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Use these acorns to engage your children in learning uppercase and lowercase letters! Print and cut out the acorns. Separate the top and the bottom halves of the acorn by cutting them apart. Laminate the pieces and get ready to play! To play, students match the uppercase letter on the bottom of the acorn to the lowercase letter on the top of the acorn! Once all the matches have been found, students can use them to complete the accompanying worksheets! I hope you enjoy using this fun Fall alphabet matching game! Freebie offered under Scrappin Doodles License #TPT59390
Skip to 0 minutes and 1 secondLet's have a go at writing a program using objects. For this activity, we will use Python's Turtle module, which should already have been created when you instal Python. Almost all of the coding tasks in this course can be completed using Trinket if you don't have Python installed. First, we need to ask Python to import the turtle class, which is like a blueprint for making a turtle. Next, we will create a turtle object. I'm going to name my turtle object Laura, but you can call yours whatever you like. Now, let's tell our turtle object what it should look like. We can also tell the object what it should do by calling some other methods. Skip to 0 minutes and 44 secondsSince the name of the turtle object is just a variable name, it must start with a letter, and it cannot contain any spaces. In fact, we are just creating a variable in exactly the same way as usual, except the data type of the variable is not an integer or a string, but a turtle. Skip to 1 minute and 8 secondsNow it's your turn. Create three more turtle objects, making sure to give different names. Skip to 1 minute and 25 secondsWe don't want to send all of the turtles to the same location, so tell one new turtle to go to minus 160, 70; one to go to minus 160, 40; and one to go to minus 160, 10. Make them different colours if you like. Skip to 1 minute and 56 secondsNow, let's add some code to make the turtle objects race. Underneath your four turtle objects, add this code. Skip to 2 minutes and 18 secondsYou will also need to go back to the top of your program and add this line of code so that we can generate random integers. Skip to 2 minutes and 32 secondsSave and run your code and see which turtle wins. Let’s have a go at writing a program using objects. We will use Python’s turtle module, which should be included when you install Python. You can complete almost all of the activities in this course in a web browser by creating a free Trinket account. Open the Trinket page in a new tab so you can continue to work through the course at the same time. Alternatively, you might want to install Python 3 on your computer and use the IDLE code editor which comes with the installation. First, we need to ask Python to import the Turtle class, which is like a blueprint for making a turtle. We will look at what a class is in more detail later on in the course – for now, use this code: from turtle import Turtle If you are using Trinket, create a new Python trinket – these are free to create: You can type this code straight into main.py in your new Trinket. If you are using a text editor, save your code as turtle_race.py - or at least ensure you do not call your file turtle.py otherwise the code will try to import itself and will not work. Next, we will create an instance of a Turtle object. I’m going to name my Turtle object ‘laura’ because I’m going to get my turtle to race against some of the Raspberry Pi team. You can give your turtle whatever name you like. laura = Turtle() Since the name of the Turtle object is a variable name, it must start with a letter and it cannot contain any spaces. In fact, we are creating a variable in exactly the same way as we usually do, except that the data type of the variable is not an integer or a string, but a Turtle! We need to give each Turtle object a different name, so that, when we give instructions, we can be specific about which object we are giving the instructions to. Now, let’s tell our Turtle object what it should look like. Inside the object are attributes, which are pieces of data we can define. The Turtle object has attributes for color and shape, so let’s customise those attributes: We can also tell our Turtle object what to do by calling other methods. With the code below, we are instructing the object to stop drawing with penup(), then to move to a location with goto(), and finally to get ready to draw a line with laura.penup() laura.goto(-160, 100) laura.pendown() Save your code and run it. What happens? Now it’s your turn. Create three more instances of a Turtle object, each with a different name. We don’t want to send all of the turtles to the same starting point, so tell one new turtle to goto(-160, 70), one to goto(-160, 40) and one to goto(-160, 10). You can set a different colour for each turtle if you like. Save and run your code to check that each of your turtles positions itself correctly, ready to start the race! Now let’s add some code to make the Turtle objects race. Below your four turtle objects, add this code, replacing the names (laura, rik, etc.) with the names of your own turtle objects: for movement in range(100): laura.forward(randint(1,5)) rik.forward(randint(1,5)) lauren.forward(randint(1,5)) carrieanne.forward(randint(1,5)) You will also need to go back to the top of your program and add this line of code so that we can generate random integers: from random import randint Just as when we used methods to tell the turtle to goto(), with this code we are calling a method on each turtle object: we are asking it to move forward() a random distance between one and five units. Save and run your code and see which turtle wins! The result should be different each time you run the code. A similar version of the code from this section of the course is available as a Code Club project, in case you would like to make it with your learners. © CC BY-SA 4.0
Authors: Blake M Allan, Dale G Nimmo, John P Y Arnould, Jennifer K Martin, and Euan G Ritchie Published in: Journal of Mammalogy Understanding animal movement patterns is fundamental to ecology, as it allows inference about species’ habitat preferences and their niches. Such knowledge also underpins our ability to predict how animals may respond to environmental change, including habitat loss and modification. Data-logging devices such as GPS trackers and accelerometers are rapidly becoming cheaper and smaller, allowing movement at fine scales to be recorded on a broad range of animal species. We examined movement patterns of an arboreal mammal (bobuck, Trichosurus cunninghami) in a highly fragmented forest ecosystem. The GPS data showed males travelled greater distances than females in linear roadside strip habitats, but not in forest fragments. The accelerometer data showed that both sexes exhibited higher activity levels in roadside habitats compared to forest fragments. By coupling GPS and accelerometer data, we uncovered for this species an ecological pattern similar to other mammals: that male bobucks had higher activity levels than females for a given distance travelled. Our findings also suggest that habitat fragmentation changes the amount and type of activity bobucks perform while moving, and that linear forest strips could be considered “energetically challenging” habitats, which informs how we should manage the spatial distribution of key supplementary resources for this species such as nest sites and minimum fragment sizes.
In the past 20 years, warming temperatures have caused two ice shelves in Antarctica to collapse into the ocean. New research points to a third shelf, more than twice the size of Wales, which has thinned so much that it could now also face collapse. The loss of the shelf would allow glaciers to flow more quickly into the ocean, pushing sea levels beyond current projections for this century, the researchers say. An ice shelf forms when a glacier on land reaches the coast and flows into the ocean. If the ocean is cold enough, the ice doesn’t melt. Instead, it forms a permanently floating sheet of ice. Ice shelf schematic. Source: British Antarctic Survey. The Larsen ice shelves sit at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, the northernmost part of the mainland. Originally there were four. But Larsen-A collapsed in 1995, followed by Larsen-B in 2002. Larsen-C, the largest section, and Larsen-D are all that remain. Images: NASA Earth Observatory, gif by Rosamund Pearce for Carbon Brief The new study, published in The Cryosphere, says that Larsen-C is thinning rapidly. Using satellite data, the researchers show that from 1998 and 2012, the ice shelf has thinned by four metres, and is now sitting one metre lower in the water. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS), whose scientists led the research, produced a short video to explain their findings. The Antarctic Peninsula is one of the fastest warming regions on Earth. Temperatures have risen by 2.5C in the past 50 years, the researchers say. A separate study last year found that warming air was the principal cause of the Larsen-B collapse. When warm air melts the top of an ice shelf, pools of water form on the surface. The water seeps into cracks in the ice, eroding and widening them until the ice shelf splits and pieces break off. This is how icebergs are formed, in a process called ‘calving’. Larsen-B collapsed because of rapid and widespread calving, the researchers found. Ice shelves can also melt from underneath as the ocean warms. As the ice thins, it loses support from the sea bed as it retreats. This can make it unstable and vulnerable to collapse. Previously, scientists weren’t sure whether the Larsen-C ice sheet was melting from the top down or the bottom up. In another video clip from BAS, Prof David Vaughan, who wasn’t directly involved in the study, says the research shows it’s actually both: “All of the indications are that Larsen-C is thinning, and this current research tells us it’s thinning from above and from below – a two-pronged attack.” Prof David Vaughan discusses the implication of the study’s findings. Source: British Antarctic Survey. Another study, published in March, found that ice shelf melt in West Antarctica has increased by 70% in just the last decade. While research from last year suggests that the gradual collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, the part that sits on land, is already underway. Sea level rise Since ice shelves float on the water, when an iceberg breaks off or a shelf collapses entirely it doesn’t directly affect sea levels. But once an ice shelf has gone, the glaciers behind it are free to flow more quickly into the ocean, causing sea level to rise. Research suggests that glaciers behind ice shelves may accelerate as much as five times following a rapid collapse. Vaughan says this happened with the loss of Larsen-C’s neighbouring ice shelves: “We know that after Larsen-A and Larsen-B, a fairly large fraction of the total Antarctic contribution to sea level rise comes from those glaciers that once fed those ice shelves. Larsen-C is bigger and so the impact of losing Larsen-C would be a significant extra contribution to sea level rise.” At the moment, scientists predict that sea levels will rise by over half a metre by 2100, even under moderate scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions. This would cause problems for coastal areas and low-lying cities, says Vaughan. But the loss of Larsen-C would push sea levels beyond even this amount, he says. Scientists on Larsen-C. Source: British Antarctic Survey. Ice shelf stability So, when might Larsen-C collapse? Vaughan says scientists can’t be sure: “We really don’t know precisely when Larsen-C will collapse. It really might have a lifespan of decades or perhaps a century.” There are different factors that affect the stability of the ice shelf, today’s paper says. Some would would trigger a collapse over many decades, but others could threaten it in a few years. For example, a separate study earlier this year found a large crack in the Larsen-C ice shelf grew rapidly during 2014 – at one point extending 20 km in just eight months. This rift could cause a large section of ice to break off, generating “the largest calving event since the 1980s”, presenting a significant risk to Larsen-C’s stability, the study says. While scientists might not be able to pin down exactly when the collapse of Larsen-C might be set in motion, today’s paper suggests it could well happen without much warming. Main image: Larsen ice shelf, Antarctica. Update: gif added on 13/05/2015. Holland, P.R. et al. (2015) Oceanic and atmospheric forcing of Larsen C ice-shelf thinning, The Cryosphere, doi:10.5194/tc-9-1-2015.
CDC Redefines Concussion The most recent definition of a concussion by the federal Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is as follows: “A concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury, or TBI, caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head that can change the way your brain normally works. Concussions can also occur from a fall or a blow to the body that causes the head and brain to move quickly back and forth.” This is a very significant change in definition. In the past a concussion was viewed as simply a transient alteration in consciousness caused by head contact or whiplash which might or might not involve injury to the brain. The new definition makes it clear that a concussion is a form of brain injury. Thus any concussion from any source should be taken seriously and the victim should be examined by a doctor.
1: Read-Write Genre Sheets - Downloadable PDFs Read-Write Genre Sheets: How do we help students bring the nuances of reading and writing genres to life? How can they learn to identify the genres and their elements in reading and transfer that knowledge to writing? These user-friendly tools help learners identify, define, and understand reading and writing genres. These concept-building Genre Sheets serve as a kid-friendly guide to nuances and components of stories, plays, poems, texts, and accounts. Use these tools to explore common elements and define the differences between genres such as, historical fiction and historical text or fables and folktales. Use these to understand genres inside and out! - Genre Sheets: Stories_Primary Cover (Color, 8.5" x 11") - Genre Sheets: Plays_Primary Cover (Color, 8.5" x 11") - Genre Sheets: Poems_Primary Cover (Color, 8.5" x 11") - Genre Sheets: Texts_Primary Cover (Color, 8.5" x 11") - Genre Sheets: Accounts_Primary Cover (Color, 8.5" x 11")
How in the world could you possibly look inside a star? You could break out the scalpels and other tools of the surgical trade, but good luck getting within a few million kilometers of the surface before your skin melts off. The stars of our universe hide their secrets very well, but astronomers can outmatch their cleverness and have found ways to peer into their hearts using, of all things, sound waves. Continue reading “Scientists are Using Artificial Intelligence to See Inside Stars Using Sound Waves” Precisely dating a star can have important consequences for understanding stellar evolution and any circling exoplanets. But it’s one of the toughest plights in astronomy with only a few existing techniques. One method is to find a star with radioactive elements like uranium and thorium, whose half-lives are known and can be used to date the star with certainty. But only about 5 percent of stars are thought to have such a chemical signature. Another method is to look for a relationship between a star’s age and its ‘metals,’ the astronomer’s slang term for all elements heavier than helium. Throughout cosmic history, the cycle of star birth and death has steadily produced and dispersed more heavy elements leading to new generations of stars that are more heavily seeded with metals than the generation before. But the uncertainties here are huge. The latest research is providing a new technique, showing that protostars can easily be dated by measuring the acoustic vibrations — sound waves — they emit. Stars are born deep inside giant molecular clouds of gas. Turbulence within these clouds gives rise to pockets of gas and dust with enough mass to collapse under their own gravitational contraction. As each cloud — protostar — continues to collapse, the core gets hotter, until the temperature is sufficient enough to begin nuclear fusion, and a full-blown star is born. Our Sun likely required about 50 million years to mature from the beginning of collapse. Theoretical physicists have long posited that protostars vibrate differently than stars. Now, Konstanze Zwintz from KU Leuven’s Institute for Astronomy, and colleagues have tested this prediction. The team studied the vibrations of 34 protostars in NGC 2264, all of which are less than 10 million years old. They used the Canadian MOST satellite, the European CoRoT satellite, and ground-based facilities such as the European Southern Observatory in Chile. “Our data show that the youngest stars vibrate slower while the stars nearer to adulthood vibrate faster,” said Zwintz in a press release. “A star’s mass has a major impact on its development: stars with a smaller mass evolve slower. Heavy stars grow faster and age more quickly.” Each stars’ vibrations are indirectly seen by their subtle changes in brightness. Bubbles of hot, bright gas rise to the star’s surface and then cool, dim, and sink in a convective loop. This overturn causes small changes in the star’s brightness, revealing hidden information about the sound waves deep within. You can actually hear this process when the stellar light curves are converted into sound waves. Below is a video of such singing stars, produced by Nature last year. “We now have a model that more precisely measures the age of young stars,” said Zwintz. “And we are now also able to subdivide young stars according to their various life phases.” The results were published in Science. A simple, yet elegant method of measuring the surface gravity of a star has just been discovered. These computations are important because they reveal stellar physical properties and evolutionary state – and that’s not all. The technique works equally well for estimating the size of hundreds of exoplanets. Developed by a team of astronomers and headed by Vanderbilt Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Keivan Stassun, this new technique measures a star’s “flicker”. Continue reading “Flicker… A Bright New Method of Measuring Stellar Surface Gravity” Scientists have discovered a new planet orbiting a Sun-like star, and the exoplanet is the smallest yet found in data from the Kepler mission. The planet, Kepler-37b, is smaller than Mercury, but slightly larger than Earth’s Moon. The planet’s discovery came from a collaboration between Kepler scientists and a consortium of international researchers who employ asteroseismology — measuring oscillations in the star’s brightness caused by continuous star-quakes, and turning those tiny variations in the star’s light into sounds. “That’s basically listening to the star by measuring sound waves,” said Steve Kawaler, from Iowa State University in the US, and a member of the research team. “The bigger the star, the lower the frequency, or ‘pitch’ of its song.” The measurements made by the astroseismologists allowed the Kepler research team to more accurately measure the tiny Kepler-37b, as well as revealing two other planets in the same planetary system: one slightly smaller than Earth and one twice as large. While Kepler 37b is likely a rocky planet, this would not be a great place for humans to live. It’s likely very hot — with a smoldering surface and no atmosphere. “Owing to its extremely small size, similar to that of the Earth’s moon, and highly irradiated surface, Kepler-37b is very likely a rocky planet with no atmosphere or water, similar to Mercury,” the team wrote in their paper, which was published this week in Nature. “The detection of such a small planet shows for the first time that stellar systems host planets much smaller as well as much larger than anything we see in our own Solar System.” The host star, Kepler-37, is about 210 light-years from Earth in the constellation Lyra. All three planets orbit the star at less than the distance Mercury is to the Sun, suggesting they are very hot, inhospitable worlds. Kepler-37b orbits every 13 days at less than one-third Mercury’s distance from the Sun. The estimated surface temperature of this smoldering planet, at more than 800 degrees Fahrenheit (700 Kelvin), would be hot enough to melt the zinc in a penny. Kepler-37c and Kepler-37d, orbit every 21 days and 40 days, respectively. The size of the star must be known in order to measure the planet’s size accurately. To learn more about the properties of the star Kepler-37, scientists examined sound waves generated by the boiling motion beneath the surface of the star. “The technique for stellar seismology is analogous to how geologists use seismic waves generated by earthquakes to probe the interior structure of Earth,” said Travis Metcalfe, who is part of the Kepler Asteroseismic Science Consortium. The sound waves travel into the star and bring information back up to the surface. The waves cause oscillations that Kepler observes as a rapid flickering of the star’s brightness. The barely discernible, high-frequency oscillations in the brightness of small stars are the most difficult to measure. This is why most objects previously subjected to asteroseismic analysis are larger than the Sun. “Studying these oscillations been done for a long time with our own Sun,” Metcalfe told Universe Today, “but the Kepler mission expanded that to hundreds of Sun-like stars. Kepler-37 is the coolest star, as well as the smallest star that has been measured with asterosiesmology.” Kepler-37 has a radius just three-quarters of the Sun. Metcalfe said the radius of the star is known to 3 percent accuracy, which translates to exceptional accuracy in the planet’s size. Metcalfe launched a non-profit organization to help raise research funds for the Kepler Asteroseismic Science Consortium. The Pale Blue Dot Project allows people to adopt a star to support asteroseismology, since there is no NASA funding for asteroseismology. “Much of the expertise for this exists in Europe and not in the US, so as a cost saving measure NASA outsourced this particular research for the Kepler mission,” said Metcalfe, “and NASA can’t fund researchers in other countries.” Find out how you can help this research by adopting one of the Kepler stars at the Pale Blue Dot Project website. The Kepler spacecraft carries a photometer, or light meter, to measure changes in the brightness of the stars it is focusing on in the Cygnus region in the sky. Metcalfe said this discovery took a long time to verify, as the signature of this very small exoplanet was hard to confirm, to make sure the signature wasn’t coming from other sources such as an eclipsing binary star. Kawaler said Kepler is sending astronomers photometry data that’s “probably the best we’ll see in our lifetimes,” he said, adding that this latest discovery shows “we have a proven technology for finding small planets around other stars.” “We uncovered a planet smaller than any in our solar system orbiting one of the few stars that is both bright and quiet, where signal detection was possible,” said Thomas Barclay, lead author of Nature paper. “This discovery shows close-in planets can be smaller, as well as much larger, than planets orbiting our sun.” And are there more small planets like this out there, just waiting to be found? As the team wrote in their paper, “While a sample of only one planet is too small to use for determination of occurrence rates it does lend weight to the belief that planet occurrence increases exponentially with decreasing planet size.” Asteroseismology is a relatively new field in astronomy. This branch uses sound waves in stars to explore their nature in the same way seismologists on Earth have used waves induced by tectonic activity to probe the interior of our planet. These waves aren’t heard directly, but as they strike the surface they can cause it to undulate, shifting the spectral lines this way and that, or compress the outer layers causing them to brighten and fade which can be detected with photometry. By studying these variations, astronomers have begun peering into stars. This much is generally known, but some of the specific tricks aren’t often brought up when discussing the topic. So here’s five things you can do with asteroseismology you may not have known about! 1. Determine the Age of a Star From high school science you should know sound will travel through a medium at a characteristic speed for a given temperature and pressure. This information tells you something about the chemical composition of the star. This is a fantastic thing since astronomers can then check that against predictions made by stellar models. But astronomers can also take that one step further. Since the core of a star slowly converts hydrogen to helium over its lifetime, that composition will change. How much it has changed from its original composition towards the point where there’s no longer enough hydrogen to support fusion, tells you how far through the main sequence lifetime a star is. Since we know the age of the solar system very well from meteorites, astronomers have calibrated this technique and begun using it on other stars like α Centauri. Spectroscopically, this star is expected to be nearly identical to the Sun; it has very similar spectral type and chemical composition. Yet a 2005 study using this technique pinned α Cen as 6.7 ± 0.5 billion years which is about one and a half billion years older than the Sun. Obviously, this still has a rather large uncertainty to it (nearly 10%), but the technique is still new and will certainly be refined in the future. And if that wasn’t cool enough by itself, astronomers are now beginning to use this technique on stars with known planets to get a better understanding of the planets! This can be important in many cases since planets will initially glow more brightly in younger systems since they still retain heat from their formation and this amount of extra light could confuse astronomers on just how might light is being reflected leading to inaccurate estimates of other properties like size or reflectivity. 2. Determine Internal Rotation We already know that stars rotation is a bit funny. They rotate faster at their equator than at their poles, a phenomenon known as differential rotation. But stars are also expected to have differences in rotation as you get deeper. For stars like the Sun, this effect is related to a difference in energy transport mechanisms: radiative, where energy is conducted by a flow of photons in the deep interior, to convective, where energy is carried by bulk flow of matter, creating the boiling motion we see on the surface. At this boundary, the physical parameters of the system change and the material will flow differentially. This boundary is known as the tachocline. Within the Sun, we’ve known it’s there, but using asteroseismology (which, when used on the Sun is known as helioseismology), astronomers actually pinned it down. It’s 72% the way out from the core. 3. Find Planets Until very recently, the most reliable way to find planets has been to look for the spectroscopic wiggle as the planets tug the star around. This technique sounds very straightforward, and it can be, unless the star has a lot of wiggle of its own due to the effects that make asteroseismology possible. Those effects can easily be much larger than those created by planets. So if you want to find planets lost in the forest of noise, you’d best understand the effects caused by the pulsating stellar surface. After astronomers cancelled out those effects on V391 Pegasi, they discovered a planet. And what a weird one it was. This planet is orbiting a sub-dwarf star, which is the helium core of a post-main sequence star which has ejected its hydrogen envelope. Of course, this occurs during the red giant phase when the star should have swollen up to engulf the gas giant planet in orbit. But apparently the planet survived, or somehow came along later. 4. Find Buried Sunspots Turning to recent news, helioseismology recently found some sunspots. This wouldn’t be a big deal. Anyone with a properly filtered telescope can find them. Except these ones were buried some 60,000 km beneath the Sun’s surface. By using the seismic data, astronomers found an overdense region beneath the surface. This region was caused, just as sunspots are, by a tangle in the magnetic field keeping the material in place. As it rose to the surface, it became a sunspot. Here’s the vid: 5. Make “Music” Because many of the events that create the soundwaves in stars are periodic, they are rhythmic in nature. This has prompted many explorations into using these naturally created beats to make music. A direct example is this one which simply assigns tones to the modes of pulsation. The site also notes that the beat created by one of the stars, has been used as a base for club music in Belgium. This has also been done for longer “symphonies” by Zoltan Kollath.
Considering the way that the Egyptian astronomers have been treated by the academic world until recently, it is not surprising that the problem of the Egyptian constellations is still far from being solved. Two historical figures who are often the subject of disputable speculations are the female pharaoh Hatschepsut and her architect Semnut. Many historians believe that they had a romantic affair, but more importantly their names are linked for eternity because we owe to them one of the most impressive masterpieces of architecture of all time: the temple of Deir el Barhi, on the west bank of the Nile at Luxor. Next to the temple, Semnut had a tomb built for himself on the side of the mountain. The tomb remained unfinished for unknown reasons, but the fresco of the funerary chamber was already drawn, although not fully colored, at the time of the abandonment. This fresco (c. 1473 BC) can be considered a compendium of astronomy of the New Kingdom, and is both the oldest and the most complete compendium known to us. The fresco, 3 x 3.6 meters large, was made by tracing a grid of red and blue lines, partially still visible today, and then painting the hieroglyphics in black. Touch-ups in red and blue appear on some of the figures. The picture is divided into two parts by a double belt of stars with a central inscription. The top square shows a list of decans similar to a stellar clock. Under the name of each decan are depicted the stars representing it. The list starts, on the left side, with Sirius followed by Orion represented turned toward Sirius, and then by the lades, the stars that form the basis of the Taurus constellation, in the typical shape of a V. On top of them there is a group of four stars, three of which are aligned with one another, and the central one is circled by three ellipses, possibly representing the Pleiades (Juan Belmonte, personal communication). Four of the five visible planets are also represented—Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, and Venus—while Mars is missing, as in many other later astronomical representations probably copied from the same source. The bottom square shows what is probably a 12-month calendar. In the center and below are some figures of constellations of stars. These figures were named by Neugebauer and Parker with terms that only served create more confusion; for example, they used the term northern constellations, even though they specified that they are not all circumpolar constellations. On the left and right sides of the "northern constellations" there is a line of standing figures representing "partner" divinities, like Isis and Horus's sons (the northern constellations, following a similar scheme where the figures would sometimes change, were represented in many other tombs, for example in the astronomical ceilings of the Ramessides tombs). Endless discussions and debates have addressed the problem of the identification of these starry figures with the constellations, but most such debates are uninteresting. For instance, for a long time there has been a discussion regarding the question of whether the Egyptians had elaborated a zodiac of their own (meaning a division of the stars of the ecliptic into constellations; cf. Appendix 1) before the introduction of the zodiac of Babylonian origin, and there has been more than one attempt to use the lack of knowledge regarding the zodiac as proof of the lack of astronomical knowledge, which makes no sense. What really matters is to try to understand the logic behind the representation of the various constellations, zodiacal or not. It is quite obvious that the identification of ancient constellations, not only in Egypt, is complicated by the fact that there is no reason why different people should connect the stars in the sky to form the same figures (even worse the same animals, if they live in completely different parts of the planet), and therefore the constellations can be very different from ours (for example, many civilizations kept Orion and Sirius separate; nevertheless, during the Minoic period in Crete, Sirius and Orion were part of the same constellation, a double ax, with the handle formed by a segment linking Sirius to Orion's belt, see Blomberg and Henriksson 2007). As a consequence, when looking for the first time at the Egyptian constellations, one cannot avoid being fascinated by them. It is indeed the representation, right in front of us, of how an Egyptian read the sky some 3500 years ago. While we inherited our main constellations from the Babylonians and, therefore, did not invent their figures by ourselves, the images depicted in the tombs of the New Kingdom represent a projection into the sky of the imagination and of the religious thought of the Egyptians of that time. Even the way in which the images are represented in the sky is different from our own; it looks like someone had stretched and flattened the celestial vault, according to a different sense of perspective than the one we are used to now, which is nevertheless perfectly logical and organized. Despite all these problems, we can at least attempt to identify the figures (Belmonte 2001a, Belmonte and Lull 2006). We will use the terms (a bit complicated, but of common use) chosen by Neugebauer and Parker: 1. Mes: a bull's foreleg, which we have met before (in the Semnut ceiling as an oval bull, and in other depictions, like the one on the ceiling of the tomb of Seti I, a real bull). 2. Hippo: a female hippopotamus, standing on two legs, with a crocodile on its shoulders. The hippopotamus is leaning against a pillar and another crocodile. 3. An: a falcon-god pointing a spear toward Mes. 4. Serket: a goddess with a disk on her head, parallel to Mes. 5. Lion: a lion, in some pictures, like the ones in Semnut, has a crocodile tail. 6. Sak and Croc: crocodiles; Sak with a bent tail, on top of Lion, and Croc with a straight tail, under Lion. 7. Man: a standing man facing Croc. 8. Pole: a pillar or pier, set between Hippo and Mes. The key to unraveling their counterparts in the sky is clearly Mes, which certainly represents the Big Dipper. The Bull seems to rotate around the pommel of the instrument hold by Hippo (in the Seti ceiling there is a Bull tied with a rope to such a point); therefore, the Hippo's paw identifies the celestial North Pole. Because at the time, due to precession, the pole was near the constellation Draco, Hippo must be identified with our Draco, while the pillar leaning against it is in a position corresponding to the Little Dipper. The identification, however, of all the other constellations is much more delicate. One possibility is to read them like a spiral in the sky and, at the same time, move from right to left in the picture; in that case An, the falcon killing the bull with a spear, could perhaps be identified, at keast in my opinion, with a constellation in the Cygnus and Hercules region; not all experts agree, however (see Belmonte and Lull 2006). Serket, the goddess with the disk on her head, is our Virgo, and Lion is our Leo (but its tail perhaps should be identified with the Cancer). Under Lion we find Croc, maybe to be identified with Hidra. The other crocodile above Lion is then in the Gemini region. Lastly, the falcon, present only in some of these pictures, should be identified with Perseus. Incidentally, it is interesting to note that the scene staged around the celestial North Pole is very similar to the completely unrelated one we discussed in Lascaux (see Chapter 1), painted about 14,000 years earlier. There as well a one-legged being, the baton-bird, indicates the pole, and there is also a bird-man, basically identifiable with the Cygnus constellation, the constellation that, due to precession, hosted the celestial North Pole at that time (Rappenglueck 1999). Beside these northern constellations, it is probable that the Egyptians identified the stars of the Milky Way with a celestial river, a kind of cosmic counterpart of the Nile. They also had, as we have already seen, at least two more constellations ("of the south"), corresponding to Orion-Osiris and to Sirius (our Canis Major). Sirius is represented as a star between the horns of a cow, while Orion-Osiris (Sah) is represented as a man holding a baton. In the Semnut ceiling, Orion turns to his left and holds the baton with his left arm; however, in many other depictions, for example in the one on the Pyramidon (the stone in the shape of a pyramid forming the cuspid of the pyramid) of the pharaoh Amhenemat III (c. 1800 BC), a shining star is sitting on the hand of Orion. It is Aldebaran, the beautiful star at the bottom of the group of the Iades, in our Taurus (the Bull) constellation. The region of these southern constellations formed by Sirius, Orion, and by the Iades, was identified in Egypt, already in very ancient times, with the Duat, or Kingdom of the Dead. It is not clear, though, if this afterworld was also, in some way, underground, and, conversely, it is not clear where the stars of the Duat were supposed to go during their invisibility period. As we have seen the exceptional interest (and complexity) of the astronomical ceilings is due to the fact that they depict an imaginary view of the sky according to the thought and the feelings of the ancient Egyptians much before the arrival of the astronomical ideas of the Babylonians, which percolated through into Egypt in Hellenistic times together with the zodiacal constellations as we know them. A merging occurred then between the autochthonous constellations (the Bull's Foreleg and the Hippo, for instance) and the imported zodiacal constellations; the reflexes of this syncretistic vision of the sky can be seen in various depictions (incorrectly called zodiacs), the oldest one dating to the 2nd century BC. The most famous of such zodiacs is certainly the one from the temple of Hathor in Dendera, today preserved in the Louvre. It is a basrelief carved in heavy sandstone, found on the ceiling of a chapel on the roof of the temple. The relief contains a map of the sky within a circle held by four human couples with falcon heads, and by four divinities associated with the cardinal points. On the external belt run the 36 decans, the first one of them corresponding to Sirius, represented by a cow on a boat. On the inside we find the zodiacal constellations depicted together with the Egyptian traditional figures like Hippo and Mes (Aubourg 1995). Was this article helpful?
Selection of the optimum lamp type and lamp power for your application depends on a variety of factors. Which wavelength do you need? Which wavelengths scatter the light or heat the sample, which is undesirable? One should ideally choose a lamp with high power in the desired spectral range at and low power at wavelengths that may be light-diffusing or tend to cause other problems. Arc lamps are primarily utilized as radiation sources for light in the ultraviolet to visible range. Mercury arc lamps emit particularly strong lines in the UV range. Halogen lamps, on the other hand, are a good choice for applications in the visible to the near infrared range. The catalog contains typical spectra of these individual lamp types. How bright should the image produced by the radiation source be? How large is the surface to be exposed? Usually there are one or two lenses between the radiation source and the surface to be exposed (monochromator slit, optical cable, detector, sample). These lenses resp. any kind of imaging can only be used to change the intensity of irradiation on the receiving surface, but it cannot affect the available radiance – which, after all, is a characteristic parameter of the respective radiation source. Images of the radiation source can never exceed the radiance emitted by the source itself. The radial intensity per unit area is an important factor wherever light is to pass through certain optical components. Small radiation sources are easily collimated and therefore easy to focus. Whenever a fiber-optical system, a monochromator slit, or a pin diaphragm, for instance, is to be illuminated - in which case the surface area to be illuminated is of the same size or smaller than the radiation source itself – then the spectral radiance at the required wavelength is of importance. At a first approximation, the value of the irradiance or the luminous flux, divided by the surface area of the light source, affords a good reference value. The radiance of a 75 WXe lamp, for instance, is approx. 2.7 times as high as that of a 150 W Xe lamp, since the surface area of the arc in this case is approx. 8.8 times smaller. Total output power How large is the surface area to be illuminated? If larger surface areas (several cm²) are to be illuminated, then lamps with a higher output power (luminous flux) will yield better results. The radiance of a 75 W Xe arc lamp approximately equals that of a 1000 W Xe arc lamp. Due to the larger-sized arc, however, a 1000 W light source will illuminate a surface that is 30 times as large as that covered by the smaller lamp. Irradiance curves provide a good basis for lamp selection in applications where collimation is irrelevant and only the output power of the lamp is crucial. - high radiance in the UV and the visible range. Mercury lamps exhitibt spectral lines with very high radiance in the UV range. - high UV output power - small-sized electric arc - Xenon lamps exhibit a spectral distribution that is very similar to sunlight. - highest irradiance on small illumination surfaces - simulation of daylight - intense collimated beams due to small arcs with high radiance - excellently suitable light sources for UV photochemistry - Emission between 350 nm and 2700 nm - good stability - high output power in the visible range - useful as photometric or radiometric sources - continuous emitter; i.e., relative minor spectral intensity changes - simpler detection during scanning - less costly than arc lamps Shape and size of the radiation source What about shape and size of the object to be exposed? The existing optical system as well as the shape and size of the radiation source determine how much light ultimately reaches the object to be illuminated. An elongated arc, for instance, is a better instrument to illuminate a monochromator slit. In the case of reflecting optical systems, such as housings with an elliptical reflector, the shape and size of the image are largely determined by the optics. The chapter on ‘condensor optics or elliptical reflector‘ discusses this topic. In how far does your application require stability with regard to space and time? In many cases, radiation stability in space and time is so important that a double-beam approach must be employed. Halogen lamps emit a more constant intensity than arc lamps. A light regulator may further contribute to a more constant light intensity, but a good system design is equally important. Thus, free-convection flows inside arc lamps cause fluctuation around the marginal areas of the arc. A carefully designed system will eliminate these unstable zones.
On Earth, something is always burning: wildfires started by lightning or people, controlled agricultural fires, or fossil fuels. When anything made out of carbon — whether it's vegetation, gasoline, or coal — burns completely, the only end products are carbon dioxide and water vapor. But in most situations, burning is not complete, and fires or burning fossil fuels produce a mixture of gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide maps show the monthly averages of carbon monoxide at an altitude of about 12,000 feet, based on data from the MOPITT sensor on NASA’s Terra satellite. Concentrations of carbon monoxide are expressed in parts per billion by volume (ppbv). A concentration of 1 ppbv means that for every billion molecules of gas in the measured volume, one of them is a carbon monoxide molecule. Yellow areas have little or no carbon monoxide, while progressively higher concentrations are shown in orange and red. The fire maps show the locations of actively burning fires around the world on a monthly basis, based on observations from the MODIS sensors on NASA's Terra satellite. The colors are based on a count of the number (not size) of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show the high end of the count — as many as 30 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Orange pixels show as many as 10 fires, while red areas show as few as 1 fire per day. The comparison shows that fires and atmospheric carbon monoxide levels are very closely related for some regions and some times of year, but are less closely related in other places and times. For example, carbon monoxide concentrations across Africa and South America go hand in hand with fire counts there. When fire counts are high, carbon monoxide is high; when fire counts are low, carbon monoxide is low. These increases and decreases follow an obvious seasonal pattern, linked to human cultural patterns of agricultural burning and land clearing. In other parts of the world, however, carbon monoxide levels are elevated even during months when fire counts are low. About half way up the eastern coast of Asia, for example, a pocket of high carbon monoxide appears virtually year round, even when fires are not occurring nearby. Here, the carbon monoxide is part of the urban and industrial pollution generated in and around rapidly industrializing Beijing, China. A similar pattern exists over the United States, the North Atlantic, and western Europe, which have relatively high (yellow) carbon monoxide concentrations even in December, January, and February, when fire activity throughout the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere is very low. That pattern suggests that the carbon monoxide is coming from the burning of fossil fuels (and also perhaps from wood-burning stoves or fireplaces). View, download, or analyze more of these data from NASA Earth Observations (NEO):
By Ben Lenhart Separation of Powers lies at the heart of our Constitution, and impeachment is one of the most important ingredients of separation of powers. Both separation of powers and impeachment serve the same ultimate goals: preventing any branch of government from abusing its power and ensuring that our government does not grow into a tyranny that threatens the fundamental rights and freedoms of all Americans. This two-part article lays out the key features of impeachment under our Constitution (and aims to do so while avoiding politics or partisanship). Part One described how the impeachment process works, how the Founding Fathers viewed impeachment, and the meaning of the key term “High Crimes and Misdemeanors.” Now this Part Two looks at actual examples of impeachment and ends with a review of potential impeachment issues arising out of the Mueller report concerning Russian interference in the 2016 Presidential Election. Actual Examples of Impeachment: Goldilocks Part 2. President Johnson. In 1868, Andrew Johnson was impeached for refusing to follow a law that he believed (correctly, it turned out) was unconstitutional. The Senate then failed to remove Johnson from office, falling one vote short in the Senate vote.Congress disliked Johnson for many other reasons—particularly related to post-Civil War Reconstruction—but the grounds used for impeaching him were probably not valid.Because Johnson reasonably believed that his actions were lawful, he did not commit treason, bribery or High Crimes and Misdemeanors. President Nixon: In 1974, articles of impeachment were drafted against Richard Nixon, largely focusing on his efforts to cover-up the break-in of the Democratic National Headquarters at the Watergate building. Because Nixon used the CIA and other levers of government in a massive and illegal effort to cover up the break-in, he most likely did commit impeachment offences and likely would have been impeached had he not resigned before the final impeachment vote. President Clinton: In 1998, Bill Clinton was impeached for false statements and other “cover-up” efforts related to his affair with Monica Lewinsky. The Senate fell far short of the two-thirds vote needed to remove Clinton from office. Would the Founding Fathers have approved of his impeachment? While there are arguments on both sides, many believe that lying about an affair and encouraging others to lie—while certainlyreprehensible and wrong—did not rise to the level of a High Crimes and Misdemeanors because it was not an abuse of public office of the type contemplated by the Hamilton and the other Founders. But more than 200 congressmen disagreed and voted to impeach. What can be said is that in comparing the offenses committed by Nixon and Clinton, those of the former come closer to the kind of grave public wrongdoing that lies at the heart of the impeachment clause. Other Impeachments: In addition to the two presidents noted above, 17 other federal officials have been impeached, including one senator, one cabinet member and 15 judges. Of these, only eight have been removed from office (although some resigned before the Senate could vote on removal). Altogether, in the 231 years since our Constitution was adopted, America has had only 19 impeachments of federal officials. The takeaway: While Congress has the awesome power to impeach, they have used it sparingly. With a few important exceptions, these 19 impeachments reflect adherence to the Goldilocks balance—most governmental officials who were impeached had engaged in serious abuses of their public office, and the impeachment votes were based more on the merits and less on party-line politics. It’s All Political: Anti-Goldilocks Gerald Ford famously said that an impeachable offense is “whatever a majority of the House of Representatives considers it to be at a given moment in history.” While Ford was correct in one sense, he was also fundamentally wrong. He was right that the House has the raw power to ignore the meaning of the Constitutional impeachment clause and the lessons of history, and instead vote to impeach for purely political reasons. It is also true that in the most recent presidential impeachment (of Bill Clinton), the impeachment votes largely tracked party lines. However, Ford was wrong in a more fundamental sense. The constitutional meaning of impeachment is fairly well established, at least in broad strokes, and congressmen who ignore that meaning and vote to impeach for political reasons alone are violating the carefully crafted “Goldilocks balance” that governs the impeachment power in the Constitution, thereby weakening the separation of powers principle that is so vital to American freedoms. The Mueller Report and President Trump In Ken Starr’s report on the investigation into President Clinton, Starr was not shy—he came right out and said there was “substantial and credible information” that Clinton committed acts that could be grounds for impeachment.” In contrast, Robert Mueller’s report is more reserved: it does not take any side on the impeachment question, nor does it conclude that President Trump committed any crime or other conduct that would be grounds for impeachment. Instead, the Mueller report does two things: first, it states that the investigation “did not establish the Trump campaign coordinated with the Russian movement in its election interference actives.” Second it describes 10 areas of alleged conduct by Trump that may (or may not) constitute obstruction of justice. Some argue that the first conclusion (no finding of Russian collusion), by itself, prevents any possibility of finding that President Trump obstructed justice. Without an underlying crime, the argument goes, there can be no obstruction. Others, including Mueller, disagree, and common sense suggests that a person can obstruct an investigation even if that person is innocent of the alleged crime being investigated. For example, if someone orders dozens of witnesses to lie to investigators, or destroys massive amounts of vital evidence, that should qualify as obstruction of justice regardless of the person’s guilt or innocence of the underlying crime. Attorney General Barr concluded that none of the grounds cited by Mueller amounted to obstruction of justice by President Trump. For example, Barr argued that no action by a president to remove an executive branch official (such as the head of the FBI or the Special Counsel) can constitute obstruction because, under the “Unitary Executive” theory, the president holds all executive power, which includes absolute power to remove subordinate executive branch officials. If Barr is correct on this point (a point that Mueller disputes), this would mean that several areas of Trump’s conduct cited by Mueller (e.g., firing FBI Director Comey) would not be grounds for objection of justice, much less impeachment. But Barr agreed that certain acts by a president—any president—such as hiding material evidence or encouraging witnesses to lie to investigators, could potentially amount to obstruction of justice. And Mueller alleges several areas of conduct by President Trump that arguably fall within these categories, such as, for example, Trump’s alleged efforts to get the White House Counsel to: (a) have Mueller fired, and then (b) deny that Trump asked him to fire Mueller. If these allegations—which President Trump disputes—were ever proven, they could potentially establish obstruction of justice. But that does not answer the impeachment question, because obstruction alone does not necessarily equate to a “high crime or misdemeanor” in the constitutional sense. To answer this question (and assuming that one or more acts of obstruction of justice by President Trump were proven—an assumption that the president would vigorously dispute) one has to determine whether such acts by the president amount to grave abuse of public office. The “public” requirement would seem satisfied here because Mueller alleges conduct that was committed by the president using his presidential powers to influence other governmental actors. The hard question would be whether one act, or a small number of acts, of obstruction of justice, in the context where no underlying crime had been established, could be sufficiently serious or grave to constitute an impeachable offense. This may depend, in part, on facts yet to be developed by the ongoing investigations. In assessing these issues, the House will, hopefully, read the Constitution, understand the history and purpose of the impeachment clause and appreciate the Goldilocks balance on impeachment struck by the Founding Fathers. Impeachment is an incredibly powerful tool, especially when involving the president. If used too much or too easily, it has the power to destroy the presidency. If used too little or too reluctantly, we risk allowing a tyrant to remain as the leader of our great nation and cause serious harm to our rights and freedoms. The Constitution strikes a careful balance between these two extremes, but it is up to Congress to avoid using impeachment for political purpose and instead to wield the impeachment power only for its intended purpose: impeachment of public officials, regardless of political affiliation, who engage in grave abuses of public office. Ben Lenhart is a Harvard Law School graduate and has taught constitutional law at Georgetown Law Center for more than 20 years. He lives with his family and lots of animals on a farm near Hillsboro.
Date: August 2008 Creator: Holder, David E. Description: Educators and instructional designers are seeking ways to increase levels of learning. One of the ways this is being done is through cognitive load theory which attempts to reduce cognitive load through a better understanding of working memory and the factors that impact its function. Past studies have found that working memory processes visual and auditory information using separate and non-sharable resources (dual coding theory) and that by properly utilizing multimedia elements, information processing in working memory is more efficient (multimedia learning). What is not known is the effect that instructor-led video, which uses the visual channel but delivers no information, has on the cognitive load of the learner. Further, will the introduction of multimedia elements make the information processing of the learner more efficient? This study examined three ways in which instructional designers may create a more efficient learning environment through a better understanding of multimedia learning. First, by using the theories of multimedia learning, I examined a more efficient use of sensory memory. By minimizing extraneous load, which communication theory calls noise, on working memory through increased utilization of the visual and auditory channels, the effectiveness of instruction was increased. Secondly, the multimedia effect, defined as using visual ... Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries
We face conflict often as we encounter contradictory goals. Agreeing on what to cook for dinner, where to go on vacation, who washes the dishes, or what car to buy are examples of the many simple conflicts we may face each day. Choosing between communism, dictatorship, and democracy; electing the democrat or the republican; pro-life vs. pro choice; nuclear energy, conservation, or burning more oil; the safety and comfort of an SUV vs. green transportation alternatives, and many other mega-conflicts are at the center of the most important issues facing our world. unavoidable; fortunately we can learn to transcend conflict as we avoid - Contradiction between goals The words: battle, clash, collision, competition, contention, contest, discord, dispute, dissension, dissent, dissidence, encounter, engagement, incongruence, opposition, rivalry, strife, and striving all describe conflicts or approaches to resolving conflicts. A negotiation is a discussion intended to produce an agreement. Emotions Rooted in Conflict Several emotions emerge from conflict, for example: - Fear or anxiety result from a conflict between the need for safety and an actual or imagined - Anger results from a conflict between your goals, including your sense of justice, and actual events. - Guilt, shame, and contempt result from a conflict between a desirable standard of behavior and actual behavior. - Envy and jealousy result from a conflict between what you want and what you have. - When you blame another for causing conflict you may come to hate them. - Ambivalence describes a conflict within yourself; an inability to choose a clear goal or direction. We each adopt a particular style when managing conflict. Five important styles are shown in this illustration, adapted from material originally presented by Dr. Mary Nikola, Rutgers University: The diagram plots five styles along two axes. The horizontal axis indicates the degree of cooperation; the importance of the relationship between yourself and the people holding or representing goals that contradict yours. The degree of cooperation can vary from non-supportive—where the relationship is not important, to supportive—where the relationship is considered valuable. The vertical axis indicates the degree of assertiveness; the importance of the issue. This ranges from submissive—the issue is not important, at the bottom, to dominant—the issue is important, at the top. These two dimensions are sometimes referred to as “need for affiliation” and “need for achievement” or as “getting along” and “getting ahead”. While these labels are linguistically clever, they may inaccurately suggest that the two dimensions are incompatible or conflict with each other. These five positions on the grid characterize typical conflict management styles or modes: - Avoidance: “I can't deal with this now.” Neither resolving the issue nor preserving the relationship are important. The goal is to delay consideration or resolution. It indefinitely defers the need to confront a problem, so the problem goes unsolved, and probably continues to - Accommodation: “Whatever you want is OK with me.” The issue is not important, the relationship is important. You yield to whatever the other wants. This is grace without truth. - Compromise: “Can't we find some middle ground here”. This is an attempt to share the rewards and disappointments. This is a step toward both grace and truth. - Competition: “Its my way or the highway.” The issue is important, the relationship is meaningless. The goal is to win at any cost. This is usually a violent take-it-or-leave-it approach based on a significant disparity in power, or a hit-and-run exploitation (rip off) that recognizes you will never meet again. This is truth without grace. - Collaboration: “Let's keep working at this until we find a solution that meets all of our needs.” Both the relationship and the issue are important. The goal is to find a creative alternative that satisfies the goals of all Specific techniques for transcending conflict and arriving at a collaborative solution are described in the next section. This is both grace and truth. While it is tempting to say that collaboration is the preferred mode, the wide variety of the circumstances of conflict; the importance or trivial nature of issues; the depth, fragile nature, or superficial nature of relationships vary greatly. As a result each situation has to be assessed individually to decide on a particular style. The important point is to understand these alternatives and choose the most constructive style for the issue at hand. If you have decided on a collaborative approach to the conflict, it is important to know techniques that can help you transcend the conflict. Consider this simple but all too typical story. Donna and Don are a happily married couple living in Portland Oregon. Unfortunately even their happy marriage is tested by conflict as they plan their next vacation. Don wants to vacation at Mount Adams. He enjoys alpine hikes and mountain vistas. Donna prefers the cool comfort of a lake where she can swim to exercise and cool off; she wants to go to Siltcoos Lake. As they try to resolve this conflict, Don begins by selling Donna on the advantages of Mount Adams. She gets impatient because he is ignoring her wishes as he tries to get his way. She counters by trying to sell Don on the benefits of Siltcoos lake. After a few rounds back and forth in this classic skirmish, Donna gets exasperated and says, “Maybe we should skip the travel and just stay at home for this vacation. We can spend time together, catch up on chores around the house, and also save some money”. Don replies, “No, we should get away from here. How about three days at Mount Adams, and then three days at Siltcoos Lake. If you prefer, we could take separate vacations, I'll go to Mount Adams and you can go to Siltcoos Lake”. Donna protests “The extra travel is too much hassle, and I want us to vacation together, not apart, we hardly see each other as it is. I'm tired of arguing, let's drop this for now”. The next day their son, who is away at college, calls. Donna describes the conflict to him. Immediately he says, “That's easy, go to Crater Lake. It is a beautiful lake set inside of a massive mountain. You both get what you want with no hassle, no separation, and no compromise”. This story can be analyzed using the following diagram: In the language of game theory, the red regions correspond to zero-sum (win or lose) games, while the blue region corresponds to nonzero-sum games (lose-lose, tie, or win-win). If the conflict can be recast from a zero-sum game to a nonzero-sum game, then opportunities for mutual gain have been invented. Goal “A” represents Don's goal of vacationing at Mount Adams. Goal “B” represents Donna's goal of vacationing at Siltcoos Lake. The discussion becomes heated as soon as they fall into the trap of polarized thinking, consider only two alternatives, and fixate on a false dichotomy. Don argues for position #1, Pole A while Donna argues for position #2, Pole B. The argument increases in intensity as they each skillfully and passionately defend their chosen positions represented by the two poles. Fortunately they begin to consider other alternatives. Five possible outcomes are discussed below. Position 1, Pole A: Don prevails, they vacation at Mount Adams. Goal A is fully met, goal B is not at all met. Don gets his way for now, Donna loses. This position is won at the cost of Donna's hurt and may result in her some form, probably at some later time. She probably harbors some resentment and anger, even if she denies it. In a more serious conflict it could lead to violent retaliation and Position 2, Pole B: Donna prevails, they vacation at Siltcoos Lake. This is symmetrical with position 2, but with Don now feeling hurt. Considering only positions 1 and 2 frames the conflict as either / or: either I get my goals met, or you get your goals met. This is a false dichotomy. Fortunately, there are three more alternatives to consider; they all lie along the cooler colored diagonal. Position 3, Negative Transcendence: They cancel the vacation and neither achieves their goal. Each gets nothing toward their goal. This is symmetrical, but not very constructive. Position 4, Compromise: They spend some time at Mount Adams and some time at Siltcoos Lake. Each goal is partially met, and partially unmet. The additional travel introduces unwanted hassle. Position 5, Positive Transcendence: They discover Crater Lake, a beautiful place to vacation together that includes both a lake and a mountain. Both goals are fully met. No hurt remains, no revenge is sought, no violence occurs. The conflict has been transcended and the work is complete with no debt remaining. Instead of having to choose “either / or”, the solution provides “both / and”. The three often overlooked options 3, 4, and 5 lie along the peace diagonal of the diagram. This corresponds to the transformation of the conflict from a zero-sum game to a nonzero-sum game. Going up one or two levels in each person's goals hierarchy can often reveal common goals and opportunities for resolving apparent conflict through positive transcendence. The bitter conflict of Intelligent Design against Darwin's theory of raged through Dover Pennsylvania may have a simple positive transcendent resolution: If the theory of evolution is correct, then God deserves full credit for inventing it and Darwin gets credit only for describing it. The contributions of both God and Darwin are fully preserved in this reframing of the evidence. method describes these steps for transcending conflict: - Identify the goals of each party. Here Don's originally stated goal of “Vacation at Mount Adams” was more accurately and more flexibly understood as “Vacation at a mountain”. - Identify and eliminate any goals that are invalid or illegitimate. These include any goals that deny the needs of another. In our example, the proposal to have separate vacations was invalid, because it denied Donna's valid need to vacation together. - Explore creative options along the peace diagonal, positions 3, 4, and 5 shown above in blue. Often position 3 is easy to see. Negating the elements alternative may hint at options for position 5. Keep creating more alternatives as you increase your empathy for the other's goals. - Choose the best option from all the alternatives that have been suggested. Often, but not always, the best alternative is at position 5, positive transcendence, but also carefully consider other positions on the peace diagonal. In the 15th century when Portugal and Spain were arguing over control of South America, they signed the Treaty of Tordesillas which specified a demarcation line dividing South America into territory ruled by Spain and territory ruled by Portugal. This compromise at position 4 is perhaps better than the two polarized positions, however a much better solution exists. The better solution is at position 3, negative transcendence, where neither Spain or Portugal rules South America. This negative transcendence solution recognizes and protects the needs of the indigenous people of South America, who have every right to continue living on the land as they had for centuries. - “Think through the consequences of your actions for the next seven generations.” ~ Native American wisdom - “The direct use of force is such a poor solution to any problem, it is generally employed only by small children and large nations.” ~ David - “Where all think alike, no one thinks very much.” ~ Walter Lippmann - “Pick battles big enough to matter, small enough to win.” ~ Jonathan - “No problems, no progress.” - “As a species we are exquisitely suited to thrive in an environment of threat where resources are scarce, but not always ready to reap the benefits of harmony, peace, and plenty.” ~ Benjamin Zander Transcend and Transform: An Introduction to Conflict Work, by Johan Galtung Whack on the Side of the Head: How You Can Be More Creative, by Roger von Oech Peace: A World History, by Antony Adolf Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny, by Robert Wright Kitzmiller, et al. v. Dover area school district case no. 04cv2688 Memorandum opinion December 20, 2005, The Power of Collective Wisdom: And the Trap of Collective Folly, by Alan Briskin, Sheryl Erickson, Tom Callanan, and John Ott The Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM), by W. Barnett Pearce.
From Ohio History Central Osborn v. The United States was a legal case heard by the United State Supreme Court that affirmed the McCulloch v Maryland decision and prohibited states from taxing instruments of the federal government. In 1819, the United States economy was in a serious economic downturn. This event was known as the Panic of 1819. It partially resulted from the Bank of the United States, as well as state and local banks, extending credit to too many people. These people primarily used the loans to purchase federal land in the American West. As the economic downturn worsened, the Bank of the United States continued to demand repayment for loans. The various banks' actions resulted in the Banking Crisis of 1819. As a result of the Bank of the United States' actions, money became scarce, making it even more difficult for people to pay their debts. Several states, including Maryland and Ohio, implemented taxes on the National Bank of the United States. These states hoped that, by taxing the banks, money would then enter the grasp of state governments. The state governments could then make loans to their citizens, thus relieving the money shortage. In 1819, the case of McCulloch v. Maryland reached the United States Supreme Court. Maryland had created a tax on the National Bank's branch in Baltimore, Maryland. Although the federal government had the power to tax state and private banks, the federal government contended that states could not tax the Bank of the United States. The Supreme Court agreed with the federal government's position, contending that the federal government and its institutions were superior to the state governments. Chief Justice John Marshall believed that "The power to tax is the power to destroy." In other words, if the states could tax the federal government, the states had the power to destroy the federal government. Ohio implemented its own tax against the Bank of the United States in 1819. In 1819, there were two branches of the National Bank in Ohio -- one at Cincinnati and the other at Chillicothe. The tax law authorized the State of Ohio to seize fifty thousand dollars from each branch. On September 17, 1819, the Ohio Auditor, Ralph Osborn, authorized the seizure of 100,000 dollars from the Chillicothe branch. The tax agents actually seized 120,000 dollars from the bank. Osborn promptly returned the extra twenty thousand dollars. The Bank of the United States sued Osborn for the return of the additional 100,000 dollars. The federal government contended that Osborn violated a court order prohibiting him from taxing the Bank of the United States. Osborn claimed that he was not properly served with the court order. The federal circuit court ruled in favor of the National Bank, and federal marshals immediately seized 98,000 dollars from the Ohio treasury. Osborn had paid his tax agents two thousand dollars for collecting the tax, and this money still remained in dispute. In 1824, the case reached the United States Supreme Court. In Osborn v. Bank of the United States, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the National Bank. Ohio returned the two thousand dollars still in dispute.
Children’s Educational Books – Resources For Teachers Children’s educational books offer numerous resources to teachers to incorporate balanced literacy into classrooms. The books should be collaborative, and it should support comprehension, fluency, as well as reading skills. These books that teach the basic skills to the children should make learning fun for them. Teachers should approach the subject they are trying to teach in a fun and engaging way. This is what most educational books on children emphasise. Types Of Books There are various types of children’s educational books available as resources for teachers. They can be about early learning; about books that encourage reading in children; about health and safety; and math; among various other topics. These books are no longer filled only with pages and the printed stuff. They are no longer only knowledge imparting printed pages, but colourfully illustrated books, making them a source of attractive reading for the young minds. These wonderful educational books are not only resources for teachers to teach young children, but are tempting enough for adults as well so as they can read them with interest. These lovely books have colourful pop-outs that give snippets of information. There are pull-outs that tell children about the facts and anecdotes about the topic under discussion. These books also offer an interesting, artistic, and colourful way of telling the children how things work. There are various books teaching them about the earth and the galaxies beyond; books on the animal kingdom; books that impart social and moral values; all accompanied with powerful graphics and wonderful illustrations. This interesting way of educating children has made it very easy for teachers to educate the little ones with utmost care. The resources available for teachers to educate children are available from various online sources. A click on the mouse opens up a colourful world for teachers to browse through the books of their choice. They have to decide on what topic they should go about and what should be the way of teaching them. Children’s educational books are available as resources for teachers – grade-wise, subject-wise, and activity-wise. There are a variety of books on various topics for children in different grades. Then they are also available according to different activities and games. Teachers can browse through Internet depending upon the subjects they want to know and teach about. There are endless subjects and these educational books make it fun not only for teachers who impart education but also for the children who absorb what they see and learn. Teaching children is no longer a drab thing to do. These colourful children’s educational books have changed the way how children are imparted education. When buying children’s educational books there are certain factors that should be kept in mind. For instance, the books should be well written and should help improve the reading skills, comprehension and fluency of the child. Schools should be extra careful while choosing children’s educational books and should not compromise on the quality. -Albertin Abelmont (Article here)
by Drew Lefebvre This fall, as I observed the bright colors on a range of deciduous trees, I couldn’t help but wonder: what factors determine the specific color that each tree turns in the fall? As with most topics in the natural world, the answer turns out to be: it’s complicated. But there are a few chemicals that play large roles in the process. Here’s a rundown of four main pigments that influence the beautiful foliage we’re treated to every autumn. Even if it’s been a while since your last biology class, you likely remember that leaves are green because of chlorophyll. This green pigment allows the plant to absorb energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. What you might not already know is that leaves contain other types of pigments, too, such as carotenoids. These yellow pigments are responsible for colors in things like egg yolks, bananas, carrots, corn, and sweet potatoes. But carotenoids don’t just help the plant look pretty—they also play important roles in the process of photosynthesis. Carotenoids help absorb light energy, then transmit it to chlorophyll. They also help out in environments where there is too much light energy for the plant to use. It turns out that carotenoids are really good at vibrating, allowing the plant to harmlessly dissipate this excess energy as heat. Chlorophyll and carotenoids are always present within the leaf. Chlorophyll, which breaks down in the presence of sunlight, is constantly being regenerated by the plant, and generally masks the other pigments. However, as fall approaches and the nights become longer, the cells between the leaf and the stem begin to divide rapidly, creating an abscission layer which blocks the transport of materials into and out of the leaf. As a result, the leaves can no longer generate new chlorophyll, and the green hues begin to fade. In their place, the carotenoids begin to stand out, resulting in the yellow and gold shades we see in many of our western Montana trees such as cottonwood, aspen, and willow. There’s more to the story, however. When we see deeper oranges, reds, scarlets, and maroons, we’re looking at another type of pigment entirely: anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are responsible for the colors we see in foods like berries, red cabbage, grapes, and eggplant. And unlike chlorophyll and carotenoids, anthocyanins are not present year-round. In fact, they are newly synthesized each fall. After the abscission layer has formed, and transport out of the leaf has been blocked, there are still some sugars trapped in the leaf. The plant uses these sugars as raw materials for the manufacture of anthocyanins. The result? We see deep reds and purples as the anthocyanins become visible, as well as brilliant oranges when anthocyanins mingle with existing carotenoids. Maples and dogwoods are classic examples of trees with high anthocyanin content. Not all trees manufacture anthocyanins, and they need the right conditions to do so. Sunny fall days and dry weather result in extra-sugary sap, which in turn produces more anthocyanins. That’s why autumn in certain years presents more colorful foliage than in others. And the jury is still out as to the role that anthocyanins play in plant biology. Do they act as pest deterrents, encouraging herbivorous insects to seek a new place to lay their eggs? Or possibly they are a form of sunscreen, preventing leaves from damage at a vulnerable time when they’ve lost most of their chlorophyll. Despite some unanswered questions, once thing is clear: with enough exposure to sunlight—or once the first hard freeze hits—the bright colors fade away. We’re left with one last pigment to get us through the winter: tannins. Responsible for the brown color in oak leaves, nuts, tea, and coffee, bitter tannins deter foraging animals and insects, as well as help the plant resist decay. And as the last color to reveal itself in late fall, tannins provide us with a sign that the season of transformation is over. Deciduous trees are safely tucked away in dormancy until the shorter nights of spring signal them to begin the process anew.
What is a Docstring? Python documentation strings (or docstrings) provide a convenient way of associating documentation with Python modules, functions, classes, and methods. An object's docsting is defined by including a string constant as the first statement in the object's definition. It's specified in source code that is used, like a comment, to document a specific segment of code. Unlike conventional source code comments the docstring should describe what the function does, not how. All functions should have a docstring This allows the program to inspect these comments at run time, for instance as an interactive help system, or as metadata. Docstrings can be accessed by the __doc__ attribute on objects. How should a Docstring look like? The doc string line should begin with a capital letter and end with a period. The first line should be a short description. Don't write the name of the object. If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description. The following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object’s calling conventions, its side effects, etc. Let's show how an example of a multi-line docstring: def my_function(): """Do nothing, but document it. No, really, it doesn't do anything. """ pass Let's see how this would look like when we print it >>> print my_function.__doc__ Do nothing, but document it. No, really, it doesn't do anything. Declaration of docstrings The following Python file shows the declaration of docstrings within a python source file: """ Assuming this is file mymodule.py, then this string, being the first statement in the file, will become the "mymodule" module's docstring when the file is imported. """ class MyClass(object): """The class's docstring""" def my_method(self): """The method's docstring""" def my_function(): """The function's docstring""" How to access the Docstring The following is an interactive session showing how the docstrings may be accessed >>> import mymodule >>> help(mymodule) Assuming this is file mymodule.py then this string, being the first statement in the file will become the mymodule modules docstring when the file is imported. >>> help(mymodule.MyClass) The class's docstring >>> help(mymodule.MyClass.my_method) The method's docstring >>> help(mymodule.my_function) The function's docstring http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docstring http://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/controlflow.html#tut-docstrings http://onlamp.com/lpt/a/python/2001/05/17/docstrings.html Read more about:
In Japan people were often judged on their appearance. Makeup and looking a certain way was very important to women. Expectations were to have a powdered white face, red lips, long hair, high eyebrows and black teeth. It was important because a person was defined or described on how they would set their appearance. It was also significant because people from Japan prized beauty and women and men were expected to look nice and presentable. A person was was considered unattractive if they didn't follow the expectations on how to look. Another important thing in Japan that kept structure was Feudalism. Feudalism was a structure of society that Japan was built upon. In Feudalism on top was the Shogun, Daimyos, Samurai, and peasants. Feudalism was when everyone provided for each other, like when the Shogun or the people on top gave the peasants land and protection while the peasants provided food and crops for everyone which made it a secure system. Feudalism kept everyone busy and it's what everyone expected from each other another reason why it was secure. In Japan samurai's helped keep their society organized. The samurai code taught samurais to be fearless, honor their masters and fairness. Samurais were expected to value royalty and personal honor more than their lives. Samurais would rather kill themselves than surrender. Samurais defended Japan and kept people safe. Without them people would feel unsafe and unprotected. If people didn't feel safe they would leave Japan and that would decrease Japans population. Samurais would protect their masters and die of honor. It kept order by having people trust the samurais so the Samurais helped Japan.
RESUMING THE STUDY Comet Halley, which orbits the Sun approximately once every 76 years, is once again passing through the inner part of our solar system. As it passes near the planets Earth and Mars, we have the opportunity to study the comet from an Earth-orbiting spacecraft (the International Space Station (ISS). Our mission begins with the transport of the astronaut crew to our spacecraft that is in low Earth orbit, about 250 miles above the surface of the Earth. As we search for Comet Halley, the crew will construct a space probe that can be launched through the gaseous tails of the comet to take close-up photos of the comet and collect materials for further analysis. The goal of the mission is three-fold. First, the spacecraft must rendezvous with the comet. Next, the crew will launch the probe into its tail. Finally, the team must collect new data from the probe’s instruments. The most recent opportunity we had to study Comet Halley from an Earth-orbiting vehicle was in the year 1986. At that time, five international unmanned space probes flew by or through the tail of the comet and relayed collected data to Earth. We planned to study Comet Halley during the January 1986 flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. On January 28, 1986, Challenger and its crew were lost in an accident shortly after lift-off. In our Rendezvous with Comet Halley, we will continue the mission of Challenger’s crew by resuming the study of Halley’s Comet. Rendezvous with Halley's Comet: $800 for a 2-hour mission in our simulator Designed for students 5th grade and up. We can accommodate groups of 16-30 students. See EVA tab for additional add on activities. FOR A MISSION REGISTRATION FORM, CLICK ON THE LINK BELOW. FOR A CREW MANIFEST FORM, CLICK ON THE LINK BELOW.
A concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury. Concussion happens from many different types of activities such as car crashes, falls, playground and bicycle related crashes. It results in immediate changes in brain function that, most of the time, resolve on their own; many people who have a concussion recover within two or three weeks. Some require longer, sometimes much longer. The best way to support a child with a concussion is with a treatment team that includes the family, medical, and school professionals. Here are a few suggestions for supporting a child with a concussion: - – Reassure the child that they will get better. - – Monitor symptoms over time and share observations with the doctor. - – If symptoms get worse, stop and rest. - – Emphasize that it is important to follow medical recommendations; overdoing can prolong recovery.
Beyond the lineage of primates, according to scientific gospel, social behavior is dictated primarily by competition for resources such as food, territory and reproduction. That may well be true for many adult animals, but in a groundbreaking study researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison have found evidence that social interactions among young mice result from basic motivations to be with one another. What's more, the researchers say, the extent of a young mouse's gregariousness is influenced by its genetic background. The work, reported today in the journal Public Library of Science (PLoS) One, is important because it provides the first scientific insight that genes contribute to a novel form of natural reward - the pleasure of interacting with other juveniles. At a practical level, the new findings provide a foundation for understanding the motivations that underlie acts of altruism. Moreover, the work may also help influence the development of new, more effective drugs to treat depression, addiction and autism. "We are quite confident it is genetic," says Jules B. Panksepp, a UW-Madison neuroscience graduate student and the lead author of the new study, which was conducted using two different strains of young mice, one gregarious in nature, the other much less so. "Their motivation to engage others varies with their genetic background; it appears to affect how young mice approach social situations." The inbred strains of mice used in the study, once weaned, display markedly different social aptitudes. Young mice from one strain are amicable, spending much more time seeking out and interacting with other mice introduced into their environment. By controlling for a host of behavioral variables during the course of adolescent development, the researchers demonstrated specific differences in social motivations among juveniles of the two mouse strains - behavioral variations that could only be explained by genetic differences. Intriguingly, the Wisconsin researchers also found that young mice from the gregarious strain seek environments that predict the possibility of a social encounter and avoid places where they have experienced social isolation. "They like company. That's the point," says Garet Lahvis, of the gregarious strain of mouse. Lahvis is a professor of surgery in the UW School of Medicine and Public Health and the senior author of the new study. Performing under the dim glow of red lights to simulate the nocturnal environment when mice are most active, the sociability of test mice was assessed when they were reunited with their former cage mates. At the same time, the researchers tuned in to the ultrasonic chattering that mice use to communicate with each other. For the more socially predisposed animal, gregariousness was the order of the day, says Lahvis: "A young mouse will seek social interaction and avoid isolation. The social life of these animals is a rich integration of behavior, vocalizations and positive emotional experience." The level of social interplay of the two strains of mice, Panksepp and Lahvis note, is mirrored in their vocalizations, and the differences in vocalization between the two types of mouse also segregated with genetic background. "We identified associations between types of mouse vocalizations and the extent of their social interactions," says Lahvis. "There is an association between high-pitched calls in mice and positive experience. The quality and quantity of the call are tightly associated with the nature of the interaction itself." As the mice neared sexual maturity, the genetic influence on social behavior ebbed and the animals became much more responsive to social cues such as gender, according to Lahvis. "As they get older, they take on the [behavioral] characteristics associated with gender," Lahvis explains. "The initial genetic predisposition gets masked by reproductive maturity." This result is crucial, argue Lahvis and Panksepp, because it suggests that the genetic influences on juvenile social behavior may be quite distinct from genetic factors that affect adult social behavior, a finding the researchers suggest has great importance for understanding social evolution, as well as developing more realistic animal models of pervasive developmental disorders, such as autism. In past research, the social capacities of rodents have been studied primarily in the context of behaviors associated with sexual reproduction, territorial defense and parental care. Those studies, say Lahvis and Panksepp, do not account for the many forms of social interaction that occur prior to sexual maturity, nor do they account for the many kinds of social groupings that occur throughout the animal kingdom and provide much more subtle benefits to an individual. Results of the new work suggest that juvenile animals may experience different emotional states, depending upon whether they are alone or with others, and that specific genes may influence how they feel within different social contexts. Identifying the gene or genes at play, says Lahvis, is the next step. "We now know that social motivation can be responsive to genetic factors, but we don't know what these factors are." Source: University of Wisconsin-Madison Explore further: Healthy humans make nice homes for viruses
For the past decade, scientists have been pursuing cancer treatments based on RNA interference — a phenomenon that offers a way to shut off malfunctioning genes with short snippets of RNA. However, one huge challenge remains: finding a way to efficiently deliver the RNA. Most of the time, short interfering RNA (siRNA) — the type used for RNA interference — is quickly broken down inside the body by enzymes that defend against infection by RNA viruses. “It’s been a real struggle to try to design a delivery system that allows us to administer siRNA, especially if you want to target it to a specific part of the body,” says Paula Hammond, the David H. Koch Professor in Engineering at MIT. Hammond and her colleagues have now come up with a novel delivery vehicle in which RNA is packed into microspheres so dense that they withstand degradation until they reach their destinations. The new system, described Feb. 26 in the journal Nature Materials, knocks down expression of specific genes as effectively as existing delivery methods, but with a much smaller dose of particles. Such particles could offer a new way to treat not only cancer, but also any other chronic disease caused by a “misbehaving gene,” says Hammond, who is also a member of MIT’s David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research. “RNA interference holds a huge amount of promise for a number of disorders, one of which is cancer, but also neurological disorders and immune disorders,” she says. Lead author of the paper is Jong Bum Lee, a former postdoc in Hammond’s lab. Postdoc Jinkee Hong, Daniel Bonner PhD ’12 and Zhiyong Poon PhD ’11 are also authors of the paper. RNA interference is a naturally occurring process, discovered in 1998, that allows cells to fine-tune their genetic expression. Genetic information is normally carried from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes, cellular structures where proteins are made. siRNA binds to the messenger RNA that carries this genetic information, destroying instructions before they reach the ribosome. Scientists are working on many ways to artificially replicate this process to target specific genes, including packaging siRNA into nanoparticles made of lipids or inorganic materials such as gold. Though many of those have shown some success, one drawback is that it’s difficult to load large amounts of siRNA onto those carriers, because the short strands do not pack tightly. To overcome this, Hammond’s team decided to package the RNA as one long strand that would fold into a tiny, compact sphere. The researchers used an RNA synthesis method known as rolling circle transcription to produce extremely long strands of RNA made up of a repeating sequence of 21 nucleotides. Those segments are separated by a shorter stretch that is recognized by the enzyme Dicer, which chops RNA wherever it encounters that sequence. As the RNA strand is synthesized, it folds into sheets that then self-assemble into a very dense, sponge-like sphere. Up to half a million copies of the same RNA sequence can be packed into a sphere with a diameter of just two microns. Once the spheres form, the researchers wrap them in a layer of positively charged polymer, which induces the spheres to pack even more tightly (down to a 200-nanometer diameter) and also helps them to enter cells. After the spheres enter a cell, the Dicer enzyme chops the RNA at specific locations, releasing the 21-nucleotide siRNA sequences. Peixuan Guo, director of the NIH Nanomedicine Development Center at the University of Kentucky, says the most exciting aspect of the work is the development of a new self-assembly method for RNA particles. Guo, who was not part of the research team, adds that the particles might be more effective at entering cells if they were shrunk to an even smaller size, closer to 50 nanometers. In the Nature Materials paper, the researchers tested their spheres by programming them to deliver RNA sequences that shut off a gene that causes tumor cells to glow in mice. They found that they could achieve the same level of gene knockdown as conventional nanoparticle delivery, but with about one-thousandth as many particles. The microsponges accumulate at tumor sites through a phenomenon often used to deliver nanoparticles: The blood vessels surrounding tumors are “leaky,” meaning that they have tiny pores through which very small particles can squeeze. In future studies, the researchers plan to design microspheres coated with polymers that specifically target tumor cells or other diseased cells. They are also working on spheres that carry DNA, for potential use in gene therapy.
Table of Contents Introduction to Ecology This is an introduction to the human biology unit on ecology. You and the Environment This chapter details what environments are and how ecologists study them. Food Chains: How Energy Gets to You This chapter focuses on how plants and animals produce and store energy. It also includes the transfer of energy through food chains. Energy Flow in a Community This chapter focuses on energy transfer in biological communities. Specifically, it introduces the concept of food webs and energy pyramids. This chapter focuses on the cycling of abiotic factors through a community. Cycling in Biological Communities This chapter focuses on the recycling of abiotic factors in the specific community of a watershed. Recycling in Human Communities This chapter is about waste disposal. It focuses on the difference between throwing something away in the trash and recycling it. Resources, Niches, and Habitats This chapter discusses the resources that organisms need to survive, including nutrients and space. This chapter focuses on a variety of interactions between species, from predator-prey to mutualism. Camouflage and mimicry are also discussed in relation to protection from a predator. Human Population Growth This chapter discusses populations, what they are affected by, and how to study them. Resource use is also a topic in the chapter. This chapter focuses on how human actions have negatively affected the earth, including global warming and acid rain. Defining Biological Diversity This chapter discusses the different forms of biological diversity, as well as current threats to this diversity, how to study it, and its importance. Conserving Biological Diversity This chapter discusses the causes of species extinction and how to protect biodiversity. Conclusion: You and the Environment This is the conclusion of the Ecology book; it revisits the question of what is the reader's environment. This is the glossary of the human biology ecology unit. Save or share your relevant files like activites, homework and worksheet.To add resources, you must be the owner of the FlexBook® textbook. Click Customize to make your own copy. 100 % of people thought this content was helpful.
Humanity is changing the near-space environment around Earth, NASA scientists have discovered, and we're not talking about all the space junk orbiting our planet. A type of radio communication known as Very Low Frequencies (VLF) have been found to interact with particles in space, affecting where and how they move. Occasionally, these interactions create a barrier around Earth against natural high energy particle radiation in space. "A number of experiments and observations have figured out that, under the right conditions, radio communications signals in the VLF frequency range can in fact affect the properties of the high-energy radiation environment around the Earth," says Phil Erickson, assistant director at the MIT Haystack Observatory, Westford, Massachusetts. Chances are you don't interact with VLF very often in your everyday life, but they're most often used in engineering, scientific, and military endeavors. These extremely large wavelengths need an extremely large antenna to be used. America's old HAARP program in Alaska was set up to use VLF waves, for example. While their size makes them impractical to use on a day-to-day basis, VLF waves also show a certain flexibility. They can travel through water with ease, making them the go-to communications wavelength for submarines. Even though such waves are sent through the ocean, they spread outwards to the extent that the entire Earth has been covered in a VLF bubble. NASA's Van Allen Probes—meant to study the radiation belts that conspiracy theorists use to suggest mankind never visited the Moon—started to notice that " the outward extent of the VLF bubble corresponds almost exactly to the inner edge" of the belts. Scientists speculate the VLF bubble is keeping the Van Allen Belts at bay—that if there were no human VLF transmissions, it would be much closer to Earth. History backs this up. Looking at satellite data on the Van Allen Belts in the 1960's, when VLF waves were even more limited than they are today, they were closer to Earth. The knowledge that mankind has built something that's affecting space means, hypothetically, a chance for further modification. They could cleanse our atmosphere of excess radiation, a hazard along the route to mass space travel. If that gets to be the case, expect VLF wavelengths to become a lot more famous.
Battle of the Mediterranean \|Battle of Mediterranean\| \|Part of World War II\| \| United Kingdom Characteristics[change \| change source] For the most part, the campaign was fought between the forces of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina), supported by other Axis naval forces, and the forces of the British Royal Navy, supported by other Allied naval forces. Each side had three overall goals in this battle. The first was to attack the supply lines of the other side. The second was to keep open its own supply lines, the Axis to their own armies in North Africa and the Allies to supply the island of Malta. The third was to destroy the ability of the opposing navy to wage war at sea. Outside of the Pacific ocean, the Mediterranean saw the largest conventional naval warfare during the war. In particular, Allied forces struggled to supply and retain the key naval and air base of Malta. Radar and Fuel differences[change \| change source] Italian warships had a general reputation as well-designed and good-looking. But some Italian cruiser classes were rather deficient in armour. All Italian warships lacked radar for most of the war, although the lack of radar was partly offset by the fact that Italian warships had good "rangefinder" and "fire-control" systems. In addition, whereas Allied commanders at sea had discretion on how to act, Italian commanders were closely and precisely governed by Italian Naval Headquarters (Supermarina). This could lead to action being avoided when the Italians had a clear advantage (e.g., During "Operation Hats"). Italian Naval Headquarters was conscious that the British could replace ships lost in the Mediterranean, whereas Italian Navy resources were limited and there was a terrible lack of fuel. The Italian Navy entered the war with only one year of fuel required to operate normally (in 1943 practically there was no fuel to do naval operations far away from the coasts of Italy). The Allies had "Ultra" intercepts, which predicted the Italian movements, and radar, which enabled them to locate the ships and range their weapons at distance and at night. The better air reconnaissance skills of the Fleet Air Arm and their close collaboration with surface units were other major causes of the initial Italian defeats (like in the Battle of Cape Matapan). Forces[change \| change source] The Axis forces in this campaign were:- - Italian Navy, Air Force and Army - German Navy (u-boat force), Air Force and Army The Allied forces in this campaign were:- - British Navy, Air Force and Army - Australian Navy, Air Force and Army - New Zealand Navy, Air Force and Army - Greek Navy, Air Force and Army - French (at the beginning; later they were neutral) - United States (at the end) History[change \| change source] The first clash between the rival fleets, the Battle of Calabria, took place on 9 July 1940, just four weeks after the start of hostilities. This was inconclusive (neither side won), and was followed by a series of small ship actions ( the battle of the Espero convoy, battle of Cape Spada) during the autumn. In spring 1940 the British Royal navy attacked at Mers el Kebir (Algeria) the French navy of Vichy, sinking 2 battleship with other minor ships. In November, the RN mounted an aerial attack on the Italian fleet in Taranto harbour, crippling 3 capital ships and changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean. Three months later the fleets clashed again at the Battle of Cape Matapan. This was a major Allied victory; 3 Italian cruisers were sunk, and a battleship damaged in a 2-day battle ending in a night action. Following this the Allies suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, supporting the army when the island was invaded by the Germans. In spring 1941 the Greek and Yugoslavian navy were destroyed and/or made captive by the Italians (with help from the German air force) during the Italo-German war in the western Balkans against Greece and Yugoslavia. Following the battle of Crete in the summer of 1941, the Royal Navy got the better of things in the central Mediterranean in a series of successful convoy attacks, (such as the Duisburg convoy and the Battle of Cape Bon) until the events around the First Battle of Sirte and the Raid on Alexandria in December swung the balance of power in the Axis favour. The Italian Navy's most successful attack was when divers planted mines on British battleships during the raid on Alexandria harbour (19 December 1941). HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMSValiant were sunk (but ten months later raised and returned to active service). During those ten months the Italian Navy enjoyed a temporary control of the Mediterranean sea (called by Mussolini's propaganda the Mare Nostrum, meaning "our sea"). A series of hard fought convoy battles (Second Battle of Sirte in March, Operations Harpoon and Vigorous in June, and Operation Pedestal in August) were victories for the Axis but ensured Malta's survival, until the Allies regained the advantage in November 1942. In Sept 1943 with the Italian collapse and the surrender of Italian fleet, naval actions in Mediterranean became restricted to actions against U-boats and by small craft in the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Major surface actions of the campaign[change \| change source] - 28 June 1940, Battle of the Espero Convoy. Italian convoy attacked, destroyer Espero sunk. - 9 July 1940, Battle of Calabria. Inconclusive fleet action. - 19 July 1940, Battle of Cape Spada. Cruiser action, Bartolomeo Colleoni sunk. - 12 October 1940, Battle of Cape Passero. - 11 November 1940, Battle of Taranto. Aerial attack on Italian fleet in harbour, 3 battleships sunk. - 27 November 1940, Battle of Cape Spartivento. Inconclusive fleet action. - 6-11 January 1941, Operation Excess. British convoy to Malta. - 26 March 1941,battle of Suda Bay. British cruiser sunk by torpedo boats. - 27-29 March 1941, Battle of Cape Matapan. Fleet action, 3 Italian cruisers sunk. - 16 April 1941, Battle of the Tarigo Convoy. Italian convoy attacked. - 20 May-1 June 1941, Battle of Crete. Series of actions supporting army in Crete, 9 British warships sunk. - July 1941, Operation Substance. British convoy to Malta. - September 1941, Operation Halberd. British convoy to Malta. - 8 November 1941, Battle of the Duisburg Convoy. Axis convoy destroyed. - 13 December 1941, Battle of Cape Bon. Italian convoy attacked. - 17 December 1941, First Battle of Sirte. British convoy attacked. - 19 December 1941, Raid on Alexandria. Manned torpedoes attack British fleet, 2 battleships were sunk and a destroyer damaged. - 22 March 1942, Second Battle of Sirte. British convoy attacked. - June 1942, Operation Harpoon. British convoy attacked. - June 1942, Operation Vigorous. British convoy attacked. - August 1942, Operation Pedestal. British convoy attacked. - November 1942, Operation Stone Age. British convoy to Malta. - 2 December 1942, Battle of Skerki Bank. Italian convoy attacked. - 11 December 1942, Raid on Algiers. Manned torpedoes attack Allied shipping. - 16 April 1943, Battle of the Cigno Convoy. Italian convoy attacked. Major Axis and Allied amphibious operations[change \| change source] The following are the major amphibious operations staged during the Battle of the Mediterranean: - 25 February 1941, Allied assault on Kastelorizo. - 20 May 1941, start of the Battle of Crete, the Axis invasion of Crete. - 19 September 1942, Allied assault on Tobruk. - 3 November 1942 Italian landing in Corsica, and occupation of the island. - 8 November 1942, start of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of Vichy-controlled Morocco and Algeria. - 9 July 1943, start of Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily. - 3 September 1943, start of the Allied invasion of Italy. - 8 September 1943, start of the Dodecanese Campaign, the failed Allied attempt to invade the Dodecanese Islands. - 9 September 1943, start of the Allied Salerno landings in Italy. - 22 January 1944, start of Operation Shingle, the Allied landings at Anzio in Italy. - 15 August 1944, start of Operation Dragoon, the Allied landings in southern France.
I introduction on the members of society obeying the law because they personally believe that its commands are justified the law and morality view. The debate concerning law and morality is often based on a proposed connection between the two, in that a law is described as embodying the majority's notions of what is right and wrong although it is plausible that a general moral notion of what is right can arguably be said to exist in society, whether it can be enforced in the private lives . Part one - an introduction to law and morality law and live within society by reasoning upon natural law, certain general rules of conduct can be developed . This is a true anylasis of hart’s theories, and it was said at the introduction that it would be concluded that morality was a necessary part of the law and indeed it was important in helping society to understand its moral obligations, this is concluded. An analysis on law vs ethics and morals in a changing society university of madras introduction: within a society may be, the social morality of a community . Kenyatta university the role of law in society and the place of morality it like any other study in doctrine about law and morality— a response that . Law and morality in the modern world, morality and law are almost universally held to be unrelated fields and, where the term legal ethics is used, it is taken to . Notes: morality and law research activity moral dilemma scenarios law and morality overview law and morality essay plan lawandmoralityandplanppt lawandmoralitynotesdoc part one - an introduction to law and morali . Law and morality law can be distinguished from morality on the grounds that a legal system is comprised of specific, written principles and rules interpreted by officials who are charged with the duty of applying appropriate penalties and awarding appropriate remedies. Should the law enforce morality and shared morality is as necessary to a society as good governance (1997, p 13) rigid, objective thing, es decir, the law . Relation between law and morality or ethics law is an enactment made by the state it is backed by physical coercion its breach is punishable by the courts it represents the will of the state and realizes its purpose. The relationship between law and morality the common element in the refrain and all its variants was that laws will not lead to the moral reformation of a society. Morality and ethics: an introduction by stephen m perle, dc, ms morality and ethics are terms often used as if they have the same meaning at other times, they are . An analysis of natural law and morality human beings are undoubtedly the most sophisticated life forms on earth we are capable of many remarkable feats, but the one attribute that separates from other life on earth is the ability to rationalize and reason. The theory is based on an objective morality, a common morality shared by all in society example of an existing law, which illustrates this theory, is the defence of consent in non-fatal offences, r v brown & others. The success of any law in a particular society depends upon its social acceptance in that society both law and morality influence each other introduction above does not express more than a . ‘an introduction to the surveillance society’ like societies, which function because of “the expensive collection, recording, storage, analysis surveillance society – the slowest form of social suicide – theories of media and communication: blog 1 says:. Morality essay morality is a hard term to define and decipher because there are so many things that have to be taken into account can society exist without law . Laws are absolute rules prescribed by government representatives, while morality has to do with personal views on what is right or wrong there is a close relationship between the two in that laws often represent the overriding societal view on moral issues a major difference between these two . 11 the importance of ethical behaviour for citizens, even for those of us with no aspirations in a career in law enforcement, morality and integrity are important characteristics to demonstrate. Morality and our conscience again, we must decide for ourselves where the conscience originates many people hold to the idea that the conscience is a matter of our hearts, that concepts of right, wrong, and fairness are programmed in each of us. An introduction to ethics: members of a society who are unwilling to abide by the law are one of the things that makes an analysis of morality. The positivistic thesis of the separation between law and morality, and it’s origin is an attempt to divorce the law and the state from claims of religion and tradition in this perspective, law is conventional in character and should not be subject to an ideal absolute and juristic study must not be influenced by external morality. International law- morality and more kamakshi jasra, legal student baroda school of legal studies, msuniversity introduction: international law cannot be defined per se. Introduction to the morality of law without which an ordered society is impossible essentially, its language the inner morality of law (legal morality or . His first book, the division of labour in society, was an exploration and explanation of these issues, and he finds the answer in the concept of social solidarity, common consciousness, systems of common morality, and forms of law.
131 1. While the Allies enjoyed their victory, the huge costs of World War II began to emerge. As many as 50 million people had been killed. The Allies also learned the full extent of the horrors of the Holocaust. War crimes trials, such as those at Nuremberg in Germany, held leaders accountable for their wartime actions. To ensure tolerance and peace, the Western Allies set up democratic governments in Japan and Germany. IN 1945, DELEGATES FROM 50 NATIONS CONVENED TO FORM THE UNITED NATIONS. Under the UN Charter, each member nation has one vote in the General Assembly. A smaller Security Council has greater power. It has five permanent members: the United States, the Soviet Union (today Russia), Britain, France, and China. Each has the right to veto any council decision. UN agencies have tackled many world problems, from disease to helping refugees. However, conflicting ideologies soon led to a Cold War. This refers to the state of tension and hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1990. Soviet leader Stalin wanted to spread communism into Eastern Europe. He also wanted to create a buffer zone of friendly countries as a defense against Germany. By 1948, pro-Soviet communist government were in place throughout Eastern Europe. When Stalin began to threaten Greece and Turkey, the United States outlined a policy called the Truman Doctrine. This policy meant that the United States would resist the spread of communism throughout the world. To strengthen democracies in Europe, the United States offered a massive aid package, called Marshall Plan. Western attempts to rebuild Germany triggered a crisis over the city of Berlin. The Soviets controlled East Germany, which surrounded Berlin. To force the Western Allies out of Berlin, the Soviets blockaded West Berlin, but a yearlong airlift forced them to end the blockade. However, tensions continued to mount. In 1949, the United States and nine other nations formed a new military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Soviets responded by forming the Warsaw Pact, which included the Soviet Union and seven Eastern European nations. 1. What was the purpose of the post-World War II war crimes trials?
If the next world war happens; it may well be triggered by water scarcity across the continents. It has been already found that the third of the world is suffering from water shortages. Increasing demand for water with rapidly growing rate of population, inadequate rainfall, uncontrolled use of water and climate change are some of the reasons behind it. What is water scarcity? The word water scarcity describes the relationship between demand for water and its availability. Water scarcity can be determined as both the availability of water and its consumption patterns. There are several factors that influence the availability and consumption of water. Hence the definition for the availability and consumption is different in various regions. Because of these factors water scarcity will vary widely from country to country and from region to region within a country. Therefore it is little difficult to adopt a global figure to indicate water scarcity but simply we can say water availability of less than 1000 m3/capita as a water scarcity. “As per the UN estimate, water scarcity already affects every continent. Around 1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world’s population, live in areas of physical scarcity, and 500 million people are approaching this situation. Another 1.6 billion people, or almost one quarter of the world’s population, face economic water shortage (where countries lack the necessary infrastructure to take water from rivers and aquifers)”. The thirst of water for India’s rapid development is growing day by day. In spite of adequate average rainfall in India, there is large area under the less water conditions/drought prone. There are lot of places, where the quality of groundwater is not good. Another issue lies in interstate distribution of rivers. Water supply of the 90% of India’s territory is served by inter-state rivers. It has created growing number of conflicts across the states and to the whole country on water sharing issues. Some of the major reasons behind water scarcity are; - Population growth and Food production (Agriculture) - Increasing construction/ infrastructure development Activities - Massive urbanization and industrialization throughout the country - Climatic change and variability- Depleting of natural resources due to changing climate conditions (Deforestation etc.) - Lack of implementation of effective water management systems Rainfall is the major source of water: India receives most of its water from south-west monsoon which is the most important feature controlling the Indian climate. There is about 75% of the annual rainfall is received during a short span of four months between June to September. As far as rainfall distribution over the country concern, it shows large variations in the amounts of rainfall received by different locations e.g. the average annual rainfall is less than 13 cm over the western Rajasthan, while at some part of Meghalaya it has as much as 1141 cm. As per the Indian Metrological Department, India’s annual rainfall is around 1182.8 mm. Out of that, the mean rainfall of south-west monsoon between June to September is around 877.2 mm and contributes 74.2% of annual rainfall. (Know more about water availability in India) Why should India address water scarcity? India’s population is expected to increase from 1.13 Bn in 2005 to 1.66 Bn by 2050. Out of that the urban population is expected to grow from 29.2% of the total population in 2007 to 55.2% by 2050. First and foremost result of the increasing population is the growing demand for more food-grains and allied agricultural produce. It results in expanding area of land under the crops especially high yielding crop varieties. It is estimated that the production of water-intensive crops is expected to grow by 80% between 2000 and 2050. For example Rice, wheat and sugarcane together constitute about 90% of India’s crop production and are the most water-consuming crops. In addition, states with the highest production of rice and/or wheat are expected to face groundwater depletion of up to 75% by 2050. (Facts and figures are sourced from: Grail Research) Another area of concern is the water Intensive Industries. India’s economic growth has been gargantuan in the last decade. Foreign direct investment equity inflow in the industrial sector has grown to $17.68 Bn in 2007–2008. Steel and energy sector will need to keep pace in order to fulfill the demands of sectors like manufacturing and production. Annual per capita consumption of power is expected to reach its maximum level as compared to present installed power generation capacity. As per the ministry of power, thermal power plants which are the most water-intensive industrial units, constitute around 65% of the installed power capacity in India. Industrial water consumption is expected to shoot up its growth between 2000 and 2050. (Facts and figures are sourced from: Grail Research) All of this will result in increased consumption of water. That is why there is urgent requirement to address the issue of water scarcity in India to make better policy decisions which will affect its availability in future. . If the conditions remain same; water will turn out to be the world’s most precious resource soon.
After the initial shock of last year's Gulf oil disaster passed, it quickly became apparent that the oil had somehow disappeared—on the surface, at least. Dispersants helped break up some of the larger plumes, sure, but that doesn't entirely explain why the surface oil slick in the Gulf seemed to disappear just three weeks after the disaster. Researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute think they have the answer: hungry bacterial microbes. Scientists have known for some time that certain bacteria enjoy a good meal made out of oil. But after studying samples from the slick and its surrounding waters, the Woods Hole researchers discovered that bacterial microbes inside the slick were devouring the oil a whopping five times faster than microbes outside the Gulf slick. And strangely enough, there was no increase in microbes inside the slick, leaving the researchers to wonder what the microbes did with all the excess energy gained from chowing down on oil (you would except more microbes to breed as a result of all the available oil). The researchers were also surprised that the microbes consumed so much oil in the first place, since necessary nutrients for the oil-eaters—like phosphorous and nitrogen—were lacking in the oil slick and surrounding waters. The scientists' big fear, of course, is that oil companies will take this information and use it to allay fears about future oil disasters ("We can spill all the oil we want into the ocean because it's just feeding the microbes"). But Terry Hazen, a microbial ecologist with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, questioned just how well these microbes break down oil in an interview last year: "Now, did they degrade every single component of the oil? It's doubtful. And there could be some long-term effects from some of these very, very low concentrations. We don't know. That remains to be seen." The Woods Hole researchers also explain that molecules from the broken-down oil could still find its way into food webs, both offshore and in shoreline areas. So while the oil may appear to be gone, little bits of it could have toxic consequences. Still, it's a comforting thought and a sure source for innovation—if bacterial microbes can at least partially help clean up our massive man-made disasters, what can we learn about how to speed up, mimic, or augment that process in preparation for the next big oil spill? [Image: Flickr user faceless b]
This box contains two costumes costume representing a first and third class passenger, as well as a selection of objects (real and replica) which might have been used by passengers and crew of the ill-fated Titanic. It can be used both as an introductory resource as well as supporting learning throughout the topic of The Titanic. Ideal for use with both Key Stages 1 and 2. Key Learning Objectives - History: To enable pupils to explore the tragic sinking of the Titanic through handling replica objects and taking part in group activities. To place the events leading up to the sinking in chronological order, discuss how and why the Titanic sank and identify differences between the class of people on board the ship. - Speaking and Listening: Encourages Pupils to work efficiently as a member of a group by using speaking and listening skills. - Literacy: To explore the Titanic through studying different sources of evidence such as memories (primary) and books (secondary) - Costume: First class passenger consisting of skirt, blouse, fur stole, wide brimmed hat and accessories. Third class passenger consisting of collarless shirt, waistcoat, necktie, cap and boots. - Original and Replica Artefacts: include Marconi Morse code tapper, kid gloves, feather fan, lifejacket, coins, pocket watch, silver brush and mirror set, silver cutlery, leather collar stud case and studs, Officer’s cap, silver whistle. - Resources include Teacher’s notes, Books, facsimile items, newspapers, posters, and suggested activities (timeline, snap/pairs). Hiring a box Collect on a Monday between 12pm and 5:30pm, and return on a Friday before 5:30pm. Closed 1pm to 1.30pm. To discuss your needs or to make a booking contact Alexandra Walker tel 01962 678199.
Enter a grandparent's name to get started. Powhatan Indians (Southern Renape pawd’tan, ‘falls in a current’ of water. – Gerard). A confederacy of Virginian Algonquian tribes. Their territory included the tidewater section of Virginia from the Potomac s. to the divide between James river and Albemarle sound, and extended into the interior as far as the falls of the principal rivers about Fredericksburg and Richmond. They also occupied the Virginia counties east of Chesapeake Bay and possibly included some tribes in lower Maryland. In the piedmont region west of them were the hostile Monacan and Manahoac, while on the south were the Chowanoc, Nottoway, and Meherrin of Iroquoian stock. Although little is known in regard to the language of these tribes, it is believed they were more nearly related to the Delaware than to any of the northern or more westerly tribes, and were derived either from them or from the same stem. Brinton, in his tentative arrangement, placed them between the Delaware and Nanticoke on one side and the Pamptico on the other. When first known the Powhatan had nearly 200 villages, more than 100 of which are named by Capt. John Smith on his map. The Powhatan tribes were visited by some of the earliest explorers of the period of the discovery, and in 1570 the Spaniards established among then a Jesuit mission, which had but a brief existence. Fifteen years later the southern tribes were brought to the notice of the English settlers at Roanoke island., but little was known of them until the establishment of the Jamestown settlement in 1607. The Indians were generally friendly until driven to hostility by the actions of the whites, when petty warfare ensued until peace was brought about through the marriage of Powhatan’s daughter to John Rolfe, an Englishman. (See Pocahontas). A few years later the Indians were thinned by pestilence, and in 1618 Powhatan died and left the government to Opechancanough. The confederacy seems to have been of recent origin at the period of Powhatan’s succession, as it then included but 7 of the so-called tribes besides his own, all the others having been conquered by himself during his lifetime. Opechancanough was the deadly foe of the whites, and at once began secret preparations for a general uprising. On Mar. 22, 1622, a simultaneous attack was made along the whole frontier, in which 347 of the English were killed in a few hours, and every settlement was destroyed excepting those immediately around Jamestown, where the whites had been warned in time. As soon as the English could recover from the first shock, a war of extermination was begun against the Indians. It was ordered that three expeditions should be undertaken yearly against then in order that they might have no chance to plant their corn or build their wigwams, and the commanders were forbidden to make peace upon any terms whatever. A large number of Indians were at one time induced to return to their homes by promises of peace, but all were massacred in their villages and their houses burned. The ruse was attempted a second time, but was unsuccessful. The war went on for 14 years, until both sides were exhausted, when peace was made in 1636. The greatest battle was fought in 1625 at Pamunkey, where Gov. Wyatt defeated nearly 1,000 Indians and burned their village, the principal one then existing. Peace lasted until 1641, when the Indians were aroused by new encroachments of the whites, and Opechancanough, then an aged man, organized another general attack, which he led in person. In a single day 500 whites were killed, but after about a year the old chief was taken and shot. By his death the confederacy was broken up, and the tribes made separate treaties of peace and were put upon reservations, which were constantly reduced in size by sale or by confiscation upon slight pretense. About 1656 the Cherokee from the mountains invaded the lowlands. The Pamunkey chief with 100 of his men joined the whites in resisting the invasion, but they were almost all killed in a desperate battle on Shocco creek, Richmond. In 1669 a census of the Powhatan tribes showed 528 warriors, or about 2,100 souls, still surviving, the Wicocomoco being then the largest tribe, with 70 warriors, while the Pamunkey had become reduced to 50. In 1675 some Conestoga, driven by the Iroquois from their country on the Susquehanna, entered Virginia and committed depredations. The Virginian tribes were accused of these acts, and several unauthorized expeditions were led against them by Nathaniel Bacon, a number of Indians being killed and villages destroyed. The Indians at last gathered in a fort near Richmond and made preparations for defense. In Aug., 1676, the fort was stormed, and men, women, and children were massacred by the whites. The adjacent stream was afterward known as Bloody run from this circumstance. The scattered survivors asked peace, which was granted on condition of an annual tribute from each village. In 1722 a treaty was made at Albany by which the Iroquois agreed to cease their attacks upon the Powhatan tribes, who were represented at the conference by four chiefs. Iroquois hostility antedated the settlement of Virginia. With the treaty of Albany the history of the Powhatan tribes practically ceased, and the remnants of the confederacy dwindled silently to final extinction. About 1705 Beverley had described them as “almost wasted.” They then had 12 villages, 8 of which were on the Eastern shore, the only one of consequence being Pamunkey, with about 150 souls. Those on the Eastern shore remained until 1831, when the few surviving individuals, having become so much mixed with Negro blood as to be hardly distinguishable, were driven off during the excitement caused by the slave rising under Nat Turner. Some of them had previously joined the Nanticoke. Jefferson’s statement, in his Notes on Virginia, regarding the number and condition of the Powhatan remnant in 1785, are very misleading. He represents them as reduced to the Pamunkey and Mattapony, making altogether only about 15 men, much mixed with Negro blood, and only a few of the older ones preserving the language. The fact is that the descendants of the old confederacy must then have numbered not far from 1,000, in several tribal bands, with a considerable percentage still speaking the language. They now number altogether about 700, including the Chickahominy, Nandsemond, Pamunkey, and Mattapony (q. v. ) with several smaller bands. Henry Spelman, who was prisoner among the Powhatan for some time, now in the house of one chief and then in that of another, mentions several interesting customs. The priests, he says, shaved the right side o the head, leaving a little lock at the ear, and some of them had beards. The common people pulled out the hairs of the beard as fast as they grew. They kept the hair on the right side of the head cut short, “that it might not hinder them by flappinge about their bow stringe when they draw it to shoot; but on ye other side they let it grow and have a long locke banginge downe there shoulder.” Tattooing was practiced to some extent, especially by the women. Among the better sort it was the custom, when eating, for the men to sit on mats round about the house, to each of whom the women brought a dish, as they did not eat together out of one dish. Their marriage customs were similar to those among other Indian tribes, but, according to Spelman, “ye man goes not unto any place to be married, but ye woman is brought unto him where he dwelleth.” If the present of a young warrior were accepted by his mistress, she was considered as having agreed to become his wife, and, without any further explanation to her family, went to his hut, which became her home, and the ceremony was ended. Polygamy, Spelman asserts, was the custom of the country, depending upon the ability to purchase wives; Burk says, however, that they generally had but one wife. Their burial customs varied according to locality and the dignity of the person. The bodies of their chiefs were placed on scaffolds, the flesh being first removed from the bones and dried, then wrapped with the bones in a mat, and the remains were then laid in their order with those of others who had previously died. For their ordinary burials they dug deep holes in the earth with very sharp stakes, and, wrapping the corpse in the skins, laid it upon sticks in the ground and covered it with earth. They believed in a multitude of minor deities, paying a kind of worship to everything that was able to do them harm beyond their prevention, such as fire, water, lightning, and thunder, etc. They also had a kind of chief deity variously termed Okee, Ouioccos, or Kiwasa of whom they made images, which were usually placed in their burial temples. They believed in immortality, but the special abode of the spirits does not appear to have been well defined. The office of werowance, or chieftaincy, appears to have been hereditary through the female line, passing first to the brothers, if there were any, and then to the male descendants of sisters, but never in the male line. The Chickahominy, it is said, had no such custom nor any regular chief, the priests and leading men ruling, except in war, when the warriors selected a leader. According to Smith, “their houses are built like our arbors, of small young sprigs, bowed and tied, and so close covered with mats or the bark of trees very handsomely, that notwithstanding wind, rain, or weather they are as warm as stoves, but very smoky, yet at the top of the house there is a hole made for the smoke to go into right over the fire.” According to White’s pictures they were oblong, with a rounded roof (see Habitations). They varied in length from 12 to 24 yds., and some were as much as 36 yds. long, though not of great width. They were formed of poles or saplings fixed in the ground at regular intervals, which were bent over from the sides so as to form an arch at the top. Pieces running horizontally were fastened with withes, to serve as braces and as supports for bark, mats, or other coverings. Many of their towns were enclosed with palisades, consisting of posts planted in the ground and standing 10 or 12 ft high. The gate was usually an overlapping gap in the circuit of palisades. Where great strength and security were required, a triple stockade was sometimes made. These inclosing walls sometimes encompassed the whole town; in other cases only the chief’s house, the burial house, and the more important dwellings were thus surrounded. They appear to have made considerable advance in agriculture, cultivating 2 or 3 varieties of maize, beans, certain kinds of melons or pumpkins, several varieties of roots, and even 2 or 3 kinds of fruit trees. They computed by the decimal system. Their years were reckoned by winters, cohonks, as they called them, in imitation of the note of the wild geese, which came to them every winter. They divided the year into five seasons, viz, the budding or blossoming of spring; earing of corn, or roasting-ear time; the summer, or highest sun; the corn harvest, or fall of the leaf, and the winter, or cohonk. Months were counted as moons, without relation to the number in a year; but they arranged them so that they returned under the same names, as the moon of stags, the corn moon, first and second moon of cohonks (geese), etc. They divided the day into three parts, “the rise, power, and lowering of the sun.” They kept their accounts by knots on strings or by notches on a stick. The estimate of population given by Smith is 2,400 warriors. Jefferson, on the basis of this, made their total population about 8,000. For Further Study: In addition to the authorities found in Arber’s edition of Smith’s Works, consult Mooney, Willoughby, Gerard, and Bushnell in American Anthropology, ix, no. 1, 1907.
Getting students to focus and pay attention is a major problem in education. Fortunately, there are several strategies that a teacher can use to help students to pay attention. In this post, we will cover the following approaches for maintaining a student’s attention… - Indicate what is important - Increase intensity - Include novelty - Include movement There are times when students are engaged but they don’t know what to do or what they are looking for. For example, a teacher may want students to summarize a paragraph. However, it is common for students to get focused on the details of the passage and never identify the main point. To overcome this problem, a teacher may want to focus the student’s attention on questions that will guide the students to summarizing the paragraph. The questions break down the task of summarizing into individual steps. Below is an example - What is the topic of the paragraph? - What are some of the details the author includes in the paragraph? - What is the main point of the paragraph? The example above provides one way the task of summarizing can be broken down into several steps. This helps in focusing the students. Raise the Intensity Increasing the intensity has to do with the amount of stimulus a child receives while doing something. For example, if a child is struggling to write the letter ‘t’ you may have them say out loud how to write it before writing the letter. This exposes the child to new material both verbally and in a psychomotor way. The goal of this approach is to engage more of the student’s senses in order to help them to pay attention. This approach is self-explanatory. Students pay attention much more closely to something they have not experienced before. The only limits to this approach are the imagination. For example, if a teacher is teaching math to small children, they may choose to use manipulatives as a new way of reinforcing the content. Another option would be to incorporate simple word problems. There is truly no limit in this strategy. Movement can involve the students and or the teacher moving around. When the students move it can help in breaking the monotony of having to sit still. Movement is even beneficial for adult students. A moving teacher, on the other hand, is a moving target the students can focus upon. It is normally wise to avoid staying in one place too long when teaching children for the sake of attention and classroom management. These ideas are some of the basics for increasing attention. Naturally, there are other ways to deal with this challenge. However, a teacher chooses to deal with this problem, they need to determine if their approach works for their students
They then develop an entire range of enzymic activities. At the next stage, rna molecules began to synthesize proteins, first by developing rna adaptor molecules that can bind activated amino acids and then by arranging them according to an rna template using other rna molecules such as the rna core of the ribosome. This process would make the first proteins, which would simply be better enzymes than their rna counterparts. These protein enzymes are. Built up of mini-elements of structure. Finally, dna appeared on the scene, the ultimate holder of information copied from the genetic rna molecules by reverse transcription. Rna is then relegated to the intermediate thank role it has today—no longer the center of the stage, displaced by dna and the more effective protein enzymes. Today, research in the rna world is a medium-sized industry. Scientists in this field are able to demonstrate that random sequences of rna sometimes exhibit useful properties. James Watson enthusiastically praises Sir Francis Crick for having suggested this possibility (1) : The time had come to ask how the dna rna protein flow of information had ever got started. Here, francis was again far ahead of his time. In 1968 he argued that rna must have been the first genetic molecule, further suggesting that rna, besides acting as a template, essay might also act as an enzyme and, in so doing, catalyze its own self-replication. It was prescient of Crick to guess that rna could act as an enzyme, because that was not known for sure until it was proven in the 1980s by nobel prize-winning researcher Thomas. Cech (2) and others. The discovery of rna enzymes launched a round of new theorizing that is still under way. The term "rna world" was first used in a 1986 article by harvard molecular biologist Walter Gilbert (3) : The first stage of evolution proceeds, then, by rna molecules performing the catalytic activities necessary to assemble themselves from a nucleotide soup. The rna molecules evolve in self-replicating patterns, using recombination and mutation to explore new niches. The undreamt-of breakthrough of molecular biology has made the problem of the origin of life a greater riddle than it was before: we have acquired new and deeper problems. Popper, 1974 (.2 virtually all biologists now agree that bacterial cells cannot form from nonliving chemicals in one step. If life arises from nonliving chemicals, there must be intermediate forms, "precellular life." Of the various theories of precellular life, the leading contender is the rna world. Rna has the ability to act as both genes and enzymes. This property could offer a way around the "chicken-and-egg" problem. (Genes require enzymes; enzymes require genes.) Furthermore, rna can be transcribed into dna, in reverse of the normal process of transcription. These facts are reasons to consider that the rna world could be the original pathway to cells. Rna in paraffin-embedded tissues Since multiple arrays can be made with exactly the same position of fragments they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a nabi healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors. There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of 100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array. Arrays can also be made with molecules other than dna. Allele-specific oligonucleotide Edit main article: Allele-specific oligonucleotide Allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) is a technique that allows resume detection of single base mutations without the need for pcr or gel electrophoresis. Short (20-25 nucleotides in length labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target dna, hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target dna is then washed and the labeled probes that didn't hybridize are removed. The target dna is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation. 22 23 sds-page in molecular biology, procedures and technologies are continually being developed and older technologies abandoned. For example, before the advent of dna gel electrophoresis ( agarose or polyacrylamide the size of dna molecules was typically determined by rate sedimentation in sucrose gradients, a slow and labor-intensive technique requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, viscometry was used. Aside from their historical interest, it is often worth knowing about older technology, as it is occasionally useful to solve another new problem for which the newer technique is inappropriate. Antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques, including colored products, chemiluminescence, or autoradiography. Often, the antibodies are labeled with enzymes. When a chemiluminescent substrate is exposed to the enzyme it allows detection. Using western blotting techniques allows not only detection but also quantitative analysis. Analogous methods to western blotting can be used to directly stain specific proteins in live cells or tissue sections. 15 16 Eastern blotting Edit main article: Eastern blot The eastern blotting technique is used to detect post-translational modification of proteins. Proteins blotted on to the pvdf or nitrocellulose membrane are probed for modifications using specific substrates. 17 Microarrays Edit main article: dna microarray play media a dna microarray being printed Hybridization of target to probe dna microarray is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a microscope slide where each spot contains one or more single-stranded dna. Arrays make it possible to put down large quantities of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a dna fragment molecule that is complementary to a single dna sequence. A variation of this technique allows the gene expression of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified ( expression profiling ). In this technique the rna in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled cdna. This cdna is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. video & Lesson It is essentially a combination of denaturing rna gel electrophoresis, and a blot. In this process rna is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled complement of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the rna detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target rna in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring mom by measuring how much of that rna is present in different samples. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues. 13 14 Western blotting Edit main article: Western blot In western blotting, proteins are first separated by size, in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates in a technique known as sds-page. The proteins in the gel are then transferred to a polyvinylidene fluoride (pvdf nitrocellulose, nylon, or other support membrane. This membrane can then be probed with solutions of antibodies. 10 Macromolecule blotting and probing Edit The terms northern, western and eastern blotting are derived from what book initially was a molecular biology joke that played on the term southern blotting, after the technique described by Edwin southern for the hybridisation of blotted dna. Patricia thomas, developer of the rna blot which then became known as the northern blot, actually didn't use the term. 11 southern blotting Edit main article: southern blot Named after its inventor, biologist Edwin southern, the southern blot is a method for probing for the presence of a specific dna sequence within a dna sample. Dna samples before or after restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) digestion are separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane by blotting via capillary action. The membrane is then exposed to a labeled dna probe that has a complement base sequence to the sequence on the dna of interest. 12 southern blotting is less commonly used in laboratory science due to the capacity of other techniques, such as pcr, to detect specific dna sequences from dna samples. These blots are still used for some applications, however, such as measuring transgene copy number in transgenic mice or in the engineering of gene knockout embryonic stem cell lines. Citation needed northern blotting Edit main article: Northern blot Northern blot diagram The northern blot is used to study the expression patterns of a specific type of rna molecule as relative comparison among a set of different samples of rna. reaction is extremely powerful and under perfect conditions could amplify one dna molecule to become.07 billion molecules in less than two hours. The pcr technique can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites to ends of dna molecules, or to mutate particular bases of dna, the latter is a method referred to as site-directed mutagenesis. Pcr can also be used to determine whether a particular dna fragment is found in a cdna library. Pcr has many variations, like reverse transcription pcr ( rt-pcr ) for amplification of rna, and, more recently, quantitative pcr which allow for quantitative measurement of dna or rna molecules. 8 9 Gel electrophoresis Edit main article: Gel electrophoresis Two percent Agarose gel in Borate buffer cast in a gel Tray (Front, angled) Gel electrophoresis is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that dna, rna, and proteins can all be separated by means of an electric field and size. In agarose gel electrophoresis, dna and rna can be separated on the basis of size by running the dna through an electrically charged agarose gel. Proteins can be separated on the basis of size by using an sds-page gel, or on the basis of size and their electric charge by using what is known as a 2D gel electrophoresis. Introducing dna into eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells, by summary physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection and liposome transfection. The plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. 6 7 dna coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the protein can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its tertiary structure can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied. Rna splicing mutations play role in genetic variation - uchicago Dna animation, for more extensive list on protein methods, see protein methods. For more extensive list on nucleic acid methods, see nucleic acid methods. Molecular cloning, edit, main article: Molecular cloning, transduction image. One of report the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning. In this technique, dna coding for a protein of interest is cloned using polymerase chain reaction (pcr and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid ( expression vector ). A vector has 3 distinctive features: an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site (mcs and a selective marker usually antibiotic resistance. Located upstream of the multiple cloning site are the promoter regions and the transcription start site which regulate the expression of cloned gene. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing dna into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked dna, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector.
Teaching your homeschoolers is a challenge, and knowing the various methods and options are essential to success. Below you'll find the facts and ideas behind The Waldorf Method of teaching, and specific ways you can try it in your homeschool classroom. Founder- Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian philosopher and educator. He was also the originator of a branch of philosophy called Anthroposophy, which emphasises the importance of clear and free thought. Philosophy- Waldorf ideas stress the importance of educating the whole child—body, mind, and spirit. In the early grades, there is an emphasis on arts and crafts, music and movement, and nature. Older children are taught to develop self-awareness and how to reason things out for themselves. Children in a Waldorf homeschool tend not to favor the use of textbooks, but often use books that children create themselves. The use of computers and television are discouraged by many proponents of this method, as it is thought to hamper children's creative abilities. The full potential of each child is to be considered when teaching, and goals are not stressed. There tends to be less pressure to "perform" within this philosophy. Art is also to be a major part of curriculum. Method- All subjects are taught using three key components: 1.Intellect- applying logic and independent thinking and prior knowledge 2.Heart- acknowledging the importance of feelings, and the expressions of these. 3.Hands-using handiwork, crafts and art to express oneself. Art is involved in most every part of the curriculum. * Special emphasis- Environmental awareness and responsibility for the planet on which we live. Lesson Plan Example- 1.On the first day of the lesson on "fables", read a fable aloud to your child. Do not reveal the moral of the story. 2.On the second day ask your child to recount the story in his or her own words. Ask your homeschooler what he or she thinks the moral of the story is. You may choose to compare and contrast your child's thoughts with those intended from the author. 3.Have your child illustrate a picture showing the meaning of the fable, and the moral stated on the bottom in your child's own writing. 4.Choose follow up activities, such as a visit to see the animals, plants, etc. that were referred to in the fable. You can also have your child create crafts and read books based on the theme as well. Specific Lesson Plan for "Fables"- 1. Read "The Ant and the Grasshopper", one of Aesop's Fables. Do not reveal the moral. 2.Ask your child to retell the story of "The Ant and the Grasshopper" in his or her own words. Discuss the intended moral of the story after hearing your child's expression. 3.Have your child draw a picture that best depicts the fable, and then have him or her write the moral on the bottom of the page. This can be the intended moral, your child's moral, a combination of the two, or both! 4.Take a nature walk and go on a bug hunt. Record findings in a nature journal created by your child. 5.Have your child draw a picture of what a flower would look like from an ant or grasshoppers point of view. 6.Visit the website "longlongtimeago" and hear the story read aloud, or explore other stories. 7.Read about ants and grasshoppers in the books listed below and discuss ideas based on these with your child. 8.Have your child brainstorm ways to help all "critter creatures" and keep them safe from harmful pesticides, etc. Visit a local nursery or garden store to discuss holistic options for pest control. 9.Set up an ant farm at home as a Science experiment. Record the results of movement daily. Create a hypothesis and plan for studying the ants behavior. After a set amount of time, 2 weeks for example, record the final results. Have your child create picture and bar graphs to how the progress and patterns of behavior of the ants. 10.Discuss personification and have your child create a voice for the grasshopper and the ant. They can create a cartoon with what the insects are saying to one another. This can be real, fictitious or humorous. The Waldorf Method is a method of teaching that encourages independent thinking and care for the natural world. If you think this method might fit your homeschooler's needs give it a try! 1."Understanding Waldorf Education: Teaching from the Inside Out" by Jack Petrash 2."Waldorf Education: A Family Guide" by Pamela J. Fenner 3."Waldorf Alphabet Book" by Famke Zonneveld 4."EverBig Book of Bugs" by Theresa Greenaway 5."Everything Bug: What Kids Really Want to Know about Bugs" by Cherie Winner 6."The Ant and the Grasshopper" (Aesop’s Fables)
It's always a thrill to see an object emerge from a 3D printer. The object, previously visible only as an intangible digital model displayed poorly on a 2D screen is suddenly in your hand. But imagine the thrill if that object being printed was intended to literally be part of you. That's precisely what happened at the Weill Cornell Medical College when scientists from Cornell applied their 3D printing knowledge to the case of microtia, a congenital deformity of the ear. Of course, this technique could also be applied to anyone missing an ear. Apparently many thousands of children face microtia with little hope. Now it's been proven possible that replacement ears can be produced using the new technique. The process is not exclusively 3D printing, as it uses several other manufacturing techniques. After obtaining a digital model of the target ear (perhaps by scanning the "other" ear and reversing the model), an inverse of the model is used to 3D print a mold. The mold is then filled with collagen and cartilage cells, which, over several days grow over the collagen and form the ear structure. Then it's simply a matter of implanting it into the patient. We suspect procedures similar to this will gradually be developed for various body replacement parts as the technology is fully explored.
The Oxbow Conservation Area, located on the Middle Fork John Day River, exhibits critical habitat for Chinook salmon, Steelhead and Bull Trout. Dredge mining severely channelized the riverbed in the 1940s leading to a straightened channel and disconnected floodplain. The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs teamed up with the Bureau of Reclamation and a variety of other partners to restore two miles of river channel affected by mining. Watch the accomplishments made in 2014 on the third of five phases of restoration to the site. Why is a meandering stream important? A meandering stream is one that has curves and turns along its length. Streams naturally meander and the meandering process eventually results in a floodplain surrounding the stream channel, except where valley characteristics prevent floodplain formation. Floodplains are desirable because they spread flood energy across a wide area, reduce flood peaks as flood flows spread out, prevent erosion, and provide habitats for streamside vegetation and wildlife. In the graphic above, note the meandering stream with full access to the surrounding floodplain. Since floodplain soils tend to be very fertile, farmers and ranchers often straightened streams to make use of it. Streams were also straightened with the belief that it would control flooding. We now know that the opposite is true. Straightened streams tend to cut deep channels that are cut off from the surrounding floodplain. During flood events, these channels tend to concentrate flood energy in a small area, resulting in increased erosion. Also, the benefits of the stream on the surrounding area are reduced since the stream length is greatly diminished. In the graphic above, note the straightened stream that is trapped in its channel with no access to the surrounding floodplain.
Prove the Tangent-Chord Theorem. As we're dealing with a tangent line, we'll use the fact that the tangent is perpendicular to the radius at the point it touches the circle. Let's draw that radius, AO, so m∠DAO is 90°. Let's call ∠BAD "α", and then m∠BAO will be 90-α. We'll draw another radius, from O to B: Now, ∠BCA is an inscribed angle that subtends the same arc as the central angle ∠BOA, so by the inscribed angle theorem, it is equal to half of m∠BOA, or α, and ∠BAD ≅ ∠BCA. (1) m∠DAO = 90° //Given, AD is tangent to circle O, the tangent is perpendicular to the radius (2) m∠BAD = α (3) m∠BAO = 90-α //(1), Angle addition postulate (4) OA=OB //All radii of a circle are equal (5) m∠ABO = m∠BAO //(4), base angle theorem (6) m∠BOA=180-2·(90-α) = 2α //(5), Sum of angles in a triangle (7) m∠BCA=½m∠BOA //Inscribed angle theorem (8) m∠BCA=α //(6),(7) (9) m∠BCA=m∠BAD //(2), (8), transitive property of equality (10) ∠BAD ≅ ∠BCA //definition of congruent angles The Tangent-Chord theorem is sometimes stated as "The angle formed by a tangent to a circle and a chord is equal to half the angle measure of the intercepted arc." This is equivalent to what we have shown, since the angle measure of an intercepted arc is twice the angle measure of the inscribed angle that subtends it. Now that we have shown this, it is easy to prove another relationship between tangent lines and chords - the Tangent-Secant Theorem.
Salter’s trilobite, a national fossil of Wales, is evidence for a young earth and biblical history The following question from a correspondent is about a fossil described on a TV program they were watching. It’s answered by geologist Dr Tas Walker. Last night I was watching a British programme “Coast” on SBS–TV. The presenter showed Salter’s fossil, a great trilobite, which was discovered around 150 years ago on the west coast of Wales. Apparently the discovery of this fossil changed the view of the age of the earth. I cannot find a reference to it in your search engine, so I am asking whether this fossil is indeed as old as it is claimed to be. Can you give reasons for your answer please with particular reference to this fossil? Thank you very much. CMI’s Dr Tas Walker replies: I Googled “Salters fossil Wales” and came up with an article about it on the website for National Museum Wales.1 From its description it is a remarkable fossil, being a very large trilobite over 50 cm long and incredibly well preserved. It was found by J.W. Salter in the rocks of Pembrokeshire, and called Paradoxides davidis. The find of a fossil trilobite in itself would give no clue for the age of the earth. But the find could be used to convince people the world is old depending on the way the people of the day reported the find. For example, it would likely have been presented as a curiosity from a bygone era, a creature now extinct that existed eons of ages ago when the world was very different from ours. However, many, many fossils are the same as creatures alive today. These are often called ‘living fossils’, and they have the reverse effect, giving the impression that the past was not that different from today. (See Living fossils: a powerful argument for creation.) The strata in Wales, in which the fossil was found, had been named Cambrian by Adam Sedgwick in 1835. So, if the fossil was described as belonging to the Cambrian era, people would have got the impression that it was eons of time ago. In other words, just the language used to report the find could have influenced people to imagine an old age for the earth. The fossil was found in 1862, and the idea of an old earth had been increasingly popular since it was widely promoted in the writings of Charles Lyell some 30 years before. However, most people of that time still believed the biblical account of earth history, that the earth was only 6,000 years old, as do many people today. Lyell’s claim that the earth was eons old was not a discovery he had made but an assumption, and he was very persuasive in his writings. Lyell deliberately denied that Noah’s Flood had ever occurred in history as the Bible describes, and so he ignored the event and its catastrophic effects on the geology of the earth. The trilobite fossil is actually stunning evidence for the catastrophe of Noah’s Flood because of its excellent preservation. Its intricate detail indicates that it was buried quickly before it was scavenged by other animals, as occurs so quickly today. In fact, the fossil is a problem for those who believe in long ages, because they have to postulate special conditions for how it was preserved so beautifully while it was waiting to be covered slowly by sediment. When we interpret the fossil from a biblical perspective, it makes a lot of sense of the evidence. The Cambrian strata in Wales were deposited as the waters of Noah’s Flood were rising, about the middle of the first half of the Flood. That means the fossil is actually about 4,500 years old—one of the creatures that was alive before the Flood, and which perished in the cataclysm. The fossil was found just three years after Charles Darwin published his Origin. Over the next 30 years there was considerable debate about the age of the earth with physicist Lord Kelvin saying it was about 20 to 40 million years old at the most. (His calculated result was far too old because he made wrong assumptions about what the earth was like when God first created it. See Western culture and the age of the earth.) Charles Darwin was distressed at Kelvin’s number because it was too small! Darwin said he needed a vast period of time before the Cambrian for his theory of evolution to work. In other words, an almost unimaginably huge age of the earth is something that the evolutionary scientists have been looking for in order for evolution to be at all plausible. Apart from being evidence for rapid burial in the global Flood, the trilobite fossil is also remarkable evidence for design, which points to the Designer. Its body plan is especially suited for it to live, grow, and reproduce in the environment where it lived. The trilobite eye particularly is a masterpiece of precision optical design. Trilobites are thought to be extinct, which is why they are of such interest. People are well aware today of the threats and causes of extinction because there are so many animals that are threatened or endangered. So, this trilobite fossil is also evidence that we live in a ‘fallen’ world, where death, suffering, disease and extinction are part of the landscape. The Bible explains how all that came about and it gives us the remedy for that problem, together with hope for the future, in the gospel of Christ. In summary, there is nothing in Salter’s trilobite or where it was found that points to an old earth. However, this fossil provides stunning evidence for the reliability of the Bible. Its design demonstrates the power and wisdom of the Creator, its death and extinction the terrible consequence of sin, its preservation the reality of global judgment, and the provision of salvation as evidenced by Noah and his family, from whom we are all descended. All the best, Re-featured on homepage: 21 April 2021 References and notes - International fame for Wales's 'National Fossil', museum.wales, accessed 2014. Return to text.
Comparing Standard of Living in Different Countries Students will be able to: - Compare the standard of living in different countries. In this economics activity, students will examine housing conditions in different countries to discuss Real GDP per Capita. This activity is an individual activity where students will research and answer questions. Real GDP is frequently used to compare the lifestyle of different countries. However, it is not the only measure to use – and may not be the best one to use. Population differences, price changes, lifestyle preferences, and other factors can influence what is known as a country’s standard of living. The standard of living is defined as the level of subsistence of a nation, its social class, or individual adequacy of necessities and comforts of daily life – meaning it is a measure of the wealth, comfort, and access to necessities within a country or region. Finding a way to accurately measure these factors is challenging, and economists tend to rely on Real GDP per Capita because it provides an average level of output and wealth within a country. To complete this activity, students need to follow the instructions below: - Go to the Dollar Street Website which displays housing in various countries around the world. - Be sure to click on “Homes” in the first box and “The World” in the second box for this activity. The dollar amount in each box represents the monthly income of the family living in that particular home. - Scroll through the different countries and use your findings to answer the following Quizizz activity,worksheet questions, or ReadyAssessments Activity. Closing the Gap The Business Cycle: Introduction to Macroeconomic Indicators
FACTS ON ARCH PAIN Feet of adults usually have an arch (an upward curve) between the forefoot and the heel. The arch usually develops as a person grows older and is not present from birth. Arch pain is felt on the underside of the foot between the heel and ball of foot. The purpose of the arch is to transfer body weight from the heel to the toe. Pain happens when the arch does not function properly. When the tendons in the foot all pull adequately, the foot forms a normal arch. When tendons do not pull together properly, there is little or no arch. This is called flat foot or fallen arch. This is a common problem that may causes chronic pain and compromise mobility. Consult your CuraFoot doctor for a thorough diagnosis. - Arch pain occurs due to weak or strained ligaments associated with the bones in the arch of your foot - It is primarily caused by wearing incorrect shoes with less support while standing or walking for long periods of time - Overuse of the feet during work or sports - Being obese or overweight - Direct injury or ligament sprains in the foot HOW TO HELP PREVENT AND RELIEVE ARCH PAIN? There are some steps you can take to help prevent pain in the arch of your foot. For example: - Use shoes with correct insoles to support and cushion your feet and ankles - Eat a balanced diet and exercise regularly to stay healthy - Resting to allow the tissues to heal themselves if already suffering from arch pain - Applying ice to the area to relieve pain and reduce swelling
Back to: Jss3 Home Economics (PVS) Topic: Garment Construction WEEK: 9 & 10 Garment construction is the process of transforming fabric into a finished garment. It involves a series of steps that begin with the design of a garment and end with the final product. The process can be broken down into three main stages: patternmaking, cutting, and sewing. - Patternmaking: Patternmaking is the process of creating a blueprint or template for a garment. This is done by first taking measurements of the body and then transferring those measurements onto paper or fabric to create a flat pattern. The pattern is then modified and adjusted to achieve the desired fit and style. - Cutting: Once the pattern is finalized, it is used to cut the fabric into the necessary pieces. Careful attention is paid to the grain of the fabric, which must be aligned properly to ensure the garment hangs and drapes correctly. The cutting process can be done manually or with the use of computerized cutting machines. - Sewing: The final stage of garment construction involves sewing the fabric pieces together. This is done with a sewing machine or by hand, depending on the complexity of the garment and the desired finish. The seams are finished to prevent fraying and the garment is pressed to give it a professional appearance. Other techniques may be employed during the garment construction process, such as adding details like buttons, zippers, or decorative stitching. Quality control is also an important aspect of garment construction, as each step must be carefully executed to ensure the final product meets the desired standards. Seam finishes refer to techniques used to prevent the raw edges of fabric from fraying or unravelling. They are used to give a professional and neat appearance to a garment or other sewn item. Here are ten advantages and disadvantages of various seam finishes: Advantages of Seam Finishes - Prevents fraying: Seam finishes help prevent the raw edges of fabric from fraying or unravelling, which can extend the life of a garment. - Provides a neat finish: Seam finishes create a neat, clean edge that looks professional and polished. - Increases durability: A good seam finish can increase the durability of a garment, especially in areas that are likely to undergo a lot of wear and tear. - Helps with washing: Some seam finishes, such as serging or overlocking, can help prevent the fabric from unravelling in the wash. - Adds structure: Certain seam finishes, such as binding or Hong Kong finishes, can add structure and support to a garment. - Improves appearance: A well-executed seam finish can improve the appearance of a garment, especially when the finish is visible on the outside. - Offers customization: There are many different types of seam finishes, which means you can choose one that complements the fabric and style of your garment. - Conceals raw edges: Seam finishes can help conceal raw edges and prevent them from peeking out or causing discomfort. - Allows for creativity: Some seam finishes, such as flat-felled or French seams, can be decorative and add a unique touch to a garment. - Saves time: While seam finishes do require some extra time and effort, they can save time in the long run by preventing fraying and ensuring a garment lasts longer. Disadvantages of Seam Finishes - Time-consuming: Some seam finishes, such as French seams or Hong Kong finishes, can be time-consuming and require extra effort. - Requires skill: Certain seam finishes, such as welt or bound seams, require a higher level of skill and precision to execute properly. - Adds bulk: Some seam finishes, such as bias binding or piping, can add bulk to a garment and make it feel heavier or less comfortable. - Limits flexibility: Certain seam finishes, such as flat-felled seams, can limit the flexibility of a garment and make it less comfortable to wear. - Increases cost: Some seam finishes, such as bias binding or Hong Kong finishes, require extra fabric or materials, which can increase the cost of making a garment. - Requires extra equipment: Some seam finishes, such as serging or overlocking, require specialized equipment that may not be readily available to all sewers. - Limits seam allowances: Certain seam finishes, such as French seams, require a smaller seam allowance, which can limit the amount of fabric you have to work with. - Can be bulky on lightweight fabrics: Some seam finishes, such as bias binding or piping, can be bulky and create visible ridges on lightweight fabrics. - May not be suitable for all fabrics: Some seam finishes, such as flat-felled seams or bound seams, may not be suitable for all fabrics and can cause puckering or distortion. - Can be difficult to undo: Once a seam finish is applied, it can be difficult to undo and rework if there is an issue with the construction of the garment. Seam Finishes Processes Seam finishes are the various ways to treat the raw edges of fabric seams to prevent them from fraying and unravelling. The type of seam finish you choose will depend on the fabric type, the project, and your personal preference. Here are some common seam finishes processes: - Zigzag stitch: This is the most basic seam finish and can be done with a sewing machine or by hand. It involves sewing a zigzag stitch over the raw edges to prevent fraying. - Overcast stitch: This is similar to the zigzag stitch, but instead of a zigzag pattern, it uses a straight stitch and then a loop stitch to enclose the raw edge. - French seam: This is a clean and neat way to finish seams that will be seen from both sides of the garment. It involves sewing the seam wrong side to the wrong side, trimming the seam allowance, and then folding the fabric right side to the right side and sewing again. - Bias binding: This involves using a strip of bias-cut fabric to encase the raw edge of the seam. The bias binding can be sewn by machine or by hand. - Pinked edge: This is a quick and easy finish that involves cutting the raw edges with pinking shears, which create a zigzag edge that helps prevent fraying. - Hong Kong finish: This is a more advanced seam finish that involves encasing the raw edge with bias tape or a strip of fabric that has been cut on the bias. - Bound seam: This is similar to the Hong Kong finish, but instead of using bias tape or a strip of fabric, a separate piece of fabric is used to enclose the raw edge. There are many other seam finishing techniques, but these are some of the most common. It’s important to choose the right seam finish for your project to ensure that it looks neat and professional and that the seams hold up over time. Edge finishing refers to the process of finishing or binding the raw edges of fabric to prevent them from fraying and unraveling. Raw edges are the unfinished edges of fabric that are left after cutting. These edges are prone to fraying and can cause clothing to look messy and worn out. There are several methods of edge finishing in clothing, including: - Overlock Stitch: This is a stitch that uses multiple threads to sew over the edge of the fabric, preventing it from fraying. It is commonly used in knit fabrics. - Zigzag Stitch: This stitch is used to prevent the edges of woven fabrics from fraying. It creates a zigzag pattern that helps hold the edges of the fabric together. - Bias Binding: This is a strip of fabric that is cut on the bias (diagonal) grain of the fabric. It is used to encase the raw edges of the fabric, giving a neat finish. - French Seam: This is a method of finishing the seam of a garment so that the raw edges are completely enclosed. It is commonly used on delicate fabrics. - Hemming: This is the process of folding and stitching the bottom edge of a garment to prevent fraying. Uses of Edges Finishing - Hemming: Hemming is the process of folding and sewing the edge of a garment to prevent fraying and give it a finished look. It is commonly used to finish the bottom of skirts, dresses, and pants. - Overcasting: Overcasting is a technique where the raw edge of a fabric is sewn over with a zigzag stitch. This method is commonly used on lightweight fabrics like chiffon, organza, and silk. - Bias binding: Bias binding is a strip of fabric that is cut on the bias (diagonal) and used to cover raw edges. It is commonly used on necklines, armholes, and cuffs. - French seams: French seams are a technique where the raw edges of a seam are enclosed inside a folded seam allowance. This method creates a clean, polished finish on the inside of a garment and is commonly used on sheer or lightweight fabrics. - Flat-felled seams: Flat-felled seams are a technique where the raw edges of a seam are folded and sewn down to create a strong, durable seam. This method is commonly used on denim and other heavy fabrics. - Bound seams: Bound seams are a technique where the raw edges of a seam are enclosed inside a strip of fabric. This method creates a neat, finished look and is commonly used on heavy fabrics. - Pinking: Pinking is a technique where the raw edge of a fabric is cut with pinking shears, which creates a zigzag edge that helps prevent fraying. This method is commonly used on lightweight fabrics like cotton and linen. - Rolled hem: A rolled hem is a tiny, narrow hem that is often used on lightweight fabrics like chiffon, silk, and organza. It is created by folding and rolling the fabric over itself, then sewing it in place. - Bias tape: Bias tape is a strip of fabric that is cut on the bias and used to finish raw edges. It is commonly used on curved edges like armholes and necklines. - Serger stitches: A serger is a sewing machine that creates a specialized stitch that simultaneously trims and finishes the raw edge of a fabric. This method is commonly used on knit fabrics and creates a clean, professional finish. Types of Edge Finishing - Hemming: Hemming is the process of folding and stitching the raw edge of the fabric to create a neat finish. This technique is often used to finish the bottom of skirts, pants, and dresses. - Binding: Binding is a technique that involves covering the raw edge of the fabric with another piece of fabric. This creates a durable and attractive finish that can be used on the edges of clothing like necklines, armholes, and cuffs. - Zigzag: Zigzag finishing involves using a special sewing machine stitch that creates a zigzag pattern along the edge of the fabric. This technique is often used on stretchy fabrics like knits to prevent fraying and to add a decorative touch. - French seam: French seams are a type of finishing that creates a clean, polished look. They are made by enclosing the raw edge of the fabric within the seam, so there is no visible stitching on the outside. - Overlock: Overlock finishing involves using an overlocking machine to stitch and trim the edge of the fabric simultaneously. This technique creates a strong, durable finish and is often used on knit fabrics. - Rolled hem: Rolled hems are created by rolling the edge of the fabric and stitching it in place. This technique is often used on lightweight fabrics like silk and chiffon to create a delicate, feminine finish. - Bias binding: Bias binding is a technique that involves cutting a strip of fabric on the bias (diagonal) grain and using it to cover the raw edge of the fabric. This creates a durable and attractive finish that is often used on curved edges like necklines and armholes. Points to Consider in Choosing an Edge Finishing When choosing an edge finishing, there are several factors to consider to achieve the desired look and function of the finished product. Here are some points to consider: - Function: Consider the intended use of the finished product. Will the edges be exposed to wear and tear or sharp objects? If so, choose a durable edge finishing that can withstand the stress. - Aesthetics: Choose an edge finishing that complements the overall design of the product. Some edge finishing options can add an elegant or modern touch to the final product. - Material: The type of material used in the product will influence the choice of edge finishing. For example, fabric edges may require a different edge finishing technique than wood or metal edges. - Cost: The cost of edge finishing may vary depending on the chosen technique. Consider the budget and the importance of the edge finishing to the overall appearance and function of the final product. - Skill level: Some edge finishing techniques require a higher level of skill and expertise. Consider the skill level of the person performing the edge finishing, or the availability of professionals who can perform the chosen technique. - Time: Some edge finishing techniques require more time and effort to complete than others. Consider the timeline for completing the final product and choose a technique that fits within the desired timeframe. - Maintenance: Consider the maintenance required for the chosen edge-finishing technique. Some may require regular upkeep to maintain their appearance and function. the term “facing” refers to a piece of fabric that is sewn onto the inside of a garment, typically at the neckline, armholes, or other openings, to reinforce the edges and provide a finished look. Facings are often cut from a contrasting or coordinating fabric to add a decorative element to the garment. Facings are used in a variety of clothing items, such as blouses, dresses, jackets, and coats. They can be sewn in place by machine or by hand and may be finished with topstitching or other decorative techniques. The facing is usually cut to the same shape as the garment’s opening and is then sewn onto the garment’s right side, with the edges turned under and stitched in place. This creates a neat finish on the inside of the garment while allowing the opening to maintain its shape and structure. Uses of Facing in Garment Construction Facing is a technique used in garment construction to provide a neat finish to the edges of a garment. It is a separate piece of fabric that is attached to the garment’s edges, usually around the neckline, armholes, and waistline. Here are ten uses of facing in garment construction: - Neckline facing: A facing is used to finish the neckline of a garment, giving it a clean and professional look. - Armhole facing: Facing is also used to finish the armholes of a garment, preventing them from stretching out of shape. - Waistline facing: A facing can be used to finish the waistline of a skirt or pants, helping to create a smooth and streamlined silhouette. - Hem facing: A facing can be used to finish the hem of a garment, creating a neat and clean edge. - Button placket facing: A facing can be used on the inside of a button placket to hide the raw edges of the fabric and create a professional-looking finish. - Pocket facing: A facing can be used on the inside of a pocket to hide the raw edges of the fabric and create a clean and finished look. - Collar facing: A facing is used on the inside of a collar to create a neat and tidy finish. - Cuff facing: A facing can be used on the inside of a cuff to create a professional-looking finish and prevent the cuff from fraying. - Zipper facing: A facing can be used on the inside of a zipper to hide the raw edges of the fabric and create a clean and professional look. - Vent facing: A facing can be used on the inside of a vent to hide the raw edges of the fabric and create a neat and finished look.. GUIDELINES FOR ATTACHING FACING Attaching facings is an important step in garment construction that helps to finish the edges of a garment and give it a professional look. Here are some guidelines for attaching facings: - Choose the right fabric: When attaching facings, it’s important to choose a fabric that is compatible with the main fabric of the garment. The facing fabric should be of the same weight and drape as the main fabric to ensure that the finished garment hangs correctly. - Cut the facing pieces accurately: To ensure that the facings fit properly, it’s important to cut them accurately. Use a sharp pair of scissors and take your time to cut the pieces precisely according to the pattern instructions. - Mark the facing pieces: It’s a good idea to mark the facing pieces to ensure that they are attached in the right place. Use a tailor’s chalk or a fabric marker to mark the seam lines and any other important points. - Staystitch the edges: Before attaching the facings, it’s important to staystitch the edges of the garment to prevent them from stretching out of shape. Staystitching is a row of stitches that is sewn just inside the seam line. - Pin the facings in place: Pin the facings in place, right sides together, and sew them to the garment using the seam allowance specified in the pattern instructions. - Clip the curves: If the facing has curved edges, clip the curves to allow the fabric to lie flat. Be careful not to clip too close to the stitching or the fabric may fray. - Understitch the facings: Understitching is a technique that helps to keep the facing from rolling to the outside. Sew the facing to the seam allowance close to the stitching line, with the facing fabric facing away from the garment fabric. - Press the facings: Finally, press the facings to make them lie flat and give the garment a professional finish. Use a pressing cloth to protect the fabric and avoid scorching. Types of Facing Facing refers to a technique used in sewing to finish the raw edges of a garment or other fabric item. The facing is an additional layer of fabric sewn to the edge of the garment, which is then turned to the inside and secured in place. This technique provides a clean and professional finish to the garment’s edges. Here are some common types of facings: - Shaped Facing: This type of face is cut to match the shape of the garment’s neckline or armhole. It is often used in blouses and dresses, where the neckline or armhole is curved. - Extended Facing: An extended facing is a strip of fabric that is cut to the same shape as the garment’s edge but is wider. The extra width is then folded over and sewn down to create a clean finish. This type of face is commonly used in jackets and coats. - Bias Facing: A bias facing is made from fabric that has been cut on the bias, which is a 45-degree angle to the fabric’s grain line. This type of facing is flexible and can be used on curved edges, such as necklines and armholes. - Shaped Bias Facing: A shaped bias facing is cut on the bias to match the shape of the neckline or armhole, providing a clean finish on curved edges. - Hong Kong Binding: Hong Kong binding is a facing technique that involves using bias tape to finish the raw edges of a garment. The bias tape is sewn to the edge of the fabric and then folded over to the inside to create a clean finish. This technique is often used in tailored garments, such as blazers and suits. Cross Way Strips Crossway strips refer to strips of fabric that cross over each other at a diagonal angle, creating a criss-cross pattern. These strips can be used in various ways in clothing design, such as in the straps of a sundress or the bodice of a blouse. Crossway strips not only add an interesting design element to clothing, but they can also provide functional benefits such as added support or adjustable fit. For example, in a bra with criss-cross straps, the straps can be adjusted to provide a custom fit and better support for the wearer. Steps in The Cutting of Cross Way Strips - Start by measuring and marking the width of the strips you want to cut. You can use a ruler or a measuring tape to ensure accuracy. - Use sharp fabric scissors to cut along the marked lines. It’s important to use sharp scissors to prevent the fabric from fraying or getting snagged. - If you need to cut multiple strips, you can stack the fabric layers and cut through them all at once. Just make sure the layers are aligned properly and the edges are straight. - After cutting the strips, you may want to finish the edges to prevent fraying. You can use a serger or a zigzag stitch on a sewing machine, or you can use a fabric glue or fray check to seal the edges. - Finally, fold and store the strips neatly, ready to be used in your project. Joining Crossway Strips Joining Crossway strips refers to the process of connecting two or more strips of Crossway (also known as interlocking) tiles together to create a larger surface area for flooring. Here are the steps to follow when joining Crossway strips: - Lay out the Crossway tiles in the desired pattern and direction. Ensure that the tiles are clean, dry, and free of any debris. - Take the first strip and align it with the adjacent strip, making sure that the interlocking tabs and slots are aligned. - Press down on the edges of the strip to secure the interlocking tabs and slots together. Use a rubber mallet or a tapping block to ensure a tight fit. - Continue connecting the rest of the strips until you have reached the desired size of the flooring area. - Check the joints for any gaps or inconsistencies. If necessary, adjust the tiles or use a utility knife to trim the edges for a perfect fit. - Once you have joined all the Crossway strips, clean the surface with a damp cloth and allow it to dry completely before walking on it. Fullness in clothing construction refers to the extra fabric added to a garment to create shape, volume, and movement. Fullness is often added to areas such as sleeves, skirts, and bodices to create a more flattering silhouette or to achieve a specific style. There are different ways to add fullness to a garment. One common method is gathering, which involves sewing two or more layers of fabric together and then pulling on one layer to create small folds. Gathering can be used to add fullness to sleeves, waistlines, and skirts. Another method of adding fullness is pleating. Pleating involves folding the fabric and then pressing it to create permanent folds. Pleats can be used to add fullness to skirts or create visual interest in other areas of the garment. Fullness can be achieved through the use of darts. Darts are small triangular-shaped folds that are sewn into the fabric to create shape and fullness in specific areas, such as the bust or waistline. Fullness is an important consideration in clothing construction as it can greatly impact the overall look and fit of a garment. Careful attention to fullness can help create a garment that is comfortable, flattering, and stylish. Types of Fullness - Gathered Fullness: This type of fullness is created by gathering fabric at the top and attaching it to a narrower area. It can be created by using shirring, elastic, or pleats. Gathered fullness is often used in skirts, sleeves, and bodices. - Box Pleat Fullness: Box pleat fullness is created by folding fabric in a specific way to create a box-like shape. This type of fullness is often used in skirts and dresses, and it can create a structured and formal look. - Knife Pleat Fullness: Knife pleats are created by folding fabric in one direction and pressing it flat. This type of fullness is often used in skirts and dresses and can create a more fluid and flowing look compared to box pleats. - Circular Fullness: Circular fullness is created by cutting fabric in a circular shape. This type of fullness is often used in skirts and dresses and can create a very full and flowing look. - Bias Cut Fullness: Bias cut fullness is created by cutting fabric on the bias (a 45-degree angle to the grainline) rather than straight. This type of fullness can create a more fluid and flowing look in a garment. - Godet Fullness: Godet fullness is created by inserting triangular or diamond-shaped pieces of fabric into a garment. This type of fullness is often used in skirts and dresses and can create a flared or voluminous look. - Puffed Fullness: Puffed fullness is created by adding extra fabric in a certain area, often with gathering or shirring. This type of fullness is often used in sleeves and can create a dramatic or romantic look Uses of Fullness - Comfort: Fullness can be added to a garment to provide comfort and ease of movement. This is particularly important in clothing such as skirts, dresses, and trousers where the wearer needs to be able to move freely without feeling restricted. - Style: Fullness can also be added to a garment for aesthetic purposes, to create a certain silhouette or style. For example, a full skirt can create a feminine, retro look, while a blouse with full sleeves can create a romantic or bohemian feel. - Fit: Fullness can be used to improve the fit of a garment. For example, a blouse or dress with gathers at the bust can accommodate different bust sizes more easily. - Functionality: Fullness can also be added to a garment for functional reasons. For example, a raincoat may have fullness added to the back to allow for ease of movement and to ensure that the coat does not restrict the wearer’s range of motion. - Fabric Efficiency: Fullness can be used to make efficient use of fabric. For example, a skirt or dress with a circular or gathered skirt can use fabric more efficiently than a straight-cut skirt. Tucks are a type of decorative and functional sewing technique in clothing construction. Tucks are created by folding fabric and sewing it in place to create a raised ridge or pleat. Tucks can serve different purposes in clothing construction. They can be used for decorative purposes to add interest and texture to a garment, or they can be used to shape a garment to fit the body better. There are different types of tucks that can be used in clothing construction, including: - Pin tucks: These are narrow tucks that are typically spaced close together. They are created by folding the fabric and sewing a line of stitching close to the fold. - Box pleats: These are larger tucks that are usually used to add fullness to a garment. They are created by folding the fabric in a specific way and then sewing the fold in place. - Inverted pleats: These tucks are created by folding the fabric in such a way that the pleat is folded towards the centre of the garment rather than away from it. - Release tucks: These are tucks that are sewn in place and then released to add fullness to a garment. Uses of Tucks Tucks are folds of fabric that are stitched down to create a decorative or functional element in garment construction. They are used for various purposes in garment design and construction. Here are some common uses of tucks in garment construction: - Decorative Detail: Tucks can be used as a decorative detail to add visual interest to a garment. They can be placed in a symmetrical or asymmetrical pattern on the garment, depending on the design aesthetic. - Shape and Fit: Tucks are often used to shape and fit a garment. They can be used to take in excess fabric, create a waistline, or provide a better fit around the bust or hips. - Textural Interest: Tucks can be used to add texture and dimension to a garment. Depending on the fabric used, tucks can create a subtle or dramatic effect on the surface of the garment. - Style Element: Tucks can be used as a style element to create a specific design aesthetic. For example, tucks can be used to create a retro-inspired look or a contemporary style. - Hemming: Tucks can be used as an alternative to traditional hemming methods. By folding the fabric and stitching it in place, tucks can provide a neat and professional finish to the garment. gathers refer to the process of sewing together a piece of fabric so that it becomes smaller in width and the excess fabric is distributed evenly in a controlled manner. This technique is often used to create fullness in a garment, add shape, or ease the fit. There are several methods for creating gathers, but the most common one involves sewing a line of stitches along the edge of the fabric that needs to be gathered. The stitches are then pulled gently and evenly, causing the fabric to bunch up and form gathers. The amount of fullness created by gathers depends on several factors, including the length and tension of the stitches, the density of the fabric, and the distance between the rows of stitches. Typically, the closer the rows of stitches are together, the tighter the gathers will be, while further apart stitches will result in looser gathers. Gathers can be used in various parts of a garment, such as a waistline, sleeves, or neckline, and can be adjusted to create different effects. For example, gathers at the waistline can create a flattering and feminine silhouette, while gathers at the neckline can add volume and create a more dramatic look. Pleats are a type of fold used in garment construction to create fullness in a garment. They are created by folding the fabric back on itself and then securing it in place with stitching or other methods. Pleats can be used in many different ways in garment construction, including adding fullness to skirts, creating shape in pants, and adding interest to blouses and dresses. Pleats can be a great way to add interest and texture to a garment while also providing functional benefits, such as increased ease of movement. They can be used in many different ways to achieve different effects, and can be a versatile tool in garment construction. There are several types of pleats that can be used in garment construction, including: - Box pleats: This is a pleat where the fabric is folded in the same direction on both sides, creating a box-like shape. Box pleats are often used in skirts and can be either centred or off-centre. - Knife pleats: This is a pleat where the fabric is folded in the same direction on one side, creating a sharp edge that resembles the blade of a knife. Knife pleats are often used in skirts and can be either single or multiple. - Inverted pleats: This is a pleat where the fabric is folded in the opposite direction on both sides, creating a triangle shape. Inverted pleats are often used in skirts and dresses and can be either centred or off-centre. - Accordion pleats: This is a pleat where the fabric is folded back and forth in opposite directions, creating a series of narrow, vertical folds. Accordion pleats are often used in skirts and dresses. an opening refers to any section of a garment that allows for access to the inside of the garment, such as a neckline, a sleeve, or a waistband. Openings are essential for putting on and taking off the garment, as well as for facilitating movement and comfort. Types of Openings There are several types of openings used in garments construction, including: - Neckline opening: This is the area around the neck that allows for the head to pass through. Neckline openings can be round, square, V-shaped, or any other shape that suits the design of the garment. - Sleeve opening: This is the area around the arm that allows for the arm to pass through. Sleeve openings can be narrow or wide, depending on the design of the garment. - Waistband opening: This is the area around the waist that allows for the garment to be put on and taken off. Waistband openings can be simple, such as a slit or a button closure, or more complex, such as a zipper or a hook-and-eye closure. - Leg opening: This is the area around the leg that allows for the garment to be put on and taken off. Leg openings can be simple, such as a slit or a button closure, or more complex, such as a zipper or a snap closure. - Back opening: This is an opening located at the back of the garment that allows for easy access to the inside of the garment. Back openings can be simple, such as a button closure or a zipper, or more complex, such as a placket or a keyhole. Fastenings refer to the mechanisms or closures used to secure different parts of a garment in place, such as zippers, buttons, snaps, hooks and eyes, Velcro, or buckles. These fastenings are essential in creating a well-fitting and comfortable garment that is easy to put on and take off. They can also add aesthetic appeal and style to the garment. Types of Fastenings Here are some common types of fastenings used in garment construction: - Zippers: Zippers consist of two strips of teeth that interlock when pulled together. They are commonly used in pants, skirts, and dresses and come in different lengths and materials. - Buttons: Buttons are usually made of plastic or metal and are sewn onto a garment. They can be used for closures on shirts, jackets, pants, and other garments. - Snaps: Snaps are small metal or plastic discs that snap together to form a closure. They are commonly used in baby clothes, denim, and athletic wear. - Hooks and eyes: Hooks and eyes are small metal fasteners that are sewn onto a garment. They are often used in the back of dresses, skirts, and pants. - Velcro: Velcro is a hook-and-loop fastener that is commonly used in athletic wear and children’s clothing. - Buckles: Buckles are used to adjust the fit of a garment and can be found on belts, straps, and shoes. They are often made of metal or plastic.
What Is Public Finance? Public Finance is the study of the role of government in the economy. It involves the assessment of government revenue and expenditure and how they affect the economy. It also involves adjusting these levels of revenue and expenditure to achieve the desired effects. There are several important topics that fall under the umbrella of public finance. These include: Effective communication about tax programs should make taxpayers aware of the benefits of paying taxes and raise their perception of the potential risks of noncompliance. It should include institutional messages as well as initiative-specific messages. These messages can include emotional appeals, such as highlighting the importance of tax revenue to schools, as well as informative messages, such as explaining tax laws and recent changes. Taxes are compulsory contributions to the government for the purpose of funding public services and activities. These taxes can be local, state, regional, or federal in nature. Tax revenues are used to fund public works, roads, and infrastructure, as well as to finance public services. These taxes are the primary source of revenue for governments. Effective revenue mobilization requires better information management and the use of big data. Most countries studied have adopted this approach as a key component of their revenue mobilization strategy. In Cambodia, for example, risk-based audits of the country’s 150 largest taxpayers were conducted, and the country has hired more than 200 new auditors to focus on large-taxpayer audits. In Ukraine, the government implemented a targeted audit program to improve the quality of tax administration and fight fraudulent VAT claims. Public finance is a branch of economics that focuses on the role of government in the economy. It analyzes government revenue and expenditure in order to determine their effects. It can also be used to help plan the economy for the future. There are many things to consider when studying public finance. These include the costs, benefits, and risks involved in government spending. While public finance can be volatile, it remains a more stable field than other industries. Governments can spend or raise funds by altering their tax policies. These factors can affect the government’s overall finances, which can affect how much money it has to spend. In order to properly plan for the future, public finance needs to be monitored on a continuous basis. A government budget is a plan of government expenditures for a particular fiscal year. This is decided by the president, who then submits a budget request to Congress. The House and Senate then pass bills dealing with specific aspects of the budget. Once these bills pass, the President signs them into law. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) publishes the budget for the fiscal year. The budget includes government expenditures for infrastructure, education, and social programs. The goal of these expenditures is to benefit society as a whole. In practice, however, government expenditures may be greater or lower than the budgeted amounts. Budgeting public finances involves the proper management of public resources. It should consider the sources of revenue, the amount of expenditure, and borrowing constraints. It should cover all government institutions and agencies. The budget should be approved by parliament as a whole. In addition, all resources should be directed to a common pool. This pool should be used to meet current priorities. This process is called earmarking. Budgets should be comprehensive, realistic, and policy-oriented. They should also allow for clear accountability during budget preparation and execution. This process makes it easier to control government expenditures. It also allows for targeted adjustments to budget plans. In addition, it should make it easy to identify policies and programs through program structures. The process of budgeting public finances is an important part of the democratic process. It allows citizens to scrutinize the use of public resources and creates accountability for government actions. This accountability is achieved by following budget procedures and ensuring that revenues and expenditures are properly authorized. In addition, it promotes integrity and transparency in public governance and strengthens anti-corruption policies. Government debt is the financial obligation of the government sector. It is measured in gross terms and changes according to the amount of the government’s expenditures compared to its revenues. It reflects past borrowing and deficits. When government expenditures exceed its revenues, a government runs a deficit. When this occurs, government debt increases. Governments can borrow from individuals, businesses, multilateral lending institutions, or even other governments. Typically, they issue government bonds or Treasury-bills. Treasury-bills are short-term notes issued by the government, and are issued to help manage temporary shortfalls and seasonality in revenue collection. Government bonds, on the other hand, are issued for a longer period of time. Investors bid on government bonds to obtain a return on their money. Government debt has positive and negative economic effects. It pushes up interest rates and reduces private sector capital. However, economists are divided in their opinions about whether government debt is beneficial to the economy. For instance, government debt can help finance education, which increases people’s lifetime earning capacity. Underwriting of municipal securities Underwriting of municipal securities is the process of securing debt financing for public entities. These securities are issued by governments, including state and local governments, healthcare providers, airports, and higher education institutions. These bonds are issued for specific purposes and have varying maturities. As a result, the market value of these securities fluctuates with changes in interest rates. In addition, most municipal securities are illiquid, making them unsuitable for investors who need cash immediately. The process is based on a Request for Proposals (RFP), which promotes fairness and objectivity. It helps the issuer to compare responses and select the firm that best suits their needs. The issuer and municipal advisors should develop an RFP that meets state bidding requirements and is in line with the issuer’s needs. As an issuer, you must be aware of your obligations under securities law. First, as an issuer, you are responsible for the accuracy of your Official Statement, as it must contain material facts. Underwriters may have other responsibilities under securities law, but the issuer retains primary responsibility for its disclosure obligations. To excel in the field of public finance, individuals must possess specific skills and expertise. These skills include good maths and computer skills, as well as analytical and problem-solving capabilities. Inquisitive minds and an interest in current affairs are also essential for success in this field. Finally, professionals must be honest, ethical, and discreet. A professional should also have strong communication skills. They must be able to explain complicated financial information to non-technical audiences and collaborate with other team members and departments. Freshers don’t need previous management experience to enter the field, but it is a must for those interested in becoming a manager. These skills include managing a team, solving internal issues, and displaying leadership. In this field, the skills required are not only technical, but they are also essential for career advancement. Flexibility is also an essential quality for 21st century public finance practitioners. People with adaptability are better able to work with diverse cultures, and are able to question inherited practices. This allows them to make changes to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public resources. Public finance professionals are responsible for managing the financial resources of a government entity, such as a city or a nation. They also oversee social programs and the distribution of income. The work of public finance accountants can range from budgeting and spending to taxing and social policy. One of the most prominent activities of public finance management is the administration of income taxes. Those with an interest in this field can find jobs in various sectors, including local government and the NHS. Career paths in public finance are varied, with a variety of financial institutions offering opportunities. Some banks specialize in public finance and advise on public-private partnerships. Other banks include public finance within their fixed income or investment banking divisions. The type of experience a trainee can gain will depend on the bank or industry sector they are working in. Applicants should first complete an undergraduate degree in a related field, such as accounting, finance, or economics. Some candidates may also choose to major in a related field such as business administration or statistics. An additional course of study in government finance is recommended to prepare for the field. Some employers prefer candidates with master’s degrees, which can open doors to higher positions and higher pay. - Understanding Business Line of Credit Refinance - April 28, 2023 - The Pitfall of Mortgage Refinance Calculator - April 28, 2023 - finance manager.1476737005 - April 28, 2023
If you’re looking for a brief (650ish words) summary on a topic in history you’re in the right place! You can find reading passages for U.S. History and World History topics and can download a PDF copy for yourself. If you need a digital copy there is a Google link provided as well. This is an ongoing project, so stop back frequently and see what we’ve added. When I say “we” I mean my brother and I. I have been teaching social studies for 19 years and my brother, Joe, is an historian. Between the 2 of us we create these reading passages. A medieval feudalism period arose in Japanese history at the end of the 12th Century with the development of the “shogunate” or military leaders. Later, imperial control returned in some form and the path to modern Japan arrived. Japan developed an imperial system led by an emperor. A power dispute arose in the late 12th Century and the forces of Minamoto no Yoritomo won in the end. He established himself as military leader of Japan, distributing land to allies in return for their military support. The emperor recognized him as “shogun” (military protector) and in effect shoguns began to have the true power in Japan. As in Western Europe, Japanese feudalism involved the exchange of land for military service and loyalty. In both cases, peasants worked the land to provide food for the community. Society was class based, with roles passed down from parent to child. There was no one united central government was in place. Shoguns were military leaders that controlled local areas of power. A feudal lord was called a “daimyo” and commanded an army of samurai or professional warriors. Samurai did not have land like knights of Europe. Samurai had a strict code of conduct (bushido). Sometimes, ritual suicide (seppuku) was deemed necessary. Meanwhile, ninjas were mercenaries, specializing in espionage and assassination. Edo Period (1603- 1868) Tokugawa Ieyasu was named military leader (shogun) by the Japanese emperor in 1603 and established his government in Tokyo (then known as Edo). This led to an extended period of control by Tokugawa shoguns (“Tokugawa era”), which is often labeled the “Edo Period” for the location of their capital city. The traditional religion of Japan was Shinto, but Confucianism grew in importance, stressing not only morality but the importance of hierarchical order in government and society. Opening of Japan There were periods when leaders of Japan closed the island nation from the rest of the world, including banning international travel and banning foreign literature. This parochialism started to be pulled back in the 18th Century including with the introduction of new teachings from China and Europe. Westernization, adapting to the ways of Europe and the United States, began to be popular. This was particularly so when the industrial and military might of such nations was observed. In the 1850s, Commodore Matthew Perry (United States) sailed to Japan and used signs of such military power to start “opening” Japan to more trade with other nations (Kanagawa Treaty). Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) Japan believed they negotiated such treaties with the United States, Great Britain and Russia under duress, forcing them to agree to what was seen as “unequal” treaties with unfair requirements. This caused national unrest and along with other problems led to the end of the Tokugawa era and the start of modern Japan. The shogun system was ended, and the imperial system was restored, now under Emperor Meiji. This “Meiji Restoration” led to a big push to bring in Western ways, culturally (such as hairstyles), governmentally (new Western-style constitution) and industrially (building of railroads, and telegraph lines). It also led to a build-up of the military, which showed its might in various signs of Japanese imperialist clashes with China, Korea, and Russia. Japan sided with Britain (Allies) in World War I, but their imperialistic aims and shift to a more militaristic nationalistic style would lead to a different strategic alliance in the years to come. IF YOU WANT A WORD PUZZLE THAT ALIGNS WITH THIS PASSAGE CLICK HERE.
Sight words, also called high-frequency words, are the words that appear in the text the most. They appear more than other words, but they are often tricky words. While some of these words follow phonics patterns, many do not. The goal of teaching students these sight words is to give them the ability to recognize these words without sounding them out. The more opportunity we offer them to see, hear, read, and understand the words, the better their chance of memorizing, understanding, repeating, recognizing, and writing these words. By teaching these words, your child will be able to read in a smoother, more natural, and fluent way, without stopping to sound out or figure out each word. Learning their sight words will be the building block for everything else. They will have a solid foundation that will impact the rest of their academic future. While it is true that each child learns differently, it is also true that practice makes a massive difference in a child's success. The more exposure your child has to sight words, the more your child will learn by using the different activities in this packet. Plus, by using the resources in this packet, your child will learn the words quicker due to the repeated exposure of the sight words. This bundle included worksheets, ideas, and activities to help students master their sight words. In the Kindergarten Sight Words Bundle, you'll get a file to download and print, which includes: These tools will help your child succeed in this foundational, vital skill of learning their sight words. Mastery of the sight words will help your child to become a confident reader and enthusiastic learner.
Tell Me About The science of acoustics, or the science of sound, studies the physics behind the sounds we hear every day. Scientists focus on how sounds are made, how they are transmitted, what forces affect their movement, and how the human ear detects and translates them to our brains. How it works Sound is made by a vibration, or wave of molecules, caused by the motion of an object. This requires a medium, or a material, to pass through. Usually, this medium is air. When the object moves, the molecules of the medium also move around it very slightly, causing the air particles to bump into each other. This creates areas where there are many molecules pushed close together (compressions), and areas where molecules are spread far apart (rarefactions). These are sound waves that radiate out from the source in circles. The speed depends on the medium; more dense materials can better transmit sound. When sound waves hit a solid object, they can bounce back as an echo. Sound waves vibrate at different rates, or frequencies, as they move through the medium. When a wave is created, the distance between one compression and the next compression is called the wavelength. The faster the sound waves pass a given point, the shorter the wavelength and the higher the frequency. Higher-frequency sounds make a higher-pitched noise. That’s why the big, slow-vibrating low E string on a guitar makes a lower sound than the thin, fast-vibrating high E string. The vibrations can also squeeze the air molecules together, hard or gently. This squeezing is called the amplitude. The more we push an object to make it vibrate, the greater the amplitude and the louder the sound. That’s why plucking harder on a guitar string makes a louder sound. Like any other form of energy, sound can change from one form to another. This is the basis of inventions like the telephone – which converts sound energy into electric energy, then back into sound energy once more. Why it matters Acoustics are heard in the annoying buzz of your morning alarm, in your conversations, in the chirping of birds outside, and even in the moments you may think of as utterly silent. Without the scientists and engineers who have studied the physics behind sound, we would in a much different world – one without telephones, concert halls, or many medical imaging techniques. What would a world like that look like? More importantly, how would a world like that sound? A Canadian connection Originally of Scottish descent, Alexander Graham Bell moved to Brantford, Ontario as a young adult. Throughout his life, he developed an intimate understanding of how sound and human hearing work. As a result, he developed the telephone – a revolutionary device that fundamentally changed the way we communicate forever. The first call was made in 1876 in Boston. Visit the website for the Canadian Association of the Deaf to learn about initiatives to improve accessibility for those with hearing loss.Back to top
Chapter 5: Networks Chapter 7: Computer management \|Unit 6.1\|\|Electronic communication tools\| \|Unit 6.2\|\|Email as a form of electronic communication (e-communication)\| \|Unit 6.3\|\|Social implications\| At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - describe electronic communication - describe the applications/tools that facilitate e-communication - use email as a form of e-communications - explain the social issues pertaining to ergonomics, green computing issues and health issues - explain the social issues pertaining to e-communication. UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF E-COMMUNICATION In the past, communication between people was done either face to face, using the telephone or by writing letters. Now we live in a world where electronic communication (or e-communication) is the preferred way of communication. Electronic communication refers to any data, information, words, photos, emojis and symbols that are sent electronically to one or more people. There are many ways to communicate, allowing you to: - make phone calls using your computer - share the same message with many people at the same time without sending the same message individually - interact with different platforms on the internet and make comments, update statuses or even send messages - use video conferencing. In this chapter, we will look at the different electronic communication tools and the different types of applications used in electronic communications. We will also look at email and how to compose and send basic email messages as well as basic email netiquette. 6.1 Electronic communication tools Electronic communication is any data, information, words, photos or symbols exchanged electronically using a computing device to communicate with one or more people. Today, thanks to computers and the internet, we now have many different ways of communicating, from sending an email to uploading videos on YouTube. OVERVIEW OF APPLICATIONS/TOOLS TO FACILITATE E-COMMUNICATION The following section will briefly look at some of the most popular electronic communication tools. One of the very first forms of internet communication was email (electronic mail). It allowed users to send and receive messages and documents electronically over the internet. Email is still widely used today in various ways. This includes: - sending out marketing communication to potential clients - communicating within and / or between businesses - sending messages to many different people simultaneously. Because it is so easy to send an email, users may receive hundreds daily. Email is still the most popular and important communication medium in the business world. A web browser is a program that provides a user interface for accessing information on the world wide web. It allows you to browse webpages, search for websites containing information and to do activities. Social media networks are a good way of keeping in touch with family and friends, especially those who are far away. Many companies and organisations also use social media to communicate with their users and fans. social media network – a network of individuals, like friends, acquaintances, and coworkers who are connected by interpersonal relationships Chat rooms can be dangerous and lead to unsolicited approaches by people who wish to take advantage of a young person. Do not reveal personal details to people you do not know and always consider safety FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a client/server protocol used for transferring large files or folders. It can be secured with user names and passwords. FTP allows you to access an FTP site. The site looks like a folder on your computer. Once you open the site, you can either upload files to the FTP site or download files from the site. It is still used for uploading new files to a web server. Instant messaging is type of online chat that offers real time text transmission over the internet. It is used for real-time communications and is convenient. It mostly uses data, but can be accessed using a network service (such as Wi-Fi). Some of the most popular applications used are WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger. Chat rooms are tools that allow you to join a group online and then exchange messages (or chat) in that group. Group chats have a similar structure to a physical social get-together. Group chats can be diverse, are not restricted, and people are able to have live conversations, often about different topics. One of the popular chat applications is WhatsApp group chats. This application gives its users the platform to create and join a group that has a common topic or interest. Today, WhatsApp groups have become the preferred choice of communications among learners, committees and neighbourhood watches. There are also other social networks that allows you to create groups. VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP) VoIP is a standard set of rules allowing you to make voice calls over a network. A popular application used for making VoIP calls is Skype. The quality of VoIP calls depends on your internet connection. If the connection is weak, users may experience a slight delay when speaking. VoIP calls can be used for personal voice calls, where users can speak directly to one another, or business and video conferences, when it is necessary to see the person you are speaking to. A video call is mixed media using video and audio for communication. Hardware required can be: Blogs (short for web logs) is an online platform that allows text and picture content to be created and shared with other people. Blogs can be in the form of an online magazine or a platform that is hosted on a website where a blogger (or a small group of people) post regular articles and photographs about topics they are interested in. The latest articles appear at the top of the blog, allowing website visitors to easily stay up to date with the newest stories. In South Africa there are many popular blog websites, such as WebPress. Websites such as the Verge, Engadget and Gizmodo are also examples of blogs focused on technology. Vlogs (short for video blogging) are like blogs, except that the posts are in a video format. Most vloggers do not have their own vlog websites, but rather place videos on popular video sharing websites like YouTube and Facebook TV. Some Vloggers have an audience of millions of viewers, meaning that their video posts have received billions of views. A webinar is similar to a seminar, but it is hosted online. Webinars are usually used to deliver lectures, presentations or workshops to a group of people over the internet. They are mostly scheduled for a specific time. Webinars are now commonly used in an online learning platform by many educational institutions. These webinars enable students to attend classes without physically going to a classroom. Activity 6.1 Individual activity 6.1.1Match column A with column B. Only write the question number and the alphabet letter, e.g. 1 – M. 6.1.2Your grandparents have decided to join the online world! Their motivation: close family members recently moved overseas, and they want to keep in touch. They got a pamphlet that says the following and then gives some options for three Internet plans, option 1, 2 and 3. VoIP (e.g. Skype or FaceTime) helps users stay in touch with family and friends by giving video messaging at little to no cost. Users can make high-quality audio and video calls to people anywhere in the world. Now, your grandfather wants to understand the terminology to make an informed decision. He gave you a list of questions that he needs explained before making a decision. a.Explain why one would need an internet plan to be able to communicate with family over the internet? b.Expand on the acronym VoIP. c.Give one or two disadvantages of having VoIP. d.List three ways that email can be used. e.If a friend wants to upload some books for you to read, how would they do it? f.Your grandfather wants to know what the free night-surfer data is all about. Explain what it meant by this concept, why it is used as a selling point and whether your grandfather is likely to benefit from this aspect. g.Would all three these options automatically be available in the neighbourhood where your grandfather lives? Explain your answer. 6.2 Email as a form of e-communication In this unit, you will learn how to use email to communicate online. In addition, you will also learn about the following: - the different uses of emails - email accounts (internet service provider (ISP) and web-based) - email addresses - how to use email (best practices) . COMPONENTS OF AN EMAIL ADDRESS In order to receive emails, you need an email account and address, which will enable you to send and receive emails. Whomever you wish to communicate with, will also need their own email address. An email address is a unique identifier of who owns an email account. It is important to understand how to type an email address correctly because, if entered incorrectly, the email will not be delivered to the intended recipient and might end up being sent to the incorrect person! Email addresses are always written in a standard format. This standard format consists of two parts: a local-part (or user name) and a domain-part. These two parts are separated by the symbol, @. The local part of an email address is used by the receiving mail server to determine where the email must go and what must be done with it after it arrived at its destination. The the email address [email protected] is explained below. EMAIL ACCOUNTS: ISP AND WEB-BASED When looking for an email service provider, you will first need to consider whether you want to use a web-based or an Internet Service Provider (ISP) to manage your emails. Because both have their advantages and limitations, which one you choose will depend on how much money you are willing to spend and how important it is for you to maintain your email account. Table 6.1 compares the advantages and disadvantages of each type of email account. Did you know The top current webmail providers are Google’s Gmail, Yahoo and Microsoft’s Outlook. These are most commonly used because they allow you to access your email account from anywhere in the world, provided that you have an internet connection. You can also access webmail from a mobile device! PARTS OF AN EMAIL To: The recipient’s address Cc (carbon copy): Lets all recipients see the email addresses of everyone the message was sent to. Bcc (blind carbon copy): The identities of the other recipients will not be shown. Subject: The title of the email, used to gain the attention of the recipients. Attachment: Files that you want to share with the recipient. HOW EMAIL WORKS The following happens when an email is sent: The QR code alongside will explain in detail how email works. HOW EMAIL WORKS HOW TO USE EMAIL (BEST PRACTICES) Whenever you communicate on the internet – whether it is via email, instant messaging or by posting a blog – it is important that you follow proper netiquette. This will not only make the internet a more pleasant place for everyone, it will also save you from potential embarrassment in the future! The following are some guidelines you can follow when communicating on the internet: - Show people on the internet the same respect you would show to them in real life. - Do not say things to people you would not say to them in real life. - Do not post things on the internet that you would not want your mother or future boss to see. - Things posted on the internet often last forever. This means that things you post as a teenager or young adult can negatively affect the rest of your life. - Make sure your messages are clearly written and easy to understand. - When joining an existing conversation, speak about subjects relevant to the topic. - Try to make useful contributions and help people out on the internet. - If you need help from the internet, do not expect other people to do all the work for you. Do as much work as you can before asking your question. - See if there are existing conversations about your topic before starting new conversations. - Do not spam people! Do not post the same advertisement repeatedly. While the tips covered in this section are generally good guidelines, it is important to note that netiquette differs from site to site and changes rapidly without notice. When joining a new website, spend some time figuring out what is acceptable behaviour on that website before sending out your messages. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF E-COMMUNICATION E-communications has many advantages over traditional modes of communication as well as disadvantages. We will look at these in terms of accuracy, time, distance, communication costs and speed. ADVANTAGES OF EMAIL - Provides a written record of a communication, which is available for a long time. - Is inexpensive to send and receive email messages. - Can be sent from anywhere in the world and at any time provided you have an internet connection. - It is an environmentally friendly alternative to sending regular mail. - Can be typed and temporarily stored and sent at a later stage. DISADVANTAGES OF EMAIL - Email attachments can be used to spread viruses. - Spam (electronic junk mail i.e. advertising) is a big problem. Over time many institutions will acquire your email address and start sending advertisements to you via email. 6.2.1Fill in the missing words in the crossword puzzle below. 6.2.2Your friend has bought a new computer; he has a modem-router combination. He wants to connect to the internet to chat to his friends. Answer the following questions: a.The priority is being able to receive and send email. List any additional hardware that he might need to accomplish this and briefly explain the function or purpose of the hardware. b.Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the two types of e-mail accounts (web-based or ISP-based). c.Your friend has never actually sent email his entire life, but he has heard of people referring to something called Netiquette. Give the owner THREE practical rules of netiquette when it comes to sending out emails. 6.2.3Mpho sent Vusi a document via email. What can Vusi do to make sure that he gets the document without viruses? 6.3 Social implications ERGONOMICS, GREEN COMPUTING AND HEALTH ISSUES Using computers every day may result in several long-term health problems. This unit will look at the most significant health problems associated with computer use, before providing you with some tips on how to reduce the health risks associated with the daily use of computers. Regular computer use is not just bad for your own health, but also for the health of the environment. The last part of this unit will therefore look at green computing, and its importance to the environment. green computing – the environmentally responsible and eco-friendly use of computers and their resources Ergonomics is the study or science of how humans interact with man-made objects and then creating products to increase productivity, reduce discomfort and reduce injuries. In our modern environment these products include, keyboards, a mouse, computer desks and chairs. COMPUTER DESK SETUP ERGONOMICS Key ergonomic guidelines for safe computer usage include: - Sit up straight with your back perpendicular to the ground. - Your forearms should be at the same height as your mouse and keyboard. - Your feet should be placed firmly on the ground or on a footrest. - The back of your chair, height of your chair and height of your armrest should be adjusted to support your body in this position. - Your monitor should be positioned at eye level and roughly 50 cm away from you. You may need to place something under your monitor to increase its height. - Your monitor should be tilted to reduce glare. - You should stand-up and take regular breaks while using the computer. Did you know Energy Star is a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency voluntary program that helps businesses and individuals save money and protect our climate through superior energy efficiency. Energy Star provides simple, credible, and unbiased information that consumers and businesses rely on to make well-informed decisions to save money and reduce emissions. https://www.energystar.gov/ Green computing aims to reduce the environmental impact of the daily use of computers. Below are some examples of green computing: - Using bio-degradable materials - Using low-power devices (LED backlit screen, Solid State Drives (SSD)) - Using a power management function on your computing device. While it is probably not bad for your health to use a computer for a few minutes every day, spending hours in front of the computer every day can be bad for your health. The most common health problems associated with regular computer use include: - Back and neck pain: sitting hunched forward or lying back in your chair can cause both back pain and neck pain. - Hand or arm pain: this is caused by the overuse of a mouse and keyboard. - Eyestrain: by focusing your eyes for hours on the screen. - Obesity: inactivity sitting behind the computer for extended periods of time. - Computer stress: being anxious or nervous when a computer malfunctions or does not perform optimally as expected. Frequent use of a computer keyboard can increase the risk of: - Repetitive strain injury (RSI): a general term used to describe the pain felt in muscles, nerves and tendons caused by repetitive movement and overuse. - Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS): a condition that causes numbness, tingling and other symptoms in the hand and arm. 6.3.1Choose a term/concept from COLUMN B that matches a description in COLUMN A. Write only the letter next to the question number (e.g. 1– A). Some of the questions (column A) may have more than one correct answer (column B) 6.3.2Which rules of ergonomics do you normally follow, and which rules do you break? 6.3.3Your mother has recently started working in an office environment. After the first month, she started complaining about regular headaches and back pain that you believe may be the result of poor ergonomics. Based on this information answer the following questions: a.What is ergonomics? b.How can poor ergonomics cause back pain? c.How can headaches be caused by poor ergonomics? d.Which five tips would you give your mother to help reduce her pain? e.What are the advantages of using a standing desk? Could a standing desk help your mother? 6.3.4The image below shows the general structure for Google’s data centres. To reduce their impact on the environment as well as their cost, Google has invested millions of Rand to improve the power use effectiveness (or PUE) of their data centres. As a result, Google’s data centres are 50% more energy efficient than the average data centre. Based on this information, answer the following questions. a.Why is it important that data centres are energy efficient? b.How does computer-use result in more greenhouse gasses being emitted? c.Name four things that you, as a normal computer user, can do to conserve energy? 6.3.5Computing devices, including mobile phones, are mostly made of nonbiodegradable substances such as plastic. Think of two green computing practices that you could follow when buying a new mobile phone when your old one is still in good working order. Explain them. CONSOLIDATION ACTIVITY Chapter 6: Electronic communications 1.Choose the correct answer. a.Which one of the following is a use of video calling. i.Allows you to see the person you are speaking to ii.Allows you to give a presentation to a group of people over the internet iii.Allows you to share media to people who couldn’t attend a function iv.All of the above b.This is an article posted in video format. iv.None of the above. c.What does FTP stand for? i.File transfer process ii.File transfer progress iii.File transfer protocol iv.File transfer practice d.Which one of the following is untrue of emails. i.Emails are usually short and to the point ii.Email is more formal than messages iii.Used for communicating within a business iv.The recipient receives an email within seconds after it is sent 2.Choose the answer and write ‘true’ or ‘false’ next to the question number. Correct the statement if it is FALSE. Change the word(s) in bold to make the statement TRUE where necessary. a.A web browser like Chrome or Firefox is designed to open and view websites. b.Etiquette is having good manners when communicating on the internet. c.VoIP is also used when lessons are presented over the internet. d.A vlog i s a website where one person (or a small group of people) write regular articles about topics they are interested in. e.The first step to communicating electronically is to make sure you have an account with the online service provider you would like to use. 3.Answer the following questions in your own words. a.VoIP will be used for video calls over the Internet. Briefly discuss TWO possible problems that could be experienced when using VoIP. b.List any TWO advantages of instant messaging. c.Give a brief description of a chatroom and how it is an e-communication tool. d.List any TWO uses of websites. e.One of the world’s most popular types of websites are social network websites (or social networks). i.Describe what a social network is and how it is used. ii.Give ONE advantage of a social network. f.Answer the questions based on the figure below: i.What is the difference between Cc and Bcc in an email? ii.List ANY three netiquette rules that have been violated. g.Briefly explain what a blog is. h.Briefly explain how a webinar is an example of an e-communication tool. i.Email is a e-communication tool that allows you to send text messages. Give other THREE uses email has. 4.Mr Knowitall’s family’s Internet service provider is Bluedot. As part of their contract, the Knowitall family receives one free email address. Should they need more email addresses, they need to pay an additional fee per month for each additional email address. Mr Knowitall has a business organising weddings and outdoor events and the business name is Rain! Events a.Suggest a suitable domain and thus an email address for Mr Knowitall’s business. b.Mr Knowitall needs to make a few calls to a potential client in Brazil. Briefly explain to Mr Knowitall how he can make these calls without wasting a lot of money. State ONE disadvantage of this type of tool. c.How would Mr Knowitall avoid viruses getting on to his computer via attachments to his emails? d.Mr Knowitall finds that he Is getting a lot of junk mail. Explain what junk mail is. e.Explain how do the senders of the junk email know Mr Knowitall’s email address. 5.Jonathan has recently been employed by ABC Corporation. He has just read some of the rules around the use of email at the company. a.Jonathan is rather upset when he reads that the company reserves the right to monitor all employee emails. Comment on whether you think this is an ethical practice. b.The company has placed a limit on the size of the attachments that can be sent via email. Explain why this restriction has been put in place. c.What could the company do so that it would no longer really matter what the size of the email attachments are? Chapter 5: Networks \|Table of Contents\|\| Chapter 7: Computer management
Background: Most Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers, whose Angkor Empire extended over much of Southeast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13th centuries. Subsequently, attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam) weakened the empire ushering in a long period of decline. In 1863, the king of Cambodia placed the country under French protection; it became part of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation in World War II, Cambodia became independent within the French Union in 1949 and fully independent in 1953. After a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge forces captured Phnom Penh in April 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; at least 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, enforced hardships, or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. A December 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside, led to a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched off almost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandated democratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respected by the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy and the final elements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Factional fighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a second round of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of another coalition government and renewed political stability. The July 2003 elections were relatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between contending political parties before a coalition government was formed. Nation-wide local elections are scheduled for 2007 and national elections for 2008. <Missing Content: tb_location_highlights_958> <Missing Content: tb_location_hintsntips_958>
- This is about the geographic meaning of "North Pole." For the cities, see North Pole, Alaska and North Pole, New York. A North Pole is the northernmost point on any planet. There are various ways of defining a planet's North Pole. Earth's Pole, however it is defined, lies in the Arctic Ocean. Defining North Poles in astronomy Astronomers define the north "geographic" pole of a planet or other object in the solar system by the planetary pole that is in the same ecliptic hemisphere as the Earth's north pole. More accurately, «The north pole is that pole of rotation that lies on the north side of the invariable plane of the solar system» (http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm). This means some objects will have directions of rotation opposite the "normal" (i.e., not counter-clockwise as seen from above the north pole). Another frequently used definition uses the right-hand rule to define the north pole: it is then the pole around which the object rotates counterclockwise (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/index.html). When using the first definition (the IAU's), an object's axial tilt will always be 90° or less, but its rotation period may be negative (retrograde rotation); when using the second definition, axial tilts may be greater than 90° but rotation periods will always be positive. For the magnetic poles, their names are decided upon by the direction that their field lines emerge or enter the planet's crust. If they enter the same way as they do for Earth at the north pole, we call this the planet's north magnetic pole. Some bodies in the solar system, including Saturn's moon Hyperion and the asteroid 4179 Toutatis, lack a geographic north pole. They rotate chaotically because of their irregular shape and gravitational influences from nearby planets and moons. The projection of a planet's north geographic pole onto the celestial sphere gives its north celestial pole. In the particular (but frequent) case of synchronous satellites, four more poles can be defined. They are the near, far, leading, and trailing poles. Take Io for example; this moon of Jupiter rotates synchronously, so its orientation with respect to Jupiter stays constant. There will be a single, unmoving point of its surface where Jupiter is at the zenith, exactly overhead —this is the near pole, also called the sub- or pro-Jovian point. At the antipode of this point is the far pole, where Jupiter lies at the nadir. There will also be a single unmoving point which is furthest along Io's orbit (best defined as the point most removed from the plane formed by the north-south and near-far axes, on the leading side) —this is the leading pole. At its antipode lies the trailing pole. Io can thus be divided into north and south hemispheres, into pro- and anti-Jovian hemispheres, and into leading and trailing hemispheres. Note that these poles are mean poles because the points are not, strictly speaking, unmoving: there is constant jiggling about the mean orientation, because Io's orbit is slightly eccentric and the gravity of the other moons disturbs it regularly. Defining the North Pole of Earth The North Pole, the northernmost point on the Earth, can be defined in four different ways. Only the first two definitions are commonly used. However it is defined, the North Pole lies in the Arctic Ocean. - The Geographic North Pole, also known as True North, is approximately the northern point at which the Earth's axis of rotation meets the surface. (see next section) - The Magnetic North Pole is the northern point at which the geomagnetic field points vertically, i.e. the dip is 90°. - The Geomagnetic North Pole is the pole of the Earth's geomagnetic field closest to true north. - The Northern Pole of Inaccessibility is defined as the point in the Arctic farthest from any coastline, and is at 84°03' North, 174°51' West. Similar poles exist in the Pacific and Indian oceans, and there is a dry land pole of inaccessibility in the Antarctic. Geographic North Pole The Geographic North Pole, also known as True North, is close to the northern point at which the Earth's axis of rotation meets the surface. Geographic North defines latitude 90° North. In whichever direction you travel from here, you are always heading south. The pole is located in the Arctic Ocean, which at this point has a depth of 4087 metres (13,410 feet). Classically (19'th century) this pole was exactly where people believed the pole of rotation met the Earth's surface, but soon astronomers noticed a small apparent variation of latitude as determined for a fixed point on Earth by observing stars. This variation had a period of about 435 days and the periodic part of it is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevations or orography) to fixed landforms. Of course, given continental drift and the rising and falling of land due to volcanos, erosion and so on, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System that does an admirable job. The North pole of this system now defined geographic North and it does not quite coincide with the rotation axis. Also see polar motion. The boundaries of Canada extend all the way to the Geographic North Pole. There is no land at this location, which is usually covered by sea ice. There are in fact 770 km of ocean between the pole and Canada's northernmost point. Nevertheless, the North Pole of the Earth may be said to be located in Canada. However, recently, Russia and Denmark are poised to contest this point. In the mid-20th Century, Canada made an official claim to the pole; if no compelling opposition is presented by the mid-21st Century, the pole will officially be considered part of Canada. The first expedition to the pole is generally accepted to have been made by Navy engineer Robert Edwin Peary and his employee, black American Matthew Henson and four Inuit men (Ootah, Seegloo, Egingway, and Ooqueah) on April 6, 1909. Polar historians believe that Peary honestly thought he had reached the pole. However a 1996 analysis of a newly-discovered copy of Peary's record indicates that Peary must have been in fact 20 nautical miles (40 km) short of the Pole. The first undisputed sight of the pole was in 1926 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his American sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth from the airship Norge, designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile, in a flight from Svalbard to Alaska. On May 3, 1952 U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William P. Benedict landed a plane at the geographic North Pole. The United States navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole on August 3, 1958, and on March 17, 1959, the USS Skate (SSN-578) surfaced at the pole, becoming the first naval vessel to reach it. Ralph Plaisted made the first CONFIRMED surface conquest of the North Pole on April 19, 1968. The Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Arktika on August 17, 1977, completed the first surface vessel journey to the pole. On April 6, 1992 Robert Schumann became the youngest person to visit the north pole. In popular mythology, Santa Claus resides at the geographic North Pole. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole. Magnetic North is one of several locations on the Earth's surface known as the "North Pole". Its definition, as the point where the geomagnetic field points vertically downwards, i.e. the dip is 90°, was proposed in 1600 by Sir William Gilbert, a courtier of Queen Elizabeth I, and is still used. It should not be confused with the less frequently used Geomagnetic North Pole. Magnetic North is the place to which all magnetic compasses point, although since the pole marked "N" on a bar magnet points north, and only opposite magnetic poles are attracted to each other, the Earth's magnetic north is actually a south magnetic pole. Magnetic poles can flip flop from north to south and back again. The Earth's poles have done this repeatedly throughout history, and 500,000 years ago, the south magnetic pole was at the North Pole. It is thought that this occurs when the circulation of liquid nickel/iron in the Earth's outer core is disrupted and then reestablishes itself in the opposite direction. It is not known what causes these disruptions. The first expedition to reach this pole was led by James Clark Ross, who found it at Cape Adelaide on the Boothia Peninsula on June 1, 1831. Roald Amundsen found Magnetic North in a slightly different location in 1903. The third observation of Magnetic North was by Canadian government scientists Paul Serson and Jack Clark, of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, who found the pole at Allen Lake on Prince of Wales Island. The Canadian government has made several measurements since, which show that Magnetic North is continually moving northwest. Its location (in 2003) is 78°18' North, 104° West, near Ellef Ringness Island, one of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, in Canada. During the 20th century it has moved 1100 km, and since 1970 its rate of motion has accelerated from 9 km/a to 41 km/a (2001-2003 average; see also Polar drift). If it maintains its present speed and direction it will reach Siberia in about 50 years, but it is expected to veer from its present course and slow down. This movement is on top of a daily or diurnal variation in which Magnetic North describes a rough ellipse, with a maximum deviation of 80 km from its mean position. This effect is due to disturbances of the geomagnetic field by the sun. A line drawn from one magnetic pole to the other does not go through the centre of the Earth, it actually misses it by about 530 km. The angular difference between Magnetic North and true North varies with location, and is called the magnetic declination. Geomagnetic North Pole The Geomagnetic North Pole is the pole of the Earth's geomagnetic field closest to true north. The first-order approximation of the Earth's magnetic field is that of a single magnetic dipole (like a bar magnet), tilted about 11° with respect to Earth's rotation axis and centered at the Earth's core. The residuals form the nondipole field. The Geomagnetic poles are the places where the axis of this dipole intersects the Earth's surface. Because the dipole approximation is far from a perfect fit to the Earth's magnetic field, the magnetic field is not quite vertical at the geomagnetic poles. The locations of true vertical field orientation are the magnetic poles, and these are about 30 degrees of longitude away from the geomagnetic poles. Like the Magnetic North Pole, the geomagnetic north pole is a south magnetic pole, because it attracts the north pole of a bar magnet. It is the centre of the region in the magnetosphere in which the Aurora Borealis can be seen. Its present location is 78°30' North, 69° West, near Thule in Greenland. The first voyage to this pole was by David Hempleman-Adams in 1992. The Northern Pole of Inaccessibility The Northern Pole of Inaccessibility, located at 84°03' north, 174°51' west, is the point farthest from any northern coastline, about 1100 km from the nearest coast. It is a geographic construct, not an actual physical phenomenon. It was first reached by Sir Hubert Wilkins, who flew by aircraft in 1927; in 1958 a Russian icebreaker reached this point. Territorial claims to the North Pole Until 1999, the North Pole had been considered international territory. However, as the polar ice has begun to recede at a rate higher than expected (see global warming), several countries have made moves to claim the water or seabed at the Pole. Russia made her first claim in 2001, claiming Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain ridge underneath the Pole, as a natural extension of Siberia. This claim was contested by Norway, Canada, the United States and Denmark in 2004. Denmark's territory of Greenland has the nearest coastline to the North Pole, and Denmark argues that the Lomonosov Ridge is in fact an extension of Greenland. The potential value of the North Pole and the area around resides in its oil and gas, which in the near future might become more accessible after the opening of the North-West Passage.
Elementary rules of differentiation Differentiation is linear The product rule The chain rule The inverse function rule Power laws, polynomials, quotients, and reciprocals The polynomial or elementary power rule The reciprocal rule The quotient rule wherever g is nonzero. Generalized power rule Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions wherever f is positive. Derivatives of trigonometric functions Derivatives of hyperbolic functions Derivatives of special functions Derivatives of integrals This is a summary of differentiation rules, that is, rules for computing the derivative of a function in calculus.
You must be logged-in in order to download this resource. If you do not have an AOE account, create one now. If you already have an account, please login.Login Create Account Great! you're all signed in. Click to download your resource.Download Due to specific regulations in , AOE is not currently enrolling students in your state. We apologize, but at this time you can not move forward with course enrollment. Let us know if you have any questions. Please contact us with any questions. Schools generally divide subjects into isolated bodies of knowledge which neither inform nor advance one another. Even though art educators are skilled at bringing cross-curricular connections into the classroom, they can sometimes be met with resistance. Students often say things like, “This is art class. Why are we talking about math?” However, whether it’s mixing paint colors or drawing an image, using math in the art room is essential. Plus, the more you show students how using math can improve their work, the less they’ll complain when you make them get out the rulers. It’s no secret students struggle using rulers. Besides being important for several forms of art, being able to use a ruler has value in numerous areas of life. The use of measurement tools is the foundation of fields like construction, carpentry, and engineering. One way to improve students’ ruler skills is to assign a drawing that requires replicating an image to scale. For example, let’s say you give students an image that is 5″x 8″ and give them a piece of drawing paper the same size. If the image is a monkey and the monkey’s head is 1.75″ in height and 1.5″ in length, students can measure out that same size for their drawing. Rendering in this way uses mathematics and mirrors how computers generate imagery. This type of exercise will show students how keeping things proportional is a key of drawing realistically. Using math to calculate scale is another opportunity to advance interdisciplinary skills. Administrators love when you can reinforce content from other areas. The beauty of working with ratio and proportion in the art room is that it has benefits for our subject as well. Most of the time, students are not trying to draw something in the exact size as their source image. However, it’s important to keep the same proportions when drawing for accuracy. Having students create a simple formula to scale up an image is a great way to work on this concept. Let’s use the same monkey as an example. If the monkey measures 6″ from the feet to the top of the head and the monkey’s head measures 1″, we now know the ratio of height-of-head to total height is 1 to 6. The student can then create an equation to ensure they will keep the correct head-to-height ratio in their drawing. Let’s say the student wants their drawn monkey to be 24″ high. Using a simple equation, the student can calculate exactly how high the head should be to ensure the correct proportions. In the equation below, “1” represents the height of the head on the source image, “6” represents the height of the body on the source image, “24” represents the height of the drawn body, and “x” represents the height of the drawn head. Solving for “x” the student knows the drawn head must be 4 inches high. The student can use this same type of equation to calculate anything about the monkey such as ratio of eye size to head size. Another technique allowing artists to scale up a drawing is the well-known grid method. While this method sometimes stirs up debate, it’s a smart technique to use when transferring smaller sketches into larger final pieces. This can be especially true when working on murals, where a 10″ sketch needs to become a 50′ painting. What students may not be aware of is this method is based on the X/Y axis. Gridding is essentially dividing a composition into quadrants, and then creating more elaborate increments of division within that quadrant system. When doing a gridding exercise, students must be able to use this system to align objects in the right way to ensure accuracy. The X/Y axis is also helpful when working with facial proportion. Many art educators teach students to divide the face into quadrants and line up features using the X/Y axis as a guide. Therefore, constantly reinforcing the concept of the X/Y axis and showing why it is useful beyond the walls of the math classroom can help students see how their knowledge can transfer between subjects. We should welcome math in the art room. It provides helpful ways for students to solve creative problems. Regardless of your teaching style, it’s important to break down the walls of segregation between subjects. Students do not benefit from the belief that math, or any other subject, has no business in art class. Let’s not miss opportunities to help students see connections between subjects and how one can inform and advance another. Even if math does not play an obvious role in our own practice, we need to value math as a tool to inform the arts. How do you use math in your own classroom or artistic practice? What questions or concerns do you have about bringing math into the art room?
Water is filled in a rectangular tank of size 3 m × 2 m × 1 m. (a) Find the total force exerted by the water on the bottom surface of the tank. (b) Consider a vertical side of area 2 m × 1 m. Take a horizontal strip of width δx meter in this side, situated at a depth of x meter from the surface of water. Find the force by the water on this strip (c) Find the torque of the force calculated in part (b) about the bottom edge of this side. (d) Find the total force by the water on this side. (e) Find the total torque by the water on the side about the bottom edge. Neglect the atmospheric pressure and take g = 10 m s-2. (a)Given: Length, ; Breadth, ; Height, . The pressure at the bottom of tank, —————(1) Where is the density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity, Area of the bottom of the tank, Therefore, Force, (ANS) —————(3) (b) Here we first find the pressure at a depth of “x m” from the top. We know, pressure, The area of the strip is, Therefore, the force on the strip is, ————(4) (c) To find the torque, we need to find the perpendicular distance(d) of the strip from the bottom edge. We know, Torque, —————(5) (d) To find the total force, we integrate the force in (b) for the entire height. (e) The torque on the side can be found by integrating (5). Rate this question : The weight of an empty balloon on a spring balance is W1. The weight becomes W2 when the balloon is filled with air. Let the weight of the air itself be ω. Neglect the thickness of the balloon when it is filled with air. Also neglect the difference in the densities of air inside and outside the balloon.HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1 A solid float in a liquid in a partially dipped position.HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1 (a) Pressure decreases as one ascends the atmosphere. If the density of air is ρ, what is the change in pressure dp over a differential height dh? (b) Considering the pressure p to be proportional to the density, find the pressure p at a height h if the pressure on the surface of the earth is p0. (c) If p0 = 1.03×105 N m-2, ρ0 = 1.29 kg m-3 and g = 9.8 m s-2, at what height will the pressure drop to (1/10) the value at the surface of the earth? (d) This model of the atmosphere works for relatively small distances. Identify the underlying assumption that limits the model. Physics - Exemplar An ideal fluid flows through a pipe of circular cross-section made of two sections with diameters 2.5 cm and 3.75 cm. The ratio of the velocities in the two pipes isPhysics - Exemplar Streamline flow is more likely for liquids withPhysics - Exemplar Pressure is a scalar quantity becausePhysics - Exemplar If water be used to construct a barometer, what would be the height of water column at standard atmospheric pressure (76 cm of mercury)?HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1 Find the force exerted by the water on a 2 m2 plane surface of a large stone placed at the bottom of a sea 500 m deep. Does the force depend on the orientation of the surface?HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1 Suppose the glass of the previous problem is covered by a jar and the air inside the jar is completely pumped out. (a) What will be the answers to the problem? (b) Show that the answers do not change if a glass of different shape is used provided the height, the bottom area and the volume are unchanged.HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1 Water level is maintained in a cylindrical vessel up to a fixed height H. The vessel is kept on a horizontal plane. At what height above the bottom should a hole be made in the vessel so that the water stream coming out of the hole strikes the horizontal plane at the greatest distance from the vessel (figure 13-E11)? HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Part 1
In this course, the publisher takes a bold approach by challenging popular theories through use of the scientific method, application of DNA, and recent research to point out strengths and weaknesses of scientific theories. Like all PAC courses, Biology may be completed in a classroom under guidance of a teacher, or through guided independent study with minimum student dependence on the teacher/proctor. The design of Biology texts and activities enables students to learn the material with or without oversight by an experienced science teacher. Lab projects are not required, but may easily be conducted as directed by the teacher/proctor. Laboratory experiments (actual or observations) may be added as needed to earn transcript credit. The Principles, Theories, and Precepts of Biology Virtual Online Course includes links to videos to further explain a topic or show an experiment. The videos are optional and students are not required to watch the videos to complete activities, quizzes, or tests. The Virtual Online Biology Course consists of everything needed to gain one high school transcript credit in Biology. All texts, activities, quizzes, and tests are provided online in an interactive format. Students must have access to internet in order to use this course.More About Virtual Online Courses
There are 13 mineral nutrients that are essential for completion of a plant's life cycle. Macronutrients are required in large quantities: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and sulfur. Micronutrients are required in low concentrations: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron, chlorine. All of these nutrients should be provided in the hydroponic nutrient solution, in the right concentrations, and in adequate ratios. According to the law of limiting factor, if one nutrient is deficient, other nutrients cannot compensate for the deficiency and the crop may suffer, resulting in decreased quality and yield. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Most water sources contain only small amounts of these nutrients, if at all, so they must be provided in the hydroponic nutrient solution using fertilizers. Commonly used soluble fertilizers are MAP, potassium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate. Calcium and Magnesium These nutrients are usually found in source water, sometimes in adequate concentrations for plant needs, especially in well water. If the concentration is higher than required, the source water should be pre-treated. Calcium nitrate is the only fertilizer appropriate for adding calcium to a hydroponic nutrient solution. Magnesium nitrate and magnesium sulfate are both appropriate sources for a magnesium addition. Note that calcium nitrate and magnesium nitrate also contribute nitrogen to the hydroponic nutrient solution. Sulfur is present in a wide range of concentrations in various water sources, and plants grown in hydroponics can tolerate a relatively high concentration, but an excess of sulfur might have untoward effects and even limit nitrate uptake. Iron, manganese, zinc and copper can be provided in the sulfuric form, but their availability is greatly decreased in pH levels greater than 6.5. The chelated forms may also be used because they are available for uptake in a wider range of pH. Some growers regard EDTA as harmful for plants, and avoid its use. Molybdenum is usually provided using sodium molybdate. The presence of sodium in this fertilizer should not be a cause for alarm. Because molybdenum is needed in minute quantities, small amounts of this fertilizer are usually used, and the sodium addition is negligible. Boron can be provided through boric acid or solubor. Solubor also contains sodium, but quantities are small enough so as to not have a significant effect on the sodium concentration in the solution. The adequate boron level range is narrow—between 0.2 and 0.5 ppm—and can easily be missed, resulting in either deficiency or toxicity, so boron supplements should be carefully added. Well water often contains sufficient boron levels, so no boron addition is needed. Chloride is required by plants in minute quantities and most water sources contain a chloride concentration well above what plants require, so chloride deficiency is extremely rare. Chloride-related problems are more commonly those of toxicities rather than of deficiencies. Therefore, using fertilizers that contain chloride is uncommon in hydroponics. Sodium can be harmful in recirculating systems, since it builds up with time in the hydroponic solution. Threshold concentration of sodium and chloride for most hydroponically grown plants is 75 ppm. Several nutrients compete with each other over uptake by the plant, so keeping adequate ratios is important for avoiding deficiency. For example, excess of potassium competes with calcium and magnesium absorption. A high iron/manganese ratio can result in manganese deficiency, and high sulfur concentration might decrease the uptake of nitrate.
VALUES, ETHICS, AND ADVOCACY Values – something of worth; enduring beliefs or attitudes about the worth of a person, object, idea, or action. They are important because they influence decisions, actions, even nurse’s ethical decision making. Value set all the values (eg, personal, professional, religous) that a person holds Value system the organization of a person’s values along a continuum of relative importance; basic to a way of life, give direction to life, form basis of behavior Beliefs interpretations or conclusions that one accepts as true (based more on faith than fact) - Judged by others as correct or incorrect - Beliefs do not necessarily involve attitude. Example: “I believe if I study hard I will make good grades.” Belief and value would be “Good grades are important to me and I believe I can make good grades if I study very hard.” Attitudes mental stance that is composed of many different beliefs; usually involving a positive or negative judgment toward a person, object, or idea - Judged by others as being bad or good, positive or negative - They vary greatly among individuals. Example: some clients may feel strongly about their need for privacy, whereas others may dismiss it as important. Values are learned through observation and experience. Therefore, they are influenced greatly by cultural, ethnic, and religious groups and by family and peer groups. Example: a parent consistently demonstrates honesty in dealing with others, the child will probably value honesty. Our health beliefs are also learned this way. \|American Association of Colleges of Nursing’s 5 Values Essential for the Nursing Professional Personal values values internalized from the society or culture in which one lives. People need societal values to feel accepted, and they need personal values to have a sense of individuality. Professional values values acquired during socialization into nursing from codes of ethics, nursing experiences, teachers, and peers Values clarification a process by which individuals identify, examine and develop their own value Raths, Harmin and Simon described a “valuing process” - Choosing (cognitive) – beliefs are chosen freely from alternative and reflection and consideration of consequences - Prizing (affective) – beliefs are prized and cherished - Acting (behavior) – chosen beliefs are confirmed to others, incorporated into behavior consistently in one’s life Behaviors that May Indicate Unclear Values - Clarifying the Nurse’s Values - The student nurse needs to examine the values they hold about life, death, health, and illness. It is important for the nurse to be aware of their own values so if helping a client they are not imposed on the client. - Clarifying Client Values - To plan effective care, the nurse needs to identify the client’s values as they relate to health problems. If the client is unclear or has conflicting values the nurse can help guide the patient to clarify the client’s values by using the seven following steps: - 1. List alternatives. Are you considering other courses of action? Tell me about them. - 2. Examine possible consequences of choices. What do you think you will gain from doing that? What benefits do you foresee from doing that? - 3. Choose freely. Did you have any say in that decision? Do you have a choice? - 4. Feel good about the choice. Some people feel good after a decision is made, others fee bad. How do you feel? - 5. Affirm the choice. How will you discuss his with others (family, friends)? - 6. Act on the choice. Will it be difficult to tell your wife about this? - 7. Act with a pattern. How many times have you done that before? Would you act that way again? - * The nurse rarely if ever offers an opinion, and then only with great care or when they have expertise in a certain area. The situation for the client will be different from the nurses situation. \|ANA Standards of Professional PerformanceStandard 12: EthicsMeasurement Criteria Morality and Ethics Ethics the rules or principles that govern right conduct * 2005 Gallop pole found that nurses have been viewed as the most ethical profession * Bioethics ethical rules or principles that govern right conduct concerning human life or health Nursing ethics ethical issues that occur in nursing practice Morality a doctrine or system denoting what is right and wrong in conduct, character, or attitude Law A rule made by humans that regulate social conduct in a formally prescribed and binding manner ¬ Nurses should distinguish between law and morality. - An action can be legal but not moral: An order for full resuscitation of a dying client is legal, but one could still question whether the act is moral. - An action can be moral but not legal: If a child at home stops breathing, it is moral but not legal to exceed the speed limit when driving to the hospital. ¬ Nurses should distinguish between morality and religion. - Example: some religions think it is acceptable to circumcise women, others think the ritual to be a violation of human rights Moral development process of learning to tell the difference between right and wrong and of learning what ought and ought not to be done; the pattern of change in moral behavior with age The moral development theorists are: ¬ Kolberg – emphasizes rights and formal reasoning ¬Gilligan – emphasizes care and responsibility Moral theories provide different frameworks through with nurses can view and clarify disturbing client situations. The following three frameworks are widely used: - Consequence-based (teleological) theories the ethics of judging whether an action is moral - Utilitarianism a specific, consequence-based, ethical theory that judges as right the action that does the most good and least amount of harm for the greatest number of persons; often used in making decisions about the funding and delivery of health care - Utility the principle of utilitarianism - Principle-based (deontological) theories emphasize individual rights, duties, and obligations - Relationships-based (caring) theories stress courage, generosity, commitment, and the need to nurture and maintain relationships Moral Principles are statements about broad, general philosophical concepts. They provide the foundation for forming Moral rules – specific prescriptions for actions. Examples: - Moral principle – respect other people - Moral rule – do not lie Moral Principles that a nurse should follow: Autonomy right to make one’s own decisions because each person is unique. People have “inward autonomy” if they have the ability to make choices; they have “outward autonomy” if their choices are not limited or imposed by others. - Do not disregard a client’s statement about subjective symptoms they may be having - Be sure the client gives “informed” consent Nonmaleficence the duty to do no harm - Their is sometimes unintentional harm, such as; an adverse reaction to a medication, bruising a client that you held to tightly in order to keep him from falling, breaking a rib doing CPR Beneficence the moral obligation to do good or to implement actions that benefit clients and their support persons - Doing good can also cause harm, such as; advising a client to do strenuous exercise, but he should for risk of a heart attack Justice fairness. This is not always easy considering time constraints - A home healthcare nurse must decide to stay with the current client, who is depressed, 30 more minutes, and have to reduce her time with the next client Fidelity a moral principle that obligates the individual to be faithful to agreements and responsibilities one has undertaken - If a nurse says “I’ll be right back with pain medication”, she should do so or find an alternative for relief of the client’s pain Veracity a moral principle that holds that one should tell the truth and not lie - Does a nurse tell a lie when it is known that the lie will relieve anxiety and fear? The loss of trust in the nurse rarely justifies any benefits gained from lying. Nurses should also have the following according to the Code of Ethics for Nurses by the ANA Accountability being responsible for one’s actions and accepting the consequences of one’s behavior Responsibility the specific accountability or liability associated with the performance of duties of a particular role or an obligation to complete a task. - Thus, the ethical nurse is able to explain the rationale behind every action and recognizes the standards to which she will be held. JCAHO mandates the health care institutions provide multidisciplinary ethics committees (or like structures)to provide education, counseling and support on ethical issues. These committees ensure: - That relevant facts of a case are brought out ¬ Provide a forum in which diverse views can be expressed ¬ Provide support for caregivers ¬ Can reduce the institution’s legal risks Nursing Codes of Ethics Code of ethics a formal statement of a group’s ideals and values; a set of ethical principles shared by members of a group, reflecting their moral judgments and serving as a standard for professional actions The International Council of Nurses (ICN) and the ANA both have nursing codes of ethics. They have the following purpose: standards of the profession and help them understand professional nursing conduct. - Provide a sign of the profession’s commitment to the public it serves. - Outline the major ethical considerations of the profession. - Provide ethical standards for professional behavior. - Guide the profession in self-regulation. - Remind nurses of the special responsibility they assume when caring for the sick. Origins of Ethical Problems in Nursing - Social and Technological Changes - Social – growing consumerism, women’s movement, large number of people without health insurance, workplaces redesigned under managed healthcare, issues of fairness and allocation of resources - Technology – extending life with monitors, respirators, and parenteral feedings, saving extreme premature babies, definition of death associated with organ transplants, cloning, tem cell research - Conflicting Loyalties and Obligations - Loyalties and obligations may be conflicted between; * the client, * the client’s families, * the physician, * the employing institution, and * licensing bodies. Nursing code of ethics states that the nurse’s loyalty must always lie with the client, but it is the determination of which action best serves the needs of the client that is sometime difficult - Example – should the nurse tell her client that marijuana can help with nausea - Example – should the nurse honor a picket line Making Ethical Decisions Many nursing problems are not ethical problems at all, but simply questions of good nursing practice. Therefore, you should decide if an ethical situation exists. The following criteria may be used: - I A difficult choice exists between actions that conflict with the needs of one or more persons. - I Moral principles or frameworks exist that can be used to provide some justification for the action. - I The choice is guided by a process of weighing reasons. - I The decision must be freely and consciously chosen. - I The choice is affected by personal feelings and by the particular context of the situation. If the problem is an ethical one, then, remember that responsible ethical reasoning is rational and systematic. A good decision is one that is in the client’s best interest and at the same time preserves the integrity of all involved. Two ethical decision-making models follow: Cassells and Redman Model (1989) Being involved in ethical problems and dilemmas is stressful for the nurse. A good support system should be established such as team conferences and use of counseling professionals to allow expressing of their feelings. Strategies to Enhance Ethical Decision and Practice The following strategies should be taken by a nurse to overcome the moral distress on the job: - Become aware of your own values and ethical aspects of nursing. - Be familiar with nursing codes of ethics. - Seek continuing education opportunities to stay knowledgeable about ethical issues in nursing. - Respect the values, opinions, and responsibilities of other health care professional that may be different from your own. - Serve on institutional ethics committees. - Strive for collaborative practice in which nurses function effectively in cooperation with other health care professionals. Specific Ethical Issues Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) - The ANA’s position on AIDS – the moral obligation to care for HIV-infected client cannot be set aside unless the risk exceeds the responsibility. - Should health care providers and clients be mandatory? If so, should the results be released to insurance companies, sexual partners, or caregivers? - The debate continues between the sanctity of life and the right for a woman to control her own body. - Conscience clauses give the caregiver the right to refuse to participate in abortions, but they cannot impose their values on the client. The client has a right to be educated about all choices - Who deserves to be on the lists for possible transplants? Should organs be sold? Should parents have children just to harvest an organ for another child? What is the clear definition of death pertaining organ donators? Is there a conflict of interest between the potential donor and recipients? There are religious conflicts with both donating and receiving of organs. - Advance Directives - All 40 states have enacted advance directive legislation. Having the client complete these saves many moral and ethical decisions. - Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide - Euthanasia, a greek word meaning “good death” - Active euthanasia – actions that directly bring about the client’s death with or without consent. This is forbidden by law (especially for the caregiver). - Assisted suicide – a form of active euthanasia in which clients are given the means to kill themselves. This is legal in Oregon. - The ANA states that both active euthanasia and assisted suicide are in violation of the Code for Nurses. - Passive euthanasia allowing a person to die by withholding or withdrawing measures to maintain life (aka withdrawing or withholding life-sustaining therapy [WWLST]). This is both legally and ethically more acceptable to most persons than assisted suicide. - Termination of Life-Sustaining Treatment - Nurses must understand that a decision to withdraw treatment is not a decision to withdraw care. As the primary caregivers, nurses must ensure that sensitive care and comfort measures are given as the client’s illness progresses. - Withdrawing or Withholding Food and Fluids - A nurse is morally obligate to withhold food and fluids (or any treatment) if it is determined to be more harmful to administer then than to withhold them. The nurse must ablos honor competent and informed clients’ refusal of food and fluids. Allocation of Scarce Health Resources - The moral principle of autonomy cannot be applied if it is not possible to give each client what he or she chooses. In this situation, health care providers may use the principle of justice – attempting to choose what is most fair to all. - Some nurses are concerned that staffing in their institutions is not adequate to give the level of care they value. California is the first state to enact legislation mandating specific nurse-to-client ratios. Management of Personal Health Information - Keeping the client’s privacy is both a legal and moral mandate. The client must be able to trust that the nurses will reveal details of their situations only as appropriate for the health care. Nurses should help develop and follow security measures and policies. Advocate individual who pleads the cause of another or argues or plead for a cause or proposal The Advocate’s Role The overall goal of the client advocate is to protect client’s rights. She does this by: - Informing client’s of their rights - Providing them with the information they need to make informed decisions - Supports client’s in their decision giving the responsibility in the decision making when capable - Remains objective and does not convey approval or disapproval of client’s choices - Is accepting and respectful of the client’s decision, even if the nurse believes the decision to be wrong - Intervenes on the client’s behalf, often influencing others Advocacy in Home Care - The client reverting to own personal values at home must, nevertheless, still have his autonomy respected. - Financial considerations can limit the availability of services and materials, making it difficult to ensure the client needs are met. Professional and Public Advocacy - Gains made in developing and improving health policy at the institutional and government levels help to achieve better health care for the public. Being an effective advocate involves: - Being assertive - Recognizing that the rights and values of client and families must take precedence when they conflict with those of the health care providers - Being aware that conflicts may arise over issues that require consultation, confrontation, or negotiation between the nurse and administrative personnel or between the nurse and primary care provider - Knowing that advocacy may require political action – communicating a client’s health care needs to government and other officials who have authority to do something about these needs.
Art Appreciation: Pablo Picasso This week we’re looking at the works of Pablo Picasso. Step 1: Who? Let’s begin by looking at Pablo Picasso’s Wikipedia page to get his basic information: PABLO PICASSO’S WIKIPEDIA Almost everyone has heard of Picasso, so I won’t tell you how to pronounce his name, but if you’re unsure you can find pronunciation information there on his Wiki. Did you know that his full name was Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso? Whew! That’s a mouthful, isn’t it? Here is a link to a website where you’ll find even more detailed information: PICASSO Talk about his family life. What interesting facts can you find? Step 2: Where? Picasso was born in Málaga, Spain, so look that up on a map. He moved a bit, so take a look at other places in his life and find them on your map. Can you find where he died? Think about the changes in his life that would have come with those moves. Step 3: When? Look at the years Picasso lived. Check your timeline to see what was happening in the world during the years he lived. Discuss how those world events might have affected Picasso as a person, and his art. Step 4: What? Now let’s look at his work. You can find many of Picasso’s pieces on his Wikiart Page, so start there. The pieces are arranged in chronological order, so it’s easy to see the progression of his work through the various stages. NOTE: There are several nudes in Picasso’s portfolio, so parents may wish to screen this part first, picking out a few representative pieces to show the students. Picasso’s work is divided into several “periods” including the Blue Period, the Rose Period, and several cubist periods, plus later periods that are more of a mix of styles. His cubist pieces are probably his best known works, so concentrate a bit on those. They’re the most fun to imitate, so be sure you look at those carefully, discussing how you might achieve the affect. Picasso created some of his pieces as a collage. He was one of the first to do so, so if you want to be like Picasso, you’ve got to try it out. Step 5: Do! Now it’s time to try creating a piece in the Picasso style yourselves. Get some construction paper and glue. Set up a still life, or pick an object. Cut out the pieces of the paper into random shapes. Assemble them to form the picture. If this seems too difficult, perhaps you could pick a Picasso piece and try to replicate it. Any way you do it, you can’t go wrong. Just have fun with it! Step 6: Do More! One other thing to try is one of Picasso’s line drawings. Picasso famously created these drawings in one line, never lifting his pen. The effect is cute and clever, and would be a lot of fun for a kid to try. See if you can copy Picasso’s drawings first. Then try to create your own. Finally, if there’s a museum in your area check to see if they have a Picasso piece in house. If so, make a trip to check it out. The experience is different when you see the full size piece up close. Step 7: Additional Resources for more ideas: There are loads of great books and resources for kids about Picasso, so here are a few to get you started: Let me know if you use it or tell me all about your Picasso Art experience by leaving me a comments here or on our Facebook page. The links are at the right. >>>
The Antarctic Convergence is a curve continuously encircling Antarctica, varying in latitude seasonally, where cold, northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic. Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters, while associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in marine productivity, especially for Antarctic krill. This line, like the Arctic tree line, is a natural boundary rather than an artificial one like a line of latitude. It not only separates two hydrological regions, but also separates areas of distinctive marine life associations and of different climates. There is no Arctic equivalent, due to the amount of land surrounding the northern polar region. The Antarctic Convergence was first crossed by Anthony de la Roché in 1675, and described by Sir Edmund Halley in 1700. The Antarctic Convergence is a zone approximately 32 to 48 km (20 to 30 mi) wide, varying in latitude seasonally and in different longitudes, extending across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans between the 48th and 61st parallels of south latitude. Although the northern boundary varies, for the purposes of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980, it is defined as "50°S, 0°; 50°S, 30°E; 45°S, 30°E; 45°S, 80°E; 55°S, 80°E; 55°S, 150°E; 60°S, 150°E; 60°S, 50°W; 50°S, 50°W; 50°S, 0°." Although this zone is a mobile one, it usually does not stray more than half a degree of latitude from its mean position. The precise location at any given place and time is made evident by the sudden drop in sea water temperature from north to south of, on average, 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) from 5.6 °C (42.1 °F) to below 2 °C (36 °F).The Falkland Islands Tristan da Cunha Prince Edward Islands Campbell Island group Snares Islands / Tini Heke Diego Ramírez Islands Tierra del Fuego Isla de los Estados South Shetland Islands South Orkney Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Peter I Island The Kerguelen Islands lie approximately on the Convergence. Antarctic Convergence Wikipedia
For a significant number of children and adults, developing strong literacy skills requires overcoming the challenges posed by specific learning differences, such as dyslexia. Dyslexia impacts on reading, writing and spelling abilities but can also cause individuals to suffer from low self-esteem and lack confidence in the classroom. While it is something people have for life, technology and strategy use can make language-based activities easier. For example, typing on a computer gives children and adults access to spell-checkers and helpful text-to-speech tools. Mnemonic devices aid with learning the spelling of hard words. Memorizing high frequency vocabulary reduces the cognitive load involved in reading. Additionally, dyslexics who have had training in touch typing can reinforce phonics knowledge, use muscle memory to learn word spellings, and facilitate the translation of ideas into written language. This renders the writing process less frustrating and makes composing written work more fluid and effective.
Freezing a flower can either preserve or destroy it, depending on how the freezing occurs and how cold the frost is. Fall frosts end the gardening season by wiping out any remaining blooms, and unexpected spring frosts often destroy early-blooming flowers such as daffodils. A bit of cold weather can actually improve the flavor of flower buds like Brussels sprouts because the frost brings out the natural sugars in the plant. Frost tends to occur on clear nights when there is no cloud cover to trap heat on the ground. Soil is warmed throughout the day by the sun, and much of this warmth is retained at the end of the day when the air cools, especially if the soil is moist. When the air around a plant freezes, the moisture in the air turns into tiny ice crystals and settles on the plant's surface. Freezing nighttime temperatures sometimes spare flowers because the petals can retain some heat and the inside of the flower doesn't freeze. Flowers have tiny, intricate veins that carry moisture to the petals through the sap. When a flower freezes, the water contained in the veins expands and breaks up the veins. Since the flower can no longer get moisture, it turns brown or black and dies. Flowers that have been frozen often look like they have melted because they die so quickly. Some flowers, such as crocus, snowdrops or primroses, can withstand a light frost on their surfaces and are only affected by getting frozen through in a hard, killing frost. Freeze Drying Flowers Florists can preserve flowers by freeze drying them. This process can save the shape and color of a flower because the inside of a freeze-drying machine is a low-pressure atmosphere created by a vacuum. When a flower is frozen at low pressure, the ice crystals are pulled out of the petals as a vapor, leaving the petals intact. The vacuum also removes the oxygen that causes cells to break down. The process of freeze drying takes several weeks because the flowers are frozen quickly, then the temperature in the machine is gradually increased. This slowly removes the moisture without damaging the flowers' structural integrity. Another way to freeze flowers and preserve them for a short time can be done with a home freezer, and the frozen flowers can be used to decorate summer drinks. Choose sweet, edible flowers such as violets, rose petals, borage or peonies. Fill an ice tray with water and drop the flowers in. When the water freezes, the flowers' color and shape will remain the same. After the ice melts, the flowers can be eaten, although they will begin to soften and wilt right away.
First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me in this course". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them. When you think of networking, what is the first word that comes to mind? If you answered "Internet," you are correct. The Internet is an example of a massive computer network. Computer networks make it possible for one device to communicate with another device. Another example of a computer network is the local area network, or LAN. If you can access all of the desktops, laptops, wireless devices, and printers in your workplace, college, or home, you have a LAN. This unit will introduce the basic concept of a computer network and arm you with the tools you will need to work through the more technical aspects of this course. ECSE 4670 - Computer Communication Networks You will take a look at the different types of networks that exist, with the primary focus on the LAN. The unit continues with an introduction to the concept of layers, which is central to understanding how computer networks operate. You will also become familiar with Request for Comments RFC documents, which are standards that define all of the Internet protocols. The concepts presented in this course will provide you with the background information needed to develop network applications, take a network certification course, or communicate with other networks neighboring your LAN. In life, protocols define the way we interact with other people - for example, the way we behave in a public place. In computer science, protocols are formal sets of rules that dictate the ways in which computers communicate with one another over a network medium. Protocols constitute the backbone of networking. The application layer is where all network processes and applications run. Finally, we will discuss socket programming and how it can be used to develop network applications. When we talk about networks, we are talking about data transport. Each application relies on the transport layer that is described in this unit. It is a key layer in today's networks as it contains all the mechanisms necessary to provide a reliable delivery of data over any unreliable network. First, we will develop a simple reliable transport layer protocol. These protocols are the fundamental protocols for modern multimedia applications over the Internet. In this unit, we will learn how packets groupings of data travel on a network and how each machine can be addressed uniquely so that data transport between two nodes is reliable. We will learn that networks can run out of space, meaning that unique addresses for different machines are no longer available. In these situations, computer scientists must manage IP addressing using CIDR and subnetting - techniques we will learn about in this unit. The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from any source to any destination through intermediate routers. This unit will explain how you can address machines on a network from that layer, use IP addresses to determine physical addresses, and identify the different mechanisms in the link layer that can correct packet collisions when data is transferred over the wire. This unit guides you through the principles of the link layer. Then the textbook will direct your focus to computer networks with a discussion of how multiple hosts share one transmission medium. The chapter ends with a detailed discussion of the two types of computer networks that are important today from a deployment perspective: Ethernet and WiFi. Multimedia over the Internet becomes more and more popular. This unit guides you through the protocols for transmitting multimedia content, such as voice and video, over the Internet, and discusses security, reliability, and fault tolerance issues related to Internet applications. You will also be introduced to one of the most recent Internet-based technologies: cloud computation, and we will briefly discuss network remote access and directory services. Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses. If you come across any urgent problems, email contact saylor. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt. Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate. Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times , with a day waiting period between each attempt. Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a Credit-Recommended Course Completion Certificate and an official transcript. It is used for the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. WAN operates on low data rates. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to implement wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea is the same. System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-range radio. - 1st Edition. - Explore Ancient Greece!: 25 Great Projects, Activities, Experiments (Explore Your World series)? - A Laboratory Course in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. - Leadership Succession in the World of the Pauline Circle. - The International Journal for the Computer and Telecommunications Industry. - Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum 1792-1917 (The Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine). Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit is normally the master , talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth wireless WAN. This system has already gone through three generations. Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be formed by joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as routers, gateways and bridges. Made with by Abhishek Ahlawat. Ruby Servlet JSP.jenkins.double-eye.com/ana-fidelia-quirot-en-el.php Computer communications and networks Operating System. Computer Architecture. Jenkins Maven. Apache Cordova Drools. We are Hiring! Sign in. Available on:. LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc. It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i. Applications of LAN One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called clients.
Everyone who’s been somehow confronted with printing has heard about offset printing before. However, this does not mean that everybody understands how offset printing works, and what makes it so suitable for printing flyers, leaflets, brochures, posters, and basically any other print product in high volumes. First, some history and science. Offset printing refers to the printing process through which ink is indirectly applied from the printing plate to paper via a roller. Offset printing can be traced back to around the beginning of the 20th century, and is a direct technological development from lithographic printing which emerged in the late 1700s, and which used printing plates made out of stone. Offset printing takes advantage of repellence characteristics between water and lipids to print the desired artwork. In a nutshell, the printing plate (which carries the artwork template) is covered in part with a lipophilic (fat-loving) layer and in part with a hydrophilic (water-loving) layer. In combination with the use of fatty printing ink, this means that only the parts covered with the lipophilic layer will be covered in ink while the rest of the plate remains clear of ink. This way, the printing process reproduces exactly the artwork template. Now as we already mentioned, offset printing is an indirect printing process, meaning that the printing plate is not directly applied onto the final surface which in this case is paper. Instead, designs are printed on the paper through the intermediary of a rubber-covered cylinder set up between the printing plate and paper, which increases the printing quality. The indirect nature of offset printing justifies its name: the printing is set off... The advantage of this process is that it allows continuous, uninterrupted and very high speed printing at the highest of quality. In offset printing, one printing plate is required for each printing ink color, which means that there are a total of 4 printing plates per artwork, i.e. one for each of the four CMYK colors. The paper runs through all 4 plates successively and each color is printed on the sheet on top of the previous colors, finally forming the desired design and colors as per the pdf file. For a graphic visualization, see below. Offset printing machines are very large and expensive, both in terms of acquisition and maintenance, and their setting/adjustment takes quite some time. In addition, the creation of the printing plates for each print job is also quite costly. In other words, offset printing carries high fixed costs with it, and is therefore only worth it in medium-to-long print runs. However, variable costs are extremely low, and therefore the price-performance ratio of offset printing is literally unbeatable after a certain threshold quantity. Below that quantity, digital printing (a newer but lower quality process) is a lot more price-worthy. In addition to low cost for long print runs, offset printing is unbeatable from the point of view of speed and quality. Finally, a distinction can be made between sheet-fed and web offset printing. In sheet-fed printing, is typically used for medium-sized print runs where the artwork is printed on pre-cut paper sheets that are usually in B0, B1, or B2 format. On the contrary, web printing is suitable for very long-run newspaper, telephone book, or catalog printing because instead of relying on pre-cut sheets, it relies on large paper rolls which are cheaper and speed up the printing. Feeling satisfied about reading this blog post until the end? You should be! Now you know exactly what offset printing is, and how it works. Gogoprint relies extensively on offset printing, and on the highest quality offset equipment only, such as Heidelberg presses which are renowned worldwide for their quality. - Posted In: - About Gogoprint
- Read More Capsulitis is an inflammatory condition that affects the outer lining of the joint called the joint capsule. Capsulitis can occur at any joint in the human body. In the foot, capsulitis is commonly found in the forefoot beneath the ball-of-the-foot. The most common site where capsulitis occurs is beneath the second metatarsal head. Capsulitis of the forefoot is caused by excessive mechanical load being applied to the forefoot. Capsulitis is found equally in men and women. Capsulitis is most common in ages 30-60 years. - Pain in the ball-of-the-foot increased with weight bearing and relieved with rest - Pain increased on hard floors while barefoot - Swelling in the ball of the foot - No bruising or erythema (redness) is found The joint capsule is the envelope that surrounds the joint. The inner lining of the capsule is called synovium. The synovium produces synovial fluid, the fluid that lubricates the joint. Capsulitis is an inflammatory condition of the synovium. In this picture (right), the plantar aspect of each of the metatarsal heads is marked and numbered. The red area adjacent to the second metatarsal head is the most common area where capsulitis occurs in the forefoot. Causes and contributing factors The development of capsulitis in the forefoot is very dependant upon the relative length of each metatarsal bone. The longer the metatarsal bone, the greater the load that is applied to that bone and the greater the tendency for capsulitis to occur. In the picture to your left, the horizontal yellow lines define the relative length of the first, second and third metatarsal bones of the left foot. This picture shows how much longer the second metatarsal bone is. Why is this important? Let's use an example to describe why: take two bamboo poles, one five foot long and another ten feet long. Hook them under your arms and hold them out in front of you parallel to the ground. Now slowly lower the poles. The longer of the two poles, the ten-foot pole, is going to hit the ground first, followed by the shorter five-foot pole. This is essentially how the long metatarsal bones of the forefoot carry our body weight. With each and every step, this load is repeated. Ideally, we'd like to see that load applied to the foot is applied in such a way that it is equally distributed. Equal, even distribution of load helps to prevent focal loading on any one bone or soft tissue structure, but we'll often see that the bone behind the second toe, called the second metatarsal, is long, just like the ten-foot bamboo pole. Repetitive loading of the second metatarsal results in capsulitis of the second metatarsal phalangeal joint. Over time, the metatarsal that is sustaining increased load will have one of two outcomes. The most common outcome is that the metatarsal will gradually increase its ability to carry load. The metatarsal bone will visibly change in size, becoming larger on x-ray. The image (left) shows red markings that define the girth of the second and third metatarsals. In this x-ray view, the second and third metatarsals should be approximately the same girth. You can see in the image how the second metatarsal is not only longer (yellow lines) but also larger, (red lines.) This particular image shows how a metatarsal, when subjected to increased load, will increase in size to accommodate that load. Alternatively, if the load applied to the metatarsal is significantly and rapidly increased, the metatarsal may sustain a stress fracture. A stress fracture is the method by which the metatarsal accommodates the load by changing the structure of the bone. The primary goal in treating forefoot capsulitis is to find ways to off-load or redistribute load applied to the forefoot. Off-loading is a simple technique that can be accomplished in many different ways. Metatarsal pads and forefoot gel cushions are by far the most popular ways to off-load the forefoot. Proper placement of metatarsal pads can be a little tricky at first. We often recommend over-the-counter inserts with metatarsal pads as a reference for patients trying to place metatarsal pads in shoes. The advantage of the insert is that these particular inserts have the met pad positioned in the correct location in relationship to the metatarsal heads. Simply place the insert in the shoe and the metatarsal pad is properly placed. Once you know how a metatarsal pad should feel, you can use individual felt or foam metatarsal pads much more accurately. Shoe design can also be used to off-load the forefoot and relieve symptoms of capsulitis. One example of a shoe that can aid in the treatment of capsulitis would be a clog. The rocker sole on a clog has been used for years to off-load the forefoot. Other examples of shoe modifications used to off-load the forefoot include a metatarsal bar and an anterior rocker sole. Prescription orthotics are another method used to off-load the forefoot. Special modifications such as cut-outs or metatarsal pads can be built into orthotics to accommodate areas of capsulitis. Should the conservative methods described for off-loading fail to relieve the pain, an injection of cortisone may be indicated to reduce capsular inflammation. It's important to realize that forefoot capsulitis is a mechanical problem caused by focal loading on one metatarsal head. Logic says that off-loading is necessary to decrease load applied to the metatarsal head. Cortisone may temporarily relieve pain from inflammation but will not change the mechanical factors that contribute to capsulitis. Surgical procedures may help in recalcitrant cases of forefoot capsulitis. In particular, a metatarsal osteotomy is used to elevate the metatarsal and reduce the symptoms of capsulitis. An osteotomy is a surgical fracture in the metatarsal. The following images show the steps used to complete a Jacoby osteotomy of the second metatarsal. Variations of this procedure may include the type of osteotomy or methods of fixation. Image 1 shows the location of the metatarsal head and planned incision. Image 2 shows the dissection of the extensor tendons and capsule of the second metatarsal phalangeal joint. Images 3 and 4 show isolation of the second metatarsal in preparation for the osteotomy. Images 5 and 6 show the V-shapedd osteotomy completed and ready for fixation. Image 7 shows final closure of the surgical wound. This procedure is completed in a hospital or surgery center using a general anesthetic or local anesthetic with sedation. The procedure takes approximately 30 minutes to complete. Patients may be partial to full weight bearing following this surgery. Most patient will require some form of walking cast to protect the osteotomy during healing. Percutaneous K wire fixation, if used, is removed at three weeks. Most patients are back to 100% of full activities by 12 weeks post-op. Long-term success of a Jacoby osteotomy is good to excellent. Complications of this procedure include transfer lesions. A transfer lesion is capsulitis that occurs at a metatarsal head adjacent to the site of surgery. Transfer lesions are the result of excessive elevation of the metatarsal post-Jacoby osteotomy. When to contact your doctor Symptoms of capsulitis that fail to respond to conservative care within a period of several weeks should be evaluated by your podiatrist, orthopedist or family doctor. References are pending. Author(s) and date This article was written by Myfootshop.com medical adviser Jeffrey A. Oster, DPM. Competing Interests -None Cite this article as: Oster, Jeffrey. Capsulitis. http://www.myfootshop.com/article/capsulitis Most recent article update: May 14, 2020. Capsulitis by Myfootshop.com is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License. Internal reference only: ZoneP6, ZoneD6
Digital images are prone to various types of noise. Noise is the result of errors in the image acquisition process that result in pixel values that do not reflect the true intensities of the real scene. There are several ways that noise can be introduced into an image, depending on how the image is created. For example: If the image is scanned from a photograph made on film, the film grain is a source of noise. Noise can also be the result of damage to the film, or be introduced by the scanner itself. If the image is acquired directly in a digital format, the mechanism for gathering the data (such as a CCD detector) can introduce noise. Electronic transmission of image data can introduce noise. To simulate the effects of some of the problems listed above, the toolbox provides the imnoise function, which you can use to add various types of noise to an image. The examples in this section use this function. You can use linear filtering to remove certain types of noise. Certain filters, such as averaging or Gaussian filters, are appropriate for this purpose. For example, an averaging filter is useful for removing grain noise from a photograph. Because each pixel gets set to the average of the pixels in its neighborhood, local variations caused by grain are reduced. This example shows how to remove salt and pepper noise from an image using an averaging filter and a median filter to allow comparison of the results. These two types of filtering both set the value of the output pixel to the average of the pixel values in the neighborhood around the corresponding input pixel. However, with median filtering, the value of an output pixel is determined by the median of the neighborhood pixels, rather than the mean. The median is much less sensitive than the mean to extreme values (called outliers). Median filtering is therefore better able to remove these outliers without reducing the sharpness of the image. Note: Median filtering is a specific case of order-statistic filtering, also known as rank filtering. For information about order-statistic filtering, see the reference page for the Read image into the workspace and display it. I = imread('eight.tif'); figure imshow(I) For this example, add salt and pepper noise to the image. This type of noise consists of random pixels being set to black or white (the extremes of the data range). J = imnoise(I,'salt & pepper',0.02); figure imshow(J) Filter the noisy image, J, with an averaging filter and display the results. The example uses a 3-by-3 neighborhood. Kaverage = filter2(fspecial('average',3),J)/255; figure imshow(Kaverage) Now use a median filter to filter the noisy image, J. The example also uses a 3-by-3 neighborhood. Display the two filtered images side-by-side for comparison. Notice that medfilt2 does a better job of removing noise, with less blurring of edges of the coins. Kmedian = medfilt2(J); imshowpair(Kaverage,Kmedian,'montage') This example shows how to use the wiener2 function to apply a Wiener filter (a type of linear filter) to an image adaptively. The Wiener filter tailors itself to the local image variance. Where the variance is large, wiener2 performs little smoothing. Where the variance is small, wiener2 performs more smoothing. This approach often produces better results than linear filtering. The adaptive filter is more selective than a comparable linear filter, preserving edges and other high-frequency parts of an image. In addition, there are no design tasks; the wiener2 function handles all preliminary computations and implements the filter for an input image. wiener2, however, does require more computation time than linear filtering. wiener2 works best when the noise is constant-power ("white") additive noise, such as Gaussian noise. The example below applies wiener2 to an image of Saturn with added Gaussian noise. Read the image into the workspace. RGB = imread('saturn.png'); Convert the image from truecolor to grayscale. I = im2gray(RGB); Add Gaussian noise to the image J = imnoise(I,'gaussian',0,0.025); Display the noisy image. Because the image is quite large, display only a portion of the image. imshow(J(600:1000,1:600)); title('Portion of the Image with Added Gaussian Noise'); Remove the noise using the K = wiener2(J,[5 5]); Display the processed image. Because the image is quite large, display only a portion of the image. figure imshow(K(600:1000,1:600)); title('Portion of the Image with Noise Removed by Wiener Filter');
Credit: Wits University The flexibility and ability to adapt to changing climates by employing various cultural innovations allowed communities of early humans to survive through a prolonged period of pronounced aridification. The early human techno-tradition, known as Howiesons Poort (HP), associated with Homo sapiens who lived in southern Africa about 66 000 to 59 000 years ago indicates that during this period of pronounced aridification they developed cultural innovations that allowed them to significantly enlarge the range of environments they occupied. This cultural flexibility may have been the key to success for modern humans, says a team of international researchers, made up of archaeologists, paleo climatologists, and climate modellers from the French CNRS1 and the EPHE PSL Research University, Bergen University as well as Wits University. Their research was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. ”The most distinct of the many cultural innovations in the HP culture were the invention of the bow and arrow, different methods of heating raw materials (stone) before knapping to produce arrow heads, engraving ostrich eggshells with elaborate patterns, intensive use of hearths and relatively intense hunting and gathering practices,” says Professor Christopher Henshilwood, one of the team members from Wits and Bergen Universities. Howiesons Poort is a techno-tradition in the Middle Stone Age in Africa named after the Howieson’s Poort Shelter archaeological site near Grahamstown in South Africa. It lasted around 5 000 years between roughly 65 800 and 59 500 years ago. Using paleo climatic data and paleo climatic simulations, the researchers of the current study found that the HP tradition developed during a period of pronounced aridity. This paleo climatic data and the distribution of archaeological sites associated with the HP, as well of that of the Still Bay tradition, which existed in the same environments about 5 000 years before (76 000 to 71 000 years ago), enabled the researchers to model the emergence of these traditions with two predictive algorithms that permitted them to reconstruct the ecological niche associated with each tradition and determine whether these niches differed significantly through time. The results clearly indicate that HP populations were capable, despite the pronounced aridity that characterised the period in which they lived, to exploit territories and ecosystems that the preceding Still Bay people did not occupy. Credit: Wits University While the Still Bay era is also characterised by highly innovative technologies – including engraving of ochre, use of personal ornaments, manufacture of highly stylised bone tools, heating silcrete (red rock) to produce better material for knapping bifacial points (spear points) using hard hammer and finally pressure flaking technology – the research team points out that HP’s ecological niche expansion coincides with the development of technological innovations that were both efficient and more flexible than those of the Still Bay. ”It seems from the little evidence that we have that the population of Homo sapiens in southern Africa was considerably larger during the Howiesons Poort period,” says Henshilwood. ”There are many more HP sites than Still Bay sites in southern Africa and their location is widespread across southern Africa. Note that neither the Still Bay or HP is found outside of southern Africa.” Henshilwood says the Still Bay people did not disappear. There just seems to be a gap between 72 000 years ago to 66 000 years ago, where there is almost no evidence of any people in southern Africa. This study, which documents the oldest known case of an eco-cultural niche expansion, demonstrates that the processes that allowed our species to develop modern behaviours must be examined at regional scales and in conjunction with past climatic data. About early human development The emergence of our species (Homo sapiens) in Africa, at least 260 000 years ago, was not immediately accompanied by the development of behavioural characteristics of more recent prehistoric and historically documented populations. For tens of thousands of years after their emergence (anatomically), modern human populations in Africa continued to use technologies that differed little from those of the non-modern populations that preceded them or that inhabited other regions both inside and outside the African continent. A number of archaeological discoveries during the past twenty years have shown that from at least 100 000 years ago some populations in Africa, especially those in southern Africa, made pigmented compounds, wore personal ornaments, made abstract engravings, and manufactured bone tools. It is within this period, and those that follow, that archaeologists are able to recognize distinct techno- traditions, to determine with a certain degree of precision their age, and place these time periods within their proper climatic contexts. Explore further:Africa’s Homo sapiens were the first techies More information: Francesco d’Errico et al. Identifying early modern human ecological niche expansions and associated cultural dynamics in the South African Middle Stone Age, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2017). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1620752114 Journal reference:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Provided by:Wits University
Along a coastline there are features created by erosion. These include cliffs, wave-cut platforms and wave-cut notches. There are also headlands and bays, caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Cliffs, wave-cut platforms and notches One of the most common features of a coastline is a cliff. Cliffs are shaped through a combination of erosion and weathering – the breakdown of rocks caused by weather conditions. Soft rock, eg sand and clay, erodes easily to create gently sloping cliffs. Hard rock, eg chalk, is more resistant and erodes slowly to create steep cliffs. The process of cliff erosion 1.Weather weakens the top of the cliff. 2.The sea attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave-cut notch. 3.The notch increases in size causing the cliff to collapse. 4.The backwash carries the rubble towards the sea forming a wave-cut platform. 5.The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat.
Analysis the constitution of the united states: analysis and interpretation [pdf] produced by the congressional research service, this set provides historical context, in-depth analysis, and citations to court cases that have interpreted our constitution. Summary and analysis of the united states constitution: article v article v of the constitution deals with the amendment process summary of article v of the constitution: there are two ways to propose an amendment to the constitutiona bill must be passed in the united states senate and the us house of representatives by a 2/3 margin once the bill is passed it must be approved by 3/4 of. The constitution of the united states of america: analysis and interpretation, popularly known as the constitution annotated, encompasses the us constitution and analysis and interpretation of the us constitution with in-text annotations of cases decided by the supreme court of the united states. The constitution of the united states of america: analysis and interpretation (popularly known as the constitution annotated or conan) is a publication encompassing the united states constitution with analysis and interpretation by the congressional research service along with in-text annotations of cases decided by the supreme court of the united states. 4 constitution of the united states every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct the number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have. On september 17, 1787, the constitution of the united states of america was signed by 38 of the 41 delegates present at the conclusion of the convention. The constitution of the united states of america is the supreme law of the united states empowered with the sovereign authority of the people by the framers and the consent of the legislatures of. 108th congress document senate 2d session no 108–17 the constitution of the united states of america analysis and interpretation analysis of cases decided by the. Conclusionsthe movement for the constitution of the united states was originated and carried through principally by four groups of personalty interests which had been adversely affected under the articles of confederation: money, public securities, manufactures, and trade and shipping. The constitution of the united states established america’s national government and fundamental laws, and guaranteed certain basic rights for its citizens it was signed on september 17, 1787. The constitution of the united states of america, analysis and interpretation 2014 supplement: analysis of cases decided by the supreme court to july 1, 2014. The government of the united states is based on a written constitution at 4,400 words, it is the shortest national constitution in the world on june 21, 1788, new hampshire ratified the constitution giving it the necessary 9 out of 13 votes needed for the constitution to pass. Summary of the constitution the constitution was a spare document, providing few details about how the us government would run itself the constitution, the laws of the united states, and treaties entered into by the united states are the supreme law of the land this is known as the supremacy clause article vii. After an unequivocal experience of the inefficiency of the subsisting federal government, you are called upon to deliberate on a new constitution for the united states of america. - the inefficiency of the constitution the united states' constitution is one the most heralded documents in our nation's history it is also the most copied constitution in the world many nations have taken the ideals and values from our constitution and instilled them in their own. United states and chinese constitutions in the ratification of the constitution, about three-fourths of the adult males failed to vote on the question, having abstained. The constitution of the united states of america: analysis and interpretation (popularly known as the constitution annotated) contains legal analysis and interpretation of the united states constitution, based primarily on supreme court case law this regularly updated resource is especially useful when researching the constitutional implications of a specific issue or topic. From the time the american colonies first began to form the union, several questions were raised regarding the relationship of the constitution of the united states and the institution of slavery. United states constitution preamble excerpt committee of detail report in the federal convention, august 1787 this is a transcription of excerpts from the committee of. The constitution of the united states the authoritative reference with expert, clause-by-clause analysis full text of the constitution. Located on the upper level of the national archives museum, is the permanent home of the original declaration of independence, constitution of the united states, and bill of rights. The constitution of the united states has endured for over two centuries it remains the object of reverence for nearly all americans and an object of admiration by peoples around the world.
This is perhaps the most persistent Ford myth. It's true, Henry Ford raised wages to a level unheard-of at it the time: Assembly line workers had the potential to earn $5 a day. But it wasn't so they could buy their own Model Ts, as is widely repeated. Ford wasn't a liberal champion. He didn't particularly care about his workers' individual economic situations. He just wanted his workers to stop getting fed-up and walking off the line mid-shift, which cost the factory in wasted time, reduced or lost productivity and the headache of constantly hiring and training new employees. After the pay increase, productivity and quality improved, turnover was reduced and Ford was satisfied he'd made a sound investment [source: Leef]. However, with that increase, workers had to agree to a code of conduct that applied on the job and on personal time. They couldn't drink, gamble, or allow their wives to work outside the home. Immigrants had to learn English. Ford even employed a committee who would make home visits to ensure these standards were met. So even though Henry Ford invented methods that changed manufacturing forever, his 'big brother' approach to employee management wasn't one that was especially celebrated — or widely adopted.
Feudalism was a combination of legal, economic, military and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships that were derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although it is derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief), which was used during the Medieval period, the term feudalism and the system which it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people who lived during the Middle Ages. The classic definition, by François-Louis Ganshof (1944), describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations which existed among the warrior nobility and revolved around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs. A broader definition of feudalism, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry, all of whom were bound by a system of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's "The Tyranny of a Construct" (1974) and Susan Reynolds's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society. There is no commonly accepted modern definition of feudalism, at least among scholars. The adjective feudal was coined in the 17th century, and the noun feudalism, often used in a political and propaganda context, was not coined until the 19th century, from the French féodalité (feudality), itself an 18th-century creation. According to a classic definition by François-Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations which existed among the warrior nobility and revolved around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs, though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment was only related to the "narrow, technical, legal sense of the word". A broader definition, as described in Marc Bloch's Feudal Society (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and those who lived off their labor, most directly the peasantry which was bound by a system of manorialism; this order is often referred to as a "feudal society", echoing Bloch's usage. Outside its European context, the concept of feudalism is often used by analogy, most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes in discussions of the Zagwe dynasty in medieval Ethiopia, which had some feudal characteristics (sometimes called "semifeudal"). Some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as China during the Spring and Autumn period, ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American South. Wu Ta-k'un argued that China's fengjian, being kinship-based and tied to land which was controlled by a king, was entirely distinct from feudalism. This despite the fact that in translation fengjian is frequently paired in both directions with feudal. The term feudalism has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes which are similar to those which existed in medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the term feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal government" and "feudal system" in his book Wealth of Nations (1776). In the 19th century the adjective "feudal" evolved into a noun: "feudalism". The term feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823, Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the second half of the 19th century. The term "feudal" or "feodal" is derived from the medieval Latin word feodum. The etymology of feodum is complex with multiple theories, some suggesting a Germanic origin (the most widely held view) and others suggesting an Arabic origin. Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service was called a beneficium (Latin). Later, the term feudum, or feodum, began to replace beneficium in the documents. The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one-hundred years earlier. The origin of the feudum and why it replaced beneficium has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below. The most widely held theory was proposed by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern in 1870, being supported by, amongst others, William Stubbs and Marc Bloch. Kern derived the word from a putative Frankish term fehu-ôd, in which fehu means "cattle" and -ôd means "goods", implying "a moveable object of value". Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay for it with moveable objects of equivalent value, such as arms, clothing, horses or food. This was known as feos, a term that took on the general meaning of paying for something in lieu of money. This meaning was then applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty, such as to a vassal. Thus the old word feos meaning movable property changed little by little to feus meaning the exact opposite: landed property. Another theory was put forward by Archibald R. Lewis. Lewis said the origin of 'fief' is not feudum (or feodum), but rather foderum, the earliest attested use being in Astronomus's Vita Hludovici (840). In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant, which can be translated as "Louis forbade that military provender (which they popularly call "fodder") be furnished.." Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from fuyū (the plural of fay, which literally means "the returned", and was used especially for 'land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight'). Samarrai's theory is that early forms of 'fief' include feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword. The first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Muslim Spain. Further, the earliest use of feuum (as a replacement for beneficium) can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet) in Provence was established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word fuyū (the plural of fay), which was being used by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms – feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others – from which eventually feudum derived. Samarrai, however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically "fanciful roots" in order to claim the most outlandish things to be of Arabian or Muslim origin. Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in the Carolingian Empire in 8th century AD/CE, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure[clarification needed] necessary to support cavalry without allocating land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres. These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires. Only when the infrastructure existed to maintain unitary power—as with the European monarchies—did feudalism begin to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappear. The classic François-Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations which existed among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs. In broad terms a lord was a noble who held land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the use of the fief and protection by the lord, the vassal would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship. Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony, which was composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed obligations to one another. The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to "aid", or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial, both termed court baron, or at the king's court. It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. At the level of the manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases. Concerning the king's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war. These are examples; depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied; see examples of feudalism. In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord's mill, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale"). Power in this period became more personal. This "fragmentation of powers" was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century. Most of the military aspects of feudalism effectively ended by about 1500. This was partly since the military shifted from armies consisting of the nobility to professional fighters thus reducing the nobility's claim on power, but also because the Black Death reduced the nobility's hold over the lower classes. Vestiges of the feudal system hung on in France until the French Revolution of 1790's, and the system lingered on in parts of Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s. Slavery in Romania was abolished in 1856. Russia finally abolished serfdom in 1861. Even when the original feudal relationships had disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of feudalism left in place. Historian Georges Lefebvre explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution, on just one night of August 4, 1789, France abolished the long-lasting remnants of the feudal order. It announced, "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely." Lefebvre explains: Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude—which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices ... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice. Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a quarter of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled. Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church. The phrase "feudal society" as defined by Marc Bloch offers a wider definition than Ganshof's and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism, and the estates of the Church. Thus the feudal order embraces society from top to bottom, though the "powerful and well-differentiated social group of the urban classes" came to occupy a distinct position to some extent outside the classic feudal hierarchy. The idea of feudalism was unknown and the system it describes was not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Medieval Period. This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use. The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of either a regime or a period dominated by lords who possess financial or social power and prestige, became widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result of works such as Montesquieu's De L'Esprit des Lois (1748; published in English as The Spirit of the Laws), and Henri de Boulainvilliers’s Histoire des anciens Parlements de France (1737; published in English as , 1739). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. For them "feudalism" meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime" in August 1789 this is what was meant.An Historical Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States-General of the Kingdom Adam Smith used the term "feudal system" to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations. In such a system wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles. Karl Marx also used the term in the 19th century in his analysis of society's economic and political development, describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or the feudal mode of production) as the order coming before capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce and money rents. Marx thus defined feudalism primarily by its economic characteristics. He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the power-relationships between capitalists and wage-labourers in his own time: "in pre-capitalist systems it was obvious that most people did not control their own destiny—under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work for their lords. Capitalism seems different because people are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as they choose. Yet most workers have as little control over their lives as feudal serfs." Some later Marxist theorists (e.g. Eric Wolf) have applied this label to include non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with Imperial Chinese and pre-Columbian Incan societies as 'tributary'. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066. The debate continues today, but a consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest had commendation (which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism) while William the Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even the vassals of his principal vassals (holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution). In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered still more widely differing perspectives. The French historian Marc Bloch, arguably the most influential 20th-century medieval historian, approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one, presenting in Feudal Society (1939; English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the nobility. It is his radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers: while the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection – both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy. In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian François-Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Qu'est-ce que la féodalité? ("What is feudalism?", 1944; translated in English as Feudalism). His classic definition of feudalism is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, though questioned both by those who view the concept in wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity in noble exchanges to support such a model. Although he was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre that came to be known as the Annales School, Georges Duby was an exponent of the Annaliste tradition. In a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled La société aux XIe et XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise (Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region), and working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000. He argued that in early 11th century, governing institutions—particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy—that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong-arm tactics and threats of violence. In 1939 the Austrian historian Theodor Mayer subordinated the feudal state as secondary to his concept of a persons association state (Personenverbandsstaat), understanding it in contrast to the territorial state. This form of statehood, identified with the Holy Roman Empire, is described as the most complete form of medieval rule, completing conventional feudal structure of lordship and vassalage with the personal association between the nobility. But the applicability of this concept to cases outside of the Holy Roman Empire has been questioned, as by Susan Reynolds. The concept has also been questioned and superseded in German histography because of its bias and reductionism towards legitimating the Führerprinzip. In 1974, the American historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Reynolds argues: Too many models of feudalism used for comparisons, even by Marxists, are still either constructed on the 16th-century basis or incorporate what, in a Marxist view, must surely be superficial or irrelevant features from it. Even when one restricts oneself to Europe and to feudalism in its narrow sense it is extremely doubtful whether feudo-vassalic institutions formed a coherent bundle of institutions or concepts that were structurally separate from other institutions and concepts of the time. The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See Examples of feudalism). Japan has been extensively studied in this regard. Friday notes that in the 21st century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism; instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental differences. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. Richard Abels notes that "Western Civilization and World Civilization textbooks now shy away from the term 'feudalism'."
The human body has several mechanisms to store or eliminate excess glucose from the blood. Glucose can be converted into a larger molecule called glycogen that is typically stored in the liver and muscles. When the body needs glucose, glycogen is broken down to provide an energy source.Continue Reading When the body detects increased levels of glucose or amino acids in the small intestine, beta cells in the pancreas secrete a hormone called insulin that promotes the absorption of glucose by cells in the body. Insulin is also responsible for signalling the conversion of glucose into glycogen. Another method the body has for handling excess glucose is to eliminate some of the glucose in the urine. In most cases, the glucose that makes its way to the urine is reabsorbed through the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 channels in the kidney nephrons. These transporters reabsorb glucose and send it back into the bloodstream. If these transporters become saturated by high levels of glucose, the excess glucose is excreted in the urine. Certain medications, like the anti-diabetic drug canagliflozin, are specifically designed to inhibit the action of SGLT-2 and promote glucose loss. One of the hallmark symptoms of diabetes is glucose in the urine.Learn more about Biology
Objective Learn the notion of dividing monomials, and the idea of zero and negative numbers as It is a good idea that you experiment with computing quotients of powers of 2 in order to see if you can discover the formula for division of powers by yourself. Dividing Powers of the Same Number To understand division of powers, look at the table that appears below. It shows the results when 64, which equals 2 6 , is divided by various powers of 2. Do you see any pattern in these numbers? The result is found by subtracting the exponents. Divide x 4 by x 2 . Expand x 4 into x Â· x Â· x Â· x and x 2 into x Â· x . Then use these expressions to write a fraction. Now cancel two of the x s from both numerator and It is very important that you understand that cancellation just means recognizing that You should understand that canceling is just shorthand for a process involving the properties of fractions. Any number raised to the power 1 is that number itself. Quotient of Powers If we divide a power of a number or variable by another (smaller) power of the same number or variable, the result is the original number raised to the power given by the difference of the two original powers. Write the quotient and expand the numerator and the denominator into products of xs. This shows that the formula for the quotient of powers is This formula can be used to simplify any quotient of Negative Numbers and Zero in the Exponent We have only defined exponentiation by positive integers, not for zero or for negative numbers. Remind students that when m > n , If we let m < n , then we get On the other hand, , since any number divided by itself is 1. This leads to the following definition. a 0 is defined to be equal to 1. What would the formula suggest if m < n? For example, let m = 1 and n = 2. On the other hand, So, the formula suggests that a -1 should be defined to be . More generally, it suggests that a -n should be defined to be . a -n is defined to be equal to . At this point, you may be confused by the way the formula was used to generate a definition for negative powers. It was used only as a guide to suggest what a definition should be, but that once we make the definition, we can work with these exponents in exactly the same way that we did with positive exponents. With this definition, these exponents satisfy all the laws of exponents that you should already know. The definition of negative exponents can be used to simplify quotients of
Between 1915 and 1922, the Ottoman Turks executed a highly organized campaign to annihilate the Armenian people living in Ottoman Empire (now modern Turkey), systematically murdering 1.5 million men, women, and children. It is regarded as the first modern genocide, yet is remains unrecognized and unknown by many around the world. And this is no accident. Over the past century, Turkey has undertaken a well-funded and highly sophisticated campaign of historical revisionism through a mix of academic suppression and diplomatic thuggery. Their geopolitical position has allowed them to leverage their version of history over the facts of the genocide, and strong arm the international community to accept their version of the events. With that, the memory of the Armenian Genocide has fallen into the historical black hole of cultural amnesia. “Who, after all, speaks today of the annihilation of the Armenians?” — Adolf Hitler 22 August, 1939 (on the eve of the German invasion of Poland) The Armenian Genocide served as the blueprint for the Holocaust and over a dozen other mass atrocities in the 100 years since. And as a global community, we owe it to the Armenian diaspora to recognize the genocide and to learn from the past, lest the same actions continue to be repeated. To this day, Turkey denies the genocide ever took place. #1 History of The Armenian Genocide The Republic of Armenia is a now-sovereign nation, established in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is bordered by Turkey, Iran, Georgia and Azerbaijan, and was the first nation to make Christianity its official religion. Armenian history dates back thousands of years and is one of few ancient civilizations that remain intact today. The King of Armenia was the first ruler to adopt Christianity as the official religion of the state in 301 A.D, even before the Roman Empire. For centuries, the Armenians built a healthy and prosperous independent country that was rich with culture and tradition. It was absorbed by the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the early 16th Century, which ruled the region for more than 400 years. The Ottoman Empire was under Muslim rule, and Christian Armenians were subjected to racial discrimination and unequal treatment. The newly subjugated Armenians were regarded as infidels. Despite these obstacles, Armenians thrived. Resentment grew from the Turks, who perceived their Armenian neighbors as wealthier and better educated. Influential Turkish leaders later used these perceptions as justification for eliminating the Armenians altogether. #2 Paranoia Increases In 1876, Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid II became the 34th sultan of Turkey. During his rule, national paranoia regarding the Armenian population increased dramatically. Abdul Hamid II was obsessed with loyalty to the Turkish state, and feared that the Christian Armenians would turn on Turkey and join forces with political enemy, and Christian neighbor, Russia. In the late 1894, the Armenians organized and started to push for equal rights and freedom from their second-class status. The Armenian demand for change was met with a lethal response from Sultan Hamid, earning him the moniker “Red Sultan”. Rallying his base, Hamid labeled the Armenians a dangerous force within his borders, dubbing them enemies of the state and further dehumanizing a population already considered to be infidels. From 1894-1896, the first seeds of the genocide were planted when Sultan Abdul Hamid II killed hundreds of thousands of Armenians in response to civil rights protests and political unrest. Young Turks Offer New Hope The Ottoman Empire began to crumble at the start of the 20th century, during which Armenian and Turkish relations steadily declined. In 1908 a new political group, the Young Turks, forced the Sultan out of power. The Young Turks gained Armenian allegiance by initially supporting new rights for the oppressed segment of the population, creating excitement that reform was possible. Young Turks had a more modern idea of government, and the Armenians thought the new, progressive leadership would come to their aid. However, the Young Turks were even more extreme in their nationalist views than Abdul Hamid II, and life became far worse for the Armenians under their rule. Coinciding with a period of decline for the empire, the sudden takeover by extremists created the perfect storm for a new wave of violence. Nationalism became a centerpiece of their platform, and Young Turks felt that Christians were a threat to their new government. The Armenians were targeted in April of 1909, when Turkish nationalists killed over 25,000 Armenians in Adana Vilayet, known as the Adana Massacre. Later, the Young Turks would perpetrate the Genocide. #3 The Balkan Wars During The Balkan Wars of 1911–1913, the Turks lost sizable chunks of the empire to Christian regions that were breaking away for independence. This period led to the emancipation of several East European countries further eroding the Ottoman Empire. This was a devastating loss of power, sparking a more virulent form of Turkish nationalism and further ostracizing the Armenian population. What’s more, Muslim refugees from the Christian breakaway countries poured into Constantinople with stories of Christian murder and violence against their families and countrymen, perverting the events of the Adana Massacre to fit their own agenda. These stories became the basis for pro-Nationalist propaganda and would feed the national thirst for blood. One leader from the Young Turk government said, “Our anger is strengthening: revenge, revenge, revenge… there is no other word.” #4 The C.U.P. & the Ruling Triumvirate In 1914 Constantinople, the extremist faction of the Young Turks that was in control formed the Committee of Union & Progress (CUP) and adopted the slogan “Turkey for the Turks.” Within this newly formed political party a “dictatorial triumvirate” came together, forming the brains and brawn behind the Armenian Genocide: Mehmed Talaat Pasha rose through the ranks of the Young Turk party and became the Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha, a young soldier became Minister of Defense; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha became the Minister of the Navy. These three men formed a dangerous and deadly coalition called the “Three Pashas” that reigned and solidified their power through the purging of the Armenians until the end of World War 1 in 1918. #5 Onset of World War I & the Genocide At the onset of World War 1, the CUP brought pro-Turkey nationalism to new heights throughout the empire. Turkey, having suffered decades of slow economic and geopolitical decline, sided with Germany in hopes that their alliance could defeat the Russians and they could rebuild and expand their empire. In December of 1914, the Ottoman Turks suffered a devastating defeat in their first offensive, invading Russia. More than eighty percent of the Turkish forces were destroyed turning the entire campaign into a national humiliation. In the days following this disastrous operation more than 100,000 Russian troops stormed across the border into Turkey, and with them an estimated 5,000 Armenians, took up arms. Once those Armenian soldiers joined forces with the Russian Army, all Armenians were seen as an enemy of the state. The Turkish government took immediate action and the Three Pashas put their devastating plan into motion. #6 Mechanisms of the Genocide The Armenian members of the military, who had already been conscripted into the Ottoman ranks, were disarmed and moved into labor battalions to build infrastructure for the war effort. Ultimately, these work groups would be executed en masse over the next year, effectively removing those physically able to defend themselves from the ranks of the Armenian population. In tandem, the entire Armenian population was ordered by government decree to disarm as well, further weakening the Armenians’ tenuous position. Then on April 24th 1915, a group of 250 Armenian intellectual and cultural leaders in Constantinople, were rounded up, transported to a camp and killed. This date is recognized as the start of the Armenian Genocide. At this point, Turkey had killed off the Armenian soldiers and the cultural elite, separated the men from their families and disenfranchised the entire population. All that remained was to demand the remaining population to comply with a “relocation” order that would prove for most to be a death sentence. On May 29th, 1915 the Temporary Law of Deportation was voted into effect, legalizing the forced deportation of Armenians from their homes. Subsequently the CUP also passed the Temporary Law of Expropriation and Confiscation under the guise of registering the properties of the deportees and safeguarding them. This was a law to categorize and confiscate all Armenian goods and dissolve them into Ottoman coffers. Systematically the Armenian population throughout the empire was forced to relocate to Deir el-Zor, a concentration camp isolated in the desert, via the railways that their own men had been forced to construct. But many, by design, would not arrive. During the summer of 1915, many Armenians were unaware, the genocide was set in motion. Over the next 7 years, over 1.5 million Armenians civilians would be annihilated by organized Turkish forces and populace. #7 The Special Organization Enver Pasha oversaw the Special Organization (SO). This secret security network was a shadow government that oversaw the formation and implementation of killing squads operated by violent criminals and Pan-Turkish nationalists. The sole purpose of these Chetes, or roving death squads, was the eradication of the Armenian population and the confiscation of their land and goods. Over 1 million Armenians died that summer alone. With the full power of the central government behind it and the support of the Turkish public, the events of 1915 were a fully bureaucratized and legislated act of mass killing. For the next 7 years, the Young Turks would carry out an uninterrupted campaign of deportation, confiscation and violence against the Armenian population in every corner of the Empire. Entire villages were razed and millions were killed in death marches and highly coordinated attacks against the unarmed minority. #8 The End of World War I & the Treaty of Sevres In October 1918 the Armistice of Mudros was signed, marking the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the hands of the Allied forces. With this armistice the victorious allies took control of Constantinople and reinstalled the Sultanate, putting Mohammed VI in power. Facing the threat of military intervention by the British, French and Americans, Turkish War Tribunals were held in 1919 to bring the architects of the Genocide to justice. In these tribunals many of the crimes carried out by the Young Turks were officially recognized and over 100 members of the CUP were imprisoned. At the same time, the League of Nations enacted legislation to partition Turkey, giving back to the Armenians their historical homeland as an independent nation. Sultan Mohammed VI and the Grand Vizier accepted these terms at the Treaty of Sevres in 1920, ceding millions of acres of the Ottoman Empire to independent Armenian rule. #9 The Rise of Kemal Ataturk Like the Balkan Wars before, this territorial loss resulted in a resurgence of Nationalism, elevating the power of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a general who had become a national hero by defeating the British at Gallipoli in 1915. Though initially in support of the Tribunals, Atatürk quickly reversed his position when Armenia was granted independence. In retaliation, Kemal founded the Defense of the Rights of Eastern Anatola, a political party that was fiercely nationalistic. Tens of thousands of Turks flocked to Kemal’s cause seeking redemption by spurning foreign influence. Kemal and his forces quickly overthrew the Sultanate and, once in power, undermined the authority of the Tribunals. In the summer of 1919, three quarters of the imprisoned CUP members were freed without any protest from the Allied administration overseeing the trials. The newly empowered Kemalist government then adopted The Nationalist Pact, an international decree demanding that all of Turkish Armenia be returned to them. Again, the international community acquiesced. The tides of international favor were changing and the writing was on the wall for Armenia. #10 The Disintegration of the Armenian State In 1919, the newly founded Armenian state did not have the means to protect themselves. Their male population had been targeted during the Genocide and their armories ransacked by the death squads. The Armenians turned to the European powers and America for support, but they would find none. Kemal Atatürk, aware of America’s booming economy and the international desire for oil, used his Empire’s reserves as political capital to curb America and other foreign power’s influence in the area. To the dismay of the newly founded Armenian government, neither America, Britain nor France would commit to protecting the Armenian borders at the risk of losing access to Turkish oil reserves. Nor could Armenia count on their historic ally, Russia. With the fall of the Czar in 1917, the Bolsheviks took control of Russia and, by 1919 they had formed an alliance with Turkey over their shared distrust of Europe. In the fall of 1920, Kemalist forces marched on independent Armenia and began a new campaign of genocidal violence, indiscriminately slaughtering thousands of Armenian civilians. #11 The Treaty of Lausanne The Turks simultaneously began a diplomatic assault on the charter passed at the Treaty of Sevres. Unwilling to recognize the borders the treaty set, the Kemalist government used their oil reserves to strong arm the world powers back to the negotiating table. At the Lausanne Conference of 1922, the Turks renegotiated the terms of their World War 1 surrender and refused any discussion on the “Armenian question”. Turkey regained nearly all of the territory granted to Armenia in 1920 and was under no obligation to stop their violent campaign against the defenseless Armenian population. The Armenians accepted a treaty created from Turkish and Russian negotiations, and joined the USSR. Thus, the Treaty of Moscow (March 16, 1921) and the Treaty of Kars (October 13, 1921) formed the boundaries of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. #12 The New Turkey After withdrawing their troops from Armenia, the Turkish government began a new propaganda campaign dedicated to eradicating any mention of the Genocide in international discourse. Encouraged by their previous diplomatic success, the Kemalist began to force their revisionist version of events on the international community; and they were remarkably successful. Only a decade after the actions of 1915, the Kemalist regime propagated a new foundation myth for Turkey, erasing any mention about the actions of the Young Turks. This new mythology pointedly listed “There was no Armenian Genocide” as it’s fourth and final point. The vast majority of the international community accepted this narrative and have fallen in line ever since. With the birth of modern Turkey, the memory of the Armenian Genocide fell into the historical black hole of cultural amnesia. The truth laying buried beneath Turkey’s oil and the promise of political alliances in the post-WWI structured Middle East. To this day, the Armenian genocide is rarely talked about in international discourse. As of 2017, only the governments and parliaments of 29 countries, have recognized the events as a genocide. Turkey acknowledges the genocide only as a massacre, or conversely a wartime conflict and many Turkish citizens simply do not acknowledge it at all. Turkey also reports the death toll much lower than 1.5 million—claiming only 300,000 Armenian lives were lost during the period that the genocide took place. President Erdogan of Turkey calls for “healing all wounds” between Turkey and Armenia, but it is difficult to achieve when his official stance is that Armenia is using the genocide as an excuse for “blackmail” to retrieve reparations and their ancestral homeland. The United States and the Armenian Genocide During the Armenian Genocide, U.S. missionaries played a crucial role in helping save orphans and victims of violence. Never officially at war with Turkey, the US maintained a diplomatic presence in Turkey during the genocide. Ambassador Morgenthau and other diplomats were present during the events and were integral in documenting the atrocities. In 1916, the United States Congress created the Near East Relief organization (currently known as the Near East Foundation) in response to the atrocities in 1915. The Near East Relief Organization raised the equivalent of over $2 Billion (in contemporary dollars) to help survivors of the Genocide. “Remember the starving Armenians”, a charitable rallying call, became a popular and well known slogan throughout America. The United States first officially recognized the genocide in 1951, but due to a combination of diplomatic pressure, geopolitical demands and international economic interests, the U.S. Government has become complicit in promulgating the denial of this crime for the last three decades.
Beck Team 3 Humanities grade 6 The story of the past; examining daily life and major events that changed the world. People who study the past. people who study the past passing on history by word of mouth an object made by someone in the past that we study in order to understand their culture materials created during the time period that you are studying records of the past based on studies of primary sources (i.e. textbooks) study of the remains of past cultures the time before writing was developed early humans hunted animals and/or gathered plants for food raising crops and animals for human use train something (plants or animals) to be useful to people extra supply of something (like food). people who have a specific job that they are trained for a culture (community) that has developed systems of specialization, religion, learning, and government. a diagram that shows when things took place in a given time period
The word "laser" is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Suppose we have a system with only two available energy levels, separated by some energy difference which is typically referred to in terms of the photon energy,These two levels are generally referred to as the upper and lower laser states. When a particle in the upper state interacts with a photon matching the energy separation of the levels, the particle may decay, emitting another photon with the same phase and frequency as the incident photon. Thus we have gotten two photons for the price of one. This process is known as stimulated emission. A normal thermal population in any material will have most of the particles in the ground state. However, we would prefer to have most of the particles in the excited state so we can get free photons through stimulated emission. Thus in a laser we strive to create a "population inversion" where most or all of the particles are in the excited state. This is achieved by adding energy to the laser medium (usually from an electrical discharge); this process is called pumping. One of those particles now spontaneously decays back down to its ground state, emitting a photon of energyThis photon is of the right frequency to stimulate emission from another excited state particle, which emits another photon which can stimulate another excited state particle, and so on.
Independence of latin america background of the wars of independence jose abalos i his majesty does not grant them the creoles the freedom to trade which. Free essay: latin american independence the spanish amassed great wealth and power in their american colonies through oppression, slavery and racism an. Essay independence of latin america in the 1800's, latin american countries won independence, but many new independent countries had trouble creating strong, stable governments the creoles played an important role in the independent movements these countries won their. The latin american wars of independence were the revolutions that took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and resulted in the creation of a number of independent countries in latin america. Latin america independence essay four main causes of latin american independence during colonization of the new world in the early sixteenth century, explorers sought fame and fortune in the to read. Essay on colonial latin american history as it is evident from different historical sources, there has always been a fierce competition for wealth and prosperity among the european countries. The mexican war of independence began the ripple effect of the independence movement throughout latin america learn about the causes of the war. This page provides a list of all of the old examination questions used what were the major causes of instability in post-independence latin american build your arguments on the basis of specific information you have learned about the history of latin america your essay will be. 250000 free latin american independence papers & latin american independence essays at #1 essays bank since 1998 biggest and the best essays bank latin american independence essays, latin american independence papers, courseworks, latin american independence term papers, latin american. Free essay: independence of latin america in the 1800's, latin american countries won independence, but many new independent countries had. Causes and effects of 19th century latin american and caribbean movements carianne boehme, noor kantar, libby rogers, leah vricos key terms causes strong leaders in latin america want independence american and french revolutions monroe doctrine. Latin american dbq - class set do not write on declaration of independence signed july 4, 1776, near the beginning of the american revolution what does the casta painting say about changes in latin america after conquest. Ib history examination review the best essays to these prompts usually note the complexity of any connection between one thing and another the american revolution and the latin american wars of independence have absolutely nothing in common. When one compares the independence movements in north america and south america one would see a lot of it was the only colony in latin america to have a peaceful march 15, 2018, from. Introduction latin american independence has spawned tens of thousands of books, articles, novels, plays, films, songs, statues, and public commemorations. Judicial institutions in nineteenth-century latin america edited by cutter's study of the legal culture of spanish america on the eve of independence helps us appreciate the extent to which derecho indiano was an intricate whilst cutter and arnold's essays point to a society in. From columbus to frida kahlo, learn about the conquistadors, revolutionaries, and everyday people who shaped the vast region known as latin america. Ib history of the americas paper 3 tips papers 1 and 2 will be based on material from your hoa year 2 class independence movements in latin america: characteristics of the independence processes reasons for the. Academiaedu is a platform for academics to share research papers skip to nationalism in latin america during the early the beginning of the 20th century was marked by long awaited national independence for the majority of latin american countries this independence however was only on. The creoles led the revolutions in latin america because of a desire for political power, nationalism, and economic conditions these factors motivated them to lead the revolutions for independence in latin america, creating new, independent, self-governing nations. The french revolution and latin america essay the french revolution and its aftershocks triggered the clamor for independence in latin america these events greatly influenced bolivar. Free essay: hisotry of latin america history of the region from the pre-columbian period and including colonization by the spanish and portuguese beginning. Edmond j safra research lab, harvard university judicial independence in latin america and the (conflicting) influence of cultural norms laver january 23, 2014.
Behavior strategies focus on teaching your child the skills they need to increase their cooperative behavior and reduce challenging behavior. You can start learning about and using these strategies even if you’re still waiting for an official diagnosis for your child. Clear verbal instructions Your child will find it easier to behave well if they have a good understanding of what you want them to do. Clear, easy-to-follow verbal instructions with demonstrations will help. You can help your child to follow verbal instructions by: - keeping instructions clear and brief, with the shortest number of steps - showing your child what to do – for example, ‘Please pick up the clothes from the floor and hang them up in the cupboard’ - keeping eye contact with your child - asking your child to repeat instructions back to you to make sure he has understood. All children find it easier to behave well if they’re not tired. You can stop your child from getting too tired by: - providing healthy food options for longer-lasting energy and concentration - building rest breaks into activities - doing learning tasks like reading or homework, and then doing some physical exercise for a little while - being ready with a few fun but low-key activities like picture or sticker books – your child can do these if they start to get overexcited - getting your child into good habits like getting to sleep and waking up at much the same time each day - keeping Screen time to a minimum during the day and making sure all electronic devices are switched off at least an hour before bed. Regular, predictable routines Routines help children feel safe and secure, which can encourage good behavior. You can set up routines and handle changes by: - talking to your child about their daily schedule. You can also ask teachers if they can keep a copy of the school schedule where your child can see it - using lists, pictures of your child’s routines and/or timetables - letting your child know in advance about changes – for example, ‘In five minutes, you’ll need to brush your teeth and get ready for bed’ - limiting the number of choices your child has to make – for example, instead of saying, ‘It’s time to get dressed. What do you want to wear?’, you could say, ‘It’s time to get dressed. Do you want the green t-shirt or the red one?’ Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) might need a bit of extra help learning to get along with other children. You can help your child develop social skills by: - rewarding them for helpful behaviour like sharing and being gentle with others - teaching them strategies to use if there’s a problem with another child – for example, walking away or talking to a teacher - teaching them how to keep an eye on their own behaviour, using a short prompt like ‘Stop, think, do’. Praise for positive behavior Praise for positive behavior will make this behavior more likely to happen again. You could try: - getting your child involved in activities where they are likely to do well - making a big deal when they do well, even if it’s just a small success to start with – for example, ‘You finished that entire page of homework. You must feel so proud!’ - going over the highlights for your child at the end of each day. You can also talk through things they might have had trouble with. In the classroom You could talk with your child’s teacher about: - dividing tasks into smaller chunks - offering one-on-one help whenever possible - giving your child a ‘buddy’ who can help them understand what to do - planning the classroom so that your child is seated near the front of the room and away from distractions - making a visual checklist of tasks that need to be finished - doing more difficult learning tasks in the mornings or after breaks - allowing some extra time to finish tasks. The best thing you can do for your child is to learn more about the different traits of ADHD yourself !!
Computational complexity theory \|\|It has been suggested that this article be merged with Complexity theory. (Discuss)\| Computational complexity theory is a part of computer science. It looks at algorithms, and tries to say how many steps or how much memory a certain algorithm takes for a computer to do. Very often, algorithms that use fewer steps use more memory (or the other way round: if there is less memory available, it takes more steps to do). Many interesting algorithms take a number of steps that is dependent on the size of the problem. Different classes of complexity[change \| change source] Linear complexity[change \| change source] Complexity theory also looks at how a problem changes if it is done for more elements. Mowing the lawn can be thought of as a problem with linear complexity. Mowing an area that is double the size of the original takes twice as long. Quadratic complexity[change \| change source] Suppose you want to know which of your friends know each other. You have to ask each pair of friends whether they know each other. If you have twice as many friends as someone else, you have to ask four times as many questions to figure out who everyone knows. Problems that take four times as long when the size of the problem doubles are said to have quadratic complexity. Logarithmic complexity[change \| change source] This is often the complexity for problems that involve looking things up, like finding a word in a dictionary. If the dictionary is twice as big, it contains twice as many words as the original to compare to. Looking something up will take only one step more. The algorithm to do lookups is simple. The word in the middle of the dictionary will be either before or after the term that needs to be looked up, if the words do not match. If it is before, the term needs to be in the second half of the dictionary. If it is after the word, it needs to be in the first half. That way, the problem space is halved with every step, until the word or definition is found. This is generally known as logarithmic complexity Exponential complexity[change \| change source] There are problems that grow very fast. One such problem is known as the Travelling salesman problem. A salesman needs to take a tour of a certain number of cities. Each city should only be visited once, the distance (or cost) of the travelling should be minimal, and the salesman should end up where he started. This problem has exponential complexity. There are n factorial possibilities to consider. Adding one city (from n to n+1) will multiply the number of possibilities by (n+1). Most of the interesting problems have this complexity.
Much of central Australia was at one time a shallow inland sea. This means that in the thin, dry soil there is a layer of saline soil. Prior to 1788, the bush forest above this soil ensured that the soil remained dry, and that the layer of saline soil did not rise. The advent of land clearing for grazing and farming, and the use of irrigation created a much wetter soil environment. Food and industrial crops, while requiring a much larger water usage, also required a much wetter soil environment. This wetness leached down into the saline layers of soil, and the crops then drew the water, and dissolved salts, towards the surface. Over time this process caused the thin top-soil layers to become irreversably salty, and no longer suited for agriculture. Large amounts of land are now affected by salinity. Where the land is not yet a salt-pan it is occasionally possible for farmers to reduce the speed at which land becomes saline by planting gum trees, which reduce the general wetness of the soil.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS The Navy uses many different types of TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS in its electronic applications. Each medium (line or waveguide) has a certain characteristic impedance value, current-carrying capacity, and physical shape and is designed to meet a particular requirement. The five types of transmission mediums that we will discuss in this chapter include PARALLEL-LINE, TWISTED PAIR, SHIELDED PAIR, COAXIAL LINE, and WAVEGUIDES. The use of a particular line depends, among other things, on the applied frequency, the power-handling capabilities, and the type of installation. NOTE: In the following paragraphs, we will mention LOSSES several times. We will discuss these losses more thoroughly under "LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES." Two-Wire Open Line One type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE OPEN LINE illustrated in figure 3-2. This line consists of two wires that are generally spaced from 2 to 6 inches apart by insulating spacers. This type of line is most often used for power lines, rural telephone lines, and telegraph lines. It is sometimes used as a transmission line between a transmitter and an antenna or between an antenna and a receiver. An advantage of this type of line is its simple construction. The principal disadvantages of this type of line are the high radiation losses and electrical noise pickup because of the lack of shielding. Radiation losses are produced by the changing fields created by the changing current in each conductor. Figure 3-2. - Parallel two-wire line. Another type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE RIBBON (TWIN LEAD) illustrated in figure 3-3. This type of transmission line is commonly used to connect a television receiving antenna to a home television set. This line is essentially the same as the two-wire open line except that uniform spacing is assured by embedding the two wires in a low-loss dielectric, usually polyethylene. Since the wires are embedded in the thin ribbon of polyethylene, the dielectric space is partly air and partly polyethylene. Figure 3-3. - Two-wire ribbon type line. The TWISTED PAIR transmission line is illustrated in figure 3-4. As the name implies, the line consists of two insulated wires twisted together to form a flexible line without the use of spacers. It is not used for transmitting high frequency because of the high dielectric losses that occur in the rubber insulation. When the line is wet, the losses increase greatly. Figure 3-4. - Twisted pair. The SHIELDED PAIR, shown in figure 3-5, consists of parallel conductors separated from each other and surrounded by a solid dielectric. The conductors are contained within a braided copper tubing that acts as an electrical shield. The assembly is covered with a rubber or flexible composition coating that protects the line from moisture and mechanical damage. Outwardly, it looks much like the power cord of a washing machine or refrigerator. Figure 3-5. - Shielded pair. The principal advantage of the shielded pair is that the conductors are balanced to ground; that is, the capacitance between the wires is uniform throughout the length of the line. This balance is due to the uniform spacing of the grounded shield that surrounds the wires along their entire length. The braided copper shield isolates the conductors from stray magnetic fields. There are two types of COAXIAL LINES, RIGID (AIR) COAXIAL LINE and FLEXIBLE (SOLID) COAXIAL LINE. The physical construction of both types is basically the same; that is, each contains two concentric conductors. The rigid coaxial line consists of a central, insulated wire (inner conductor) mounted inside a tubular outer conductor. This line is shown in figure 3-6. In some applications, the inner conductor is also tubular. The inner conductor is insulated from the outer conductor by insulating spacers or beads at regular intervals. The spacers are made of pyrex, polystyrene, or some other material that has good insulating characteristics and low dielectric losses at high frequencies. Figure 3-6. - Air coaxial line. The chief advantage of the rigid line is its ability to minimize radiation losses. The electric and magnetic fields in a two-wire parallel line extend into space for relatively great distances and radiation losses occur. However, in a coaxial line no electric or magnetic fields extend outside of the outer conductor. The fields are confined to the space between the two conductors, resulting in a perfectly shielded coaxial line. Another advantage is that interference from other lines is reduced. The rigid line has the following disadvantages: (1) it is expensive to construct; (2) it must be kept dry to prevent excessive leakage between the two conductors; and (3) although high-frequency losses are somewhat less than in previously mentioned lines, they are still excessive enough to limit the practical length of the line. Leakage caused by the condensation of moisture is prevented in some rigid line applications by the use of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, helium, or argon. It is pumped into the dielectric space of the line at a pressure that can vary from 3 to 35 pounds per square inch. The inert gas is used to dry the line when it is first installed and pressure is maintained to ensure that no moisture enters the line. Flexible coaxial lines (figure 3-7) are made with an inner conductor that consists of flexible wire insulated from the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating material. The outer conductor is made of metal braid, which gives the line flexibility. Early attempts at gaining flexibility involved using rubber insulators between the two conductors. However, the rubber insulators caused excessive losses at high frequencies. Figure 3-7. - Flexible coaxial line. Because of the high-frequency losses associated with rubber insulators, polyethylene plastic was developed to replace rubber and eliminate these losses. Polyethylene plastic is a solid substance that remains flexible over a wide range of temperatures. It is unaffected by seawater, gasoline, oil, and most other liquids that may be found aboard ship. The use of polyethylene as an insulator results in greater high-frequency losses than the use of air as an insulator. However, these losses are still lower than the losses associated with most other solid dielectric materials. The WAVEGUIDE is classified as a transmission line. However, the method by which it transmits energy down its length differs from the conventional methods. Waveguides are cylindrical, elliptical, or rectangular (cylindrical and rectangular shapes are shown in figure 3-8). The rectangular waveguide is used more frequently than the cylindrical waveguide. Figure 3-8. - Waveguides. The term waveguide can be applied to all types of transmission lines in the sense that they are all used to guide energy from one point to another. However, usage has generally limited the term to mean a hollow metal tube or a dielectric transmission line. In this chapter, we use the term waveguide only to mean "hollow metal tube." It is interesting to note that the transmission of electromagnetic energy along a waveguide travels at a velocity somewhat slower than electromagnetic energy traveling through free space. A waveguide may be classified according to its cross section (rectangular, elliptical, or circular), or according to the material used in its construction (metallic or dielectric). Dielectric waveguides are seldom used because the dielectric losses for all known dielectric materials are too great to transfer the electric and magnetic fields efficiently. The installation of a complete waveguide transmission system is somewhat more difficult than the installation of other types of transmission lines. The radius of bends in the waveguide must measure greater than two wavelengths at the operating frequency of the equipment to avoid excessive attenuation. The cross section must remain uniform around the bend. These requirements hamper installation in confined spaces. If the waveguide is dented, or if solder is permitted to run inside the joints, the attenuation of the line is greatly increased. Dents and obstructions in the waveguide also reduce its breakdown voltage, thus limiting the waveguide's power-handling capability because of possible arc over. Great care must be exercised during installation; one or two carelessly made joints can seriously inhibit the advantage of using the waveguide. We will not consider the waveguide operation in this module, since waveguide theory is discussed in NEETS, Module 11, Microwave Principles. Q.4 List the five types of transmission lines in use today.
B rad = k 2 p (ˆ r × ˆ p ) cos( kr−ωt ) r. (6) In the near zone of the dipole, where kr < ∼ 1, the radiation fields are smaller that the other components of E and B . Transformations to convert from rectangular to spherical coordinates are provided. 2 The Incremental Antenna: Hertzian Dipole 2.1 TheBasicHertzian Dipole Antenna The Hertziandipole is shown in Figure 1 and corresponds to a short length of straight wire ... 6 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Hertzian Dipole (1) Perhaps the simplest application of the radiation integral is the calculation of the fields of an infinitesimally short dipole (also called a Hertzian dipole). INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE (HERTZIAN DIPOLE) An infinitesimal dipole ( L)isasmallelement of a linear dipole that is assumed to be short enough that the current ( I ) can be assumed to be constant along its length L .Itisalso called a Hertzian dipole. The radiated ﬁelds from a short wire dipole antenna (i.e. short compared to the wavelength), are similar to that of a Hertzian dipole. A classic dipole movie – Shows E ﬁeld lines radiating from a short dipole Radiation_Basics.DVI. ECE 144 Electromagnetic Fields and Waves Bob York Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Radiation Hertzian Dipole The most elementary source of radiation is the oscillating electric dipole, or Hertziandipole. The far field radiation can be explained with the help of the Hertzian dipole or infinitesimal dipole which is a piece of straight wire whose length L and diameter are both very small compared to one wavelength. HERTZIAN DIPOLE 5 1.3 HERTZIANDIPOLE A wire of infinitesimal small length δl is known asa Hertziandipole. It playsa fundamental role in the understanding of finite length antenna elements, because any of these consists of an infinite number of Hertziandipoles. If such a Hertzian dipole and loop are placed at the origin, the produced net electric field will be circularly polarized. We note finally that the loop may have several turns, thus increasing its radiation resistance and radiated power. The theta- and phi- components of the electric field of the test antenna, E and E, are related to the Hertzian dipole voltage response w e, ... Other sites you could try: Find videos related to Hertzian Dipole
Turn the clock back 230 million years, and the land was covered with big, toothy reptiles.* Butas many a nine-year-old can tell you, not all of them were dinosaurs. Some were " crurotarsans," a lineage that all but died out just as the dinosaurs were acheiving global domination. Today, the only crurotarsans are the crocodiles. But alas! It all could have been so different, according to research published in Science today byStephen Brusatte, of Columbia University, and colleagues. The Age of Dinosaurs may have been a matter of luck, they say: just a matter of which group was hit harder by a mass extinction 200 million years ago. Before then, for nearly 30 million years, dinosaurs and crurotarsans had vied for superiority in a classic Darwinian struggle. And the crurotarsans should have won, the scientists argue. After analyzing the fossils of 64 species, they found the beasts had a greater variety of body plans - and evolved new species at about the same rate - as dinosaurs. They take this as evidence that dinosaurs weren't innately superior creatures (otherwise, the reasoning goes, more dinosaur species would have evolved as they usurped the crurotarsans). In the race for supremacy, it wasn't that the dinosaurs outpaced the crurotarsans - it's more like the crurotarsans were felled in the home stretch by a calamity. But hang on a second. I'm all for exciting new theories that offer explanations no one's thought of before (i.e., prairie-stalking pterosaurs). But this logic sounds wonky in a few places. Does a lack of species divergence have to mean an ecological stalemate was going on? Or could it mean that the species in existence at that time were doing phenomenally well on their own? For that matter, might the rapid appearance of new species signal a sputtering lineage, dying out in a flash of ill-fated new forms? More problematically, how does a mass extinction kill nearly all the members of one group (crurotarsans) without destroying a similar number of the other (dinosaurs)? That doesn't sound like the luck of the draw; it sounds like one of those groups had a competitive advantage - what the regular person might call "superiority." Full disclosure: I'm not a paleontologist. Perhaps these are well-thought-through ideas that the authors lacked the room to explain in their paper. (If so, I'd love it if a real paleontologist would write in and educate me.) Maybe the authors imagine that a different kind of mass extinction (meteoric fireball vs. global warming, for instance) could easily have switched the tables and led to an Age of Crurotarsans. But then, the crocodiles did survive, apparently content to hide out in the swamps for 200 million years while the dinosaurs enjoyed their 135 million years of fame - and then died out. Come to think of it, maybe the crurotarsans are superior after all. (Image: the crocodile, last of the crurotarsans, Wikipedia) *To be fair, there were also plenty of small and medium sized reptiles, some with rather ordinary teeth.
In the great majority of statements, it is obvious what collation MySQL uses to resolve a comparison operation. For example, in the following cases, it should be clear that the collation is the collation of column SELECT x FROM T ORDER BY x; SELECT x FROM T WHERE x = x; SELECT DISTINCT x FROM T; However, with multiple operands, there can be ambiguity. For example: SELECT x FROM T WHERE x = 'Y'; Should the comparison use the collation of the column x, or of the string literal 'Y' have collations, so which collation takes A mix of collations may also occur in contexts other than comparison. For example, a multiple-argument concatenation operation such as combines its arguments to produce a single string. What collation should the result have? To resolve questions like these, MySQL checks whether the collation of one item can be coerced to the collation of the other. MySQL assigns coercibility values as follows: COLLATEclause has a coercibility of 0 (not coercible at all). The concatenation of two strings with different collations has a coercibility of 1. The collation of a column or a stored routine parameter or local variable has a coercibility of 2. The collation of a literal has a coercibility of 4. The collation of a numeric or temporal value has a coercibility of 5. NULLor an expression that is derived from NULLhas a coercibility of 6. MySQL uses coercibility values with the following rules to resolve ambiguities: Use the collation with the lowest coercibility value. If both sides have the same coercibility, then: If both sides are Unicode, or both sides are not Unicode, it is an error. If one of the sides has a Unicode character set, and another side has a non-Unicode character set, the side with Unicode character set wins, and automatic character set conversion is applied to the non-Unicode side. For example, the following statement does not return an error: SELECT CONCAT(utf8_column, latin1_column) FROM t1; It returns a result that has a character set of utf8and the same collation as utf8_column. Values of latin1_columnare automatically converted to For an operation with operands from the same character set but that mix a _bincollation and a _bincollation is used. This is similar to how operations that mix nonbinary and binary strings evaluate the operands as binary strings, except that it is for collations rather than data types. Although automatic conversion is not in the SQL standard, the standard does say that every character set is (in terms of supported characters) a “subset” of Unicode. Because it is a well-known principle that “what applies to a superset can apply to a subset,” we believe that a collation for Unicode can apply for comparisons with non-Unicode strings. The following table illustrates some applications of the preceding rules. \|\|Use collation of \|\|Use collation of mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY('A' COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci); -> 0 mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY(VERSION()); -> 3 mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY('A'); -> 4 mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY(1000); -> 5 For implicit conversion of a numeric or temporal value to a string, such as occurs for the argument the result is a character (nonbinary) string that has a character set and collation determined by the variables. See Type Conversion in Expression Evaluation.
Napoleon: Hero Or Tyrant? Grade level: 7-12 Subjects: History, Language Arts Estimated Time of Completion: 3 class periods to set up the assignment and show related segments of the video "Napoleon." 1 to 2 weeks of research, writing and meeting time for students. III. Materials Needed V. Assessment Suggestions VII. Web Resources I. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES - To help students learn, review and assess what they know about Napoleon and his era. - To help students learn to take a position and to back up the position with evidence. - To help students understand the relationship between point of view and historical interpretation. - To help students practice their writing skills and learn about journalism. - To help students learn how to work effectively in groups. This lesson correlates to the following national standards for history, established by the National Center for History in the Schools at http://www.ssnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards: This lesson correlates to the following national standards for language arts, established by MCREL at http://www.mcrel.org/: - Explain how the French Revolution developed from constitutional monarchy to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic Empire. - Analyze leading ideas of the revolution concerning social equality, democracy, human rights. constitutionalism, and nationalism and assess the importance of the these ideas for democratic thought and institutions in the 20th century. - Explain how the revolution affected French society, including religious institutions, social relations, education, marriage, family life, and the legal and political position of women. - Describe how the wars of the revolutionary and Napoleonic period changed Europe and assess Napoleon's effects on the aims and outcomes of the revolution. III. MATERIALS NEEDED - Demonstrates competence in the general skills and strategies of the writing process. - Uses grammar and mechanical conventions in written composition. - Gathers and uses information for research purposes. - Demonstrates competence in the stylistic and rhetorical techniques in the writing process. - The four-part PBS video "Napoleon," specifically episodes 2, 3 and 4. - Access to computers with Internet access for writing and research. This unit asks students to assess Napoleon's career and to decide if he was a hero or a tyrant. The time is 1815. Napoleon has been exiled for good, this time to St. Helena. Louis XVIII has been restored to the throne. Meanwhile in Vienna, various European heads of state and diplomats are meeting to devise a new order for Europe. Students are assigned to a team. Each team must produce a newspaper from 1815 which assesses Napoleon's career. Each journal must take the editorial stance that Napoleon is either a hero or a tyrant. To bring the Napoleonic era to life, students will also publish articles on the arts, sciences, and fashion of the times. Defining "hero" and "tyrant" How do students define the terms "hero" and "tyrant"? Divide the blackboard into two columns, one for each category. Ask students to name people from any era in history (including our own) who they feel deserve to be designated "hero/heroine" or" tyrant." Hopefully their choices will engender some lively debate. After the class has agreed upon at least four names in each category, ask the class to list some of the attributes of the people on their lists. From the attributes they name try to get a working definition of both labels. Next ask a student to read aloud a dictionary definition for each word. (Both words have Greek derivatives.) Now pose the question: Are these terms mutually exclusive? Is it possible that a hero could be a tyrant or a tyrant a hero? Regardless of the conclusion students reach on this conundrum, explain that in the newspapers they will write, students will have to view Napoleon as one or the other, much as at trial a lawyer must lend support wholeheartedly to the side he or she defends. Invite students to probe deeper into defining these two terms by posing the following questions, or encouraging students to pose their own: End this preliminary discussion by visiting "Tyrant or Hero" on the PBS Napoleon Web site and reading the comments from contemporary historians. - Did Napoleon do more to preserve the legacy of the French Revolution or to destroy it? - Although Napoleon assumed dictatorial powers, he became First Consul as well as Emperor with the enthusiasm and approval of the French people. Should this affect how we judge him in the role of "tyrant"? - Must we assume that all conquerors throughout history are villains? When, if ever, can a conqueror be hero? - Did Napoleon conquer others for a higher purpose, or only for his own glory? - Should a leader's personal and romantic life be factored into the assessment of hero or tyrant, and if so why or why not? Introducing the newspaper assignment Ask students how they might feel if they were living in 1815 after Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. Would they rejoice? Would they be fearful that what might come next would be worse? Would they mourn the passing of their hero's star? List on the blackboard several hypothetical French characters such as: Discuss with the class how these people might have reacted to the news of Napoleon's defeat and why. Would they all necessarily share the same viewpoint? Why or why not? - An aristocratic lady who fled France during the Revolution after several relatives were guillotined. - A worker in Paris who was among those who stormed the Bastille in 1789. - A soldier who fought with Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. - A French mother who lost two sons in the Retreat from Moscow in 1812 and who lives in a village with families still grieving for other young men who died during the many years of warfare under Napoleon's rule. - A bureaucrat in the National Bank (created by Napoleon) who would not formerly have merited a government position under the Ancien Regime. - A recipient of the Legion of Honor, established in 1802 by Napoleon. - A priest whose church was desecrated during the French Revolution. - A French Jew who, thanks to the Revolution and Napoleon's enlightened policies, is now a citizen. Now explain that students will be put into teams to publish newspapers. Half the class will be assigned to write for a newspaper which supports Napoleon, the other will write for a newspaper which is a detractor. Divide the class into the two halves (without yet assigning them their newspaper teams) to watch sections of the video "Napoleon." Now access or print out the Timeline from the PBS Napoleon Web site. Choose several significant events in Napoleon's life and ask the class how those events might be viewed positively or negatively, depending upon one's viewpoint at the time. Showing Sections of the Film Explain to students that they are going to watch several excerpts from the video "Napoleon" and that they should look for incidents from Napoleon's career that support their viewpoint. From Episode Two, begin with the image of the clock, approximately 27 minutes into the film and end at approximately 44 minutes into the film with the image of the flower and the bee. This excerpt covers the 18 Brumaire coup that abolishes the Directory as well as the accomplishments of Napoleon as Consul (e.g. Napoleonic code, establishment of the state schools, the central bank, etc.) From Episode Three, start 8 minutes into the film and end at approximately 34 minutes into it with images of fields of stubble. This covers one of Napoleon's greatest moments on the battlefield: Austerlitz. Then show either Episode Four - the first 5 minutes which covers Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Spain. Episode Four - approximately 13 minutes into the film with the image of the fire and end at approximately 24 minutes in with the images of horses and sabers. This covers the battles of Borodino and the retreat from Moscow. Newspaper Staffs Get to Work Divide the class into newspaper staffs. For 30 students you might create six teams of five, three for Napoleon and three against. If possible, students should write two articles each. Create enough roles on the newspaper staff so that each member of the team has a function such as: Assigning Topics for News Articles - Editor-in-Chief - in charge of coordinating assignments, calling meetings, and insuring that the newspaper articles reflect a consistent point of view. - Copy Editor - in charge of proofreading articles for grammar and style. - Layout Designer - in charge of "cutting and pasting" articles into columns or using a computer software program to help create the layout. - Pictures Editor - in charge of downloading and selecting pictures from the Web, or assigning students to draw "etchings" which can be pasted or scanned in. - Masthead Designer - in charge of designing the masthead, creating the newspaper's motto. - Headline Writer - in charge of seeing that each article has a dramatic and appropriate headline. Either the teacher or the team, with the help of the Editor-in-Chief, should assign the topics. The team should decide on the name of the paper, where it is being published, and who its main readership might be. The Editor-in-Chief should make sure that his or her newspaper has at least one article in each of the following categories: Students can begin their research by looking at the PBS Napoleon Web Site, starting with the Timeline. They should not try to cover all the events of Napoleon's career, but rather pick and choose those which will support their paper's point of view. - Napoleon's heritage, early life and education (1769 - 1792). - Napoleon's rise to power, from Toulon through the invasion of Egypt (1793 -1799). - The Consulate, from Napoleon's seizure of power through renewal of war with Great Britain (1800-1803). - The Empire, from Napoleon's coronation through the Treaty of Tilsit (1804-1807). - The Empire, from the invasion of Spain to Waterloo (1808-1815). - A newsbreaking event of the day - 1815 (Congress of Vienna closes, defeat at Waterloo, Louis XVIII returns, etc) - Editorials - summaries of the Napoleonic era which reflect the viewpoint of the paper; predictions for the future of Europe now. - Arts, sciences, fashion, literature reviews (Artists of the day include musicians Beethoven, Liszt, and Rossini, writers Chateaubriand, Washington Irving, Jane Austen, Byron, Shelley, Mme. De Stael, and Goethe, painters Ingres, Constable, and Goya. Early steamships and steam power engines are being field tested at this time, and Lamarck is writing about biological species. For an excellent listing see: The Timetables of History by Bernard Grun, Simon & Schuster, 1991.) Writing News Articles Remind students that they are neither writing personal essays, nor encyclopedia articlesthey are writing news articles. When President Clinton's term is over, both Republican and Democratic newspapers will assess his two terms in office. However, only in the editorials will the papers directly express the editor's viewpoint. Students need to realize that the case for or against Napoleon will rest with the facts they present, although they can to some extent pick and choose those facts. Remind them that they need to present events as if they have happened in their own lifetimes. Encourage them to find and use contemporaneous quotes on the PBS Napoleon Web site, in books or on the Internet. They can interview imaginary people as well (e.g. a soldier at Waterloo), but what he or she recounts must incorporate the historical record. You can review journalistic writing style by bringing in current-day news articles. Students should study lead sentences to observe how journalists incorporate the 5 W's (who, what, when, where and why) and for how they get a "hook" that interests the reader. More advanced classes should be introduced to the much more elaborate and embellished writing style of 19th century authors whom they might try to emulate. For example, read aloud the opening passages of Charles Dickens's novel, A Tale of Two Cities or Thomas Carlyle's history, The French Revolution. V. ASSESSMENT RECOMMENDATIONS - Students can be evaluated for their participation in class discussions led by the teacher, as well as how cooperatively they worked on the their newspaper teams. - Students' news articles can be judged according to a specified rubric by their teammates, or by other student readers of their papers and/or by the teacher. - News articles should reflect factual mastery of the Napoleonic era and an understanding of how point of view affects interpretation. VII. WEB RESOURCES - Student newspapers should be published and distributed either by Xeroxing them or by having them published on your school's Web site. It is important that members of opposing sides read each other's papers. - For an even more complex look at point of view, you can suggest that some papers be published outside of France, for example from the United States (then fighting the British), Britain, Austria, Russia (or any other ally in the fight against Napoleon), or a Jewish press anywhere in Europe (Napoleon liberated the Jews from ghettos throughout the lands he conquered). - Lead the class in a series of informal or formal debates about Napoleon. Hold a final vote to establish whether the class believes Napoleon was a hero or a tyrant. - Compare contemporaneous views of Napoleon with what historians think today. Start by investigating the PBS Web Site on Napoleon, especially the section "The Man and the Myth." - As students continue their study of European history following the Napoleonic era, ask them if what they have subsequently learned changes their views of Napoleon and his legacy. - Ask students to examine a controversial figure from the 20th century in light of the hero versus tyrant controversy. For example, who might consider Ho Chi Minh or General Douglas MacArthur to be a hero rather than a tyrant, or a tyrant rather than a hero, and why? (Note: these links will take you away from PBS Online.) For pictures of the Napoleonic Era: For maps and charts: Royal Navy During the Napoleonic Era For additional articles on the Napoleonic Wars: Napoleonic War Series For heroines in world history: Women in World History For 20th century heroes and heroines: TIME 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century About the Author Joan Brodsky Schur teaches Social Studies and English at the Village Community School in New York City. She is the co-author of In A New Land: An Anthology of Immigrant Literature and a frequent contributor to Social Education. Other online lessons by Joan can be found at the National Archives Web Site "The Constitution Community": http://www.nara.gov/education/cc.
Adding and Subtracting Rational Numbers More Lessons for Grade 6 Videos, worksheets, stories and songs to help Grade 6 students learn how to add and subtract rational numbers. How to add and subtract rational numbers? When we add or subtract rational numbers that have the same denominator, we add or subtract only the numerators. The denominators stay the same. When we add or subtract rational numbers with unlike denominators, we need to change the rational numbers to equivalent rational numbers that have the same denominators, before we find the sum or difference. Adding & Subtraction Rational Numbers Addition of Rational Numbers Subtraction of Rational Numbers Add Rational Numbers Rotate to landscape screen format on a mobile phone or small tablet to use the Mathway widget, a free math problem solver that answers your questions with step-by-step explanations. You can use the free Mathway calculator and problem solver below to practice Algebra or other math topics. Try the given examples, or type in your own problem and check your answer with the step-by-step explanations.
The Hidden Curriculum and LD Students According to Richard Lavoie, the hidden curriculum should be an emphasis for students with learning disabilities. He defines the hidden curriculum as each individual school's unwritten and unspoken rules. He lists the following examples of items in this curriculum: - The teaching staff: which teachers expect punctuality, stress homework and/or count heavily on final exams for grades, etc. - How to get around the physical plant of the school: where the cut-throughs are, where not to take a shortcut, etc. - The social environment: what's in and what's out in clothing, music, slang; what rivalries there are, how cliques operate, etc. - The hierarchy of school: who to go to - The demands of extra-curricular activities: how long the season lasts for each sport, what is required for drama club, etc. - What's going on outside of school: where to hang out, special events that are coming up, etc. - What kids look for in a friend and what they dislike. - What traits the opposite sex looks for. - What to talk about with the same sex and the opposite sex. Taken from: Newsbriefs, Jan/Feb 1992, a publication of the Learning Disabilities Association, Pittsburg, PA. If you have questions or need more information you can contact me at: Overton Speech & Language Center, Inc. Fort Worth, TX to main language page to home page Copyright © 2001 Overton Speech & Language Center, Inc. Last revised: February 03, 2001
Menander (342-291): Athenian playwright, author of many comedies, which are only fragmentary preserved and best known from Roman adaptations. The comedies of the Athenian playwright Menander are completely different from those of Aristophanes. Classicists distinguish the Old and New Comedy. In the plays of Menander, the story is more or less credible (if one is willing to accept doppelgänger and frequent cases of mistaken identity and misunderstanding) and the characters are realistic. Often, the comedy also contains a tragic element, which makes it even more convincing. Unfortunately, only one play, The bad-tempered man, survives, together with considerable portions of a further five. However, many of Menander's comedies were translated into Latin and adapted by authors like Terentius and Plautus, and these plays have survived. They were extremely popular. Julius Caesar, on crossing the Rubico, quoted Menander: "the die is cast". Pliny the Elder called the poet a man litterarum subtilitati sine aemulo genitus, "unrivalled for perception in literary knowledge". During the Renaissance, several of them were translated into modern languages.
Peripheral neuropathy is a problem with the nerves that carry information to and from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. This can produce pain, loss of sensation, and an inability to control muscles. - "Peripheral" means nerves further out from the center of the body, distant from the brain and spinal cord (which are called the central nervous system). - "Neuro" means nerves. - "Pathy" means abnormal. Peripheral neuritis; Neuropathy - peripheral; Neuritis - peripheral Causes, incidence, and risk factors One set of peripheral nerves relays information from your central nervous system to muscles and other organs. A second set relays information from your skin, joints, and other organs back to your central nervous system. Peripheral neuropathy means these nerves don't work properly. Peripheral neuropathy may involve damage to a single nerve or nerve group (mononeuropathy), or it may affect multiple nerves (polyneuropathy). There are many reasons for nerves to malfunction. In many cases, no cause can be found. Nerve damage can be caused by: - Diseases that run in families (hereditary disorders), such as: - Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease - Friedreich's ataxia - Diseases that affect the whole body (systemic or metabolic disorders) such as: - Infections or inflammation, including: - Exposure to poisonous substances such as: - Glue sniffing or inhaling other toxic compounds - Heavy metals (lead, arsenic, and mercury are most common) - Industrial chemicals -- especially solvents - Nitrous oxide - Neuropathy secondary to medications, most commonly: - Paclitaxel (Taxol) - Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) - Miscellaneous causes: - Compression of a nerve by nearby body structures or by casts, splints, braces, crutches, or other devices - Decreased oxygen and blood flow (ischemia) - Prolonged exposure to cold temperatures - Prolonged pressure on a nerve (such as a long surgery) - Trauma to a nerve Peripheral neuropathy is very common. Because there are many types and causes of neuropathy and doctors don't always agree on the definition, the exact incidence is not known. Some people are more likely to inherit neuropathy. The symptoms depend on which type of nerve is affected. The three main types of nerves are: - Nerves that carry sensations (sensory) - Nerves that control muscles (motor) - Nerves that carry information to organs and glands (autonomic) Neuropathy can affect any one or a combination of all three types of nerves. Symptoms also depend on whether the condition affects one nerve, several nerves, or the whole body. When the whole body is affected, it is called polyneuropathy. Longer nerves are more easily injured than shorter ones, so it is common to have earlier or worse symptoms in the legs and feet than in the hands and arms. Damage to sensory fibers results in: With many neuropathies, sensation changes begin in the toes and move toward the center of the body. Other areas become involved as the condition gets worse. Diabetes is a common cause of sensory neuropathy. Damage to the nerves that run to muscles interferes with muscle control and can cause weakness. Other muscle-related symptoms include: - Difficulty breathing or swallowing - Difficulty or inability to move a part of the body (paralysis) - Falling (from legs buckling or tripping over toes) - Lack of dexterity (such as being unable to button a shirt) - Lack of muscle control - Loss of muscle tissue (muscle atrophy) - Muscle twitching or cramping The autonomic nerves regulate involuntary or semivoluntary functions, such as controlling internal organs and blood pressure. Damage to autonomic nerves can cause: Signs and tests A detailed history will help your health care provider determine the cause of the neuropathy. A brain and nervous system (neurological) exam may reveal problems with movement, sensation, or organ function. You may also have changes in reflexes and muscle mass. Blood tests may be done to check for medical conditions such as diabetes, vitamin deficiencies, thyroid problems, or other conditions. Tests that find and help classify neuropathy may include: - Addressing the cause (such as diabetes or excess alcohol use) - Controlling symptoms - Helping the patient gain maximum independence and self-care ability - Replacing any vitamin or other deficiencies in the diet - Stopping injury to the nerve (for example, in cases of neuropathy due to compression such as carpal tunnel syndrome) Your health care provider may recommend physical therapy, occupational therapy, or orthopedic interventions. For example: - Exercises and retraining may be used to increase muscle strength and control. - Wheelchairs, braces, and splints may improve movement or the ability to use an affected arm or leg. - Surgery may be needed to stop injury to a nerve, such as from carpal tunnel syndrome. Safety is an important consideration for people with neuropathy. Lack of muscle control and reduced sensation increase the risk of falls and other injuries. You may not notice a potential source of injury because you can't feel it. For example, you may not notice if the water in the bathtub is too hot. For this reason, people with decreased sensation should check their feet or other affected areas daily for bruises, open skin areas, or other injuries they may not have noticed. Safety measures for people experiencing movement difficulty include: - Installing railings - Removing obstacles on floors, such as loose rugs Safety measures for people having difficulty with sensation include: - Installing adequate lighting (including night lights) - Testing water temperature before bathing - Wearing protective shoes (no open toes, no high heels) Check shoes often for grit or rough spots that may injure the feet. Persons with neuropathy are more likely to get new nerve injuries at pressure points such as knees and elbows. They should avoid putting pressure on these areas for too long from leaning on the elbows, crossing the knees, or getting into similar positions. You may need over-the-counter or prescription pain medications to control pain caused by peripheral neuropathy. Anticonvulsants (phenytoin, carbamazepine, gabapentin, and pregabalin), tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline and nortriptyline), or other medications (duloxetine) may reduce the pain. Use the lowest dose possible to avoid side effects. Adjusting position, using frames to keep bedclothes off tender body parts, or other measures may help reduce pain. The symptoms of autonomic nerve damage may be difficult to treat or respond poorly to treatment. The following measures may help: - Wearing elastic stockings and sleeping with the head elevated may help treat low blood pressure that occurs when standing up (postural hypotension). Fludrocortisone or similar medications may also be helpful. - Taking medications that increase gastric motility (such as metoclopramide), eating small frequent meals, sleeping with the head elevated, or other measures may help. - Manually expressing urine (pressing over the bladder with the hands), performing intermittent catheterization, or taking medications such as bethanechol may help people with bladder problems. - Treating impotence, diarrhea, constipation, or other symptoms, as needed. You can find support group information from The Neuropathy Association - www.neuropathy.org The outcome depends on the cause of peripheral neuropathy. In cases where a medical condition can be found and treated, the outlook may be excellent. However, in severe neuropathy, nerve damage can be permanent, even if the cause is treated. For most hereditary neuropathies, there is no cure. Some of these conditions are harmless. Others get worse quickly and may lead to permanent, severe complications. The inability to feel or notice injuries can lead to infection or damage to the affected part of the body, including: Other complications include: Calling your health care provider Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of peripheral neuropathy. In all cases, early diagnosis and treatment increases the chance of controlling symptoms. Nerve pain, such as that caused by peripheral neuropathy, can be difficult to control. If your pain is severe, a pain specialist may be able to suggest helpful approaches. Emergency symptoms include: - Difficulty breathing - Difficulty swallowing - Irregular or rapid heartbeat If you are going to have a long surgical procedure or will be unable to move for a long period of time, take the appropriate measures (such as padding vulnerable parts of the body) beforehand to reduce the risk of nerve problems. Avoid spending a long period of time in one position (for example, after drinking too much alcohol) or doing certain kinds of repetitive movements (in the case of carpal tunnel syndrome). Reduce your risk of neuropathy by: - Drinking alcohol in moderation - Following a balanced diet - Keeping good control over diabetes and other medical problems, if you have them Shy ME. Peripheral neuropathies. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 446. David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine; and Daniel B. Hoch, PhD, MD, Assistant Professor of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
- About Us - Policy Center - GAP Report® & GAP Index™ - Harvest 2050 Blog China: A Leader in Biogas Energy & Productive Peri-Urban Agriculture The image above depicts pools of wastewater at an animal waste recycling facility one hour from Beijing at an agricultural cooperative in China. Beautiful? Perhaps not; but while it may not be much to look at, facilities like these can be used to produce renewable biogas, organic fertilizer, and reduce pollution. China is an emerging leader in the construction of environmentally efficient and economically practical waste-recycling systems. Animal waste products contain valuable nutrients that can be recycled back into the soil and contain methane gas that can be harvested as “biogas” for energy use. While animal wastes can be hazardous to the environment and can find their way into rivers and other fragile ecosystems, these same wastes can also be harvested and reused in an environmentally friendly fashion. According to an article from ecotippingpoints.org, there are over 30 million households in China that have anaerobic “biogas digesters.” These digesters encourage the growth of anaerobic microorganisms in sealed pools to ferment organic waste, releasing combustible gases high in methane (biogas). These digesters often pay for themselves very quickly, and by some estimates can make back the cost of construction in just over a year of use. These digesters were first promoted on a large scale during the late 60s and early 70s, before the period of opening and reform. After a brief decline following the breakup of the collectivized system of agriculture, the small, affordable digesters have had a dramatic comeback in the last 15 years. The biogas released by these digesters has many environmental benefits. Undigested manure compost releases methane gas that goes uncollected and unused. Using this renewable energy that would be wasted helps reduce the need to purchase more, likely nonrenewable fuels. Anaerobic digesters also release less methane gas than compost sitting in the field. Methane gas has 22 times the warming effect as CO2, and so reducing the release of this gas can have great benefits towards mitigating global warming. While anaerobic digesters can be used to harvest energy from animal waste, systems in China are also implemented to manage and recycle waste nutrients. According to the Beijing Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing releases an annual 1,396,000 tons of hazardous animal waste into the environment. This waste is filled with valuable nutrient resources that are productive when used as fertilizer but potentially hazardous if unfiltered and released into fragile ecosystems. The nutrients and water in the waste material can be recycled efficiently and simply by filtering out solids from wastewater in successive steps. At the end of the process, both the filtered water and recovered nutrient fertilizer can be used for growing crops. Ideally a drip irrigation system can be used to make this process as efficient as possible. The Beijing Academy of Sciences notes that if a drip irrigation system is not possible, it is relatively easy to build an alternate and simple piping system. Anaerobic digesters and waste nutrient recycling can be utilized to a much larger extent in China as well as other suitable locations worldwide to have economic and environmental benefits.
- Albumin is made mainly in the liver. It helps keep the blood from leaking out of blood vessels. Albumin also helps carry some medicines and other substances through the blood and is important for tissue growth and healing. - Globulin is made up of different proteins called alpha, beta, and gamma types. Some globulins are made by the liver, while others are made by the immune system. Certain globulins bind with hemoglobin. Other globulins transport metals, such as iron, in the blood and help fight infection. Serum globulin can be separated into several subgroups by serum protein electrophoresis. To learn more, see the topic Serum Protein Electrophoresis. A test for total serum protein reports separate values for total protein, albumin, and globulin. Some types of globulin (such as alpha-1 globulin) also may be measured. Why It Is Done Albumin is tested to: - Check how well the liver and kidneys are working. - Find out if your diet contains enough protein. - Help determine the cause of swelling of the ankles (edema) or abdomen (ascites) or of fluid collection in the lungs that may cause shortness of breath (pulmonary edema). Globulin is tested to: - Determine your chances of developing an infection. - See if you have a blood disease, such as multiple myeloma or macroglobulinemia. How To Prepare No special preparation is required before having a total serum protein test. Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results may mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form(What is a PDF document?). How It Is Done The health professional taking a sample of your blood will: - Wrap an elastic band around your upper arm to stop the flow of blood. This makes the veins below the band larger so it is easier to put a needle into the vein. - Clean the needle site with alcohol. - Put the needle into the vein. More than one needle stick may be needed. - Attach a tube to the needle to fill it with blood. - Remove the band from your arm when enough blood is collected. - Put a gauze pad or cotton ball over the needle site as the needle is removed. - Put pressure on the site and then put on a bandage. How It Feels The blood sample is taken from a vein in your arm. An elastic band is wrapped around your upper arm. It may feel tight. You may feel nothing at all from the needle, or you may feel a quick sting or pinch. There is very little chance of a problem from having a blood sample taken from a vein. - You may get a small bruise at the site. You can lower the chance of bruising by keeping pressure on the site for several minutes. - In rare cases, the vein may become swollen after the blood sample is taken. This problem is called phlebitis. A warm compress can be used several times a day to treat this. - Ongoing bleeding can be a problem for people with bleeding disorders. Aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), and other blood-thinning medicines can make bleeding more likely. If you have bleeding or clotting problems, or if you take blood-thinning medicine, tell your doctor before your blood sample is taken. A total serum protein test is a blood test that measures the amounts of total protein, albumin, and globulin in the blood. Results are usually available within 12 hours. The normal values listed here-called a reference range-are just a guide. These ranges vary from lab to lab, and your lab may have a different range for what's normal. Your lab report should contain the range your lab uses. Also, your doctor will evaluate your results based on your health and other factors. This means that a value that falls outside the normal values listed here may still be normal for you or your lab. 3.5-5.0 g/dL or 35-50 g/L 0.1-0.3 g/dL or 1-3 g/L 0.6-1.0 g/dL or 6-10 g/L 0.7-1.1 g/dL or 7-11 g/L High albumin levels may be caused by: - Severe dehydration. High globulin levels may be caused by: - Diseases of the blood, such as multiple myeloma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, leukemia, macroglobulinemia, or hemolytic anemia. - An autoimmune disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, autoimmune hepatitis, or sarcoidosis. - Kidney disease. - Liver disease. Low albumin levels may be caused by: - A poor diet (malnutrition). - Kidney disease. - Liver disease. - An autoimmune disease, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis. - Gastrointestinal malabsorption syndromes, such as sprue or Crohn's disease. - Hodgkin's lymphoma. - Uncontrolled diabetes. - Heart failure. What Affects the Test Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include: - Taking medicines, such as corticosteroids, estrogens, male sex hormones (called androgens), growth hormone, or insulin. - Injuries or infections. - Prolonged bed rest, such as during a hospital stay. - A long-term (chronic) illness, especially if the disease interferes with what you are able to eat or drink. - Being pregnant. What To Think About - If you have abnormal globulin levels, another test called serum protein electrophoresis is often done. This test measures specific groups of proteins in the blood. To learn more, see the topic Serum Protein Electrophoresis. - Damaged liver cells lose their ability to make protein. But previously produced protein may stay in the blood for 12 to 18 days, so it takes about 2 weeks for damage to the liver to show up as decreased serum protein levels. The liver's ability to make protein may be used to predict the course of certain liver diseases. - Unlike carbohydrates and fats, proteins are not stored in the body. They are continuously broken down (metabolized) into amino acids that can be used to make new proteins, hormones, enzymes, and other compounds needed by the body. - Protein also can be measured in the urine. To learn more, see the topic Urine Test. Other Works Consulted Chernecky CC, Berger BJ (2013). Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures, 6th ed. St. Louis: Saunders. Pagana KD, Pagana TJ (2010). Mosby’s Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests, 4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby. Primary Medical ReviewerE. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine Specialist Medical ReviewerJerome B. Simon, MD, FRCPC, FACP - Gastroenterology Current as ofAugust 21, 2015
We hear it all the time: American schools are terrible and only getting worse. For more than 25 years, the country has been massaging the egos of educators, administrators, and politicians who think they know what’s best for young people and our country. Bill Gates and countless rich people have tried throwing money at solutions they want to see. Yet none of this has seriously improved our schools, and in some cases, its only made the situation worse. In the meantime, there are more young people than ever before who are working steadily, progressively to fix schools today. They’re partnering with educators, community members, businesses, and others to move school reform forward and actually achieving real outcomes. Student engagement in school improvement has been shown to have powerful effects on every aspect of learning, teaching, and leadership in education. Past the hype, beyond the media, and without biased research, evidence shows that when students improve schools, they are creating lasting changes, saving schools real money, and improving learning experiences for themselves, their peers, and younger students. Five Ways Students Are Improving Schools - Students Are Leading Research. In elementary, middle, and high schools across the nation, students researching education. Among countless subjects, they’re discovering student learning styles, identifying best practices in classrooms, and exploring structural changes in learning. First grader students in Cheney, Washington, helped teachers develop curriculum in their classroom to make learning more meaningful for both students and educators. - Students Are Planning Education. Budgeting, calendaring, hiring and firing, curriculum designing, and many other activities are happening throughout schools with students as partners. Students are also involved in some district and state education agency activities, and helping elected officials plan more effective schools. In Anne Arundel County, Maryland, students have been voting members of the district level board of education for 25 years. In the same district, every advisory, curriculum, study committee and special force task includes students. - Students Are Teaching Courses. In all grade levels, students are taking the reigns of pedagogy by facilitating learning for their peers and younger students. They’re also teaching adults! Students are increasingly being engaged as essential teaching partners, and the outcomes are changing learning for everyone involved. In Olympia, Washington, there is a program that gives students classroom credit in return for helping teachers learn how to use complicated hardware and software in classrooms. - Students Are Evaluating Everything. Examining their own learning, identifying teachers’ strengths and challenges, exploring curriculum and climate in schools, and looking at ways schools can improve in strategic ways are all ways that students are driving school improvement in their own schools and throughout education. High school students in Poughkeepsie, New York researched their districts budget crises, conducted a student survey on the next years budge, and then analyzed the data and submitted it to the board which used it in its decision-making process. The board adopted it and saved more than $50,000 the next year. - Students Are Making Systemic Decisions. Joining school boards as full-voting members, forming student advisory committees for principals and superintendents, and getting onto important committees at the building, district, and state levels, more students are participating in systemic decision-making than ever before. In Stuart, Ohio, students at the local high school have and equal vote in faculty hiring decisions, choosing curriculum, and class offerings. Between these five categories of action, deep change is happening. However, beyond the expectations of adults, students are working further still to improve their schools. Students advocating for education changes are organizing their peers and larger communities to create powerful, effective agendas that consistently and determinedly transform schools. In order to broaden, deepen, and sustain these activities there needs to be a systemic, intentional pathway to engage all students as partners throughout the education system. More than a decade ago, I combed research and practice happening nationally and internationally to identify my Frameworks for Meaningful Student Involvement. Since then, these tools have been used around the world to promote these activities, and to build further beyond many peoples’s expectations. As I’ve written before, Meaningful Student Involvement is, “the process of engaging students as partners in every facet of school change for the purpose of strengthening their commitment to education, community, and democracy.” 6 Steps To Engage Students As Partners in Fixing Schools Here are some steps anyone can take to engage students as partners in improving schools. - Teach students about learning. Learning is no longer the mystery it once was. We now know that there are different learning styles, multiple learning supports and a variety of ways to demonstrate learning. In order to be meaningfully involved, students must understand those different aspects as well. - Teach students about the educational system. The complexities of schools are not known to many adults. Theoretical and moral debates, funding streams and the rigors of student assessment are overwhelming to many administrators, as well as teachers and parents. However, in order for students to be meaningfully involved in schools, they must have at least a basic knowledge of what is being done to them and for them, if not with them. - Teach students about education reform. There are many practical avenues for students to learn about formal and informal school improvement measures, particularly by becoming meaningfully involved within those activities. Sometimes there is no better avenue for understanding than through active engagement in the subject matter, and school improvement may be one of those areas. - Teach students about student voice. While it seems intuitive to understand the voices that we are born with, unfortunately many students seems to lack that knowledge. Whether through submissive consumerism, oppressive social conditions or the internalization of popular conceptions of youth, many students today do not believe they have anything worth saying, or any action worth contributing towards making their schools better places for everyone involved. Even if a student does understand their voice, it is essential to expand that understanding and gain new abilities to be able to become meaningfully involved. - Teach students about meaningful student involvement. While meaningful student involvement is not “rocket science”, it does challenge many students. After so many years of being subjected to passive or cynical treatment, many students are leery or resistant towards substantive engagement in schools. Educating students about meaningful student involvement means increasing their capacity to participate by focusing on the skills and knowledge they need. Only in this way can they be effective partners, and fully realize the possibilities for education today and in the future. These aren’t the easiest steps in the world, as many adults and even educators haven’t taken these steps for themselves. However, in these years I have worked hard to share some of the things I have learned and written a number of materials designed to help. Here is a simple list of ways students can improve schools, and a separate list of ways adults can support students fixing schools. I’ve written a number of publications, too, including the Meaningful Student Involvement Guide to Students as Partners in Schools, the SoundOut Student Voice Curriculum, and my latest and easiest-to-read book, The Guide to Student Voice. I also have dozens of free publications available on my website. Another great advantage today is that several other organizations are working in earnest to promote ideas related to Meaningful Student Involvement. Aside from my program called SoundOut, there are groups like UP for Learning in Vermont, the Student Voice Matters website, and Student Voice Live!, an annual gathering of students talking about school improvement. Evidence supporting this work is growing too. The work of researchers like Dana Mitra and Alison Cook-Sather in the US, Michael Fielding and Julia Flutter in Europe, and the penultimate advocate Roger Holdsworth in Australia is moving all of this further faster than anyone could have anticipated. Whatever your opinion about schools today, the case is clear that we must engage students as partners. What are you going to do? Adam Fletcher is the author of several books and a consultant who has worked with more than 200 K-12 schools and districts in more than 25 states and Canada. Sign up for his newsletter by visiting adamfletcher.net.
1. In measurement, what do you call the degree of exactness compared to the expected value of the variable being measured ? 2. A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements is called. 3. An instrument or device having recognized permanent or stable value that is used as a reference. (a) standard instrument/device (b) reference instrument/device (c) fixed instrument/device (d) ideal instrument/device 4. The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond. (a) quantize value (d) step size 5. Precision is also known as : \|Characteristics of Instruments & Measurement Systems – Mcq\|\|Electrical & Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation\| Be a Part of The New & Next Share the Knowledge
Rapaport inthis notorious sentence plays on reduced relative clauses, different part-of-speech readings of the same word, and center embedding. In this particular case, the sentence conveys the following: The student has the professor who knows the man who studies ancient Rome. In English, we can typically put one clause inside of another without any problem. According to this memewhich claims to be based on Cambridge University research, we're able to read that passage because our brains process all of the letters in a word at once. But what if the first and last letters of the word are in place? As your brain deciphered each word in the example above, it also predicted which words would logically come next to form a coherent sentence. Davis uses the following three sentences to illustrate how simply leaving the first and last letters of a word in place doesn't necessarily mean a sentence will still be easily readable. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. They think part of the reason the sentence above is readable is because our brains are able to use context to make predictions about what's to. To study the brain-larynx link, Chang recruited Nall and 11 other patients interpret neuronal activity and translate it into full-blown sentences. In a second step, the sentence meaning is integrated with information from prior Keywords: language, event-related brain potentials, functional magnetic. However, even if you read that garbled example with ease, you probably didn't read every word correctly. The bounds of proper English are virtually endless—test them in your writing today! Well, talk about lexical ambiguity. This is what we call a garden path sentence. That: How to Choose. Video: Sentence brain interpret How Do We Interpret Sentences? Parsing Strategies . people are engaged in a task that explicitly probes quantifier sentence meaning. . Video: Sentence brain interpret 2. Making sentences clear and has the benefit over natural reading that observed brain responses can be. You might not realize it, but your brain is a code-cracking machine. For emaxlpe, it "We use context to help us perceive," Kutas said. [6 Fun. Basics Emigrate vs. Also, transpositions of adjacent letters — such as "porbelm for problem" — are easier to read than more distant transpositions. Most people interpret the sentence the first way and are subsequently startled to read the second part of the joke. You might not have even noticed those correctly spelled words because readers tend to gloss over function words when reading. Basics Program vs. Why your brain can read jumbled letters MNN Mother Nature Network Rapaport inthis notorious sentence plays on reduced relative clauses, different part-of-speech readings of the same word, and center embedding. Be the best writer in the office. DOCUMENTARY IDEAS FOR SCHOOL \|Be the best writer in the office. You might not have even noticed those correctly spelled words because readers tend to gloss over function words when reading. This is what we call a garden path sentence. You can do all sorts of crazy things with it without breaking any rules. But what if the first and last letters of the word are in place? That: How to Choose.
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Sun, star around which Earth and the other components of the solar system revolve. It is the dominant body of the system, constituting more than 99 percent of its entire mass. The Sun is the source of an enormous amount of energy, a portion of which provides Earth with the light and heat necessary to support life. The Sun is classified as a G2 V star, with G2 standing for the second hottest stars of the yellow G class—of surface temperature about 5,800 kelvins (K)—and the V representing a main sequence, or dwarf, star, the typical star for this temperature class. (G stars are so called because of the prominence of a band of atomic and molecular spectral lines that the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer designated G.) The Sun exists in the outer part of the Milky Way Galaxy and was formed from material that had been processed inside a supernova. The Sun is not, as is often said, a small star. Although it falls midway between the biggest and smallest stars of its type, there are so many dwarf stars that the Sun falls in the top 5 percent of stars in the neighbourhood that immediately surrounds it. The radius of the Sun, R☉, is 109 times that of Earth, but its distance from Earth is 215 R☉, so it subtends an angle of only 1/2° in the sky, roughly the same as that of the Moon. By comparison, Proxima Centauri, the next closest star to Earth, is 250,000 times farther away, and its relative apparent brightness is reduced by the square of that ratio, or 62 billion times. The temperature of the Sun’s surface is so high that no solid or liquid can exist there; the constituent materials are predominantly gaseous atoms, with a very small number of molecules. As a result, there is no fixed surface. The surface viewed from Earth, called the photosphere, is the layer from which most of the radiation reaches us; the radiation from below is absorbed and reradiated, and the emission from overlying layers drops sharply, by about a factor of six every 200 kilometres (124 miles). The Sun is so far from Earth that this slightly fuzzy surface cannot be resolved, and so the limb (the visible edge) appears sharp. The mass of the Sun, M☉, is 743 times the total mass of all the planets in the solar system and 330,000 times that of Earth. All the interesting planetary and interplanetary gravitational phenomena are negligible effects in comparison to the force exerted by the Sun. Under the force of gravity, the great mass of the Sun presses inward, and to keep the star from collapsing, the central pressure outward must be great enough to support its weight. The density at the Sun’s core is about 100 times that of water (roughly six times that at the centre of Earth), but the temperature is at least 15,000,000 K, so the central pressure is at least 10,000 times greater than that at the centre of Earth, which is 3,500 kilobars. The nuclei of atoms are completely stripped of their electrons, and at this high temperature they collide to produce the nuclear reactions that are responsible for generating the energy vital to life on Earth. While the temperature of the Sun drops from 15,000,000 K at the centre to 5,800 K at the photosphere, a surprising reversal occurs above that point; the temperature drops to a minimum of 4,000 K, then begins to rise in the chromosphere, a layer about 7,000 kilometres high at a temperature of 8,000 K. During a total eclipse the chromosphere appears as a pink ring. Above the chromosphere is a dim, extended halo called the corona, which has a temperature of 1,000,000 K and reaches far past the planets. Beyond a distance of 5R☉ from the Sun, the corona flows outward at a speed (near Earth) of 400 kilometres per second (km/s); this flow of charged particles is called the solar wind. The Sun is a very stable source of energy; its radiative output, called the solar constant, is 1.366 kilowatts per square metre at Earth and varies by no more than 0.1 percent. Superposed on this stable star, however, is an interesting 11-year cycle of magnetic activity manifested by regions of transient strong magnetic fields called sunspots.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic digestive disease. GERD happens when stomach acid or, occasionally, stomach content, flows back into your food pipe (esophagus). The backwash (reflux) aggravates the lining of your esophagus and causes GERD. Both acid reflux and heartburn prevail digestive conditions that lots of people experience from time to time. When these signs and symptoms occur at least twice weekly or disrupt your daily life, or when your doctor can see damage to your esophagus, you might be identified with GERD. The majority of people can handle the discomfort of GERD with lifestyle changes and over-the-counter medications. However some individuals with GERD might need more powerful medications, or even surgery, to reduce symptoms. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Symptoms GERD signs and symptoms include: - A burning sensation in your chest (heartburn), often infecting your throat, in addition to a sour taste in your mouth - Chest pain - Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). - Dry cough. - Hoarseness or sore throat. - Regurgitation of food or sour liquid (acid reflux). - Sensation of a swelling in your throat. When to see a doctor Seek immediate medical attention if you experience chest pain, specifically if you have other symptoms and signs, such as shortness of breath or jaw or arm pain. These may be signs and symptoms of a cardiovascular disease. Make a visit with your doctor if you experience severe or frequent GERD symptoms. If you take over the counter medications for heartburn more than twice a week, see your doctor. Causes of GERD GERD is caused by frequent acid reflux– the backup of stomach acid or bile into the esophagus. When you swallow, the lower esophageal sphincter– a circular band of muscle around the bottom part of your esophagus– relaxes to allow food and liquid to stream down into your stomach. Then it closes again. However, if this valve unwinds abnormally or weakens, stomach acid can flow back up into your esophagus, causing frequent heartburn. In some cases this can disrupt your life. This consistent backwash of acid can irritate the lining of your esophagus, causing it to end up being irritated (esophagitis), according to iytmed.com. Over time, the inflammation can wear away the esophageal lining, triggering complications such as bleeding, esophageal narrowing or Barrett’s esophagus (a precancerous condition). Conditions that can increase your risk of GERD include: - Bulging of top of stomach up into the diaphragm (hiatal hernia). - Dry mouth. - Delayed stomach clearing. - Connective tissue disorders, such as scleroderma. In time, chronic inflammation in your esophagus can lead to complications, including: - Narrowing of the esophagus (esophageal stricture). Damage to cells in the lower esophagus from acid exposure leads to formation of scar tissue. The scar tissue narrows the food path, causing problem swallowing. - An open sore in the esophagus (esophageal ulcer). Stomach acid can severely deteriorate tissues in the esophagus, triggering an open sore to form. The esophageal ulcer may bleed, cause pain and make swallowing difficult. - Precancerous changes to the esophagus (Barrett’s esophagus). In Barrett’s esophagus, the tissue lining the lower esophagus changes. These changes are associated with an increased risk of esophageal cancer. The risk of cancer is low, however your doctor will likely suggest routine endoscopy exams to try to find early indication of esophageal cancer.
The 1930s was one of the most tumultuous decades for Germany. Already crippled by the debt they accrued from World War One, the European nation faced even tougher times following the ripple effects of Wall Street’s stock market crash. With such instability and poverty, the population was receptive to the words and promises of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, setting in motion a chain of events that would greatly–and tragically–alter the course of history. The grip of Nazism in the German capital of Berlin had begun the decade before, but it hit fever pitch in 1930 as Hitler and his Nazi Party launched a campaign to be voted into parliament. There were thousands of meetings, torchlight parades, propaganda posters and millions of Nazi newspapers in circulation. Hitler restored much of the population’s hope with vague promises of employment, prosperity, profit and the restoration of German glory. On election day in September 14, 1930, the Nazis were voted into parliament and thus became the second largest political party in Germany. This power increased by 1933, with Hitler named the Chancellor of Germany.
Calculus AB and Calculus BC CHAPTER 9 Differential Equations E. EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY We now apply the method of separation of variables to three classes of functions associated with different rates of change. In each of the three cases, we describe the rate of change of a quantity, write the differential equation that follows from the description, then solve—or, in some cases, just give the solution of—the d.e. We list several applications of each case, and present relevant problems involving some of the applications. Case I: Exponential Growth An interesting special differential equation with wide applications is defined by the following statement: “A positive quantity y increases (or decreases) at a rate that at any time t is proportional to the amount present.” It follows that the quantity y satisfies the d.e. where k > 0 if y is increasing and k < 0 if y is decreasing. From (1) it follows that If we are given an initial amount y, say y0 at time t = 0, then y0 = c · ek · 0 = c · 1 = c, and our law of exponential change tells us that c is the initial amount of y (at time t = 0). If the quantity grows with time, then k > 0; if it decays (or diminishes, or decomposes), then k < 0. Equation (2) is often referred to as the law of exponential growth or decay. The length of time required for a quantity that is decaying exponentially to be reduced by half is called its half-life. The population of a country is growing at a rate proportional to its population. If the growth rate per year is 4% of the current population, how long will it take for the population to double? SOLUTION: If the population at time t is P, then we are given that Substituting in equation (2), we see that the solution is P = P0 e0.04t, where P0 is the initial population. We seek t when P = 2P0: The bacteria in a certain culture increase continuously at a rate proportional to the number present. (a) If the number triples in 6 hours, how many will there be in 12 hours? (b) In how many hours will the original number quadruple? SOLUTIONS: We let N be the number at time t and N0 the number initially. Then hence, C = ln N0. The general solution is then N = N0 ekt, with k still to be determined. Since N = 3N0 when t = 6, we see that 3N0 = N0 e6k and that ln 3. Thus N = N0 e(t ln 3)/6. (a) When t = 12, N = N0 e2 ln 3 = N0 eln 32 = N0 eln 9 = 9N0. (b) We let N = 4N0 in the centered equation above, and get Radium-226 decays at a rate proportional to the quantity present. Its half-life is 1612 years. How long will it take for one quarter of a given quantity of radium-226 to decay? SOLUTION: If Q(t) is the amount present at time t, then it satisfies the equation where Q0 is the initial amount and k is the (negative) factor of proportionality. Since it is given that when t = 1612, equation (1) yields We now have When one quarter of Q0 has decayed, three quarters of the initial amount remains. We use this fact in equation (2) to find t: Applications of Exponential Growth (1) A colony of bacteria may grow at a rate proportional to its size. (2) Other populations, such as those of humans, rodents, or fruit flies, whose supply of food is unlimited may also grow at a rate proportional to the size of the population. (3) Money invested at interest that is compounded continuously accumulates at a rate proportional to the amount present. The constant of proportionality is the interest rate. (4) The demand for certain precious commodities (gas, oil, electricity, valuable metals) has been growing in recent decades at a rate proportional to the existing demand. Each of the above quantities (population, amount, demand) is a function of the form cekt (with k > 0). (See Figure N9–7a.) (5) Radioactive isotopes, such as uranium-235, strontium-90, iodine-131, and carbon-14, decay at a rate proportional to the amount still present. (6) If P is the present value of a fixed sum of money A due t years from now, where the interest is compounded continuously, then P decreases at a rate proportional to the value of the investment. (7) It is common for the concentration of a drug in the bloodstream to drop at a rate proportional to the existing concentration. (8) As a beam of light passes through murky water or air, its intensity at any depth (or distance) decreases at a rate proportional to the intensity at that depth. Each of the above four quantities (5 through 8) is a function of the form ce−kt (k > 0). (See Figure N9–7b.) At a yearly rate of 5% compounded continuously, how long does it take (to the nearest year) for an investment to triple? SOLUTION: If P dollars are invested for t yr at 5%, the amount will grow to A = Pe0.05t in t yr. We seek t when A = 3P: One important method of dating fossil remains is to determine what portion of the carbon content of a fossil is the radioactive isotope carbon-14. During life, any organism exchanges carbon with its environment. Upon death this circulation ceases, and the14 C in the organism then decays at a rate proportional to the amount present. The proportionality factor is 0.012% per year. When did an animal die, if an archaeologist determines that only 25% of the original amount of14 C is still present in its fossil remains? SOLUTION: The quantity Q of14 C present at time t satisfies the equation Q(t) = Q0 e−0.00012t (where Q0 is the original amount). We are asked to find t when Q(t) = 0.25Q0. Rounding to the nearest 500 yr, we see that the animal died approximately 11,500yr ago. In 1970 the world population was approximately 3.5 billion. Since then it has been growing at a rate proportional to the population, and the factor of proportionality has been 1.9% per year. At that rate, in how many years would there be one person per square foot of land? (The land area of Earth is approximately 200,000,000 mi2, or about 5.5 × 1015 ft2.) SOLUTION: If P(t) is the population at time t, the problem tells us that P satisfies the equation Its solution is the exponential growth equation P(t) = P0 e0.019t, where P0 is the initial population. Letting t = 0 for 1970, we have 3.5 × 109 = P(0) = P0 e0 = P0. P(t) = (3.5 × 109)e0.019t. The question is: for what t does P(t) equal 5.5 × 1015? We solve Taking the logarithm of each side yields where it seems reasonable to round off as we have. Thus, if the human population continued to grow at the present rate, there would be one person for every square foot of land in the year 2720. Case II: Restricted Growth The rate of change of a quantity y = f (t) may be proportional, not to the amount present, but to a difference between that amount and a fixed constant. Two situations are to be distinguished: The rate of change is proportional to (a) a fixed constant A minus the amount of the quantity present: (b) the amount of the quantity present minus a fixed constant A: f ′(t) = k[A − f (t)] f ′(t) = −k[f (t) − A] where (in both) f (t) is the amount at time t and k and A are both positive. We may conclude that (a) f (t) is increasing (Fig. N9–8a): (b) f (t) is decreasing (Fig. N9–8b): f (t) = A − ce−kt f (t) = A+ ce−kt for some positive constant c. Here is how we solve the d.e. for Case II(a), where A − y > 0. If the quantity at time t is denoted by y and k is the positive constant of proportionality, then Case II (b) can be solved similarly. According to Newton’s law of cooling, a hot object cools at a rate proportional to the difference between its own temperature and that of its environment. If a roast at room temperature 68°F is put into a 20°F freezer, and if, after 2 hours, the temperature of the roast is 40°F: (a) What is its temperature after 5 hours? (b) How long will it take for the temperature of the roast to fall to 21°F? SOLUTIONS: This is an example of Case II (b) (the temperature is decreasing toward the limiting temperature 20°F). (a) If R(t) is the temperature of the roast at time t, then (b) Equation (*) in part (a) gives the roast’s temperature at time t. We must find t when R = 21: Advertisers generally assume that the rate at which people hear about a product is proportional to the number of people who have not yet heard about it. Suppose that the size of a community is 15,000, that to begin with no one has heard about a product, but that after 6 days 1500 people know about it. How long will it take for 2700 people to have heard of it? SOLUTION: Let N(t) be the number of people aware of the product at time t. Then we are given that N ′(t) = k[15,000 − N(t)], which is Case IIa. The solution of this d.e. is N(t) = 15,000 − ce−kt. Since N(0) = 0, c = 15,000 and N(t) = 15,000(1 − e−kt ). Since 1500 people know of the product after 6 days, we have We now seek t when N = 2700: Applications of Restricted Growth (1) Newton’s law of heating says that a cold object warms up at a rate proportional to the difference between its temperature and that of its environment. If you put a roast at 68°F into an oven of 400°F, then the temperature at time t is R(t) = 400 − 332e−kt. (2) Because of air friction, the velocity of a falling object approaches a limiting value L (rather than increasing without bound). The acceleration (rate of change of velocity) is proportional to the difference between the limiting velocity and the object’s velocity. If initial velocity is zero, then at time t the object’s velocity V(t) = L(1 − e−kt). (3) If a tire has a small leak, then the air pressure inside drops at a rate proportional to the difference between the inside pressure and the fixed outside pressure O. At time t the inside pressure P(t) = O + ce−kt. Case III: Logistic Growth The rate of change of a quantity (for example, a population) may be proportional both to the amount (size) of the quantity and to the difference between a fixed constant A and its amount (size). If y = f(t) is the amount, then where k and A are both positive. Equation (1) is called the logistic differential equation; it is used to model logistic growth. The solution of the d.e. (1) is for some positive constant c. In most applications, c > 1. In these cases, the initial amount A/(1 + c) is less than A/2. In all applications, since the exponent of e in the expression for f (t) is negative for all positive t, therefore, as t → ∞, (1) ce−Akt → 0; (2) the denominator of f (t) → 1; (3) f (t) → A. Thus, A is an upper limit of f in this growth model. When applied to populations, A is called the carrying capacity or the maximum sustainable population. Shortly we will solve specific examples of the logistic d.e. (1), instead of obtaining the general solution (2), since the latter is algebraically rather messy. (It is somewhat less complicated to verify that y ′ in (1) can be obtained by taking the derivative of (2).) Unrestricted Versus Restricted Growth In Figures N9–9a and N9–9b we see the graphs of the growth functions of Cases I and III. The growth function of Case I is known as the unrestricted (or uninhibited or unchecked) model. It is not a very realistic one for most populations. It is clear, for example, that human populations cannot continue endlessly to grow exponentially. Not only is Earth’s land area fixed, but also there are limited supplies of food, energy, and other natural resources. The growth function in Case III allows for such factors, which serve to check growth. It is therefore referred to as the restricted(or inhibited) model. The two graphs are quite similar close to 0. This similarity implies that logistic growth is exponential at the start—a reasonable conclusion, since populations are small at the outset. The S-shaped curve in Case III is often called a logistic curve. It shows that the rate of growth y ′: (1) increases slowly for a while; i.e., y ″ > 0; (2) attains a maximum when y = A/2, at half the upper limit to growth; (3) then decreases (y ″ < 0), approaching 0 as y approaches its upper limit. It is not difficult to verify these statements. Applications of Logistic Growth (1) Some diseases spread through a (finite) population P at a rate proportional to the number of people, N(t), infected by time t and the number, P − N(t), not yet infected. Thus N ′(t) = kN(P − N) and, for some positive c and k, (2) A rumor (or fad or new religious cult) often spreads through a population P according to the formula in (1), where N(t) is the number of people who have heard the rumor (acquired the fad, converted to the cult), and P − N(t) is the number who have not. (3) Bacteria in a culture on a Petri dish grow at a rate proportional to the product of the existing population and the difference between the maximum sustainable population and the existing population. (Replace bacteria on a Petri dish by fish in a small lake, ants confined to a small receptacle, fruit flies supplied with only a limited amount of food, yeast cells, and so on.) (4) Advertisers sometimes assume that sales of a particular product depend on the number of TV commercials for the product and that the rate of increase in sales is proportional both to the existing sales and to the additional sales conjectured as possible. (5) In an autocatalytic reaction a substance changes into a new one at a rate proportional to the product of the amount of the new substance present and the amount of the original substance still unchanged. Because of limited food and space, a squirrel population cannot exceed 1000. It grows at a rate proportional both to the existing population and to the attainable additional population. If there were 100 squirrels 2 years ago, and 1 year ago the population was 400, about how many squirrels are there now? SOLUTION: Let P be the squirrel population at time t. It is given that with P(0) = 100 and P(1) = 400. We seek P(2). We will find the general solution for the given d.e. (3) by separating the variables: and, finally (!), Please note that this is precisely the solution “advertised” in equation (2), with A equal to 1000. Now, using our initial condition P(0) = 100 in (4), we get Using P(1) = 400, we get Then the particular solution is and P(2) 800 squirrels. Figure N9–10 shows the slope field for equation (3), with k = 0.00179, which was obtained by solving equation (5) above. Note that the slopes are the same along any horizontal line, and that they are close to zero initially, reach a maximum at P = 500, then diminish again as Papproaches its limiting value, 1000. We have superimposed the solution curve for P(t) that we obtained in (6) above. Suppose a flu-like virus is spreading through a population of 50,000 at a rate proportional both to the number of people already infected and to the number still uninfected. If 100 people were infected yesterday and 130 are infected today: (a) write an expression for the number of people N(t) infected after t days; (b) determine how many will be infected a week from today; (c) indicate when the virus will be speading the fastest. (a) We are told that N ′(t) = k · N · (50,000 −N), that N(0) = 100, and that N(1) = 130. The d.e. describing logistic growth leads to From N(0) = 100, we get which yields c = 499. From N(1) = 130, we get (b) We must find N(8). Since t = 0 represents yesterday: (c) The virus spreads fastest when 50,000/2 = 25,000 people have been infected. Chapter Summary and Caution In this chapter, we have considered some simple differential equations and ways to solve them. Our methods have been graphical, numerical, and analytical. Equations that we have solved analytically—by antidifferentiation—have been separable. It is important to realize that, given a first-order differential equation of the type it is the exception, rather than the rule, to be able to find the general solution by analytical methods. Indeed, a great many practical applications lead to d.e.’s for which no explicit algebraic solution exists.
Every parent of course always wants their kids to develop into someone who is smart. Even at the age of kindergarten, many parents often try to teach learning to write. Writing is one of the fine motor skills that kids need to master. Through writing, kids will learn as a medium in channeling emotions and self-expression towards their feelings. Kids who learn to write early can also be the initial capital to open their future. Moreover, the Little One can pour all the ideas in his mind into a written form. If your kid has entered kindergarten and is learning to write and your kid really needs to be taught to write. One other method that can be applied is by learning to write one word. This method can be done after he can write letters per letter so we provide trace the letter A for the beginning of writing letters. As it is known that copying includes activities in imitating a particular letter, number or shape using a pattern. This tracing the letter “A” method usually uses paper media that is thinner than the top, so that the Little One can easily see the types of patterns that can be applied to trace. This method of applying writing by tracing the letter A, can help your kid slowly. By guiding your kid through the tracing method, if it is routinely carried out it can provide new developments for him.
- 1 How do you make a wind-powered car? - 2 Can a car be powered by wind? - 3 How does a wind-powered car work? - 4 How do you make a car for a school project? - 5 Who invented the wind-powered car? - 6 How does balloon powered car work? - 7 What are 3 disadvantages of wind energy? - 8 Is wind energy expensive? - 9 How do wind turbines work when it not windy? - 10 What is a disadvantage of wind power? - 11 How do you make a wind powered car out of recycled materials? - 12 How do you make a balloon powered car? - 13 How do you make a cardboard car that you can sit in? - 14 What is the best first project car? How do you make a wind-powered car? - Poke the upright skewer through both ends of your smallest sail to hold it in place. - Place your fan on the floor at one end of a long hallway or large room. - Place your car in front of the fan, and turn the fan on. - Replace the smallest sail with your next-biggest sail, and try again. - Try with your largest sail. Can a car be powered by wind? This system of electrical power generation utilizes wind draft force from vehicles traveling on roadways. Moving at high speed, vehicles push away air as they travel, producing a lot of energy. There are more than 2.5 billion cars, which generate wind turbulence. How does a wind-powered car work? Wind–powered vehicles derive their power from sails, kites or rotors and ride on wheels—which may be linked to a wind–powered rotor—or runners. The wind–powered speed record is by a vehicle with a sail on it, Greenbird, with a recorded top speed of 202.9 kilometres per hour (126.1 mph). How do you make a car for a school project? Using a hot glue gun is recommended but you can also use Super Glue if you choose. - Step 1 – Cut The Top. - Step 2 – Cut The Bottom. - Step 3 – Add Straws. - Step 4 – Drill The Pulley. - Step 5 – Complete The Axle. - Step 6 – Prep The Wheels. - Step 7 – Attach The Wheels. - Step 8 – Cut Pulley Notch. Who invented the wind-powered car? Wind–powered car turns heads But in a small tractor workshop, 55-year-old farmer Tang Zhenping has invented the prototype of a car that he believes could revolutionize China’s auto industry. How does balloon powered car work? When you blow up the balloon, set your racer down, and let it go, escaping air from the balloon rushes out of the straw. This is your car’s propulsion system. As the air flows from the balloon, the energy changes to kinetic energy or the energy of motion. The moving Balloon–Powered Car is using kinetic energy. What are 3 disadvantages of wind energy? Various Disadvantages of Wind Energy - The wind is inconsistent. - Wind turbines involve high upfront capital investment. - Wind turbines have a visual impact. - May reduce the local bird population. - Wind turbines are prone to noise disturbances. - Installation can take up a significant portion of land. - Wind turbines can be a safety hazard. Is wind energy expensive? Wind power is more expensive than power from old, established power plants, but is cost competitive with any new power plant. Today, wind power plants can generate electricity for less than 5 cents per kilowatt-hour, a price that is competitive with new coal- or gas-fired power plants. How do wind turbines work when it not windy? If there is too little wind and the blades are moving too slowly, the wind turbine no longer produces electricity. The turbine starts to create power at what is known as the cut-in speed. Power output continues to grow as the wind speed increases, but at a slower rate than it does right after the cut-in point. What is a disadvantage of wind power? Wind energy causes noise and visual pollution One of the biggest downsides of wind energy is the noise and visual pollution. Wind turbines can be noisy when operating, as a result of both the mechanical operation and the wind vortex that’s created when the blades are rotating. How do you make a wind powered car out of recycled materials? - Cut out a piece of cardboard to form the body of your car. - Tape two straws to the bottom of your car, one at each end to form the axles. - Use the hobby knife to carefully poke a “+”-shaped hole in the center of each bottle cap. - Push a wooden skewer through the hole in one of the bottle caps. How do you make a balloon powered car? - Put your car down on a flat surface and give it a good push. - Tape the neck of the balloon around one end of the other straw. - Cut a small hole in the top of the water bottle, just big enough to push the straw through. - Push the free end of the straw through the hole and out the mouth of the bottle. How do you make a cardboard car that you can sit in? How to Make a Cardboard Box Car - Seal a large box with packing tape. - Have an adult use a box cutter to cut out a semicircle on each side to make the doors. - Fold the cut top of the box to create a windshield. - Have a grown-up cut out a windshield. - Glue on paper-plate wheels. - Attach plastic-cup lights with glue. What is the best first project car? Top Small Project Car Picks: - Honda Civic. - Mitsubishi Eclipse. - Mazda Miata. - Toyota Corolla. - Subaru Impreza.
Coming back to Modules let us first see one example to see what Modules can do, we will try to simulate the behavior of a Rectangle Class giving in the length of two sides and getting back the area. Area: 20 Perimeter: 18 Here, the Rectangle() function serves as an outer scope that contains the variables required i.e. length, width, as well as the functions create(), getArea(), and getPerimeter(). All these together are the private details of this Rectangle module that cannot be accessed/modified from the outside. On the other hand, the publicAPI as the name suggests is an object that consists of three functional members and is returned when the Rectangle function execution is complete. Using the API methods we can create and get the value of area and perimeter of the rectangle. Note: As we mentioned earlier that modules are the closest concepts of Classes in any other OOP language, many developers might feel like using the ‘new’ keyword while creating a new instance of the Rectangle Module. Rectangle() is just a function, not a proper class to be instantiated, so it’s just called normally. Using new would be inappropriate and actually waste resources. Executing Rectangle() creates an instance of the Rectangle module and a whole new scope is created and allocated to the function, and therefore a new instance of the member of the functions was generated, as we assigned it to a variable, now the variable had the reference to the allowed publicAPI members. Hence, we can see that running the Rectangle() method creates a new instance entirely separate from any other previous one. All the member functions have a closure over the length and width, which means that these functions can access them even after the Rectangle() function execution is finished.
Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a true problem in the United States. An estimated 10 to 40 million adults across the country show signs of this condition. Many of these are due to exposure to noisy areas such as the loud burst of gunfire found in the military or at shooting ranges, the clang of heavy machinery often heard in factories or the constant buzz of power tools used in automotive or construction industries. These occupational and recreational environments are hazardous to the hearing health of both people who show up daily as well as those who are only occasional exposed. Sudden, extreme noises can damage the delicate inner ear just as seriously as the constant exposure to these sounds can. It’s been proven that sudden impulse noises have a more adverse effect than a steady noise. Different people have different reactions to noises. Some may be more susceptible, yet others are not as responsive to them. While studies show that certain lifestyle habits such as smoking, drug use, work environment, and even age can have an effect on the body’s reaction to NIHL, the effects of genetics are now being studied as well. Though the effects of NIHL in humans is tough to study thanks to the variations of lifestyles people live as well as their individual genetics, studies performed in animal models is proving much more controlled. A combination of both genetic and environmental elements, the genetic susceptibility has been definitively proven in mice. More than 140 gene variations have been considered in the cause of hearing loss when there is a lack of additional indications. Variations in 34 genes have been found to be linked to the likelihood of increased auditory thresholds for people who have exposure to occupational noise. This type of noise can cause two different types of injury to the sensitive inner ear, though they depend on the duration and the intensity of noise exposure. One type is transient attenuation of hearing acuity or temporary threshold shift (TTS), which hearing often returns within 24-48 hours after TTS. Testing in mice, however, shows that instance of TTS at younger ages can speed up the process of age-related hearing loss even with the short-term recovery. The second type of injury is a permanent threshold shift (PTS). These can be brought on by dramatic, loud sounds such as being near a jet engine. This type of injury can lead to problems understanding speech in areas where there is a lot of loud background noise. NIHL symptoms can be associated with the injury of certain parts of the ear. The tympanic membrane, which is affected by the acoustic waves transmits soundwaves to the inner ear. Damage to these structures from blasts such as explosions, gunshots, jet engines, or even the blare of the siren from an emergency vehicle is highly possible. These sensitive areas can be ruptured or even destroyed completely, resulting in permanent hearing loss. Once soundwaves enter the cochlea, the outer hair cells begin to expand and contract quickly in an effort to pick up the acoustic vibrations produced within the inner hair cells. This is an area where the body’s potassium levels must be up in order to fuel the energy requirements of the process. This is where excessive noise can cause a great deal of harm, by damaging these outer hair cells. As with the tympanic membrane, any damage to these hair cells can also cause a threshold shift, resulting in permanent damage. While there is no known correlation between tinnitus and human genetics, hearing loss itself is subject to the genetics and susceptibility of the individual. Though preventable, NIHL is permanent and there is no way to reverse the condition. As the second-highest reason for hearing loss, it’s only been viewed as a problem since the 20th century. Approximately twelve percent of the population of the U.S. is exposed to noise levels severe enough to cause hearing damage through at least half of their workday. Genetics can play a factor in that some people will develop NIHL in this environment while others will not. Approximately 38 percent of alternative NIHL genes were found to be associated with families who experience hearing loss. Oxidative stress, or the imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants found in the body, endangers auditory function. Twenty-three percent of NIHL variants have been found in the oxidative stress response gene, which are proteins that are encoded to neutralize radical peroxide byproducts produced from the mitochondrial electron transport chain, according to an October 2019 article in the Hearing Health Journal. While each person has a different susceptibility level to NIHL, researchers are finding that many are based on differences in their specific genetic code. Future studies into the relationship between noise-induce hearing loss and genetics have the potential to reveal more surprising connections.
形容詞. A class of words that behaves mostly like verbs (but uses different grammatical endings) and is used to describe properties of nouns. A class of words that behaves mostly like verbs (but uses different grammatical endings) and is used to describe properties of nouns. i-adjectives can serve as the predicate of a subject in the main clause (e.g. 空は青い The sky is blue), and can describe any noun by being attached to it as a relative clause (青い空 sky which is blue or simply blue sky). The name i-adjectives comes from the fact that all members of this class end with the letter い in their dictionary form. - na-adjectives is separate class of word that are also used to describe properties of nouns, but behave like nouns and not like verbs. - adjectives is sometimes used to refer to both na-adjectives and i-adjectives together. These two class are utterly unrelated in Japanese, but they both translate to English adjectives, which makes it necessary for learners to treat them together.
The world’s soils are in jeopardy. Some scientists think agricultural soils are in such serious decline that the ability of the planet’s farmers to feed future generations is seriously compromised. The United Nations is so concerned about the issue of soil health that after two years of intensive work, the General Assembly declared Dec. 5 to be World Soil Day and 2015 the International Year of Soils. The goal of both events is to enhance awareness of the important roles soils play in human life, especially as populations increase and global demand for food, fuel and fiber rise. Fertile soil is critical to sustaining food and nutritional security, maintaining essential ecosystem functions, mitigating the effects of climate change, reducing the occurrence of extreme weather events, eradicating hunger, reducing poverty and creating sustainable development. By increasing global awareness that soils everywhere are in jeopardy, Year of Soils proponents hope policymakers will act to protect and manage soils in a sustainable manner for the world’s different land users and population groups. Carbon farming as the new agriculture This is a message that Rattan Lal, a soil science professor and founder of the Carbon Management and Sequestration Center at Ohio State University, believes leaders of governments and industry should take to heart. It’s one he’s been delivering for more than two decades and is centered on his concept of reviving soil quality through carbon farming, which he calls the new agriculture. Lal, the incoming president of the Vienna-based International Union of Soil Sciences, describes carbon farming as a process that takes carbon dioxide out of the air though sustainable land management practices and transfers it into the soil’s organic matter pool in a form that doesn’t allow carbon to escape back into the atmosphere. If this sounds like a practice that dates to the earliest of times of human farming, in essence, it is. Carbon is a key component of soil quality because it directly affects crop production. “Soil organic carbon is a reservoir of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, and magnesium and micronutrients,” Lal said. “As natural ingredients in the soil break down, these nutrients are released through microbial processes associated with decomposition. “An adequate level of soil organic carbon in the root zone is critical to several soil processes,” he continued. “These include nutrient storage, water retention, soil structure and tilth, microbial activity, soil biodiversity, including earthworms, and moderation of soil temperature. Management of soil organic carbon, such as by carbon farming techniques, is also important to improving the efficiency of fertilizers, water and energy.” Lal said he believes the world’s soils have declined through centuries of improper land management that has removed and depleted alarming amounts of carbon from soils worldwide. He attributes the loss of soil carbon to ecosystem destruction — cutting down forested, natural ecosystems to create agricultural ecosystems, erosion and desertification — and nonsustainable farming and nutrient techniques such as plowing instead of no-till farming and using chemical fertilizers instead of spreading manure on fields. Significant areas of fertile soil also have disappeared as cities keep growing. He compares soil carbon content to “a bank account that Mother Nature gave us. We’ve withdrawn so much carbon from that account,” he said, “that the account — the soil — has become impoverished.” The way to increase the health of the account, he said, is the same way you would improve your personal bank account, which is by putting more into it than you take out. In the case of the soil carbon “account,” though, the deposits would be in the form of carbon farmers harvest from the air and put into the soil through recycling biomass such as compost. “Soil carbon depletion is so severe,” Lal said, “that in just 200 years of farming in the contiguous United States, the country’s agricultural soils have lost 30 to 50 percent of their carbon content. The problem is worse in the world’s poorest countries.” In Southeast Asia, India, Pakistan, Central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Lal estimates the loss of soil carbon is as much as 70 to 80 percent. Carbon farming 101 Soybeans grow in a no-till field in South Dakota. (Photo: USDA NRCS South Dakota [CC by 2.0]/flickr) Carbon farming can be accomplished, Lal contends, though agricultural practices that add high amounts of biomass such as manure and compost to the soil, cause minimal soil disturbance, conserve soil and water, improve soil structure, and enhance soil fauna (earthworm) activity. No-till crop production is a prime example of an effective carbon farming technique, he said. Conversely, traditional plowing of fields releases carbon into the atmosphere. In Lal’s view, once carbon is restored to the soil in sufficient quantities, it could be traded just like any other commodity is traded. In this case, though, the commodity — carbon — would not be physically transferred from one farmer or farm to another entity. “The carbon would stay in the land to continue to improve soil quality,” he said. “It’s not like selling corn or wheat.” Lal proposes that farmers be compensated for harvesting and trading carbon credits based on cap-and-trade, maintenance fees and payments for ecosystem services. Credits under Lal’s concept would be based on the amount of carbon farmers sequester per acre. Soil carbon can be measured, Lal said, through laboratory and field tests. Industry also figures into Lal’s carbon farming plan. As an inducement to reducing carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-emitting activities, he wants industries to be given similar credits, perhaps in the form of tax breaks. Carbon farming, Lal emphasized, is not limited to farms or industries. It could be practiced by land managers in local, state or federal governments, or by others who oversee open spaces such as golf courses, roadsides, parks, erosion-prone areas and landscapes that have been degraded or drastically disturbed by activities such as mining, he said. Selling the idea Lal, as much a pragmatist as a theorist, knows his concept is not an easy sell. Industry and modern lifestyles that burn fossil fuels are putting more carbon into the atmosphere than farmers and land managers can sequester. “The rate at which we are burning carbon globally is 10 gigatons a year,” he said. “The rate at which the world’s farmers can absorb that carbon even though best practices is about 1 gigaton. The rate at which land managers can sequester carbon through reforestation on eroding and depleted land is only about another gigaton.” That leaves a carbon deficit surplus of 8 gigatons a year. How does the global community remove that unwanted surplus, which many scientists believe is accelerating global warming? “We have to eventually find noncarbon fuel sources such as wind, solar, geothermal and bio-fuels,” Lal said. “I hope in one to two centuries we are not burning fossil fuels.” But Lal said he doesn’t think world populations have that long. He said we are just buying time as we search for alternative fuel sources and that time is running out. He puts the window of opportunity at 50 to 100 years. If the world hasn’t embraced climate-smart agriculture by then, he fears future populations will experience what the 2015 Year of Soils is trying to head off: food insecurity, a breakdown in essential eco-system functions, more frequent extreme weather events as climate change worsens, significant increases in global hunger and poverty, and a sharp drop in sustainable development. However, Lal said there are lots of encouraging developments: “Carbon farming is leading to increased crop yields, for example, in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, Uganda, Zambia and Malawi. Agronomic production has improved in countries of Central America. In these and other countries, improved agriculture is now the engine of economic development, and there is a vast potential for further improvement.” “Through conversion of science into action through political will power and policy interventions, sustainable intensification can be implemented based on soil-restorative options,” Lal pointed out. “With judicious management, productivity and nutritional quality can be improved to feed the current and projected population while improving the environment and restoring ecosystem functions and services.” “Soils must never be taken for granted,” he said. “Soil resources must be used, improved and restored for generations to come.” Inset photo (soil sample): USDA NRCS Virginia

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