty except for three parked 10-speed bikes. They went to the side door, Mark explaining that it was always open in case his younger sisters got home earlier than their mother. Pete wanted to see the house so Mark started with the living room. It, like the rest of the downstairs, was newly painted. Mark turned on the stereo, the noise of which worried Pete. "Don't worry, the nearest house is a quarter of a mile away," Mark shouted. Pete felt more comfortable observing that no houses could be seen in any direction beyond the huge yard. The dining room, with all the china, silver and cut glass, was no place to play so the boys moved into the kitchen where they made sandwiches. Mark said they wouldn't go to the basement because it had been damp and musty ever since the new plumbing had been installed. "This is where my Dad keeps his famous paintings and his coin collection," Mark said as they peered into the den. Mark bragged that he could get spending money whenever he needed since he'd discovered that his Dad kept a lot in the desk drawer. There were three upstairs bedrooms. Mark showed Pete his mother's closet which was filled with furs and the locked box which held her jewels. His sisters' room was uninteresting except for the small plasma TV, which Mark carried to his room. Mark bragged that the bathroom in the hall was his since one had been added to his sisters' room for their use. The big highlight in his room, though, was a leak in the ceiling where the old roof had finally rotted. What if we asked you to read it as if you were a real estate agent? A burglar? Would your comprehension be different? What happens when we comprehend? See if you can experience it. Read these three book reviews (Kintsch, Toye, Franzen) and then think about which book would be easiest for you and which would be more difficult? Why do you think so? Use the unit template to respond to these three books. What if you had to read these three books in school. Would any one of them be especially daunting? What if a teacher were there to make that book more accessible to you? We think that that is precisely our job as teachers. If reading is to be a part of learning (rather than a test of what we already know) then we have to make reading more meaningful. That means that we actually have to decide what to do before our students read to ensure that they can be learning while they read. Part of the reason for that is the nature of the comprehension process itself. A good description of the comprehension process was described by Kintsch. As you make your way through any reading, from clause to clause and sentence to sentence, you are building an internal representation of meaning. As you continue reading, you also expand and refine this structure. Had you been asked a question after reading, you would have referred to this internal structure to answer. We might compare that structure to a house. You build it from the ground up, on a foundation of prior knowledge, and it has an overall design or blueprint plus numerous details such as the individual boards and bricks and shutters. Just after you have finished reading the passage, chances are you can clearly recall many of the details, just as you might envision details of the house or building in which you now live. But after a time your memory for details of the passage will fade, although you may still be able to remember its gist. Think back to a house you lived in long ago. It is likely that a similar process has occurred with respect to your memory. You still retain a general idea of what the house looked like but many of the details elude you. The same is true of the "reading house" you construct as you read. What are some reasons that readers don't comprehend? Remember that students who are learning in new knowledge domains likely have limited prior knowledge on which to build. Prior knowledge can take many forms, including vocabulary knowledge, background knowledge, and text structure knowledge. It is important to make a distinction between vocabulary and background knowledge. Word meanings are essential, but they are only one component of the knowledge necessary to comprehend. Such knowledge may include experiences and individual impressions that cannot be captured by a single word and that amplify and enrich one's definitional knowledge. If you want to read more about this, here is an interesting article written by a linguist. Contending with limited vocabulary and background knowledge depends on the gap between what the student knows and what it is necessary to know in order to comprehend. If the gap is too large, it may not be possible for a teacher to facilitate adequate comprehension. Imagine having to read a technical research report in the field of mathematics. Take a look. Limitations of your prior knowledge base might well be impossible to overcome. Even with the assistance of a tutor knowledgeable about the topic, the amount of background building required might be prohibitive. In the case of a student, materials that contain a large number of unfamiliar words and that refer to ideas and experiences that are also unfamiliar are likely to be frustrating no matter what the teacher does. In such cases, it is better to locate alternative materials. But in cases where that gap is not too wide, a teacher may be able to bridge it by pre-teaching the vocabulary and by building the prior knowledge needed to comprehend. Of course, familiarity with the topic and with the words an author has chosen are not all that is required to comprehend. In order to build a mental representation of text content, a reader needs to be able to approach the reading task strategically. Just as a carpenter must be able to strategically use a variety of tools in building a house, a reader must employ a variety of strategies if an acceptable reading house is to be constructed. Even with assistance, the final product maybe problematic. The reading house may need work. Like a master carpenter overseeing the work of a novice, a teacher can help a student improve the mental representation of text content after reading has been completed. All of this is to say that teachers have three opportunities to improve text comprehension. The actions they take before, during, and after reading can do much to ensure adequate understanding. This discussion may seem very theoretical, but the implications for the classroom are enormous. In a short story, for example, if the protagonist enters a luxury hotel severely underdressed, the author will not bore you with details about the decorations in the lobby, the fact that there is a concierge, that a door man is there to welcome him. The author will expect your schema for a fancy lobby to be activated instantly. But imagine the reader who hasn't been to a fancy hotel (or seen one in a movie); comprehension might be compromised. Anderson and Pearson (1984) used schema theory to explain the strong relationship between prior knowledge of ideas and concepts contained in a text to an individual's ability to comprehend that text.
Drug allergies are a group of symptoms caused by an allergic reaction to a drug (medication). Allergic reaction - drug (medication); Drug hypersensitivity; Medication hypersensitivity Adverse reactions to drugs are common. (adverse means unwanted or unexpected.) Almost any drug can cause an adverse reaction. Reactions range from irritating or mild side effects such as nausea and vomiting to life-threatening anaphylaxis . A true drug allergy is caused by a series of chemical steps in the body that produce the allergic reaction to a medication. The first time you take the medicine, you may have no problems. However, your body's immune system may produce a substance (antibody) called IgE against that drug. The next time you take the drug, the IgE tells your white blood cells to make a chemical called histamine, which causes your allergy symptoms. A drug allergy may also occur without your body producing IgE. Instead, it might produce other types of antibodies, or have other reactions that do not produce antibodies. Most drug allergies cause minor skin rashes and hives. Serum sickness is a delayed type of drug allergy that occurs a week or more after you are exposed to a medication or vaccine. Common allergy-causing drugs include: Insulin (especially animal sources of insulin) Iodinated (containing iodine) x-ray contrast dyes (these can cause allergy-like reactions) Penicillin and related antibiotics Most side effects of drugs are not due to an allergic reaction. For example, aspirin can cause nonallergic hives or trigger asthma . Some drug reactions are considered idiosyncratic. This means the reaction is an unusual effect of the medication. It is not due to a known chemical effect of the drug. Many people confuse an uncomfortable, but not serious, side effect of a medicine (such as nausea) with a true drug allergy. Common symptoms of a drug allergy include: Symptoms of anaphylaxis include: Exams and Tests: An examination may show: - Decreased blood pressure - Swelling of the lips, face, or tongue (angioedema ) Skin testing may help diagnose an allergy to penicillin-type medications. There are no good skin or blood tests to help diagnose other drug allergies. If you have had allergy-like symptoms after taking a medicine or receiving contrast (dye) before getting an x-ray, your health care provider will often tell you that this is proof of a drug allergy. You do not need more testing. The goal of treatment is to relieve symptoms and prevent a severe reaction. Treatment may include: Antihistamines to relieve mild symptoms such as rash, hives, and itching Bronchodilators such as albuterol to reduce asthma-like symptoms (moderate wheezing or cough) Corticosteroids applied to the skin, given by mouth, or given through a vein (intravenously) - Epinephrine by injection to treat anaphylaxis The offending medication and similar drugs should be avoided. Make sure all your health care providers -- including dentists and hospital staff -- know about any drug allergies that you or your children have. In some cases, a penicillin (or other drug) allergy responds to desensitization. This treatment involves being given larger and larger doses of a medicine to improve your tolerance of the drug. The desensitization should be done only by an allergist, when there is no alternative drug for you to take. Most drug allergies respond to treatment. However sometimes they can lead to severe asthma, anaphylaxis, or death. - Life-threatening, severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) - Severe swelling under the skin (angioedema), which can be life threatening if it affects the throat, tongue, or lungs When to Contact a Medical Professional: Call your health care provider if you are taking a medication and seem to be having a reaction to it. Go to the emergency room or call the local emergency number (such as 911) if you have difficulty breathing or develop other symptoms of severe asthma or anaphylaxis. These are emergency conditions. There is generally no way to prevent a drug allergy. If you have a known drug allergy, avoiding the medication is the best way to prevent an allergic reaction. You may also be told to avoid similar medicines. In some cases, a health care provider may approve the use of a drug that causes an allergy if you are first treated with corticosteroids (such as prednisone) and antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine). Do not try this without a health care provider's supervision. Pretreatment with corticosteroids and antihistamines has been shown to prevent anaphylaxis in people who need to get x-ray contrast dye. Your health care provider may also recommend densensitization. Frew A. General principles of investigating and managing drug allergy. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;71:642-646. Celik G, Pichler WJ, Adkinson NF Jr. Drug allergy. In: Adkinson NF Jr., Bochner BS, Burks AW, et al., eds. In: Middleton's Allergy Principles and Practice. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2013:chap 79. Grammer LC. Drug allergy. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2012:chap 262. \|Review Date: 5/10/2014\| Reviewed By: Stuart I. Henochowicz, MD, FACP, Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Georgetown University Medical School, Washington, DC. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
Why the name "Legionnaires disease"? The bacterium responsible for Legionnaires' disease was identified in 1976, after a large outbreak at a hotel in Philadelphia, USA. The disease got its name from the group of people affected in this outbreak. They were retired American service personnel who were attending a legion convention. Since the outbreak in 1976, cases and outbreaks have been reported from all countries in Europe, many of them linked to hotels and other types of holiday accommodation. What is legionellosis? Legionellosis is an uncommon form of pneumonia. The disease has no particular clinical features that clearly distinguish it from other types of pneumonia, and laboratory investigations must be carried out to confirm the diagnosis. It normally takes between two to ten days to develop symptoms (typically five to six days) but very rarely some cases may take two to three weeks to develop symptoms. Patients usually start with a dry cough, fever, headache and sometimes diarrhoea and many people go on to get pneumonia. People over the age of 50 are more at risk than younger people, and males are more at risk than females. Effective antibiotic treatment is available if the diagnosis is made early in the illness. Deaths occur in about 5-15% of travellers who get the disease, depending on their age and individual health status. Smokers are more at risk than non-smokers. How do you get legionellosis? People become infected when they breathe in air that contains tiny droplets of water known as aerosols, inside of which are the Legionella bacteria. If the bacteria get inhaled into the lungs they can cause infection. Legionellosis cannot be got from water you drink that enters your stomach in the normal way – the bacterium has to get into the lungs through breathing it in. The illness is not spread from person to person. Where do the Legionella bacteria come from? Legionella bacteria are common and can be found naturally in environmental water sources such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs, usually in low numbers. The bacteria are able to survive in the nature at a wide range of temperatures. The bacteria can multiply in man-made aquatic systems like cooling towers, evaporative condensers, humidifiers, decorative fountains, hot water systems and similar systems. How do outbreaks occur? Experience shows that outbreaks in hotels are mostly associated with hot or cold water distribution systems. If the bacteria is in the water in quantities that can cause infection, someone taking a shower would inhale the bacteria trapped inside the tiny aerosols that are created when the shower water hits the hard surfaces of the shower unit or bath. They may also be affected by other water systems that cause aerosols, for example whirlpool spas and fountains. In contrast, large explosive outbreaks in the community are mostly associated with cooling towers. Cooling towers are devices used to cool buildings. They are also called “wet air conditioning systems” because the process of cooling air involves extensive contact between water and air, thereby creating aerosols. When the Legionella bacteria are present in these systems they can cause Legionnaires' disease. Air conditioning units that use water to cool the air can also pose a risk in hotels. However, many air conditioning systems are “dry” and these pose no risk for legionellosis. When an outbreak of legionellosis occurs, the source may be found through two types of investigation. One collects information on the activities and whereabouts of the patients with legionellosis to look for links between cases such as staying at or visiting the same places before they became ill. The other involves looking for the Legionella bacteria in the suspected water sources and in clinical specimens from the patients. If the bacteria are found in both, specialised laboratory methods are used to see if they are of the same type.
Nearly all utility plants generate electricity with steam. Whether it’s a coal plant or a nuclear plant or a solar thermal plant, all of these facilities use fuel to heat water to create steam that turns a turbine that generates electricity. Now researchers at MIT have developed a completely new structure for turning sunlight into steam: a sponge. The advance could one day lead to an efficient, inexpensive and emission-free way for creating steam that could be used to not only generate steam for energy but also for desalination and sterilization. SEE ALSO: Store Wind Energy Underground This sponge, developed by Gang Chen, head of MIT’s Mechanical Engineering Department, post-doc Hadi Ghasemi and their colleages, is comprised of a layer of graphite flakes on top of a carbon foam that float on layers of liquid, including water. When sunlight hits the surface, it produces a hotspot in the graphite that pulls water up through the porous material. Heated, the rising water evaporates as steam. So far, the material has been able to convert 85% of sunlight into steam. What’s more, very little heat is lost or wasted in the process. Current solar-thermal plants that concentrate sunlight in order to heat fluids that produce steam require energy about 1,000 times that of an average sunny day. But the MIT approach produces steam with a solar intensity of only 10 times that of a sunny day. This means that the cost of the infrastructure and energy required to generate steam could be much lower than conventional methods. “This is a huge advantage in cost-reduction,” Ghasemi told MIT News. “That’s exciting for us because we’ve come up with a new approach to solar steam generation.” Achieving that end is the team’s next step. “Our system is not pressurized currently, and we plan to explore that direction,” Chen told DNEWS in an email. This article originally published at Discovery News here
Even while a wildfire is being brought under containment, the process of making sure it doesn’t get a chance to reignite begins. It’s called “mop up” and firefighters work to ensure that smoldering hot areas along the fire line are safely cooled down. To make certain no stone or in this case branch is not overturned, firefighters often use their bare hands to feel for warm areas on the ground and then use a combination of water and hand tools to stir up and cool off hot spots. Meanwhile, even if it looks like the fire is soon to be completely contained, crews continue to dig fire lines (wide superficial trenches) to enclose the entire perimeter of a blaze. Sometimes this can take days and it’s not uncommon for mop up work to continue a week or so after the news media has left and residents are being allowed back into neighborhoods that had been evacuated during the fire. "After a wildfire is mostly contained, firefighters work to get fire lines around much of the affected area and ensure that remaining hot spots are cold and mopped up. In fact, a fire is never fully contained until firefighters are confident that remaining hot spots have little opportunity to escape containment lines.” said Mike Ferris, a public information officer with the National Incident Management Organization of the U.S. Forest Service. Ferris added that the process is weather dependent, and hot dry conditions could cause some areas of a fire to again flare up. "There's always the potential for wind to hit some isolated hot spots, even when you think the incident is over,” said Ferris. “Usually when this happens it can cause some flare ups and some individual tree torching, but most of the time we can quickly contain it.” For these reasons firefighting experts caution returning residents to be aware of potential dangerous flare-ups and hazardous trees because a fire is not over until it’s completely out.
A team of international scientists working in the central Pacific have discovered that coral which has survived heat stress in the past is more likely to survive it in the future. The study, published today in the journal PLoS ONE, paves the way towards an important road map on the impacts of ocean warming, and will help scientists identify the habitats and locations where coral reefs are more likely to adapt to climate change. "We're starting to identify the types of reef environments where corals are more likely to persist in the future," says study co-author Simon Donner, an assistant professor in UBC's Department of Geography and organizer of the field expedition. "The new data is critical for predicting the future for coral reefs, and for planning how society will cope in that future." When water temperatures get too hot, the tiny algae that provides coral with its colour and major food source is expelled. This phenomenon, called coral bleaching, can lead to the death of corals. With sea temperatures in the tropics forecast to rise by 1-3 degrees Celsius by the end of the century, the researchers say coral reefs may be better able to withstand the expected rise in temperature in locations where heat stress is naturally more common. This will benefit the millions of people worldwide who rely on coral reefs for sustenance and livelihoods, they say. "Until recently, it was widely assumed that coral would bleach and die off worldwide as the oceans warm due to climate change," says lead author Jessica Carilli, a post-doctoral fellow in Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation's (ANSTO) Institute for Environmental Research. "This would have very serious consequences, as loss of live coral - already observed in parts of the world - directly reduces fish habitats and the shoreline protection reefs provide from storms." Caralli and Donner conducted the study in May 2010 in the Pacific island nation of Kiribati, near the equator. Kiribati's climate is useful for testing theories about past climate experience because its corals are pounded by El Niño-driven heat waves, while corals on the islands farther from the equator are less affected. The researchers analyzed coral skeletal growth rates and tissue fat stores to compare how corals from different regions responded to two recent coral bleaching events in 2004 and 2009. Donner has conducted field research in Kiribati since 2005 and will return this year to conduct follow-up research with the local government. He says the findings suggest that Marine Protected Areas - conservation areas designed to protect marine life from stressors like fishing - may be more effective in areas with naturally variable water temperatures The research delivers mixed news for Australia's Great Barrier Reef, because the reef stretches over such massive distances; some areas have stable temperatures and some do not. The findings support previous laboratory and observational studies from other regions, suggesting they can be widely applied. Planning is now underway for potential future studies of coral in areas of the world that have not experienced significant historical changes in water temperatures. "Even through the warming of our oceans is already occurring, these findings give hope that coral that has previously withstood anomalously warm water events may do so again," says Carilli. "While more research is needed, this appears to be good news for the future of coral reefs in a warming climate."
What are Coccidia? Coccidia are single celled organisms that infect the intestine. They are microscopic parasites detectable on routine faecal tests in the same way that worms are but coccidia are not worms and they are not visible to the naked eye. Coccidia infection causes a watery diarrhoea which is sometimes bloody and can even be a life-threatening problem to an especially young or small pet. Where do Coccidia Come From? Oocysts (pronounced o’o-sists), like those shown above, are passed in stool. In the outside world, the oocysts begin to mature or “sporulate.” After they have adequately matured, they become infective to any host (dog or cat) that accidentally swallows them. To be more precise, coccidia come from faecal-contaminated ground. They are swallowed when a pet grooms/licks the dirt off itself. In some cases, sporulated oocysts are swallowed by mice and the host is infected when it eats the mouse. Coccidia infection is especially common in young animals housed in groups (in shelters, rescue areas, kennels, etc.) This is a common parasite and is not necessarily a sign of poor husbandry. What Happens Inside the Host? The sporulated oocyst breaks open and releases eight sporozoites. These sporozoites each finds an intestinal cell and begins to reproduce inside it. Ultimately, the cell is so full of what are called “merozoites” that it bursts releasing the merozoites which seek out their own intestinal cells and the process begins again. It is important to note how thousands of intestinal cells can become infected and destroyed as a result of accidentally swallowing a single oocyst. As the intestinal cells are destroyed in larger and larger numbers, intestinal function is disrupted and a bloody, watery diarrhoea results. The fluid loss can be dangerously dehydrating to a very young or small pet. How Are Coccidia Detected? A routine faecal test is a good idea for any new puppy or kitten whether there are signs of diarrhoea or not as youngsters are commonly parasitized. This sort of test is also a good idea for any patient with diarrhoea. The above illustration demonstrates coccidia oocysts seen under the microscope in a faecal sample. Coccidia are microscopic and a test such as this is necessary to rule them in. It should be noted that small numbers of coccidia can be hard to detect so just because a faecal sample tests negative, this does not mean that the pet is not infected. Sometimes several faecal tests are performed, especially in a young pet with a refractory diarrhoea; parasites may not be evident until later in the course of the condition. How is Coccidiosis Treated? We do not have any medicine that will kill coccidia; only the patient’s immune system can do that. But we can give medicines called “coccidiostats” which can inhibit coccidia reproduction. Once the numbers stop expanding, it is easier for the patient’s immune system to “catch up” and wipe the infection out. This also means, though, that the time it takes to clear the infection depends on how many coccidia organisms there are to start with and how strong the patient’s immune system is. A typical treatment course lasts about a week or two but it is important to realize that the medication should be given until the diarrhoea resolves plus an extra couple of days. Medication should be given for at least five days total. Sometimes courses as long as a month are needed. The use of sulfa drugs in pregnancy can cause birth defects. Sulfa drug use can also lead to false positive test results for urine glucose. Can People or Other Pets Become Infected? While there are species of coccidia that can infect people (Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium, for example), the Isospora species of dogs and cats are not infective to people. Other pets may become infected from exposure to infected faecal matter but it is important to note that this is usually an infection of the young (i.e. the immature immune system tends to let the coccidia infection reach large numbers where the mature immune system probably will not.) In most cases, the infected new puppy or kitten does not infect the resident adult animal.
England boasts the world’s first parliament, and back in 1265, it held a meeting for the first time at Westminster Palace. It was however, more than 400 years later that the idea of ‘political parties’ took hold, and when this happened it changed Britain’s political way of life forever. Prior to the 17th Century when the former were initiated, the parliament in England was open to men of wealth and aristocrats, both of whom were able to form a majority or coalition which was founded on factors such as particular loyalties. The original political parties did not really begin to get into a workable form until the Civil War in England subsided and the upheaval in parliament from the Commonwealth came to a close; this was in 1660. Moving on eighteen years, the English saw their parliament go through the ‘Exclusion Crisis.’ This lasted for around 36 months, and during this time, the majority of politicians joined one of two parties that had been set up: the Tories and the Whigs. Between 2010 and 2015, the politicians who descended from these two pioneering parties, agreed on a government alliance which was headed David Cameron, MP. Prior to 2015, generally speaking, the political picture in Britain was regarded as extremely stable. In fact, for over four hundred years, the electoral system, which employs the ‘relative majority’ method, has remained the same. Furthermore, it is good for non-fluctuating governments and big parties. This method is inclined to preclude political parties from breaking off into smaller inner circles, and it promotes unity around robust leaders of all designations. In 2011, voters in Britain were given a referendum in which they could chose to back a new voting method which would include some form of proportional representation, or reaffirm their allegiance to this long standing system of voting. They chose to stay with the latter. At the present time, the three main political parties in the UK are more than a hundred years old, and to that end, it is extremely difficult for newly established political groups to even get started.
My Mouth Is a Volcano! by Julia Cook My Mouth Is A Volcano takes an empathetic approach to the habit of interrupting and teaches children a witty technique to capture their rambunctious thoughts and words for expression at an appropriate time. Continue a conversation through multiple exchanges. One by one, students can share ideas with me to add to the "volcano". Students could then act out each of these scenarios and take turns speaking. Counselor Corner: My Mouth is a Volcano Use this activity with the book "My Mouth Is A Volcano!" By Julia Cook. It is such a fun way to help students with a talking problem and to encourage them to let others share/wait their turn. Enjoy this freebie! Activities and visuals to accompany the book My Mouth is a Volcano by Julia Cook. Includes: ~ an eruption checklist ~ student eruption cards ~ self- control writing activity ~ parent note Please visit my store for more Julia Cook book packets and other
The Varroa mite, (Varroa destructor – formerly Varroa jacobsoni) is an external parasite of honey bees that attacks adult bees and their developing larvae, or young.The whole bee population is at risk from the mite. Numbers of mites in a colony typically build up over a year or so, until they are sufficient to kill the colony if it is not treated. The mite will wipe out most wild (or feral) bees, as they will not be treated by a beekeeper to control varroa levels. Only well-managed bee colonies will survive the arrival of varroa. Beekeepers in affected areas should monitor the mite levels within their hives and treat before numbers rise to damaging levels. Varroa cannot be eradicated, but can be controlled using various organic and inorganic miticides and possibly by selecting bees for tolerance to the mite. Visual examination of adult bees is not an effective way to monitor for varroa. However, infested hives may show the following signs: - Unexpectedly low bee numbers - A patchy brood pattern - Small reddish-brown mites on the bodies of bees,(see photo) and on uncapped drone or worker pupae - Crawling bees near the hive entrance, often with damaged wings or no wings - Sudden population crashes, especially in the autumn when hives may have honey stores but no bees. MAFBNZ advocates ‘best practice’ management of varroa to avoid miticide residues and delay the emergence of resistance in mites to chemical treatments. The recently updated Varroa Control Manual contains detailed information on varroa management. Check out http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests/varroa/control-of-varroa-guide.pdf This page has been extracted from http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/varroa
English Medium Notes of 9th class Chemistry chapter 7 and 8 MCQs and short questions Oxidation is addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or loss of electrons by an element and as a result oxidation number increases. Reduction is addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen or gain of electrons by an element and as a result oxidation number decreases. Oxidation number is the apparent charge on an atom. It may be positive or negative. Oxidizing agents are the species that oxidize the other element and reduce themselves. Non-metals are oxidizing agents. Reducing agents are species that reduce the other elements and oxidize themselves. Metals are reducing agents. Chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of species change are termed as redox reaction. A redox reaction involves oxidation and reduction processes taking place simultaneously. Redox reactions either take place spontaneously and produce energy or electricity is used to drive the reaction. The process in which electricity is used for the decomposition of a chemical compound is called electrolysis. It takes place in electrolytic cells such as Downs cell and Nelson’s cell. Galvanic cells are those in which spontaneous reactions take place and generate electric current. They are also called voltaic cells. Sodium metal is manufactured from fused sodium chloride in the Downs cell. NaOH is manufactured from brine in Nelson’s cell. Corrosion is slow and continuous eating away of a metal by the surrounding medium. The most common example of corrosion is rusting of iron. The rusting principle is electrochemical redox reaction, in which iron behaves as anode. Iron is oxidized to form rust Fe2O3. nH2O. Corrosion can be prevented by many methods. The most important is electroplating . Electroplating is depositing of one metal over the other by means of electrolysis . Iron can be electroplated by tin, zinc, silver or chromium. Formation of cations of alkali and alkaline earth metals is due to their electropositive behavior. The chemical reactivity of alkali and alkaline earth metals, is quite different. Calcium and magnesium are less reactive than sodium. Halogens form very stable compounds with alkali metals. Mercury and gold exist in free elemental form in nature.
Today's Famous Brits Assembly was about King Alfred the Great who was born between 847 and 849, living until 26 October 899. He was King of Wessex from 871 to c. 886 and King of the Anglo-Saxons from c. 886 to 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex. His father died when he was young and three of Alfred's brothers reigned in turn. Alfred took the throne after the death of his brother Æthelred and spent several years dealing with Viking invasions. He won a decisive victory in the Battle of Edington in 878 and made an agreement with the Vikings, creating what was known as Danelaw in the North of England. Alfred also oversaw the conversion of Viking leader Guthrum to Christianity. He successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, and he became the dominant ruler in England. He was also the first King of the West Saxons to style himself King of the Anglo-Saxons. Details of his life are described in a work by 9th-century Welsh scholar and bishop Asser.Alfred had a reputation as a learned and merciful man of a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education, proposing that primary education be conducted in English rather than Latin, and improving his kingdom's legal system, military structure, and his people's quality of life. He was given the epithet "the Great" during and after the Reformation in the sixteenth century.
By Sukey Molloy During the critical first years of life, very young children need action-based learning to nourish and organize the developing brain. Did you know that movement is an essential part of each child’s growth and education? Movement nourishes the brain, stimulates the body, and opens the feelings. Infants and young children need lots of fun and developmentally appropriate sensory-motor learning activities throughout each day to acquire important physical, emotional, and cognitive skills. Movement play and songprovide the developing brain with the food and nourishment it needs. In fact, the postures and physical skills we learn by age ten are the ones we will take through life. In the earliest years, it’s important to expose each child to as many movement, sound and rhythmic possibilities as possible in order to give a wide and expansive vocabulary for expression and health. When learning new skills, each child has his or her very own individual learning style! Learning to read for instance, can involve the whole body! Providing a ‘multi-sensory’ approach to learning stimulates both hemispheres of the brain, allowing learning to go deeper. What is this a picture of? To the left side of the brain, it is something represented by the symbols C A T To the right side of the brain, it is something soft and furry that sounds like M E O W Both are true! Children need to play with different learning styles that include both hemispheres of the brain in order to discover and develop an inner, and individual motivation. Sukey Molloy is a children’s music artist, educator and author.
The Frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) is a species of shark in the family Chlamydoselachidae, that can be found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans over the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope, generally near the bottom. Current research suggests that they do undergo upward movement. They have been found as deep as 5,150 feet but are uncommon below 3,900 feet. In Suruga Bay, Japan, it is most common at depths of 160–660 feet. Many refer to the Frilled shark as a living fossil. It reaches a length of 6.6 feet and has a dark brown, eel-like body with the dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins placed far back. Its common name comes from the frilly or fringed appearance of its six pairs of gill slits starting at the throat. Family: Chlamydoselachidae – Frilled sharks Common Name– Cow and Frilled Sharks Common Name– Frilled Sharks Status: IUCN Red List LEAST CONCERN Average Size and Length: The maximum length of a female Frilled shark is 6.6 feet, and 5.6 feet for males. Current Rare Mythical Sightings: The Frilled shark belongs to one of the oldest still-extant shark lineages, dating back to at least the Late Cretaceous (about 95 Mya) and possibly to the Late Jurassic (150 Mya). Due to their ancient ancestry and primitive characteristics, the Frilled shark and other members of this line have been described as a living fossil. However, the Frilled shark itself is a recent species, with the earliest known fossil teeth belonging to this species dating to the early Pleistocene era. Because of its unique appearance, it has long been thought of as a mythical sea serpent. Fossils of frilled sharks from the Takatika Grit of the Chatham Islands in New Zealand, dated to the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, were found together with those of birds and conifer cones, which suggests that the sharks lived in shallow waters at that time. Previous research on other Chlamydoselachus species has shown that individuals living in shallower water had larger and stronger teeth for eating hard-shelled invertebrates. It has been hypothesized that frilled sharks, surviving the mass extinction of the K-T boundary event, were able to make use of vacated niches in shallow water and on continental shelves, the latter opening up a move to the deep-water habitats they now inhabit. Changing food availability may be reflected in how tooth morphology has shifted to become sharper and inward-pointing to prey on soft-bodied deep-sea animals. From the Late Paleocene to the present, frilled sharks may have been out-competed, restricting them to their current habitats and distribution. (Consoli, Christopher, P. (2008). “A rare Danian (Paleocene) Chlamydoselachus (Chondricthyes: Elasmobranchii) from the Takatika Grit, Chatham Islands, New Zealand”. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 28 (2): 285–290.) Teeth and Jaw: The Frilled shark has very long jaws that are positioned terminally, as opposed to the underslung jaws of most sharks. The corners of the mouth are devoid of furrows or folds. The tooth rows are widely spaced, numbering 19–28 in the upper jaw and 21–29 in the lower jaw. The teeth number around 300 in all; each tooth is small, with 3 slender, needle-like cusps alternating with 2 cusplets. The long jaws of the Frilled shark are highly distensible with an extremely wide gape, allowing it to swallow prey whole over one-half its size. The length and articulation of its jaws means that it cannot deliver as strong a bite. Head: The head of the Frilled shark is broad and flattened with a short, rounded snout. The nostrils are vertical slits, separated into incurrent and excurrent openings by a leading flap of skin. The moderately large eyes are horizontally oval and lack nictitating membranes. Tail: The caudal fin is very long and roughly triangular, without a lower lobe or a ventral notch on the upper lobe. Demographic, Distribution, Habitat, Environment and Range: The Frilled shark has been found in wide, patchy, scattered locations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the eastern Atlantic, it can be found off northern Norway, northern Scotland, and western Ireland, from France to Morocco including Madeira, and off Mauritania. In the central Atlantic, it has been caught at several locations along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, from north of the Azores to the Rio Grande Rise off southern Brazil, as well as over the Vavilov Ridge off West Africa. In the western Atlantic, it has been reported from waters off New England, Georgia, and Suriname. In the western Pacific, it is known from southeastern Honshu, Japan, to Taiwan, off New South Wales and Tasmania in Australia, and around New Zealand. In the central and eastern Pacific, it has been found off Hawaii and California in the US, and northern Chile. The Frilled shark is benthic, epibenthic and pelagic. It prefers the outer continental shelf and upper to middle continental slope with lots of life. The Frilled shark has been caught at a depth of 5,150 feet, however it usually doesn’t venture deeper than 3,900 feet. In Suruga Bay, it is most common at a depth of 160–660 feet, except from August to November when the temperature at the 330 feet water layer exceeds 59 °F. When this happens, they transition into deeper water. The Frilled shark is usually found close to the bottom, with one individual observed swimming over an area of small sand dunes. On occasion they have been found at the surface. The diet of the Frilled shark suggests that they preform a diel vertical migration in open water towards the surface. There is spatial segregation by size and reproductive condition. Diet: The Frilled shark preys on cephalopods, bony fishes, and smaller sharks. Squid comprise some 60% of the diet of sharks in Suruga Bay, both slow- and fast-moving squid species. Possibly picking off tired and injured ones. The many small, sharp, recurved teeth of the frilled shark are functionally similar to squid jigs and could easily snag the body or tentacles of a squid, particularly as they are rotated outwards when the jaws are protruded. Observations of captive frilled sharks swimming with their mouths open suggest that the small teeth, light against the dark mouth, may even fool squid into attacking and entangling themselves. (Ebert, D.A.; Compagno, L.J.V. (2009). “Chlamydoselachus africana, a new species of frilled shark from southern Africa (Chondrichthyes, Hexanchiformes, Chlamydoselachidae)“. Many frilled sharks are found with the tips of their tails missing, probably from predatory attacks by other shark species. Aesthetic Identification: The Frilled shark is uniform dark chocolate brown, grey, or blackish and has an elongated eel-like body. There are 6 pairs of long gill slits with a frilly appearance created by the extended tips of the gill filaments, giving this shark its name. The first pair of gill slits meet across the throat, forming what appears to be a collar. The pectoral fins are short and rounded. The single, small dorsal fin is positioned far back on the body, about opposite the anal fin, and has a rounded margin. The pelvic and anal fins are large, broad, and rounded, and also positioned well back on the body. There are a pair of thick skin folds of unknown function running along the belly, separated by a groove. The midsection is relatively longer in females than in males, with the pelvic fins pushed closer to the anal fin. Biology and Reproduction: The Frilled shark differs from the Southern African Frilled shark, having more vertebrae (160–171 vs 147) and more turns in the spiral valve intestine (35–49 versus 26–28), as well as in various proportional measurements such as a longer head and shorter gill slits. The Frilled shark is specialized for deep sea life. It has a poorly calcified skeleton and a large liver filled with low-density lipids, allowing it to maintain its position in the water column with little effort. Parasites recognized on the Frilled shark include a tapeworm in the genus Monorygma, the fluke Otodistomum veliporum, and the nematode Mooleptus rabuka. Most captured individuals are found with no or barely identifiable stomach contents, suggesting a fast digestion rate and/or long intervals between feedings. The Frilled shark is ovoviviparous. A possible mating aggregation of 15 male and 19 female sharks has been recorded over a seamount on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The litter size ranges from 2 to 15 pups, with an average of 6 pups. Adult females have two functional ovaries and one functional uterus, on the right. Females ovulate eggs into the uterus about once every two weeks; vitellogenesis (yolk formation) and the growth of new ovarian eggs halt during pregnancy, apparently due to insufficient space inside the body cavity. Newly ovulated eggs and early-stage embryos are enclosed in a thin, ellipsoid, golden-brown capsule. When the embryo is 1.2 inches long, the head is pointed when seen from above or below, the jaws are barely developed, the external gills have begun to appear, and all the fins are present. The egg capsule is shed when the embryo grows to 2.4–3.1 inches long and is expelled from the female’s body; at this time the embryo’s external gills are fully developed. The size of the yolk sac remains mostly constant until around an embryonic length of 16 inches, at which point it begins to shrink, mostly or completely disappearing by an embryonic length of 20 inches. The embryonic growth rate averages 1.4 cm per month, and therefore the entire gestation period may last three and a half years, far longer than any other vertebrate. (Tanaka, S.; Shiobara, Y.; Hioki, S.; Abe, H.; Nishi, G.; Yano, K. & Suzuki, K. (1990). “The reproductive biology of the frilled shark, Chlamydoselachus anguineus, from Suruga Bay, Japan”. Japanese Journal of Ichthyology. 37 (3): 273–291.) Newborn sharks measure 16–24 inches long; males attain sexual maturity at 3.3–3.9 feet long, and females at 4.3–4.9 feet long. Behavioral Traits, Sensing and Intelligence: The Frilled shark is one of the few sharks with an open lateral line, in which the mechanoreceptive hair cells are positioned in grooves that are directly exposed to the surrounding seawater. This is thought to enhance its sensitivity to the miniscule movements of its prey. Speed: The Frilled shark is a slow-moving shark. Some scientists believe it could possibly launch brief, quick strikes forward. Frilled shark Future and Conservation: Small numbers of frilled sharks are caught incidentally by various deep-water commercial fisheries around the world, using trawls, gillnets, and longlines. The Filled shark damages nets, and therefore fisherman just see it as an annoyance. The Frilled shark is sometimes sold for meat or processed into fishmeal but is not economically significant. It was listed as Near Threatened in the past due to low reproduction and expanding commercial fishing however it has been downgraded to least concern. Frilled shark Recorded Attacks on Humans: Harmless to humans. There have been rare cases of Frilled sharks caught at the surface that die soon after possibly from weakness from warm water, injury or illness. Scientists have accidently cut themselves on their teeth.
AUTOPHAGY, MITOPHAGY, AND CELLULAR DAMAGE CONTROL Reduce, Recycle, Renew Maintenance of human health requires intensive and ongoing cleanup operations. On a microscopic scale, the same principle holds true within each cell. If you are new to the term mitophagy and its role in cellular health, you will find this article very helpful. Autophagy and mitophagy are the selective degredation of defective cells and mitochondria Reduce, Recycle, Renew On a macro scale, maintenance of human health requires intensive and ongoing cleanup operations. On a micro scale, the same principle holds true within each cell. Proteins essential to life processes must be degraded after fulfilling their assigned tasks, which range from providing structural support to cells and tissues to protecting the body from pathogenic foreign invaders. If the body’s housekeeping operations are stalled or inefficient, the results can be disastrous. Previous research has revealed how imbalances between protein production and degradation can lead to accumulations of protein products associated with several deadly neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. During the process of autophagy, unwanted constituents of cells are isolated and walled-off in specialized double-membraned compartments, known as autophagosomes. The packaged protein “garbage” then fuses with lysosomes, organelles in the cell’s cytoplasm whose digestive enzymes break down protein components. Recycling is completed when constituent amino acids from degraded proteins become the raw material for new proteins. Autophagy is a general term for this process that includes all cell organelles. Mitophagy refers to this process relating to mitochondria specifically. Here is an analogy you can use to understand the concept of mitophagy. The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell that turn fuel into energy. When they are young and healthy they are very efficient at providing energy with very little waste products (free radicals). As they age or get worn out, they are much less efficient at producing energy and in doing so give off much higher levels of free radicals. We can liken this to the engine in a car. When the car is new it is very efficient and gives off few emissions. As the car ages with use, the engine loses its efficiency and gives off far more emissions. At some point, the check engine light comes on indicating that the engine may need to be overhauled or replaced entirely for the car to continue to function optimally. Under certain conditions, nutrients in the diet mimic “stressors” that, like calorie restriction, can signal the mitochondria to renew or replace itself in order to maintain cellular efficiency.
The inability to distinguish spatial cues is known as spatial hearing loss. People with spatial loss of hearing find it difficult to tell who is speaking in a noisy room or where a certain sound is coming from. This condition prevents sufferers from cutting out background noise in crowded places such as restaurants and airports. Interestingly enough, spatial hearing loss does not stem from the ear. The brain is actually the culprit – the pathways that interpret sound are the root of spatial loss of hearing. Spatial loss of hearing is especially common in children as well as adults over the age of 60. However, it can occur in anyone, regardless of age. This can be especially frustrating for children in school – they find it hard to differentiate the teacher’s voice from other noises in class. Audiologists are able to diagnose spatial hearing disorder with a test called the Listen in Spatialized Noise-Sentences, or LiSN-S, test. The LisN-S test determines how a person uses pitch and spatial cues in order to pick out certain sounds from background noise. This lets the audiologist determine just how severe the person’s loss of spatial hearing is. Spatial hearing loss does not always occur on its own. It is quite often accompanied by high-frequency and/or low-frequency hearing loss. These issues can be treated with hearing aids, which helps with the spatial loss of hearing as well. However, for some people with spatial deficiencies, typical hearing aids may only make the problem worse. Spatial hearing loss happens often in older people, due to the natural aging process and subsequent damage to the audio nerve. Some aging-related causes of spatial hearing loss include injury, medications, vascular problems, or other medical conditions. If you notice sudden hearing loss within a twenty-four to seventy-two hour window, seek medical attention right away. Some forms of sudden hearing loss can be helped if its treated right away. Causes can be blockage, illness, or infection–all of which respond well to early treatment. If the sudden loss of hearing is not identified and treated quickly and is caused by infection or another underlying condition, it may result in permanently damaged auditory nerve pathways, ending with permanent deafness or spatial hearing loss. If you experience sudden changes such as a unilateral loss of hearing, you are also at an increased risk of spatial hearing loss and should seek attention immediately. If you’re not sure if your hearing is changing, you should go get it tested right away.
Weather: Putting Up a Front Putting Up a Front What happens when two different air masses meet? You get a front. The following figure gives you an idea the structure of weather fronts. Air masses with contrasting characteristics are pushed together by the winds, so that along a particular line, the weather will change noticeably and sometimes dramatically. As soon as a front passes a particular location, the weather could change from a steamy maritime tropical air mass to a dry, cold continental polar air mass. The transition seldom happens without stormy weather developing. Only rarely is all quiet on the weather front. The naming of fronts is very straightforward. If colder or drier air overtakes warmer, more moist air, that's a cold front. Here a continental polar air mass, or a maritime polar air mass, pushes aside a tropical air mass. Sometimes a continental polar air mass will overtake a maritime polar air mass, and the transition zone is also called a cold front. The temperature could even increase following the passage of a cold front, but the common element is density. A cold front really marks the boundary between more-dense air and less-dense air, with the more-dense air mass overtaking the less-dense air mass. Most commonly that involves colder, heavier air overtaking warmer, less dense air. But sometimes, especially during the spring and summer, the continental polar air mass will be warmer than a maritime air mass, because the oceans are cooler than land masses during the warmer time of year. The weather, even in a tropical air mass, could be cloudy and hazy with limited sunshine. The air temperature might be in the 80s, but then a cold front comes through, and the temperature turns warmer! How can that be? Well, the continental polar air mass is drier, and therefore denser. Air filled with water vapor will weigh less than drier air?the water-vapor molecules weigh less than the other common atmospheric gases. The temperature may not always drop following a cold front's passage, but the dew point always will. A cold front is a front where a colder air mass overtakes and replaces a warmer air mass. A warm front is a front where a warm air mass overtakes and replaces a cold air mass. An occluded front is a front caused by a cold front overtaking a warm front, lifting the warm air above the earth's surface. A stationary front, on the other hand, is not moving. A warm front leads the way of a tropical air mass. It will push aside a more-dense air mass, typically continental polar or maritime polar. Because a warm front involves less-dense air overtaking more-dense air, it travels more slowly than a cold front. It's tough for something light to shove aside something heavier, so a warm front may plow along at about 20 or 30 mph, while a cold front will move forward at 40 or 50 mph. In a warm front, the tropical air mass gently rides up over the adjacent cold air mass. In a cold front, the polar air wedges through the lighter air over a much shorter distance. The different lift experienced by the air along the different fronts really accounts for the different types of weather that develop. Because a cold front can move twice as fast as a warm front, in the course of weather events, cold fronts will be able to catch up with warm fronts. The fronts will cross paths with the cold front catching up. The fronts go through a merger. I don't know if their stock rises after a merger like on Wall Street, but, on Weather Street, the air rises, and we get our dividends in the form of precipitation. This merged front is called an occluded front. If a front is no longer moving, it's called a stationary front. The continental polar air mass, or the tropical air mass, just doesn't have enough push to move the opposing air mass out of the way. Stationary fronts become real headaches for weather forecasters because the weather turns stormy near the front, and the pattern offers few signs of change. Take a look at the following figure to see how fronts get it together. The fronts drawn with solid triangles are the cold fronts. The fronts with semi-circles are warm fronts. The fronts that have alternating semi-circles and triangles are stationary. Those with semi-circles and triangles on the same side are occluded. Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Weather 2002 by Mel Goldstein, Ph.D.. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Have you ever stopped to think about how your home gets its power? You use electricity every single day, for so many appliances in and around your property. The same goes for business owners: you’ve come to rely on a steady supply of electricity every single day. But, how does electricity get to your property? It all comes down to the power grid. Most of you are aware that the power grid exists, but do you know the exact process for how power gets to your home or business? The 3-Step Process For Power As vast as the power grid is, we can actually boil down how it works into three simple steps: - Energy creation - Energy conversion - Energy distribution The first step involves the production of energy through various generators. This can be done via a host of options, some of which are much cleaner than others: - Hydroelectric energy – this comes from water activating turbines to provide energy for people to use. Typically, water flows towards the turbines and pushes them, generating energy. - Wind energy – a highly popular renewable energy source, utilizing wind force to blow turbines and create energy. - Coal – one of the oldest energy sources the world has seen. It’s a fossil fuel, meaning it will pollute the atmosphere and isn’t renewable. However, burning coal is still used to create energy. - Nuclear power – perhaps the most complex way of producing energy. Nuclear power comes from breaking apart neutrons, causing a release of energy. It ends up producing steam, which powers a turbine and then becomes energy. Regardless of which process is chosen, this is how the power grid begins its process. Energy is created, and then we move to step number two. Here, the energy that’s produced is converted and ready to be distributed. The conversion process is highly complex, but it results in the energy being made into a high voltage. Effectively, this is electrical energy that can be sent to homes and businesses around the country. This is done in the generator stations as energy is produced. From here, transmission lines are used to take the electricity to properties. However, in its current state, the voltage is far too high for most properties to utilize. Therefore, transformers and special transmission towers are stationed to convert the high voltage to a more usable level. If these measures weren’t put in place, there would be too much power entering properties, leading to some serious consequences. Upon this conversion process, the electric energy is sent down other power lines straight to your property. From here, you can now use it to power all the different electrical appliances in your home. Effectively, that is how the power grid works! It begins with energy creation, then energy conversion, and finally distribution. At Generator Supercenter, we play a big role in this process, providing generators to help produce and store energy. If you’re interested in learning more about our solutions, feel free to contact us today.
Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical engineers or engineering geologists to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock around a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. This type of investigation is called a site investigation. Additionally, geotechnical investigations are also used to measure the thermal resistivity of soils or backfill materials required for underground transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines, radioactive waste disposal, and solar thermal storage facilities. A geotechnical investigation will include surface exploration and subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used to obtain data about sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves soil sampling and laboratory tests of the soil samples retrieved. Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical professional walking around on the site to observe the physical conditions at the site. To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form of subsurface exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining samples, and determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include test pits, trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring, and in situ tests.
Author: Alana Joli Abbott Exam Question Types Which test question type do you use: true or false? Multiple choice? Long-form essay? What is the best strategy for creating exam questions? When you’re designing an exam, consider what you want to be able to gauge in your college students’ knowledge in order to choose the best types of questions to measure their learning. There are benefits and disadvantages to any type of question, so consider these exam tips when deciding what teaching strategies to employ when you create your exam. Difficulty creating or difficulty grading? In McKeachie’s Teaching Tips, Fourteenth Edition, Wilbert J. McKeachie and Marilla Svnicki noted that exams have two pieces that are time-consuming for professors: construction and grading. “Unfortunately,” they wrote, “it appears to be generally true that the examinations that are easiest to construct are the most difficult to grade and vice versa” (McKeachie, 86). Multiple choice and true or false tests are certainly easy to grade and are tempting to offer to large classes due to the volume of tests being taken. But the knowledge you can gain about your college students’ learning can be limited by these forms: true or false questions, for example, give test takers a 50% chance of being right on any question. Multiple choice questions are better, but it can be difficult to construct questions that have plausible incorrect choices. They are also less geared toward accomplishing higher level goals, according to McKeachie and Svnicki, who recommend using “some essay questions, problems, or other items requiring analysis, integration, or application” (McKeachie, 86). Types of questions Advantages and Disadvantages of Types of Exam Questions - Multiple choice questions are versatile and require students to do little writing during the exam. But according to the “Designing Test Questions” exam tips guide from the UNC Charlotte Center for Teaching and Learning website, writing good multiple choice questions can be challenging. The team behind that article recommended creating a “single, clearly formulated problem” without any “extraneous words” for each question, as well as a number of other tips. - Well written problems, which tend to appear most in math and science disciplines, can show how much students understand the process of problem-solving, particularly when they are given credit primarily for showing their process rather than finding the correct answer. Problems that are too simplistic, however, may not show whether or not students actually understand the steps they are following or the formulas they are using. - Short-answer questions can measure student knowledge if they are limited and well-defined without just asking students to regurgitate facts. To emphasize critical thinking, you can ask students to make a hypothesis or solve a problem related to the course material. These answers require attention when grading and are best accompanied by comments rather than simple points during the grading process. - Essay questions are the easiest to design but hardest to grade. As one essay question takes college students a higher portion of their time, they are tested on less material. However, students study more efficiently for essay tests and are likely to study broadly if they don’t know the topic in advance. Reference: McKeachie, Wilbert J. and Marilla Svinicki. 2014. McKeachie’s Teaching Tips, 14th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
The main difference between import and export is that import refers to the purchase of the goods and services from other countries to the homeland while the export refers to selling goods and services from the home country to other countries. Import vs. Export Import is that formation of trade in which goods are acquired by a domestic company from other countries to sell them in the home market. On the other hand, export implies a dealing in which a company sells goods to other countries which manufactured domestically. Import is the process in which goods of the foreign country are brought to the home country, to resell them in the domestic market. Inversely, export implies the process of sending goods from the homeland to a foreign country for selling purpose. The main aim of import is to carry out the demand of goods and services that are lacking or not available in the domestic country while the main aim of export is to create more overseas income from the selling of domestic products and to increase the global presence of domestic products and services. Excessive import can hurt the domestic economy. On the other hand, excessive export can benefit the domestic economy since it increases the foreign income to the home country. What is Import? Imports are external products and services bought by a resident of a country. Residents consist of citizens, businesses, and authority. No matter what the imports are or how they consigned. They can be transported, sent by email, or even hand-carried in personal baggage on a plane. If they are originated in a foreign country and sold to home residents, they are imports. Import shows the bringing of foreign goods or services in another country, where the products will be processed, used, sold or exported. Generally, countries lean to import goods or services that they cannot produce at the same low cost or with the same capability that other countries can. Countries are most likely to import goods or services that their domestic industries cannot produce as efficiently or cheaply as the exporting country. Countries may also import raw materials or commodities that are not available within their borders. For example, many countries import oil because they cannot produce it domestically or cannot produce enough to meet demand. Free trade agreements and tariff schedules often dictate which goods and materials are less expensive to import. Imports are important for the nation’s economy because they allow a country to supply nonexistent, scarce, high cost or low quality of certain goods or services, to its market with products from other countries. A country needs an import when the price of the goods or services on the world market is less than the price on the domestic market. Many small businesses import items that cannot be made in other countries economically. There are two basic types of import. i.e, Industrial and consumer goods and Intermediate goods and services. What is Export? Exports are the products and services produced in one country and purchased by residents of another country. It doesn’t matter what the products or service is. If the goods are produced domestically and sold to someone in a foreign country, it is an export. Businesses export commodities and services where they have a require advantage. That means they are preferable than any other companies at given that product. They also export things that emulate the country’s comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantages in the products they have a natural ability to produce. Governments strengthen exports. Exports increase jobs, bring in higher wages, and increase the standard of comfort for residents. Many manufacturing firms began their global expansion as exporters and only later switched to another mode for serving a foreign market. Exports are an essential component of a country’s economy, as the sale of such goods adds to the producing nation’s gross output. It occurs on an international scale and is most common where nations have fewer trade restrictions such as taxes. Almost every large company in advanced economies extract a portion of dividends, sometimes quite substantial, from exporting to other countries. Exporting is one of the basics to help economies grow, and one of the key functions of foreign negotiation is the increase of trade between nations. Exporting is one way that businesses can vastly expand their potential market. There are many key results of exports which are; - Exports are one of the earliest forms of economic transfer and exist on a large scale among nations. - Exporting can boost sales and profits if they reach new markets, and they may even present an occasion to capture significant global market share. - Companies that export heavily typically exposed to a higher degree of financial risk. - Import appears, when domestic companies buy products abroad and bring them to a domestic country for sale while export appears when the domestic companies sell their products or services abroad. - The level of import directly turns to the exchange rate of the local currency; on the other hand, The level of export strictly connected with the exchange rate of local currency. - If your local currency is weak, then the import level decreases, and if your local currency is strong, then the export level decreases. - The main idea in the back of importing the goods from another country is to fulfill the demand for a particular product which is not present or in shortage in the home country. On the other hand, the elemental reason for exporting goods to another country is to increase the overall existence or market coverage. - Import at a high level shows a booming domestic demand, which indicates that the economy is growing. As against, the high level of export represents a trade surplus, which is good for overall growth of the economy. There are two courses to import/export products and services, wherein direct exporting/importing is one in which the firm access the overseas buyers/suppliers directly and completes all the constitutional formalities concerned with goods and financing. After all, in case of indirect exporting/importing the firms have very little assistance in the operations, rather mediators perform all the tasks and so in indirect exporting the firm has no direct interaction with the overseas customers in case of exports and suppliers in case of imports.
write the chemical equation for the reaction of propylamine, c3h7nh2 with water Anything that can be a Brønsted– Lowry base is a Lewis base. Unlike the Arrhenius interpretation, the Bronsted-Lowry meaning does not include water so this meaning is a little more universal than the Arrhenius definition. Find out to clarify the factors that interfere with equilibrium, such as concentration, temperature, as well as pressure. Discover how each of these factors influences a system in equilibrium. Learn just how to reveal the focus of a solution in regards to molarity, molality and mass percent. Discover the distinctions between an electrolyte and a nonelectrolyte. An unknown salt is either KBr, NH4Cl, KCN, or K2CO3. Lewis bases are “electron-rich” with single pairs to donate to the Lewis acid. Actually, this acid/base activity produces a covalent bond which is called a coordinate covalent bond. Write the chemical formula that represents the dissociation of TWO. Calculate Ka for formic acid at this temperature level. In oxyacids, in which an– OH is bonded to another atom, Y, the extra electronegative Y is, the extra acidic the acid. The better the worth of Ka, the stronger the acid. Find out just how vapor pressure and osmotic pressure are colligative properties. Water is, therefore, amphoteric meaning it can be both an acid and a base. In this video lesson, you will certainly find out how to inform if a salt option is acidic, fundamental, or neutral. You will certainly find out how to recognize the effect of private ions in service and also exactly how they can change the pH. A brief test will certainly evaluate your expertise. When an acid and a base incorporate, the item is most often water and a salt. Keep in mind that the word “strong” suggests total ionization. This lesson covers both strong and also weak acids and also bases, using human blood as an instance for the discussion. Various other ideas talked about included conjugate acids as well as bases, the level of acidity consistent, as well as buffer systems within the blood. Have you ever before wondered exactly how we gauge the acidity of liquids? Take a look at this lesson to see just how acids as well as bases are gauged on a pH scale as well as just how they associate with neutral solutions, such as water. On the stability 3 smore, polyprotic acids will be taken another look at referring to titration curves for these acids. Lewis acids generally are electron-poor with vacant orbitals ready for approving those electron pairs. Think shift metals with vacant d-orbitals and also boron and also H+. Stage diagrams provide scientists certain info regarding just how stage modifications occur at various stress and temperatures. This lesson examines stage representations, concentrating on water and also exactly how it’s a bit different from a lot of other compounds. Use the buildings of exponentials and also logarithms to learn just how carbon dating jobs. This lesson covers homes of a natural log and also guidelines of logarithms. Discover the meaning of solubility and also solubility consistent in this lesson.
Kids often develop misconceptions about concepts in mathematics, including addition. It is important to help them get over those misconceptions. The worksheet invites students to practice more on addition and complete double facts. This worksheet seeks to improve students’ understanding of the topic as they work with numbers within 10. Learners across 150+ Countries
\|Each and every one of us has some sort of digital interaction. Whether it’s with each other, or with news, media, data, and other online communities. This is especially common among students today.\| What is digital citizenship? According to ISTE standards, it is: “The quality of habits, actions, and consumption patterns that impact the ecology of digital content and communities.” Basically the regular and appropriate use of technology. Who is considered a digital citizen? Anyone using the internet regularly and productively. In this digital age, children are born digital citizens. They are grasping new developments way faster than we can hope to catch up. Their daily interaction with technology can be both beneficial and detrimental. As such, teaching students how to effectively use technology, both practically and ethically, will help them develop into good digital citizens. Key elements of understanding good digital citizenship: Keep in mind, digital citizenship is about much more than online safety, encouraging appropriate online behaviors or reviewing a list of dos and don’ts. It’s about turning digital users, like our students, into thoughtful, responsible and empathetic citizens in the world of digital integration and usage. Ultimately, teaching the important qualities of digital citizenship may even positively influence student behaviors outside of the class, thereby shaping a much better community. \|Did you find this article helpful? Could it be useful for someone you know? Forward it to a friend or colleague.\| \|Technology has become ubiquitous with youth today. As they grow up, the more crucial it becomes to teach them good digital citizenship skills.\| This can be a complex task to manage, but it’s also where your Aimee page comes in handy. Whether you’re inside or outside of class, Aimee helps you:Facilitate empathetic and productive connections among your studentsEncourage student reflection on their experiencesCollaborate on projects and share feedbackShare reliable and credible online resources \|Have some time to spare? Here’s a quick video straight from the chairman of ISTE on how to rethink digital citizenship.\| This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed.
Stone Age Ireland Stone Age Ireland Natural landscapes are the product of geological, climactic and biological processes operating independently of human influence. The cultural landscape shows the works of humans over long periods of time continually changing as technological advances occur. The farmlands resulted from clearance of natural forest vegetation. Human beings introduced the raw materials of farming, the cereals and animals, at a very early period in the history of human occupancy and used natural materials for economic and social ends. Human structures of rocks, soil and plants are distinctive. They planted woodlands to beautify the landscape, to supply timber, to provide windbreaks or as habitat for game. These artificial features make up the cultural landscape and form a continuous layer over the natural environment. Ireland was not often in the main stream of European history and experienced major continental developments in a weakened form because it is an island on the Atlantic edge of Europe. The skills and ways of life found in more central or urbanized areas are absent in western Ireland. The peripheral position preserves some of the older customs. The colonists who came to Ireland towards the end of the 4th millennium BC found a thickly wooded environment. Neolithic or New Stone Age is when settled farming communities first began to emerge as human activity. Neolithic farming was already at a fairly sophisticated level with land divided into fields just as it is today. They cleared extensive tracts of over 1,000 acres of forest, divided into areas over a mile in length and were then sub-divided into fields of 5 to 15 acres. The principal tool used by farmers was the polished stone axe. The newcomers sought light, well drained soils which they could clear of timber. The lowland woods of oak, hazel, elm and elder were more difficult. In places in the west of Ireland today where most fields lie below the 500 foot contour, Neolithic fields extend over the summits of 800 foot high hills, altitude obviously having no effect on settlement. The mainstay of the economy was cattle, pigs, sheep and goats. Small quantities of wheat and barley grew. An ard is a simple wooden plough. The marks left by such a plough in the Ceide Fields area represent the earliest evidence of the use of the ard in the country. Circular or rectangular houses have been uncovered. These farming peoples set posts into the ground with cross beams fitted on top, then they mounted the rafters of a low pitched roof. The walls were probably made of an interwoven arrangement of wattles which formed a frame work for a plaster of mud and straw. The roofing material is likely to have been of thatch. Lengthy occupation is indicated in some places by the erection of dwelling houses, permanent field enclosures and by the continued use of large communal tombs in favored locations. Today these burial sites are referred to as megalithic tombs and are one of the principal surviving remains indicative of the Stone Age settlers. The development of blanket bog is often linked with exploitation of the environment by Neolithic people and the removal of the ancient forests together with changes in the climate. Over-grazing and absence of forest cover led to the leaching of the mineral soils and increased acidity forming a suitable environment for the growth of peat. Today much archaeological material is preserved beneath a blanket of peat which has grown up around the prehistoric landscape. Such remains are often uncovered during turf cutting when the fossilized tree stumps of ancient forests may also come to light. Submitted by CelticKnot, from trip to Ireland On to the Bronze Age Back to the Guide, © 1998-2000 Fianna Webmaster Team Last modified Monday, 10-Sep-2018 17:03:13 MDT This page hosted by Rootsweb
Litcharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in the color purple, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work the novel takes place in two distinct settings—rural georgia and a remote african village—both suffused with problems of race and racism. The color purple character analysis essays: over 180,000 the color purple character analysis essays, the color purple character analysis term papers, the color purple character analysis research paper, book reports 184 990 essays, term and research papers available for unlimited access. Were the color purple to be released today steven spielberg might respond to all the flak by quoting the poet ali g: is it because i is black for the color purple is spielberg's black film the. Essay outline: trudier harris's 1984 essays the color purple is that is the color purple dialect in alice walkers epistolary novel, and contrast novel mirroring scenes in literary criticism on color purple study guide contains a book by alice walker. The color purple is a book by alice walker the color purple study guide contains a biography of alice walker, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and an. Further study test your knowledge of the color purple with our quizzes and study questions, or go further with essays on the context and background and links to the best resources around the web. The color purple essay back next writer's block can be painful, but we'll help get you over the hump and build a great outline for your paper. Analysis of the color purple essays alice walker's depiction of a southern black woman in the novel the color purple was the most powerful i've ever read in my life one reason this was so was because walker applied a variety of literary devices to the story, giving it more of an impact. The color purple represents all the good things in the world that god creates for men and women to enjoy at the beginning of the book, you could say that celie has no sense of the color purple sh the book begins about 30 years before world war ii it covers the first half of the 20th century. The paper shows the distinct differences between film and the literature that inspired both versions of the color purple, differences unique to each different media that yield very different effects upon the reader and upon the viewers of walker's tale. Explain the relationship between the color of purple and the feeling of beauty 12 examine the effect of two arranged marriages — celie's to albert, and albert's to annie julia — and the consequences of each of them. Literary analysis: the color purple essay 1388 words 6 pages there are numerous works of literature that recount a story- a story from which inspiration flourishes, providing a source of liberating motivation to its audience, or a story that simply aspires to touch the hearts and souls of all of those who read it. View essay - the color purple essay from engl 100 at loyola marymount university couch 1 overcoming obstacles on average, more than three women are murdered by their significant others each day. Alice walker's the color purple weaves an intricate mosaic of women joined by their love for each other, the men who abuse them, and the children they care for in the first few letters, celie tells god that she has been raped by her father and that she is pregnant for the second time with his child. An escape from abuse violence is ever present in alice walker's the color purple and it plays a strong role in the development of the characters rooted in the rural south, women are subject to a harsh reality where they are victims of cruelty from their husbands and fathers. I thesis statement: in the color purple, characters who wish to protect others from harm make clothes for them clothes become a symbol of protection because the making of clothes is an act of. 'the color purple is the story of the growth and development of the central character from an uneducated, abused teenager to an accomplished woman who learns, with the help of a strong and supportive female sisterhood, to stand up for herself and cope with hostile surroundings by the end of the novel, celie is a mature adult in charge of a. The color purple essay - leave behind those sleepless nights working on your essay with our academic writing assistance composing a custom paper means go through a lot of steps let the professionals do your essays for you. Free color purple essays: recognition and equality in the color purple - recognition and equality in the color purple the book, the color purple, by alice walker is a good example on how over the years women have been making remarkable strides towards achieving success, recognition and equality. The color purple is an epistolary novel ie it is written as a series of documents, the usual form is letters this technique allows celie to speak for herself she also gets to structure her identity and her sense of self by writing her letters. The color purple is a saga of success despite adversity through the victims' grit and determination this post explain how to deal with the book in essays. The color purple by alice walker essay sample the color purple, alice walkers' 1982 prizewinning novel (pulitzer and american book awards), became so popular after it was published that it soon became a film directed by stephen spielberg. The color purple essay one of the most widely known and false stereotypes is that women belong in the kitchen, and men are suppose to make the money in the color purple, by alice walker, there are some main characters that prove this stereotype wrong. In african-american texts, blacks are seen as struggling with the patriarchal worlds they live in order to achieve a sense of self and identity. In alice walker's the color purple, many emotions are evoked within the story many themes and character qualities are suggested through the use of symbolism we will write a custom essay sample on significance of color in the color purple or any similar topic specifically for you do not wasteyour time hire writer one of [. Alright, well i have to write a paper over the color purple i need to write my paper over one of the themes in the novel i was wondering if anyone could make me a small outline over a theme in the color purple. S e c t i o n o n e introduction the life and work of alice walker alice walker is one of the most famous and beloved writers of our time, and this is largely due to the novel the color purple.
- What is the difference between AC load line and DC load line? - What is Q point of a diode? - Why do ships have multiple load lines? - What is the difference between line and load? - What is a load line certificate? - How do you find the Q load and DC load line? - What is the DC load line of a transistor? - What is the importance of load line? - What is meant by Q Point? - What is Load Line and Q point? - What is meant by operating point? - What is meant by stability and Q point? What is the difference between AC load line and DC load line? If this load line is drawn only when DC biasing is given to the transistor, but no input signal is applied, then such a load line is called as DC load line. Whereas the load line drawn under the conditions when an input signal along with the DC voltages are applied, such a line is called as an AC load line.. What is Q point of a diode? Q point or the operating point of a device, also known as a bias point, or quiescent point is the steady-state DC voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active device such as a diode or transistor with no input signal applied. Why do ships have multiple load lines? There are many reasons why shipowners choose to have more than one load-lines on their ships. For example at some ports, the port dues are based upon the deadweight. And if the ship has not loaded to the maximum capacity the shipowner would want to reduce their port dues. What is the difference between line and load? With the first device, the line is the wire running from the service panel to the device, and the load is the wire running from the first device to the second device downstream on the circuit. … The load side is where the power leaves the device (or electrical box) and travels down the circuit. What is a load line certificate? Load line certificate certifies that vessel complies with the loadline convention. Loadline convention basically limits the ships on the minimum freeboard it needs to maintain. How do you find the Q load and DC load line? The collector short-circuit current will simply be IC = Vth/Rth. And the open-circuit voltage will simply be Vce = Vth. These two points establish the load-line. The Q-point is determined by where the transistor v-i characteristic intersects the DC load-line. What is the DC load line of a transistor? The DC load represents the desirable combinations of the collector current and the collector-emitter voltage. It is drawn when no signal is given to the input, and the transistor becomes bias. What is the importance of load line? The purpose of the load line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard (the height from the waterline to the main deck) and thus sufficient reserve buoyancy (volume of ship above the waterline). It should also ensure adequate stability and avoid excessive stress on the ship’s hull as a result of overloading. What is meant by Q Point? The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is the DC voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active device (a transistor or vacuum tube) with no input signal applied. What is Load Line and Q point? The DC load line is the load line of the DC equivalent circuit, defined by reducing the reactive components to zero (replacing capacitors by open circuits and inductors by short circuits). It is used to determine the correct DC operating point, often called the Q point. What is meant by operating point? The operating point is a specific point within the operation characteristic of a technical device. This point will be engaged because of the properties of the system and the outside influences and parameters. In electronic engineering establishing an operating point is called biasing. What is meant by stability and Q point? This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. … The operating point should not get disturbed as it should remain stable to achieve faithful amplification. Hence the quiescent point or Q-point is the value where the Faithful Amplification is achieved.
In this multi-part project, we will explore various aspects of pattern design, including: - Formal elements such as shape and color - Creative and cultural motivations - Technical tools - Practical and creative applications for the patterns we make We will walk through an intensive creative process together as a class, with foundational exercises that will help you find motivations for your work and get situated in Adobe Illustrator, the program we will use for our final designs. We will also explore some hands-on printing to better familiarize ourselves with the behavior of color and the possibilities offered by working with physical materials. Ultimately, you will develop a final pattern design using the pattern-making options in Illustrator. Show that you tried at least two different color schemes for pattern design (save different swatches): Do different color combinations make the pattern appear different? Finally, you should be able to articulate clear motivations for your final design, explaining why specific color and shape relationships are tied to the creative or cultural ideas that motivated your work. Can you show a real world application for the pattern you have designed in your final presentation? As we introduce each new part of this project, information will be provided below: Part 1: Textural Inspiration Due Tuesday, 8/29 Read the Texture and Pattern chapters from your textbook, “Graphic Design: The New Basics”. Write down the defining characteristics of each of these two design principles, and think about how they relate to one another. For example, the Texture chapter talks about “virtual” versus “physical” texture. Do we also have virtual and physical examples of pattern? What are they? Once you have reflected on your reading, start to notice and collect digital photographs of texture from your real-world, material environment. It is fine to use a phone camera. Look for a variety of types of texture, and take at least 10 different images. Put the images on your thumbdrive (labeled with your first and last name and DTC336) and bring them to class on Tuesday, 8/29. We will create your first blog post on this day. Tips for taking good photos: - Try to fill the frame of the camera with the texture - Hold the camera on a parallel plane with the texture - Hold the camera very still while you take the picture - If possible, take pictures in good lighting conditions – – – – – Part 2: Color Schemes & Shapes Due Tuesday, 9/12 In this activity we will refresh / introduce our familiarity with the Illustrator workspace and begin exploring digital use of color and shape. The basic explorations we make here will inform and enable both digital and hands-on pattern making activities. - Watch How To Get Started With Adobe Illustrator CC – 10 Things Beginners Want To Know How To Do and read pgs 111-132 from Using Color in Illustrator. - Make a new Illustrator document that contains three 8.5 x 11-inch artboards. - On the first artboard, create some custom shapes (try to use the pen tool and accompanying tools to create them) that you think might be interesting to use in your pattern design. Fill these shapes with black for now, no stroke. Are the shapes organic or geometric? Are they inspired by anything? Explain. - On the second artboard, place the textural images you took for the second week of classes using File > Place. Resize them so they fit neatly on the page. Make sure they are embedded, not linked. Are there any color scheme ideas that you can draw from these images? Sample possible colors from these photos and save them as swatches and put them in color groups that have specific descriptive names in the Swatches panel. Why do you think these colors will work well or be meaningful in a pattern design? - On the third artboard, present three different color schemes (three to six colors in each) that you think might be interesting to use in pattern designs. Show the color schemes as a series of squares or rectangles that touch edge-to-edge. Give each scheme a name, save the colors as swatches, and put them in color groups with corresponding names in the Swatches panel. You may use color ideas from your photos, but you should also consider using the other tools from your reading, such as the Color Guide panel and Kuler. What tools did you use most to develop your color schemes? What does each separate scheme represent for you? Explain. - Copy your first artboard and assign your shapes various colors from the three color schemes you developed. Does assigning color change the way you perceive or think about the shape? - Save the Illustrator file as “yourlastname-colorschemes.ai” and turn it in on your thumbdrive next class with your answers to the questions posed above (here is the PDF to the answer sheet). – – – – – Part 3: Exploring Illustrator’s Pattern Options Due Thursday, 9/14 Now you should be at least somewhat familiar with the Illustrator workspace, including drawing basic vector-based shapes, assigning fill colors, and saving custom colors. You also should have some ideas about how color works and is used by artists and designers from Design Elements, Color Fundamentals: A Graphic Style Manual for Understanding How Color Affects Design. Before we get our hands dirty with color, we will do some preliminary exploration of Illustrator’s Pattern Options tool so that we’ll be better prepared for the final phase of this project, Digital Pattern Development. - Read the final pages from Using Color in Illustrator (135-142), which explains how to use the Pattern Options panel in Illustrator. - Create a pattern using the Pattern Options panel. You may use only one shape in your pattern, but you may repeat it, overlap it, and rotate it as much as you want within a single tile. Use one of the color schemes you developed for last time. If you assign a background color (recommended), you may use one additional shape because you will need that to fill the background of the tile (see your reading). Save this pattern as a swatch and name it. - Save the first pattern as a copy with a new name. Keep the organization of the pattern the same, but change just one of the colors from your scheme in all instances of the pattern. Explain how the new version illustrates the Bezold Effect you read about for today (pg. 25). Write your response on the answer sheet you filled in for Part 2: Color Schemes & Shapes. - Make two additional artboards in your “yourlastname-colorschemes.ai” file and fill each one with your two new patterns. (Just draw a rectangle to fill the artboard and assign the appropriate swatch.) Save the file. You will turn the file in on your thumbdrive on Thursday, 9/14. – – – – – Part 4: Hands-On Pattern Development Due Thursday, 9/21Spending time with actual pigment and other physical materials may give you added inspiration for what is possible in digital design. At the very least, it will make you appreciate how powerful the Pattern Options panel is in Illustrator. In this part of the project, you will print a pattern by hand using a custom stencil and watercolor or gouache paint. You will manually tile your shape onto paper, using an underlying grid of lines along with rules of your choosing for repeating, overlapping, and rotating your stencil shape. Imperfections that come with hand-made work might also prove inspirational when you return to the computer to design your final patterns. Materials will be provided in class but you will need to spend time on this at home as well. Follow these guidelines: - Decide on a custom shape for your stencil. (You may cut more than one if there is enough available acetate. Avoid cutting shapes that have extremely skinny parts: these will be harder to get paint through.) Is your shape inspired by anything specific? Is it organic, with irregularities, or is it more geometric, with regularized measurements? Why? - Decide on an underlying grid system of lines that will help dictate where you position your shape(s) on the paper. Draw these lines—horizontal, vertical and/or diagonal—very lightly in pencil on your paper. - Print your pattern in at least two phases using two different hues, allowing the paint to dry in between phases. You may use additional phases and apply additional colors if you have access to more paint. Your shapes may overlap and rotate, but make sure you have a system you are following that uses your grid as a guide. - Fill your whole page with the pattern. - Slight transparency of the watercolor or gouache may lead to interesting interactions between colors. Adding more water when you mix paint can help with transparency, but too much water will make your paper overly soggy. Do the best you can to be consistent as you print your stencil. There will be some irregularities and the edges of your shape may bleed outside the edges of the stencil slightly. Try to embrace imperfections. Here are images of the demo we did in class: – – – – – Part 5: Digital Pattern Development This is the final phase of the pattern design project. Use the technical tools and creative concepts we’ve discussed and practiced to devise, plan, and execute an original digital pattern design with clear purpose and inspiration. Shapes, colors, and their organization will have different meanings for different groups of viewers. Make sure to consider how psychology, symbolism, emotion, culture, and place affect your perceptions as well as the perceptions others may have of your final design(s). You will use the Illustrator workspace to design your pattern(s) and present your creative process, as you did in Parts 2 and 3 above. You must create at least two pattern designs using the Pattern Options panel in Illustrator. Each pattern design should explore and present itself in two different color schemes, which you should save as Color Groups in the Swatches panel. You may also design additional or accompanying patterns if you are feeling ambitious or if your concept requires it. Guidelines for Part 5: Inspiration & Purpose. Why are you creating this pattern? What is it inspired by? What does it represent to you? What might it represent to others? And how will it be used once it has been created? Make sure you have specific answers to these questions, and be creative about where you draw your inspiration from. Are there real world sources that you are working from? If so, can you document them? Or is your inspiration more intangible, like an idea or a story or a song? How will the intangible become tangible? How will you know what shapes and color schemes to use? You will write about your process and your decisions for Blog 3: Pattern Design Reflection. Creative Process. Use Illustrator not just to create your final designs using the Pattern Options panel, but also to document your creative process. You may curate your process on a series of artboards, showing potential color schemes, shapes, and reference photos before you present your final patterns. One artboard should show your tiles on their own, before they are tiled into pattern, so viewers can get a sense of how you created them. Ambition Level. Ambition level will contribute to your final grade on this project. Patterns that use greater complexity in their organization (overlapping and orientation of shapes) and in their color schemes (more colors, 4-6, will lead to more opportunities for visual difference when the color scheme is modified, as with the Bezold Effect). Your demonstration of your inspiration(s) for your pattern(s) and the potential uses will also be considered for ambition level. How can you show potential uses of your pattern in your Illustrator document or in your Pattern Design Reflection blog post? Technical Specifications. As in Part 3 above, design your pattern(s) using the Pattern Options panel, using your Using Color in Illustrator reading as a guide. Make sure to: - Make sure your AI file is in CMYK and has high resolution raster effects (when you set up the document). - Curate your creative process on a series of well-organized artboards. - Save the color schemes you use in your patterns as Color Groups in the Swatches panel. Give them descriptive names. - Save each pattern design and color variation as a separate swatch with a descriptive name. - Apply a background color to your tile so it appears in your swatch. Don’t add a background color separately. - Present each pattern design and color variation on that design as a full 8.5 x 11-inch artboard (draw a rectangle to fill the artboard and fill it with the appropriate swatch). - Name your file “yourlastname-patterndesign.ai” and save it to your thumbdrive to hand in on Tuesday, 10/3. - Also, make color prints of all your artboards to hand in on Tuesday, 10/3. - Complete Blog 3: Pattern Design Reflection before you hand in this project. You will use this blog post to present your work for critique so at minimum, post your final pattern designs (you can export them from Illustrator as jpgs to post). – – – – – Organic/Geometric from “Design Elements: A Graphic Style Manual” Whitescapes – Odili Donald Odita, The Art Assignment, PBS
In the early childhood world, there are many theories of play. In this post, we will be exploring three of these theories: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory, and Mildred Parten’s Social Behaviour Theory. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner examined how environment influences contribute to a child’s play. He focused on five environmental systems during the first five years of a child’s life. The five environmental systems include: The child’s family influences children’s play. The relationships and interactions between the educator and family influence children’s play. Policies in early childhood influence children’s play. A child’s community, culture and beliefs influence children’s play. The environment and timing of events influence children’s play. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Jean Piaget focused on the cognitive development of children, which means the way children process information and problem solve. Cognitive development refers to reasoning, thinking and understanding. Cognitive development is important for knowledge growth. The cognitive domain includes: cause-and-effect, spatial relationships, problem-solving, imitation, memory, number sense, classification, and symbolic play. Children participate in three distinct stages of play: Age: Birth to age 2 Children use simple and repetitive movements with objects, people and sounds during play. For example, shaking shakers during music time. They are using their senses and physical abilities to move around and explore their environment. Age: 2 to 7 Children begin to express themselves using their imagination and curiosity, and take on roles of various things during play. For example, pretending to be a firefighter putting out a fire using a stick found outside in the playground. Children are beginning to imitate actions and language of others that are around them. Games with Rules Age: school-aged children Children negotiate the rules before they engage in a play experience or activity. For example, playing hide and seek. Children are collaborating and cooperating with others. Mildred Parten’s Social Behaviour Theory Mildred Parten examined play from a social behaviour perspective. She identified that play progresses through a series of stages, through five types of play: Children play independently and alone during play experiences and activities. There is a limited amount or no interaction with other children or materials that another child may be playing with. Children begin to either play independently or beside or across from other peers – they do not play with others. Children begin to share play materials and participate in similar activities of others around them. Children participate in group play, collaborating with one another and work toward a common goal. For example, creating a building with blocks and each child takes on different roles to build it. Cooperative play emerges in the early preschool years. Children are not engaged in play and wander around play areas without a purpose. They may follow others while engaged in their own behaviour. For example, hair twirling and getting on and off of chairs. Children observe other children or adults in play but do not become involved in the play. The child sits or stands within speaking distance of another child. Children may use this strategy to make suggestions, ask questions, learn about materials or determine how they may participate in a play experience. They do not enter into the play of others. Play is an important part of children’s learning and development. All these theories are focused on children’s play through: examining how the environment influences child’s play (e.g. family), how children process and problem solve during play (e.g. symbolic/dramatic play), and how children’s play happens through a series of stages (e.g. parallel play). If you’re an early childhood educator, HiMama can help you keep track of children’s progress through play and share these moments with parents! Use the form below to get in touch and we’d love to show you how we can make an impact at your centre. Embed This Infographic On Your Site (copy code below) <div><a href=”https://blog.himama.com/uncommon-play-theories/” title=”3 Uncommon Theories of Play You Might Not Know About” alt=”3 Uncommon Theories of Play You Might Not Know About” border=”0″/><img src=”https://blog.himama.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/3-uncommon-theories-of-play-you-might-not-know-about.jpg\” /></a><br/><br/><div> Courtesy of: <a href=”https://www.himama.com/”>Himama</a></div></div>
In a living body, usually, the tissues, cells, organs carry out different functions that ensure the survival of the being.Thus in chapter 7 of class 11 biology textbook, students learn about how these different parts work. Students will also examine living things like cockroach, frog and earthworm and understand their anatomy. To make the chapter less complicated and confusing we are providing CBSE notes for structural organization in animals chapter 7 biology here. These notes can be a very useful study tool from an examination point of view. With these notes, students can clear their doubts and understand the concepts in an easy manner. Furthermore, students can have a thorough revision of the entire chapter before the exams. Students can also check out links given below to excel in the subject of Biology for class 11th. \|NCERT solution for class 11th Structural Organisation in Animal\| \|Important Question for class 11th Structural Organisation in Animal\| Structural Organisation In Animals Class 11 Notes – Questions - What is a tissue? - State the types of tissues and how are they classified? - What is epithelial tissue? State the types. - What is compound epithelium? State its functions. - Explain the various types of muscle tissue. - What are uricotelic organisms? Provide an example. - What is spermatheca? Where are they found? - What are Malpighian tubules and state their function. - Where is the nephridia found and how many types exists? - Illustrate an earthworm’s reproductive organs with labels. - State the components of blood. - What are axons and where is it found? \|NCERT Solutions for class 11 Biology Chapter 7\| \|NCERT Exemplar for class 11 Biology Chapter 7\| To learn more concepts or explore important questions about Structural Organisation In Animals Class 11, register at BYJU’S.
- Can bacteria survive in cold temperatures? - Which bacteria can survive at low temperatures? - Do low temperatures kill bacteria? - Why does bacteria grow better in warm temperatures? - Why do hospitals keep it so cold? - Can bacteria grow in hot temperatures? - At which temperature does bacteria die? - Does frost kill viruses? - Can bacteria grow below 0 degrees? - Will bacteria grow below 41 degrees? - At what temperature do germs die? - Does bacteria grow in warm temperatures? - What multiplies most rapidly in the temperature danger zone? - What bacteria can survive boiling water? - What effect does low temperature have on bacteria? - What happens to bacteria at different temperatures? - Do viruses die in the cold? - What temperature does bacteria grow quickest at? - Why does bacteria grow better in the dark? - What temperature is required to kill spores? - Can time affect how much bacteria grow? Can bacteria survive in cold temperatures? Most extremophiles are microorganisms. These include fungi, algae, bacteria and especially archaea. Extremophiles that live at extremely low temperatures are called “psychrophiles”. Some microbes can survive in the coldest region on Earth.. Which bacteria can survive at low temperatures? Psychrophiles or cryophiles (adj. psychrophilic or cryophilic) are extremophilic organisms that are capable of growth and reproduction in low temperatures, ranging from −20 °C to +10 °C. They are found in places that are permanently cold, such as the polar regions and the deep sea. Do low temperatures kill bacteria? The low temperatures cause a delay in chemical reactions in food, which results in slowing down or causing bacteria to become dormant. The bacteria are still alive but they stop growing or producing toxins so in effect pausing reactions. Why does bacteria grow better in warm temperatures? Bacteria, single celled eukaryotes and other microbes, can only live and reproduce within a certain range of environmental conditions. … As the temperature increases, molecules move faster, enzymes speed up metabolism and cells rapidly increase in size. Why do hospitals keep it so cold? Hospitals combat bacteria growth with cold temperatures. Keeping cold temperatures help slow bacterial and viral growth because bacteria and viruses thrive in warm temperatures. Operating rooms are usually the coldest areas in a hospital to keep the risk of infection at a minimum. Can bacteria grow in hot temperatures? Bacteria can live in hotter and colder temperatures than humans, but they do best in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that is pH neutral or low acid. There are exceptions: some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold. some can survive under highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. At which temperature does bacteria die? Bacteria multiply rapidly between 40 and 140 degrees. Bacteria will not multiply but may start to die between 140 and 165 degrees. Bacteria will die at temperatures above 212 degrees. 2.3: How to Take Food Temperatures Know how to get an accurate reading with your thermometer! Does frost kill viruses? Unfortunately, cold air does not kill germs. Different viruses have different properties, but in general, viruses are very durable organisms that can survive freezing temperatures, according to Edward Bilsky, Ph. Can bacteria grow below 0 degrees? Does Freezing Destroy Bacteria & Parasites? Freezing to 0 °F inactivates any microbes — bacteria, yeasts and molds — present in food. Once thawed, however, these microbes can again become active, multiplying under the right conditions to levels that can lead to foodborne illness. Will bacteria grow below 41 degrees? According to ServSafe recommendations, food temperatures between 41 and 135 degrees Fahrenheit represent this danger zone. Bacteria can multiply at any temperature within the danger zone, but temperatures between 70 and 125 degrees Fahrenheit provide the most hospitable environment for bacteria to thrive. At what temperature do germs die? 140 degrees FahrenheitHot temperatures can kill most germs — usually at least 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Most bacteria thrive at 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, which is why it’s important to keep food refrigerated or cook it at high temperatures. Freezing temperatures don’t kill germs, but it makes them dormant until they are thawed. Does bacteria grow in warm temperatures? To survive and reproduce, bacteria need time and the right conditions: food, moisture, and a warm temperature. Most pathogens grow rapidly at temperatures above 40°F. The ideal temperature for bacterial growth is between 40 and 140°F – what FSIS calls the “Danger Zone.” What multiplies most rapidly in the temperature danger zone? “Danger Zone” (40 °F – 140 °F) Bacteria grow most rapidly in the range of temperatures between 40 °F and 140 °F, doubling in number in as little as 20 minutes. This range of temperatures is often called the “Danger Zone.” Never leave food out of refrigeration over 2 hours. What bacteria can survive boiling water? Although, some bacterial spores not typically associated with water borne disease are capable of surviving boiling conditions (e.g. clostridium and bacillus spores), research shows that water borne pathogens are inactivated or killed at temperatures below boiling (212°F or 100°C). What effect does low temperature have on bacteria? At temperatures below their optimum for growth microorganisms will become increasingly unable to sequester substrates from their environment because of lowered affinity, exacerbating the anyway near-starvation conditions in many natural environments. What happens to bacteria at different temperatures? Generally,an increase in temperature will increase enzyme activity. But if temperatures get too high, enzyme activity will diminish and the protein (the enzyme) will denature. … Every bacterial species has specific growth temperature requirements which is largely determined by the temperature requirements of its enzymes. Do viruses die in the cold? Research suggests that these viruses may survive and reproduce more effectively at colder temperatures, making it easier for them to spread and infect more people. Cold weather may also reduce the immune response and make it harder for the body to fight off germs. What temperature does bacteria grow quickest at? Temperature: Most bacteria will grow rapidly between 4°C and 60°C (40°F and 140°F). This is referred to as the danger zone (see the section below for more information on the danger zone). Time: Bacteria require time to multiply. Why does bacteria grow better in the dark? In the light, both strains of bacteria take in more organic carbon, including sugars, metabolize them faster. In the dark, those functions are reduced, and the bacteria increase protein production and repair, making and fixing the machinery needed to grow and divide. What temperature is required to kill spores? Most yeasts and molds are heat-sensitive and destroyed by heat treatments at temperatures of 140-160°F (60-71°C). Some molds make heat-resistant spores, however, and can survive heat treatments in pickled vegetable products. Can time affect how much bacteria grow? Each type of bacteria has its own preferred conditions for growth. Under ideal conditions, many types of bacteria can double every 20 minutes. Potentially, one bacteria can multiply to more than 30,000 in five hours and to more than 16 million in eight hours.
At St. Michael’s, we follow the UK Primary Framework for Mathematics. This framework underpins the majority of teaching of Mathematics at this school as it is considered to lay a strong foundation for future competency. From Years One to Six, St. Michael’s International School views Mathematics as a core subject and teaches a hierarchy of skills and concepts under the following subject areas: 1- Using and applying mathematics 2- Counting and understanding number 3- Knowing and using number facts 5- Understanding shape 7- Handling data These seven areas (or strands) are taken from the UK Primary Framework for Mathematics. This framework underpins the majority of teaching of Mathematics at this school as it is considered to lay a strong foundation for future competency. Children deepen their understanding of mathematics through exploring practical real-life applications, linked where possible to other aspects of the curriculum. The use of technology is built into Mathematics teaching where appropriate, with chromebooks, iPads and class Smart Board being used during Mathematics Lessons. Children are taught strategies to effectively complete calculations and to solve problems. Milepost One Expectations The curriculum is planned so that skills can be developed and mastered as a child progresses through our school. Below are the learning expectations for Year 1 and 2 - Learners investigate, develop and use abstract tools such as logical reasoning and problem solving. They develop their knowledge and understanding of mathematics through practical activities, exploration and discussion. Topics covered include calculating, counting and understanding number, handling data, knowing and using number, measuring, understanding shape and using and applying mathematics. - The principal focus of mathematics teaching in Milepost One is to ensure that pupils develop confidence and mental fluency with whole numbers, counting and place value. An emphasis on practice at this early stage will aid fluency. - Children will work with numerals, words and addition and subtraction, including doubling and halving, including with practical resources. - Children should develop their ability to recognise, describe, draw, compare and sort different shapes and use the related vocabulary. - Teaching should involve using a range of measures to describe and compare different quantities such as length, mass, capacity, time and money. - Children can draw diagrams and graphs to represent information and answer simple questions about them. - By the end of Year 2, pupils should know the number bonds to 20 and be precise in using and understanding place value in hundreds, tens and units. Children will also be able to recount their 2, 5 and 10 times tables. - Pupils should read and spell mathematical vocabulary, at a level consistent with their increasing word reading and spelling knowledge in Milepost One. Milepost Two & Three Expectations In Years 3 – Year 6 children begin to use the number system more confidently. They move from counting reliably to calculating fluently with all four number operations. They always try to tackle a problem with mental methods before using any other approach. Children explore features of shape and space and develop their measuring skills in a range of contexts. They discuss and present their methods and reasoning using a wider range of mathematical language, diagrams and charts. The curriculum is planned so that skills can be developed and mastered as a child progresses through our school. Below are the learning expectations for a child in year 5 and 6: - Learners investigate, develop and use abstract tools such as logical reasoning and problem solving. They also develop their knowledge, skills and understanding of mathematics through practical activities, exploration and discussion. Topics covered include mental maths, numbers, shapes, space and measurements as well as data collection and processing. Amongst a range of available resources and teacher expertise, a commercial scheme, involving the use of technology in mathematics is used to guide learning and teaching. - The principal focus of mathematics teaching in year 5 and 6 is to ensure that children extend their understanding of the number system and place value to include larger integers. This should develop the connections that children make between multiplication and division with fractions, decimals, percentages and ratio. - At this stage, children should develop their ability to solve a wider range of problems, including increasingly complex properties of numbers and arithmetic, and problems demanding efficient written and mental methods of calculation. - With this foundation in arithmetic, children use the language of algebra more explicitly, as a means for solving a variety of problems. - Teaching in geometry and measures should consolidate and extend knowledge developed in number. - Teaching should also ensure that children classify shapes with increasingly complex geometric properties and that they learn the vocabulary they need to describe them. - Children should read, spell and pronounce mathematical vocabulary correctly.
Time Tangled Island: Aztec Empire Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes by Beth Rowen Aztec sun stone Try our Aztec Empire Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts - The Aztecs ruled what is now Mexico from about 1428 to 1521. - Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City) was the capital of the Aztec empire. - The Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan stood about 197 feet (60 meters) high. A shrine to the god Huitzilopochtli sat atop the Great Pyramid. It was the site of both sacrifices and festivals. - The Aztecs made important developments in engineering, architecture, art, math, and astronomy. - The Aztecs used two calendars: a 260-day cycle for rituals and a 365-day cycle for the civil year. The Aztec sun stone is 12 feet in diameter and shows both calendars. It is one of the most famous sculptures from the Aztec Empire. - Montezuma ruled the Aztecs from about 1502–1520. He was a brutal ruler, and his reign was known for continuous warfare. - The Aztecs worshipped many gods, including Huitzilopochtli. He was the Aztec's primary god, and the god of the sun and of war. - Hernán Cortés, along with 500 Spaniards, arrived in Mesoamerica in 1519 and found the region rich in gold. He captured Montezuma and forced him to pledge allegiance to the king of Spain. - Cacao beans were used as currency in the Aztec Empire. - Nahuatl was the native language of the Aztecs. Dialects of it are still spoken in rural areas of Mexico. The words avocado, chocolate, and tomato are derived from Nahuatl. - More from World History - Did you know? - For more than a billion Muslims around the world, Ramadan is a "month of blessing" marked by prayer, fasting, and charity.
WRITING RESEARCH ESSAYS A GUIDE FOR STUDENTS OF ALL NATIONS - PART ONE Table of Contents Topic Selection and Analysis Should you use the Words of Others? PowerPoint related to this site: See the author's books for students: Research Strategies: Finding your Way through the Information Fog (2014) and Beyond the Answer Sheet: Academic Success for International Students (2003). The research essay is a common assignment in higher education. The concept of the research essay at first appears simple: - Choose a topic - Do research on the topic - Write an essay based on your research But it is really not simple at all. International students often are very disappointed when they receive their first essay back from a professor. The comments may include: - "No research question" - "Too general" or "Not sufficiently narrow" - "Improper use of sources" - "Much of this material appears to be plagiarized" - "Inadequate bibliography" - "No journal articles" and so on. This website will show you what professors expect from students doing research essays. Lets begin with the topic: Topic Selection and Analysis It is obvious that a research essay must have a topic, but what sort of topic? Some professors will give you a list and ask you to choose one. Others will give you general guidelines only. For example, you might be taking a course on "The History of the Middle Ages in Europe" and be told to write a paper on some important person of that period, showing how his/her life influenced the Middle Ages. The first thing you will need to assume is that your topic is likely to be too broad, that is, it will require you to deal with too much information for one essay. If you leave the topic broad, it will be superficial. Picture it like this: You have two lakes, one small but deep, the other large but shallow. The wide but shallow lake is like a broad topic. You can say many things about the topic, but everything you say will be at a very basic or survey level. For example, if you were writing an essay on the development of industrialization in Korea, you could say many things, but you could not, for example, go into in depth analysis about the effect that the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s had on the progress of automobile manufacturing in Korea. The narrow lake is like taking your broad topic and choosing to deal with only one part of it, but now in depth. For example, instead of writing a history of the development of industrialization in Korea, you could choose only one time period along with one industry and narrow your topic to "The effect of the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s on automobile manufacturing in Korea." Now you have room to do more analysis and get deeper into the subject. In the academic setting, professors usually want you to narrow your topic to allow for depth. You do this by choosing to deal with only one part of the topic, not all of it. The Research Question Many students believe that the purpose of a research essay is to report on the books and articles they have read. They think the professor wants them simply to quote from or summarize what theyve read so that the result is an essay that tells the reader all about the topic. This, however, is not the purpose of a research essay. A research essay is intended to allow you to answer a question or to the topic you are studying. How can a student develop a proper research question? - Narrow your topic as described in Topic Selection and Analysis above. - Use reference sources or short introductions to your topic in books to discover aspects of the topic that are controversial or need investigation. - Develop a few possible research questions based on what you find in reference sources. These should be one sentence questions that are simple and clear. - Choose one of these questions to be the research question for your essay. Take note that every research essay should have only one research question. You do not want to have an essay that states, "The following paper will examine __________ and will also _____________ and will also ________________." You want to deal with only one question in any research project. Here are some examples: For more information in narrowing topics and creating research questions, see Chapter Two of my online and print textbook, Research Strategies: Finding your Way through the Information Fog. Structure of a Research Paper The way you structure or outline your research paper is very important. It must have definite sections to it: Introduction The introduction serves two purposes. First, it allows you to provide the reader with some brief background information about the topic. Second, it lets you state your research question. Note that your research question must always be in your introduction. It's best to make it the last sentence of your introduction. The Body The body of the research essay is the main part. It is generally broken down into various headings that deal with aspects of your topic. It is not easy to decide what headings should be in the body or in what order they should come. You must look at your topic and ask yourself, "What issues must I cover in order to answer my research question?" This may mean that you need a section to describe the controversy in depth, a section to answer the arguments of someone who does not agree with your position, and a section to make a strong case for your position being true. Here are some examples from the topics we discussed in The Research Question above: "Did the Asian Financial Crisis of the late 1990s bring harm or did it bring benefit to the automobile industry in Korea?" II. Initial Effect on the Automobile Industry III. Later Effect on the Automobile Industry IV. Was the Effect Positive or Negative? "Was the religious conversion of Constantine genuine or only a political act?" II. Arguments that the conversion was genuine III. Arguments that the conversion was only a political act? "What evidence is there, if any, from the Netherlands euthanasia experience that legalizing euthanasia creates a slippery slope?" II. The Laws that Control Euthanasia in the Netherlands III. Actual use of Euthanasia Laws in the Netherlands IV. Is there evidence that Doctors are going beyond the Controls of the Euthanasia Laws? The Conclusion The conclusion summarizes your research and answers your research question. For more on structure, outline, etc. see my textbook, Research Strategies. For a good example of the use of resources to answer a research question, see the essay, Penguins vs. Lemurs, a pdf file of a project done by Trinity Western University student Kevan Gilbert, and reproduced with permission. Last revised: 7 February 2014
Tech moves fast! Stay ahead of the curve with Techopedia! Join nearly 200,000 subscribers who receive actionable tech insights from Techopedia. Big O notation is a particular tool for assessing algorithm efficiency. Big O notation is often used to show how programs need resources relative to their input size. Big O notation is also known as Bachmann–Landau notation after its discoverers, or asymptotic notation. Essentially, using big O notation helps to calculate needs as a program scales. The size of a program's input is given to the computer, and then the running time and space requirements are determined. Engineers can get a visual graph that shows needs relative to different input sizes. Big O notation is also used in other kinds of measurements in other fields. It is an example of a fundamental equation with a lot of parameters and variables. A full notation of the big O notation equation can be found online.
SummaryStudents learn how healthy human heart valves function and the different diseases that can affect heart valves. They also learn about devices and procedures that biomedical engineers have designed to help people with damaged or diseased heart valves. Students learn about the pros and cons of different materials and how doctors choose which engineered artificial heart valves are appropriate for certain people. Diseases of the heart and circulatory system are a leading cause of death in the U.S. and a leading area of research for biomedical engineers. Heart valve diseases, including valve stenosis, valvulitis and valve prolapse, can be fatal if the valve is not replaced. Engineers and physicians work together to design valves made of materials that the human body accepts and function for as long as possible, and that require the least invasive procedures for implantation. Basic knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system. After this lesson, students should be able to: - Identify the four valves in the human heart. - Describe the function of the heart valves. - Explain three different diseases that can weaken or damage human heart valves. - Explain the pros and cons of different materials used to build artificial heart valves. More Curriculum Like This Students use their knowledge about how healthy heart valves function to design, construct and implant prototype replacement mitral valves for hypothetical patients' hearts. Building on what they learned in the associated lesson about artificial heart valves, combined with the testing and scoring of ... Students learn all about the body's essential mighty organ, the heart, as well as the powerful blood vascular system. This includes information on the many different sizes and pervasiveness of capillaries, veins and arteries, and how they affect blood flow through the system. Then students focus on ... Students study how heart valves work and investigate how valves that become faulty over time can be replaced with advancements in engineering and technology. Learning about the flow of blood through the heart, students are able to fully understand how and why the heart is such a powerful organ in ou... Students are presented with the unit's grand challenge problem: You are the lead engineer for a biomaterials company that has a cardiovascular systems client who wants you to develop a model that can be used to test the properties of heart valves without using real specimens. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. - The use of technology affects humans in various ways, including their safety, comfort, choices, and attitudes about technology's development and use. (Grades 6 - 8) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Making decisions about the use of technology involves weighing the trade-offs between the positive and negative effects. (Grades 9 - 12) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! (Administer a 10-question pre/post quiz to students before beginning the lesson. See the Assessment section for details. Be ready to show the attached PowerPoint presentation, which includes two short video animations.) The heart is arguably the most important muscle in our bodies. What is the heart responsible for doing? (Expect answers such as "pumping blood.") One important job of the heart is to pump oxygenated blood to the cells in our bodies and pump deoxygenated blood back to our hearts and then the lungs, where those blood cells pick up oxygen. It is important that blood always flows in a certain direction, otherwise cells would not get oxygen or be able to release carbon dioxide when needed. To make sure blood always flows in one direction, the heart has four one-way valves Many different types of valves exist, but all are devices that control or direct the flow of fluids. What are examples of valves in your home? (Listen to student answers.) You have plumbing valves such as the tap for your tap water. Washing machines and dishwashers have valves also. The valves in your heart are similar to the valves in your home, except they control the flow of blood instead of water. Our heart valves allow blood to flow through them in one direction only. The four valves are the aortic valve, the mitral valve, the pulmonary valve and the tricuspid valve. Every time the muscles in the heart contract to pump blood, certain valves open and others close to make sure the blood is only pumped in the correct direction. All of the valves have leaflets or flaps that are the moving pieces of the valve. When a valve opens, its leaflets separate to allow blood flow, and when the valve closes, its leaflets come together to block the blood flow. When a person is unwell, diseases can affect the heart valves so they do not work as well as they should. We will learn about these different diseases, which can all be fatal if the damaged valve is not replaced. We will also discuss pros and cons of different types of replacement valves that are designed by biomedical engineers. In theory, the best artificial valve would not require open heart surgery, be made of materials that do not cause blood to clot and last for a person's lifetime. All things we are about to learn! (Next, show students the seven-slide Heart Valves Presentation while covering the next material. The PowerPoint file also includes useful photos and videos. See the Lesson Background section for a slide-by-slide guide to the presentation.) What diseases can affect the heart valves and endanger a person's health? Three such diseases are valve prolapse, valve stenosis and valvulitis. - Valve prolapse is a condition in which the leaflets become floppy or stretched out, allowing blood to regurgitate, or flow back in the wrong direction. Regurgitation can result in the heart increasing its workload, meaning pumping harder, to keep enough blood flowing through the body. - Valve stenosis is calcium build-up in the valve leaflets, causing them to stiffen and fail to open completely. When the heart beats, blood flow is slowed down causing pressure to build in certain heart chambers. Over time, this can thicken the heart wall, as well as enlarge and weaken the heart. - Valvulitis is the inflammation or swelling of a valve. This is most commonly caused by another disease called rheumatic fever, and less frequently by bacterial endocarditis and syphilis. Eventually, an inflamed valve can degenerate or its leaflets become stiff and calcified, leading to valve stenosis. Once a patient has a disease that impairs his/her heart valves, often his/her best chance is to have the affected valve replaced. Biomedical engineers have developed a few different types of artificial valves and each type has pros and cons. Purely mechanical artificial valves are made with metal, wire and plastics that are foreign to cells in the human body. Blood cells do not like the presence of foreign materials, and their presence often leads to increased chances of fatal blood clots. As a result, patients who receive these types of artificial valves must take blood thinning medications and lower their levels of physical activity. On the other hand, these artificial valves do not degrade, meaning they will work for the rest of patients' lives without needing to be replaced. Other types of artificial valves are made with real animal tissue; these biological types are more accepted by the human body and do not lead to blood clotting. Because of this, people with these implants can maintain normal lifestyles and be active. The downside is that these artificial valves degrade and only last about 10 years. Replacing the original heart valve or an artificial heart valve is a traumatic experience, requiring open heart surgery. Biomedical engineers are currently working on designing artificial heart valves that could be placed in the body similar to how stents are implanted (as we will see in a short video clip), avoiding open heart surgery. When designing artificial valves, biomedical engineers consider many factors. What do you think would be important factors? (Listen to student ideas.) In theory, the best artificial valve would not require open heart surgery, be made of materials that does not cause blood to clot and lasts for a person's lifespan. Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers Following is suggested slide-by-slide narration to accompany the PowerPoint presentation, as well as additional, more in-depth background information for the teacher. (Note: To play the two embedded animation videos, download the video files and save them in the same folder as the PowerPoint file. Or, play the videos directly from YouTube using the URLs provided in the notes section the two slides, or in the Slide 4 and Slide 7 paragraphs, below.) Slide 1: Title slide: Heart Valves Slide 2: (Review, as necessary, the path of blood flow in the human heart.) The blood enters the heart from the body through the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. Then the blood enters the right atrium chamber of the heart. The blood then moves through the tricuspid valve (shown as two white flaps) into the right ventricle chamber of the heart. Then the blood moves through the pulmonary valve (shown as two white flaps) into the pulmonary artery (one on each side of the heart). The blood re-enters the heart through the pulmonary veins (two on each side of the heart), and travels into the left atrium. The blood then passes through the mitral valve (shown as two white flaps) and into the left ventricle chamber of the heart. The blood then moves through the aortic valve (shown as two white flaps) and into the aorta. Slide 3: In this cross-section drawing, we can see the four heart valves that are present in mammalian hearts. The four valves in your heart are the tricuspid valve, the pulmonary valve, the mitral valve and the aortic valve. The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle; the pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary arteries; the mitral valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle; and the aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta. The mitral and tricuspid valves are atrioventricular (AV) valves located between the atria and the ventricles. Two semilunar (crescent-shaped, like a half-moon) valves, the aortic and pulmonary valves, are located in the arteries leaving the heart. The mitral valve is the only bicuspid valve in the human heart. The valves open and close with the movements of the heart. When the ventricles contract, the pulmonary valve and the aortic valve open so the blood can be pushed out in the correct direction, while the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve close, so the blood cannot slip back into the atria. Slide 4: (Play the embedded Heart Valve Surgery – operation for replacement heart valves, a 2:31-minute animation video available at YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5S0yQhK42s.) This animation shows how the valves open and close with the heart's motion. It also shows surgery to replace a damaged mitral valve, with options for a mechanical or biological valve. The stringy-looking material attached to the tricuspid and mitral valves are tendons attached to the ventricle walls; they assist in opening and closing these valves at the appropriate times. Slide 5: Many pathologies can afflict the heart valves. The following three primary conditions can be caused by disease or be inherited and can affect the heart valves and endanger a person's life: valve prolapse, valve stenosis and valvulitis. - Valve prolapse is a condition in which the valve leaflets become floppy or stretched out, allowing blood to regurgitate (flow back in the wrong direction). Regurgitation can result in the heart increasing its workload (meaning pumping harder) to keep up the cardiac output (to keep enough blood flowing through the body). This condition is caused by many factors, but two main factors include magnesium deficiency and degraded hyaluronic acid (also called hyaluronan). - Valve stenosis is calcium build-up in the valve leaflets, causing them to stiffen and fail to open completely. When the heart beats, blood flowing out of the left ventricle is impeded, causing pressure to build in the chamber. Over time, this can thicken the heart wall, and enlarge and weaken the heart. It can be caused by congenital heart defects at birth, such as a bicuspid aortic valves (instead of three leaflets), calcium build-up on the valve from calcium in your blood depositing on the valve, or rheumatic fever, which is a complication of strep throat that can result in scar tissue forming on the aortic valve. Sometimes calcium deposits collect on the rough surface of the scar tissue. - Valvulitis is the inflammation of a valve. Inflammatory changes in the aortic, mitral and tricuspid heart valves are caused most commonly by rheumatic fever and less frequently by bacterial endocarditis and syphilis. Infected valves degenerate, or their cusps become stiff and calcified, resulting in valve stenosis and obstructed blood flow. Defective heart valves often need to be replaced, usually with either pig valves or artificial components. Patients require immunosuppressive therapy to avoid the rejection of the replacements and monitoring to ensure deposition does not occur with the transplanted components. Slide 6: Replacement valves can be made of animal tissue (such as porcine pericardium) or be purely mechanical. Purely mechanical (top left example) valves outlast the patient, but cause thrombosis (clotting) unless the person takes blood thinning medication and lives a more sedentary lifestyle. Most young patients who need heart valve replacement go with this option. Older patients typically have animal tissue valves installed (top right example). These valves only last about 10 years, but operate just like normal heart valves so the person can be active. Getting a valve replaced is a traumatic process and involves open heart surgery (lower right). Biomedical engineers are designing new surgical techniques and valves that are less invasive (lower left picture is a prototype valve that is installed similar to how a stent is implanted, which can be seen in the video, next slide). Slide 7: (Play the embedded Edwards Sapien transcatheter heart valve animation, a 1:52-minute video available at YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAmq6ccC4Ws.) This animation shows how a new type of valve is implanted to replace a diseased aortic valve with aortic stenosis. This new valve is not yet on the market and is installed without open heart surgery, using a much less-invasive procedure. aortic valve: The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta, normally with three leaflets. circulatory system: An organ system that passes nutrients, gases, hormones and blood cells to and from cells in the body to fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. heart valve: A one-way valve that allow blood to flow through it in one direction. Four valves are present in mammalian hearts. They open and close depending on different pressures on each side of them. mitral valve: The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle, with two leaflets. Also known as the bicuspid valve because it is the only valve in the human heart with just two flaps. open heart surgery: A surgery performed on the exposed heart while a heart-lung machine pumps and oxygenates the blood and diverts it from the heart. pulmonary valve: The valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, with three cusps or leaflets. stent: A slender tube of plastic or sprung metal mesh placed inside a hollow tube to open it or keep it open. For example, used in surgery to provide support to prevent blood vessels from closing, especially after they have just been unclogged. tricuspid valve: The valve between the right atrium and right ventricle, normally with three leaflets and three papillary muscles. valve: Any device for halting or controlling the flow of a liquid, gas or other material through a passage, pipe, inlet, outlet, etc. - Saving a Life: Heart Valve Replacement - Students use cardboard boxes, classroom construction materials and marbles to design, construct, implant and test prototype replacement bicuspid mitral valves for hypothetical patients' hearts. They learn more about the pros and cons of different artificial valve solutions from the testing and scoring of their heart valve designs. Today we learned all about how our heart valves operate, diseases that can damage our heart valves, and the artificial valves that biomedical engineers have created. We learned the pros and cons for each type of replacement valve, which are issue that engineers and physicians must consider. The design and creation of replacement valves is an example of how engineering can improve and save lives. Pre/Post-Lesson Quiz: Administer The Circulatory System Quiz, a 10-question pre- and post- assessment of content knowledge to determine students' prior knowledge of the subject matter. Administer the same quiz again, after lesson conclusion, to ascertain students' knowledge gain. Lesson Extension Activities Divide the class in half and facilitate a classroom debate on whether to use a metal and plastic heart valve or a valve made from animal tissue for two patient scenarios. Have Patient #1 be a 75-year-old man and the Patient #2 be an 11-year-old girl. Have each student write down one reason to defend his/her side of the debate and share it with the class. To help students organize their points for the discussion, have them complete this table to evaluate the different valve replacement options. Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. Accessed October 20, 2011. (Source of some vocabulary definitions, with some adaptation) Edwards Lifesciences. Transcatheter Heart Valve. Accessed September 15, 2011 (Information about a replacement valve) http://www.edwards.com/products/transcathetervalve/Pages/THVcategory.aspx Valves of the Heart. University of Southern California Cardiothoracic Surgery. Accessed September 21, 2011. (Information about the heart valves and diseases) http://www.cts.usc.edu/hpg-valvesoftheheart.html Wikipedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Accessed on September 9, 2011. (Information about heart valves and diseases) ContributorsCarleigh Samson; Ben Terry; Brandi Briggs Copyright© 2011 by Regents of the University of Colorado. Supporting ProgramIntegrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under a grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education and National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. 0338326. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Last modified: July 31, 2017
The designers of this sign used the fact that light can reflect off of many surfaces, including water, to make the sign legible. It takes a bit of thought, but words can be written in such a way that their reflection is legible, even though the words themselves are not. Reflection of Light The Law of Reflection When a light ray strikes a reflecting surface, the angle of incidence (measured from the normal line) is equal to the angle of reflection (also measured from the normal line). This is called the Law of Reflection. If the reflecting surface is a very smooth surface, the reflection will be a regular reflection, in which the light rays maintain their position relative to each other and objects will be visible and identifiable in the reflected image. If the reflecting surface is rough, the reflection will be a diffuse reflection, and objects will not be visible or identifiable in the reflection. When you are considering the size of things on the scale of wavelengths of light, even surfaces that appear smooth may be very rough in terms of light waves, and most surfaces produce diffuse reflection. Left and Right Reversal in a Plane Mirror The images that appear in a plane (flat) mirror are reversed in some ways and not reversed in other ways. In the image below, the man's right hand is labeled. The same hand in the mirror image, however, looks like a left hand. While the left and right of the image are reversed, the top and bottom of the image are not. - The law of reflection states that, when a light ray strikes a reflecting surface, the angle of incidence (measured from the normal line) is equal to the angle of reflection (also measured from the normal line). - If the reflecting surface is a very smooth surface, the reflection will be regular, in which the light rays maintain their position relative to each other. - If the reflecting surface is rough, the reflection will be diffuse and objects will be distorted in the reflection. - Images in a plane mirror are reversed left and right but not reversed top and bottom. Use the video on reflection to answer the questions that follow. - Both the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are measured from the _________. - In reflection, the angle of incidence _________ the angle of reflection. - How does regular reflection differ from diffuse reflection? - If a light ray strikes a mirrored surface at an angle of 25° to the surface, what is the angle of incidence? - For problem #2, what will be the angle of reflection? - A dry cement road is a diffuse reflector. When it rains, the water fills in all the little holes and cracks in the cement road and it becomes a smooth regular reflector. At night, when you are depending on the light from your headlights to show you the lines on the road, a wet road becomes much darker and it is more difficult to see the lines. Explain why this occurs.
Send the link below via email or IMCopy Present to your audienceStart remote presentation - Invited audience members will follow you as you navigate and present - People invited to a presentation do not need a Prezi account - This link expires 10 minutes after you close the presentation - A maximum of 30 users can follow your presentation - Learn more about this feature in our knowledge base article Do you really want to delete this prezi? Neither you, nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again. Make your likes visible on Facebook? You can change this under Settings & Account at any time. DNA and Genetics:Lesson 3 Transcript of DNA and Genetics:Lesson 3 DNA-An organism's genetic material. DNA and Genetics:Lesson 3 1.Distinguish between transcription and translation. Review Questions #10 10.Asses What is the importance of DNA replication occuring without any mistakes. 2.Nucleotide needs the DNA zipper to create its molecule. Lesson 3 Chapter 5-DNA and genetics By Andrew Jimenez Lesson 3 Science. Nucleotide-A molecule made of a nitrogen base, a sugar, and a phostate group. Replication-The process of copying a DNA molecule to make another DNA molecule. (RNA)-A type of nucleic acid that carries the code for making proteins from the nucleas to the cytoplasm. Transcription-The process of making mRNA from DNA. Translation-The process of making a protein from RNA. Mutation-A change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene. 2.Use the term DNA and nucleotide in a sentence. 3.A change in the sequence of nitrogen bases in a gene is called a(n) _________. 4.Where does the process of transcription occur? A.cytoplasm B.Ribisomes C.Cell nucleas D.Outside the Cell. 6.Distinguish between the sides of the DNA double helix and the teeth of the DNA double helix. 7.Identify The products of what process are shown in the figure below? 9.Hypothesize What would happen if a cell were unable to make mRNA? Review Question answer's 1.The difference from translation and transcription are that translation makes a protein out of RNA and transcription makes mRNA from DNA. 3.It's called a mutation. 4.Transcription takes place in the cytoplasm. 5.Translation is the process of making a protein. 6.The regular DNA doesnt have a zipper and the DNA zipper is a zipper. 7.It is producing Two identical strands of DNA . 8.The DNA od each cell carries a complete set of genes that provides intructions to produce the or a protein. 9.If a cell were unable to make mRNA there will be no proteins. 10.The impotance is that a DNA thats not replicate might be produced.
Each dune features a windward face and a slip face. The windward face is the area where the sand is blowing and pushing materials upward. The slip face is the side that does not experience wind. Dunes that are formed underwater experience a similar phenomenon but through currents of water instead. Sand dunes are classified by shape. Crescentric dunes are crescent-shaped, while linear dunes are mostly straight. Star dunes occur when wind from many different directions blows sand. Dome dunes are circular, lacking a slip face. Parabolic dunes are formed by wind that blows outward from their center.Learn more about Erosion & Weathering
The goal of Hunter Library's Cherokee Phoenix Project has been to offer the English language articles concerning Cherokee Indian and regional history found in the Cherokee Phoenix newspaper, published by the Cherokee Nation from 1828-1834. Articles of a general nature or reprinted from other periodicals but having no direct relation to Cherokee or regional history were not included. Resources for Cherokee Phoenix Project (PDF File) The Cherokee Nation of Indians published some 260 issues of a national newspaper under the titles Cherokee Phoenix and Cherokee Phoenix, and Indians' Advocate from 1828 to 1834. Both English and Cherokee language articles appeared in the Phoenix, with approximately 30% of the column space devoted to articles written in the Cherokee syllabary. Publication came at the critical time in Cherokee history, during the Cherokee "renaissance" and prior to forced removal of the Cherokee Nation to Indian Territory in 1838. By the late 1700s, the newly inaugurated United States began to supplant European dominance in the Southeast. As the United States asserted political, social and demographic control over the Southeast, its relations with the Cherokees and other Native American nations altered. A significant Native American population lived within borders of the eastern states. Also, the Southeastern Indian nations still held claim to thousands of square miles of land in the Southern states. Policy in the first years of the republic encouraged acculturation and possible assimilation into the dominant Anglo-American society. Latter policy promoted removal of Native Americans and resettlement outside existing state boundaries as an option. Such a removal became a possibility with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. A determination to extinguish Indian title to lands east of the Mississippi River intensified after 1828 with the election of Andrew Jackson as President and in 1830 when Congress approved the Indian Removal Act. Amid conflicting policies of assimilation and removal, the Cherokees came to the fore of national attention with the Cherokee Nation's struggle to maintain its integrity, retain diminished homelands, and organize as a political entity. Confronted with mounting pressure to cede more lands and the possibility of tribal disintegration, the Cherokees experienced a "renaissance" of cultural development and purpose. Cherokee achievements in the 1820s included agrarian improvements, the construction of roads, the application of mechanical arts, a concern for the education of their youth, social reform movements, formal organization of a Cherokee national government, and the development by Sequoyah of a written Cherokee language. In addition, in 1826 the Cherokee government authorized "that a person be appointed whose duty it shall be to edit a weekly newspaper at New Echota, to be entitled, the `Cherokee Phoenix' . . . ." The first issue of the Cherokee Phoenix was dated February 21, 1828. It may be noted that the Phoenix was founded contemporaneously with other well know newspapers, such as the Charleston Mercury (1822), New York Evening Post (1829), and New York Sun (1833). During the Phoenix's brief existence, it addressed the wide spectrum of concerns that affected the Cherokee people, both major and minor. The Cherokee Phoenix's columns reflect both a unique and yet startlingly familiar portrayal of its era. While readers in any American community would have recognized the news items and features, it offered the viewpoint and concerns of a Native American nation. Its columns included editorials which embodied the Cherokees' determination to retain their lands; news on the activities of the Cherokee government as well as relations with the federal and state governments; accounts about the Cherokees in Arkansas and other Native American nations; and social and religious activities in the Nation. Major events that warranted extended coverage included Congressional debates over the Indian Removal Act, the two U.S. Supreme Court decisions which affected Cherokee rights (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia), and actions by the state of Georgia to assume title to Cherokee lands. The Cherokee Phoenix did not survive to give an account of the Cherokee Nation's last days in the east. It had ceased publication on May 31, 1834. However, its six-year run helped preserve the interests, hopes, and struggles of individuals and of a unique community.
Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system and the sixth planet from the sun. It has large rings surrounding the planet along with 60 moons, its largest one is Titan. You can see Saturn in the night sky without a telescope; it doesn’t twinkle like a star. In 1610, Saturn was seen through a telescope by Galileo. Saturn takes 30 Earth years to finish its orbit around the sun. Saturn was formed more than 4 billion years ago and is made of gases. Saturn was formed by large masses of gas combining in the universe. As the gasses mixed, they got bigger and gathered more gasses. With the help of gravity, Saturn was formed. The two main gases that make up the planet are hydrogen and helium. Saturn also contains methane and ammonia. The planet is almost 75,000 miles in diameter and has the lowest density in the solar system. Although Saturn is cold on the outside and has a top layer of ammonia ice crystals, the innermost core is around 22,000 degrees. According to research by NASA, Saturn most likely has a rocky core about the size of Earth with gasses surrounding it. It is thought the core is made of iron and other material. Around that inner core is an outer core made of ammonia, methane and water. Surrounding that layer is another of highly compressed liquid metallic hydrogen. Outside of the inner and surrounding core, the layers become less dense and thin out. There is another layer of hydrogen and helium, then one consisting of less dense hydrogen and helium that then mixes with the atmosphere of the planet. Layers of clouds surround Saturn, which is what we see. The color of the planet is from the sun reflecting off the clouds. Because of the dense qualities of Saturn, no human or other life would be able to survive on the planet. Because the planet is made up mostly of gases, humans are unable to land on Saturn to conduct tests. There are constant storms on Saturn and a temperature of minus 280 degrees. In 1973, NASA sent space probes Voyager 1 and 2, which were able to come within 100,000 miles of Saturn, and document the planet in pictures and conduct tests using probes. Through these photographs and probes, many theories about Saturn, such as if it has a solid core, were able to be proven.
Birds migrate to mate, search for food, escape harsh weather, evade predators and to flee from diseases. Birds also migrate to raise their young in a safe environment.Continue Reading Birds migrate when food is scarce. Birds that stay in a single area consume much of the food sources in a particular area, forcing them to flock north to places where there is more food. When food dwindles in the fall, they flock back to warmer conditions where food is more abundant. Birds normally look for adequate shelter, safety, food and proper breeding grounds when nurturing young. However, adult birds mostly choose such locations for the sake of migrating back to a certain region on their own, and young birds are left to migrate alone when capable. Laying eggs in hot temperatures can be dangerous for the chicks, which is why birds flock north. Birds that live in the Arctic also move to warmer areas when the temperature falls. Birds help their offspring survive by escaping to places where predators are not as frequent. They may also stay away from places with plentiful food because more predators may be present. Adults also move to other places to escape diseases that may spread within colonies. Moving to another spot lessens the chance of spreading illnesses to newborn chicks.Learn more about Birds
Objective: Like most creation myths, the introductory tales tell the story of creation of the entire universe from a few initial materials and characters. This lesson discusses the rules that apply to the Finnish creation story. 1. Small group discussion. Ask students to work together in small groups to list the things that pre-date the story, and then the things that are brought into being in the story. What creates what in this story? How do the changing names reflect the changing nature of matter? 2. Class discussion. What are the original principles that the other forms come from? How do those forces create things? Is there a correlation between the things brought into existence and the methods that are used to create them? Who or what has the power to create? 3. Writing assignment. Ask students to write for ten minutes about the different strategies of creation: prayer, birth... This section contains 5,328 words (approx. 18 pages at 300 words per page)
Introduction - tunnels and underground excavations, horizontal underground passageway produced by excavation or occasionally by nature’s action in dissolving a soluble rock, such as limestone. A vertical opening is usually called a shaft. Tunnels have many uses: for mining ores, for transportation—including road vehicles, trains, subways, and canals—and for conducting water and sewage. Underground chambers, often associated with a complex of connecting tunnels and shafts, increasingly are being used for such things as underground hydroelectric-power plants, ore-processing plants, pumping stations, vehicle parking, storage of oil and water, water-treatment plants, warehouses, and light manufacturing; also command centres and other special military needs. - Download Study Material - College Life - Entrance Exam - Colleges List
This is a biological theory related to periodic evolution. The theory of punctuated equilibrium defines this process as a state of relative genetic stability, 'punctuated' by bursts of evolution. The theory comes into regular dispute in biological studies, which identify areas of evolution which appear to contradict the 'stability' in the sense that no micro forms of evolution occur. Examples of Punctuated Equilibrium: \|Speciation: creation of sub species by evolutionary adaption after a long period of single species forms.\| Insect evolution:Some species of white moths underwent complete change of pigmentation during the Industrial Revolution to adapt to changed environments in which white coloring was a liability to predation. Punctuated equilibrium, bottom, consists of morphological stability and rare bursts of evolutionary change.
STRATEGI PEMBELAJARAN PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURAL BERBASIS BUDAYA LOKAL Nation Indonesia is a multicultural nation, therefore, education should be developed in accordance with the conditions of a multicultural society. Appropriate education for development in a multicultural society is multicultural education. In a study of multicultural education is necessary to increase the awareness that all learners have special characteristics because of their age, religion, gender, social class, ethnic, racial, or cultural characteristic embedded in each self. Multicultural education deals with the idea that all learners regardless of their cultural characteristics, should have equal opportunities to learn in school. Differences that exist between them is a must, and that difference must be received in reasonable not to discriminate. In order to achieve the goals of multicultural education needs to develop appropriate learning strategies and appropriate, one of which is based on learning the local culture. Local culture is a culture that is direct, close, and physically is all around us. Local culture is usually introduced by family and close relatives. Each region in Indonesia has a specificity that can be the regional identity. The specificity could be because of race, history, location, religion, and beliefs espoused. Diversity and distinctiveness can be used by teachers in developing multicultural education. - There are currently no refbacks.
What is the DOK and Why Do We Need It? The Depth-of-knowledge (DOK) was created by Norman Webb from the Wisconsin Center for Education Research. The Depth of Knowledge is the degree of depth or complexity of knowledge standards and assessments require; this criterion is met if the assessment is as demanding cognitively as the expectations standards are set for students. Completely aligned standards and assessments requires an assessment system designed to measure in some way the full range of cognitive complexity within each specified content standard. Norman Webb identified four levels for assessing the DOK of content standards and assessment items. The DOK levels are Recall (Level 1), Skill or Concept (Level 2), Strategic Thinking (Level 3) and Extended Thinking (Level 4). Of course to accurately evaluate the DOK level, each level needs to be defined and examples given of types of student behaviors. DOK implies the interaction of how deeply a student needs to understand the content with different ways of responding and interacting with the content. Therefore, the DOK of the task does not change with grade or ability of the student. Norman L. Webb, senior research scientist with the Wisconsin Center for Education Research, is a mathematics educator and evaluator who is co-team leader of the Instituteís Systemic Reform Team, rethinking how we evaluate mathematics and science education, while focusing on the National Science Foundationís Systemic Initiatives reform movement. His own research has focused on assessment of studentsí knowledge of mathematics and science. Webb also directs evaluations of curriculum and professional development projects. Webb, Norman L. ALIGNMENT OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENTS IN FOUR STATES.National Institute for Science Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison. August, 1999 The Webb model has been used in alignment studies with more than 10 states. The model has been used for language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Here are a few of the resources from a couple of these states. The resources listed here demonstrate how the DOK alignment has begun and how teachers and students will be affected and held accountable for DOK levels in the future. In the 2006 MAP results the DOK levels were assigned to standards and questions. As teachers document their strengths and weaknesses, they can now use DOK levels to plan goals for their school and classroom. The MAP data, the IBD report, in particular, shows how the DOK levels were assigned to the GLEs and Standards assessed on the MAP. The MAP Analysis Chart is an important tool as we track the DOK levels, Question Types, and Process Standards that contribute to a classroom, school or districtís lowest scores. See examples of this information and itís importance in the following PowerPoint by the Jefferson City School District: Analyzing MAP Data: Jefferson City School District The Very Near Future: Soon many districts will be completing the fourth cycle of the MSIP process. This Observation form reveals what team members will be anticipating during their classroom visits. * Note the DOK levels that will be documented during classroom observations. The Fourth Cycle MSIP Writing Report Form also demonstrates the importance of the DOK levels as the team members write their findings in the report as documented on page 8 of the form. As the alignment process takes place, districts, schools and teachers will want to think about the degree to which classroom instruction and assessments are aligned with the demands of content standards. In order for learners to reach the cognitive demands of the content, think strategically and extensively, solve complex problems, and be able to reason, analyze and communicate their understandings, they will need well-constructed standards-based, lessons and assessments. Classroom instruction and assessments will need to require students thinking and working at all levels of the DOK. As classroom teachers, one important question will be, "How can we incorporate the DOK into our classroom The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) now requires all states to use an alignment process for validation purposes to show that they are aligning their assessments with the depth of each statesí academic content standards at all grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education issued guidelines that include six dimensions important for making judgments about the alignment between state standards and assessments. These dimensions include comprehensiveness, content and performance match, emphasis, depth, consistency with achievement standards and clarity for users. As Missouri aligns standards and assessments, these dimensions are considered in the alignment framework. Norman Webbís model is one of four models that is being used by states to meet this requirement and has been used in test item development and alignment studies across various content areas. Webb and his team came to Missouri last fall and conducted an alignment study. A critical part of the alignment process is that Depth of Knowledge levels be assigned to the standards and assessments items.
Unit 1: Basic Concepts Most of us think of learning in terms of traditional schooling and education. While learning theory includes educational learning, “learning” as psychologists know it is much broader in scope. For them, learning refers to the way in which an individual’s interaction with his or her environment results in specific behaviors. For psychologists, “learning” references the knowledge of human interaction with the environment to cause human behavior. This unit will introduce you to the basic concepts and theoretical underpinnings of learning theory and behaviorism. In particular, rationalism and empiricism are philosophical approaches to knowledge development and provided the launching pad for future dialogue on learning and thought. Unit 1 Time Advisory This unit will take approximately 10 hours to complete. ☐ Subunit 1.1: 2.0 hours ☐ Subunit 1.2: 5.0 hours ☐ Subunit 1.3: 3.0 hours Unit1 Learning Outcomes Upon successful completion of this unit, the student will be able to: - Outline the beginnings of the psychological study of learning. - Describe the role of evolution in the process of learning. - Identify the difference between learning and change. 1.1 Rationalism and Empiricism - Reading: Garth Kemerling’s Philosophy Pages: “René Descartes” Link: Garth Kemerling’s Philosophy Pages: “René Instructions: Rationalism embodies the idea the knowledge derives from reason alone. Thus, the senses are not primary factors in knowledge development. The rationalist doctrine was espoused by René Descartes during the mid 1600s. His primary methodology included doubt, and he gave us the famous phrase, “I think, therefore I am.” Review this history of Descartes’ life and discover the foundations of “thinking about thinking.” 1.2 Natural Selection - Reading: North Carolina State University: Professor John R. Meyer’s “Elements of Behavior” Link: North Carolina State University: Professor John R. Meyer’s “Elements of Behavior” Instructions: This reading comes from notes in Entomology, but the concepts are equally applicable to the behavior of humans. 1.3 Learning and Change - Reading: CkBooks Online’s “Learning: Definition of Learning” Link: CkBooks Online’s “Learning: Definition of Learning” Instructions: Along with definitions of learning, this resource also touches on topics we will discuss in subsequent units (e.g., habituation). Please read this article in its entirety. - Web Media: YouTube: Consortium for School Networking’s “Learning to Change-Changing to Learn” Link: YouTube: Consortium for School Networking’s “Learning to Change - Changing to Instructions: Please view the entire video (5:37 minutes). Be sure to take notes as you view this video. This is a great take on learning and change as it applies to our current educational climate.
Different countries may have recovered faster than others as the last Ice Age ended, new research shows. The study, published in Geology, shows that 12,100 years ago, as the last ice age ended, Germany's climate began to recover 120 years before Norway's climate. The team studied Lake Meerfelder Maar in Germany, which has clear sediment layers representing different seasons. "The annually laminated sediments give us a really nice record of climate change since the last ice age," explains Dr Christine Lane of the University of Oxford, lead author on the study. "They form on a seasonal basis, like tree rings, so you can count back and determine when they formed." Lane and her colleagues, from Oxford, GFZ Potsdam and Royal Holloway, University of London, found a small band of volcanic ash in the layers, from an eruption of Iceland's Katla volcano. This ash could be used as a time reference point. Since they knew when the eruption occurred, they could date the layers much more accurately than if they just counted back from the surface. "The ash layer is found 100 layers, or 100 years, before we see a shift in climate that took place in the Younger Dryas – a 1000 year cold period at the end of the last Ice Age. It has also been found in Norway, at Lake Kråkenes, but there we see the same transition takes place 20 years after the ash layer," says Lane. The shift in climate is believed to represent the gradual recession of the polar front - the boundary where cool air from the poles and warm air from the tropics meets - as Europe warmed. Lane says that discovering the 120-year offset between the two sites proves how important it is for researchers not to assume such events must have happened at the same time everywhere. "We can't assume climatic changes are synchronous worldwide, or even continent-wide. Some regions might feel changes in climate at different times," says Lane. "Climate models need to be able to handle subtle complexities in timing to give accurate future climate predictions." Explore further: Climate change does not cause extreme winters, new study shows More information: Lane, C. et al. (2013) Volcanic ash reveals time-transgressive abrupt climate change during the Younger Dryas, Geology.
Tinnitus, defined as ringing or buzzing in the ears, is a frequent complaint. It may be seen in patients with headache, or may occur unrelated to pain. Tinnitus is often associated with hyperacusis, which is an intolerance to moderate to loud sounds. Sounds are heard with exaggerated volume. Recent estimates suggest that 40 to 50 million Americans suffer from some degree of tinnitus or hyperacusis. Either may be associated with at least mild hearing loss and can become severe enough to be debilitating. No specific cause of tinnitus has been identified. Most likely the symptoms of tinnitus reflect disturbance in both the auditory and nonauditory structures within the central nervous system. Other causes may include a disturbance in the limbic nervous system as well as a sensitivity of the brain to serotonin fluctuation. Emotional symptoms such as anxiety and depression may also aggravate the condition. A multidisciplinary approach to treatment is the most effective method for managing tinnitus and hyperacusis, including an evaluation by an audiologist. The audiologist can objectively measure the degree of hearing loss and recommend hearing aids and proper audiologic treatment. There is no standardized treatment for tinnitus at this point. Many classes of medication—e.g., antiseizure or antidepressant—have been tried with varying success. Medical management may also include reducing any medications or treatments that may aggravate the condition, such as aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Most tinnitus sufferers find that constant background noise may help symptoms that tend to worsen in a silent or more quiet setting. External noise, such as white noise generators, indoor waterfalls, fans, heaters, or fish tanks, may help reduce the irritating aspect of symptoms. Special masking devices can also be inserted at tinnitus specialty clinics. If tinnitus is associated with vertigo or dizziness, comes on abruptly, or is accompanied by other symptoms, prompt evaluation is needed. Certain serious clinical conditions can cause these symptoms.
\|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute\|\|Home\| Grayce P. Storey In order for cultural patterns in a society or societies to develop into its fullest potential, there must be an investment in education. Resources must be available to create both the diversity of the media and educate the environment so that it may produce happy, healthy citizens for a productive democracy. The more we get to know how much we have in common, how much we are unlike and appreciate the diversity among mankind, then the true reality of cultural patterns will be more acceptable. It is with this thought in mind that I wish to bring out several factors in this unit, such as moral values, the family and school, the brain, memory and intellect, giftedness, and technology. This unit maybe taught in grades six through twelve. This unit may also be incooperated in such classes as health, science, economics, history, civics and english. Moral values are concerned with the amount of zest and efficiency with which members of a social group participate in an activity. Each member of a group learns something about the beliefs and attitudes of other members. American psychologists have devised many procedures for measuring the level of moral values in many groups. Attitude scales and personal interviews may be employed to appraise the degree of conviction with which beliefs and attitudes are accepted or rejected. It seems that discussion of moral values can reach a satisfactory level when each member of a group enjoys full self respect. “Common moral values are the vital common beliefs that shape human relations in each culture.”1 The transition of moral values from one culture to another has played a major role in America’s culture weather it has been formal or informal. Two reasons are: “human beings are adaptable animals and live in all climates and diverse cultural systems,”2 and without morals the human propensity for selfishness can destructively affect adult institutions. Every individual operates according to a system of values whether it is verbalized or not. In selecting goals, in choosing modes of behavior, in resolving conflicts, he is influenced at every turn by his conception of what is good and desirable. Although everyone’s value system is in some way unique, an individual’s values are usually grounded in the core value of his culture. Values, of course, are no the only determinant of behavior. Any given act reflects the individuals immediate motivational pattern and various situational factors such as, the means and goals available at the time, as well as his relatively permanent assumptions concerning values. The values parents wish to give their children has to be identified. It is the parent’s responsibility to model the values and monitor the child’s practice of them. The parents need also to establish a bond between the school and home, as well as form a commitment with the community to support the child in the family. Sacrifices must be made for the children on behalf of the family. One of the greatest needs of children is that of an identity. The self worth of the child is stimulated when he is shown love, pleasure, and caring. When a child is asked for his ideas and sees them put to use will indicate to that child that his values and thoughts are recognized. A must in developing self-image in a child is giving that child attention and the results can be meaningful. There must be a familiarity between the parent and teacher because this will aid in revitalizing the home and school relationship. Therefore, the capabilities of the child will even more be realized. Most importantly, the child will be able to identify parents and teachers, home and school as places and people of learning. Programs must be available to prepare teachers with the skill to work with nontraditional families and children. It is necessary that the curriculum reflect the children’s current and future needs. Skills in stress management, child care, family care, and life skills are a must. Schools should be urged to incorporate these areas into the curriculum. The family and community are not exempt, they too must take part in this endeavor. The children today will stand in our places tomorrow so it behooves us to prepare them well by being totally committed to them. In communities there is a congruency between education and the social and cultural aspects of a society. The family and community were responsible for education the young. The plantation South viewed education as a privilege of the elite. The children were educated in private schools or they were provided tutors. Private academies were later replaced by public high schools. The division in urban schools was brought about due to the social class, religion, and ethnic backgrounds. “Today schools serving the slums of the big cities are relatively unsuccessful in their educational efforts when judged by and compared with middle class standards.” One problem of the inner city is the inability to keep older children in school. Some may interpret the reason for the high drop out rate as follows: - 1. the inappropriateness of the school programs, - 2. rejection by the intellectual marginal, and - 3. those who leave school equate age with adulthood and see school as a place for children. Date on the operation of many behavior patterns at the neurophysiological level is limited because of the lack of knowledge. However, there is an accumulation of knowledge about the brain that can give direction in the search for the biological basis for cultural behavior. The medulla is basically used for survival, where as, the cerebrum is mostly involved in complex memory processing. The medulla is responsible for controlling breathing, swallowing, digestion, and heartbeat. It is also referred to as the switching center of the brain. It takes care of certain reflexes such as the enlargement of the pupils and the closing of the pupils due to bright light. The functions of mating and breeding are also centered in the medulla. The cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus or the limbic system regulates emotional behavior and controls metabolism and temperature. (see figure 1) The cerebrum is also responsible for voluntary movement, thinking, personality, higher learning, consciousness, sense perception, and cultural behavior. The cortex is the center of all of the mentioned abilities. Man’s culture-related behavior lies in his language and tool skills. The cerebrum is made up of two large hemispheres which are connected by the corpus callosum. This structure allows communication back and forth through structures called commissures. The cerebellum controls body balance, muscle tone, and voluntary movement. Most right-handed people demonstrate what is known as left cerebral dominance. The left cerebral hemisphere controls the right hand, also controls the language performance. When the left cerebral hemisphere is truly dominant the right hemisphere will control the left hand and will be unable for the most part to produce speech. It can, however, understand simple speech. (see figure II) Children must become intellectuals as they develop communication skills so that they will be able to express their ideas and feelings to others and will in return understand people’s feelings and ideas. Children are a product of this world in which they had no part in its making. Also they should be given the time and opportunity to express themselves without being interrupted with outside ideas or conclusions. The essence of intellectuality deals with the ability to formulate and express ideas with others, coupled with the ability to modify the ideas on the basis of experience and dialogue. The responsibility lies on the school to assist the children in their development of these skills. It is also the acquiring of these skills which helps the child in developing into an intelligent individual. Children are confronted with many problems such as, being rich or poor, availability of jobs, and an equal chance of becoming president. The young people are confronted with many complex and frustrating questions. They have no person, no place, motive to explain their ideas. Home is often a place to rest; the street, a place to play out restlessness. “Schools should not be a place for the maintenance of stupidity. Stupidity has to do with thoughtlessness, with the blind acceptance of ideas . . . . most centrally with the loss of control over one’s action and ideas.”5 Teachers have the responsibility to reverse stupidity to intellectuals. Most teachers try to promote the students thinking capabilities and make this a top priority in their educational goal. The key variable in teaching for thinking are instructional material and the procedure for which the materials are used. There are probably two types of memory, long-term and short-term. “Long-term memory occurs when structural changes occur in the brain. Short-term memory, on the other hand, may be dynamic and consist of either nerve impulses or slow patterns of electrical charges that wax and wane, or both.”6 Mark Rosenzweig, Edward Bennett, and Marian Cleeves went about demonstrating this using rats in four different environments. At the end of the experiment, they checked the rats for the difference in ratio of cortex to subcortex. The experiment was carried out as follows: the standard lab environment consisted of a metal cage with three rats, the enriched was a large cage with twelve rats complete with play things, and the impoverished was a bare cage with one rat, the seminatural environment which showed the greatest ratio of cortex to subcortex is weight. This is evidence that experience directly affects the brain. Neurons or nerve cells do not increase in number after the brain has reached maturity. If a portion of the brain is destroyed by toxin or injury it is permanent. The destroyed portion does not regenerate. “Short-term memory may be related to images in the brain and theses images to consciousness.”7 Penfield and Roberts suggest in Speech and Brain Mechanisms (1959) that anything which has entered the stream of consciousness is recorded in the brain. A prerequisite for culture is adequate memory storage so that complex learning can occur. Karl Pribram, an experimental neurophysiologist, “feels that two classes of communicative acts can be distinguished on the basis of whether the meaning of the act depends on the context in which it occurs.’ Context free communicative acts are labeled ‘signs’ and context dependent communicative acts are labeled ‘symbols’ (Pribram 1971: 305.) If we are to deal with the biological elements necessary for fully developed culture, we must look at the ability to symbol. To understand this ability we must understand the organization of the cerebral cortex and something about how it may have evolved.”8 Schindler mentions in The Journal of Negro Education, that life chances of particular students will be altered whether they are chosen or not. There are several questions raised as to whether “the participants self-esteem is put under undue and unhealthy pressure, and does it benefit society generally to identify and educate the brightest and best in order to husband their future contributions.”10 Schindler views the value element as being obvious and strong. He draws a simile between being gifted and being beautiful and he concluded that both are admirable. Giftedness is a cultural concept of preferred human attributes that is accepted be citizens in the community, such as the educators, taxpayers, parents, and the policy making body. Gifted can be defined “as a point of departure for generating identification criteria that may also receive widespread support “11 From yet another spectrum, giftedness has to do with three basic clusters of human traits. These clusters are; “above-average general abilities, high level of task commitment, and high levels of creativity.”12 The gifted are capable of developing these traits and applying them to any potentially valuable are of human preference. Students who are capable of developing an interaction among the three clusters require a wide variety of education and many services that are not provided through regular instructional programs. The achievement of technology in a culture makes it possible for new images to be created by the artist, and new challenges originated as a result. Technology assists the artists in creating what they have imagined. The development of new modes are brought about by thinking within a new medium. Therefore, the antiquated solutions are no longer relevant to the new problem encountered. “The kind of mind we come to own is profoundly influenced by what we have an opportunity to learn and experience. The mind is a vast potentiality. The course of its development is shaped by its use. Use in turn, is shaped by the conditions of the culture in which one lives. Culture itself can be regarded as the condition of context affords an individual for the invention of mind. When one shapes the culture . . . one provides direction to the invention of mind.”13 Technology can be described as an abundance of tools that provides new thinking, and human intelligence. The bottom line is that educators must rely on the arts, science and technology to do their work. The other side of the coin displays some dangers to technology. Technology creates new opportunities and develops the mind, it can also lead to a sense of mindlessness. The television is a powerful piece of technology. We spend many hours out of our lives watching television on a daily basis. The television can lull us to sleep and distract us from the important things in life. Our children have been caught up in the rushing streams of fantasy land. They are led to believe that there is an answer to every question and every problem can be solved through the image that they view. Some contributions of technology and art are: Because of the artists sensitivity to culture, they have aided mankind to see the world free from conventional blinders. It is because of this that our curiosity has been piqued, and our imagination stimulated to the point that the world around us can be seen better. - 1. The automobile, - 2. prepackaged frozen dinners, - 3. the airplane, - 4. television, - 5. paint, and - 6. microcomputers. Through education, the potential of technology and the arts is encouraged to enhance rather than to enslave. Science has the advantage of providing information that has been checked and rechecked by objective methods. But fact is impersonal and , except as it is interpreted, does not contribute to meaning or provide a guide for action. Even the value of searching for truth the basic premise of science cannot be proved scientifically. Probably the greatest scientist of our age, Albert Einstein, acknowledged that “the scientific method can teach us nothing else beyond how facts are related to, and conditioned by, each other”14 (1950, pp. 21-22): - 1. science, which can help man better to understand himself and the universe in which he lives, - 2. experience, which relates both for the group and the individual, the consequences of various types of behavior in term of need, satisfaction, happiness, and fulfillment, and - 3. belief, which gives subjective validity to religious and ethical concepts about the meaning and proper conduct of human life. No one of these sources seems sufficient in itself, nor in any of them infallible. - 1. values—goals or standards held or accepted by an individual, class or group - 2. culture—the ideas, customs, skills, and arts of a given people in a civilization - 3. evolution—a gradual, progressive change, as in a social and economic structure - 4. hemisphere—either lateral half of the cerebrum or cerebellum - 5. cerebrum—the upper main part of the brain of vertebrate animals consisting of two hemispheres - 6. cerebellum—the section of the brain behind and below the cerebrum and functions as the coordinating center for muscular movement - 7. commissures—a band of fibers joining symmetrical parts, as of the right and left sides of the brain and spinal cord - 8. neurophysiology—the physiology of the nervous system - 9. environment—all the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding, and affecting the development of organisms - 10. gifted—having a natural ability LESSON 1 Objective The students will recognize attitudes and beliefs that deal with the moral values of a group Learning Activity Oral group discussion - 1. define culture - 2. define values - 3. how does cultural backgrounds affect lifestyle - 4. tell where your family or ancestors came from - 5. tell what the people in the region do for a living - 6. find out what language they speak - 7. share how to speak common phrases in the language of your country - 8. describe the type of clothing worn and kind of houses in your country - 9. explain the type of recreation the people in your country enjoy - 1. draw a map showing the location of the country or region of your family or ancestors - 2. explain the type of government - 3. describe the major physical characteristics of the people who live in the area of your family or ancestors (size, skin color, color of hair) LESSON 2 Objective The students will visit the Children’s Museum and explore some of the clothing from other cultures Learning Activity Field trip to the Children’s Museum LESSON 3 Objective The students will discuss why identity is important Learning Activity Role playing Discussion beliefs and attitudes Brain storming ideas Act out in small groups the students will act out what goes on in the single parent family, working women family and a family where both parents are present - 1. the students in small groups will assume the role of the parents and children - 2. the students will give a group report of what went on in the family in one typical day Homework On Monday bring in a sample of food(s) from your country we previously discussed. Be prepared to share recipes and tell where the food is grown. LESSON 4 Objective The students will list the parts of the brain Learning Activity Drawings, discussion, film, quiz - 1. the make up of the central nervous system - 2. the parts of the brain - 3. what takes place in the parts of the brain - 4. the hemispheres of the brain - ____a. the right side - ____b. the left side - 5. film: The Brain - 6. quiz: the three parts of the brain LESSON 5 Objective The students will discuss the two types of memory Learning Activity Lecture Commence experiment seed scarification - 1. long-term memory - 2. short-term memory - 3. intellectual - ____a. formulate ideas - ____b. express ideas - 4. concern of teachers - 5. establish groups for experiment - 6. assigning of material for experiment to groups LESSON 6 Objective The students will see what happens to seeds when they are exposed to different environments Learning Activity Materials beakers, petri dishes, thermometer, seeds, file, paper towels, hot plate, old stockings, Clorox solution, test tube holder. Procedure Prepared petri dish: soak paper towel in a 1 to 12 part clorox solution ( one part clorox and twelve parts water) and cover well the bottom of a petri dish. Each group will receive 100 seeds and separate them into piles of twenty. With a file scar twenty seeds and place them in a prepared petri dish and cover it. *Observe and record findings daily. LESSON 7 Objective The students will share samples of food(s) from their culture or their ancestors culture Learning Activity Oral individual presentations - 1. share recipes - 2. tell where and how the food(s) is (are) grown LESSON 9 Objective The students will define giftedness Learning Activity Oral discussion, lecture - 1. define giftedness - 2. three basic clusters of human traits - 3. cultural preferences LESSON 9 Objective The students will correlate technology and culture Learning Activity Oral discussion, lecture - 1. technology and art - 2. technology and tools - 3. dangers of technology - 4. technological contributions - 5. group work to prepare for report on seed scarification LESSON 10 Objective Summative test: Essay Choose any three out of the four questions. - 1. List and explain what takes place in the parts of the brain. - 2. Define culture and environment. - 3. Can intelligence be related to environment? If so explain. - 4. Explain the two types of memory. - 1. Education Digest Vol. 5 No. 8 April 1986 p. 27. - 2. Ibid p. 27. - 3. Culture The Education Process p. 28. - 4. Education Digest Vol 50. No. 7 March 1985 p. 29. - 5. Ibid p. 29. - 6. Culture and Biology p. 21. - 7. Ibid p. 22. - 8. Ibid p. 22. - 9. Education Digest Vol 50 No. 4 December 1984 p. 46. - 10. Ibid p. 36. - 11. Ibid p. 47. - 12. Ibid p. 47. - 13. Education Digest Vol 49 No. 1 September 1983 p. 12. - 14. Personality Dynamics and Effective Behavior p. 438. 2. Clark, Ann L.; “Culture Childbearing Health Professionals,” F. A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, 1979. 3. Cole , Michael and Scribner, Sylvia; “Culture and Thought,” John Wiley and Sons, INC. New York, 1974. 4. Coleman, James C.; “Personality Dynamics and Effective Behavior,” Scott Foresman and Company, New Jersey, 1960. 5. Opler, Marvin K.; “Culture, Psychiatry and Human Values,” Charles C. Thomas, Publisher; Springfield, Illinois, 1956. 6. Tannell, Gary G.; “Culture and Biology,” Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Minn., 1973. 7. Kimball, Solom T., “Culture and The Educative Process,” Teachers College Press, Teachers College Columbia University, New York, 1974. 2. The Education Digest. “What Makes Children Psychologically Resilient,” Vol. 50 No. 7 March 1985, Prakken Publications, INC., 416 Longshore Drive, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 3. The Education Digest. “On Families and the Re-Valuing of Children;” Vol. 49 No. 5 January 1984, Prakken Publications, INC., 416 Longshore Drive, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2. Educational Digest. “Transmitting Moral Values,” Vol. 51 No. 8, April 1986. 3. Educational Digest. “Respecting the Serious Thinking That Children Do,” Vol 50 No.7, March 1985. 4. Educational Digest. “The Invention of Mind: Technology and the Arts,” Vol. 49 No. 1, September 1983. 5. Educational Digest. “Ethical Dimensions of Education for the Gifted,” Vol. 50 No. 4, December 1984. 6. Kimball, Solom T., “Culture and The Educative Process;” Teacher College Pres, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York 1974. 7. Tannell, Gary G., “Culture and Biology;” Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1973. Contents of 1987 Volume V \| Directory of Volumes \| Index \| Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute
In this math worksheet, students learn to tell time by constructing a clock. Students cut out the clock face and hands and fasten them with a paper fastener. There are no directions on the page. 2nd - 3rd Math 3 Views 3 Downloads Grade 2 Supplement Set D7 - Measurement: Telling Time Are you tired of your students asking you what time it is? Well, let this be your answer. Second graders will enjoy the task of learning to tell time while playing with these hands-on-activities that include a matching game of digital... 2nd Math CCSS: Designed Telling Time: Telling Time: Half Hours The whole class discusses the differences between the two clocks: digital and a clock with hands. They discuss the differences between the hour hand and minute hand. Young scholars are taught telling time to the half hour. They are... 1st - 2nd Math CCSS: Adaptable
This Music lesson is a process designed to get your brain to assimilate new musical material. This system will let you memorize music fast and help you reprogram your mental synapses and learn music the right way rather than relying on muscle memory only. This process applies to all music and all instruments and assumes that you have some competency on your instrument. 1. Look at the page you are about to learn and make mental notes of all the new music. 2. Break this material into small sections. i.e. (One measure or two measures or a Phrase) 3. Focus completely on the first of these small sections and allow all the details to register clearly in your mind. For example you may ask yourself what octaves, what rhythm, what fingering etc. Try to picture in your mind how you are going to play the section, then when you have an absolutely clear mental image of the section of music, PLAY THROUGH ONCE SLOWLY. 4. Try to associate this new material to something which you are familiar, for instance it may remind you of some song you have heard, etc. 5. Now, turn away from the music and PRACTICE REMEMBERING what you saw. Try to avoid taking a second look at the music. Go ahead and practice the entire section of music entirely from memory. 6. Always practice new material very slowly at first and gradually build up to a faster tempo this may take a week to reach a desired tempo. Use a metronome to help build up to tempo. 7. Once you have mastered the first small section, put down your instrument and take a short break for longer sections take a longer break. 8. When you have mastered all the small sections then start stringing them together by playing the piece from start to finish. Do not stop if you make a mistake, keep on playing through to the end. Afterwards, go back and clear up any problem spots individually. Refuse to go over and over things you already know. Repeat this process on any music or sections of music you are learning EXACTLY and include the rest period. Immediately begin to look for places to apply what you have learned. Always be on the lookout for new ways to use what you know.
B F Skinner (1989) Source: Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior (1989) publ. Merrill Publishing Company. One Chapter reproduced here. What is felt when one has a feeling is a condition of one's body, and the word used to describe it almost always comes from the word for the cause of the condition felt. The evidence is to be found in the history of the language-in the etymology of the words that refer to feelings (see Chapter 1). Etymology is the archaeology of thought. The great authority in English is the Oxford English Dictionary (1928), but a smaller work such as Skeat's Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (1956) will usually suffice. We do not have all the facts we should like to have, because the earliest meanings of many words have been lost, but we have enough to make a plausible general case. To describe great pain, for example, we say agony. The word first meant struggling or wrestling, a familiar cause of great pain. When other things felt the same way, the same word was used. A similar case is made here for the words we use to refer to states of mind or cognitive processes. They almost always began as references either to some aspect of behaviour or to the setting in which behaviour occurred. Only very slowly have they become the vocabulary of something called mind. Experience is a good example. As Raymond Williams (1976) has pointed out, the word was not used to refer to anything felt or introspectively observed until the 19th century. Before that time it meant, quite literally, something a person had "gone through" (from the Latin expiriri), or what we should now call an exposure to contingencies of reinforcement. This paper reviews about 80 other words for states of mind or cognitive processes. They are grouped according to the bodily conditions that prevail when we are doing things, sensing things, changing the way we do or sense things (learning), staying changed (remembering), wanting, waiting, thinking, and "using our minds." The word behave is a latecomer. The older word was do. As the very long entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (1928) shows, do has always emphasised consequences-the effect one has on the world. We describe much of what we ourselves do with the words we use to describe what others do. When asked, "What did you do?", "What are you doing?", or "What are you going to do?" we say, for example, "I wrote a letter," "I am reading a good book," or "I shall watch television." But how can we describe what we feel or introspectively observe at the time? There is often very little to observe. Behaviour often seems spontaneous; it simply happens. We say it "occurs" as in "It occurred to me to go for a walk." We often replace "it" with "thought" or "idea" ("The thought-or idea-occurred to me to go for a walk"), but what, if anything, occurs is the walk. We also say that behaviour comes into our possession. We announce the happy appearance of the solution to a problem by saying "I have it!" We report an early stage of behaving when we say, "I feel like going for a walk." That may mean "I feel as I have felt in the past when I have set out for a walk." What is felt may also include something of the present occasion, as if to say, "Under these conditions I often go for a walk" or it may include some state of deprivation or aversive stimulation, as if to say, "I need a breath of fresh air." The bodily condition associated with a high probability that we shall behave or do something is harder to pin down and we resort to metaphor. Since things often fall in the direction in which they lean, we say we are inclined to do something, or have an inclination to do it. If we are strongly inclined, we may even say we are bent on doing it. Since things also often move in the direction in which they are pulled, we say that we tend to do things (from the Latin tendere, to stretch or extend) or that our behaviour expresses an intention, a cognitive process widely favoured by philosophers at the present time. We also use attitude to refer to probability. An attitude is the position, posture, or pose we take when we are about to do something. For example, the pose of actors suggests something of what they are engaged in doing or are likely to do in a moment. The same sense of pose is found in dispose and propose ("I am disposed to go for a walk...... I propose to go for a walk"). Originally a synonym of propose, purpose has caused a great deal of trouble. Like other words suggesting probable action, it seems to point to the future. The future cannot be acting now, however, and elsewhere in science purpose has given way to words referring to past consequences. When philosophers speak of intention, for example, they are almost always speaking of operant behaviour. As an experimental analysis has shown, behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, but only by consequences that lie in the past. We do what we do because of what has happened, not what will happen. Unfortunately, what has happened leaves few observable traces, and why we do what we do and how likely we are to do it are therefore largely beyond the reach of introspection. Perhaps that is why, as we shall see later, behaviour has so often been attributed to an initiating, originating, or creative act of will. To respond effectively to the world around us, we must see, hear, smell, taste, or feel it. The ways in which behaviour is brought under the control of stimuli can be analysed without too much trouble, but what we observe when we see ourselves seeing something is the source of a great misunderstanding. We say we perceive the world in the literal sense of taking it in (from the Latin per and capere, to take). (Comprehend is a close synonym, part of which comes from prehendere, to seize or grasp.) We say, "I take your meaning." Since we cannot take in the world itself, it has been assumed that we must make a copy. Making a copy cannot be all there is to seeing, however, because we still have to see the copy. Copy theory involves an infinite regress. Some cognitive psychologists have tried to avoid it by saying that what is taken in is a representation perhaps a digital rather than an analog copy. When we recall ("call up an image of") what we have seen, however, we see something that looks pretty much like what we saw in the first place, and that would be an analog copy. Another way to avoid the regress is to say that at some point we interpret the copy or representation. The origins of interpret are obscure, but the word seems to have had some connection with price; an interpreter was once a broker. Interpret seems to have meant evaluate. It can best be understood as something we do. The metaphor of copy theory has obvious sources. When things reinforce our looking at them, we continue to look. We keep a few such things near us so that we can look at them whenever we like. If we cannot keep the things themselves, we make copies of them, such as paintings or photographs. Image, a word for an internal copy, comes from the Latin imago. It first meant a colored bust, rather like a wax-work museum effigy. Later it meant ghost. Effigy, by the way, is well chosen as a word for a copy, because it first meant something constructed-from the Latin fingere. There is no evidence, however, that we construct anything when we see the world around us or when we see that we are seeing it. A behavioural account of sensing is simpler. Seeing is behaving and, like all behaving, is to be explained either by natural selection (many animals respond visually shortly after birth) or operant conditioning. We do not see the world by taking it in and processing it. The world takes control of behaviour when either survival or reinforcement has been contingent upon it. That can occur only when something is done about what is seen. Seeing is only part of behaving; it is behaving up to the point of action. Since behaviour analysts deal only with complete instances of behaviour, the sensing part is out of reach of their instruments and methods and must, as we shall see later, be left to physiologists. Learning is not doing; it is changing what we do. We may see that behaviour has changed, but we do not see the changing. We see reinforcing consequences but not how they cause a change. Since the observable effects of reinforcement are usually not immediate, we often overlook the connection. Behaviour is then often said -to grow or develop. Develop originally meant to unfold, as one unfolds a letter. We assume that what we see was there from the start. Like pre-Darwinian evolution (where to evolve meant to unroll as one unrolled a scroll), developmentalism is a form of creationism. Copies or representations play an important part in cognitive theories of learning and memory, where they raise problems that do not arise in a behavioural analysis. When we must describe something that is no longer present, the traditional view is that we recall the copy we have stored. In a behavioural analysis, contingencies of reinforcement change the way we respond to stimuli. It is a changed person, not a memory, that has been "stored." Storage and retrieval become much more complicated when we learn and recall how something is done. It is easy to make copies of things we see, but how can we make copies of the things we do? We can model behaviour for someone to imitate, but a model cannot be stored. The traditional solution is to go digital. We say the organism learns and stores rules. When, for example, a hungry rat presses a lever and receives food and the rate of pressing immediately increases, cognitive psychologists want to say that the rat has learned a rule. It now knows and can remember that "pressing the lever produces food." But "pressing the lever produces food" is our description of the contingencies we have built into the apparatus. We have no reason to suppose that the rat formulates and stores such a description. The contingencies change the rat, which then survives as a changed rat. As members of a verbal species we can describe contingencies of reinforcement, and we often do because the descriptions have many practical uses (for example, we can memorise them and say them again whenever circumstances demand it) but there is no introspective or other evidence that we verbally describe every contingency that affects our behaviour, and much evidence to the contrary. Some of the words we use to describe subsequent occurrences of behaviour suggest storage. Recall-call back-is obviously one of them; recollect suggests "bringing together" stored pieces. Under the influence of the computer, cognitive psychologists have turned to retrieve-literally "to find again" (cf. the French trouver), presumably after a search. The etymology of remember, however, does not imply storage. From the Latin me or, it means to be "mindful of again" and that usually means to do again what we did before. To remember what something looks like is to do what we did when we saw it. We needed no copy then, and we need none now. We recognise things in the sense of "recognising" them responding to them now as we did in the past.) As a thing, a memory must be something stored, but as an action "memorising" simply means doing what we must do to ensure that we can behave again as we are behaving now. Many cognitive terms describe bodily states that arise when strong behaviour cannot be executed because a necessary condition is lacking. The source of a general word for states of that kind is obvious: when something is wanting, we say we want it. In dictionary terms, to want is to "suffer from the want of." Suffer originally meant "to undergo," but now it means "to be in pain," and strong wanting can indeed be painful. We escape from it by doing anything that has been reinforced by the thing that is now wanting and wanted. A near synonym of want is need. It, too, was first tied closely to suffering; to be in need was to be under restraint or duress. (Words tend to come into use when the conditions they describe are conspicuous.) Felt is often added: one has a felt need. We sometimes distinguish between want and need on the basis of the immediacy of the consequence. Thus, we want something to eat, but we need a taxi in order to do something that will have later consequences. Wishing and hoping are also states of being unable to do something we are strongly inclined to do. The putted golf ball rolls across the green, but we can only wish or will it into the hole. (Wish is close to will. The Anglo-Saxon willan meant "wish," and the would in "Would that it were so" is not close to the past tense of will.) When something we need is missing, we say we miss it. When we want something for a long time, we say we long for it. We long to see someone we love who has long been absent. When past consequences have been aversive, we do not hope, wish, or long for them. Instead, we worry or feel anxious about them. Worry first meant "choke" (a dog worries the rat it has caught), and anxious comes from another word for choke. We cannot do anything about things that have already happened, though we are still affected by them. We say we are sorry for a mistake we have made. Sorry is a weak form of sore. As the slang expression has it, we may be "sore about something." We resent mistreatment, quite literally, by "feeling it again" (resent and sentiment share a root). Sometimes we cannot act appropriately because we do not have the appropriate behaviour. When we have lost our way, for example, we say we feel lost. To be bewildered is like being in a wilderness. In such a case, we wander ("wend our way aimlessly") or wonder what to do. The wonders of the world were so unusual that no one responded to them in normal ways. We stand in awe of such things, and awe comes from a Greek word that meant "anguish" or "terror." Anguish, like anxiety, once meant "choked," and terror was a violent trembling. A miracle, from the Latin admirare, is "something to be wondered at," or about. Sometimes we cannot respond because we are taken unawares; we are surprised (the second syllable of which comes from the Latin prehendere, "to seize or grasp"). The story of Dr. Johnson's wife is a useful example. Finding the doctor kissing the maid, she is said to have exclaimed, "I am surprised!" "No," said the doctor, "I am surprised; you are astonished!" Astonished, like astounded, first meant "to be alarmed by thunder." Compare the French etonner and tonnere. When we cannot easily do something because our behaviour has been mildly punished, we are embarrassed or barred. Conflicting responses find us perplexed: they are "interwoven" 6r "entangled." When a response has been inconsistently reinforced, we are diffident, in the sense of not trusting. Trust comes from a Teutonic root suggesting consolation, which in turn has a distant Greek relative meaning "whole." Trust is bred by consistency. Wanting, wishing, worrying, resenting, and the like are often called "feelings." More likely to be called "states of mind" are the bodily conditions that result from certain special temporal arrangements of stimuli, responses, and reinforcers. The temporal arrangements are much easier to analyse than the states of mind that are said to result. Watch is an example. It first meant "to be awake." The night watch was someone who stayed awake. The word alert comes from the Italian for "a military watch." We watch television until we fall asleep. Those who are awake may be aware of what they are doing; aware is close to wary or cautious. (Cautious comes from a word familiar to us in caveat emptor) Psychologists have been especially interested in awareness, although they have generally used a synonym, consciousness. One who watches may be waiting for something to happen, but waiting is more than watching. It is something we all do but may not think of as a state of mind. Consider waiting for a bus. Nothing we have ever done has made the bus arrive, but its arrival has reinforced many of the things we do while waiting. For example, we stand where we have most often stood and look in the direction in which we have most often looked when buses have appeared. Seeing a bus has also been strongly reinforced, and we may see one while we are waiting, either in the sense of "thinking what one would look like" or by mistaking a truck for a bus. Waiting for something to happen is also called expecting, a more prestigious cognitive term. To expect is "to look forward to" (from the Latin expectare). To anticipate is "to do other things beforehand," such as getting the bus fare ready. Part of the word comes from the Latin capere "to take." Both expecting and anticipating are forms of behaviour that have been adventitiously reinforced by the appearance of something. (Much of what we do when we are waiting is public. Others can see us standing at a bus stop and looking in the direction from which buses come. An observant person may even see us take a step forward when a truck comes into view, or reach for a coin as the bus appears. We ourselves "see" something more, of course. The contingencies have worked private changes in us, to some of which we alone can respond.) It is widely believed that behaviour analysts cannot deal with the cognitive processes called thinking. We often use think to refer to weak behaviour. If we are not quite ready to say, "He is wrong," we say, "I think he is wrong." Think is often a weaker word for know; we say, "I think this is the way to do it" when we are not quite ready to say, "I know this is the way" or "This is the way." We also say think when stronger behaviour is not feasible. Thus, we think of what something looks like when it is not there to see, and we think of doing something that we cannot at the moment do. Many thought processes, however, have nothing to do with the distinction between weak and strong behaviour or between private and public, overt and covert. To think is to do something that makes other behaviour possible. Solving a problem is an example. A problem is a situation that does not evoke an effective response; we solve it by changing the situation until a response occurs. Telephoning a friend is a problem if we do not know the number, and we solve it by looking up the number. Etymologically, to solve is "to loosen or set free," as sugar is dissolved in coffee. This is the sense in which thinking is responsible for doing. "It is how people think that determines how they act." Hence, the hegemony of mind. But again the terms we use began as references to behaviour. Here are a few examples: It is certainly no accident that so many of the terms we now use to refer to cognitive processes once referred either to behaviour or to the occasions on which behaviour occurs. It could be objected, of course, that what a word once meant is not what it means now. Surely there is a difference between weighing a sack of potatoes and weighing the evidence in a court of law. When we speak of weighing evidence we are using a metaphor. But a metaphor is a word that is "carried over" from one referent to another on the basis of a common property. The common property in weighing is the conversion of one kind of thing (potatoes or evidence) into another (a number on a scale or a verdict). Once we have seen this weighing done with potatoes it is easier to see it done with evidence. Over the centuries human behaviour has grown steadily more complex as it has come under the control of more complex environments. The number and complexity of the bodily conditions felt or introspectively observed have grown accordingly, and with them has grown the vocabulary of cognitive thinking. We could also say that weight becomes abstract when we move from potatoes to evidence. The word is indeed abstracted in the sense of its being drawn away from its original referent, but it continues to refer to a common property, and, as in the case of metaphor, in a possibly more decisive way. The testimony in a trial is much more complex than a sack of potatoes, and "guilty" probably implies more than "ten pounds." But abstraction is not a matter of complexity. Quite the contrary Weight is only one aspect of a potato, and guilt is only one aspect of a person. Weight is as abstract as guilt. It is only under verbal contingencies of reinforcement that we respond to single properties of things or persons. In doing so we abstract the property from the thing or person. One may still argue that at some point the term is abstracted and carried over, not to a slightly more complex case, but to something of a very different kind. Potatoes are weighed in the physical world; evidence is weighed in the mind, or with the help of the mind, or by the mind. And that brings us to the heart of the matter. The battle cry of the cognitive revolution is "Mind is back!" A "great new science of mind" is born. Behaviourism nearly destroyed our concern for it, but behaviourism has been overthrown, and we can take up again where the philosophers and early psychologists left off. Extraordinary things have certainly been said about the mind. The finest achievements of the species have been attributed to it; it is said to work at miraculous speeds in miraculous ways. But what it is and what it does are still far from clear. We all speak of the mind with little or no hesitation, but we pause when asked for a definition. Dictionaries are of no help. To understand what mind means we must first look up perception, idea, feeling, intention, and many other words we have just examined, and we shall find each of them defined with the help of the others. Perhaps from people who did not know precisely what we were talking about, and we have no sensory nerves going to the parts of the brain in which the most important events presumably occur. Many cognitive psychologists recognise these limitations and dismiss the words we have been examining as the language of "common sense psychology." The mind that has made its comeback is therefore not the mind of Locke or Berkeley or of Wundt or William James. We do not observe it; we infer it. We do not see ourselves processing information, for example. We see the materials that we process and the product, but not the producing. We now treat mental processes like intelligence, personality, or character traits-as things no one ever claims to see through introspection. Whether or not the cognitive revolution has restored mind as the proper subject matter of psychology, it has not restored introspection as the proper way of looking at it. The behaviourists' attack on introspection has been devastating. Cognitive psychologists have therefore turned to brain science and computer science to confirm their theories. Brain science, they say, will eventually tell us what cognitive processes really are. They will answer, once and for all, the old questions about monism, dualism, and interactionism. By building machines that do what people do, computer science will demonstrate how the mind works. What is wrong with all this is not what philosophers, psychologists, brain scientists, and computer scientists have found or will find; the error is the direction in which they are looking. No account of what is happening inside the human body, no matter how complete, will explain the origins of human behaviour. What happens inside the body is not a beginning. By looking at how a clock is built, we can explain why it keeps good time, but not why keeping time is important, or how the clock came to be built that way. We must ask the same questions about a person. Why do people do what they do, and why do the bodies that do it have the structures they have? We can trace a small part of human behaviour, and a much larger part of the behaviour of other species, to natural selection and the evolution of the species, but the greater part of human behaviour must be traced to contingencies of reinforcement, especially to the very complex social contingencies we call cultures. Only when we take those histories into account can we explain why people behave as they do. That position is sometimes characterised as treating a person as a black box and ignoring its contents. Behaviour analysts would study the invention and uses of clocks without asking how clocks are built. But nothing is being ignored. Behaviour analysts leave what is inside the black box to those who have the instruments and methods needed to study it properly. There are two unavoidable gaps in any behavioural account: one between the stimulating action of the environment and the response of the organism, and one between consequences and the resulting change in behaviour. Only brain science can fill those gaps. In doing so it completes the account; it does not give a different account of the same thing. Human behaviour will eventually be explained, because it can only be explained by the cooperative action of ethology, brain science, and behaviour analysis. The analysis of behaviour need not wait until brain science has done its part. The behavioural facts will not be changed, and they suffice for both a science and a technology. Brain science may discover other kinds of variables affecting behaviour, but it will turn to a behavioural analysis for the clearest account of their effects. Verbal contingencies of reinforcement explain why we report what we feel or introspectively observe. The verbal culture that arranges such contingencies would not have evolved if it had not been useful. Bodily conditions are not the causes of behaviour but they are collateral effects of the causes, and people's answers to questions about how they feel or what they are thinking often tell us something about what has happened to them or what they have done. We can understand them better and are more likely to anticipate what they will do. The words they use are part of a living language that can be used without embarrassment by cognitive psychologists and behaviour analysts alike in their daily lives. But not in their science! A few traditional terms may survive in the technical language of a science, but they are carefully defined and stripped by usage of their old connotations. Science requires a language. We seem to be giving up the effort to explain our behaviour by reporting what we feel or introspectively observe in our bodies, but we have only begun to construct a science needed to analyse the complex interactions between the environment and the body and the behaviour to which it gives rise.

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