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When the tissue that lines the esophagus (the muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach) changes to resemble that of the lining of the intestine, the condition is called Barrett's Esophagus. Affecting one to two million adults in the United States each year, usually white men over 50, Barrett's Esophagus is commonly found in those who have suffered from gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) for a prolonged period of time. GERD occurs when the ring of muscle that keeps swallowed food and stomach acid from leaking backward into the esophagus doesn't close tightly enough. This can allow stomach acid to back up into the esophagus, causing the tissue damage that leads to Barrett's Esophagus. Some patients with Barrett's Esophagus develop further changes to the esophagus called dysplasia. Dysplasia increases the risk of getting cancer of the esophagus, but fewer than 1 percent of those with Barrett's Esophagus develop cancer. Still, people who have Barrett's Esophagus are 30 times more likely to get esophageal cancer than those who don't. Barrett's Esophagus has no signs or symptoms other than the heartburn symptoms that are associated with GERD. These include a painful burning sensation in the esophagus, just below or behind the breastbone that often rises in the chest and may radiate to the neck or throat. Unlike occasional heartburn, symptoms of GERD are frequent and ongoing. Having chronic heartburn and symptoms of GERD for more than 10 years or being young at the onset of GERD puts one at risk of developing Barrett's Esophagus. So does being a current or past smoker. Taking medications to control the signs and symptoms of GERD reduces risk. Lifestyle changes may also reduce symptoms of GERD, thereby reducing risk of Barrett's Esophagus. These include: - Maintaining a healthy weight to avoid the pressure on your abdomen caused when excess pounds push your stomach up and cause acid to back up into your esophagus - Eating smaller, more frequent meals including small snacks in between to avoid weight gain since excess weight aggravates heartburn - Avoiding tight-fitting clothing that aggravates reflux by putting pressure on your abdomen - Eliminating heartburn triggers such as fatty or fried foods, alcohol, chocolate, peppermint, garlic, onion, caffeine and nicotine. - Avoiding bending over for a prolonged period of time, especially soon after eating - Avoiding lying down for at least three hours after eating - Elevating the head of your bed 6 - 8 inches - Quitting smoking since smoking may increase stomach acid Patients with prolonged GERD should be monitored for Barrett's Esophagus by a trained gastroenterologist. Using a procedure called upper endoscopy, the doctor inserts a lighted tube (endoscope) with a tiny camera into the esophagus to perform an examination. If the tissue seems to be changing or appears abnormal, the doctor will perform a biopsy by taking several small samples using special tools passed through the endoscope. This tissue will be looked at under a microscope to determine the type and degree of change that has taken place. The degree of change is called dysplasia, and the type of dysplasia will dictate treatment. If no changes are found in the cells, there is no dysplasia. Cells with small changes are said to have low-grade dysplasia. Patients with no or low-grade dysplasia are usually monitored periodically with endoscopic exams. Typically, a follow-up endoscopy is done one year later for patients with no dysplasia, then every three years thereafter if no dysplasia is detected. Patients with low-grade dysplasia will usually have a repeat endoscopy six months or a year later along with GERD treatments that may include prescription medications and/or surgery to tighten the muscle ring that controls the flow of stomach acid. Treating GERD may control signs and symptoms, but it does not treat the underlying Barrett's Esophagus. High-grade dysplasia is known to be a pre-cursor to cancer of the esophagus. For this reason, when high-grade dysplasia is found, more invasive treatments are considered. Depending on your overall health and preference, recommended treatments may include: - Surgery to remove the esophagus (esophagectomy). An esophagectomy is a major operation where the surgeon removes most of the esophagus and connects the portion that remains to the stomach. The risk of serious complications is reduced when the procedure is performed by an experienced surgeon, but it is still significant. Although surgery reduces the need for periodic endoscopy exams in the future, other treatments are usually preferred before surgery. - Removing damaged cells with an endoscope (endoscopic mucosal resection). Areas of damaged cells are removed during this procedure. The doctor guides an endoscope into the esophagus through the throat. Surgical tools are passed through the endoscope allowing the doctor to cut away the damaged cells. The procedure carries a risk of complications such as bleeding, rupture and narrowing of the esophagus. - Using heat to remove abnormal esophageal tissue (radiofrequency ablation). During this procedure, a balloon filled with electrodes is inserted in the esophagus. The balloon emits a short burst of energy that destroys the damaged esophageal tissue. Radiofrequency ablation carries a risk of narrowing of the esophagus, bleeding and chest pain. At the Capital Health Center for Digestive Health, our physicians use the HALO System for this advanced approach. - Using cold to destroy abnormal esophagus cells (cryotherapy). Using an endoscope, cryotherapy involves applying a cold liquid or gas to the abnormal cells in the esophagus. The cells are allowed to warm up and then are frozen again. The cycle of freezing and thawing damages the cells. Cryotherapy carries a risk of chest pain, narrowing of the esophagus and tearing of the esophagus. - Destroying damaged cells by making them sensitive to light (photodynamic therapy). This procedure involves having a medication that makes the damaged cells in the esophagus sensitive to light injected through a vein in the arm. Using an endoscope, the doctor then guides a special light down the throat and into the esophagus. The light reacts with medication in the cells and causes the damaged cells to die. The procedure causes sensitivity to sunlight and complications such as narrowing of the esophagus, chest pain and nausea may occur. With treatments other than surgery, there is a chance that Barrett's Esophagus can recur. Doctors may recommend patients continue to take acid-reducing medications and have periodic endoscopy exams. The information provided on these educational pages is for informational purposes only. The content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. And, if experiencing a medical emergency call 9-1-1.
Not Just Going with the Flow Aquatic animals can modify their fluid environment to improve efficiency Swimming fish and dolphins appear to move effortlessly through the water. Even when they glide, they don’t seem to lose any speed. However, rigid and fixed laws of physics and principles of hydrodynamics dictate how water flows around an animal. This flow determines the forces the animals must generate and the energy they must expend to move. Animals propelling themselves through water must contend not only with pushing back on the fluid but also with forcing their way through an incompressible medium. Despite the inflexibilities of these physical forces, underwater animals have developed highly effective means to control flow and move economically through the aquatic environment. The observation of the interaction between an aquatic animal and the water around it, called its flow field, goes back to Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci recognized the advantages of the streamlined shape of a fish based on the flow surrounding it. He argued that the fish could move through the water with little resistance, or drag. The streamlined shape allowed the water to flow smoothly over the body. Later, in 1809, Sir George Cayley, the father of aerodynamics, examined the streamlined body shapes of a trout and a dolphin. He considered their similar shapes to be solids of a design that offered the least resistance to flow. More recently, Steven Vogel of Duke University introduced biologists to the interaction of organisms and flow with his 1981 book Life in Moving Fluids. His contribution resulted in a greater appreciation of the interaction between animals and the liquid medium. Manipulation of flow is accomplished both passively and actively. Animals use passive mechanisms involving design of the body and texture of their surfaces, which alter flow conditions against the body surface in order to reduce drag. On the other hand, active control of flow involves mobile fins and paddles, which regulate water movements that are shed into the wake as vortices. Vorticity is the tendency of a fluid to rotate or spin. An extreme version of vorticity is a vortex. The vortex is a spinning, cyclonic mass of fluid, which can be observed in the rotation of water going down a drain, as well as in smoke rings, tornadoes and hurricanes. Up until the last 20 years, the control of flow by animals has largely been conceptualized rather than visualized. Expectations of the interaction of animals and water flow were based on simple engineered systems. Streamlined forms, synthetic wings, wavy plates and polished surfaces were the standards to compare with animals. However, animals exhibit a wide diversity and complexity of shapes and movements, which can influence the flow dynamics in ways not previously envisioned. Animals change shape during motion, unlike human-designed systems, further complicating analyses of motion in a fluid environment. Biologists have recently been employing the same techniques as engineers to visualize flow, and these methods have greatly aided biologists in describing and quantifying the flow fields around animals. One mechanism is to introduce dye into the water along the surface or in the wake of a swimming animal, which shows a continuous record of the trajectory of the fluid. Similarly, particle image velocimetry (PIV) can visualize the pathway of the flow by illuminating reflective particles introduced into the fluid. The particles are illuminated with a laser that has been projected into a wide “sheet” rather than a single beam. This optical method also can define the velocity of the flow in a two- or three-dimensional field around the animal. Tracking the particles in the flow requires high-speed cameras and sophisticated computer software. Compared to these experimental methods of flow visualization, computational fluid dynamics uses computers to simulate the flow from numerical solutions, which are based on theoretical equations governing fluid movement. Research using these varied flow visualization techniques has given new insights into how animals manipulate flow. Long-standing ideas are being tested regarding the best designs and mechanics of movement with regard to enhanced propulsion, reduction in drag, and the coordination of feeding and locomotion. Understanding how animals can control flow has immense implications not only for understanding the evolution of aquatic species, but also for developing biologically inspired machines and even for elucidating global climate change.
Kepler’s First Law Describes the Shape of an Orbit The orbit of a planet around the Sun (or of a satellite around a planet) is not a perfect circle. It is an ellipse—a “flattened” circle. The Sun (or the center of the planet) occupies one focus of the ellipse. A focus is one of the two internal points that help determine the shape of an ellipse. The distance from one focus to any point on the ellipse and then back to the second focus is always the same. Kepler’s Second Law Describes the Way an Object’s Speed Varies along Its Orbit A planet’s orbital speed changes, depending on how far it is from the Sun. The closer a planet is to the Sun, the stronger the Sun’s gravitational pull on it, and the faster the planet moves. The farther it is from the Sun, the weaker the Sun’s gravitational pull, and the slower it moves in its orbit. Kepler’s Third Law Compares the Motion of Objects in Orbits of Different Sizes A planet farther from the Sun not only has a longer path than a closer planet, but it also travels slower, since the Sun’s gravitational pull on it is weaker. Therefore, the larger a planet’s orbit, the longer the planet takes to complete it.
Up, Up, and Away Story and photos by Daniel Lane Science fiction comes alive on Kauai as NASA gets ready to send a huge parachute into space, preparing for a manned landing on Mars For the first time in more than 40 years, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is developing and testing different ways to slow a spacecraft’s rate of descent as it enters a planetary atmosphere — last week’s planned launch from Kauai’s Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF) in Kekaha was delayed by weather, perhaps until this week. Until now, probes sent to the surface of Mars have used the same technology as the Viking landers, developed back in the early 1970s. This involved large parachutes used singly or in groups. This technique has worked well, but has limitations, the most important of which is payload. Currently, only a total weight of approximately 1.5 tons has been able to land safely on the surface of Mars. But with the goal of sending humans to the Martian surface, a safe and effective way to put between 20 and 40 tons of material onto the ground is needed. NASA is here to test the initial designs that will take us one step closer to that goal. The test vehicle of today is the Low Density Supersonic Decelerator (LDSD). The low density comes from the thickness of the Martian atmosphere, which is equivalent to only 1 percent of the density here on Earth at sea level. The challenge is to slow down a large mass that is traveling at more than three or four times the speed of sound in a very thin layer of air. Its distinct saucer shape, so popular with science fiction movies of the 1950s, serves a significant purpose on this particular test flight. The design aids in slowing down the vehicle, while it also helps direct airflow into the initial device, the Supersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (SIAD), which wraps around the edge of the vehicle. As the saucer descends into the atmosphere, the SIAD will deploy, creating a large, durable, doughnut-shaped “balloon” around the vehicle. The drag created will slow the rate of descent from Mach 3.5 or greater down to Mach 2 or lower. After the initial slowdown, a secondary tool is being tested. A 100-foot-diameter parachute called the Supersonic Disk Sail (SSDS) will deploy and further slow the entry vehicle from Mach 2 to 1.5 down to subsonic speeds. These devices will be the largest of their kind ever flown at speeds several times greater than the speed of sound. This first test flight on Kauai is to start with a very large balloon. Once inflated, the balloon will carry the LDSD up to 120,000 feet. Once that altitude is reached, the balloon will release, and a solid rocket on the bottom of the vehicle will fire and further carry it up to more than 180,000 feet while accelerating it up to over Mach 4. This altitude is necessary to simulate the low density of the Martian atmosphere. After the right speed and altitude are achieved, the craft will start its rapid descent toward the planet, and the actual testing begins. This test vehicle is the first in a series that NASA will test here on Kauai. A second test already is scheduled next year, using an even larger vehicle than the current model of the LDSD. Kauai’s own PMRF is considered the perfect location to do this. The technology and infrastructure are already there, and most of all, it has the space available. Join me in wishing the best of luck to the military personnel of PMRF alongside NASA scientists in this and all future endeavors, helping to broaden mankind’s knowledge and our reach for the stars.
kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games \| Earth's oceans\| The Atlantic Ocean is the body of water which is bordered: - on its west by the Americas and part of the Pacific Ocean, - on its east by Europe, Africa, and the Indian Ocean, - to the north by the Arctic Ocean, and - to the south by the Southern Ocean. Scientists say that millions of years ago, there was only one ocean, and that most of the land in the world was joined together over where the Atlantic Ocean is now. Eventually, they think an enormous crack developed in the ground due to volcanic forces, and that the continents started ever so slowly drifting away from each other. The crack would have filled with water from rivers, and eventually the sea might have broken through from the north and the south. Even to this day, the east coast of the Americas is shaped somewhat like the west coast of Africa, but the difference is actually much greater than it might appear, so it is not really an exact fit or even a close one. The Atlantic Ocean is still growing now, because of sea-floor spreading from the mid-Atlantic Ridge, while the Pacific Ocean is said to be shrinking because the sea floor is folding under itself. The Atlantic Ocean has important ocean currents. One of these, called the Gulf Stream, flows across the North Atlantic. Water gets heated by the sun in the Caribbean Sea and then moves northwest toward the North Pole. This makes France, Ireland, Britain, Iceland, and Norway in Europe much warmer in winter than Newfoundland and Nova Scotia in Canada. Without the Gulf Stream, the climates of northeast Canada and northwest Europe might be the same, because these places are about the same distance from the North Pole. - LA Times special Altered Oceans - Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations - CIA World Factbook information about Atlantic Ocean - Oceans at the Open Directory Project
A How-to Guide for Student-Driven PBL Reviewed by Susi Durand How can I design learning experiences which unleash my students’ engagement? How can I inspire my students to reach for deep content knowledge? How can I prepare my students for success in the world beyond the classroom walls and into the future? In just one hundred and fifty-five pages, Dayna Laur’s Authentic Project-Based Learning in Grades 9-12 outlines how to answer these questions in any subject area. I am a middle school teacher who chose this book because I participated in a project-based learning workshop earlier this year, and I was totally sold on its potential to transform my teaching and energize my students’ learning. However, the impact on students of the first project-based learning unit I created following that workshop was underwhelming. I needed to revisit the whole process and Dayna Laur’s extensive background in authentic PBL caught my eye. Laur packs eight chapters with learning sciences-based practical examples that cover how you: 1. Create authentic challenge projects. 2. Connect content standards to students’ real-life situations. 3. Use technology to augment student-centered learning. 4. Generate authentic and relevant reading and writing experiences. 5. Build formative assessments to fine-tune authentic project-based learning. 6. Design complex (and not complicated) learning activities. 7. Develop key real-world competencies while covering content. Chapter 8 answers frequently asked questions about authentic project-based learning. I would recommend that you start by reading this chapter if you are new to this approach. It will provide you with a conceptual framework. Each chapter begins with an overarching challenge question modeling the complex questions which ignite student learning and ends with a ‘Time to Reflect’ organizer. This organization makes Laur’s book an excellent opportunity for a teacher PD book club read. The tables in each chapter provide clear and actionable information and resources, and the appendices are a treasure trove of tools and activities to help foster active engagement throughout the secondary grades. Designing an authentic project-based learning unit In the authentic project-based learning process, Laur identifies five assessment-based stages: 1. Challenge and Purpose 2. Inquiry and Ideas 3. Context and Perspective 4. Actions and Consequences 5. Options and Opportunities The accompanying questions for each stage serve as a guide in the design process. The unlimited scope to personalize learning generated by this inquiry was both stunning and empowering. The complex thinking that authentic project-based learning fosters in students mirrors the complex thinking Laur’s book generated in me. I was only able to read one chapter each day before spending hours while gardening, working out, or doing chores thinking about my own teaching practice and how to make it more student-centered. I like that the book is written in the first person and sprinkled with numerous personal anecdotes. The resulting informality of the tone makes this multi-layered pedagogical approach feel more attainable. The depth and breadth of the information definitely solicit more than one reading: I read it once to get an overall understanding, then went back and reread it chapter by chapter as I planned a seventh-grade English class unit using the book Refugee by Alan Gratz as a case study. Dayna Laur’s Authentic Project-Based Learning in Grades 9-12 is an excellent choice if you are looking to either adopt project-based learning or explore ways to enhance a student-centered approach in your classroom. Susi Durand has been teaching middle and high school students in the U.S. and abroad for over fifteen years. Previously, Susi developed curriculum for the Global Assessment Certificate – an ACT university preparation program for ESL students. A National Geographic certified teacher, she holds a Masters in Learning Sciences and Technology. She tweets from @susi4ed.
DNA = DeoxyriboNucleic Acid. Double helix structure. DNA is a chemical that determines inherited characteristics and it contains genetic code. Made up of 3 basic components to form a nucleotide. DNA is a POLYnucleotide due to being made up of many nucleotides. Basic Components = Dioxyribose (pentose sugar), Phosphate Goup and an organic base (A,T,G,C). Phosphate group \ \ Deoxyribose --------- Organic Base There are 4 possible organic bases - A = adenine G = Guanine C = Cytosine Each base can only join to its complimentary bases. A joins to T and G joins to C. the organic base is the only part of DNA that changes. The phosphate and sugar group stay the same. Organic bases are of two types; double and single ringed. Double ringed = A and G, Guanine produces 3 hydrogen bonds Single ringed = C and T, Thymine produces 2 hydrogen bonds. Two poly nucleotides join together to form a double helix. In one strand, deoxyribose joins with the phosphate group to create a sugar-phosphate backbone. The 2 poly nucleotide strands join together by hydrogen bonds that from between the 2 complimentary bases. The phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and organic base are all joined together in a process called condensation. In every DNA molecule the phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and 4 bases are the same. It is the ratio quantity of these bases that differs and more importantly, the sequence in which they are in in the double helix. DNA storage in EUKARYOTIC CELLS> - Contain linear DNA that exists as CHROMOSOMES. - DNA molecule is really long and winds up into the nucleus. - The DNA is wound around proteins; Histone proteins. - DNA is then wound up very tightly and compact to make a chromosome. - The DNA is associated with proteins. DNA storage in PROKARYOTIC- - Also as chromosomes but DNA MOLECULES ARE SHORTER AND CIRCULAR. The DNA isn't wound round histone proteins. The DNA condenses to become more compact by a process called SUPERCOILING. The DNA isn't associated with proteins like in eukaryotic cells
Part of a series on the \|History of Greece\| The Dorians (/, /; Greek: Δωριεῖς, Dōrieis, singular Δωριεύς, Dōrieus) were one of the four major ethnic groups among which the Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece considered themselves divided (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans and Ionians). They are almost always referred to as just "the Dorians", as they are in the earliest literary mention of them in Odyssey, where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete. They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city of Corinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state of Sparta. And yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian, and which were not. Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, count on the assistance of other Dorian states. Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions. In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek ethne, whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War. The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as "Ionian" or "Dorian" has itself been disputed. At one extreme Édouard Will concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda. At the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions. Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the fifth- and fourth-century BC literary tradition have been profoundly influenced by their own social politics. Also, according to E.N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered "Dorian" identified themselves as "Laconophile" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of "Dorians". - 1 Origin of the Dorians - 2 Dorian identity - 3 Ancient traditions - 4 See also - 5 Notes - 6 Bibliography - 7 External links Origin of the Dorians Accounts vary as to the Dorians’ place of origin. One theory, widely believed in ancient times, is that they originated in the north, north-western mountainous regions of Greece, ancient Macedonia and Epirus, whence obscure circumstances brought them south into the Peloponnese, to certain Aegean islands, Magna Graecia, Lapithos and Crete. Mythology gave them a Greek origin and eponymous founder, Dorus son of Hellen, the mythological patriarch of the Hellenes. Peloponnesian dialect replacement The origin of the Dorians is a multi-faceted concept. In modern scholarship the term often has meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypothetical Proto-Greek speaking population. This dialect is known from records of classical northwest Greece, the Peloponnesus and Crete and some of the islands. The geographic and ethnic information found in the west's earliest known literary work, the Iliad, combined with the administrative records of the former Mycenaean states, prove to universal satisfaction that East Greek speakers were once dominant in the Peloponnesus but suffered a setback there and were replaced at least in official circles by West Greek speakers. A historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently the Return of the Heracleidai and by moderns the Dorian Invasion. This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece but overran the Peloponnesus replacing the East Greek there with their own dialect. No other records than Mycenaean are known to have existed in the Bronze Age, so a West Greek of that time and place cannot be proved or disproved. West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times. Unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events. This provides circumstantial evidence that the Doric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, a highly mountainous and somewhat isolated region. The Dorian invasion The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for: - at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times - more generally, the distribution of the Dorians in Classical Greece - the presence of the Dorians in Greece at all On the whole, none of the objectives were met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses. Most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenean civilization. The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnesus remains unattested by any solid evidence. Post-migrational distribution of the Dorians Though most of the Doric invaders settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily, in what is now southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities): Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) and Knidos (Cnidus) in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes. These six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also invaded Crete. These origin traditions remained strong into classical times: Thucydides saw the Peloponnesian War in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that the Syracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent. Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. (EB 1911). Name of the Dorians The Dorian of Bronze Age Pylos A man's name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians. Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the dative case as do-ri-je-we, Dōriēwei, a third or consonant declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested nominative plural, Dōriēwes, would have become Dōrieis by loss of the w and contraction. The tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of "religious dignitaries" celebrating a religious festival of Potnia, the mother goddess. The nominative singular, Dōrieus, remained the same in the classical period. Many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership. According to Carl Darling Buck, the -eus suffix was very productive. One of its uses was to convert a toponym to an anthroponym; for example, Megareus, "Megarian," from Megara. A Dōrieus would be from Dōris, the only classical Greek state to serve as the basis for the name of the Dorians. The state is a small one in the mountains of west central Greece. However, classical Doris may not have been the same as Mycenaean Doris. The Dorians of upland Doris A number of credible etymologies by noted scholars have been proposed. Julius Pokorny derives Δωριεύς, Dōrieus from δωρίς, dōris, "woodland" (which can also mean upland). The dōri- segment is from the o-grade (either ō or o) of Proto-Indo-European deru-, "tree", which also gives the Homeric Δούρειος Ἵππος (Doureios Hippos, "Wooden Horse"). This derivation has the advantage of naming the people after their wooded, mountainous country. A second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greek δόρυ (doru) 'spear-shaft' (which was made of wood); i.e., "the people of the spear" or "spearmen." In this case the country would be named after the people, as in Saxony from the Saxons. However, R. S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and asserted that no good etymology exists. The chosen Greeks It sometimes happens that different derivations of an Indo-European word exploit similar-sounding Indo-European roots. Greek doru, "lance," is from the o-grade of Indo-European deru, "solid," in the sense of wood. It is similar to an extended form, dō-ro-, of dō-, (give), as can be seen in the modern Greek imperative δώσε (dose, "give [sing.]!") appearing in Greek as δῶρον (dōron, "gift"). This is the path taken by Jonathan Hall, relying on elements taken from the myth of the Return of the Herakeidai. Hall cites the tradition, based on a fragment of the poet, Tyrtaeus, that "Sparta is a divine gift granted by Zeus and Hera" to the Heracleidae. In another version, Tyndareus gives his kingdom to Heracles in gratitude for restoring him to the throne, but Heracles "asks the Spartan king to safeguard the gift until his descendants might claim it." Hall therefore proposes that the Dorians are the people of the gift. They assumed the name on taking possession of Lacedaemon. Doris was subsequently named after them. Hall makes comparisons of Spartans to Hebrews as a chosen people maintaining a covenant with God and being assigned a Holy Land. To arrive at this conclusion, Hall relies on Herodotus' version of the myth (see below) that the Hellenes under Dorus did not take his name until reaching the Peloponnesus. In other versions the Heracleidae enlisted the help of their Dorian neighbors. Hall does not address the problem of the Dorians not calling Lacedaemon Doris, but assigning that name to some less holy and remoter land. Similarly, he does not mention the Dorian servant at Pylos, whose sacred gift, if such it was, was still being ruled by the Achaean Atreid family at Lacedaemon. Distinctions of language The Doric dialect was spoken in northwest Greece, the Peloponnese, Crete, southwest Asia Minor, the southernmost islands of the Aegean Sea, and the various Dorian colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy and Sicily. After the classical period it was mainly replaced by the Attic dialect, upon which the Koine or "common" Greek language of the Hellenistic period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of proto-Indo-European [aː], long ⟨α⟩, which in Attic-Ionic became [ɛː], ⟨η⟩. A famous example is the valedictory phrase uttered by Spartan mothers to their sons before sending them off to war: ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς (ḕ tàn ḕ epì tâs, literally "either it or on it", i.e. either return alive with your shield, or dead upon it) would have been ἢ τὴν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς (ḕ tḕn ḕ epì tês) in the Attic-Ionic dialect of an Athenian mother. Tsakonian, a descendant of Doric Greek, is still spoken in some parts of the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in the modern prefecture of Arcadia. Other cultural distinctions Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristic Doric calendar revolving round a cycle of festivals of which the Hyacinthia and the Carneia were especially important. The Dorian mode in music also was attributed to Doric societies and was associated by classical writers with martial qualities. Dorian women had a distinctive dress, a tunic (plain dress) not needing to be pinned with brooches, which was once common to all the Hellenes. The Ionian women adopted a new dress with a brooch. The Dorians seem to have offered the central mainland cultus for Helios. The scattering of cults of the sun god in Sicyon, Argos, Ermioni, Epidaurus and Laconia, and his holy livestock flocks at Taenarum, seem to suggest that the deity was considerably important in Dorian religion, compared to other parts of ancient Greece. Additionally, it may have been the Dorians to import his worship to Rhodes. In Greek historiography, the Dorians are mentioned by many authors. The chief classical authors to relate their origins are Herodotus, Thucydides and Pausanias. The most copious authors, however, lived in Hellenistic and Roman times, long after the main events. This apparent paradox does not necessarily discredit the later writers, who were relying on earlier works that did not survive. The customs of the Spartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors as Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus. "There is a land called Crete, in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair, rich land, begirt with water, and therein are many men, past counting, and ninety cities. They have not all the same speech, but their tongues are mixed. There dwell Achaeans, there great-hearted native Cretans, there Cydonians, and Dorians of waving plumes, and goodly Pelasgians." The reference is not compatible with a Dorian invasion that brought Dorians to Crete only after the fall of the Mycenaean states. In the Odyssey, Odysseus and his relatives visit those states. Two solutions are possible, either the Odyssey is anachronistic or Dorians were on Crete in Mycenaean times. The uncertain nature of the Dorian invasion defers a definitive answer until more is known about it. Tyrtaeus, a lame Athenian warrior-poet, became advisor of the Lacedaemonians in their mid-7th-century war to suppress a rebellion of the Messenians. The latter were a remnant of the Achaeans conquered "two generations before," which suggests a rise to supremacy at the end of the Dark Age rather than during and after the fall of Mycenae. The Messenian population was reduced to serfdom. "For Cronus' Son Himself, Zeus the husband of fair-crowned Hera, hath given this city to the children of Heracles, with whom we came into the wide isle of Pelops from windy Erineus." Erineus was a village of Doris. He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly. He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the "Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms." These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms. He stressed patriotism: "For 'tis a fair thing for a good man to fall and die fighting in the van for his native land, ... let us fight with a will for this land, and die for our children and never spare our lives." Herodotus was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians. "the Pelasgians ... were once neighbors of the people now called Dorians, and at that time inhabited the country which now is called Thessalian." He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth: "56. Of all the answers that had reached him, this pleased him far the best, for it seemed incredible that a mule should ever come to be king of the Medes, and so he concluded that the sovereignty would never depart from himself or his seed after him. Afterwards he turned his thoughts to the alliance which he had been recommended to contract, and sought to ascertain by inquiry which was the most powerful of the Grecian states. His inquiries pointed out to him two states as pre-eminent above the rest. These were the Lacedaemonians and the Athenians, the former of Doric the latter of Ionic blood. And indeed these two nations had held from very early times the most distinguished place in Greece, the one being a Pelasgic the other a Hellenic people, and the one having never quitted its original seats, while the other had been excessively migratory; for during the reign of Deucalion, Phthiotis was the country in which the Hellenes dwelt, but under Dorus, the son of Hellen, they moved to the tract at the base of Ossa and Olympus, which is called Histiaeotis; forced to retire from that region by the Cadmeians, they settled, under the name of Macedni, in the chain of Pindus. Hence they once more removed and came to Dryopis; and from Dryopis having entered the Peloponnese in this way, they became known as Dorians. 57. What the language of the Pelasgi was I cannot say with any certainty. If, however, we may form a conjecture from the tongue spoken by the Pelasgi of the present day, - those, for instance, who live at Creston above the Tyrrhenians, who formerly dwelt in the district named Thessaliotis, and were neighbours of the people now called the Dorians, - or those again who founded Placia and Scylace upon the Hellespont, who had previously dwelt for some time with the Athenians, - or those, in short, of any other of the cities which have dropped the name but are in fact Pelasgian; if, I say, we are to form a conjecture from any of these, we must pronounce that the Pelasgi spoke a barbarous language. If this were really so, and the entire Pelasgic race spoke the same tongue, the Athenians, who were certainly Pelasgi, must have changed their language at the same time that they passed into the Hellenic body; for it is a certain fact that the people of Creston speak a language unlike any of their neighbours, and the same is true of the Placianians, while the language spoken by these two people is the same; which shows that they both retain the idiom which they brought with them into the countries where they are now settled. 58. The Hellenic race has never, since its first origin, changed its speech. This at least seems evident to me. It was a branch of the Pelasgic, which separated from the main body, and at first was scanty in numbers and of little power; but it gradually spread and increased to a multitude of nations, chiefly by the voluntary entrance into its ranks of numerous tribes of barbarians. The Pelasgi, on the other hand, were, as I think, a barbarian race which never greatly multiplied." Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus. Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name. However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement. In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as "Ionians". Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows. From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon. In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus and Troezen. Hermione was not Dorian but had joined the Dorians. Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna. Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous. The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters. Thucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. The Hellenes came from Phthiotis. The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling." Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and the Aeolians (here Boeotians) with the Ionians (former Peloponnesians). Other than these few brief observations Thucydides names but few Dorians. He does make it clear that some Dorian states aligned or were forced to align with the Athenians while some Ionians went with the Lacedaemonians and that the motives for alignment were not always ethnic but were diverse. Among the Dorians was Lacedaemon, Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Carystus, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae. He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other: "For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn." He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...." The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans of the Peloponnesus were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor. Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the Library of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political. Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors. Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis. After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae. The Dorians promised him 1/3 of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods." Of these peoples, according to Staphylus, the Dorians occupy the part toward the east, the Cydonians the western part, the Eteo-Cretans the southern; and to these last belongs the town Praisos, where is the temple of the Dictaean Zeus; whereas the other peoples, since they were more powerful, dwelt in the plains. Now it is reasonable to suppose that the Eteo-Cretans and the Cydonians were autochthonous, and that the others were foreigners ... Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the Iliad on the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation List of Dorian states - Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51. - Apollodorus, Library, I, 7.3 - Homer, Odyssey, Book XIX line 177. - Will, Édouard (1956). Doriens et Ioniens: essai sur la valeur du critère ethnique appliqué à l'étude de l'histoire et de la civilisation grecques (in French). Paris: Belles Lettres. <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers at line 47: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). - Tigerstedt, E.N. (1965–1978). The Legend of Sparta in Classical Antiquity. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. pp. 28–36.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. p. 541.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Carlier, Pierre (1995). "Qa-si-re-u et Qa-si-re-wi-ja" (PDF). Aegeum (in French). Liège: Université de Liège (12): 359. <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Liddell & Scott 1940, Δωρι-εύς - Buck, Carl Darling (1933). Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 316.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Pokorny, Julius. "deru-, dōru-, dr(e)u-, drou-; drewə: drū-". Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch (in German). Leiden University. pp. 214–217. Δωριεύς 'Dorer' (von Δωρίς 'Waldland')<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Πάπυρος - Λεξικό τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς Γλώσσας (Papyros - Dictionary of the Greek Language), 2007, v. 3. pp. 37–8 - Boisacq, Émile (1916). "δὀρυ". Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Grecque: Étudiée dans ses Rapports avec les autres Langues Indo-Européennes (in French). Paris: Librairie Klincksieck. <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 363. - Hall, Jonathan (2002). Hellenicity: between ethnicity and culture. Chicago: University of Chicago. pp. 85–89.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911, s.v. "Dorians". - 5.87, online at Perseus. - Larson, Jennifer. A Land Full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion. In Ogden, Daniel. A Companion to Greek Religion. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 56–70. - Book 19, Line 177. - Edmonds, J.M. (ed.). "The Elegiac Poems of Tyrtaeus". Elegy and Iambus. I. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Histories, 1.57.1. - Histories, 1.56.2-3. - Histories, 7.94, 8.44. - Histories 8.43. - Histories 2.178, 7.99. - Hogan, C. Michael (10 January 2008). "Lato Hillfort". The Modern Antiquarian. Julian Cope.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Histories, 8.73 - Peloponnesian War, 1.3. - Peloponnesian War, 1.12. - Peloponnesian War, 2.54. - Peloponnesian War, 1.24. - Peloponnesian War, 7.58. - Peloponnesian War 1.124. - Peloponnesian War 7.57. - Peloponnesian War 6.4. - Peloponnesian War, 1.18. - Description of Greece, 5.1.2. - Description of Greece, 4.30.1; 8.5.1 - Description of Greece, 3.1.6, 5.3.5ff, 7.1.6, 7.3.9, 8.5.6 - Description of Greece, 10.38.10. - Description of Greece, 2.13.1. - Library, 4.9-10. - Library, 4.33-38. - Strabo. Geographica. Book 10, Section 6. - The Jones translation in the Loeb, which has Greek and English on opposing pages. - Homer: An Introduction to the Iliad and the Odyssey By Richard Claverhous Jebb Page 43 ISBN 0-554-75060-0 (2008) - Drews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe CA. 1200 B.C. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04811-8.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> Five editions between 1993 and 1995. - Hall, Jonathan M. (2000). Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78999-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hall, Jonathan M. (2006). "Dorians: Ancient Ethnic Group". In Wilson, Nigel. Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 240–242. ISBN 0-415-97334-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Henry Stuart, ed. A Greek-English Lexicon (in ancient Greek and English). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Müller, Karl Otfried, Die Dorier (1824) was translated by Henry Tufnel and Sir George Cornewall Lewis and published as The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, (London: John Murray), 1830, in two vols. - Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Stanley M. Burstein; Walter Donlan; Jennifer Tolbert Roberts (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509742-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hinge, George (2003), "Scythian and Spartan Analogies in Herodotos' Representation: Rites of Initiation and Kinship Groups", in Bilde, P.G.; Højte, J.M.; Stolba, V.F., The Cauldron of Ariantas (PDF), Aarhus, pp. 55–74<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>. - Killen, John T. (2000). "Religion at Pylos: The evidence of the Fn Tablets" (PDF). Aegeum. 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For the first time, researchers have teleported 10,000 bits of information per second from point A to point B across a distance of about six millimeters and inside a solid state circuit, similar to a computer chip. Although the accomplishment differs from teleporting mass, like a person — such as that seen on science fiction shows like Star Trek — the remarkable feat demonstrates what could be possible with a quantum computer. The scientists, from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, report their findings in this week's issue of Nature. In their experiment, the team spaced three micron-sized electronic circuits on a seven-by-seven-millimeter computer chip. Two of the circuits worked as a sending mechanism, while the other served as the receiver. The scientists cooled the chip to near absolute zero and ran a current through the circuits. The image above depicts the size of the macroscopic electrical circuits they used in the experiment relative to that of an ant. At that frigid temperature and small scale, the electrons in the circuit — which are the quantum bits of information, the qubits — started to behave according to the rules of quantum mechanics. The qubits became entangled. This means they become linked, sharing identical quantum states, even if physically separated from one other. Specifically, the qubits in the sender circuit became entangled with those in the receiving circuit because they exchanged photons. The ETH team encoded some information into the qubits in the sending circuits and then measured of the state of the qubits in the receiver circuit. Whatever state the qubits were in the sender was reflected instantly in the receiving circuit. The researchers had teleported the information. This is different from the way computers typically transfer information, electrons carry information along wires or through the air via radio waves. In this case, no bit of data physically traveled along a route — instead the information disappeared from one location and reappeared at another. Other experimenters have teleported quantum bits, too, and have done so across a larger distance. But those teams only got the teleportation to work once in a while, perhaps a few percent of the time. The ETH team was also able to teleport up to 10,000 quantum bits every second, and get it to work right consistently. That's fast enough and accurate enough to build a useful computer. "Basically we can push a button and have this teleportation work every time," Andreas Wallraff, professor at the Department of Physics and head of the study, told DNews. This article originally published at Discovery News here
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a debilitating and complex disorder characterized by profound fatigue that is not improved by bed rest and may be worsened by physical, emotional or mental stress. Patients report various nonspecific symptoms, including weakness, chemical sensitivities, allergies, poor immune function, muscle pain, impaired memory and/or mental concentration, insomnia, and post-exertional fatigue lasting more than 24 hours. In some cases, CFS can persist for years. The cause, or causes, of CFS have not been identified and no specific diagnostic tests are available. Moreover, since many illnesses have incapacitating fatigue as a symptom, care must be taken to exclude other known and often treatable conditions before a diagnosis of CFS is made. Diagnostic Criteria for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1. new onset of fatigue causing 50% reduction in activity for at least six months 2. exclusion of other illnesses that can cause fatigue 1. presence of eight of 11 symptoms, or 2. presence of six of 11 symptoms and two of three signs: 1. mild fever 2. recurrent sore throat 3. painful lymph nodes 4. muscle weakness 5. muscle pain 6. migratory joint pain 7. prolonged fatigue after exercise 8. recurrent headaches 9. neurological or psychological complaints, such as: • excessive irritability • sensitivity to bright light • inability to concentrate 10. sleep disturbances 11. sudden onset of symptom complex 1. low-grade fever 2. non-exudative pharyngitis (sore throat) 3. tender lymph nodes Similar Medical ConditionsA number of illnesses have been described that have a similar spectrum of symptoms to CFS. These include fibromyalgia syndrome, myalgic encephalomyelitis, neurasthenia, multiple chemical sensitivities, and chronic mononucleosis. Although these illnesses may present with a primary symptom other than fatigue, chronic fatigue is commonly associated with all of them. Other Conditions That May Cause Similar Symptoms In addition, there are a large number of clinically defined, frequently treatable illnesses that can result in fatigue. Diagnosis of any of these conditions would exclude a definition of CFS unless the condition has been treated sufficiently and no longer explains the fatigue and other symptoms. These include hypothyroidism, sleep apnea and narcolepsy, major depressive disorders, chronic mononucleosis, bipolar affective disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders, cancer, autoimmune disease, hormonal disorders*, subacute infections, obesity, alcohol or substance abuse, and reactions to prescribed medications. Other Commonly Observed Symptoms in CFS In addition to the eight primary defining symptoms of CFS, a number of other symptoms have been reported by some CFS patients. The frequencies of occurrence of these symptoms vary from 20% to 50% among CFS patients. They include abdominal pain, alcohol intolerance, bloating, chest pain, chronic cough, diarrhea, dizziness, dry eyes or mouth, earaches, irregular heartbeat, jaw pain, morning stiffness, nausea, night sweats, psychological problems (depression, irritability, anxiety, panic attacks), shortness of breath, skin sensations, tingling sensations, and weight loss. Possible Causes of CFS Due to weakened immunity, individuals with chronic fatigue have terrible problems with energy as well as reoccurring bouts with the flu, colds, sinusitis, and other immune problems. As with so many complex chronic illnesses, CFS may be aggravated by a wide variety of environmental and physiological challenges. Food allergies, environmental sensitivities (odors), heavy metal toxicity (mercury, aluminum, etc.), yeast overgrowth, parasites, and vitamin/mineral deficiencies can all contribute to CFS. The cause, or causes, of CFS remain unknown despite a vigorous search. While a single cause for CFS may yet be identified, another possibility is that CFS represents a common endpoint of disease resulting from multiple precipitating causes. As such, it should not be assumed that any of the possible causes listed below has been formally excluded, or that these largely unrelated possible causes are mutually exclusive. Conditions that have been proposed to trigger the development of CFS include virus infection or other transient traumatic conditions, stress, and toxins. Unfortunately, some physicians believe that CFS is a component of a psychological disorder or a symptom of other problems, similar to anemia and high blood pressure. Indeed, no primary cause has been found that explains all cases of CFS. A number of experts believe that CFS is caused by a combination of conditions that overwhelm the person’s stress coping abilities. These conditions or triggers may include the following: • Genetic factors. • Brain abnormalities or inability of the self-regulating mechanisms. • A hyper-reactive immune system. • Viral, bacterial, fungal, mycoplasma or other infectious agents. The majority of patients report some preceding moderate to serious physical (eg, a chronic viral infection) or emotional event (eg, episode of depression). Some experts theorize that such events alone or in combination coupled in people with certain neurological and genetic abnormalities may overwhelm the person’s ability regulate their own homeostatic self-regulating systems. Dysfunction of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Researchers investigating CFS are looking at the abnormalities in the brain system known as the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. This system produces or regulates hormones and brain chemicals that control important functions, including sleep, response to stress, and depression. This is our self-regulating, homeostatic system. Stress Hormone A number of studies on CFS patients have observed deficiencies in cortisol levels, a stress hormone produced in the hypothalamus. Deficiencies may be the reason why CFS patients have an impaired and weaker response to psychological or physical stresses (such as infection or exercise). Abnormalities in Neurotransmitters Other research has reported that some patients with CFS have abnormally high levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter (chemical messenger in the brain). Such elevated levels in the brain are associated with fatigue. Yet another study reported that deficiencies in dopamine and norepinephrine, other important neurotransmitters, may play a role in CFS. Because most of the features of CFS resemble those of a lingering viral illness, many researchers have focused on the possibility that a virus or some other infectious agent causes the syndrome in some cases. Here is what the Centers for Disease (CDC) Control has to say about Infectious Agents.“Due in part to its similarity to chronic mononucleosis, CFS was initially thought to be caused by a virus infection, most probably Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It now seems clear that CFS cannot be caused exclusively by EBV or by any single recognized infectious disease agent. No firm association between infection with any known human pathogen and CFS has been established. CDC’s four-city surveillance study found no association between CFS and infection by a wide variety of human pathogens, including EBV, human retroviruses, human herpesvirus 6, enteroviruses, rubella, Candida albicans, and more recently bornaviruses and Mycoplasma. Taken together, these studies suggest that among identified human pathogens, there appears to be no causal relationship for CFS. However, the possibility remains that CFS may have multiple causes leading to a common endpoint, in which case some viruses or other infectious agents might have a contributory role for a subset of CFS cases.” When researchers find no consistent elevations of EBV antibody levels, they conclude that viruses do not play a role in CFS. “This is like firefighters who ignore the billowing smoke on the horizon, responding only to the blaze, the discovery of which inevitably follows.” I, like many other specialists, do believe there is an infectious agent or agents involved in CFS. Whether this is a latent or acute viral, bacterial, fungal, or mycoplasma, or a combination of these, which is interacting with and compromising the immune system, is the question? There are three basic theories for infection-related causes of CFS Some researchers suggest that chronic fatigue syndrome might be the result of a virus or bacteria that infects the body, causes immune abnormalities, and is then eliminated. It leaves behind a damaged immune system, however, that continues to cause flu-like symptoms even in the absence of the virus. The flu-like symptoms are most pronounced when the person is under stress. The evidence for CFS having a viral cause is not based on hard evidence but on various observations that suggest an association, such as the following: • In up to 80% of cases, chronic fatigue syndrome starts suddenly with a flu-like condition. • In the US, outbreaks of CFS occurring within the same household, workplace, and community have been reported (but most have not been confirmed by the Centers for Disease Control). • A large British study of people with both diagnosed CFS and idiopathic chronic fatigue also found no evidence of infection as a direct cause of either condition, but found that previous infections may play some role. • Although no specific virus has been identified as a single cause, CFS patients typically have elevated levels of antibodies to many viruses that cause fatigue and other CFS symptoms, including Lyme disease, candida (“yeast infection”), herpesvirus type 6 (HHV-6), human T cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV), Epstein-Barr, measles, coxsackie B, cytomegalovirus, or parvovirus. • In one study, some patients, particularly those with severe CFS symptoms, had higher-than-normal numbers of infection-fighting white blood cells known as CD8 killer T cells, which launch attacks on invading viruses and other disease-causing microorganisms. These same people had lower-than-normal levels of another white blood cell known as the suppressor T cell, which helps to shut down the immune response once the invading organisms have been killed. In such cases, the immune system becomes persistently overactive and produces fatigue, muscle aches, and other symptoms of CFS. Several investigators have reported lower numbers of natural killer cells or decreased natural killer cell activity among CFS patients compared with healthy controls, but others have found no differences between patients and controls. T-cell activation markers have also been reported to have differential expression in groups of CFS patients compared with controls, but again, not all investigators have consistently observed these differences. One intriguing hypothesis is that various triggering events, such as stress or a viral infection, may lead to the chronic expression of cytokines and then to CFS. Administration of some cytokines in therapeutic doses is known to cause fatigue, but no characteristic pattern of chronic cytokine secretion has ever been identified in CFS patients. In addition, some investigators have noted clinical improvement in patients with continued high levels of circulating cytokines; if a causal relationship exists between cytokines and CFS, it is likely to be complex. Finally, several studies have shown that CFS patients are more likely to have a history of allergies than are healthy controls. Allergy could be one predisposing factor for CFS, but it cannot be the only one, since not all CFS patients have it. Some of the Immune Disorders Associated with CFS are Listed Below: • Elevated levels of antibodies to various viruses. • Altered helper/suppressor T-cell ratio. • Decreased Natural Killer (NK) cells or activity. • Decreased levels of circulating immune complexes. • Low or elevated antibody levels. • Increased cytokine levels. • Increased or decreased interferon levels. • Fibromyalgia and multiple chemical sensitivities. The History of CFS Epstein – Barr virus (EBV), OriginThere have been several studies that have focused on identifying an infectious agent as the cause of CFS. The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has received a lot of attention over the last two decades. In 1985, reports were published in the Annals of Internal Medicine about a mysterious severe viral epidemic the gripped the Lake Tahoe region in California. Initially, CFS was presumed to be caused by the Epstein – Barr virus because research at the National Institutes of Health confirmed the presence of elevated levels of antibodies against EBV in afflicted people. As times passed, EBV was deemed to be one of many viruses associated with CFS. But is CFS caused by these viruses? Or, do the viruses only show themselves once CFS manifests itself? EBV is a member of the Herpes group of viruses, which include Herpes Simplex Types 1 and 2, Varicella zoster virus, Cytomegalovirus, and Psuedorabies virus. A common aspect of these viruses is their ability to establish lifelong latent infection after the initial infection. This latent infection is kept in check by a healthy immune system. We know that EBV causes the debilitating disease of teenhood, “Infectious Mononucleosis”, or in lay parlance ‘Mono’ (sometimes called ‘the kissing disease’). But not everyone who carries this virus develops “Mono.” In fact, over 90% of Americans have been exposed to EBV by age 20. Some of these individuals develop infectious mononucleosis; others simply experience flu-like symptoms for a few days, but most show no symptoms at all. CFS and Immune DysfunctionEBV and the Herpes group of viruses can produce chronic lifelong infections. Most individuals have been exposed to one of these viruses and build immunity to them. Persons with a compromised immune system are susceptible to latent infections including EBV. The infection itself can compromise the immune system. Elevated EBV antibodies to the Herpes-group of viruses (Cytomegalovirus, Herpes 6, etc.,) measles, and other viruses have been observed in patients suspected of having CFS and who also display elevated EBV antibody levels. There is little argument that a disturbed immune system plays a central role in CFS, A variety of immune system abnormalities have been observed in EBV cases. The most consistent abnormality is a decreased number of or activity of natural killer (NK) cells. Natural killer cells are used to destroy cells that are infected with cancerous or viral toxins. As with so many complex chronic illnesses, CFS may be caused and aggravated by a wide variety of environmental and physiological challenges. Food allergies, environmental sensitivities, heavy metal toxicity, yeast overgrowth, intestinal dysbiosis, parasites, and vitamin/mineral deficiencies can all contribute to CFS. These disorders must be found and eliminated with a systematic protocol based on correcting causes and not merely covering up symptoms. Traditional Drug TherapyPharmacologic therapy is directed toward the relief of specific symptoms experienced by the individual patient. Patients with CFS appear particularly sensitive to many medications, especially those that affect the central nervous system. Thus, the usual treatment strategy is to begin with very low doses and to gradually increase dosage as necessary and as tolerated. It is important to remember that use of any drug for symptom relief should be attempted only if an underlying cause for the symptom in question has not been found. The best example is use of a sleep-enhancing medication for non-restorative sleep. Although the patient may state that they sleep better, the sleep disorder remains obscured and thus treatment of the sleep disorder not given. It is also important to remember that all medications can cause untoward side effects, which may lead to new symptoms. Prescription MedicationsNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: These drugs can be used to relieve pain in CFS patients. Some are available as over-the-counter medications. Low-dose tricyclic antidepressants: Tricyclic agents may be prescribed for CFS patients to improve sleep and to relieve mild, generalized pain. Examples include doxepin (Adapin, Sinequan), amitriptyline (Elavil, Etrafon, Limbitrol, Triavil), desipramine (Norpramin), and nortriptyline (Pamelor). Other antidepressants: Newer antidepressants have been used to treat depression in CFS patients, although non-depressed CFS patients receiving treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been found by some health care providers to benefit from this treatment as well or better than depressed patients. Examples of antidepressants used to treat patients with CFS include serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and paroxetine (Paxil); venlafaxine (Effexor); trazodone (Desyrel); and bupropion (Wellbutrin). A number of adverse reactions, varying with the specific drug, may be experienced, but include agitation, sleep disturbances, and increased fatigue. Anxiolytic agents: Anxiolytic agents may be used to treat symptoms of anxiety in CFS patients. Examples include alprazolam (Xanax) and lorazepam (Ativan). Clonazepam (Klonopin) is another member of this family of drugs that is used to control exaggerated nervous systems problems such as vertigo, burning or exaggerated tenderness in the skin, and “nervous” limb movements, may also be useful. However, they should not be used in the general treatment of CFS. Common adverse reactions include sedation, amnesia, and symptoms accompanying acute withdrawal (insomnia, abdominal and muscle cramps, vomiting, sweating, tremors, and convulsions). Stimulants: Fatigue by itself is not a good indication for symptomatic therapy. However, if the fatigue represents lethargy or daytime sleepiness, treatment may be indicated. Trials of a wakefulness agent, modofanil (Provigil), have been completed, but the results have not yet been published. In a small group of patients with excessive sleepiness, the drug decreased symptoms compared with placebo. This drug is currently indicated only with the diagnoses of narcolepsy and excess daytime sleepiness when identified by the proper sleep studies. Antihypotensive/antitachycardia therapy: CFS does not respond to treatment with antihypotensive or antitachycardic drugs and general use of such medications may be harmful. However, such medications may be useful in specific circumstances. For example, fludrocortisone (Florinef) has been prescribed for CFS patients who have had a positive tilt table test. However controlled studies have not found Florinef alone effective in the general treatment of CFS patients. Beta blockers such as atenolol (Tenormin) have also been prescribed for patients with orthostatic hypotension. Midodrine (Proamatine), an agent that directly increases blood pressure, may be useful in selected patients identified by an abnormal tilt test. Increased salt and water intake is also recommended for these patients but should be done only under supervision of a health care provider. Adverse reactions include elevated blood pressure and fluid retention. Experimental Drugs and Treatments Ampligen is a synthetic nucleic acid product that was designed to stimulate the production of interferons, a family of immune response modifiers that are also known to have antiviral activity. Although it may not directly induce interferon, reports of double-blinded, placebo-controlled studies of CFS patients documented modest improvements in cognition and performance among Ampligen recipients compared with the placebo group. These preliminary results will need to be confirmed by further study. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not approve Ampligen for widespread use, and the administration of this drug in CFS patients should be considered experimental. Ampligen is not widely available, is costly, and is generally not reimbursable through insurance programs. Finally, although most recipients of Ampligen tolerated the drug well, adverse reactions, such as liver damage, were reported and are still incompletely characterized. Gamma globulinGamma globulin is pooled human immune globulin and contains antibody molecules directed against a broad range of common infectious agents. Gamma globulin is ordinarily used as a means for passively immunizing persons whose immune system has been compromised, or who have been exposed to an agent that might cause more serious disease in the absence of immune globulin. Gamma globulin is not effective in the treatment of CFS. Serious adverse reactions are uncommon, although in rare instances gamma globulin may initiate anaphylactic shock. Corticosteroids Controlled studies of corticosteroids have been conducted because some patients with CFS had a slight decrease in urinary cortisol levels. Some benefits were noted in patients treated with low dose hydrocortisone but the effects disappeared after one month. High dose replacement therapy had some benefit but was complicated by attendant adrenal suppression. Kutapressin is a crude extract from pig’s liver. It is not readily available and there is no scientific evidence that it has any value in the treatment of CFS patients. Kutapressin can elicit allergic reactions. Unpublished reports of malformations at the base of the skull (Chiari malformations) as being causative of CFS have been circulated, and surgical intervention has been suggested in some of those unsubstantiated reports. Surgical intervention is not recommended at this time. While prescription drugs may offer some relief from the symptoms associated with CFS, potential side effects are often more problematic than the illness itself. Potential Dangers Associated with Prescription Drug Therapy NSAIDs causes 10,000-20,000 Deaths a YearA person taking NSAIDS is seven times more likely to be hospitalized for gastrointestinal adverse effects. The FDA estimates that 200,000 cases of gastric bleeding occur annually and that this leads to 10,000 to 20,000 deaths each year.5 Studies also show that neither drug (Celebrex ) alleviated pain any better than the older medicines. And the drugs cost close to $3 a pill; over-the-counter pain relievers, in contrast, cost pennies a dose. Benzodiazepines (Tranquilizers) Medications – Xanax, Klonopin, Ativan, Restoril, Busbar, Tranxene, Serax, Librium, Tegretol, Valium, Trileptal, Seraquel, Risperdal, and Symbax. Side effects associated with these medications include sleep disturbances (poor sleep), seizures, neuropsychiatric disturbances (mania, depression, suicide, etc.) tinnitus (ringing in the ears), transient memory loss (amnesia), dizziness, agitation (anxiety), disorientation, hypo-tension (low blood pressure), nausea, edema (fluid retention), ataxia (muscular in-coordination), tremors, sexual dysfunction (decreased desire and performance), asthenia (weakness), somnolence (prolonged drowsiness or a trance-like condition that may continue for a number of days), and headaches. The big problem with these medications is that they are loaded with side-effects that cause further health problems (depression, fatigue, memory loss, “fibro fog’” etc.) yet don’t promote deep, restorative sleep. Stimulants – Adderall, Concerta, Cylert, EtcStimulants such as Adderall (amphetamine), Concerta (methylphenidate), Cylert (pemoline), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine sulfate), Focalin (dexmethylphenidate HCL), Metadate (methylphenidate), and Ritalin (methylphenidate) are use to increase adrenalin. They can be very helpful in increasing a person’s energy. But you may remember the saying “speed kills.” With the exception of Provigil, these medications are nothing more than various forms of amphetamines (“speed”). These drugs are incredibly hard on the adrenal glands. Long-term use can cause adrenal fatigue or burnout at least and full blown Addison’s Disease (adrenal failure) at worst. Potential Side effects include: insomnia (big problem), Tourette’s syndrome (movement disorder consisting of grimaces, ticks, and involuntary outbursts), nervousness, unstable mood (anxiety, mania, depression, irritability, aggression, etc) tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), hypertension (high blood pressure), tics (abnormal muscle movements), psychosis (abnormal behavior), headaches, seizures, visual disturbances, anorexia (unwanted weight loss), aplastic anemia (arrested development of bone marrow), liver dysfunction, and blood dyscrasias (disease). Antidepressants – Prozac, Zoloft, Celexa, Paxil, Etc.Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRIs work by increasing the brain’s use of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin deficiency is linked to depression, lowered pain tolerance, poor sleep, and mental fatigue. All SSRIs are partially or wholly broken down in the liver. This can create liver dysfunction in some patients, so patients with a sluggish liver should be cautious in taking these medications. Examples of SSRIs include Zoloft (sertraline), Paxil (paroxetine HCL), Celexa (citalopram), Prozac (fluoxetine), Luvox (fluvoxamine), etc. Common side effects include headache, muscle pain, chest pain, anxiety, nervousness, sleeplessness, drowsiness, weakness, changes in sex drive, tremors, dry mouth, irritated stomach, loss of appetite, dizziness, nausea, rash, itching, weight gain, diarrhea, impotence, hair loss, dry skin, chest pain, bronchitis, abnormal heart beat, twitching, anemia, low blood sugar, and low thyroid. Tricyclic Antidepressants – Elavil, Pamelor, Doxepin, EtcTricyclic antidepressants block the re-uptake of the hormones serotonin and norepinephrine. This produces a sedative effect. They also reduce the effects of the hormone acetylcholine. Like other antidepressant medications, these drugs are processed by the liver and can cause liver toxicity. Common side effects include sedation, confusion, blurred vision, muscle spasms or tremors, dry mouth, convulsions, constipation, difficulty in urinating, and sensitivity to light. Examples of tricyclic antidepressants include Pamelor (nortriptyline) and Elavil (amitriptyline). Integrating natural therapies with a judicious amount of prescription drugs (only when natural fail) is the best approach. An integrative approach that combines the judicious use of prescription drugs and nutritional therapy offers the best chance of reducing the symptoms associated with CFS. Several nutrients have been found to be deficient in CFS patients, including B vitamins, antioxidants, vitamin C, magnesium, sodium, zinc, L-tryptophan, L-carnitine, CoQ10, and essential fatty acids. There are several interesting interrelationships between EFA metabolism and viral infections. EFAs have direct antiviral effects and are lethal at surprising low concentrations to many viruses. The antiviral activity of human mother’s milk seems to be largely attributable to its EFA content. Interferon is dependant on EFAs and in their absence will be compromised. Viral infections lower the blood levels EFAs. This has been confirmed in the case of the Epstein Barr Virus (EBV). Of particular interest was the observation that at 8 and 12 months, those who have recovered from EBV showed normal or near normal EFA blood levels. In contrast, those who were still clinically ill from Epstein-Barr show persistently low EFA levels. This study and others like it are one of the reasons the CFS/Fibromyalgia Formula contains 2,000mg of essential fatty acids. Magnesium participates in energy metabolism and is involved in over 350 enzymatic processes. depend on magnesium for activation. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted of patients with CFS who were found to have low magnesium levels. In the clinical trial, 32 CFS patients received either placebo or intramuscular magnesium sulfate every week for six weeks. Patients treated with magnesium reported improved energy levels, better emotional state, and less pain. Malic Acid and Magnesium A combination of magnesium and malic acid has also been recommended for treatment of chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia. Reports from clinical experience using 300-600 mg. of elemental magnesium and 1200-1400 mg. of malic acid indicate that about 40% of the patients show some type of benefit. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) ATP, adenosine triphosphate, is the substance which stores the energy created when the body burns carbohydrates and fats in the Krebs cycle. When the body needs energy (as, for example, in muscular contraction), ATP is broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and immediate energy is released. ATP is the universal energy molecule for the body in the same way that electricity is the universal energy source for a computer. Magnesium, Potassium and Aspartic Acid Low levels of magnesium have been noted in many CFS patients. Magnesium is required for ATP synthesis and is a cofactor of more than 300 enzymatic reactions involving energy metabloism. Its primary site of action is within the cell. It also enhances transport of potassium into the cells. Malaise is probably the most common symptom of chronic potassium deficiency and muscular weakness is almost always noted. Aspartic acid is converted intracellularly into oxaloacetate, an important substrate in the energy- producing Krebs cycle, and is also a carrier molecule for the transport of potassium and magnesium into the cell. In the potassium and magnesium aspartate studies of the ’60s, a beneficial effect was usually noted after 4-5 days, but sometimes 10 days were required. Dosage was generally one gram of each salt daily (250 mg. with each meal and at bedtime). Patients usually continued treatment for 4-6 weeks. In most cases, fatigue did not return after treatment was discontinued. Optimal levels of magnesium and malic acid are found in a comprehensive multivitamin/mineral formula (Essential Therapeutics CFS/Fibromyalgia Formula) I developed for my CFS and fibromyalgia patients. In one study of 20 female patients with CFS (who required bed rest following mild exercise), 80 percent were deficient in CoQ10. After three months of CoQ10 supplementation (100 mg/day), the exercise tolerance of the CFS patients more than doubled: 90 percent had reduction or disappearance of clinical symptoms, and 85 percent had decreased post-exercise fatigue. Thymus extracts have proven to be one of the best immune-boosting agents for treating CFS. A recent study published in the Journal of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine showed that patients taking a patented thymus extract, obtained dramatic improvements in their CFS symptoms. The increase in their immune function, as demonstrated by blood tests, resulted in myriad benefits: a 47% improvement in sleep quality, a 43% reduction in food sensitivities, a 53% reduction in chemical sensitivities, a 47% improvement in short-term memory, a 79% improvement in depression symptoms, and a 100% improvement in panic disorder symptoms. A substantial amount of clinical data now supports the effectiveness of using thymus extracts. They may well provide the answer to chronic viral infections and low immune function. Double-blind studies reveal not only that orally administrated thymus extracts are able to effectively eliminate infection, but also that treatment over the course of a year significantly reduced the number of respiratory infections and significantly improved numerous immune parameters. Thymus glandular extracts are able to raise T-cell numbers when needed but will lower T-cell numbers when an autoimmune disease is present. This balancing act is the big advantage that glandular extracts and many natural herbs have over prescription, synthetic drugs. Thymus glandular extracts (like other glandular extracts) are able to raise T-cells when needed but will lower T-cells when an autoimmune disease is present. This balancing act is the big advantage glandular extracts, and many natural herbs, have over prescription (synthetic) drugs. I put the majority of my CFS patients on thymus glandular supplements. Other Immune Boosting Supplements • Astragalus membranaceus, a Chinese herbal, is used to treat a wide variety of viral infections. Clinical studies in China have even shown it to be effective (with ongoing use) against the common cold. Research in animals has revealed that it apparently works by stimulating NK cells and T-cells. Astragalus appears particularly useful in cases where the immune system has been damaged by chemicals or radiation. • Echinacea (purple coneflower) is one of the most popular herbal medicines in the United States and Europe. In 1994, German physicians prescribed echinacea more than 2.5 million times. There are over 200 journal articles written about echinacea. This herb, from the sunflower family, can be grown in your garden and is thought to stimulate the immune system by increasing the production of and activity of white blood cells, especially NK cells. Persons with autoimmune illnesses such as multiple sclerosis, lupus, or tuberculosis should not take echinacea. A typical dose is up to 900 mg. three times daily. Some physicians suggest discontinuing use after two–three weeks, then restarting as needed after one week. • Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a perennial herb native to eastern North America, and it has shown itself to be a potent immune stimulator. It increases the blood flow to the spleen and the number and activity of macrophages. A typical dose is 250–500 mg. one–three times daily. Goldenseal is in my viral formula. Immune Function Protocol 1. Poor sleep results in suppressed NK cell activity and poor immune function. More about sleep disorders and solutions. 2. Restoring optimal adrenal function often reduces many of the symptoms associate with CFS including fatigue, poor stress coping abilities and poor immune function. I’ve noted that almost all of patient’s with CFS have adrenal fatigue. This may or may not show up on blood or salivary tests. However, the majority of my CFS patient’s respond favorably to therapies, which help boost and restore optimal adrenal function including the use of adrenal cortex glandular, vitamin, mineral, and DHEA supplementation. An article in the Journal of Affective Disorders concluded that CFS may be associated with low cortisol levels and increased serotonin function. Adrenal fatigue is known to cause many of the same problems associated with CFS and FMS: • hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) • hypotension(low blood pressure) • neural mediated hypotension (become dizzy when stand up) • decreased mental acuity • low body temperature (a sign of low thyroid function) • decreased metabolism • a compromised immune system • decreased sense of well-being (depression) • weight loss • hyperpigmentation (excess skin color changes) • loss of scalp hair • excess facial or body hair • vitiligo (changes in skin color) • auricular calcification (little calcium deposits in the ear lobe) • GI disturbances • abdominal pain • crave salty foods • muscle or joint pains Individuals with FMS and CFS who suffer from adrenal fatigue (99%) will find that their stress coping abilities are shot. They don’t handle stress very well. They will try to avoid stressful situations. Stress will make their symptoms worse and cause them to have flare-ups. If they have a day when they feel good they may over do it (clean the house, paint the playroom, grocery shopping, etc.). Then they usually crash the next day. Therefore, restoring proper adrenal function is a crucial step in peeling away the layers of dysfunction associated with FMS and CFS. I believe that adrenal fatigue is a major contributory factor to the symptoms associated with FMS and CFS. The adrenal cortex is primarily associated with response to chronic stress (infections, prolonged exertion, prolonged mental, emotional, chemical, or physical stress). The hormones of the cortex are steroids. The main steroid is cortisol. Chronic over secretion of cortisol leads to adrenal exhaustion, which accelerates the downward spiral towards chronic poor health. Once in adrenal exhaustion your body can’t release enough cortisol to keep up with the daily demands. Eventually you become deficient in cortisol and then DHEA. Chronic headaches, nausea, allergies, nagging injuries, fatigue, dizziness, hypotension, low body temperature, depression, low sex drive, chronic infections, and cold hands and feet are just some of the symptoms that occur with adrenal cortex exhaustion. Not Enough DHEAThe adrenal cortex, when healthy, produces adequate levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). • sex drive • resistance to stress • self-defense mechanisms (immune system) • general well-being and helps to raise: • cortisol levels • overall adrenal function • cellular energy • mental acuity • muscle strength DHEA is notoriously low in CFS patients. Chronic stress initially causes the adrenals to release extra cortisol. Continuous stress raises cortisol to abnormally high levels. Then the adrenal glands get to where they can’t keep up with the demand for more cortisol. As the cortisol levels continue to become depleted from on going stress the body attempts to counter this by releasing more DHEA. Eventually they can’t produce enough cortisol or DHEA. Aging makes holding on to DHEA even tougher. Even in healthy individuals, DHEA levels begin to drop after the age of 30. By age 70, they are at about 20% of their peak levels. Stress and DHEA DHEA helps prevent the destruction of tryptophan (5HTP), which increases the production of serotonin. This helps provide added protection from chronic stress. Studies continue to show low DHEA to be a biological indicator of stress, aging, and age-related diseases including neurosis, depression, peptic ulcer, IBS, and others. DHEA and Immune FunctionThe decrease in DHEA levels correlates with the general decline of cell-mediated immunity and increased incidence of cancer. DHEA protects the thymus gland, a major player in immune function. Optimal Nutrients, EFAs, and Other FactorsOptimal levels of selenium, vitamin A, vitamin C, zinc, and other nutrients are needed to repair and maintain a healthy immune system (these nutrients should be in your vitamin/mineral formula). Zinc is an important cofactor in the manufacture, secretion, and function of thymus hormones. When zinc levels are low, T-cell numbers drop. This might explain why zinc lozenges, when used at the first sign of a cold, can reduce the number of sick days. Selenium boosts the “killer instinct” of your blood cells. One study, using 200 mcg. daily in individuals with normal blood selenium levels, resulted in a 118% increase in the ability of their white blood cells to kill tumor cells, and an 82.3% increase in NK cell activity. All of my CFS patient’s take a special multivitamin/mineral formula .I formulated the CFS/Fibromyalgia formula especially for those with CFS and Fibromyalgia. New evidence reveals that EFAs have direct antiviral effects and are lethal at surprisingly low concentrations to many viruses. In the case of the Epstein-Barr virus, for example, a good 90% of the US population carries this virus, yet only a fraction become ill from it. One theory is that those who actually develop symptoms have below-normal levels of EFAs and their derivatives. A study investigating sufferers of the EBV particularly confirms this: Both eight and 12 months into the study, subjects who had recovered from the virus showed normal or near normal EFA blood levels. In contrast, those who were still clinically ill from the EBV showed persistently low EFA levels. Food allergies can cause a 50% reduction in white blood cell count (lowered immune function). When the allergic food is eaten daily, the allergy can cause intestinal inflammation and destruction of white blood cells. Food allergies can also lead to leaky gut symptoms and autoimmune reactions. Low thyroid function is a common finding in those suffering with CFS. Hypothyroidism can lower metabolism and reduce enzyme activities associated with initiating proper immune functions. Chronic infections, especially sinus infections usually drastically improve once low thyroid is corrected. Start taking 140-280mg of thymus gland glandular (whole or extract) twice a day. Consider being tested for and taking DHEA. Most individuals will need between 25-50mg a day. DHEA is an important hormone for boosting the immune system. RELATED HELPFUL LINKS
Geodiversity refers to the existence of a wide variety of different geologic forms and processes within a specific geographic region. Maintaining a wide diversity of abiotic habitats and systems is vital to life on Earth. As simple as that concept seems, only recently has geodiversity and the “ecosystem services” provided by geoheritage resources been promoted as important to successful conservation of protected areas. In the 2015 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) governance document for all World Heritage Sites, a major change was made to broaden and redefine a primary goal—that of conserving biodiversity. In recognition of the important role of geodiversity, the IUCN has now defined the primary goal to be conserving nature, which it states, “must fully integrate geodiversity and geoheritage at a level of importance equivalent to biodiversity.” In July 2015, geodiversity was featured in a special section of Conservation Biology, where it was recognized as an important filter to use for biological conservation. A strategy based on geodiversity is especially pertinent and valuable in a time of rapid climate change. When ecosystems change rapidly, individuals and species will be displaced beyond what current biological models can predict. One thing that is known is that the biologic response will play out on “nature’s stage”—the abiotic foundation, which is a key driver of biodiversity and species distribution. Geodiversity has emerged as one of the most important concepts in supporting geoheritage conservation; and conserving geoheritage sites is one of the best ways to ensure that a wide diversity of abiotic nature is preserved for future generations. Geodiversity as Nature's Stage Last updated: November 29, 2018
ELA is a combination of the oral and written language skills needed for students to communicate effectively, as well as, the ability to extract meaning from a variety of texts. This year we will be using the Modules provided by New York State. We have completed the first Unit of Module 1 and students should be able to : -discuss the reason for the creation of human rights -discuss specific articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights -read a text and find examples of when human rights are violated or upheld. In Unit 2 we are reading Esperanza Rising by Pam Munoz Ryan. In this story a young girl will go from being the beloved daughter of a wealthy Mexican rancher to a migrant worker and the sole provider of her family. The novel is set in the 1930's and as many opportunities for class discussions and evaluation of story elements. Students will be expected to complete the nightly readings and independent activities, so that they are prepared and ready to contribute to class discussions. I encourage you to go to www.engageny.org and view the parent supports available.
- to enunciate or articulate (sounds, words, sentences, etc.). - to utter or sound in a particular manner in speaking: He pronounces his words indistinctly. - to utter or articulate in the accepted or correct manner: I can't pronounce this word. - to declare (a person or thing) to be as specified: She pronounced it the best salmon she had ever tasted. - to utter or deliver formally or solemnly: to pronounce sentence. - to announce authoritatively or officially: The judge pronounced the defendant guilty. - to indicate the pronunciation of (words) by providing a phonetic transcription: This dictionary pronounces most of the words entered. - to pronounce words, phrases, etc. - to make a statement or assertion, especially an authoritative statement (often followed by on): He was required to pronounce on the findings of his research. - to give an opinion or decision (usually followed by on): to pronounce on an important matter. - to indicate the pronunciation of words: a spelling book that pronounces. Origin of pronounce Examples from the Web for pronounceable Historical Examples of pronounceable In any case it is a barren concession, because, as we have seen, telegraphic addresses must be pronounceable. - to utter or articulate (a sound or sequence of sounds) - (tr) to utter or articulate (sounds or words) in the correct way - (tr; may take a clause as object) to proclaim officially and solemnlyI now pronounce you man and wife - (when tr, may take a clause as object) to declare as one's judgmentto pronounce the death sentence upon someone - (tr) to make a phonetic transcription of (sounds or words) Word Origin for pronounce early 14c., "to declare officially;" late 14c., "to speak, utter," from Old French prononcier "declare, speak out, pronounce" (late 13c., Modern French prononcer), from Late Latin pronunciare, from Latin pronuntiare "to proclaim, announce; pronounce, utter," from pro- "forth, out, in public" (see pro-) + nuntiare "announce," from nuntius "messenger" (see nuncio). With reference to the mode of sounding words or languages, it is attested from 1620s (but cf. pronunciation in this sense early 15c.). Related: Pronounced; pronouncing.
Mr. jack per. 3 Various people viewed the character and condition of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire during the Greek movement for independence in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. During the eighteenth century, Greeks living in exile began to appeal to their fellow Greeks to free themselves from Ottoman rule. Greek nationalists urged Greeks living throughout the Balkans and Asia Minor to revolt against their Turkish Muslim rulers. An uprising in March 1821 began a nine year war for independence several thousand European volunteers fought on the Greek side, while many more raised money and spread pro-Greek views in Europe. Intervention by Russian, French and English forces in 1827 and 1828 ultimately forced the Turks to grant Greek independence, which was formally established by a multipower treaty in 1830. Sneyd Davis, an English writer, wrote a poem to his friend and neighbor Dr. Thomas Taylor, in 1744. In it he writes about how Athens was after it was taken by the Turks. He says that it was deserted, it was noiseless, and it was empty. Once a place filled with joy but now all that remains are Turkish soldiers and captains. In his poem, the words he used show his empathy and his hatred for the Turks. It shows how sad and angry he is that Athens has been taken. Mustapha III, the Turkish sultan, orders his governor in northern Greece to repress raids by Greeks, in 1765. He says that the robbers lead the district of Larissa to rebellion. He wants the people to arrest and imprison the robbers, take back the stolen goods, animals, and any ransom money, and lastly to cleanse the place of “evildoers.” Mustapha III shows how angry he is by writing about these robbers. He shows that there is hope by ordering the people to do certain things to help bring to town back to normal. Claude Etienne Savary, French scholar of Greek and Arabic, wrote a letter in 1788. In it he writes, the facts...
The mangrove forests in the Guyanas (French Guiana, Surinam and Guyana), which spread across the Orinoco and Amazon deltas, are among the most extensive in the world. This particular ecosystem, between the earth and the sea, plays a major role in protecting the particularly unstable muddy coastline (2) against erosion. However, most of the Guyana mangroves have been destroyed to develop the coastal plain. The retreating mangrove wall will result in large-scale coastal erosion, threatening populations and their economic activities, as demonstrated in a study conducted by researchers from IRD and the University of Aix-Marseille. Gaining ground on the sea Although the French Guiana coastline remains protected by human developments for the time being, that of Guyana is already highly disrupted. The entire coastal strip is now inhabited. In order to conquer this space and subsequently develop the aquaculture and agriculture -- mainly rice cultivation -- the coastal swamp areas have been transformed into polders (3). To this end, dikes have been built, reducing the 1km mangrove strip to just a few dozen metres wide. Less protective dikes More than three quarters of Guyana's 450 km of coastline along the Atlantic are currently diked up. Coastal stability now depends on these earthen dikes. However, these dikes do not provide the same level of protection as mangroves against the swell, which is the main cause of erosion. Moreover, they would not withstand the strength of the waves if the mangroves were to disappear completely. Yet, they prevent the sedimentation of mud coming from the Amazon, which enables forest regeneration. Coastal stability in danger Scientists have identified the main geomorphological processes at work across the entire Guyana coast. Thus, they could assess the high risk of destabilisation of the coastline due to the reduction in mangroves. Rocky dikes are currently being built in order to protect economic activities, such as agriculture. However, such works are prohibitively expensive. The only means of protection consists of rebuilding the mangroves. This assessment will enable the Guyana government to specify the measures for action that should be implemented to help the mangroves recolonise the coastline. French Guiana, of which the coastal area in turn suffers growing demographic pressure, must also draw lessons from these works so as not to encounter the same problems as its neighbour in the medium term. Cite This Page:
1397 words (4 double-spaced pages) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Motivation is the process of stimulating people to act in ways which serve the needs of the organization providing the stimulus. Simply put, motivation is discovering and applying whatever is needed to get the employee to carry out designated activities in specified ways. However, a clear distinction is made between attitude, which is a state of mind, and behavior, which is a state of action. A milestone in the relationship between the behavioral scientist and the manager was the "Hawthorne Experiments". In that project, behavioral scientists were invited to a large plant to help explain some employee behavior phenomena which were baffling to the managers. The success in this collaboration was achieved in a setting which included the following elements: 1) The study was a joint undertaking between behavioral scientists and practicing managers. 2) The locale of study was the factory, not the psychological laboratory. 3) The problem studied was not staged; it consisted of real life. 4) The tools used for study were the analytical tools of the behavioral scientists, not the empiricism of the managers. All behavioral scientists agree that human beings act in response to stimuli which appeal to their internal needs and drives. Obviously, it is important to understand just what kinds of stimuli are effective. While the behavioral scientists agree the needs are multiple and that they are unequal in importance, they do not agree on the order of priorities or on the relative importance of potential stimuli. According to Maslow, people have and tend to satisfy the following five basic needs: Physiological: food, clothing. Shelter, which people satisfy before all others. Security: safety and stability, absence of pain, Threat and illness. Affiliation: desire for friendship, love, and belonging. Esteem: self-respect, personal achievement, and recognition from others. Self-actualization: personal growth, self-fulfillment, and realization of ones own full potential. Although Maslow's theory helps considerably in understanding the growth processes of individuals from birth through maturity, the relevance of his model to the workplace seems somewhat questionable. By the time most employees begin working, many of their lower-order needs already have been fulfilled. Moreover, the nature of many jobs makes it almost impossible for many employees to achieve self-actualization, the highest need in the hierarchy, on the job. The strongest criticism of Maslow's approach is that it was developed from Maslow's clinical experience, and that empirical work has consistently failed to find major support for the theory. These critics argue that while the theory may have described Maslow's patients, it does not reflect the realities of people at work. Furthermore, it is not clear that deficient needs are the strongest motivators. In Maslow's defense, Maslow did not originally intend his theories to be applied to the workplace; rather, management specialists such as Douglas McGregor popularized his ideas in the management literature. David C. McClelland, professor of psychology at Harvard University, is also credited with extensive contributions to motivation theory. McClelland identifies three needs: 1. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT. The desire to accomplish some goal or task more effectively than has been the case in the past. 2. NEED FOR AFFILIATION. The desire to have close, amenable relations with other people. 3. NEED FOR POWER. The desire to be influential and to have impact on a group. Much of McClelland's early work suggested that the need for achievement was important to business people, scientists, and professional persons. A later report restricted to managers concluded that the need for power was most important to management. McClelland identifies three types of managers: 1. AFFILIATE MANAGERS (affiliation greater than power, high inhibition). 2. PERSONAL POWER MANAGERS (power greater than affiliation, low inhibition). 3. INSTITUTIONAL MANAGERS (power greater than affiliation, high inhibition). He concluded that the institutional managers, who were high in the need for power and self-control, but low in the need for affiliation, were typically the most successful leaders. Many managers prefer Herzberg's theory because: 1. Easy to understand, the motivators and hygiene factors are easily identified. 2. Provide actions required to improve employee performance that are straight forward. 3. Herzberg model underpins the importance of intrinsic factors in the job and lead to the need to improve job-related content, re-design or re-structure the current job in order to improve motivation and job satisfaction. The motivators are typically intrinsic factors, largely administered by the employee. The hygiene factors are extrinsic factors, under the control of the supervisor or someone else other than the employee. CRITICISMS OF THE HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY 1. Herzberg implies that satisfaction and motivation are essentially the same. We know, though, that motivation is often the result of dissatisfaction. So, it is dangerous to draw conclusions about what motivates employees on the basis of what satisfies them. 2. Herzberg's findings appear to be tied to his critical-incidents methodology. That is, the two factors revealed by Herzberg only-show up when employees are asked to recall satisfying and dissatisfying events. We are likely to attribute good things to internal factors and bad things to external factors. Herzberg's results may just be a reflection on this self-serving bias. 3. Herzberg classified items as satisfiers or dissatisfiers on the basis of the relative number of times they were mentioned as causing satisfaction or dissatisfaction. COMPARING HERZBERG'S AND MASLOW'S MODELS There is much similarity between Herzberg's and Maslow's models. A close examination of Herzberg's ideas indicates that what he actually is saying is that some employees may have achieved a level of social and economic progress such that the higher-level needs of Maslow (esteem and self-actualization) are the primary motivators. However, they still must satisfy the lower-level needs for the maintenance of their current state. So we can see that money might still be a motivator for non management workers (particularly those at a low wage level) and for some managerial employees. In addition, Herzberg's model adds to Maslow's model, because it breaks down the five need levels into two job-oriented categories: maintenance and motivational. The figure compares the structure of the two. The table shown on the nest page compares areas in which they differ. TOPIC MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR 2. Impact of needs on behavior 3. Role of financial rewards 5. Type of theory People in society in all types of jobs and in retirement. All needs can motivate behavior. Financial reward can motivate. Applies to all people and their lives. Descriptive (what is). Most relevant to white-collar and professional employees. Only some intrinsic needs serve as motivators. Financial reward is not a key motivator. Is work centered. Prescriptive (what should be). According to McGregor, theory Y managers would seek to motivate their subordinates through the goals of achievement, self-esteem and (possibly) the prospect of self-actualization. Theory X managers, on the other hand, would limit subordinates' abilities to exercise discretion and use incentive schemes and penalties as primary inducements for increased effort. Theory X and Theory Y According to McGregor, a manager of the Theory X model views his or her subordinates as by nature lacking in ambition resistant to change preferring to be led than to lead Theory Y, by contrast, involves an alternative set of assumptions. A manager operating under a Theory Y perspective views subordinates as naturally willing to work willing to accept responsibility capable of self-direction capable of self-control capable of imagination, ingenuity, creativity. Motivation in Real Life. Example: A salesperson has worked hard to consistently achieve a 125% sales quota. She was given a $200 per month raise in recognition of her achievement by her boss. However, she discovered that a salesperson with no previous experience had been hired into the organization by her boss for $100 more a month than she was making. This resulted in a loss of motivation for the salesperson and her performance began to drop. In my opinion, this loss of motivation can be seen in Maslows' theory under esteem because she wasn't receiving the recognition, in the form of higher pay, for her outstanding sales. The difference in salary was very small, but having a history of working hard and great performance and not receiving recognition for it would make most people lose heart and possible seek employment elsewhere. Money can be a big motivator when trying to get the most from an employee. But I think it's also very important to look at all the other qualitative needs employees have that fill their emotional needs as well. Boone, Louis E., David L. Kurtz, "Principles of Management", (2nd edition), Random House, Inc., 1984. Carlisle, Howard M., "Management: Concepts, Methods, and Application", (2nd edition), Science Research Associates, Inc., 1982. Hellriegel, Don. Jackson, Susan. Slocum, John (2005). Management: A Competency-based Approach (10th ed.) Canada: Transcontinental Interglobe. Beamish, Paul. Morrison, Allison. Inkpen, Andrew. Rosenweig, Philip. (2003) International Management (5th ed.) Iowa: R.R. Donnelly How to Cite this Page "Managerial Motivation." 123HelpMe.com. 07 Jul 2015
Tinkering with Turing Machines in Wolfram\|Alpha If you’re a regular reader of Boing Boing you might have seen this beautiful homemade Turing machine that tinkerer Mike Davey put together (it’s definitely worth watching the video). For those who don’t know, Turing machines are theoretical idealizations of computers. While not intended to be practical, they do allow mathematicians to construct rigorous proofs about what can be computed and what cannot. And now, you can experiment with them directly on Wolfram\|Alpha! To begin with, let’s ask Wolfram\|Alpha to simulate the program that Mike Davey used in his video, a binary counter. Using Stephen Wolfram‘s notation, this one is 2-state 3-color machine number 1317953. It “counts” in binary, and marks each successive integer when the machine’s head returns to the initial position. We can more easily see how it computes the sequence 1,2,3,4,5… by only showing the steps when it returns to the center column. Next we can try a Turing machine at random from the infinite “universe” of possible machines. Let’s say we find this particular Turing machine, and want to see how it behaves on different input tapes. We can try a tape filled with random colors, or a finite tape that wraps around, or a tape with an infinite pattern on it, or even a combination of the above. We can also try a random Turing machine that operates with many colors, such as “random 7-color Turing machine”. Wolfram\|Alpha also knows about various famous machines. For example, the Wolfram 2,3 Turing machine, shown in the image below, was proved by Alex Smith to be universal, or capable of simulating any computation (a feat that won him $25,000 from Wolfram Research). We can see what this machine does on a particular input tape, such as “evolution of Wolfram 2,3 on single 0 then all 2s for 60 steps”. For a better view, we can ask Wolfram\|Alpha to compress its visualization in various ways, such as “wolfram 2,3 on blank tape, left-compressed”, or “wolfram 2,3 on blank tape, every 5th step”. One class of famous Turing machines are called busy beavers. If there were a Turing Olympics, these machines would be the long-distance gold medalists—their job is to write as many colored cells as possible before eventually halting. In the 2-state 2-color rulespace, the current champion only holds out for 6 steps before stopping. More-complex Turing machines, with more colors and more states, can do better. It is easy for a Turing machine to go on forever, but to halt after exactly 47176870 steps is no mean feat, as this 5-state 2-color busy beaver does. And this 3-state 3-color machine, discovered by father-son team Terry and Shawn Ligocki, actually goes on for 119 quadrillion steps before halting! That’s all from us, but there’s plenty more for you to discover. See the examples page for more things to try! Happy hunting!
What is gum disease? Gum disease, also known as Periodontal Disease, is an inflammation of the gums – the earliest stage of gum disease and easiest to treat. The direct cause of this disease is plaque – a viscous, colorless film of bacteria that forms constantly in the teeth and gums. If plaque is not removed by brushing and flossing daily, it produces toxins (acids) that irritate causing gingivitis. At this early stage of disease, damage can be reversed, since the bone and connective tissue that holds the teeth in place have not yet been reached. However, if gingivitis is not treated, it can progress to periodontitis and cause permanent damage to the teeth. How do I know that I have gum disease? The classic symptoms of gingivitis include red, swollen and sensitive gums that can bleed during brushing. Another symptom of the disease is the retreat or retraction of the gum, giving the teeth an elongated appearance. It can form pockets between the teeth and the gum, where food and plaque remains. Some people have frequent bad breath or feel a bad taste in the mouth, even if the disease is not at an advanced stage. How can I prevent? Good oral hygiene is essential. Professional cleaning is also extremely important because once the plaque builds up and hardens (or becomes tartar)and only the dentist can remove it. You can prevent in the following ways: Correct brushing and proper use of dental floss to remove plaque and food debris and control of the appearance of tartar; Correct feeding to ensure proper nutrition; Avoid cigarettes and other forms of tobacco; Go to the dentist regularly. Who gets gum disease? People usually don’t show signs of gum disease until they are in their 30s or 40s. Men are more likely to have gum disease than women. Although teenagers rarely develop periodontitis, they can develop gingivitis. Most commonly, gum disease develops when plaque is allowed to build up along and under the gum line.
Pendulums Draw Novel Designs (May, 1936) Pendulums Draw Novel Designs INTRICATE geometrical designs, many of striking beauty, are produced by a curious instrument constructed by Milan Fiske, junior student at Beloit College, Beloit, Wis., and known as a precision harmonograph. The unusual device, which its youthful builder believes may be the only one of its kind in the country operating on similar principles, aids in the mathematical study of compound harmonic motions. A platform, mounted on a universal joint, is rocked by a pendulum while a fountain pen at the end of a three-foot arm, also supported upon a universal joint, is given an independent motion by a second pendulum. This traces a design, called a harmonogram, upon a sheet of paper attached to the rocking platform. By swinging the pendulums in various ways, Fiske estimates, as many as 10.000,000 different patterns of curves may be produced.
- An around-the-world flight by a solar-powered airplane is a remarkable achievement, but it does not signal that solar passenger planes are the next big thing. - Compared to other options, solar's low energy density makes it an especially challenging pathway for pursuing large cuts in the emissions from aircraft. Let's start by acknowledging the engineering talent and sheer courage involved in the flight of the Solar Impulse 2 (Si2). The aircrew and designers deserve all the kudos they will receive; they have earned a place in aviation history. However, notwithstanding the prediction of pilot Bertrand Piccard that, "within 10 years, electric aircraft could be carrying up to 50 passengers on short to medium-haul flights," I am skeptical that this project will be the forerunner of solar-powered commercial flight in the way that Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight in 1927 led to the first non-stop commercial flight across the Atlantic in 1938. There's no anti-solar bias involved in that statement, just an appreciation of the constraints that physics and geometry (e.g., the "square-cube law") impose on the amount of solar energy an aircraft can harvest during flight with anything like current technology. Energy density is an essential factor in the economics of commercial air travel. According to the website for the Si2, the aircraft is approximately "the size of a 747 with the weight of a car." That should be our first hint that scaling up to the performance and capacity of today's jets would be an even bigger challenge than the one these folks have just completed. During the course of its journey, which entailed over 500 hours of flight spread across 17 months, the Si2 collected and consumed electrical energy equivalent to a little over 300 gallons of kerosene-based jet fuel. By comparison, a Boeing 777, which is capable of carrying up to 400 people, burns an average of around 2,000 gallons of jet fuel per hour. If you covered a 777's wings with the same 22%-efficient SunPower solar cells used by the Si2, they would generate the fuel-equivalent of less than 3 gallons per hour at noon on a cloudless day. Even allowing for the higher efficiency of electric motors compared to gas turbines, that is still orders of magnitude less than the energy necessary to push a fully-loaded jetliner through the sky at 550 miles per hour. (The Si2 averaged 47 mph.) As the Financial Times reported, the near-term applications of solar-powered flight are likely limited to surveillance drones and other specialized platforms for which long-range fuel-free flight confers a big advantage. I could also envision lightweight, high-efficiency solar cells being used on next-generation commercial aircraft to provide auxiliary (non-motive) power, saving both fuel and emissions. That brings me back to the EPA. The agency's stated rationale for targeting aircraft engines now is that they expect these emissions to increase in the future, and that reductions would lead to climate and health benefits. There's no mention of solar-powered aircraft, and I must trust that had nothing to do with their announcement. The EPA's latest greenhouse gas inventory reported that in 2014 commercial and other aircraft accounted for 8% of US transportation-related emissions, and about 2% of all US emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. It also showed that aviation emissions have fallen 22% since 2005. Perhaps the growth they are worried about is proportional, rather than absolute, as emissions from electricity generation and other sources decline faster. However, compared to cars and light trucks that account for over 60% of emissions from transportation, and for which many emission-reduction options are available, aviation is a small and rather challenging focus for further reductions. Those will likely rely on advanced biofuels, along with additional gains in turbine efficiency and airframe weight reduction. The website for Solar Impulse 2 acknowledges that its flight was intended to highlight the earth-bound applications of renewable energy: "Behind Solar Impulse’s achievements, there is always the same goal: show that if an airplane can fly several days and nights in a row with no fuel, then clean technologies can be used on the ground to reduce our energy consumption, and create profit and jobs." Solar-powered air travel for the masses seems pretty far off, and certainly not something we can count on for cutting our emissions.
Historians agree unanimously that the French Revolution was a watershed event that changed Europe irrevocably, following in the footsteps of the American Revolution, which had occurred just a decade earlier. The causes of the French Revolution, though, are difficult to pin down: based on the historical evidence that exists, a fairly compelling argument could be made regarding any number of factors. Internationally speaking, a number of major wars had taken place in the forty years leading up to the Revolution, and France had participated, to some degree, in most of them. The Seven Years’ War in Europe and the American Revolution across the ocean had a profound effect on the French psyche and made the Western world a volatile one. In addition to charging up the French public, this wartime environment took quite a toll on the French treasury. The costs of waging war, supporting allies, and maintaining the French army quickly depleted a French bank that was already weakened from royal extravagance. Finally, in a time of highly secularized Enlightenment, the idea that King Louis XVI had absolute power due to divine right—the idea that he had been handpicked by God—didn’t hold nearly as much water as in the past few decades. Ultimately, these various problems within late-1700s France weren’t so much the immediate causes of the Revolution as they were the final catalyst. The strict French class system had long placed the clergy and nobility far above the rest of the French citizens, despite the fact that many of those citizens far exceeded nobles in wealth and reputation. Moreover, these exclusive titles—most of which had been purchased and passed down through families—essentially placed their bearers above the law and exempted them from taxes. In 1789, when France’s ancient legislative body, the Estates-General, reconvened and it became apparent that the higher-ranking classes refused to forfeit their privileges in the interest of saving the country, the frustration of the French bourgeoisie reached its boiling point. The French Revolution was thus a battle to achieve equality and remove oppression—concerns far more deep-seated and universal than the immediate economic turbulence France was experiencing at the time. It may seem on the surface that the immediate results of the French Revolution were negligible, for the next leader after the Revolution was Napoleon, who imposed a dictatorship of sorts, voiding the sovereign democracy of the Revolution. Nonetheless, the Revolution won the public a number of other victories, both tangible and intangible. No French ruler after the Revolution dared to reverse the property and rights acquisitions gained during the Revolution, so citizens who had purchased church land were allowed to keep it. The new tax system remained devoid of the influence of privilege, so that every man paid his share according to personal wealth. Moreover, the breakdown of church and feudal contracts freed people from tithes and other incurred fees. That’s not to say that all was well: French industry struggled for years after the Revolution to regain a foothold in such a drastically different environment. On the whole, however, the French people had seen the impact they could have over their government, and that liberating, inspiring spirit was unlikely ever again to be suppressed. Other European governments and rulers, however, were not too happy with the French after the Revolution. They knew that their own citizens had seen the power that the French public wielded, and as a result, those governments were never again able to feel secure in their rule after 1799. Though there had been other internal revolutions in European countries, few were as massive and convoluted as the French Revolution, which empowered citizens everywhere and resulted in a considerable leap toward the end of oppression throughout Europe.
Railway signalling is a system used to control railway traffic safely, essentially to prevent trains from colliding. Being guided by fixed rails, trains are uniquely susceptible to collision; furthermore, trains cannot stop quickly, and frequently operate at speeds that do not enable them to stop within sighting distance of the driver. In the UK, the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 introduced a series of requirements on matters such as the implementation of interlocked block signalling and other safety measures as a direct result of the Armagh rail disaster in that year. Most forms of train control involve movement authority being passed from those responsible for each section of a rail network (e.g., a signalman or stationmaster) to the train crew. The set of rules and the physical equipment used to accomplish this determine what is known as the method of working (UK), method of operation (US) or safeworking (Aus.). Not all these methods require the use of physical signals and some systems are specific to single track railways. The earliest rail cars were first hauled by horses or mules. A mounted flagman on a horse preceded some early trains. Hand and arm signals were used to direct the “train drivers”. Foggy and poor-visibility conditions gave rise to flags and lanterns. Wayside signalling dates back as far as 1832, and used elevated flags or balls that could be seen from afar. The simplest form of operation, at least in terms of equipment, is to run the system according to a timetable. A fixed schedule is drawn up with which every train crew must be familiar. Trains may only run on each section of track at their scheduled time, during which they have 'possession' and no other train is permitted to use the same section. When trains are running in opposite directions on a single-track railroad, meeting points ("meets") are scheduled, at which each train must wait for the other at a passing place. Neither train is permitted to move before the other has arrived. In the US the display of two green flags (green lights at night) is an indication that another train is following the first and the waiting train must wait for the next train to pass. In addition, the train carrying the flags gives eight blasts on the whistle as it approaches. The waiting train must return eight blasts before the flag carrying train may proceed. The timetable system has several disadvantages. First, there is no positive confirmation that the track ahead is clear, only that it is scheduled to be clear. The system does not allow for engine failures and other such problems, but the timetable is set up so that there should be sufficient time between trains for the crew of a failed or delayed train to walk far enough to set up warning flags, flares, and detonators or torpedoes (UK and US terminology, respectively) to alert any other train crew. A second problem is the system's inflexibility. Trains cannot be added, delayed, or rescheduled without advance notice. A third problem is a corollary of the second: the system is inefficient. To provide flexibility, the timetable must give trains a broad allocation of time to allow for delays, so the line is in the possession of each train for longer than is otherwise necessary. Nonetheless, this system permits operation on a vast scale, with no requirements for any kind of communication that travels faster than a train. Timetable operation was the normal mode of operation in North America in the early days of the railroad. With the advent of the telegraph in 1851, a more sophisticated system became possible because this provided a means whereby messages could be transmitted ahead of the trains. The telegraph allows the dissemination of any timetable changes, known as train orders. These allow the cancellation, rescheduling and addition of train services. Train crews generally receive their orders at the next station at which they stop, or they are sometimes handed up to a locomotive 'on the run' via a long staff. Train orders allowed dispatchers to set up meets at sidings, force a train to wait in a siding for a priority train to pass, and to maintain at least one block spacing between trains going the same direction. Timetable and train order operation was commonly used on American railroads until the 1960s, including some quite large operations such as the Wabash Railroad and the Nickel Plate Road. Train order traffic control was used in Canada until the late 1980s on the Algoma Central Railway and some spurs of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Timetable and train order was not used widely outside North America, and has been phased out in favor of radio dispatch on many light-traffic lines and electronic signals on high-traffic lines. More details of North American operating methods is given below. Trains cannot collide with each other if they are not permitted to occupy the same section of track at the same time, so railway lines are divided into sections known as blocks. In normal circumstances, only one train is permitted in each block at a time. This principle forms the basis of most railway safety systems. On double-tracked railway lines, which enabled trains to travel in one direction on each track, it was necessary to space trains far enough apart to ensure that they could not collide. In the very early days of railways, men (originally called 'policemen') were employed to stand at intervals ("blocks") along the line with a stopwatch and use hand signals to inform train drivers that a train had passed more or less than a certain number of minutes previously. This was called "time interval working". If a train had passed very recently, the following train was expected to slow down to allow more space to develop. The watchmen had no way of knowing whether a train had cleared the line ahead, so if a preceding train stopped for any reason, the crew of a following train would have no way of knowing unless it was clearly visible. As a result, accidents were common in the early days of railways. With the invention of the electrical telegraph, it became possible for staff at a station or signal box to send a message (usually a specific number of rings on a bell) to confirm that a train had passed and that a specific block was clear. This was called the "absolute block system". Fixed mechanical signals began to replace hand signals from the 1830s. These were originally worked locally, but it later became normal practice to operate all the signals on a particular block with levers grouped together in a signal box. When a train passed into a block, a signalman would protect that block by setting its signal to 'danger'. When an 'all clear' message was received, the signalman would move the signal into the 'clear' position. The block system came into use gradually during the 1850s and 1860s and became mandatory in the United Kingdom after Parliament passed legislation in 1889 following a number of accidents, most notably the Armagh rail disaster. This required block signalling for all passenger railways, together with interlocking, both of which form the basis of modern signalling practice today. Similar legislation was passed by the United States around the same time. Not all blocks are controlled using fixed signals. On some single track railways in the UK, particularly those with low usage, it is common to use token systems that rely on the train driver's physical possession of a unique token as authority to occupy the line, normally in addition to fixed signals. Before allowing a train to enter a block, a signalman must be certain that it is not already occupied. When a train leaves a block, he must inform the signalman controlling entry to the block. Even if the signalman receives advice that the previous train has left a block, he is usually required to seek permission from the next signal box to admit the next train. When a train arrives at the end of a block section, before the signalman sends the message that the train has arrived, he must be able to see the end-of-train marker on the back of the last vehicle. This ensures that no part of the train has become detached and remains within the section. The end of train marker might be a white disc by day or a steady or flashing red lamp. If a train has entered the next block before the signalman sees that the disc or lamp is missing, he will ask the next signal box to stop the train and investigate. Under a permissive block system, trains are permitted to pass signals indicating the line ahead is occupied, but only at such a speed that they can stop safely driving by sight. This allows improved efficiency in some situations and is mostly used in the USA, and in most countries is restricted to freight trains only, and may be restricted depending on the level of visibility. Permissive block working may also be used in an emergency, either when a driver is unable to contact a signalman after being held at a danger signal for a specific time, although this is only permitted when the signal does not protect any conflicting moves, and also when the signaller is unable to contact the next signal box to make sure the previous train has passed, for example if the telegraph wires are down. In these cases, trains must proceed at very low speed (typically 20mph or less) so that they are able to stop short of any obstruction. In most cases this will not be allowed during times of poor visibility (e.g fog or falling snow). An absolute block system is itself not entirely absolute. Multiple trains may enter a block with authorisation. This is necessary in order to split or join trains together, rescue failed trains and the like. In giving authorisation, the signalman also ensures the driver knows precisely what to expect ahead, and the driver must operate the train in a safe manner taking this information into account. Generally, the signal will remain at danger, and the driver will be given verbal authority, usually accompanied by a yellow flag, to pass a signal at danger, and the presence of the train in front will be explained. At locations where trains regularly enter occupied blocks, such as stations where coupling takes place, a subsidiary signal, sometimes known as a "calling on" signal, will be provided for these movements, otherwise they are accomplished through train orders. Under automatic block signalling, signals indicate whether or not a train may enter a block based on automatic train detection indicating whether a block is clear. The signals may also be controlled by a signalman, so that they only provide a proceed indication if the signalman sets the signal accordingly and the block is clear. Most blocks are "fixed", i.e. they include the section of track between two fixed points. On timetable, train order, and token-based systems, blocks usually start and end at selected stations. On signalling-based systems, blocks start and end at signals. The lengths of blocks are designed to allow trains to operate as frequently as necessary. A lightly-used line might have blocks many kilometres long, but a busy commuter line might have blocks a few hundred metres long. A train is not permitted to enter a block until a signal indicates that the train may proceed, a dispatcher or signalman instructs the driver accordingly, or the driver takes possession of the appropriate token. In most cases, a train cannot enter the block until not only the block itself is clear of trains, but there is also an empty section beyond the end of the block for at least the distance required to stop the train. In signalling-based systems with closely-space signals, this overlap could be as far as the signal following the one at the end of the section, effectively enforcing a space between trains of two blocks. When calculating the size of the blocks, and therefore the spacing between the signals, the following have to be taken into account: Historically, some lines operated so that certain large or high speed trains were signalled under different rules and only given the right of way if two blocks in front of the train were clear. One disadvantage of having fixed blocks is that the faster trains are allowed to run, the longer the stopping distance, and therefore the longer the blocks need to be, thus decreasing the line's capacity. Under a moving block system, computers calculate a 'safe zone' around each moving train that no other train is allowed to enter. The system depends on knowledge of the precise location and speed and direction of each train, which is determined by a combination of several sensors: active and passive markers along the track and trainborne tachometers and speedometers (GPS systems cannot be used because they do not work in tunnels.) With a moving block, lineside signals are unnecessary, and instructions are passed directly to the trains. This has the advantage of increasing track capacity by allowing trains to run closer together while maintaining the required safety margins. Moving block is in use on Vancouver's Skytrain, London's Docklands Light Railway, New York's L line, and planned for future use on London's Jubilee Line. It was supposed to be the enabling technology on the modernisation of Britain's West Coast Main Line which would allow trains to run at a higher maximum speed (140mph), but the technology was deemed not mature enough, considering the large number of junctions on the line, and the plan was dropped. It forms part of the European Rail Traffic Management System's level-3 specification for future installation in the European Train Control System, which will (at level 3) feature moving blocks that allow trains to follow each other at exact braking distances. One of the most common ways to determine whether a section of line is occupied is by use of a track circuit. The rails at either end of each section are electrically isolated from the next section, and an electrical current is fed to both running rails at one end. A relay at the other end is connected to both rails. When the section is unoccupied, the relay coil completes an electrical circuit, and is energized. However, when a train enters the section, it short-circuits the current in the rails, and the relay is de-energized. This method does not explicitly need to check that the entire train has left the section. If part of the train is left in the section, that part will continue to be detected by the track circuit. This type of circuit is used to detect trains, both for the purpose of setting the signal indication and for providing various interlocking functions — for example, not permitting points to be moved when a train is standing over them. Electrical circuits are also used to prove that points are in the appropriate position before a signal over them may be cleared. Modern UK trains, and staff working in track circuit block areas, carry operating clips so that, in the event of a derailment fouling an adjacent track, the track circuit can be short-circuited. This places signals on that track to 'danger' and can be used to prevent a collision before the crew is able to contact a signalman. An alternative method of determining the occupied status of a block is using devices located at its beginning and end that count the number of axles entering and leaving. If the same number leave the block as enter it, the block is assumed to be clear. Although axle counters can provide similar functionality to track circuits, they also exhibit a few other characteristics. In a moist environment an axle counted section can be far longer than a track circuited one. The low ballast resistance of very long track circuits reduces their sensitivity. Track circuits can automatically detect some types of track defect such as a broken rail. In the event of power restoration after a power failure, an axle counted section is left in an undetermined state until a train has passed through the affected section. When a block section has been left in an undetermined state it may be worked under pilot working. The first train to pass through the section would typically do so at a speed no greater than 20 mph, or walking pace in areas of high transition, reverse curvature and may have someone who has a good local knowledge of the area acting as the pilotman. A track circuited section will detect the presence of a train in section immediately. On most railways, physical signals are erected at the lineside to indicate to drivers whether the line ahead is occupied and to ensure that sufficient space exists between trains to allow them to stop. Older forms of signal displayed their different aspects by their physical position. The earliest types comprised a board that was either turned face-on and fully visible to the driver, or rotated so as to be practically invisible. While this type of signal is still in use in some countries (e.g. France and Germany), by far the most common form of mechanical signal worldwide is the semaphore signal. This comprises a pivoted arm or blade that can be inclined at different angles. A horizontal arm is the most restrictive indication (for 'danger' or 'caution', depending on the type of signal). To enable trains to run at night, one or more lights are usually provided at each signal. Typically this comprises a permanently-lit oil lamp with movable coloured spectacles in front that alter the colour of the light. The driver therefore had to learn one set of indications for day time viewing and another for night time viewing. Whilst it is normal to associate the presentation of a green light with a safe condition, this was not historically the case. In the very early days of railway signalling, the first coloured lights (associated with the turned signals above) presented a white light for 'clear' and a red light for 'danger'. Green was originally used to indicate 'caution' but fell out of use when the time interval system was discontinued. A green light subsequently replaced white for 'clear', to address concerns that a broken red lens could be taken by a driver as a false 'clear' indication. It was not until scientists at Corning Glassworks perfected a shade of yellow without any tinges of green or red that yellow became the accepted colour for 'caution'. Mechanical signals are usually remotely operated by wire from a lever in a signal box, but electrical or hydraulic operation is normally used for signals that are located too distant for manual operation. On most modern railways, colour light signals have largely replaced mechanical ones. Colour light signals have the advantage of displaying the same aspects by night as by day, and require less maintenance than mechanical signals. Although signals vary widely between countries, and even between railways within a given country, a typical system of aspects would be: On some railways, colour light signals display the same set of aspects as shown by the lights on mechanical signals during darkness. Signalling of British origin generally conforms to the principle of route signalling. Most railway systems around the world, however, use what is known as speed signalling. Under route signalling, a driver is informed which route the train will take beyond each signal (unless only one route is possible). This is achieved by a route indicator attached to the signal. The driver uses his route knowledge, reinforced by speed restriction signs fixed at the lineside, to drive the train at the correct speed for the route to be taken. This method has the disadvantage that the driver may be unfamiliar with a route onto which he has been diverted due to some emergency condition. Several accidents have been caused by this alone. For this reason, in the UK drivers are only allowed to drive on routes that they have been trained on and must regularly 'practice' on lesser used diversionary routes to keep their route knowledge up to date. Under speed signalling, the driver is not informed which route the train will take, but the signal aspect informs him at what speed he may proceed. Speed signalling requires a far greater range of signal aspects than route signalling, but less dependence is placed on drivers' route knowledge. When the train is routed towards a diverging route that must be taken at a speed significantly less than the mainline speed, the driver must be given adequate prior warning. With speed signalling, the signals approaching the divergence will display aspects appropriate to control the train's speed, so no 'approach release' is required. Under 'route signalling', the aspects necessary to control speed do not exist, so a system known as approach release is employed. This involves holding the junction signal at a restrictive aspect (typically 'stop') in order that the signals on the approach show the correct sequence of caution aspects. The driver will brake in accordance with the caution aspect, without necessarily being aware that the diverging route has in fact been set. As the train approaches the junction signal, its aspect may clear to whatever aspect the current track occupancy ahead will permit. Where the turnout speed is the same, or nearly the same, as the mainline speed, approach release is unnecessary. The consequence of a driver/engineer failing to respond to a signal's indication can be disastrous. As a result, various auxiliary safety systems have been devised. Any such system will necessitate the installation of trainborne equipment to some degree. Some systems only intervene in the event of a signal being passed at danger. Others include audible and/or visual indications inside the driver's cab to supplement the lineside signals. Automatic brake application occurs if the driver should fail to acknowledge a warning. Some systems act intermittently (at each signal), but the most sophisticated systems provide continuous supervision. In-cab safety systems are of great benefit during fog, when poor visibility would otherwise require that restrictive measures be put in place. Cab signalling is a system that communicates track status information to the train cab (driving position), where the engineer or driver can see the information. The simplest systems display the trackside signal aspect, while more sophisticated systems also display allowable speed and dynamic information about the track ahead. In modern systems, a train protection system is usually overlaid on top of the cab signalling system to warn the driver of dangerous conditions, and to automatically apply the brakes and bring the train to a stop if the driver ignores the dangerous condition. Cab signalling systems range from simple coded track circuits, to transponders that communicate with the cab, and communication-based train control systems. In the early days of the railways, signalmen were responsible for ensuring any points (US: switches) were set correctly before allowing a train to proceed. Mistakes were made which led to accidents, sometimes with fatalities. The concept of the interlocking of points, signals, and other appliances was introduced to improve safety. This prevents a signalman from operating appliances in an unsafe sequence, such as setting a signal to 'clear' while one or more sets of points in the route ahead of the signal are improperly set. Early interlocking systems used mechanical devices both to operate the signalling appliances and to ensure their safe operation. From about the 1930s, electrical relay interlockings were used. Since the late 1980s, new interlocking systems have tended to be of the electronic variety. Operating rules, policies and procedures are used by railroads to enhance safety. Specific operating rules may differ from country to country and even from railroad to railroad within the same country. In Australia, operating rules are called Safeworking. In the UK, operating rules are called method of working. It is commonly known as the "Rule-book" by railway employees. It is controlled by the Rail Safety and Standards Board (RSSB), which is independent from Network Rail or any other Train/Freight Operating Company. Most heritage railways operate to a simplified variant of a British Railways rule book.
Analysis: Form and Meter Noyes liked to keep his poetic style pretty traditional, and that really shows in this poem. The poem is broken up into even, regular chunks, and the pattern of the rhymes doesn't change at all from one part to the next. The first thing to notice about the form of this poem is the way the lines are divided up. The stanzas (those are like the paragraphs in a poem) are always six lines long. You'll also notice when you look at the poem that the fourth and fifth line in every stanza is about half as long as the other lines. The pattern of the rhymes (what English teachers call "the rhyme scheme") is pretty simple in this poem, and Noyes doesn't mess with it at all. We'll show you how it works by looking at the first stanza. We'll put the rhyming words in bold, and assign a letter to each different rhyming sound: The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees, A The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas, A The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor, B And the highwayman came riding-- C The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door. B Pretty easy, huh? Just three pairs of rhymes in each stanza. Check out a different stanza, and you'll see that same pattern (AABCCB) repeating itself over and over. How about the rhythm of the poem? That's a little more complicated, although once again Noyes isn't the kind of poet who goes too crazy with his style. In general, there are six feet in every line. Feet are the building bocks of poetic meter – see the examples down below. This pattern is called "hexameter" (that "hex-" just means six, like in hexagon). Now things get more complicated because not all of those beats (feet) are the same. Some have two syllables, and some have three. We'll give you an example from the first two lines. Here the bold text shows where the stress (that means the emphasis) should go, and the feet are divided by slash marks. The wind \| was a tor\|rent of dark\|ness among \| the gus\|ty trees, The moon \| was a ghost\|ly gall\|eon tossed \| upon cloud\|y seas, See how that works? Some of those groups between the slashes (those are the feet) are longer and some are shorter, but each one has just one stressed syllable, and both lines have only six feet total. Before we leave this behind, we should tell you that the short, two syllable feet are called iambs, and they have an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, like "The wind" (da DUM). The longer, three syllable beats are called anapests. That's a weird word, we know, but it just means that there are two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable, like in line 2: "was a ghost" (da da DUM). We don't mean to stress you out with all these technical terms – it's just a handy way of talking about how a poem is put together. Don't sweat the details; just keep an eye and an ear out for the rhythm, which is like the beating heart of this poem.
Drones have conquered the air, I doubt anyone would try to argue that point. More recently, drones have been exploring underwater, now NASA has plans to use drones on Mars. Yes, the planet Mars. Creating a drone for use on Mars is no easy task and will require some complex engineering considering the differences that exist between Earth and Mars. I can’t wait to learn more. We already know that drones are useful for investigating hard-to-reach areas of Earth, but they could also be essential for exploring other planets. Engineers at NASA’s Langley research center are developing a concept for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, a.k.a. drones) for Mars. Currently, the Curiosity rover is exploring the red planet. It has already helped scientists make some exciting discoveries, such as the fact that Mars once had conditions to support life. This is quite an accomplishment, especially since the rover is stuck on the ground. When the next rover heads to Mars in 2020 it could be accompanied by a drone that would help expand its view of the landscape. NASA’s engineers are faced with the challenge of getting a drone to fly in conditions that are quite different from home. In one sense, flying should be easier on Mars because the planet has 3/8 the gravity that we have on Earth. But at the same time, there is also 100 times less atmosphere, so when the UAV’s rotor blades spin, they will only have thin air to push against, so liftoff will be especially difficult. NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) vision: We reach for new heights and reveal the unknown for the benefit of humankind. To do that, thousands of people have been working around the world — and off of it — for more than 50 years, trying to answer some basic questions. What’s out there in space? How do we get there? What will we find? What can we learn there, or learn just by trying to get there, that will make life better here on Earth?
Lesson 5: Dotted Quarter Notes In Lesson 2 we learned the following information about dotted notes: “When a dot is added to the right side of a note, it indicates that half of that note value is added to its length.” In that lesson, dots were added to half notes, creating notes that are equal to the length of a half note tied to a quarter note. When the quarter note is equal to one beat, the dotted half note is equal to three beats. In this lesson we will learn how to play dotted quarter notes. Following the same principal that was introduced in Lesson 2, we can determine that a dotted quarter note is equal to the length of a quarter note tied to half of its value, which is an eighth note, as shown below: Since there are two eighth notes in a quarter note we can subdivide the rhythm further tying together three eighth notes: When counting rhythms that involve dotted quarter notes, always subdivide the beat and count every “and” to make sure that you play each note value the correct length. To keep a steady beat, use a metronome! The example below demonstrates how to subdivide the beat to count dotted quarter note rhythms accurately. Measures 2, 3, and 4 will all sound the same. Dotted quarter rests are not common in written music. A quarter rest with an eighth rest is the standard notation for one and half beats of rest, as shown below: To learn how to play dotted quarter notes with practice patterns and audio examples, get the book The Fundamentals of Rhythm, by Kyle Coughlin. Write your own rhythms and music compositions! Get free blank staff paper at www.music-paper.com. Kyle Coughlin’s book, The Fundamentals of Rhythm, is a step-by-step method book with clear explanations of beat, tempo, meter, time signature, note values, and many other rhythmic concepts. It includes 22 lessons with more than 450 practice patterns to help you learn the fundamental aspects of rhythm. Audio recordings of the patterns (performed by RhythmBot) are available on this website. The book is available in both print and PDF editions, and can be used by any musical instrument. Learn more about the book here.
Only logged in customers who have purchased this product may leave a review. - Suitable for: - - KS1 - - KS2 - Compatible with: - - Windows Microsoft Office 2003 - - Windows Microsoft Office 2010 - - Windows Microsoft Office 2016 Download this 29-slide PowerPoint and 4 page A4 information booklet and learn all about the ‘Long Walk’ of Nelson Mandela. Find out why Nelson Mandela is known as ‘Father of the Nation’ in South Africa and discover about the history of South Africa and apartheid. The PowerPoint explains how Nelson Mandela struggled against racial discrimination and was imprisoned for his beliefs. This resource has images that will help your class understand what apartheid means and how Nelson Manelda has influenced South African politics and people. Download now to learn more!
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a test that records the electrical activity of the heart. You will be asked to lie down. The health care provider will clean several areas on your arms, legs, and chest, and then attach small patches called electrodes to the areas. It may be necessary to shave or clip some hair so the patches stick to the skin. The number of patches used may vary. The patches are connected by wires to a machine that turns the heart's electrical signals into wavy lines, which are often printed on paper. The test results are reviewed by the doctor. You usually need to remain still during the procedure. The health care provider may also ask you to hold your breath for a few seconds as the test is being done. Any movement, including muscle tremors such as shivering, can alter the results. So it is important to be relaxed and relatively warm during an ECG recording. Sometimes this test is done while you are exercising or under minimal stress to monitor changes in the heart. This type of ECG is often called a stress test. Make sure your health care provider knows about all the medications you are taking, as some can interfere with test results. Exercising or drinking cold water immediately before an ECG may cause false results. An ECG is painless. No electricity is sent through the body. The electrodes may feel cold when first applied. In rare cases, some people may develop a rash or irritation where the patches were placed. An ECG is used to measure: - Any damage to the heart - How fast your heart is beating and whether it is beating normally - The effects of drugs or devices used to control the heart (such as a pacemaker) - The size and position of your heart chambers An ECG is a very useful tool for determining whether a person has heart disease. Your doctor may order this test if you have chest pain or palpitations. - Heart rate: 60 to 100 beats per minute - Heart rhythm: consistent and even Abnormal ECG results may be a sign of Additional conditions under which the test may be performed include the following: There are no risks. No electricity is sent through the body, so there is no risk of shock. The accuracy of the ECG depends on the condition being tested. A heart problem may not always show up on the ECG. Some heart conditions never produce any specific ECG changes. If you have had a heart attack or have heart disease, you may need more than one ECG. Your doctor will tell you when you need the next one. There is no reason for healthy people to have yearly ECG testing unless they have a family or personal history of specific heart diseases or other medical conditions that affect the heart. Ganz L, Curtiss E. Electrocardiography. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 52. Review Date: 5/23/2010 Reviewed By: David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2009 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
A Chain Reaction Uranium is a common element on Earth. It's been around since the planet formed around 4.6 billion years ago since its half life – for U238 - of 4.5 billion years is about the same. U-238 makes up 99 percent of the uranium on Earth, while uranium-235 (U-235) makes up about 0.7 percent of the uranium found naturally. Uranium-235 has an interesting property that makes it handy for the production of both nuclear power and nuclear bombs. U-235 decays naturally, just as U-238 does, by emission of alpha particles: it emits an alpha particle, two neutrons and two protons bound together. U-235 also undergoes spontaneous fission a small percentage of the time. However, U-235 is one of the few materials that can undergo induced fission. If a free neutron runs into a U-235 nucleus, the nucleus will absorb the neutron, become unstable and split immediately. The probability of a U-235 atom capturing a neutron as it passes by is high. In fact, under reactor conditions, one neutron ejected from each fission causes another fission to occur, shown below. As soon as the nucleus captures the neutron, it splits into two lighter atoms and throws off two or three new neutrons (the number of ejected neutrons depends on how the U-235 atom splits). The process of capturing the neutron and splitting happens very quickly, on the order of picoseconds The decay of a single U-235 atom releases approximately 200 MeV (million electron volts). That may not seem like much, but there are a lot of uranium atoms in a pound (0.45 kg) of uranium. So many, in fact, that a pound of highly enriched uranium has enough can release as much energy as about a million gallons of gasoline. The splitting of an atom releases an incredible amount of heat and gamma radiation, or radiation made of high-energy photons. The two atoms that result from the fission later release beta radiation(super fast electrons) and gamma radiation of their own as well. The energy released by a single fission comes from the fact that the fission products and the neutrons, together, weigh less than the original U-235 atom. The difference in weight is converted directly to energy at a rate governed by the equation However, for all of this to work, a sample of uranium must be enriched so that it contains more U-235. Three percent enrichment is sufficient for nuclear power plants, but weapons-grade uranium is composed of at least ninety percent U-235.
Here’s an English definition from the introductory paragraphs of “Soil-Vegetation Relationships in Hawaiian Kipukas” by D. Mueller-Dombois and Charles H. Lamoureux in Pacific Science 21(1967):286-299. KIPUKA, the Hawaiian word for "opening," has come into scientific usage as a term used to designate an older area on the slopes of volcanic mountains that has been surrounded by more recent lava flows. Kipukas are common landscape features on the slopes of Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes on the [Big Island] of Hawaii, where they can be readily recognized as islands of denser vegetation in the vast, sparsely vegetated areas. They range in size from a few square meters to hundreds of acres.The usual Hawaiian (and Hawaiian Pidgin) term for ‘hole’ in the sense of ‘perforation, gap, blank (in a form), zero’ (vs. lua ‘pit, hole in the ground, latrine’) is puka, as in one-puka-puka, the U.S. Army's 100th Infantry Battalion. Hawaiian kīpuka may be a puka with an intensifying prefix, and it has an interesting range of meanings that have nothing to do with lava. Here's the full entry from Pukui and Elbert's (1986) revised and enlarged edition of their Hawaiian Dictionary: Kipukas are of special interest for several reasons. As vegetation islands they provide seedsource centers for the invasion of vegetation on new volcanic material. As vegetation islands they represent somewhat simplified ecosystems, analogous to bogs or lakes, that are very suitable for studying internal ecological relationships. The isolation of small populations in kipukas provides unique opportunities for evolutionary studies. 1. Variation or change of form (puka, hole), as a calm place in a high sea, deep place in a shoal, opening in a forest, openings in cloud formations, and especially a clear place or oasis within a lava bed where there may be vegetation. 2. Short shoulder cape; cloak, poncho. 3. Loop, lasso; snare, as for catching owls (a rat was tied to a sharp stick in a net; the owl, pouncing on the rat, was pierced by this stick).Ouch! UPDATE: As its Hawaiian etymology suggests, the kipuka is usually a hollow spot in a lava flow. A kipuka that projects above the surrounding lava is a steptoe, “named after Steptoe Butte, a quartzite protrusion above the Columbia Plateau lava flows near Colfax, Washington” or a dagala, from an Italian term for “an islandlike mass of older land surrounded by later lava flows,” according to the (1960) second edition of the Glossary of geology and related sciences: A cooperative project of the American Geological Institute.
The genus leucorrhinia, or the whitefaces, all have whitefaces as their name would suggest. Most are a combination of black and yellow or black and red. Some change color due to pruinose, a powdering substance that some dragonflies produce as they age. All whitefaces have black legs. The dot-tailed whiteface is the most common whiteface found in Minnesota. It can be found in every county in the state, unlike the other whitefaces that are limited geographically. The mature male is mostly black with a single square shaped black spot on the top of abdominal segment seven, see the first picture for an example. Females and juvenile males have yellow top spots on segments one through seven, see the picture above. Dot-tailed white faces are usually found around ponds, marshy areas, as well as quiet lakes and streams. Dot-tailed whiteface often perch on vegetation in the water, such as lily pads and algae beds. Males are often seen defending their territory from such perches. Even copulation typically takes place on floating vegetation, as pictured above. After they finish the female will lay the eggs in the water next to some floating vegetation. The male will hover guard while she lays the eggs making sure no other male can get to the female until after she has finished bearing his future offspring.
Joseph Conrad. A Polish and European writer Joseph Conrad was born as Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski in Berdychiv (today in Ukraine) in 1857. He was a child of a Polish noble family that was involved in the conspirational fight for Poland’s independence. After the death of his mother the young Conrad moved to Kraków from where he later emigrated to France and later Great Britain. In Marseille he became a sailor and since then the whole world was his home. According to literary critic Rafał Marceli Blüth, the decision to ”fraternise with the element of the sea and the element of the peoples who were not deformed by civilisation”, as non-Europeans were called back then, were Conrad’s attempts to distance himself from his homeland, his nation and European culture overall. The truth, however, is that he never abandoned any of them. Conrad returned to Poland several times later on in life. Citizen of Europe, and the world Speaking in today’s terms, we can say that Conrad was shaped by a cultural hybrid. He was influenced by many value-systems and was an heir to different legacies. This transcultural identity was reflected in the writer’s language as reportedly in conversations Conrad would smoothly switch from Polish to English or French. The choice of language depended on what he wanted to express. As a result, already in his lifetime, many nations desired to have Conrad as their own and wanted to place him among their national authors. Until today he is seen both as an English and Polish writer, but one who also thought in French. The only thing that is probably missing is his Ukrainian roots. It can also be said that Conrad was a citizen of Europe – a Europe whose outpost, as he believed, was to be found in Poland. But he was also a citizen of the world but of the 19th century world, of course. Conrad was deeply grounded in this reality and fascinated with the ideas that were influencing it: primarily colonialism and the mission to spread western civilisation. Clearly under this influence, the writer was also in awe to some older concepts, such as the medieval chivalry code of conduct and the more recent romantic visions of heroism and Messianism. Conrad was also quite realistic and correct in recognising the problems of the world of his time. He was especially concerned about the lack of inter-cultural dialogue, seeing it as a potential global problem of the future. He held this conviction even though he himself held his own prejudices, especially towards Russians and Prussians whom he associated with tyranny. While holding in high esteem western values and European civilisation, Conrad was also deeply rooted in the culture of the multi-ethnic Polish borderlands (Kresy). In his memory he held fond images of the Ukrainian landscape, even though he felt more of a Pole than a borderland Slav. The authors of the collected work Conrad żywy (Conrad Alive), which was published in London in 1957 by the Association of Polish Writers Abroad, stress that traces of this experience could be found in the writer’s skill to enter the internal world of peoples of different ethnicities and cultures. A European Pole Two recent Polish prime ministers, Jerzy Buzek and Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz, once said that “Joseph Conrad was the first conscious modern European-Pole. The tradition that Conrad identified himself with is European.” Indeed, in his works and letters Conrad presented a vision of Europe’s future where he saw Poland as a country of universal importance; Europe’s enclave. He glorified his homeland, arguing that its soil gave life to romantic ideas. He appreciated his compatriots’ attachment to freedom, respect for individual rights, high esteem of democracy and tolerance. He also valued Polish honour and chivalry code of conduct, and stressed Poles’ compassion towards the weak, as well as their idealism and spirituality. All in all Poland, in Conrad’s view, was a romantic hero: one that was sacrificing itself for others, one that loved for millions and suffered for them as well. The authors of Conrad żywy even argued that it was thanks to Conrad that Polish romanticism, and its vision of the world, became more universal. However, they also rightly stress that the romantic references that can be found in Conrad’s works might have generated the biggest misunderstanding among his readers. The same could be said about the ambiguous image of Poland that he presented. On the one hand, he showed his homeland to be a place of positivist concepts of work (in reference to the 19th century positivist movement – editor’s note), duty and responsibility, stressing Polish hospitality. Noteworthy is the fact that Conrad was a very hospitable person himself. He would welcome many guests to his house where he would feast with them and engage in conversation. On the other hand, Conrad did not hide his lack of faith in the success of the patriotic school of thought, one to which he was nonetheless deeply devoted. Nor was he convinced that Poland would regain independence. In his homeland he saw people who were weak and tired. Those who could think, talk, have faith, and suffer, but would not rise up again. It was only during the early years of the First World War that he started believing in Poland’s independence. Nevertheless, Conrad was convinced of Poland’s great contribution to Europe. He would present his homeland as a country with a great history and tradition – one that preserves the old Roman values and is located between the West (inhabited by German tribes) and the Byzantine Slavic-Tatar barbarism. In his view, it was an enclave of Italian and French culture, the last bastion of the West which, despite its difficult geopolitical situation, was capable of pushing back foreign influences and remaining faithful to its own values. Poland was the beacon of Europe and Europeaness and always eager to defend western civilisation. In Conrad’s eyes Poland was also an absorber of western ideas and culture. It was located at the threshold of western civilisation and always eager to “fight with Asian despotism”. Thus, when Conrad would stress in his letters that Poland was an heir to the chivalry tradition, he was expressing his belief that it was a sign of its western, not barbarian, roots. In these words and others, the author of Lord Jim greatly idealised Poland. Conrad was also convinced of the peaceful disposition of the Polish people. He would argue that the spirit of aggression was foreign to this nation and that it never engaged in any war that was aimed at expansion. Poles only defended their own territory. Conrad would make many references to the history of the Polish Commonwealth when Poland was a large and powerful empire, stressing that this achievement was not a result of conquest. Conversely in his description, he would point out that Poland’s greatness was a result of its European heritage: namely, ancient Roman Christianity, and a respect for individual rights. He would even state that therebuilding Polish statehood was a warranty for Europe’s security. In the Memorandum of the Polish Question he wrote: “Being convinced that European affairs can be settled after a general armistice by a Congress of all States, it is my intention: generally, to bring up and accustom the English public to the idea that the Poles should have a legal recognition of their nationality in the defeated as well as in the victorious states.” Attached to romantic ideas Conrad would present Poland as a Messiah of Europe’s nations – a moral and unbreakable country. Thus his protagonists were similar to the heroes of romantic epic poems and became Poland’s porte parole. Adam Gillon would write about the loneliness of Conrad’s protagonists, comparing their alienation with romantic behaviour. “Their isolation – he stated – is essentially of a spiritual kind. Possessed by the idea of saving their people without the people themselves, they trust only their own effort and heroism, ever ready to give their lives in the service of Poland.” Conrad would stress that by only participating in the shaping of Poland’s independence could Europe pay its debt towards Poland which allowed it to be offered as a sacrifice, but will one day rise to protect the order and security of Europe. Conrad understood Europe to be a multi-cultural and pluralistic federation. While preparing the Memorandum of the Polish Question together with Józef Retinger, his closest friend and a great Polish patriot and political advisor, Conrad pointed to the special role Russia, England and France were to play. It was under their protectorate that Poland was to stand up from its knees. At the same time, he never forgave the states of Western Europe and their acceptance of Poland’s partitions. Loyal subject to the Queen Czesław Miłosz wrote that “Conrad’s attachment to the British Empire and a strong sense of the borders of Western European civilisation were in a way a transposition of his faith in the Polish republic as a antemurale christanitatis. Islam and Byzantine Russia, in the minds of Poles, especially those from Lithuania and Ukraine, were the same enemy, an anti-civilisational element, which was constantly aiming to destroy Europe.” Conrad, as Retinger would say, was a Homo duplex – one with a dual nationality. He was 100 per cent a Pole, Retinger would write, when it came to his ethnic background and lifestyle, but at the same time he was a subject of the Queen of England. Conrad felt that he participated in England’s might and glory. He admired the British Empire and liked Englishmen. It was this attitude that gained most of Retinger’s respect. He thought such a mentality was a rarity, believing that those who move between cultures usually choose one of them over the other. Retinger was convinced that it was usually someone’s original identity that would win out in situations like this, and that someone’s new citizenship was more of a pragmatic choice. Conrad, as a co-participant of the English Empire and a Pole, felt obliged however to stress both Poland’s and Britain’s influence on him. Conrad not only saw the advantages of this outlook, but also – being marked by the experience of Poland’s history and its lost independence – he showed that he could relate to the peoples whose culture was poorly understood and destroyed. He would point out the negative effects that colonial expansion had on native peoples, who were often treated with hatred and brutality. At the same time, he would also unveil the lack of competence of the colonists, even though he did not abstain from showing them as cordial people, friendly to the local population. In his descriptions they were both philanthropists and adventure seekers, but they cared about profit and their own careers. In other words, instead of civilising others, they were acting at the same level of those who were being colonised. This stereotyped way of depicting native peoples as less civilised can be found in many of Conrad’s works. Despite this Conrad also talked about the isolation of the colonist as well as those who were being colonised. Both in the novels and short stories about the conquest of the white man (for example Amy Foster), he would point to the lack of inter-cultural dialogue, omnipresent stereotypes, which were all leading to mutual misunderstandings. Sense of loneliness Deriving from his experiences, Conrad was trying to prove that an understanding and openness of foreign cultures leads to co-existence and adaptation of new elements, which do not need to mean a rejection of older values. Throughout his life he experienced both the sense of alienation and being foreign. On many occasions he would talk not only about the geographic isolation, but also the cultural and psychological isolation. These feelings were probably the reason why Conrad was so upset by the words of his compatriot and well-known writer, Eliza Orzeszkowa. She accused him of having a lack of patriotism. To heal himself from the loneliness and separation he experienced, he found an escape in cultivating familiar national customs. He probably felt that it was his duty to be faithful to Polish traditions, especially those aspects of it that were becoming increasingly foreign and misunderstood. That is why he would be so idealistic in his writing about the chivalrous code of conduct and nobility. It was in here that he saw Polish heritage and its uniqueness. The duty of cultivating heritage was something that Conrad grew up with. His uncle, Tadeusz Bobrowski, taught him that Poles had to protect their distinctiveness, holding their position until fate brings them the right to independence. Conrad believed that the concept of honour was an important element of this heritage, even though idealisation of nobility and chivalry were the symptoms of the noble traditions that at that time were already going into oblivion. As Zdzisław Najder, Conrad’s biographer, stresses: “The idea of honour was at the centre of Conrad’s interest, which was met with misunderstanding and led to many misinterpretations of his works.” Conrad’s trans-culturalism can be explained by his profound understanding of the diffusion of cultures, combined with the adherence to national heritage and many traditions. It did not mean the disappearance of different cultures or the blurring of differences, or the lack of recognition of the origins of different borrowings and heritages. On the contrary, it was meant to identify the essence, of what was valuable and unique to a given culture, and to connect it with what was equally important and unique in other cultures. That is why in Conrad’s writings we can find both the glorification of the chivalric code of conduct, honour and adherence to values that were characteristic for his Polish background, as well as an openness towards those who were foreign or unknown. This included the Ukrainian steppe, the French admiration for individual rights and the ideals of the French Revolution, the European heritage of Roman culture, and the British aspiration to expand and spread European values. A similar philosophy could be found in Conrad’s understanding of human experiences and everything that is universal in human nature, including such emotions as joy and sorrow, loneliness, bitterness, fear and hope. Translated by Iwona Reichardt Kinga Anna Gajda is an assistant professor at the Institute of European Studies of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. She holds a PhD in literature.
The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction or mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer is explained below. The transformer consists of two separate windings placed over the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary winding and to which load is connected is called secondary winding as shown in the figure below. It works on the alternating current only because an alternating flux is required for mutual induction between the two windings. When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a voltage of V1, an alternating flux ϕ sets up in the core of the transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage V1, this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure below Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are magnetically connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings depends upon the rate of change of flux linkage that is (N dϕ/dt). dϕ/dt is the change of flux and is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E1 in the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary windings (E1 ∞ N1). Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of turns on the secondary side. (E2 ∞ N2). Transformer on DC supply As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply. If the rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up in the core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation, as for the linkage of flux with the secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and not a constant flux. According to Ohm’s Law The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this current is much higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat produced will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more. Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged. As (E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1)
Marshall Islands, a group of coral atolls in the Pacific Ocean that make up the Republic of the Marshall Islands. They are located north of the Equator and more than 2,300 miles (3,700 km) southwest of Hawaii. The Marshalls form part of Micronesia. They contain more than 1,100 islets in 33 atolls, with an area of only 68 square miles (176 km2). Most of them lie in two nearly parallel chains: the Ratak (sunrise) in the east and the Ralik (sunset) in the west. Among the atolls are Kwajalein, the largest; Majuro, the site of the capital; Eniwetok; and Bikini. The Marshalls are a self-governing republic in free association with the United States. They have a constitution and an elected president and legislature. The United States provides military protection and economic and technical assistance. The Marshalls were discovered and claimed by Spain in the mid-1500's. They were explored in 1788 by John Marshall, a British sea captain, for whom the islands were named. Germany occupied the Marshalls in 1886 and later bought them from Spain. They were seized by Japan in 1914, taken by United States forces in 1944, and included in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. The U.S. Army performed nuclear weapons testing on Bikini from 1948 to 1954 and established a missile testing range in Kwajalein. As a consequence, native inhabitants of both islands were forced to relocate. The Marshalls were given self-government in 1979. A compact of free association with the United States became effective in 1986, when the Marshalls were withdrawn from the trust territory.
Many new stargazers have trouble understanding our reference to “degrees”, “arc minutes”, and “arc seconds” when talking about the separation of celestial objects. So here’s a primer on measuring angular distances. Astronomers measure angular separation of objects in degrees. There are 360 degrees in a circle. And the angular separation of any point on the horizon and the point directly overhead (the zenith) is 90 degrees. Halfway from the zenith to the horizon is 45 degrees. Smaller angles are a little trickier. But your hands and fingers are a remarkably accurate (and convenient) measuring tool. When you hold your hand at arm’s length, you can estimate angles like this: - Stretch your thumb and little finger as far from each other as you can. The span from tip to tip is about 25 degrees - Do the same with your index finger and little finger. The span is 15 degrees - Clench your fist at arms length, and hold it with the back of your hand facing you. The width is 10 degrees - Hold your three middle fingers together; they span about 5 degrees - The width of your little finger at arm’s length is 1 degree. Now let’s go smaller. When you look through a telescope, you see a field of view of 1 degree or less… a very small slice of sky. Astronomers measure angles smaller than 1 degree in arcminutes, or “minutes of arc”. There are 60 arcminutes in one degree, so 1 arcminute is 1/60 degree. The symbol for arcminutes is ‘. So the full Moon, for example, is about 30′ (thirty arcminutes) across. Coincidentally, so is the Sun. Each arcminute is divided into 60 arcseconds, or “seconds of arc”. So 1 arcsecond is 1/60 arcminute and 1/3600 degree. The symbol for arcseconds is “. The face of Jupiter, which you can see this summer, is about 50″ across. A good optical telescope in steady skies can resolve down to about 1″ (one arcsecond).
Dragons are wild, reptile-like creatures, with large leathery wings. In no case should dragons be considered reptiles, despite obvious similarities such as appearance and reproduction by laying eggs. In fact, dragons are more akin to feline creatures than reptiles, particularly in regards to their posture and movements, as well as being inherently warm-blooded and an eye composition similar to felines, although far more complex. A good example of this is the placement of the legs: Reptiles have their legs placed on the sides of their body, while most mammals have them placed underneath their body- dragons also tend to place their rear foot where their front foot was previously, much like most stalking feline predators. Dragon subspecies differ strongly in size, tending to increase proportionally with latitude. Large male Snow Dragons can reach a total length of 3.5 m and a weight of 306 kg. Apart from those exceptional large individuals, male snow dragons usually have a head and body length of 190–220 cm and an average weight of 227 kg (the tail of a dragon is 60–110 cm long). Females are smaller, those of the snow or cliff subspecies weigh only between 100 and 181 kg. Isle dragons like the darthaan subspecies are much smaller than mainland dragons and weigh usually only 100–140 kg in males and 75–110 kg in females. The structure of the open wing is very similar to an outspread human hand with a membrane between the fingers that also stretches between hand and body. The dragon's wingspan is exactly 2.5 times that of their length (including tail). Dragons come in various colours, depending on their geographical and environmental locations. They have been known to be varying shades of green, blue, red, gold, black, white, and brown. Biology and behaviour Adult dragons are fiercely territorial. The size of a dragon's home range mainly depends on prey abundance, and, in the case of male dragons, on access to females. A dragoness may have a territory of 20 km² while the territories of males are much larger, covering 60–100 km². While females can at times be aggressive towards other females, their territories can overlap and they do tolerate each other. Males, however, are usually intolerant of other males within their territory. Because of their aggressive nature, territorial disputes can be violent, and may end in the death of one of the males. Male dragons can mingle easily with females in their territories and will even share kills. Females are often reluctant to let males near their dragonets, but some can make no effort to protect or keep their dragonets from the male. This behaviour may suggest that the male might be the father of the dragonets. Male dragons will allow the females and dragonets to feed on the kill first. Females will also share kills, even more so than the males. They are also much more tolerant of sharing kills with individuals of the same sex. As far as their senses, which vary slightly depending on subspecies, they are superior in most ways to other creatures - like any predator, they have exceptionally acute senses, which only increase with age. Like avian creatures, they have excellent depth perception and comparably good peripheral vision, able to see twice as well as a human in daylight- unlike avians, they have great night vision, and are able to see even when condition have no light to offer, the only drawback being that there is a lack of color in such circumstances. Dragons can also pick up scents very well, utilizing both their sensitive nose and forked tongue, much like a snake. Their hearing is on par with human hearing, and their minds can differentiate the sounds it hears. Dragon taste is also refined, although they do not respond well to sweet flavors. Of all its senses, a dragon's sense of touch is the only one to decrease throughout age. Hunting and diet In the wild, dragons mostly feed on larger and medium sized animals. Like many predators, they are opportunistic and will eat much smaller prey. They also may kill other formidable predators, although predation is rare and the predators typically avoid one another. Dragons sometimes prey on domestic animals such as dogs, cows, horses and donkeys. These individuals are termed cattle-lifters or cattle-killers in contrast to typical game-killers. Especially old and injured dragons have been known to attack humans and are then termed as man-eaters, which often leads to them being captured or killed. Dragons' extremely strong jaws and sharp teeth make them superb predators. Dragons hunt alone and prefer medium to large sized herbivores. They ambush their prey as other predators do, overpowering them from any angle, using their body size and strength to knock large prey off balance. Dragons prefer to bite the throats of large prey and use their muscled forelimbs to hold onto the prey, bringing it to the ground. The dragon remains latched onto the neck until its prey dies. With small prey, the dragon bites the nape, often breaking the spinal cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or carotid artery. The prey is killed instantly. They have been reported to carry domestic livestock weighing 50 kg (110 lb) easily while in flight. Their heavily muscled forelimbs are used to hold tightly onto the prey and to avoid being dislodged, especially by large prey. The combination of claws and power behind a dragon's forelimbs enables it to kill an adult human with one swipe. Dragons become sexually mature when 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. Dragons are oviparous. A female is only receptive for a few days and mating is frequent during that time period. A pair will copulate frequently and noisily. Dragon eggs are shiny and whitish in color. The number of eggs laid each time depends on the subspecies of the dragon, but is usually low (between one and ten). The eggs are incubated by the females. The gestation period is 35 to 45 days. The females rear them alone. Wandering male dragons may kill dragonets to make the female receptive. At 8 weeks, the dragonets are ready to fly for the fist time. The dragonets become independent around 18 months of age, but it is not until they are around 2–2½ years old that they leave their mother. The dragonets reach sexual maturity by 3–4 years of age. The female dragons generally own territory near their mother, while males tend to wander in search of territory, which they acquire by fighting and eliminating another male. Over the course of her life, a female dragon will give birth to an approximately equal number of male and female dragonets. Dragons are found in a variety of habitats, including both tropical and evergreen forests, woodlands, grasslands, rocky country, swamps, steppes and mountainous areas, and savannahs. The dragon is also a strong swimmer; dragons are often found bathing in ponds, lakes, and rivers. A dragon marks its territory with a strong mix of urine and other bodily fluids marked on trees, bushes, rocks, and soil. This territory can vary from only a few square miles in area, to over fifty square miles. It is a common trend of these territories that a males will encompass ground taken by a female. Dragons defend their territory fiercely and actively. - Cliff dragon - Green dragon - Sand dragon - Snow dragon \|ElaraWiki Navigation Bar\| \|Characters • Countries • Creatures • Cultures • Locations • Magic • Species • Weapons & Technolgoy\|
Caring for Earth In your child's science class, we've been studying Earth and its materials. You and your child can think of ways to save water, energy, and paper in your home. What You Need - blank paper - pens, markers, or crayons What You Do With your child, talk about ways to save energy, water, and paper. For example, you can turn off lights and water when you are not using them. You can set up a recycling bin for newspapers and magazines. Work with your child to make and post signs around your home, such as “Turn Off the Lights” and “Recycle Paper Here.” Encourage all family members to follow the advice on the signs. Talk with your child about how the signs are working in your home. Discuss whether the family is saving water, energy, and paper. Help your child understand what can happen if everyone cares for Earth.
Start a 10-Day Free Trial to Unlock the Full Review Why Lesson Planet? Find quality lesson planning resources, fast! Share & remix collections to collaborate. Organize your curriculum with collections. Easy! Have time to be more creative & energetic with your students! Coloring Sight Words In this sight words worksheet, students practice reading the sight words of we, here, is, and, the, and see by coloring the puzzle according to the chart. 6 Views 6 Downloads Hidden Sight Word Coloring Worksheets This coloring and sight words worksheet looks a bit like a puzzle and offers plenty of fun practice with spelling and fine motor skills. Similar to painting by numbers, kids must color in the spaces that include the target word. There... Pre-K - 1st English Language Arts I Can Read! Sight Words Set #6 Master the sight words big, said, come, and in with a packet of helpful reading activities. Kids work on their reading skills with tracing pages and bingo activities, as well as flash cards, connect-the-dots, and a short word search. K - 2nd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
Since superior performance in warfare constituted a principal measure of leadership potential, many Native American societies of the Great Plains during the preconquest era embraced the concept of a war chief (e.g., toyopki to the Kiowas; blotahunka among the Oglala Sioux) and constructed a cultural order that reinforced a military tradition. For instance, male warriors belonging to Plains tribes such as the Arapahos, Blackfoot, Cheyennes, Comanches, Crows, Kiowas, and Lakotas elevated their status by winning battle distinctions. As honors accrued, men embellished brave deeds through public recitations and symbolic ornamentation. Assiniboine males acquired eagle feathers for each martial exploit; Blackfoot warriors accumulated white weasel skins; and successful Crow soldiers attached wolf tails to the heels of their moccasins. Such recognition did not require the killing of an enemy or the taking of a scalp. In fact, in many Plains societies the practice of counting coup, or touching an enemy with one's hand or a special stick, outranked killing as a heroic deed. A Blackfoot warrior, for example, always dwelt on the number of horses and guns he captured, not on the quantity of enemies extinguished. One of the principal avenues for achieving exalted warrior status was a.liation with a military society. Sporting names such as the Dog Soldiers, Fox Soldiers, and Kit Foxes, war societies extended membership only to the most promising young men of the band. Most Indigenous societies of the Great Plains practiced some form of hereditary chieftainship and recognized a head chief. In theory, the head chief presided over a council composed of war chiefs, headmen, warriors, and holy men. In practice, however, charismatic, self-made war-party leaders often exercised the most significant authority, especially in times of crisis. The career of the Oglala Lakota leader Red Cloud is illustrative. Red Cloud became a war chief of an Oglala band in the early 1840s. His power and prestige increased over the next two decades as a result of military successes against the Crows, Pawnees, and Shoshones, as well as his strategic intervention against whites along the Bozeman Trail. By the late 1860s the American government regarded Red Cloud, who still retained only war chief status among the Oglalas, as the principal Lakota chief. American officials sought Red Cloud's influence in negotiating a peaceful resolution to the warfare raging in the Northern Plains at the time. Conflict among the Plains tribes, regardless of warfare's exalted status, was not a "natural" condition or simply the result of the "aggressive instincts" of male warriors. Instead, wars took place primarily in light of pragmatic considerations–acquiring horses, expanding trade, capturing hunting grounds, or defending compatriots from the incursions of the U.S. military. In addition, the dynamics of Plains Indian warfare changed over time in relation to the shifting cultural landscape. For example, the acquisition of horses from the Spanish Southwest during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries accelerated the nomadic lifestyle of bison hunters like the Kiowas, Cheyennes, and Lakotas, thereby intensifying the competition for buffalo hunting grounds. In conjunction with the horse, the procurement of guns from French, British, and American traders between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries contributed to various military imbalances in the Great Plains, to the benefit of groups such as the Blackfoot, Comanches, and Lakotas. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the spread of disease pathogens exacerbated these imbalances. Horticultural peoples like the Arikaras, Mandans, and Hidatsas suffered grievously from smallpox epidemics. On the other hand, migratory hunters like the Lakotas escaped the wholesale ravages of disease, enjoyed unprecedented population growth in the early 1800s, and used their demographic advantage to dominate much of the Central and Northern Plains by the mid. nineteenth century. By the 1850s, however, the onrush of white competitors into the trans-Missouri West posed new military challenges for Native Americans and forced innovative responses. The mounting threat gave rise to alliances among various Plains groups, formed to protect resources as well as one another from the white invasion. In the Northern Plains, the Lakotas, Arapahos, and Cheyennes joined forces; to the south, the Comanches and Kiowas built alliances with the Cheyennes and Arapahos. Emphasis on military accomplishment within tribes assumed even greater significance in the nineteenth century, when white intrusion made martial readiness a prerequisite to a group's survival. Consequently, the closing frontier era produced some of the most notable war chiefs, including Quanah Parker (Comanche), Satank (Kiowa), and Crazy Horse (Oglala Lakota). James O. Gump University of San Diego Mishkin, Bernard. Rank and Warfare among the Plains Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Secoy, Frank Raymond. Changing Military Patterns of the Great Plains Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Utley, Robert M. The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.
Patterns in Subtraction Sub Plan Lesson 12 of 24 Objective: SWBAT compare equivalent addition and subtraction problems by listing similarities and differences in the equations, solutions, number lines, and context. I like to have students take assessments with my sub because testing days don't require a lot of teaching. This quiz is checking that the students are understanding how to add integers. Some students may be modeling with number lines or symbols while others may be comfortable solving them mentally after having learned patterns. When I get back I will be looking for some common mistakes which are finding the difference when integers with the same sign are being added or adding the integers when positives are being added to negatives. The homework asks students to compare and contrast a subtraction problem and it's equivalent addition problem so they can begin to recognize the pattern. The homework relates the problems to the context of hot and cold cubes learned in earlier lessons (Mathmaster Chef series). The context helps them model the problem mathematically and helps them to recognize the relationships between the operations and use them to find a pattern. (mp7) The warm up integer addition equations asks students to fill in blanks with the missing addend to make addition problems true. When I have a sub I also provide them with an answer document for the warm up integer addition equations answers. I show two different models for representing the equations. I show the number line with a verbal explanation as well as the plus (+) and minus (-) symbols with a verbal explanation. These representations and explanations help model the type of thinking students need to do when they are making sense of the problems. Asking them to find the missing addend instead of the sum forces them to think about the relationships between the integers that we have been exploring in previous lessons. (Which way do we go?, The Three Little Bears, How do you know?, Secret Number sub plan)It is important for them to understand these relationships in order to recognize the patterns that help them solve the problems. I do not want them rushing through the addition quiz using their prior knowledge about positive number addition, because the relationships are more complex. Assessment & homework After going over the warm up students may use the remaining classtime to complete the Integer addition quiz and work on the homework patterns in subtraction. When students are finished with the quiz they turn it over on their desks and the sub brings them their homework to begin. I copy a flower onto the back of the quiz so the teacher can easily see when someone is ready for homework. The homework is two pages. One side asks them to solve pairs of problems (one subtraction and the equivalent addition). They are asked to fill out sentence frames using the hot and cold cube context from earlier lessons (Mathmaster Chef series) and use a number line to model the problem. I use this context because it helps students make sense of integer operations and understand the relationships between integers and operations. It is important for them to use context and modeling because the relationships & patterns in integer operations are different and sometimes contrary to students prior knowledge of positive number operations. If students can first make sense within this context they can understand why the shortcuts we use work, so when they forget them they have something to fall back on and figure it out. On the second page of the homework are two pairs of equivalent problems already solved correctly with their hot and cold cube context and their completed number lines. Students are asked to look for any similarities and differences. I am hoping they will notice that the solutions and the number lines are the same. I am also hoping they notice that one is subtracting and the other is adding the opposite.
What is the pituitary gland? The pituitary gland is often called the 'master' gland because it controls several other hormone releasing glands such as the ovaries, adrenals and testes. Where is the pituitary gland found? The pituitary gland has two main parts: the anterior (front) pituitary and the posterior (back) pituitary. These two parts release different hormones targeting different parts of the body. How does the pituitary gland work? The hypothalamus receives information from many sources about the basic functions of your body. It uses the information it receives to help regulate these functions. One of the ways the hypothalamus does this involves controlling the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus does this by using its own hormones to communicate with the pituitary. Among the things monitored by the hypothalamus is the level of various hormones in the blood. The hypothalamus has special cells which receive information from the body indicating how much of each hormone is present in the bloodstream. When these hormones drop below a particular level this stimulates the hypothalamus to release hormones. These hormones travel to the pituitary gland, acting as the signal to the pituitary to produce one or more of its hormones. The hormones produced by the pituitary are released into the bloodstream. The bloodstream transports the pituitary hormones to other endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland. The pituitary gland hormones may then stimulate their target endocrine glands to produce their own hormones. These locally produced hormones do the actual work of regulating your body. For example, hormones produced by the thyroid increase the body's metabolic rate. In some cases high levels of locally produced hormones stop the hypothalamus and pituitary releasing more of their own hormones. This principle is called 'negative feedback', and it prevents hormone levels from rising too high. The anterior pituitary produces hormones that regulate a wide range of bodily activities from growth to reproduction. Whether a hormone is released by the anterior pituitary is governed by the hypothalamus. There are at least seven different hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary produces just two hormones. \|The anterior pituitary makes and releases several hormones\| \|Hormone released\|\|Main target\|\|Function\| \|Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)\|\|Adrenal glands\|\|Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol. Cortisol is important in controlling your metabolism, blood sugar levels and blood pressure. It is also an anti-inflammatory agent, and helps your body to resist certain stresses such as bleeding or fasting.\| \|Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)\|\|Ovaries (women)\| \|Stimulates the ovaries to produce an ovum (egg) for fertilisation. Also causes an increase in the hormone oestrogen.\| Stimulates the testes to produce sperm. \|Growth hormone (GH)\|\|Many different cells of the body\|\|The most well known effect in children is to increase height. In adults and children it helps to control the amount of muscle and fat in your body. It also helps to heal injuries and promotes your immune system.\| \|Luteinising hormone (LH)\|\|Ovaries (women)\| \|Triggers ovulation - the release of what will become an ovum (egg) ready for fertilisation.\| Stimulates cells in the testes to produce testosterone \|Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)\|\|Brain?\|\|Exact role in humans is unknown. May influence brain activity, when too much is present may cause darkening of the skin.\| \|Prolactin\|\|Breasts\|\|Together with other hormones prolactin stimulates the breasts to produce milk.\| It is also found in women who aren’t pregnant. Men also have prolactin, but its function is not understood well. \|Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)\|\|Thyroid gland\|\|TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce its own hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).\| These hormones help to control many bodily functions including heart rate, temperature and metabolism. \|The posterior pituitary makes and releases just two hormones\| \|Hormone released\|\|Main target\|\|Function\| \|Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)\|\|Kidneys\|\|Decreases urine production. (It causes more water filtered by the kidneys to be returned to the blood. This decreases the amount of urine.)\| ADH also causes a rise in blood pressure. \|Oxytocin\|\|Breasts and uterus\|\|Stimulates contraction of the uterus (womb) during childbirth. Helps breasts to release milk.\| Some disorders of the pituitary gland - Cushing's Syndrome
Distillation is probably the oldest method of water purification. Water is first heated to boiling. The water vapor rises to a condenser where cooling water lowers the temperature so the vapor is condensed, collected and stored. Most contaminants remain behind in the liquid phase vessel. However, organics with boiling points lower than 100 °C cannot be removed efficiently and can actually become concentrated in the product water. Another disadvantage is cost. Distillation requires large amounts of energy and water. Table 1. Distillation Removes a broad range of contaminants Some contaminants can be carried into the condensate Requires careful maintenance to ensure purity Consumes large amounts of energy The ion exchange process percolates water through bead-like spherical resin materials (ion-exchange resins). Ions in the water are exchanged for other ions fixed to the beads. The two most common ion-exchange methods are softening and deionization. Softening is used primarily as a pretreatment method to reduce water hardness prior to reverse osmosis (RO) processing. The softeners contain beads that exchange two sodium ions for every calcium or magnesium ion removed from the "softened" water. Deionization (DI) beads exchange either hydrogen ions for cations or hydroxyl ions for anions. The cation exchange resins, made of styrene and divinylbenzene containing sulfonic acid groups, will exchange a hydrogen ion for any cations they encounter (e.g., Na+, Ca++, Al+++). Similarly, the anion exchange resins, made of styrene and containing quaternary ammonium groups, will exchange a hydroxyl ion for any anions (e.g., Cl-). The hydrogen ion from the cation exchanger unites with the hydroxyl ion of the anion exchanger to form pure water. These resins may be packaged in separate bed exchangers with separate units for the cation and anion exchange beds. Or, they may be packed in mixed bed exchangers containing a mixture of both types of resins. In either case, the resin must be "regenerated" once it has exchanged all its hydrogen and/or hydroxyl ions for charged contaminants in the water. This regeneration reverses the purification process, replacing the contaminants bound to the DI resins with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Deionization can be an important component of a total water purification system when used in combination with other methods discussed in this primer such as RO, filtration and carbon adsorption. DI systems effectively remove ions, but they do not effectively remove most organics or microorganisms. Microorganisms can attach to the resins, providing a culture media for rapid bacterial growth and subsequent pyrogen generation. The advantages and disadvantages of this technology are summarized below. Table 3. Deionization Removes dissolved inorganics effectively. Regenerable (service deionization). Relatively inexpensive initial capital investment. Does not effectively remove particles, pyrogens or bacteria. DI beds can generate resin particles and culture bacteria. High operating costs over long-term. Organics can be cationic, anionic or nonionic. Ion-exchange resins remove some soluble organic acids and bases (anions and cations) from raw water, but some nonionic organics coat the resin. This process, known as resin "fouling," decreases the life of the resin and diminishes its capacity. To protect the ion-exchange resin, carbon filters can be placed upstream to remove nonionic organics. The carbon adsorption process is controlled by the diameter of the pores in the carbon filter and by the diffusion rate of organic molecules through the pores. The rate of adsorption is a function of the molecular weight and the molecular size of the organics. Certain granular carbons effectively remove chloramines. Carbon also removes free chlorine and protects other purification media in the system that may be sensitive to an oxidant such as chlorine. Carbon is usually used in combination with other treatment processes. The placement of carbon in relation to other components is an important consideration in the design of a water purification system. Table 3. Carbon Adsorption Removes dissolved organics and chlorine effectively. Long life (high capacity). Can generate carbon fines. Microporous Membrane Filtration There are three types of microporous filtration: depth, screen and surface. Depth filters are matted fibers or materials compressed to form a matrix that retains particles by random adsorption or entrapment. Screen filters are inherently uniform structures which, like a sieve, retain all particles larger than the precisely controlled pore size on their surface. Surface filters are made from multiple layers of media. When fluid passes through the filter, particles larger than the spaces within the filter matrix are retained, accumulating primarily on the surface of the filter. The distinction between filters is important because the three serve very different functions. Depth filters are usually used as prefilters because they are an economical way to remove 98% of suspended solids and protect elements downstream from fouling or clogging. Surface filters remove 99.99% of suspended solids and may be used as either prefilters or clarifying filters. Microporous membrane (screen) filters are placed at the last possible point in a system to remove the last remaining traces of resin fragments, carbon fines, colloidal particles and microorganisms. For example, 0.22 µm Millipore membrane filters, which retain all bacteria, are routinely used to sterilize intravenous solutions, serums and antibiotics. Table 4. Microporous Membrane Filtration Absolute filters remove all particles and microorganisms greater than the pore size. Requires minimal maintenance. Will not remove dissolved inorganics, pyrogens or all colloidals. Potentially high expendable costs. A microporous membrane filter removes particles according to pore size. By contrast, an ultrafiltration (UF) membrane functions as a molecular sieve. It separates dissolved molecules on the basis of size by passing a solution through an infinitesimally fine filter. The ultrafilter is a tough, thin, selectively permeable membrane that retains most macromolecules above a certain size including colloids, microorganisms and pyrogens. Smaller molecules, such as solvents and ionized contaminants, are allowed to pass into the filtrate. Thus, UF provides a retained fraction (retentate) that is rich in large molecules and a filtrate that contains few, if any, of these molecules. Ultrafilters are available in several selective ranges. In all cases, the membranes will retain most, but not necessarily all, molecules above their rated size. Table 5. Ultrafiltration Effectively removes most particles, pyrogens, microorganisms, and colloids above their rated size. Produces highest quality water for least amount of energy. Will not remove dissolved inorganics. Reverse osmosis (RO) is the most economical method of removing 90% to 99% of all contaminants. The pore structure of RO membranes is much tighter than UF membranes. RO membranes are capable of rejecting practically all particles, bacteria and organics >300 daltons molecular weight (including pyrogens). Natural osmosis occurs when solutions with two different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure drives water through the membrane; the water dilutes the more concentrated solution; and the end result is an equilibrium. In water purification systems, hydraulic pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to counteract the osmotic pressure. Pure water is driven from the concentrated solution and collected downstream of the membrane. Because RO membranes are very restrictive, they yield very slow flow rates. Storage tanks are required to produce an adequate volume in a reasonable amount of time. RO also involves an ionic exclusion process. Only solvent is allowed to pass through the semi-permeable RO membrane, while virtually all ions and dissolved molecules are retained (including salts and sugars). The semi-permeable membrane rejects salts (ions) by a charge phenomena action: the greater the charge, the greater the rejection. Therefore, the membrane rejects nearly all (>99%) strongly ionized polyvalent ions but only 95% of the weakly ionized monovalent ions like sodium. Different feed water may require different types of RO membranes. Membranes are manufactured from cellulose acetate or thin-film composites of polyamide on a polysulfone substrate. RO is the most economical and efficient method for purifying tap water if the system is properly designed for the feed water conditions and the intended use of the product water. RO is also the optimum pretreatment for reagent-grade water polishing systems. Table 6. Reverse Osmosis Effectively removes all types of contaminants to some extent (particles, pyrogens, microorganisms, colloids and dissolved inorganics). Requires minimal maintenance. Limited flow rates. This new technology is a combination of electrodialysis and ion exchange, resulting in a process which effectively deionizes water while the ion exchange resins are continuously regenerated by the electric current in the unit. This electrochemical regeneration replaces the chemical regeneration of conventional ion exchange systems. The Elix™ module consists of a number of "cells" sandwiched between two electrodes. Each cell consists of a polypropylene frame onto which are bonded a cation-permeable membrane on one side, and an anion-permeable membrane on the other. The space in the center of the cell, between the ion-selective membranes, is filed with a thin bed of ion exchange resins. The cells are separated from one another by a screen separator. The feed water entering the module is split into three parts. A small percentage flows over the electrodes, 65-75% of the feed passes through the resin beds in the cell, and the remainder passes along the screen separator between the cells. The ion-exchange resins capture dissolved ions in the feed water at the top of the cell. Electric current applied across the module pulls those ions through the ion-selective membrane towards the electrodes. Cations are pulled through the cation-permeable membrane towards the cathode, and anions through the anion-selective membrane towards the anode. These ions, however, are unable to travel all the way to their respective electrodes since they come to the adjacent ion-selective membrane which is of the opposite charge. This prevents further migrations of ions, which are then forced to concentrate in the space between the cells. This space is known as the "concentrate" channel, and the ions concentrated in this area are flushed out of the system to the drain. The channel running through the resin bed in the center of the cell is known as the "dilute" channel. As water passes down this channel, it is progressively deionized. At the lower end of the dilute channel, where water is free of ions, splitting of H2O occurs in the electric field. This generates H+ and OH- which regenerate the ion exchange resins, effectively eliminating chemical regeneration. Table 7. Electrodeionization Removes dissolved inorganics effectively - Non-polluting and safe: - • No chemical regeneration - • No chemical disposal - • No resin disposal Inexpensive to operate Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Ultraviolet radiation has widely been used as a germicidal treatment for water. Mercury low pressure lamps generating 254 nm UV light are an effective means of sanitizing water. The adsorption of UV light by the DNA and proteins in the microbial cell results in the inactivation of the microorganism. Recent advances in UV lamp technology have resulted in the production of special lamps which generate both 185 nm and 254 nm UV light. This combination of wavelengths is necessary for the photooxidation of organic compounds. With these special lamps, Total Organic Carbon (TOC) levels in high purity water can be reduced to 5 ppb. Table 8. Ultraviolet Radiation Effective sanitizing treatment. Oxidation of organic compounds (185 nm and 254 nm) to < 5 ppb TOC Will not remove particles, colloids, or ions Pulling It All Together Water Purification Systems Because each purification technology removes a specific type of contaminant, none can be relied upon to remove all contaminants to the levels required for critical applications. A well-designed water purification system uses a combination of purification technologies to achieve final water quality. Each of the purification technologies must be used in an appropriate sequence to optimize their particular removal capabilities. The schematic below shows a central laboratory water purification system designed to produce water for critical applications. The first step is pretreatment equipment specifically designed to remove contaminants in the feed water. Pretreatment removes contaminants that may affect purification equipment located downstream, especially reverse osmosis (RO) systems. Examples of pretreatment are: carbon filters (or tanks) for chlorine removal, particulate filters for sediment/silt/particulate removal, and softening agents to remove minerals that cause "hard" water. The next purification step is RO. RO removes 90 to 99% of all the contaminants found in water. It is the heart of any well designed water purification system because it effectively removes a broad range of contaminants. However, the tight porosity of the RO membrane limits its flow rate. Therefore, a storage container is used to collect water from the system and distribute it to other points-of-use such as polishing systems. Polishing systems purify pretreated water, such as RO water, by removing trace levels of any residual contaminants. Polishing elevates the quality of pretreated water to "Type I" or "ultrapure" water. A polishing system is designed to remove residual traces of impurities from water already pretreated by some other means (such as reverse osmosis or deionization). Treating raw tap water using such a system would quickly exhaust its capacity and affect final quality. A typical polishing system may consist of activated carbon, mixed-bed deionization, organic scavenging mixtures and 0.22 µm final filtration. Systems can also be enhanced with ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation or other features for use in specific applications. This combination of purification technologies, combined with proper pretreatment, will produce water that is virtually free of ionic, organic and microbial contamination.
Lesson PlansBack to lesson plans archive August 8, 2013 The Great Gatsby curve – Lesson Plan By Katie Gould, Teacher Resource Producer for NewsHour Extra Economics, Government, Social Issues One hour and 30 minutes If students have not read or seen “The Great Gatsby” have them find an online plot overview of the novel so they will have context for the lesson. For example Spark Notes has a good plot overview available in both written and video form: Warm up activity In this activity students will authentically experience how having (or not having) resources contributes to their ability to produce materials that are in demand and as well as sustain themselves as a society through a resource simulation. Materials needed for warm up activity - 3 pens (or pencils) - 3 pairs of scissors - 1 glue stick or bottle of glue - 20 paper clips - paper ruler (provided) - patterned paper (on pdf) – 2 stripe sheets, 2 wood sheets, 2 wave sheets, 2 white sheets, 1 polka-dot sheet - 4 large manila envelopes - Print off the envelope pages, fill the envelopes with the following items (see instruction for each group on envelope pages), and staple a copy of items list onto a manila envelope. (Example here) - Divide the students into four groups (of four or five). *Note, if you have enough students to fill 8 groups simply divide the class in half and create two separate simulation groups (you will need to double the number of envelopes and materials as well.) - Explain to the class that each group will be getting a different set of resources but to win you will have to complete the s tasks of creating “food”, “minerals”, “education” and “shelter” in the shortest amount of time. Each item they must make with their materials is an important part of basic human needs as well as some items that contribute to a successful economy. - Students will have 25 minutes to complete their items - Students may trade with each other to get the materials they don’t have but need to complete the task. - Students may only use the materials from their envelope and will be disqualified for using other materials not directly from the envelope. - Students caught stealing will be sent to “jail” and their team will have to work without their help for five minutes. - Items will be measured by the teacher with a ruler and they must be exactly the size required in the directions. After the students have accomplished the task and a winner is declared, debrief them by asking them the questions below - Discuss what happened in their groups, and in the class as a whole. - How did the amount of your resources affect your ability to complete your task? - How does a person’s financial resource situation affect their ability to lead their lives? - What did you learn from the simulation? In this part of the lesson student will gain an understanding economic inequality in the United States and other countries. They will be given a glossary to scaffold their understanding of economic terms, view a short video on economic inequality, and read an article about the new economic concept “The Great Gatsby Curve”. Questions for each section can be found on the questions and responses sheet. Materials needed for main activity - Computer, internet access, and a projector or SmartBoard - “The Great Gatsby Curve: Inequality and the End of Upward Mobility” glossary - “The Great Gatsby Curve: Inequality and the End of Upward Mobility” questions and responses sheet - Washington Post article - “The Great Gatsby Curve: Inequality and the End of Upward Mobility” repurposed article - Infographic from the White House - Pass out “The Great Gatsby Curve” glossary for students to use throughout the lesson. - On the “The Great Gatsby Curve” questions and responses sheet have students respond individually to the following questions: - Do you believe that there is financial inequality in the United States? Why or why not? - Why do you think that there are certain people who have not been able to become rich? How can someone become wealthy? - Play the first 1:40 from the “The Great Gatsby” trailer and have students watch to re-familiarize themselves with the story - Explain to the students that they are now going to see one perspective on “Wealth Inequality in America”. Let them know to expect that this film supports the belief that things are not equal between the poor, the middle class and the wealthy, and that this is not the only perspective. However, the facts in the video have been checked and are supported by research done at the Washington Post. Pass the Washington Post article out to students so they can use it later to assess and support the validity of the video. - Play the animated short film “Wealth Inequality in America”, stopping when appropriate to answer questions. Ask students to write down anything that surprised them while they are watching the video. - First have them write down their own answer on the questions and responses sheet, then discuss with the class what they thought about the video- Did it seem true? What surprised you? Did your answers from the questions before change after watching the video? - Now pass out the repurposed article, “The Great Gatsby Curve” and read together using the glossary to promote understanding of the economic vocabulary. An infographic that may be helpful for understanding is from the White House’s website. - Discuss the article with students and then have them answer the following questions about the article on their questions and response sheet: - Is having an economic system with inequality a good thing that reflects the hard work, skills and ambition of some, and the laziness, and lack of desire to be successful in others? - Does inequality limit opportunities for the poor to create a better future for their children, and place unfair barriers to success on them regardless of their talent? - For homework as the students to write an essay answering the following question found on their questions and response sheet: - In your own words explain the “Great Gatsby Curve” and why it may play a key role in our understanding of how the American economic system works? Make sure to include an explanation of the graph, use terminology from the Glossary, and provide specific examples from the article. Please write or type on a separate sheet of paper. Special thanks to Brian Dunnell for sharing his “Resource” simulation that has been adapted for this lesson. The Materials You Need Tooltip of materials Common Core Standards Tooltip of standarts Relevant National Standards: - CCSS.Math.Content.8.SP.A.1 Construct and interpret scatter plots for bivariate measurement data to investigate patterns of association between two quantities. Describe patterns such as clustering, outliers, positive or negative association, linear association, and nonlinear association. - CCSS.Math.Content.8.SP.A.2 Know that straight lines are widely used to model relationships between two quantitative variables. For scatter plots that suggest a linear association, informally fit a straight line, and informally assess the model fit by judging the closeness of the data points to the line. - CCSS.Math.Content.HSS-ID.C.9 Distinguish between correlation and causation. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.1 Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.3 Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.6 Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.8 Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.1 Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.2 Determine a central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to supporting ideas; provide an objective summary of the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.6 Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author acknowledges and responds to conflicting evidence or viewpoints. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.7 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using different mediums (e.g., print or digital text, video, multimedia) to present a particular topic or idea. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.9-10.1 Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.9-10.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the cumulative impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone (e.g., how the language of a court opinion differs from that of a newspaper). - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.9-10.6 Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how an author uses rhetoric to advance that point of view or purpose. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.9-10.7 Analyze various accounts of a subject told in different mediums (e.g., a person’s life story in both print and multimedia), determining which details are emphasized in each account. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.11-12.1 Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.11-12.6 Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text in which the rhetoric is particularly effective, analyzing how style and content contribute to the power, persuasiveness or beauty of the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.11-12.7 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in different media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to address a question or solve a problem. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.9-10.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is valid and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; identify false statements and fallacious reasoning. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.11-12.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1 Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.2 Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the ideas clarify a topic, text, or issue under study. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.3 Delineate a speaker’s argument and specific claims, evaluating the soundness of the reasoning and the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.9-10.1 Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 9–10 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.9-10.2 Integrate multiple sources of information presented in diverse media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) evaluating the credibility and accuracy of each source. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.9-10.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric, identifying any fallacious reasoning or exaggerated or distorted evidence. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.11-12.1 Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 11–12 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.11-12.2 Integrate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) in order to make informed decisions and solve problems, evaluating the credibility and accuracy of each source and noting any discrepancies among the data. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.11-12.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric, assessing the stance, premises, links among ideas, word choice, points of emphasis, and tone used. Tooltip of related stories Tooltip of more video block Tooltip of RSS content 3 Trump complains about rigged election in final debate Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump met for what was likely their last public meeting before Nov. 8 on Wednesday in Las Vegas. Continue readingDebateDonald TrumpElection 2016Hillary ClintonPresidential Election How teachers and students discuss the election in the classroom Ahead of the third and final debate between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, educators around the country have found themselves struggling to teach and discuss this turbulent election in the classroom. 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Continue readingenergyengineeringenvironmentrenewable energyScienceSocial Studiessolar energysolar panelssolar powered carsSRLSTEMstudent reporting labsTechnology Why lead went from household staple to dangerous toxin Lead has been used in pipes and plumbing dating back to ancient times, but its role as a public health hazard only emerged in recent decades. Continue readingHealthleadScience
Radio waves surround you! Signals are transmitted and received by millions of stations. AM and FM radio stations, television, mobile business radios, fire and police radio systems, amateur radio stations, cordless and cellular telephones, pagers, nursery room monitors, garage door openers, and of course your personal Citizens Band Radio Station! Radio waves travel at the speed of light. The invisible radio wave consists of an electrostatic field and a magnetic field traveling at right angles in the direction of their transmission. To help you to visualize the behavior of invisible radio waves imagine the effect on the surface of the water when you toss a small stone into the air and it lands in the water. Tiny ripples radiate in all directions. If you increase the size of the stone the size of the ripples will also increase and the distance between the peak of each ripple will increase also. If you could count the number of times the peak of each wave went past a specific point over one second, you would know the waves' frequency and wavelength. In radio waves, we measure frequency by the number of wave cycles per second. The more waves that pass a specific point in one second, the higher the frequency. And the distance that the wave travels in one cycle is the wavelength. The unit for measuring frequency is hertz (Hz). It is named after Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist who discovered electromagnetic waves. The frequencies that human can hear are audio frequencies and range from about 20 Hz to about 18,000 Hz or 18 kHz. A dog can hear up to about 20 kHz or possibly even higher. The radio frequency spectrum starts at around 10 kHz and ranges up to 300,000 Megahertz (MHz). A frequency of 10 kHz means that the wave cycles 10,000 times per second. Similarly, a frequency of 300 million hertz (300 MHz) means that the wave cycles 300 million times per second. In mobile radio communications we use the ranges of frequencies in the medium frequency (MF), high frequency (HF), and very high frequency (VHF) range. Guess where the FCC assigned the short-range citizens band (CB) service. They allocated 23 channels - ultimately expanded to 40 channels - at 27 MHz. Is that below the magic 30 MHz dividing line? Sure is, and the planned short-range unlicensed CB radio service instantly turned into an undisciplined sky-wave free-for-all! Although intended to fulfill the need for personal short-range communications, regular high-frequency sky-wave skip signals blasted in from the ionosphere, causing short-range channel chaos. During periods of reduced ionospheric- activity, the short-range capabilities of CB can be realized. But when the skip is active, a CB radio transmitter with only a few watts of output power can put strong signals into receivers thousands of miles away. This is commonly referred to as ?DXing?. DXing has taken on a very active part in the CB world and continues to promote the use of Citizens Band use and operation. Many well-established CB radio operators are strongly dedicated to the ?art? of DXing. Although skip is mainly unpredictable, DXers spend many long hours studying and charting the activity of skip signals. Some have even come very close to an established pattern that reveals some level of reliability. However, the pattern of skip is solely chance. Most DXers are satisfied to make distant contacts wherever and whenever the ionospheric skip permits. MOBILE RADIO WAVE RANGE Different radio frequencies travel over the surface of the earth and into space in many different ways. Sometimes the bounce, sometimes they are refracted (bent) by the ionosphere. Some radio frequencies easily penetrate the thickness of a forest, yet other radio frequencies can be blocked by a single leaf. Every radio transmission travels out from the antenna over two paths: the ground wave and the sky-wave. Ground waves are the real work horse for vehicle mobile communications up to 100 miles. Ground waves normally are vertically polarized signals that travel out in all directions from an omni-directional antenna and are usually strong enough to be detected up to 50 to 100 miles away. In rural areas, land mobile radio systems may use frequencies in the VHF and UHF spectrum to maximize the potential of ground wave propagation. VHF signals propagate best in areas of rolling hills and over water. UHF signals become quite reflective, and are best propagated in the downtown area of cities with huge skyscrapers. When VHF and UHF signals require a range of more than 100 miles, repeater relay stations and satellites may have to be used to get these normally "line-of-sight" signals to go a lot further. The second component of a transmitted radio signal is the sky-wave. In VHF and UHF mobile radio bands, sky-waves normally travel out into space and keep right on going. UHF and microwave sky-waves have traveled millions of miles to earth from space probes sent out into deep space. Sky-waves on medium frequencies and high frequencies take a remarkable skip off of the ionosphere that circles our planet at altitudes of 50 to 250 miles. 'When a medium or high frequency radio wave enters the ionosphere, the radio wave is refracted back to earth (see drawing). Just as a prism refracts sunlight into different color bands over a range from blue too red, radio waves refracted by the ionosphere may skip back to earth over a range of 200 to 3000 miles away from the transmitter. If the hop back to earth is strong enough and lands in the very conductive ocean, that medium frequency or high frequency wave takes a double hop - sometimes a triple hop - and literally skips around the world. Ham radio operators regularly take advantage of this sky-wave excitement on their specific frequencies in the medium and high frequency spectrum. Same thing with ocean voyaging mariners - they chose their bands carefully to bounce their signal back to shore to stay in touch with their mobile marine station hundreds and thousands of miles away. On a hot summer afternoon, 30 MHz is the usual dividing line between sky-wave communications that come back to earth and sky-waves that simply keep on going into outer space. For frequencies below 30 MHz, the sky waves bounce back to earth. Above 30 MHz, skip usually is not a problem. HOW IMPORTANT IS POWER OUTPUT? The output power of a mobile transmitter, which might be as low as I watt or as high as 1000 watts, has very little to do with the maximum distance that the signal may travel. Although signal strength varies inversely with the distance, a major increase in power output will have little or no effect in establishing communications to a distant point that couldn't hear the ground wave or sky-wave at the original power setting. Out on the oceans, mariners use 25-watt radios for short-range communications on the VHF band. Up to about 100 miles, the sea water has little effect on VHF waves, but on the worldwide lower frequencies, the high conductivity of sea water causes the signal strength of the ground wave to vary inversely with the distance. When operating on these frequencies, mariners require more power and rely almost entirely on sky-wave propagation to get their signals received hundreds and thousands of miles away.
How, When, & Where Sharks AttackWorldwide there are probably 70-100 shark attacks annually resulting in about 5-15 deaths. We say "probably" because not all shark attacks are reported; our information from Third World countries is especially poor, and in other areas efforts are sometimes made to keep attack quiet for fear of bad publicity. Historically the death rate was much higher than today, but the advent of readily available emergency services and improved medical treatment has greatly reduced the chances of mortality. Actual numbers of shark attacks certainly are going up each decade because of increasing numbers of bathers in the water, but there is no indication that there is any change in the per capita rate of attack. Most attacks occur in nearshore waters, typically inshore of a sandbar or between sandbars where sharks feed and can become trapped at low tide. Areas with steep dropoffs are also likely attack sites. Sharks congregate there because their natural food items also congregate in these areas. There are three major kinds of unprovoked shark attacks. By far the most common are "hit and run" attacks. These typically occur in the surf zone with swimmers and surfers the normal targets. The victim seldom sees its attacker and the shark does not return after inflicting a single bite or slash wound. In most instances, these probably are cases of mistaken identity that occur under conditions of poor water visibility and a harsh physical environment (breaking surf and strong wash/current conditions). A feeding shark in this habitat must make quick decisions and rapid movements to capture its traditional food items. When these difficult physical conditions are considered in conjunction with provocative human appearance and activities associated with aquatic recreation (splashing, shiny jewelry, contrasting colored swimsuits, contrasting tanning, especially involving the soles of the feet), it is not surprising that sharks might occasionally misinterpret a human for its normal prey. We suspect that, upon biting, the shark quickly realizes that the human is a foreign object, or that it is too large, and immediately releases the victim and does not return. Some of these attacks could also be related to social behaviors unrelated to feeding, such as dominance behaviors seen in many land animals. Injuries to "hit and run" victims are usually confined to relatively small lacerations, often on the leg below the knee, and are seldom life-threatening. "Bump and bite" attacks and "sneak" attacks, while less common, result in greater injuries and most fatalities. These types of attack usually involve divers or swimmers in somewhat deeper waters, but occur in nearshore shallows in some areas of the world. "Bump and bite" attacks are characterized by the shark initially circling and often bumping the victim prior to the actual attack. "Sneak" attacks differ in having the strike occur without warning. In both cases, unlike the pattern for "hit and run" attacks, repeat attacks are not uncommon and multiple or sustained bites are the norm. Injuries incurred during this type of attack are usually quite severe, frequently resulting in death. We believe these types of attack are the result of feeding or antagonistic behaviors rather than being cases of mistaken identity. Most shark attacks involving sea disasters, e.g. plane and ship accidents, probably involve "bump and bite" and "sneak" attacks.Almost any large shark, roughly two meters or longer in total length, is a potential threat to humans. Three species, however, have been repetitively implicated as the primary attackers of man: the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas). All are cosmopolitan in distribution, reach large sizes, and consume large prey items such as marine mammals, sea turtles, and fishes as normal elements of their diets. These species probably are responsible for a large portion of "bump and bite" and "sneak" attacks. Other species, including the great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrhynchus), oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), Galapagos (Carcharhinus galapagensis), and certain reef sharks (such as the Caribbean reef shark, (Carcharhinus perezi) have been implicated in these style of attacks. We know less about the offending parties in "hit and run" cases since the shark is seldom observed, but it is safe to assume that a large suite of species might be involved. Evidence from Florida, which has 20-30 of these type attacks per year, suggests that the blacktip (Carcharhinus limbatus)[possibly spinner (Carcharhinus brevipinna) and blacknose (Carcharhinus acronotus)] sharks are the major culprits in this region. © George H. Burgess, International Shark Attack File Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida
Students in Finland used virtual reality to walk inside the double helix of a DNA molecule. Pasi Vilpas, a biology teacher at the The Sotunki Distance Learning Centre in Vantaa, invited his pupils to enter the three-dimensional online virtual world of Second Life and walk and fly inside the crucial molecule. In real life, DNA is threaded so finely that it can only be seen with an electron microscope. By using avatars, the digital players or characters of Second Life, students can explore the human genome by ‘flying’ into an apparently vast DNA molecule and ‘walking’ along a human gene. Pasi’s latest online virtual biological world will be showcased at ONLINE EDUCA BERLIN 2011. Noting that the study of genetics gets too abstract for many secondary school students, Pasi Vilpas deployed his own quirky sense of humour to create an astonishing learning environment for his students, offering them flying avatars, magic carpets, songs, dances and sound effects. The concept of the avatar is already well-known to the 20 million worldwide users of Second Life, a notably collaborative virtual world that was developed in 2001 by Philip Rosedale’s Linden Lab, as a place where users, known as ‘residents’, interact with each other through their avatars. At the heart of the game is a vast DNA double helix, apparently 200 meters high and 500 meters in diameter. The students make their own avatars sit, walk and fly around the spiral structure to learn how the gene makes proteins, step by step. They learn how the transfer RNAs, depicted in Second Life as cartoon character chauffeurs, deliver amino acids to the ribosome to make proteins that will be joined in the correct sequence. Information boxes offer explanatory text and sound files. “These boxes form a learning pathway through the basics of genetics,” says Pasi Vilpas. “My test students have been very enthusiastic. The environment delivers information in an attractive manner without any need for the teacher to be present.” There is even a dance floor in Pasi’s virtual universe. The students make their avatars dance as they themselves sing along with a quirky tune that helps remind them of the different phases of the genetic process. To encourage participation, engagement and pure fun, the students use virtual iPads to share what they have learned with each other and with “the world outside”. Pasi’s innovative model activates numerous ‘learning channels’ to teach genetics by ‘touching’, watching, listening, dancing, singing and reading. When Pasi tested the virtual environment with a number of groups of ten students he was delighted to discover that “they even gather in this virtual environment in their leisure time.” He will reveal more details in his presentation “Teaching Genetics in The Second Life with a Large-Scale 3D-Model of DNA” at ONLINE EDUCA BERLIN 2011.
According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), all adults-even seemingly healthy ones- should undergo regular physical examinations at their healthcare provider's recommended frequency. The purpose of these exams are to: -Screen for diseases -Asses the risk of future medical problems -Encourage a healthy lifestyle -Maintain a relationship with a doctor in case of illness. Annual Physical Exams are an essential part of any doctor's visit. Annual exams usually check your history, vital signs, blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, general appearance, heart exam, lung exam, head and neck exam, abdominal exam, neurological exam, dermatological exam and extremities exam. Heart Exam: This particular exam involves the doctor listening to your heart with a stethoscope, a doctor might detect an irregular heartbeat, a heart murmur, or other clues to heart disease. Lung Exam: This exam involves the doctor using the stethoscope to listen for possible crackles, wheezes or decreased breath sounds. These and other sounds are clues to the presence of heart or lung disease. Head and Neck Exam: This exam opening your mouth to show your throat and tonsils. The quality of your teeth and gums also provides information about your overall health. Ears, nose, sinuses, eyes, lymph nodes, thyroid, and carotid arteries may also be examined. Abdominal Exam: This exam will have your doctor use a range of examination techniques including tapping your abdomen to detect liver size and presence of abdominal fluid. Listening for bowel sounds with a stethoscope, and palpating for tenderness. Neurological Exam: Doctor will be analyze the nerves, muscle strength, reflexes, balance and mental state. Dermatological Exam: The Doctor will analyze the skin and nails, this could indicate a dermatological problem or disease somewhere else in the body. Extremities Exam: The doctor will look for physical and sensory changes. Pulses can be checked in your arms and legs. Examining joints can assess for abnormalities. For more information on these exams and the importance of Physical exams visit the following link.
Polymorphism only applies to overridden methods. Each objects overridden toString() executes, but the instance variable that is referenced is always the one defined in the Fruit class. Polymorphism has absolutely nothing to do with instance variables, therefore the reference variable type decides which instance variable value is printed. polymorphism is built off the relationship between classes, or inheritance. when you are using a class attribute, name in this case the subclass has to pass its name attribute to the super class, otherwise the class attribute will always be that of the class. "If the facts don't fit the theory, get new facts" --Albert Einstein 1) Variables are never overridden. 2) Variables are binded during compile time Based on above, 'o' is casted to Fruit and no matter whether 'o' refers to Fruit or Apple or even another subclass of Fruit object at Runtime. Decision to access which variable was taken at compile time and at that time we ONLY know that that variable is of type Fruit because of the cast. That's why this always prints 'Fruit' System.out.println(( (Fruit) o).name); Where there are more wonders there is less knowledge
This is a quick activity that is best used during the first week of school. It allows students to show the knowledge that they already have of Hispanic culture, and to get to know each other at the same time. It introduces common cultural topics that will be discussed later on in the year, such as famous Hispanics, festivals, food, geography and sports. Students "survey" each other and try to find people who can answer each of the questions. The first student to get all boxes filled wins. Then, the teacher can use these questions to discuss culture with the class.
Books & Music Food & Wine Health & Fitness Hobbies & Crafts Home & Garden News & Politics Religion & Spirituality Travel & Culture TV & Movies People once thought that stars were eternal. But we now know that they have life cycles of birth and death. Here is the story of how a sun-like star is born. Start with a giant molecular cloud Although we may think of the Sun as a giant ball of flaming gas, its center is much denser than steel. Yet stars are made in nebulae so rarefied that, on average, there are only 100 particles in a cubic centimeter - a cubic centimeter of the air we breathe has about 100 quadrillion times that many. It seems unbelievable that something so substantial as a star is made from something as flimsy as a nebula. But the gigantic clouds are spread out over distances of tens of light years. Although they are thin, their total mass can be as much as a million times the mass of the Solar System. There's plenty of material available, but what shapes it? Gravity, the sculptor Gravity is the force that collapses a nebula into something dense enough to make a star. A giant molecular cloud is a good place for star formation. Not only does it have abundant material, it's also cold enough that atoms have come together to form molecules, and there are places where matter has clumped together. The strength of gravity depends on mass, so an area of higher density can pull more matter into it, increasing its mass and therefore its gravitational attraction. Over a few million years this is how a nebula can collapse. But it's likely that the collapse will get some help. There are a number of possible triggers for star formation, for example, supernova shock waves pushing matter together to form denser regions. A nebula doesn't collapse all at once. The dense regions grow and the cloud breaks up. This is why stars form in groups. Each fragment collapses individually and is a potential star whose mass will mark out its life story. The mass determines how luminous it will be, how long it will live, and how it will die. Some fragments won't have enough mass to form stars, though they may become brown dwarfs, failed stars. The fragments heat up, rotate, and continue to collapse. Matter outside the central region has gravitational potential energy, like water held back by a dam. When it falls into the center, the potential energy becomes kinetic (movement) energy, releasing heat. Angular momentum is the measure of an object's rotation, taking into account its radius and its velocity. The giant nebulae rotate very slowly. But angular momentum is conserved - that means that a fragment of the cloud, having a smaller radius, will rotate faster. A favorite earthly example is an ice skater doing a spin. She starts with her arms outstretched. If she pulls her arms in to her body, the radius of the spin is less, so she spins faster with no extra effort. Therefore as the fragment collapses, its rotation speeds up. And instead of the irregular shape of the original fragment, the spinning makes it into a more globular shape. The fragment contains a dense central region that becomes a protostar and then a star. The rest is dust and gas. As it spins, the loose dust and gas is pushed into a disk around the protostar's equator. Not only may a star one day form from the protostar, but a planetary system can form from this protoplanetary disk. The protostar grows by attracting disk material. As its mass increases, it continues to contract. Gravitational contraction releases a lot of heat. The hot gas in the core pushes outward, acting against gravity. Therefore although the initial collapse happened comparatively quickly, it slows as the protostar gets hotter. It takes about a million years to get the temperature up to one million degrees Celsius, and that's not nearly hot enough for it to become a star. Most of the stars we observe are main sequence stars. Their heat and light come from the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in their cores. In order for nuclear fusion to begin, the core temperature has to be at least 10 million oC (18 million oF). A star is born When the hydrogen fusion begins, the protostar is a proper baby star. But it has some growing-up to do before it joins the main sequence. In a main sequence star there is a balance between the outward pressure of the heat from nuclear fusion in the core and the inward force of gravity. This is called equilibrium. It takes a while for the star to finish contracting and for this balance to occur. The star's mass doesn't increase once nuclear fusion is sustained, because a strong stellar wind blows the disk material away. In fact, within a few million years it clears the dusty disk completely. The length of a star's main sequence lifetime depends on its mass. Sun-like stars live about 10 billion years, so our Sun is halfway through its life. A red dwarf with half the Sun's mass may live for 80 billion years or more, which is much longer than the current age of the Universe. But massive stars have short lifetimes. A star ten times the mass of the Sun lasts only 20 million years. Stars stay on the main sequence until their hydrogen fuel is exhausted. Content copyright © 2015 by Mona Evans. All rights reserved. This content was written by Mona Evans. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Mona Evans for details. Website copyright © 2016 Minerva WebWorks LLC. All rights reserved.
The Wildlife Conservation Society released a list of critically endangered species dubbed the "Rarest of the Rare" -- a group of animals most in danger of extinction, ranging from Cuban crocodiles to white-headed langurs in Vietnam. The list of a dozen animals includes an eclectic collection of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Some are well known, such as the Sumatran orangutan; while others are more obscure, including vaquita, an ocean porpoise. The list appears in the 2010-1011 edition of State of the Wild -- a Global Portrait. Threats to each species vary widely. In the case of the vaquita, fishermen's nets are catching them and inadvertently causing them to drown. Meanwhile, the Grenada dove -- the national bird of the small island nation -- has been severely impacted by habitat loss. Other species suffer from illegal trade, as in the case of the ploughshare tortoise. "The Rarest of the Rare provides a global snapshot of some of the world's most endangered animals," said State of the Wild Kent Redford, director of the Wildlife Conservation Society Institute. "While the news is dire for some species, it also shows that conservation measures can and do protect wildlife if given the chance to work." The list of endangered species includes: - Cuban crocodile: Currently restricted to two small areas of Cuba. - Grenada dove: The national bird of Grenada is threatened by habitat loss. - Florida bonneted bat: Thought to be extinct in 2002; a small colony has since been discovered. - Green-eyed frog: Only a few hundred of these small amphibians are left. - Hirola: Also called Hunter's hartebeest; the hirola is a highly threatened African antelope. - Ploughshare tortoise: With only 400 left, the ploughshare tortoise is threatened by the illegal pet trade. - Island gray fox: Living on the California Channel Islands, this is the smallest fox in the United States. - Sumatran orangutan: This population has declined 80 percent during the past 75 years. - Vaquita: This small ocean porpoise is drowning in fishing nets. - White-headed langur: Only 59 of these monkeys remain on a small island off Vietnam. The 2010 list highlights positive news, with two species on the road to recovery thanks to conservation efforts: Rober's tree frog whose population has grown due to captive breeding in zoos; and Przewalski's horse, which is starting to rebuild numbers after being re-introduced into the wild. The 2010-2011 State of the Wild includes a special section devoted to the impact of human conflicts on wildlife and wild places. It considers how conservation can contribute to peace-building and reconstruction in post-conflict areas. Cite This Page:
Global life expectancy has more than doubled over the past two centuries. The advancement was due to improvements in medicine. These advancements have enabled us to enjoy better health and dental treatments. For instance, those who require dental care can easily get rid of teeth stains or get Dental Implants in charlotte. The branch of anatomical pathology (anatomic pathology) has expanded the average human lifespan. The field continues to expand how long we can expect to live. Have you wondered how pathologists diagnose diseases? We’ll explore what pathologists do, including how biopsies work, in this overview. What Is Anatomic Pathology? Anatomic pathology examines how diseases affect structures of the body. The field is sometimes called anatomical pathology. The physicians who work in this field are pathologists. Pathologists have medical degrees. They go on to specialize in pathology after medical school. Their primary task is to find abnormalities that help locate diseases. Doctors can then treat the disease. Pathologists help diagnose conditions as well as diseases. Pathologists can find liver disease and autoimmune disorders. Anatomical pathologists also help with post-mortem examinations. When a person dies of an unknown disease or condition, the pathologist can help properly diagnose the cause of death. This is always done with the consent of the family of the deceased. A suspicious death requires a forensic pathology report. Those types of legally required autopsies do not need family consent. Anatomic Pathology vs. Clinical Pathology Anatomic pathology differs from clinical pathology, which is also known as laboratory medicine. Clinical pathology deals with the analysis of blood cells, bodily fluids, and microbes. As anatomical pathology evolves, there is less distinction between anatomic and clinical pathology. Both disciplines frequently use molecular pathology, flow cytometry, and cytogenetics. Another overlap between the two fields of pathology involves the use of whole slide imaging. Histopathology vs. Cytopathology Within the field of anatomic pathology are two important subdivisions: histopathology and cytopathology. Histopathology involves the examination of tissue from biopsy under the microscope. The samples may come from tumors and cancers. This step uses special staining techniques. Antibodies are also used to identify components of the sample tissue. Cytopathology examines single cells or groups of cells. A doctor scrapes or removes them from aspirated fluid. A Pap smear is one example of a cytology test. The pathologist handles giving the definitive diagnosis of the sample. A Look at Biopsies Histopathology is the examination of tissue samples under a microscope. The tissue samples are often taken through a biopsy. During this step, a pathologist takes a very small sample from an organ or another area of the body. Surgeons can also take samples during surgery. A pathologist then slices the tissue. The doctor then treats the sample with other chemicals before a pathologist can view them under a microscope. The standard technique for preparing tissue samples for biopsy involves placing them in formalin. This preserves the cellular orientation of the cells. Pathologists place the sample in various chemicals before embedding the tissue in a wax block made of paraffin. The paraffin block is then cut using a very sharp knife that can shave tissue to widths of 0.0002 inches. The samples are then easily viewable under a microscope. Frozen sections are used during surgery when a surgeon needs a fast biopsy result. The process bypasses the normal fixation process. Instead of using paraffin to stabilize the tissue, the sample is rapidly frozen. Once a device called a cryostat freezes the tissue, a pathologist can perform the biopsy. The procedure takes 10 to 20 minutes. Once the pathologist has examined the frozen tissue, the results can be relayed to the surgeon. If cancerous cells are found, for example, the surgeon can take steps to remove the affected tissue or organ. This can save the need for further surgeries. Prompt removal of cancerous tissue can also lead to better health outcomes for patients. The samples are typically taken from an area where the disease is suspected. Depending on the biopsy results, extra diagnosis techniques may be used or a treatment may be prescribed based on one biopsy. In some cases, the biopsy may include the entire affected area. These excisional biopsies include the area in question and adjacent areas. This allows doctors to know that the diseased tissue has been completely removed. Whole Organ Biopsy A pathology laboratory may also receive whole organs or parts of organs that were removed during surgery. A uterus is a common organ that is removed during a hysterectomy. The organs are then examined for external or internal abnormalities. Special Procedures and Techniques Immunohistochemistry uses antibodies to detect specific proteins. Pathologists use this technique to distinguish between disorders. Pathologists also use immunohistochemistry to detect the molecular properties of cancers. Pathologists may need to identify specific RNA and DNA molecules using a technique called in situ hybridization. Doctors can add a fluorescent dye to detect the molecules. Pathologists call this technique “Fish.” Cytopathology refers to the examination of loose cells. Pathologists examine them on glass slides. Electron microscopy employs an electron microscope that allows for even greater magnification. Tissue cytogenetics allows pathologists to identify genetic defects. The defects are caused by chromosomal translocation. Learn More About Anatomic Pathology The field of anatomic pathology allows doctors to accurately diagnose serious diseases. Doctors can then prescribe life-saving treatments to patients. The field is continually driven by scientific innovations that improve the quality of each diagnosis. Are you tired of bland articles that always seem dated? We stay ahead of trends so that you are never behind on topics like business, fashion, and education.
Nurses are an essential part of the healthcare industry. Nurses are lifesavers, qualified to deal with a wide range of medical situations. Doctors diagnose, treat, and prescribe medications, and don’t have to stick around for patient recovery, whereas nurses have to provide round-the-clock care. They are able to make a significant difference in their patients’ lives by working unselfishly toward their recovery. As nurses spend a majority of their time tending to patients, communication becomes a key aspect of the job. Part of the nurses’ obligations in taking care of the patients is maintaining effective interpersonal communication. Tweaking your nursing workflow a little can go a long way in developing meaningful nurse-patient relations. Nurses who are courteous, humble, and compassionate in their words and behavior, build a trusting bond with their patients. Nurses should be able to effectively communicate with their patients and make an effort to understand their specific feelings and perspectives. EFFECTIVE PATIENT COMMUNICATION SKILLS NURSES NEED In nursing, the aim of effective communication, which encompasses both verbal and non-verbal, is to approach the problems faced by each patient with an open mind. - Verbal communication The significance of strong oral communication cannot be overstressed. A nurse must be clear and authentic in her communication with the patients. It’s vital that you tailor your speech to the age, culture, and literacy levels of the patients. Your tone should be friendly, yet authoritative. A suitable word selection will enable you to gain patient trust. Use questions like, “Can you tell me a little more?” in order to probe for more information and as encouragement for patients to speak freely. Avoid making any remarks that might be misconstrued as sexist, like ‘honey,’ or ‘sweetie’. Similarly, nurses need to make sure that their communication isn’t laced with implicit bias. Implicit bias refers to our likes and dislikes of certain groups of people or ethnicities without being aware of it. Nurses should consciously strive to eliminate Implicit Bias in Nursing practice to make sure that the patients get the care they need without considerations for their race or ethnic background. - Non-Verbal Communication Nonverbal cues communicated through eye contact, body movements, actions, demeanor, and voice tone are all important in building rapport. Smiling can make a big difference in building confidence among your patients and welcoming them to open up about their medical experience. Second, maintaining eye contact and nodding shows that you are interested in what the patient is saying and that you’re paying them full attention. - Active listening It refers to listening with intent in order to comprehend what the other person is trying to communicate. Active listening requires your entire focus and engagement. It is a skill that is important not only for nurses but also for other healthcare workers who would want to be able to connect with patients on a deeper level in order to influence their behaviors and help them recover. Active listening requires us to use both of our verbal and nonverbal communication skills. To indicate interest, don’t interrupt the patient when he/she is speaking, even nodding a little every few seconds or so can help you communicate your interest to the patients. And if you use encouraging phrases like, “I understand” or “keep going,” they can help your patient open up about their problems even more. CONSEQUENCES OF COMMUNICATION GAPS Poor communication leads to medical malpractice. Efficient communication saves patients from harm amid the confusion created by misinterpretation. A range of factors are responsible for creating communication gaps between the medical staff and patients. The biggest reason why communication gaps happen is when the patient interprets the wrong meaning out of a well-intended message, although owing to no fault of their own. We can attribute these communication gaps to the following factors: - Patients’ old beliefs and values - Environmental factors - Practitioners’ communication incompetencies - Patient health condition BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION There are certain barriers to effective communication that can exist between a patient and a nurse. Out of all the barriers, these three have the most impact: - Patients’ own level of understanding - Message complexity (the message is ambiguous/ not clear) - Contradiction in nurses’ messages and body language TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION If nurses want to improve their patient communication, then they have to work on the following for building trust and making communication effective. Understanding the needs of patients Patients might be quick in drawing conclusions, hearing only what they want to hear, and subconsciously reframing or oversimplifying a message from the nurse. One way to avoid this is to ask them for clarifications on what was communicated. Using this, you’ll get a fair assessment of both your own communication skills and also how your message has been taken by the patient. Position yourself in your patient’s place, and think from their perspective as to how would you like a message to be communicated to you. When having painful conversations with patients or their families, you might experience anxiety or nervousness. You might blush or stutter, which might cause you to give out mixed signals regarding your authority as a nurse. Patients are less likely to perceive you as an authority on their health or even heed your advice because there’s a disconnect between what you are communicating with words and your non-verbal cues. On the other hand, if you manage to control your nerves, you will be able to calmly help patients and their families follow procedure and even soothe their concerns. Patient-nurse communication is absolutely essential for health care. A number of reasons are responsible for the existence of communication gaps between patients and nurses. Barriers to communication are also responsible for miscommunications between patients and healthcare providers. The strategies mentioned above can help care providers, especially nurses, create better communication experiences with the patients.
learn about teaching reading skills . learn about teaching listening skills . design lesson plans , discuss and reflect on them . - Opened: Friday, 10 June 2022, 12:00 AMDue: Friday, 17 June 2022, 12:00 AM Finding varied tasks used in a reading lesson. - View Go through the activity to the end Designing a reading lesson plan following the basic principles learnt. - Poodll MiniLessonA reading lesson Poodll MiniLesson To ask questions and add comments - View Start discussions: 1 Post replies: 1 Receive a grade To discuss and give feedback Strategies for teaching reading skills - URLDuring Reading Stage URL Tasks used in during reading stage Developing and teaching listening skills Demonstrate listening lesson and share it. Reply to at least one other participant .
Plant & zo The science of plants and more To access deeper located water enables a plant to better withstand drought. Helpful hereby are longer roots that penetrate deeper into the soil. It is one of the traits that breeders select during the development of drought resilient wheat. Although a big stumbling block is that there is relatively little known about which genes are involved. But now A group of researchers from America, Argentine, China, Israel, and Sweden show that the development of long soil penetrating roots depend on the level expression of OPRIII genes. Wheat lines that were intercrossed with a rye line for a better root system pointed the researchers to the OPRIII genes. These so-called RS lines had a more expanded root system with better access to water. With as result a higher yield for RS lines in the case of drought. Closer analysis suggested that the most like genes responsible for the drought adapted root system of the RS lines were the OPRIII genes. To make sure this was indeed the case the researchers developed wheat with extra OPRIII and wheat without any OPRIII. When there was an extra amount of OPRIII present, then the researchers noticed, the wheat plants had shorter roots with more side roots. While absence of OPRIII resulted in wheat plants with extra long roots. Making the amount of OPRIII determinative for how the roots develop. Although it is not completely clear how OPRIII influences root architecture. It gives breeders a handhold for developing drought resilience lines. By keeping an eye on the OPRIII levels. Gabay, G., Wang, H., Zhang, J. et al. (2023) Dosage differences in 12-OXOPHYTODIENOATE REDUCTASE genes modulate wheat root growth. Nature Communications 14, 539 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36248-y
High school students investigate different disturbances of Pacific Northwest forests and explore differences between natural and human-caused disturbance. They learn how dry, ponderosa pine forests have evolved with wildfire and the suppression of this natural disturbance has made forests more susceptible to larger, more intense fires. Students use real WDFW data from the Oak Creek Wildlife Area to begin their observational practice. Next, students explore a forester’s career by measuring the health of a forest plot. They make observations and measurements on the vegetation of the plot, compare data, and make a hypothesis about the health of their plot. Students then synthesize information and develop a report on the health status of their plot based on their data. The lesson culminates with students discussing the value of forest management.
Our Unknown Numbers – Multiplication/Division lesson plan teaches students strategies for solving for unknown numbers in multiplication and division problems. During this lesson, students are asked to practice using the lesson material by matching the word, definition, and example of different vocabulary words. Students are also asked to solve practice equations for the unknown number. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to determine the unknown whole number in a multiplication or division equation that relates three numbers. State Educational Standards: LB.Math.Content.3.OA.A.4
Updated September 2013 Transgender people identify as or express a gender that is different from the sex they were assigned at birth. This includes transgender women who were assigned male at birth but live and identify as women, or transgender men who were assigned female at birth but live and identify as men, and also people who are gender nonconforming and may not identify as male or female. All transgender people are at significant risk of harassment and physical or sexual assault by people who do not understand, are fearful of or do not approve of transgender people. Evacuation shelters must be safe places for transgender evacuees because, like other evacuees, they have nowhere else to go. Additionally, shelters and disaster relief providers are subject to federal, state and local laws prohibiting discrimination based on gender stereotypes and gender identity. They may also experience unique difficulties in this time of crisis. It is not difficult to ensure safe shelter for transgender people. Here are some guidelines: Respect a person’s self-identification of their gender. According to the National Coalition for the Homeless, if someone identifies herself as a woman, she should be treated as a woman in all circumstances, regardless of whether she was born male and regardless of her anatomy or medical history. Similarly, if someone identifies as male he should be treated as a male in all regards. A person’s stated identity should be recognized and respected, and shelter staff/volunteers should use the name and pronoun (e.g., “he” or “she” or "they") that the person prefers. If you don’t know what terms to use, ask politely. Understand that people may not have updated identification. Evacuees who fled their homes in crisis may not have identification that correctly identifies their gender or the name they use. The gender and name a person provides should be respected and used, regardless of the gender and name listed on their documents. Respect a person’s evaluation of what housing options are safe or unsafe for that person. Transgender people should be allowed to choose the housing option that they believe is the safest for them. Generally, if shelters are sex-segregated, people who identify as men should be housed with men and people who identify as women should be housed with women. This is true regardless of whether people have ID showing this name/gender, regardless of whether they look masculine or feminine, and regardless of whether they’ve had sex reassignment surgery. However, a person’s own evaluation of their safety should always be respected. For example, transgender men may be concerned that they would be perceived as female in a men’s shelter, and feel safer housed with women. Some people may not clearly identify as male or female, and should be accommodated where they will feel most safe. When possible, shelters should also offer transgender residents the ability to sleep within eyesight/earshot of the night staff to lower the risk of assault and harassment. Respond to inappropriate behavior or harassment by any person. Harassment of any person, including a transgender person, should not be tolerated. Don’t base policies or rules on untrue stereotypes about transgender people. It is not fair or correct to assume, for example, that just because a person is transgender or was assigned male at birth they are a physical threat to others. Enforce rules based only on inappropriate behaviors. Ensure safe restroom and shower options. Transgender people should be welcome to use restrooms and showers that correspond to their self-identified gender, or the facilities that feel safest for them. It is almost never illegal for people to use the restroom that corresponds to the gender they identify as. In fact, in many places, it is illegal to deny them access to the restroom that corresponds to the gender they identify as. Other people’s discomfort is not a valid reason to deny a transgender person access to facilities. If possible, gender-neutral restrooms should be made available. It may be necessary to add a stall door or shower curtain to address valid privacy and safety concerns. Understand that transgender people may not “look like” the people they feel they are. Evacuees are generally without their personal toiletries, clothing, makeup, shaving supplies and all of the other items they typically use to groom. For example, a transgender woman may be unable to shave facial hair without her toiletries. This does not mean she should be treated with disrespect or not seen as a woman. Keep a person’s transgender status confidential, unless they tell you otherwise. This minimizes the risk of discrimination and violence. Transgender status is personal health information that is no else’s business. For additional assistance with providing safe shelters, contact one of Lambda Legal’s Help Desks through our Toll-Free National Hotline. They can help with legal issues, provide information about local lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community centers that can help LGBT evacuees and provide information relating to hormones and other prescription drugs including HIV/AIDS medication. Lambda Legal National Hotline Lambda Legal Regional Help Desks New York, NY: (212-809-8585) Atlanta, GA: (404-897-1880) Community organizations and individuals can also contact the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Office of Equal Rights (1 800 621 3362) to seek technical assistance or file a complaint of discrimination.
An impacted tooth is a tooth that is blocked or “stuck” underneath the gum line, and does not erupt into its correct position on its own. Most often, an impacted tooth will be a third molar, or wisdom tooth, though it is a common occurrence in canine teeth as well. Canine teeth are located at the corners of the arch, next to the incisors. They have one pointed edge (cusp) which is used for holding, grasping, and tearing food. Because of the canine’s long root, they are very strong, stable teeth. Canines are usually the last teeth to erupt, and usually do so when your child is around the age of 12 or 13. The American Association of Orthodontists recommends that children have an orthodontic examination by the age of seven, which allows us the opportunity to monitor your child’s teeth eruption and detect impactions early. If your child does develop an impacted canine, a simple surgical procedure is recommended to assist the eruption of the tooth. We will surgically expose the tooth by cutting a small flap in the surrounding gum. After the tooth is exposed, we will either leave the tooth to erupt on its own, or attach an orthodontic bracket to the tooth to help guide its descent. With early detection and combined surgical and orthodontic treatment, impacted canines can be allowed to erupt and/or be guided to the most ideal position in your child’s mouth.
Governments, drivers and automotive manufacturers are more aware than ever before of the need to reduce vehicle emissions. We are still some time away from the widespread adoption of zero-emissions vehicles – but in the meantime, action can be taken to ensure the engines we are using are as efficient as possible. This article investigates the role of the glow plug and its importance in minimising environmental impact. What’s the link between glow plugs and emissions? In a diesel engine, combustion is achieved by compressing the air in the combustion chamber. The compressed air raises the temperature, fuel is added to initiate the combustion cycle, powering the engine. During the combustion process, if the combustion cycle does not meet the required temperature, not all of the fuel will be burnt. The unburnt fuel becomes carbon particles, which are released into the atmosphere via the exhaust and are harmful for the environment. In order to avoid this situation, glow plugs are used to heat up the air and ensure the correct temperatures are reached, so all the fuel is burnt and harmful emissions are reduced. Glow plugs also play another important role in reducing emissions – they provide heat for the diesel particulate filter (DPF) at regular intervals, as determined by the engine management system (EMS). All new diesel cars are fitted with a DPF, which prevents toxic soot particles being emitted from a car’s exhaust by collecting them and periodically exposing the particles to high temperatures in order to burn them, turning them into harmless ash. This is known as DPF regeneration. If a car is driven at high speeds for a long distance, for example on the motorway, the continuous and stable heat flow from the exhaust is sufficient to clean up the DPF. The heat will burn any unburnt remains of the soot particles. But if the car is driven at low speeds, frequently stopping and starting, for example in cities, there is not enough heat for DPF regeneration. In this case, the ECU activates the glow plugs and injects additional fuel into the engine, which ignites and heats up the DPF, so regeneration can take place. Problems can sometimes occur if the journey is too short, as the regeneration process may not be completed. The latest glow plugs, such as instant heating plugs, reduce the likelihood of this happening, as they can quickly reach the required temperatures, reducing the regeneration time. What’s the role of the glow plug control unit? The glow plug control unit interprets information from the engine control unit (ECU) to regulate glow plug operation and optimise engine performance. It decides when glow plugs are in operation and how much electrical current is used (which in turn determines the temperature). It’s a delicate balance, as if a glow plug is not on for long enough, or does not reach the right temperature, the fuel mixture will not ignite efficiently. But if a glow plug is on for too long, or gets too hot, it can be damaged, which in turn risks damaging the engine. Some glow plugs have extended post-heating functionality. How does this help to reduce emissions? Extended post-heating functionality means the glow plugs are active before, during and 60-180 seconds after the combustion cycle. This ensures the combustion process is fully completed, with all air and fuel vaporised and no harmful carbon particles released. What is the benefit of using glow plugs made with ceramics as opposed to other materials? The ceramics used in glow plugs are semiconductors. This means they have both electrical insulating and electrical conducting properties. Ceramic glow plugs have quick heat-up times, long-lasting heat retention and high heat resistance, thus contribute to lower emissions. What is an instant heating double coil glow plug? How do they differ from ceramic glow plugs? An instant heating double coil glow plug has a heating coil and a regulating coil integrated into its probe. This helps it to heat up faster than a ceramic glow plug, further improving engine efficiency and lowering emissions. How can drivers and workshop technicians ensure good glow plug performance to control emissions? - Use good quality fuel. - Look out for black/blue or white smoke coming from the exhaust – take the car to a workshop immediately if this is noticed. - Look out for the DPF warning light – take the car to a workshop immediately if this is noticed. - Conduct regular checks of the complete ignition system, including glow plugs, glow plug control module, glow plug relay system, fuel pumps and injectors, EMS and battery. - Before installing a new glow plug, thoroughly clean the glow plug position to eliminate any carbon deposits. What future developments could impact glow plugs and emissions? The future of diesel engines and glow plugs is unpredictable – many OEMs have turned away from developing diesel engines in favour of alternative fuels such as electricity. However, in order to make diesel engines more efficient, thinner and longer glow plugs are being developed. Thinner glow plugs result in faster heating times, helping to improve engine starts and reduce emissions through complete combustion and DPF support.
UNTIL [FOOD] JUSTICE…JUST IS. YWCA Greater Cleveland is proud to be a part of the Until Justice…Just Is campaign. Join us as we cover a different topic each month to explore some of the many areas in which true justice is needed, and what we can do to achieve equity in our community and our country until justice…just is. This month, we believe that all people have a right to the foods needed to live a healthy and fulfilled life. Keep reading to take a deeper dive into how we can work to make this a reality until food justice…just is. #UntilJusticeJustIs. WE ADVOCATE FOR ELIMINATION OF FOOD INSECURITY - According to the USDA, food insecurity is a lack of consistent access to enough food for every person in a household to live an active, healthy life. - It is estimated that over 42 million Americans are food insecure in 2021. - Food deserts are areas where residents have limited or no access to affordable and nutritious food. - Unable to access food, food deserts can cause severe food insecurity. - 23.5 million Americans live over 1 mile from a grocery store. - With limited access to transportation, this severely decreases a community’s ability to eat and force them to rely on alternative sources such as convenience stores and fast food options. - Communities of color are more likely to live in a food desert and/or be food insecure due to structural racism and disinvestment in these communities. - Nationally, Black households are twice as likely and Latinx households are 1/5 more likely than white households to be food insecure - Food insecurity can cause complex negative mental and physical health outcomes. - Food insecurity does not exist in isolation. People facing food insecurity are often affected by multiple issues like structural racism, lack of affordable housing, social isolation, health problems, low wages, and more. - Addressing the interconnected causes of food insecurity, including racism as a public health crisis. - Expansion of the availability of programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and raising the minimum wage to a living wage to ensure healthy foods are available and affordable to all people. - Widespread education and assistance around the importance of making healthy food choices. - Provide free and nutritious school lunches for students so that no child goes hungry and is able to build a strong educational foundation. - Localizing food systems to ensure complete food security, self-sufficiency, and autonomy over food choices. Where We Stand YWCA Greater Cleveland believes that all people have a right to food security. Our mission to eliminate racism and empower women is directly dependent on our communities’ ability to live a sustainable and healthy life. Our initiatives to address racism as a public health crisis actively include the interconnected health risks of food insecurity because food security must be addressed as a racial issue. Our facilities such as Norma Herr Women’s Center and Cogswell Hall ensure guests will not face food insecurity and have abundant access to healthy foods during their stay. WE ADVOCATE FOR FOOD SOVEREIGNTY - Food sovereignty is the right of people to healthy, culturally appropriate foods. This includes their right to define these foods and methods of production. - Food sovereignty places a large emphasis on sustainable and culturally relevant food systems and production methods. - Historically, indigenous communities have been systematically excluded from food access and choices with no consideration of their cultural food habits, leading to mass food insecurity. - Land rights of indigenous people is a major focus of the food sovereignty movement, based on the belief that indigenous people have a right to grow and eat food that is relevant to their culture and traditions. - Current food systems drastically contribute to global environmental decay. Full food sovereignty optimizes ecosystems and localizes food systems. - Full food sovereignty for communities wishing to exercise this right, including full ownership and access to land and growing systems. - Centering the needs and voices of communities desiring food sovereignty to ensure their needs are met by federal policy and practice changes. - Addressing the negative ecological impact of current food systems and actively working to combat these with localization of food systems. - Allow self-sufficiency in granting food sovereignty to communities, especially indigenous communities. Where We Stand YWCA Greater Cleveland believes that all people have a right to healthy food. Further, we promote a goal of self-sufficiency of those seeking support. Food sovereignty guarantees both of these and we recognize its importance. As we stand in solidarity with those working to ensure full food sovereignty, we continue to address immediate food needs in our community by ensuring complete food access in our facilities such as Norma Herr Women’s Center and Cogswell Hall. WE ADVOCATE FOR NUTRITIOUS FOOD - Systemically racist practices such as segregation, food deserts, limited access to healthcare, and more combine to make eating a healthy diet extremely difficult. - This causes disproportionate rates of negative mental and physical health effects linked to food consumption. - One example of this is that limited access to food and/or financial instability often forces people to make difficult decisions between health and hunger. - Convenience stores and unhealthy, shelf-stable foods are often the best and only choice for families with limited options. - If negative health effects/conditions due to food consumption are experienced, trauma-informed healthcare that treats patient ailments comprehensively is often inaccessible (See Until Health Justice…Just Is). - For example, diet recommendations made by healthcare professionals often do not consider food access or cultural food practices. - Immediate, widespread healthcare access to those experiencing health problems due to poor food consumption. - Increase of supportive services to empower people to make healthier food choices using relevant food sources. - Widespread expansion of government food assistance programs. - Centering the voices of communities of color who are most impacted by food insecurity and its negative health outcomes to ensure their needs are truly being met. - Increased access to affordable, healthy foods, allowing people to live healthier lives. Where We Stand YWCA Greater Cleveland believes that all people have a right to access the foods needed to live a healthy life. Our 2020-2025 Strategic Plan specifically emphasizes our goal of healthy women and girls of color in our community. This is directly dependent upon access to affordable, healthy food and supportive services to assist in making healthy food choices. We address immediate community needs in assisting those we serve in making healthy food choices and accessing healthcare when needed in our facilities and programs such as Norma Herr Women’s Center, Cogswell Hall, and Independence Place.
This is the first course in a series of four that will give you the skills needed to start your career in bookkeeping. If you have a passion for helping clients solve problems, this course is for you. In this course, you will be introduced to the role of a bookkeeper and learn what bookkeeping professionals do every day. You will dive into the accounting concepts and terms that will provide the foundation for the next three courses. You will learn how to work your way through the accounting cycle and be able to read and produce key financial statements. By the end of this course, you will be able to: -Define accounting and the concepts of accounting measurement -Explain the role of a bookkeeper and common bookkeeping tasks and responsibilities -Summarize the double entry accounting method -Explain the ethical and social responsibilities of bookkeepers in ensuring the integrity of financial information. No previous bookkeeping or accounting experience required.
Nearsighted vs Farsighted Nearsightedness and farsightedness, as well as astigmatism , are all refractive errors that affect your eye’s ability to focus light on the retina, making your vision blurry. Both nearsightedness and farsightedness are very common eye conditions, but they are very different from one another. Read on to learn the difference between nearsightedness vs. farsightedness. If you’re experiencing blurry or fuzzy vision either nearby or far away, book an appointment at your neighbourhood Pearle Vision EyeCare Centre. An eye doctor will be able to diagnose the problem and prescribe the appropriate eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct the issue. What Does Nearsighted Mean? What is nearsightedness? Medically referred to as myopia, nearsightedness occurs when the light entering the retina falls short, causing distant objects to appear blurry. This typically occurs because the cornea might have a bigger than average curvature, or the eyeball is too long. If you have nearsightedness, your close-up vision is not affected. What causes nearsightedness? This condition typically runs in the family. It often occurs early in childhood and can develop slowly over time, or rapidly. Symptoms will usually worsen as a child grows, and through adolescence. Signs a child is developing or has nearsightedness may include: - Constant squinting - Sitting closer to television or object they’re viewing in order to see it clearly - Lacking awareness of far objects - Rubbing eyes constantly - Excessive blinking Nearsighted symptoms can include: - Distant objects appearing blurry or fuzzy - Squinting to see clearly - Difficulty seeing at night Treatment for Nearsightedness An eye doctor can help detect and diagnose your nearsightedness. Depending on the severity of your condition, your eye doctor may prescribe nearsighted glasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery to correct your vision. What Does Farsighted Mean? What is farsightedness? Medically referred to as hyperopia, farsightedness occurs when light is focused behind the retina instead of directly on it. Farsightedness is caused by a flat cornea, or if the eyeball is too short. Different from being nearsighted, a far-sighted person will be able to see things faraway, but objects nearby will appear blurry. Farsightedness is typically present at birth and often runs in the family. Signs of farsightedness include: - Objects nearby appear blurry of fuzzy - Squinting to see clearly - Eyestrain, such as burning or aching eyes - General eye discomfort, which may lead to headaches Treatment for Farsightedness Since farsightedness often appears at birth, it’s important that children get their eyes examined as early as six months old. Early detection can help prevent interruptions in your child’s development and learning. Farsightedness can easily be corrected with the right farsighted glasses or contact lens prescription. If you’re experiencing blurry vision, arrange an appointment at your neighbourhood Pearle Vision EyeCare Centre. Annual eye exams can help detect any eye problems early on and get you the right treatment needed. Our eye doctors can conduct a nearsightedness test and farsightedness test to help determine a course of treatment for getting you clearer, sharper vision.
CAN’T I JUST PLAY CLASSICAL MUSIC FOR MY CHILD INSTEAD OF CLASSES? Why not just listen to music? Research shows that for benefits such as music making children smarter, increasing spatial reasoning abilities, increasing standardized test scores, etc. to be long lasting, they must be obtained through active music making. Passively listening to music only results in temporary benefits sometimes lasting for only a few minutes. Active participation – singing while playing instruments, keeping the beat, analyzing the patterns – is the key! DO EARLY CHILDHOOD MUSIC CLASSES PREPARE CHILDREN TO STUDY AN INSTRUMENT? Yes! The Little MusicMaker program is designed to build a strong foundation is music so that a child is prepared for their first year of an instrument study. Music theory concepts included on Music Teachers National Association theory exams are introduced to children in our classes from day 1. Learning to speak the language of music provides for a much more positive first experience in instrument study. MUSIC EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN UNDER THE AGE OF 5 – IS THAT POSSIBLE? On a daily basis, we see evidence that music education for children under the age of five is not only effective, but vital. Children are introduced to sign language, shapes, symbols and letters from a very early age. Why should we wait to introduce them to the language of music along with the associated symbols? “Research shows that music is among the first and most important modes of communication in infants. As young children grow and develop, music continues not only as a form of communication, but as a form of self-expression as well. Music expands memory and assists in crucial language and reasoning skills. We have learned much in recent years about the human brain and cognitive growth that has yet to be incorporated into educational offerings and planning-at all levels. The fact, for instance, that the “infrastructure” of the brain is already half developed by age 5 is rarely factored into the nation’s educational planning.” Report from the Early Childhood Music Summit, MENC, June 14-16, 2000. WHAT SETS APART LITTLE MUSICMAKER CLASSES FROM OTHER CLASSES? - Our innovative program is designed to for children as young as 18 months old. - Children receive an actual music education – learning to read music through active music making. - Our classes are all live music making. We do not use prerecorded music. Research shows children must be actively making music, not passively listening, to receive all of the wonderful benefits such as music making children smarter. - While our classes are dynamic, high energy, full of laughter and fun, our goal is education, as opposed to entertainment. - Whether it be for hobby or career, we want to nurture our little musicians as early as possible so they can enjoy the many benefits of making music for life. If a class of two year old children can identify a quarter note, tell you it receives one count and clap the count, while laughing uncontrollably at Max the puppet holding the quarter note in his mouth, we know it’s a success!
\|Do Some Seed Need Special Treatments to Germinate?\| Most annual and even perennial seed need no special treatment to germinate. However, some have evolved over the centuries to need certain specific conditions to start their growth cycle, such as the scarification caused by going through a bird’s digestive tract, or the heat and chemical changes resulting from a forest fire. Some need total darkness to germinate, and others need total light, some have a hard, impermeable seed coat, and some will die if they dry out at all. For a quick reference as to which seeds require special treatments, see What Seed Need for Good Germination. Of course, the individual listings of seed and their cultural requirements include any special treatments that a particular genus and species might require. At this point, let us examine the different basic treatments needed by particular seed, including scarification, soaking, stratification, chilling, moisture maintenance, and storage conditions. 1. Scarification - Some seed have seed coats so hard that they cannot absorb moisture. Of course, this usually means that they store very well over a long period, but it also means they need to have their coats broken, scratched or mechanically altered so water can interact with the seed to trigger germination. This process is called scarification, and it can be done with a knife, sandpaper or a file. This should be undertaken with care so the seed is not injured, which can prevent germination or allow pathogens to attack the seed. In general, you can expect seeds of the Fabaceaee, Malvaceae, Cannaceae, Geraniaceae, Convolvulaceae, Solnaceae, Chenopodiacae and Aeacaceae families to have hard seed coats. Some seed (Pelargonium, for example) are shipped from the grower already mechanically scarified, which makes it easier for the home gardener to get them to grow, but also means they do not store well over a long period. Some seed are too small to be easily handled and mechanically scarified; these should be soaked to soften their hard seed coat. 2. Soaking - The germination of some seeds is greatly aided by soaking, which will significantly reduce the time required for them to germinate. Some have a hard seed coat that is softened by soaking, some need to have chemical inhibitors leached out to start germination. Soaking for 24 hours is usually sufficient. If more time is needed for a particular plant, change the water once a day to provide needed aeration and to prevent the buildup of microorganisms. Place the seed to be soaked in a container and add 5-6 times their volume of hot (190 degrees F.) water. Never boil seed in water, as this will injure and even kill them. Plant the seed immediately after soaking, and do not let them dry out before sowing. 3. Stratification - This is the process of exposing seed to cold, moist conditions before sowing to trigger the germination process. It is necessary for seed that have an immature or dormant embryo when harvested, which includes most perennials and woody plants. Some plants, such as Lettuce and Delphinium, become dormant when exposed to temperatures over 75 degrees F. for an extended period; these must be chilled to induce germination. There are a couple of methods to stratify seed, depending on your preference and the size of the seed. You may go ahead and plant your seed in your chosen container filled with moistened medium, place the whole container in a plastic bag and put it in the refrigerator (for temperatures around 40° F.) or freezer (for temperatures of 32° F. or lower) for the required time. An alternative is to mix your seed in 2 to 3 times their volume of moistened medium, place them in a plastic bag tied and then store them in your refrigerator or freezer. When the chilling period is over, do not separate the seeds from the medium, but sow them together. Another method of stratifying your seed is to place them outside for their chilling period, provided your area has the right cool temperatures for a sufficient time to meet the seed’s requirements. You can sow your seed in beds or in flats in late fall or early winter and winter them outdoors. They will germinate when the weather warms in spring. If you use flats, place them on the north side of the house away from drying winds and sun, sink them into the ground to just below their top or place them in a coldframe. You will find specific time and temperature recommendations for individual plants that require stratification in the Flower or Vegetable section. Do not refrigerate or freeze the seed while in the packet for stratification purposes, and do not cold treat seeds in water. They need contact with air as well as moisture for the chilling to be effective, and you may send your seed into a second dormancy or severely injure them if you don’t give them proper conditions! 4. Simple and Double Dormancy – In speaking of seed, dormancy refers to any conditions that keep the seed from germinating. This, of course, is quite different from the dormancy of perennials, woody plants or bulbs, for which dormancy refers to a resting period between active growth periods. When only one special treatment is needed (usually stratification), this is referred to as simple dormancy. Some seed, however, need more than one special treatment to begin their growth cycle, and this is called double dormancy. For example, some Ilex, Taxus, Viburnum, and some Lilies and Tree Peonies need a warm period (68-86 degrees F.) of three months in which the root develops, followed by stratification for one to three months which triggers stem development, before emergence of the growing tip will occur. 5. Wet Shipment – Seed of some tropical and woody plants are shipped fresh in moistened sphagnum moss immediately after they are harvested and must be sown immediately. If the seed coat is allowed to dry out, absolutely nothing will cause these seed to germinate! These seed include Anthurium, Philodendron, Ginkgo and Clivia. 6. Special Treatments for Seed Storage – One of the most frequently asked questions that gardeners ask me is "How long can I store my seed and still have them viable?" Well, there are stories of Evening Primrose seed lasting 50 years and Lotus germinating after 1,000 years, but these are definitely the exception, and not the rule! Most annuals and vegetables will store well for two to three years, provided they are kept in a cool dry place. Moisture frequently triggers germination, so until you are ready to plant, it is important to keep your seed dry. If seed are kept in an unopened, moisture-resistant package and not subjected to abnormal temperatures, most will keep perfectly well for several years. Some vegetables, such as beets, cucumbers and radishes, will even keep for as long as ten years. If your seed packet is already opened, store the seed in a dry, airtight container in a cool place. It helps to store the seed as cool as possible (refrigeration helps) for reduced temperatures will lengthen storage life, and this is especially true for seed of woody plants. As you might expect, there are some seed that just do not follow the norm in what they require, and you should not try to store them for any length of time as they will not be viable no matter what you do. These include Asparagus species, Tanecetum coccinium (formerly known as Chrysanthemum coccinium or Pyrethrum), perennial Delphinium, Dimorphotheca, Geranium, Gerbera, Kochia, Magnolia, Passiflora, Potentilla, Salvia splendens and Impatiens, as well as onions. The Wet Shipment group mentioned above should also not be stored. NASA Seeds in Space "You can tell which diseases tomatoes are resistant to by looking for letters such as V, F, N and T after the name of the tomato. Each letter represents a problem the plant is bred to resist, and the more letters the better!" ---from Orene Horton's book, "Clippings from Orene's Garden"---
Did you know?? April 2 marks the birthday of famed storyteller Hans Christian Anderson? 52 years ago, this day officially became known as International Children's Book Day (ICBD) to celebrate the birth of the man who brought us The Little Mermaid, The Ugly Duckling, Thumbelina, and The Snow Queen (just to name a few). The purpose of ICBD is to inspire a love of reading and to call attention to children's books. Celebrate today by giving a new book to each of your kids, or reading a new story to those too young to read. The best and fastest way to develop our young children into intelligent human beings is by teaching them to read. Instilling a love of reading promotes a lifetime of learning and enjoyment. Plus, studies have shown that families who start reading aloud to their children at birth help strengthen their language skills and build their vocabulary!! Literacy doesn’t start only when your child starts school. From birth, babies and children are gathering skills they’ll use in reading. The years between ages 3 and 5 are critical to reading growth. As your child goes from saying their first sentences to speaking in paragraphs, you will start to see exciting milestones develop with reading. Your child will begin to recognize print on the street, stop signs, familiar store signs, and the address posted on your home. Below are some techniques you can use to help your child learn the joys of reading. How to raise a reader: When you are out and about, start talking about letters, numbers, and words on packages and signs. Point out the name of your child’s favorite cereal. Play games involving letter and number recognition. Can your child tell you any of the letters in the supermarket sign? Children enjoy copying words out onto paper. Write your child’s name and have him copy it himself with alphabet stamps, stickers, or magnets. Encourage them to “write” their own words using the letters. Your child will write letters backwards, spell seemingly randomly, and may hold their marker strangely — it’s “all good” at this age when a child wants to communicate in writing of any kind. The letter-sound connection is one of the first steps to reading. Play a guessing game about your child’s favorite words. What letter does “p-p-p-pirate” start with? Three-year-olds can be chatty, and by age 4, it can be hard to get a word in edgewise. Take advantage of your child’s interest in talking by writing a book together. Start out with something simple, like describing a fun day at a park or visiting friends. Try getting your child interested in nonfiction books. At the library or bookstore, find books on your child’s favorite topics. Cars, dinosaurs, dogs, and other topics are covered with plenty of pictures, designed especially for kids this age. Need help?? Dolly Parton's Imagination Library is a book gifting program that mails free, high-quality books each month to children from birth until they begin school (age 5), no matter their family's income. Check area availability here: https://imaginationlibrary.com/check-availability/#selectedCountry=US “You can never get enough books into the hands of enough children - Dolly Parton
They make up one-tenth of our body's dry weight, they are our oldest ancestors, and we would not exist without their presence today. Microbes, or microscopic organisms, are gaining respect among scientists, not least because of their amazing ability to inhabit every conceivable ecological niche. Yet, say researchers, this world is just beginning to be explored. For many years the sheer numbers of microbes in the biosphere were vastly underestimated because many of them are difficult or impossible to grow in the laboratory. They include bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa. Some authorities include viruses among microscopic organisms, while others argue that viruses, which do not have true cells, should be categorized differently. The development of new genetic techniques for identifying microscopic organisms is opening up a whole new microbial world to us. Only a few years ago, scientists discovered an unknown marine bacterium that is now believed to make up fully a quarter of the biomass of all living things in the world's oceans and, some scientists think, play a key role in the global cycling of carbon and oxygen. It is not much of a reach to say that microbes are the building blocks of life. For 2 billion years, they were the only form of life on our planet. As they evolved, they created the basic processes of fermentation, photosynthesis, oxygen breathing, and fixation of nitrogen in the atmosphere into proteins. Our bodies' mitochondria, the miniature power plants in the cytoplasm of our cells that provide energy for biological processes, are descendants of early microbes. In a single bit of soil there may be 10 billion microscopic organisms belonging to thousands of different species. Many are as yet unidentified. Though most people think of microbes as the enemy -- causing sickness, spoiling food -- they are, in fact, indispensable. They carry out photosynthesis on a huge aggregate scale, providing up to half the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. In addition, they decompose dead animals and plants that would otherwise be an enormous burden on the ecosystem. As life forms capable of exploiting a wide range of niches, they cannot be beat. Microscopic species inhabit dry, icy valleys in Antarctica, feed off heavy metals in the heat of deep-sea thermal vents, and can be found in blocks of rock a mile below Earth's surface. The emerging scientific view, then, is that we owe microbes something beyond the status of ancient, lower forms of life. As scientists Lynn Margulis and Dorian Sagan put it: "Most of life's history has been microbial."
Introduction to Dragos Rule Have you ever wondered why NH3, PH3, AsH3, SbH3, and other molecules in the same group have different bond angles? The bond angle of ammonia is 107 °, but for PH3, there is a difference of 13°, i.e.94°. Similarly, for AsH3 and SbH3, the corresponding bond angles are 93° and 92°, respectively. Now let's discuss why NH3 and PH3 have a difference in bond angle of 13°. To explain this anomalous property, the Dragos rule can be used. In Dragos molecules, hybridisation does not occur for compounds of elements of the third period or higher, bonded to a less electronegative element like hydrogen. If the central atom of a molecule belongs to the 15th or 16th group and is in the 3rd period or below, and is bonded to a substituent having electronegativity less than or equal to 2.5, then the lone pair present in the s-orbital doesn't participate in hybridisation and bonds are formed by pure p-orbitals. As pure p-orbitals are at 90 ͦ to each other, the angle between bond pairs is close to 90 ͦ. A lone pair of s-orbitals is found in a stereo chemically inactive s-orbital. Dragos molecules have no hybridisation. Hence, i = ∞. The bond angle is nearly equal to 90 ͦ. It ranges between 90-92 ͦ. As for molecules formed with elements of the 3rd period or above, they usually form weak bonds because of poor overlapping of atomic orbitals. Conditions for Dragos Rule The central atom should be large. That is, the third period or higher. The side atom or the surrounding atom should be small and less electronegative, like hydrogen (EN≤2.5). There should be a lone pair present. Lone pairs are usually present in s-orbitals and do not participate in hybridisation. Hence, these pairs of electrons are stereo-chemically inert. Or the s-orbital is said to be stereo-chemically inactive. Molecules satisfying these conditions fall under the class of Dragos molecules. Elements forming Dragos Molecule Phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), sulphur (S), selenium (Se), and tellurium (Te) of the 15th and 16th groups, respectively effectively obey Dragos' rule. Hence, being bismuth and polonium radioactive, they show deviation from obeying Dragos' rule. Examples of Dragos molecules include: PH3, AsH3, SbH3, H2S, H2Se, H2Te etc. Applications of Dragos Rule The Dragos Rule can be used to predict the basicity of molecules. While considering NH3 and PH3, NH3 is more basic than PH3. It is because the lone pair of nitrogen atoms are present in their hybrid orbitals, whereas those of phosphorus are in unhybridised orbitals. Nitrogen is sp3 hybridised. Hence, these electrons are involved in hybridisation. In PH3, the lone pair is stereo-chemically inactive and not involved in hybridisation. Thus, NH3 > PH3 Hybridization of PH3 2. Reducing Character Dragos molecules act as reducing agents. The size of the atom increases as it moves down a group. Hence, the bond strength will decrease because of the poor overlapping of atomic orbitals. ∴ SbH3 > AsH3 > PH3 > NH3 3. Percentage s-Character The Dragos molecule has no hybridisation, hence the percentage of s-characters is zero. Also, it is found that these molecules have a very small bond angle. The bond angle has an inverse relationship with the percentage s-character. Some other relations of percentage s-character are derived as follows: % s-character ∝ Bond angle ∴ % s-character ∝ Bond strength Phosphine is an example of a Dragos molecule. It has a chemical formula of PH3. In the phosphine molecule, phosphorus belongs to the third period and obeys all the conditions of the Dragos Rule. The phosphorus atom makes three sigma bonds with three hydrogen atoms. The s-orbital of phosphorus has a lone pair that is not involved in hybridisation. Thus, the formation of PH3 is solely dependent on p-orbitals. Every hydrogen atom forms a 90-degree angle with a phosphorus atom. Thus, it takes on the shape of a trigonal pyramid. The Dragos rule is limited to certain elements only. This rule is set up such that only the third or higher period elements follow it. From this, it is clear that the Dragos rule is applicable only to p-block elements. Not all elements of p-block obey this rule. Dragos molecules have no hybridisation. It is because the lone pairs present in the s-orbital do not participate in hybridisation. Thus, only p-orbitals are involved in the formation of Dragos molecules. The bond angle observed in Dragos molecules is considered relatively small, nearly equal to 90 degrees. Due to this, groups of 15 and 16 elements tend to form hydrides easily, as hydrogen is a less electronegative atom. The solubility of Dragos molecules in water is slightly lower as compared to the compounds of the 2nd period. The bond angles of hydrides in groups 15 and 16 or elements in the third period or higher are explained by Drago's rule. It only applies to PH3, AsH3, SbH3, H2S, H2Se, and other related compounds. Drago's rule states that when the following criteria are met, there will be a significant energy difference between the involved atomic orbitals, preventing any orbital mixing or hybridisation. Only p-orbitals are involved in the formation of Dragos compounds. The bond angle of the Dragos molecule is nearly 90 ˚. FAQs on Dragos Rule 1. Explain the hybridisation of hydrogen telluride. Hydrogen telluride is a Dragos molecule. It has a chemical formula of H2Te. In the hydrogen telluride molecule, the tellurium belongs to the fifth period and obeys all the conditions of the Dragos rule. Like in water, the tellurium atom makes two sigma bonds with two hydrogen atoms. The s-orbital of tellurium has two lone pairs that are not involved in hybridisation. Thus, the formation of H2Te only depends on p orbitals. Every hydrogen atom forms a 90-degree angle with a tellurium atom. Thus, hydrogen telluride acquires a bent shape or V-shape. 2. Predict the geometry of SF6 and SH6 molecules. In the SF6 molecule, the sulphur atom has six electrons in its valence shell. These electrons form covalent bonds with the most electronegative atom, fluorine. SF6 forms six S-F bond pairs. There is no lone pair in this molecule. Therefore, the hybridisation of SF6 is sp3d2. Hence, SF6 acquires an octahedral geometry. In the SH6 molecule, there is no hybridisation. Even if there are vacant d-orbitals, they do not get hybridised. Since these vacant d-orbitals do not participate in hybridisation due to the large s-d energy gap, a large amount of energy should be required for effective overlapping. 3. Predict the reducing power of H2S, H2Se, and H2Te molecules. H2S, H2Se, and H2Te are examples of Dragos molecules formed by the 16th group. The reducing power of molecules depends on the size of the atoms from which they are formed. The size of an atom increases as we move down the group. The size is given in the order of Te > Se > S. As the atom grows larger, its effective valence shells overlap more effectively, which reduces the atom's effective nuclear charge. As a result, the reducing character deteriorates, and the bond becomes weaker. It follows that H2Te > H2Se > H2S is the order of reducing power.
Explanation: An unusual type of solar eclipse occurred in 2012. Usually it is the Earth's Moon that eclipses the Sun. That year, most unusually, the planet Venus took a turn. Like a solar eclipse by the Moon, the phase of Venus became a continually thinner crescent as Venus became increasingly better aligned with the Sun. Eventually the alignment became perfect and the phase of Venus dropped to zero. The dark spot of Venus crossed our parent star. The situation could technically be labeled a Venusian annular eclipse with an extraordinarily large ring of fire. Pictured here during the occultation, the Sun was imaged in three colors of ultraviolet light by the Earth-orbiting Solar Dynamics Observatory, with the dark region toward the right corresponding to a coronal hole. Hours later, as Venus continued in its orbit, a slight crescent phase appeared again. The next Venusian transit across the Sun will occur in 2117. \|<< Previous APOD\|\|This Day in APOD\|\|Next APOD >>\|
Table of Contents The Thorax: General Information The thorax is made up of about seventy individual components in total, each of which performs specific functions in order to maintain the overall system. Considered from an osseous point of view, the thorax consists of the ventral sternum, the dorsal thoracic spine and the encasing pairs of ribs. Not all ribs have direct contact with the sternum, but are connected to the ventral side of the thorax through cartilage plates. The lower rib pairs neither have contact with bone nor with cartilage and, hence, are called floating ribs. Therefore, we must distinguish between real pairs of ribs (with bone contact) and false pairs of ribs (with or without cartilage contact points). The ribs move in line with the breathing motion, due to their connection to the pleura plates and through activation of respiratory muscles. Osseous structures and articular surfaces of the thoracic spine The thoracic spine forms the posterior side of the thorax and holds the osseous attachment points of the rib pairs. The superior and inferior foveae costales, which articulate with the caput costae of the ribs, are found on the cranial departure points of the vertebral arch. On the chest vertebrae 10–12, there are no longer two, but only one fovea costalis. The fovea costalis at the end of each transverse process connects ventrally with the tubercle costae of the ribs. With the exception of vertebral bodies 10–12, the joint surface is located in the middle of the Proc. transversus. At the thoracic vertebra 10, the articular surface shifts cranially, while it is entirely absent in the vertebral bodies 11 and 12. Osseous structures and articular surfaces of the ribs The ribs are bone braces, which ventrally merge into cartilage and either connect to the sternum and the ventral cartilage plate or, in the case of ribs 11 and 12, remain free. In medical terminology, the rib pairs 1–7 are called the Costae verae; the rib pairs 8–10, Costae spuriae and the rib pairs 11–12, Costae fluctuantes. The ribs themselves are divided into caput costae, collum costae and corpus costae. The articular surface capitis costae is the one found at Caput costae. It is bisected by the Crista capitis. The cranial articular surface is connected to the fovea costalis inferior of the vertebra immediately above, while the caudal articular surface touches the fovea costal superior of the vertebra immediately below. The Caput costae of the 11th and 12th rib has only one joint surface and forms a rib vertebral joint dexter et sinister, together with the fovea costalis of the identical segment level. The Collum follows the Caput costae and ends with the costae tubercle, which contains the articular surface tuberculi costae. This connects with the costal fovea transversalis of Proc. transversus of the thoracic vertebra. In addition, the eight lower ribs contain the Crista colli costae, which serves as an insertion site for the ligament superior costotransversarium. Originating from tubercle costae and running to the ventral cartilage is the corpus costae, which forms the angulus costae. The intercostal nerves and intercostal vessels extend through the sulcus costae, which is located on the inside of the dorsal section. The costal cartilage is the rib cartilage that increases in length from cranial to caudal and extends to the sternum in the cranial section. The 7th rib has the most prominent cartilage portion leading to the sternum. Osseous structures and articular surfaces of the sternum The breastbone (sternum) forms the ventral boundary of the thorax and the chest wall. Cranially, it is wide and becomes narrower caudally, making it visually reminiscent of a sword or a spear point. From cranial to caudal, a distinction is made between the sections manubrium sterni, body of sternum and xiphoid process. On the top rim of the manubrium is the jugular notch. It extends laterally in the incisurae clavicularis, which articulate with the clavicles as sternoclavicular joint (SCG). Following the bone caudo-laterally, next in line are the costal incisurae prima et secunda, which correspondingly connect with the 1st and 2nd rib. The cartilage-covered transition from the manubrium to the body of the sternum is called synchrondrosis manubriosternalis. Here, the bone bulges forward and forms the angulus sterni. Body of the sternum The body of the sternum holds the insertion areas for the 3rd–7th rib pairs laterally, the incisurae costalis III–VII. At the end of costal cartilage VII, the Synchondrosis xiphosternalis connects the body of the sternum with the xiphoid processus. The “sword tip” of the sternum is a narrow, thin bone ridge that forms the Angulus infrasternalis, also referred to as the epigastric angle, with the cartilages VII–X. The Thorax: Articulations The variety of osseous components in this body area results in an equally large number of different articulated connections, which are often difficult to distinguish from one other by medical students and trainees in the therapeutic professions. The vertebral arch joints are real joints; each of them contains cartilage-covered joint surfaces and a joint capsule. They absorb compression forces and transmit them so that movements can be performed selectively and without injuries. The articular surface superiores articulates with the articular surface inferior of the vertebra immediately above. The vertebral arch joints are further described in the anatomy of the spine. The fovea costalis processus transversus contacts the convex articular surface tuberculi costae of the ribs at the Proc. transversi of the vertebral bodies. The articular surfaces of the ribs 1–7 are located ventrally of the 8th rib, slightly cranial to the transverse process, while the free ribs have no contact to the Proc. transversus. The joint capsule is thin and contains small synovial plicae. Art. Capitis costae The foveae costal inferior et superior of the vertebra articulates with the articular surface costae of the caput costae. The joint capsule of the “rib head joint” is very thin and is merged with the Lig. Capitis costae radiatum. The Arts. sternocostales describe the joint connections between sternum and ribs. The articulating joint surfaces differ depending on the level. The Arts. interchondrales form a special feature where they connect the ribs 8 – 10 with each other and contain a capsule formed by the perichondrium. - Art. sternocostalis I: The first rib joins the costal notch prima of the sternum. - Art. sternocostalis II: The second rib joins the costal notch secunda of the sternum. - Art. sternicostalis III-VII: The ribs 3 – 7 connect to the incisurae costalis III – VII of the sternum. The Thorax: Ligaments The ligaments of the thorax have to be divided into the ligaments of the thoracic spine, the costovertebral ligaments, and costosternal ligaments. The ligaments of the thoracic spine are ligaments longitudinal anterior and posterior, ligaments flava, Ligaments supraspinale et infraspinale and Lig. transversum. These are described in detail in the chapter on spine anatomy. These ligament structures extend from the ribs to the spine. Lig costotransversarium lateral This ligament originates from the tip of the transverse process and inserts into the rib of the same segment level, where it is merged with the joint capsule. Lig costotransversarium superior The insertion points of this ligament are located at the Collum costae (cranial) and at the lower edge of the transverse process of the vertebra immediately above. Originating from the dorsal surface of the Collum costea, the ligament costotransversarium inserts into the transverse process of the vertebra of the identical segment level. This ligament is located just between the ribs 1–10 and not in the free pairs of ribs. Lig capitis costae radiatum This ligament connects Caput costae with Corpus and Discus vertebrae and is divided into three distinct fiber tracts with different courses of direction. The cranial fibers connect with the next higher segment, the caudal fibers connect with the next lower segment, and the horizontal fibers—with the segment of the same level. This ligament is not present at the 1st rib nor at the ribs 10–12. Lig capitis costae intraarticularis As the name suggests, these ligaments extend intra-articularly and connect the Crista capitis costae to the annulus fibrosis of the 2nd–9th ribs. These ligament structures extend from the ribs to the sternum. Lig sternocostalis radiatum Originating from the costal cartilage of the ventral sternum, this ligament extends fan-like and connects exclusively with the five cranial portions of the joint capsule. This ligament extends from the costal cartilage of ribs 6 and 7 to the Proc. xiphoideus. It is also connected to the ligament sternocostalis radiatum. The Thorax: Clinical Examples Since the clinic of the thorax is identical to that of the spine in certain examples, the cases featured here are specifically relevant to the pathogenic changes in the ribs or rib joints. Pectus excavatum is a congenital malposition or deformity. The ventral thoracic wall is deepened from the Manubriosternal synchondrosis to the Proc. Xiphoideus. Not every patient with this deformity actually displays symptoms. In cases of severe etiology, heart failure may occur as a complication and in result of reduced vital capacity. Sternales stress disorder In case of lasting incorrect loading in kyphosis, the extreme mechanical stress causes the shoulder girdle to ventralize, and the costosternal joint to come under compression, which they cannot compensate for. The joint surfaces degenerate, and that can lead to pain in the lateral sternum in very severe cases, which is often wrongly mistaken for angina pectoris and consequently mistreated. The Lig. costotransversarium lateral is particularly affected by this condition. The increased strain leads to arthritic changes in the costovertebral joints, whose inflammation parameters can be transferred to the ligaments. Consequently, these can also degenerate and that can, in turn, lead to ruptures if the disease progresses. Spondylitis ancylopoetica (Morbus Bechterew) This rheumatogenic-inflammatory disease can affect the costovertebral- and costosternal joints, in addition to the spine. Fibroses and ankyloses occur, as well as calcifications of the longitudinal ligamentous structures, resulting in a pathological flexion. Thus, the thorax is constrained, and the respiratory motion is reduced. Since this is compensated into the stomach, which consequently bulges, it is also referred to as the so-called abdominal football phenomenon. The correct answers are below the references. 1. Which ribs are called floating ribs? - 1st rib - 2nd rib - 3rd–10th rib - 11–12th rib - There are no free ribs in the human skeleton. 2. Which of the following structures are located only on the lower 8 ribs? - Crista colli costae - Tubercle costae - Articular surface tuberculi costae - Costal angle - Sulcus costae 3. Which of the following ligaments is not located on the ribs 1, 10, 11 and 12? - Lig. Costotransversarium lateral - Lig. Costotransversarium - Lig. Costotransversarium superior - Lig. Capitis costae radiatum - Lig. Capitis costae intraarticularis
There are four stages of a normal swallow. When one or more of the stages show anatomical deviations or physiological disturbances that affect a normal swallow, dysphagia occurs. ORAL PREPARATORY STAGE - Food is masticated (chewed) - Food mixes with saliva, forming a cohesive food ball, called a bolus - This stage can last up to 30 seconds depending on consistency of food to be masticated - The tongue and soft palate (roof of your mouth) squeeze together, moving the bolus posteriorly - This movement of the bolus in an anterior-posterior motion is often called lingual stripping. - This stage should last only 1 - 2 seconds - The bolus enters the upper throat area and the soft palate elevates - The epiglottis descends as the larynx elevates, covering the airway - Tongue moves posteriorly and meets with the pharyngeal wall which has bulged forward - The elevation of the larynx pulls open a muscle at the top of the esophagus that allows the food to enter. - This stage should last only 1 second - The food enters the esophagus through the upper esophageal sphincter, and is transported to the stomach by the squeezing action of the esophageal muscles.
Drop-in biofuels are hydrocarbon fuels substantially similar to gasoline, diesel, or jet fuels. These fuels can be made from a variety of biomass feedstocks including crop residues, woody biomass, dedicated energy crops, and algae. The goal for drop-in fuels is to meet existing diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel quality specifications and be ready to "drop-in" to existing infrastructure. This minimizes infrastructure compatibility issues, which are a prohibitive barrier to fast commercialization of biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Drop-in fuels are expected to meet existing specifications for diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel. The benefits of drop-in fuels include: - Engine and Infrastructure Compatibility—Drop-in fuels are expected to be substantially similar to their petroleum counterparts and therefore minimize compatibility issues with existing infrastructure and engines. - Increased Energy Security—Drop-in fuels can be produced domestically from a variety of feedstocks and contribute to U.S. job creation. - Fewer Emissions—Carbon dioxide captured by growing feedstocks reduces overall greenhouse gas emissions by balancing carbon dioxide released from burning drop-in fuels. - More Flexibility—Drop-in fuels are replacements for diesel, jet fuel, and gasoline allowing for multiple products from various feedstocks and production technologies. History of Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD), also known as green diesel or second-generation biodiesel, is the product of fats or vegetable oils—alone or blended with petroleum—refined by a hydrotreating process. HDRD meets the petroleum diesel ASTM specification. This allows it to be legally used in existing diesel infrastructure and vehicles. HDRD derived from domestic biological materials is an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. HDRD can be produced from soybean, palm, canola, or rapeseed oil; animal tallow; vegetable oil waste or brown trap grease; and other fats and vegetable oils. Producing HDRD involves hydrogenating triglycerides to remove metals and compounds with oxygen and nitrogen using existing refinery infrastructure. Dedicated hydrotreating facilities that do not use conventional petroleum can also produce HDRD. Fuel producers are designing HDRD to substitute for or blend in any proportion with petroleum-based diesel without modifying vehicle engines or fueling infrastructure. To be used in diesel engines, HDRD must meet the same ASTM standards as conventional diesel. HDRD is compatible with existing fuel distribution systems. Blended HDRD can be distributed through modern infrastructure and transported through existing pipelines to dispense at fueling stations. HDRD fuels can be an alternative to conventional transportation fuels. The benefits of HDRD fuels include: - Increased Energy Security—HDRD can be produced domestically from a variety of feedstocks while creating U.S. jobs. - Fewer Emissions—Carbon dioxide captured by growing feedstocks reduces overall greenhouse gas emissions by balancing carbon dioxide released from burning HDRD. Blends of HDRD can reduce carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. In addition, HDRD's ultra-low sulfur content should enable using advanced emission control devices. - More Flexibility—HDRD that meets quality standards can fuel modern diesel vehicles. This fuel is compatible with existing diesel distribution infrastructure (not requiring new pipelines, storage tanks, or retail station pumps), can be produced using existing oil refinery capacity, and does not require extensive new production facilities. - Higher Performance—HDRD's high combustion quality results in similar or better vehicle performance compared to conventional diesel.
Many people intend to interpolate data they have digitized in Microsoft Excel. However, Excel does not provide an interpolation feature. However, there is a straightforward technique. Let’s understand more about linear interpolation excel. Interpolation is a technique for approximating the value of a function between 2 well-known values. Typically some partnership is determined experimentally or traced with Dagra at a series of values. Interpolation can be made use of to estimate the function for untabulated points. As an example, intend we have arranged data for the thermal resistance of a transistor tabulated for air rate from 0 to 1800 FPM in 200 FPM actions. Interpolation can be made use of to estimate the thermal resistance at non-tabulated values such as 485 FPM. Usage linear interpolation excels to determine in-between values. The table notes thermal resistance in 200 FPM steps. Interpolation can be utilized to approximate the thermal resistance for non-tabulated values in between the tabulated ones. Linear Interpolation Equations Linear interpolation entails estimating a brand-new worth by linking 2 surrounding recognized values with a straight line. If the two known worths are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the value for some point x: Equation for direct interpolation. Linear interpolation is a straight line fit between 2 data points. Carrying Out Linear Interpolation with Excel The linear interpolation equation above can be applied straight in Microsoft Excel. The tabulated values are monotonic in x; that is, the x-values are arranged, and no two are equal. Nevertheless, here is a more effortless execution for Excel: = PROJECTION( NewX, OFFSET( KnownY, MATCH( NewX, KnownX,1) -1,0,2), OFFSET( KnownX, SUIT( NewX, KnownX,1) -1,0,2)). To use it either: Replicate the formula above into Excel and replace KnownX and KnownY with the cell referral for the tabulated x. And also, y worths as well as NewX with the x-value to insert, Specify names for the KnownX and KnownY varieties (Insert → Call → Define … in Excel 2003) and change NewX with the x-value to insert. This formula functions precisely similarly as the direct application of the straightforward interpolation equation. The primary distinction is that just two lookup features are required for the primary method defined below, while the immediate implementation needs 6 (one for every term in the equation). This makes it substantially much faster. How the Excel application functions The straightforward application is most comfortable to understand by studying from the outdoors and working in. Here’s the complete equation: = PROJECTION( NewX, OFFSET( KnownY, MATCH( NewX, KnownX,1) -1,0,2), OFFSET( KnownX, MATCH( NewX, KnownX,1) -1,0,2)). Briefly, the equation contains three components. The FORECAST feature to calculate the straight interpolation. Two contacts us to the SUIT feature to discover the tabulated x-value closest also, however less than the new-x value and. Two phone calls to the OFFSET feature reference the tabulated x-values and y-values only over and entirely below the new-x worth. In more information, the PROJECTION function carries out the real interpolation utilizing the straight interpolation formula revealed over. Its phrase structure is PROJECTION( NewX, known_y_pair, known_x_pair). The very first specification, NewX, is simply the value to insert. The next two criteria, known_y_pair and known_x_pair, are the worths on either side of NewX. That is, x1, x2, and also in the diagram above. The MATCH function is used to locate the arranged x-value just below NewX. Its phrase structure is: SUIT(lookup_value, lookup_table, match_type). SUIT returns the family member placement of a thing in a sorted variety. Hence, lookup_value is the value to interpolate, lookup_table is the selection of KnownXworths, and match_type is 1 to find the largest value in the variety that is less than or equal to NewX. The SUIT feature returns an index, but the FORECAST function needs two cell varieties: one for the known_x_pair and the known_y_pair. So, the OFFSET function is made use of twice to produce these varieties. Its phrase structure is OFFSET(referral, row_offset, column_offset, row_count, column_count). It takes a beginning factor, the recommendation, and creates a cell recommendation with the provided countered and size. To get the known_y_pair array, the recommendation is readied to the table of KnownYvalues; for the known_x_pair range, a referral is set to the range of Known X values. If the tabulated worths are set up vertically, the row_offset is the result from the SUIT feature much less one, and also row_count is 2; column_offset is 0 andcolumn_count is 1. This offers us a cell variety recommendation two cells high as well as one cell large. If the tabulated worths are set up horizontally, row and column are changed in the OFFSET function.
Polymorphic species are referred to those species which have different forms arise from the same genotype. This term is called Polymorphism. In biology, Polymorphism helps to notice the discontinue genetic variation which resulted in the happening of various different forms or types in individuals among the members of a single species. Polymorphism helps to make the difference of two or more clearly different morphs or forms and also referred to as alternative phenotypes, in the population of a species. A discontinuous genetic variation divides the individuals of a population into two or more sharply distinct forms. To be more specific such as, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time and belong to a panmictic population (one with random mating). Polymorphism is a common term in bio-science which is randomly used in biodiversity study, genetic variation research , and adaptation.The most common usually functions example of Polymorphism is sexual dimorphism, which occurs in many species. Some more examples are mimicry character of butterflies, and in case of human differences of hemoglobin and blood types. The most obvious example of polymorphism is the separation of organisms into male and female sexes. From the theory of evolution we acknowledge that polymorphism is the results of evolutionary processes. It can pass by generations and is modified by selection of nature. In genetic polymorphism, the genetic makeup determines the morph. polymorphisms have no visible manifestations and require biochemical techniques to identify the differences that occur between the chromosomes, proteins, or DNA of different forms. Polymorphism also refers to the importance of structurally and functionally in the same organism more than two different types of individuals, called zooids. It is a characteristic feature of cnidarians.For example, Obelia has feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles; and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusae.
- Plastics in our oceans, lakes, rivers and other bodies of water pose a dire threat to sensitive ecosystems, wildlife, communities, and individuals; and - Plastics make their way into these bodies of water in a variety of ways including: storm water outfalls; global ocean tides and currents; and direct industrial and consumer waste disposal. We, the undersigned, the citizens of Canada, call upon the Government of Canada to adopt M-151, to establish a national strategy to combat plastic pollution, and to work with the provinces, municipalities, and indigenous communities to develop a national strategy to combat plastic pollution in and around aquatic environments, which would include the following measures: 1. Regulations aimed at reducing: (a) Plastic debris discharge from stormwater outfalls; (b) Industrial use of micro-plastics including, but not limited to, microbeads, nurdles, fibrous microplastics and fragments; and (c) Consumer and industrial use of single-use plastics, including, but not limited to, plastic bags, bottles, straws, tableware, polystyrene (foam), cigarette filters, and beverage containers. 2. Permanent, dedicated, and annual funding for: (a) Cleanup of derelict fishing gear; (b) Community led projects to clean up plastics and debris on shores, banks, beaches and other aquatic peripheries; and (c) Education and outreach campaigns on the root causes and negative environmental effects of plastic pollution in and around all bodies of water.
A categorical independent variable is called a factor. The categories are called the levels of the factor. Replications are experiment observations made under the same conditions, that is, under the same combination of factor levels. An experimental design is said to be balanced if each combination of factor levels is replicated the same number of times. For the main effect of a factor, the degrees of freedom is the number of levels of the factor minus 1. To understand this intuitively, note that if there are I levels, there are I - 1 comparisons between the levels. For an interaction between factors, the degrees of freedom is the product of the degrees of freedom for the corresponding main effects. To understand this intuitively, note that if there are two factors, with I levels of the first factor and J levels of the second factor, there are I - 1 comparisons of the levels of the first factor at each of the J - 1 comparisons of the levels of the second factor. For error, think of the error mean square as a pooled s2. If there were 2 replications at each combination of the 2 factors, you would have s2 on 2-1 degrees of freedom at each combination. Hence, pooling over all factor combinations, error df = (2-1)(number of combinations). If there were 3 replications error df = (3-1)(number of combinations). Then you should find that all the degrees of freedom add up to the total which is the total number of observations minus 1. Consider a balanced 2-factor design. Suppose there are I levels of the first factor and J levels of the second factor, and K replications at each of the IJ combinations of the two factors. Then there are IJK observations and (IJK - 1) = (I - 1) + (J - 1) + (I -1)(J - 1) + IJ(K - 1) is the breakdown of the total degrees of freedom into: main effect of the first factor, main effect of the second factor, interaction between the two factors, and error. For example, suppose you have Factor A at 4 levels, Factor B at 3 levels, and 3 replications of every combination of Factor A and Factor B. Then I = 4, J = 3, K = 3 and there are 36 observations. The SV and DF columns of the ANOVA will be: SV DF Factor A 3 Factor B 2 Interaction AxB 6 Error 24 Total 35
What is Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia? Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) also called by the medical professionals as cervical dysplasia and cervical neoplasia. CIN is an abnormal development of cells on the surface of the cervix that are seen under a microscope. Cervix is located at the bottom part of the uterus or womb. This disease is not a cancer but if it doesn’t treated as early as it is detected in can lead to cancer formation which will be a problem to the person who has this disease. Grade I/CIN 1 Abnormal cells in the cervix damage only the first layer of tissue. It usually goes away on its own so there is no required type of treatment for this disease. It is also called as mild dysplasia or an unusual cell growth. Grade II/CIN 2 Another term for this second grade is moderate to marked dysplasia. It is where the abnormal cells go into the second and third layer of tissue in the cervix. The recommended treatment for this type of disease is surgery. It is where medical professionals removed the affected part or tissue in the cervix. Grade III/CIN 3 Another term for this type is called by the medical professionals as severe dysplasia to carcinoma in situ. Carcinoma in Situ is a type of cancer that doesn’t spread to other organs; it only involves the certain part where it develops. Carcinoma in Situ is also called as an early form of tumor. This 3rd grade of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia already damages the third level of the tissue in the cervix. The treatment for this grade is also a surgery that the medical professionals removed the involved tissue. - Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia normally occurs in women primarily affecting early age adults that are between 25-35 years of age but this disease also affect other age groups. - Most of the cases of having a Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia is caused by a sexually transmitted disease called HPV or Human Papilloma Virus. HPV is an infection that can spread or infect through skin to skin sexual contact. This disease has no cure. - Woman who is sexually active or woman who has a multiple sexual partners can also be a reason for having Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. - Woman who has a history of smoking or woman who still smoke can have this disease because of the harmful chemicals that is present in cigarettes that has a possible to affect the cells that are present in the cervix. - Woman that gave birth at an early age. Having an early pregnancy can affect the cervix and it can lead to the development of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. - People who have a decrease immune system because it can affect the persons resistance to certain bacteria and viruses and it can lead to development of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. - Women who usually been taking oral contraceptive more than 5 years. Oral contraceptives are mostly known as a medicine to prevent pregnancy but it also has different purpose depend on the need of the person who drinks. Taking oral contraceptives can affect the body that can lead to development of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. This disease doesn’t show any signs that can lead in an early detection of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. - Having a pelvic examination because it can help to detect any abnormalities in the cervix that can help in detection of the disease and to provide early treatment to prevent further problem. - Pap smear examination or also called as Papaniculaou Exam is a type of examination done in females to detect any abnormalities inside the cervix. It is where medical professionals scrape a part of the cervix for examination. - Colposcopy is a type of examination that also scrapes a part of the cervix to be examined. It’s direct biopsies that check and detect any abnormalities in the cervix, it can detect any cancer formation and any abnormalities that might lead to the formation of cancer. It is normally ordered by a medical professionals after Pap smear where there shows a result of abnormalities. - Cone Biopsy or Cold knife cone biopsy is usually ordered by medical professionals after doing the colposcopy. It also help to diagnose any abnormality that also been detected during Pap smear, it’s a minor operation procedure done by professionals to scrape a tissue for the sample. - CT scan or Computed Tomography can provide clearer image than having an ordinary X-ray examination. It has the ability to define normal from abnormal structures that are present in the body and it can guide the professionals in different procedures in giving accurate details and locations for the treatment. - MRI or Magnetic Resonance Imaging is also like the CT scan that helps the professionals to detect any formation and abnormal growth in the body. - PET Scan or Positive Emission Tomography is like a CT scan that can determine any abnormalities inside the body but this machine can also tell if the body reacts well to the treatments given. Treatments will depend on the stage of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. - For Grade I type of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia as it said earlier that this type of disease can go away on its own. The patients just need to comply with regular check-ups as advised by the medical professionals. Have a regular Pap smear that usually advised every 3-6 months. It can also help the medical professionals to detect any changes and give appropriate treatment as early as it is detected. - Treatments for Grade II and Grade III type of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (1) Cryosurgery is a kind of therapy that used to kill and destroy any abnormal tissue that formed in the body (2) Laser Therapy is a type of treatment that can cut, burn, or even destroy abnormal tissues in the body. - Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) uses a low voltage that is used to cut and destroy any abnormal tissues in the body. - If these treatments doesn’t been effective and the disease leads to a development of cancer, surgery is needed to be considered. These types of surgery has different purpose like (1) Radical Trachelectomy that is only effective if the person only has a stage 1 cancer and the person still wants to bear a child (2) Hysterectomy is recommended for women who already have the advanced stage type of cancer and in this procedure the woman cannot already have the ability to bear a child. To avoid this type of surgery, early detection and treatment must be done. - Women treated for this Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia must be closely monitored by having a regular follow-up that is usually done ever 3-6 months interval or as advised by the medical professionals. - Partial Molar Pregnancy – Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment - Appendix Cancer – Symptoms, Survival Rate, Prognosis, Treatment, - Chondrosarcoma – Symptoms, Prognosis, Treatment, Survival Rate - Vaginal Cancer – Symptoms, Signs, Pictures, Treatment, Causes - Anaplastic Astrocytoma - Leiomyosarcoma – Survival Rate, Symptoms, Prognosis, Treatment - Ewing’s Sarcoma – Prognosis, Survival Rate, Symptoms, Treatment
The Basic Engine Principle Of Electric Cars All gasoline powered cards will slowly be replaced by electric vehicles in the near future. Growing concerns of environmental pollution, global warming and resource depletion will be three major causes for this gear shift in technology. Electric cars are already in vogue and enthusiasts are seen trading their gasoline cars for electric or hybrid versions! Even if these cars cost nearly 20 to 30% than the gasoline variants, they have enormous benefits where fuel economy, maintenance and most importantly where your carbon footprint is concerned! All electric cars have a motor instead of an internal combustion engine. The major differentiating factor from gasoline cars is that no fuel is burned in an electric motor. Hence, there are zero gas emissions. Hence, they are termed as eco-friendly. An electric car’s drive mechanism is mainly constituted of the following three parts: The car motor Let us review these components to know more about the basic engine principle of electric cars: Basically, all cars run on the principle of conversion of energy from one form to another. In a traditional gasoline car, the chemical energy stored in the fuel is converted into kinetic energy by the internal combustion engine, releasing byproducts in the form of combustion emissions. Whereas, in an electric car, the electromechanical energy from the batteries is converted first into electrical energy and then into kinetic energy required for driving the car. 1. The car motor: The accelerator pedal in these cars is connected to a potentiometer (variable resistor). The potentiometer sends an appropriate electric signal to the motor controller corresponding to the amount by which the pedal is pressed. If the pedal is not pressed, no signal is transmitted. If the pedal is grounded or fully pressed, maximum signal is transmitted. Thus the motor will deliver maximum power. The car motor may by a DC or an AC motor. DC motors are easy to maintain, more efficient and also allow greater acceleration.The motor can deliver between 20,000 watts to 30,000 watts of power. 2. Motor controller: This device is a link between the car batteries and the actual motor. It receives the controlling signal from the potentiometer connected to the accelerometer pedal. It will transmit the battery voltage to the motor depending on this input signal. 3. Car batteries: Car batteries can be simple lead-acid batteries or the more sophisticated and long lasting NiMH batteries. These batteries will be between 96 to 192 volts for a typical DC motor. The battery charging mechanism in an electric car is of prime importance. It monitors the voltage, amperage and battery temperatures to avoid battery damage by overheating. A typical battery can be fully charged in 3-4 hours via hard wired charging docks built specially for this purpose. Hybrid cars are a huge sub category of electric cars. Many a times, both the gasoline engine and an auxiliary electric motor are present in cars to improve on efficiency. The combinations may vary depending upon the functions of the engines. Sometimes the electric motors provide the driving power while in other cases the combustion engine does the heavy work. The basic engine principle of electric cars is simple, but a lot of technology goes into the refinement of the driving experience. Try building a basic one in your garage and you would have started your journey in the world of electric cars!
4 The Coordinate Plane Axes – two perpendicular number lines. Origin – where the axes intersect at their zero points.X-axes – The horizontal number line.Y-axis – The vertical number line.Coordinate plane – the plane containing the x and y axes.12345-1-2-3-4-5yx12345-1-2-3-4-5Origin (0,0) 5 Quadrants12345-1-2-3-4-5yQuadrants – the x-axis and y-axis separate the coordinate plane into four regions.Notice which quadrants contain positive and negative x and y coordinates.III(–,+)(+,+)x12345-1-2-3-4-5IIIIV(–, –)(+, –) 6 Coordinates (2, 3) (2, 3) (0, 0) origin move right 2 units 12345-1-2-3-4-5yTo plot an ordered pair, begin at the origin, the point (0, 0), which is the intersection of the x-axis and the y-axis.(2, 3)(0, 0)xThe first coordinate tells how many units to move left or right; the second coordinate tells how many units to move up or down.12345-1-2-3-4-5originmove right 2 units(2, 3)move up 3 unitsx-coordinate move right or lefty-coordinate move up or downTo graph an ordered pair means to draw a dot at the point on the coordinate plane that corresponds to the ordered pair. 8 Vocabulary Transformation – movements of geometric figures Preimage – the position of the figure before the transformationImage – the position of the figure after the transformation.Reflection – a figure is flipped over a line (like holding a mirror on it’s edge against something)Translation – a figure is slid in any direction (like moving a checker on a checkerboard)Dilation – a figure is enlarged or reduced.Rotation – a figure is turned about a point. 17 VocabularyEquation in two variables – an equation that has two variablesSolution – in the context of an equation with two variables, an ordered pair that results in a true statement when substituted into the equation. 18 Different Ways to Solve Solving using a replacement set – a variation of guess and check. You start with an equation and several ordered pairs. You plug each ordered pair into the equation to determine which ones are solutions.Solving Using a Given Domain – Start with an equation and a set of numbers for one variable only. You then substitute each number in for the variable it replaces, and solve for the unknown variable. This gives you a set of ordered pairs that are solutions. 19 Dependent VariablesWhen you solve an equation for one variable, the variable you solve for becomes a “Dependent Variable”. It depends on the values of the other variable.Dependent VariableIndependent VariableThe values of “y” depend on what the value of “x” is. 21 Vocabulary Linear equation – the equation of a line Standard form – Ax + By = C where A, B, and C are integers whose greatest common factor is 1, A is greater than or equal to 0, and A and B are both not zero.X-intercept – The X coordinate of the point at which the line crosses the x-axis (Y is equal to 0)Y-intercept – the Y coordinate of the point at which the line crosses the y-axis (X is equal to 0) 22 Methods of Graphing Make a table – Use the Intercepts – Solve the equation for y.Pick at least 3 values for x and solve the equation for the 3 values of y that make the equation true.Graph the resulting x and y (ordered pair) on a coordinate plane.Draw a line that includes all points.Use the Intercepts –Make X equal to zero.Solve for Y.Make Y equal to zero.Solve for X.Graph the two coordinate pairs: (0,Y) and (X,0)Draw a line that includes both points. 24 VocabularyFunction – a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with exactly one element of the range (for each value of x there is a value for y, but each value of y cannot have more than one value of x)Vertical line test – if no vertical line can be drawn so that it intersects the graph in more than one place, the graph is a functionFunction notation – f(x) replaces y in the equation.
Your school grounds can offer the most wonderful opportunities for children to discover and learn all about mathematics! In a safe and familiar environment with ready access to your teaching resources and school playground equipment, school grounds are the perfect place to delve into the world of shapes and angles, numbers and patterns, dimensions and surveys and so much more. Developing mathematical thinking and learning mathematical skills can be part of an Early Years learner’s outdoor play experience every day. All through the Key Stages, with the extra space that school grounds provide, you can bring to life a maths lesson in a three dimensional form and allow your children to be actively involved and creative with it. With scale comes freedom and vigour and children will be more captivated and inspired, which in turn can only improve their understanding of maths and help them to establish a real link between what they are learning, and how it is relevant to their lives and the world they live in. Here we have some great ideas to help you maximise your school grounds and make the most of your school playground equipment for outdoor mathematics lessons: Water + Sand = Fun! Water and Sand based play are real favourites among children and they make fantastic resources for maths lessons. You can cover so many topics with them such as measurement, quantities, weights, patterns, speed, velocity, timing, and concepts such as floating, sinking and movement. Sand Boxes and Mud Kitchens filled with sand or mud are not just for digging and getting messy in (although they are great for that too!). Making sand or mud pies at your Mud Kitchen opens up multiple opportunities to learn about weights and quantities, portions and divisions, multiplication, addition and subtraction. Measure out “ingredients” to make your mud pies, and ask children to think about the weights and quantities of each ingredient that they need. How many children are in the class? Count out how many mud pies they will need to make so that everybody has one. What if two children go home for lunch? How many mud pies will you need then? Be creative and they can practice counting and arithmetic without even noticing they are doing it! Children can write their calculations down on the Mud Kitchen’s chalk board to practice using different mathematical symbols. Children can enjoy filling containers of different shapes and sizes with sand to build three dimensional statues. Add water to the sand to give it some hold and give children various utensils to press into the sand to create shapes and patterns. Discuss what you see. Can anyone make a sand cone? Are any shapes particularly difficult to make with sand and why? Put a wooden plank across your Sand Box and ask children to balance on it to view their constructions from different angles and perspectives. What about making repeat patterns in the sand? There are no limits to this once they get going! Mathematical conversation can easily flow whilst the children are engaged in these activities. Talk to them about why some of the containers will fit inside each other and why some won’t. Which is the smallest and which is the largest? Notice how sand slides down the side of a receptacle to form a specific shape. Pour sand through different receptacles and discuss whether the size of the holes makes a difference to how quickly the sand runs through them. Even just making footprints together and counting and comparing their sizes has a mathematical angle! We love water play too, and now that we are coming into the summer months what could be better than splashing around outside with your friends! Water Tables are great mathematical resources and can be used in a similar way to Sand Boxes. With water you can also look at displacement by sinking objects into it, and discuss what elements and object needs to have to float. Water travel is fascinating for children, whether floating toys across it or watching it flow freely at different speeds. A Water Wall makes an outstanding investigative resource for learning mathematics during Early Years and at Key Stages 1 and 2. Children can pump water through it, fill up the reservoir at the top, then predict and watch what happens as the reservoir fills up, volume increases and the water starts to flow down the channels. Balance, equilibrium, quantity, mass and weight are all part of it. Ask children to look at the water wheel. What shape it is and what happens to it when the water hits it? What factors influence the speed at which it rotates? What happens to the water flow if you change the positioning and angles of the water channels? Know Your Natural Numbers! The wonderful thing about Natural Playground Equipment, is the fact it's truly cross curricular, and a vital resource for linking other subject such as science and the environment to mathematics. The other wonderful thing is that it is extremely engaging, for example, most Early Years learners love a good lesson involving mini beasts! Whether it’s a Planter, a Bug Hotel or a full scale Wildlife Area, children can feed their curiosity and be actively involved with investigative mathematical learning. Let’s look at life cycles and wildlife surveys. Step outside to your Wildlife Area and see what living creatures and plants you can find. Discuss how different species stay alive for different amounts of time. Produce a survey to find out what different types of creatures live in the wildlife area, how many there are and what are there more or less of. Make up a tally chart to record how many worms, ants or bees appear each day. Simple flowers, ants, worms, beetles and caterpillars are perfect for studying lifecycles so pick one to study as a group. Children can do some investigations of their own online or at the library first. How long does their creature live for? How does it begin, and what stages does it grow through during its lifespan? Create a timeline in the wildlife area with twigs or sticks to map out these stages. What does the creature need to survive and in what quantities? Keep a photo diary so that the children can see the daily changes and discuss them later. Be sure to look at items that you can find plenty of at certain times of the year such as acorns, pebbles and twigs, and let children gather them together as part of their survey so they have numerous opportunities to practice counting. Use these activities to help demonstrate the use of language, such as ‘same’, ‘fewer’, ‘more’ and ’less’. Why not have an insect race or look at how quickly snails can move? Line them up at the edge of the wildlife area and see how much distance the snails can cover in 2 minutes! The children should be able to decide how best to measure the distances covered, and you can encourage them to practice counting the seconds down. Discuss which is the fastest, slowest, largest or smallest snail and see if size has an influence on speed. Children will enjoy getting involved with gardening and filling your Planters with different species and colours of plants. They should decide how many plants will be needed to fill the space, how much compost is needed and how deep it needs to be. How deep do the seeds, bulbs or plants need to go? Ask them to draw up a rota for watering, weeding and pruning the plants themselves. They should make this up as a chart so they can plot out who is responsible when and who’s turn is next. Agree and measure out how much water they need and how frequently they should be watered. Include this information on the chart. Once the plants start to grow children can measure them with tape measures, or even with their own bodies. This is great fun if they manage to produce a beanstalk or a tall sunflower! A Dig Pit can be used in a similar way and you can fill it with all sorts of things beside soil, whether that be sawdust, gravel, bark or leaves. This will help children to develop their understanding of capacity and they can investigate with a variety of digging implements. Turn a digging session into a problem solving session by asking them to see if they can bury a number of items so that they are completely covered, or to see how many stones they can fit into a hole dug with a spoon. Don’t be afraid of using whatever you can find outdoors in your school grounds. Twigs, stones, leaves, flowers, gravel, and items with seasonal interest such as pine cones, shells, conkers and acorns add variety and interest. Provide some different sized containers and trays so the children can have a go at sorting them into separate items ranked according to shape or size. Discuss different ways that they could sort the same items, and use weighing scales and tape measures as well. Let the children see the value in what they are doing by displaying their work or taking pictures to look at together later. Mathematics Through Movement Young children learn a lot about maths through their senses and through movement. Playing mathematical games and using their bodies to learn gives them opportunities to repeat the same activities and movements, and to build up and reinforce their understanding of the subject. It makes sense, then, to capitalise on a child’s love of games with some outdoor activities designed to support mathematical learning. It is worth having some really good Playground Markings not just to add interest and a different dimension to playtimes, but because used in the right way, they can be brilliant for outdoor maths lessons. Encouraging children to jump across a hopscotch calling out the numbers as they go may be a very traditional playground game, but the concept has lasted for a reason! Things have moved on though and there are some fantastic, innovative playground markings available to encourage counting, addition and subtraction in different ways. Brightly coloured and numbered animal, clown or bullseye targets are perfect for this, and with a few bean bags to throw at the targets they can make up their own games! Eight or sixteen point compasses encourage children to navigate their way around a playground while building on their understanding of position and direction. A giant snakes and ladders is a great fun way to practice counting as children use their bodies to jump along the squares! With different shapes and angles there is plenty to talk about with children as far as maths is concerned. How many different patterns and shapes can they find and what are the special features of these shapes? It is amazing how much fun children can have on well-designed playground flooring which really does inspire learning! Active Play Equipment such as Trim Trails and Play Towers can be incorporated into outdoor maths lessons too. Children love speeding down slides, but just how fast can they go? Can their friends time them and measure their speed and distance covered? Discuss gravity as children take different items up to the top of a frame and let them fall to the floor. Which items fall more quickly and what factors influence this. Children can take part in larger scale measurements using metre lengths of rope around the equipment, or even their own bodies! Remember that rope can measure curves as well as straight lines, so set challenges for children to find objects with a length or girth of 1 metre or more! Use chalk to mark measurements and teach them how to round up or down. Outdoor Activity Panels are another way of bringing a maths lesson outside. Setting up a reflection area with Giant Mirrors and Wobbly Mirrors allows children to notice how things look through mirrors, and how different perspectives, or items viewed at different angles, can change a view. How does light reflect? What do they see differently in a distorting mirror and how does their size and shape change? Make the most of Mark Making Panels to encourage children to draw out their observations, record their findings and learn to use symbols. They are a wonderful no-pressure resource which allow children to feel free to experiment with what they are learning and to build up their confidence in maths. Remember throughout all of these fun activities to keep talking to your children using mathematical language, and they are guaranteed to absorb it. Encourage them to solve problems themselves, support their ideas and prompt them with open ended questions. Give them plenty of opportunity to express their own ideas, reflect on what they have found and work out their own explanations, and they will achieve so much. If you are looking to maximise your school grounds for outdoor maths lessons and are considering some new school playground equipment to help you do this, please Contact Us to see how we can help you. We reveal how to create a fun and engaging outdoor maths hunt, click here to see how this great idea can bring learning maths to life.
According to the ancient Scots Chronicles the origin of the Scottish people, at least in part, derives from the Pharaonic lineage of an Egyptian princess named Scota, who may have lived around 1400 B. C. The old Irish Annals support this same tradition saying that Scota came to Ireland, via Spain, from Egypt. Even today the placename Glen Scota traditionally records her presence in Ireland. Subsequently descendants of Scota apparently migrated to Scotland around 300 B. C. from whence came the Scots royal lineage. The feasibility of Egyptian travel to the British Isles in ancient times is borne out by modern archaeological findings. This occurred in 1937 when two Egyptian sailing ships, dated to around 1400 B. C., were discovered in a Yorkshire estuary, on the north east coast of England. Moreover, Egyptian faience beads dating from the same period have been found in Scotland and other parts of the British Isles. Furthermore, the Rev. John Stirton in his essay The Celtic Church and the Influence of the East (1923) observes: “The earliest type of monumental cross in Scotland is an Egyptian or Coptic wheel cross. It appears on several stones at Kirkmadrine in Wigtonshire, along with the Alpha and Omega.. The Crux Ansata, the emblem of life in Egyptian hieroglyphics, is found on a stone at Nigg in Ross-shire, and on another at Ardboe, in Ireland. There are many symbols on the Celtic stones of Scotland which are still unexplained.. The Crescent, the Serpent, and the Elephant must all be Eastern in origin, and these are commonly met with on the Celtic symbol-bearing stones.” A possible ancient Egypto-Celtic connection is also indicated in Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought (1878) by James Bonwick, F. R. G. S., who states: “It is singular to find a white race spoken of in the ancient monuments. Dr. Brugsch, the learned German, notices the word Tam-hou or white men. As it occurs on tablets dating 2,500 years before Christ, it is puzzling to indicate the people. Brugsch traces them to Libya. Champollion recognized in the Tamh’ou a type of European ancestry. M. Deveria remarks upon hieroglyphics recording the fact of Horus, the god, leading and guiding a white race. As there are still many Celtic monuments in the north of Africa, over many hundreds of miles, he contends for the existence of an original Celtic people in Egypt, or, in modern language, that the Welsh and Irish were once in Egypt.” The old Scots Chronicles also record that during the 2nd century B. C. certain “Egyptian philosophers” (probably from the Egyptian mystery temples) came to Scotland to advise the Scots King of the period. They were able to divine for him where certain metal ores were located in the land by studying the movement of the stars. It seems likely that these Egyptian philosophers would have associated with the Druid magi, some of whom were in attendance as advisors to the ancient Scottish Royal families. Moreover, these ancient Chronicles further relate that Egyptian philosopher priests were apparently teaching the Christic doctrine of a universal deity in ancient Caledonia (c. 180 B. C.), i. e. almost two centuries before the legendary Apostolic mission in the British Isles. During the early centuries A. D. the Celtic monks in the British Isles, much of whose tenets were rooted in a pre-Christian Druid tradition, saw Egypt as the true holy land rather than Palestine due to the ascetic Desert Father tradition established there which they sought to follow and emulate. Hence we find in Scotland, and Ireland, a number of dysarts (desert) placenames which record monastic settlements and retreats founded on the Egyptian anchorite model. So ancient historical links between Scotland and Egypt seem fairly likely and provide an interesting sidelight to our knowledge of the ancient past. [SOURCE: Sacred Connections UK]
Sea Anemones and Corals (The Anthozoa) For several centuries scientists have been unable to completely understand how coral reefs, among the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, could live in crystal clear tropical waters where there appears to be too little food to support them. Recent studies by scientists from Australia and America have discovered that the key lies in the extremely rough surfaces that corals have. These surfaces cause microscopic turbulence that breaks up the 'boundary layer' of still water that surround most submerged objects, this then allows the corals to access a far higher percentage of the dissolved nutrients than they would be able to otherwise. This also explains the fact that corals grow more quickly in rougher waters.
This species is one of the rarest land tortoises in the world (4). Its common name refers to the appearance of the 'gular scute' (5) at the lower part of the shell (plastron), which is drawn out into a plough-shaped projection between the front legs (6). The upper shell (carapace) is hard, highly domed and brown in colour, with prominent concentric growth rings on each scute(5). Males are larger than females (2). This species feeds on grasses and a wide range of other plants (2). Males compete for access to females; during these wrestling matches, males try to flip their opponent over using the plough-like projection of the lower shell below the neck (9). Each breeding season, females lay up to seven clutches of between two and six eggs (6). She lays the eggs in a pit that she digs with her hind legs, covers them with soil and abandons them (2). Young ploughshare tortoises are around the size of a ping pong ball when they hatch at the beginning of the wet season (5)(6). They are fully independent immediately after emerging, but it takes as long as 20 years for them to reach sexual maturity (6). This extremely rare tortoise is endemic to Madagascar. It is thought that only around 600 individuals remain in the wild (7). These individuals occur in just five isolated and small populations in a 30 kilometre radius of Baly Bay in north western Madagascar (8). The main threats affecting this very rare species include habitat loss, largely as a result of uncontrolled bush fires, predation of eggs and young by the introduced bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and illegal collecting by people (5)(8). Like other tortoises and turtles, this species has a slow growth rate and low breeding potential. In addition, it takes individuals a long time to reach sexual maturity. All of these factors reduce the capacity of populations to recover from human-induced effects on the population (5)(7). A recovery programme was established for this species in 1986 by the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust in collaboration with the Malagasy Department of Waters and Forests. A captive-breeding facility was established in Madagascar and within eight years over 100 young ploughshare tortoises had been bred. A study into the habitat of the species and interactions with humans was also established, and a grassroots-level environmental education programme was set up (10). Experimental reintroductions of captive-bred tortoises have been successful to date and large-scale release to re-establish extirpated populations are being planned (5). Although international trade in the ploughshare tortoise is illegal due to its listing under Appendix I of the Convention of International trade in Endangered Species (CITES), poor enforcement of the exotic pet trade is causing great problems. In 1996, 73 individuals were stolen from the captive breeding programme in Madagascar and as recently as 2003 reptile collectors have been arrested with wild ploughshare tortoises in their possession destined for the international exotic pet market (5). When a species is this rare, outrageous crimes such as these have serious implications for the already precarious state of the species (11). These incidents have highlighted weaknesses in wildlife law which must be urgently addressed (11). Embed this ARKive thumbnail link ("portlet") by copying and pasting the code below.
At Laguna del Diamante, there are plenty of reasons why life should not exist. To start with, the lagoon rests amongst sulphur-spewing vents within one of the world's largest volcanic calderas - belonging to the active Argentinean volcano Cerro Galán. And it's not just the poisonous gases you have to look out for. The hyper alkaline lagoon (with a pH level of 11) is five times saltier than sea water, and has levels of arsenic that are 20,000 times higher than the amount deemed safe for drinking by the EPA. Aside from the harmful gases and toxic water, the altitude of the site presents even more dangers to life at the lagoon. At 4,600 meters above sea level, oxygen levels are low and ultraviolet light from the sun is 40% more intense than it is in the lowlands. It was quite a surprise, then, when Argentinean scientists exploring Laguna in early 2010 discovered a flock of flamingos thriving on a healthy population of particularly resistant microorganisms. Rocks at the lagoon are covered with mats of unidentified microbes, which the colony of flamingos relies on for food. Though flamingos are considered a hardy species with a knack for adapting to different conditions, the environment at Laguna del Diamante is the most extreme that the birds have been witnessed living in. The conditions at Laguna are also thought to be quite similar to those of the early Earth. Scientists are therefore hoping that studying the lagoon's mysterious microorganisms will help reveal how life on Earth began. Another puzzle that remains to be solved is the identification of a red crystal compound that also grows on the lagoon's rocks. Preliminary results from an X-ray diffraction study (a method for examining the structure and geometry of crystals) failed to reveal the presence of any known minerals. The case of Laguna del Diamante just serves to demonstrate not only life's resilience but also the strange and unexpected forms it takes on to survive in Earth's most hostile environs.
Phytoplankton Monitoring Program The CDPH Marine Biotoxin Program coordinates a volunteer-based monitoring effort for toxic phytoplankton along the entire California coastline. Interactive map layers provide information on our weekly data for the distribution and relative abundance of toxin-producing phytoplankton along the California coast. The following information provides an overview of the program and an explanation of why phytoplankton monitoring is an important tool for public health protection. Phytoplankton are single-celled algae that are the base of the marine food chain. The vast majority of marine life in our coastal waters could not exist without these naturally-occurring microscopic plants. There are hundreds of species of phytoplankton in the ocean, and the vast majority are nontoxic. A small number of species are known to produce toxins that can accumulate in filter-feeding organisms, especially bivalve shellfish like mussels, oysters, clams, and scallops. These toxins can also accumulate in small fish like anchovies and sardines, as well as in crustaceans like crab and lobster that may feed on other species that contain these toxins. Humans, as well as marine mammals and seabirds, can be harmed by these nerve toxins when dangerous levels accumulate in these seafood items. There are many categories of phytoplankton, of which dinoflagellates and diatoms are the most important with respect to marine toxins along the California coast. Dinoflagellates are plants that can swim via their two flagella. As a result they can actually migrate vertically in the water column. When conditions are favorable, one or more populations of dinoflagellate may begin growing exponentially, resulting in millions of cells per liter of seawater. This 'bloom' can result in a phenomenon called a red tide. The vast majority of red tides along the California coast are produced by nontoxic species of dinoflagellates. One genus of dinoflagellate, Alexandrium, is responsible for producing the PSP toxins. Alexandrium rarely blooms, so it is not safe to assume that the absence of a red tide means that shellfish in the area are safe to harvest and consume. Although Alexandrium rarely forms visible blooms, the toxins it produces are so potent that only a couple hundred cells per liter are required to result in dangerous levels of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in shellfish. The group of phytoplankton called diatoms are single-celled and chain-forming algal cells with silica cell walls. Diatoms were not known to produce neurotoxins until a large-scale poisoning episode occurred in 1987 in eastern Canada. Over two hundred persons were made ill and four died as a result of mussel consumption in Prince Edward Island, a productive commercial shellfish growing area. Others suffered permanent neurological damage (for example, a permanent loss of short-term memory capabilities). The investigation by Canadian researchers and government scientists discovered the toxin, domoic acid, and the source of the toxin: a chain-forming diatom that is a common member of the phytoplankton community in many parts of the world. The syndrome caused by domoic acid was termed ‘Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning’ (ASP). The diatom genus responsible for producing domoic acid is named Pseudo-nitzschia. Unlike Alexandrium, Pseudo-nitzschia is often observed in low numbers along the California coast. This diatom can also increase in numbers rapidly, producing blooms of millions of cells per liter and dominating the phytoplankton community for extended periods of time. As mentioned previously, California has had a long-standing awareness of the dangers of paralytic shellfish poisoning and has relied on an extensive shellfish monitoring program to detect the presence of the potent toxins responsible for this syndrome. In the fall of 1991 another natural toxin was identified along the California coastline. An investigation into the deaths of hundreds of seabirds in Monterey Bay led to the identification of domoic acid as the cause. This neurotoxin was not previously known to exist anywhere along the west coast of the U.S. Domoic acid was identified in the anchovies and sardines on which the seabirds had been feeding. Further investigation discovered an abundance of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia in the stomachs of the fish. Analysis of the fish gut contents revealed high concentrations of domoic acid. Although this toxin is less potent than the PSP toxins, it has become of increasing concern because the blooms of diatoms that produce this toxin have been of greater frequency and longer duration than most PSP events over the past 10 years. In addition, domoic acid has had dramatic impacts on marine mammal and seabird populations along the coast. These wildlife impacts have raised the public’s awareness of marine biotoxins in general and can provide valuable information to government scientists and university researchers. Because of the threat of a new toxin, domoic acid, the presence of multiple toxic species along the California coast, and the apparent global increase in phytoplankton blooms in general and the increase in magnitude and geographic distribution of toxic blooms in particular, CDPH developed a volunteer-based phytoplankton monitoring program. This volunteer-based effort, the first statewide effort in the U.S., is one of several elements of CDPH’s effort to protect the public from these potentially deadly neurotoxins. Phytoplankton Monitoring in California The Phytoplankton Monitoring Program was officially launched in January 1993 when the first volunteer sample arrived at the CDPH laboratory. The first volunteers were existing program participants in the Shellfish Monitoring Program and local concerned citizens. Over the years the number and diversity of program participants has increased and includes local public health agencies, municipal utilities, K-12 school groups, university researchers and students, local environmental groups, educational nonprofit organizations, marine animal rescue centers, involved citizens, and many others. During 2014 there were 85 active volunteers collecting 1975 samples at 161 different locations. Over the first 20 years of the program there have been over 29,000 samples collected! This is a true testament to the dedication and importance of everyone who has participated in this program over the years. What Volunteers Do A phytoplankton net and rope is provided to all program participants, unless they happen to have access to one already. The net is made of a very fine and fragile nylon mesh: the mesh size is 20 micrometers, which is small enough to capture our toxin-producers and most other species present. The net is gently lowered into the water via the attached rope and allowed to sink to a depth of 10 to 50 feet, depending on the sampling location. The loose end of the rope is always secured to the pier or other structure to avoid losing it! The net is slowly retrieved and, as it reaches the surface, allowed to descend to the sampling depth again. We recommend three to five of these vertical net tows, depending on the sampling depth and the density of cells present that day. Following the final tow, the net is retrieved and the sampling bucket at the bottom of the net is detached. The contents of the sampling bucket are poured into the sampling bottle provided, which contains a small amount of preservative. The sample is then placed in the mailing canister along with the completed laboratory sample submission form, which contains the relevant sampling information (date, time, location, depth, etc.). The canister can then be sent to our laboratory via the U.S. Postal Service (postage is prepaid by CDPH). What We Do All samples arriving at CDPH are examined with light microscopy for the presence of the toxin-producing species. Additional information is recorded on other common, non-toxic species to help evaluate long-term trends in species composition and shifts in dominant groups (diatoms versus dinoflagellates). The field and lab observations provide a valuable snapshot of current trends in the phytoplankton community. This information is immediately used as necessary to guide additional sample collection in areas of concern. Over the years there have been numerous occasions in which the phytoplankton observations alerted program scientists to the early stages of a toxic bloom. Subsequent focus on the affected region revealed the presence of toxin and allowed CDPH to alert the public via a health advisory press release or to close a commercial shellfish growing area to prevent toxic seafood from entering the marketplace. In fact, many of the certified shellfish growers in California voluntarily collect phytoplankton samples and conduct the field observations because this valuable information helps them manage their harvest activities to ensure the safety of their product. Finally, the laboratory identifications and the volunteers’ field observations are recorded in the program database for subsequent reporting and analysis. Each participant's contribution is essential to piecing together a picture of the distribution of toxic and nontoxic phytoplankton along the California coast. How to Get Involved Despite the wonderful efforts of all our program participants there are still many areas of the California coast that do not have adequate sampling effort. CDPH is always interested in having new volunteers join the Phytoplankton Monitoring Program, especially if it is in an area that needs additional coverage. CDPH provides the necessary training and equipment for collecting and shipping samples at no cost to the volunteer. Some volunteers, typically those with a science background or a keen interest in phytoplankton, are trained to also conduct the microscopic observations of the samples they collect. This information is emailed or faxed to the program and a portion of the sample is also submitted. This allows CDPH biologists to check the volunteer’s accuracy in identifying the phytoplankton species present, which in turn allows us to provide feedback to help improve their skills and knowledge. The program also provides training materials to help in the identification process. To learn more about this program and opportunities to volunteer you can send an email to [email protected] or call 510-412-4635. Benefits of Volunteering All of our program participants are added to an email distribution list to receive periodic informal updates on observations, trends, and detection of toxins along the California coast based on the volunteer monitoring effort. In addition, a more formal monthly report is distributed to everyone once the data has been compiled and validated. The monthly reports contain maps of toxigenic phytoplankton distribution and toxin distribution at all sampling sites. In addition, the monthly reports contain tables listing the program participants that provided samples or field identifications during that month. An annual report is also produced that summarizes the events and sampling effort of the past year. Of course the real benefits to volunteering are the intangible ones. You will know that your efforts are important to a real-time public health protection program. Phytoplankton sampling and field observations also provide a way to get connected to your local ocean environment. The phytoplankton species composition will change with changing environmental conditions (for example, wind intensity and direction, water temperature), so each sample can bring something new. And you can interact with program biologists to have questions answered or to get advice on sources of additional information on a particular related topic.
Diogenes was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the oddest of all of them. He was the chief of a group called the “cynics” or “growlers”. He was said to have been the pupil of a man who had been the pupil of Socrates. He was said to have lived in a tub out in the streets. Many funny stories are told about what he did. One time he was caught carrying a lighted lantern through the town square – in broad daylight! When asked what he was doing, he answered “Looking for an honest man.” Another time, when he had conquered the city, Alexander the Great asked Diogenes if there was any thing that he could do for him. Diogenes just growled “Yes, get out of my sunlight.” Alexander’s men wanted to punish him, but Alexander told them that “If I could not be Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” Another time, when on a voyage, he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave. When asked what he could do, he answered, “I can rule men, sell me to some one who desires a master.” He was sold to be the tutor over his new master’s two sons. He had, at one time, a slave named Manes. Then Manes ran away. Diogenes didn’t pursue him. Instead he said, “If Manes can live without Diogenes, then Diogenes can live without Manes.” When he saw a young boy drinking out of his hands. At this, he threw his one cup away. One day he came out into the square and cried “Men, Men!” When the crowd gathered, he looked intently at each one at each person then turned away muttering, “I was hoping for Men.” One of his students once asked him why he lost so many students to others, while none lost students to him. Diogenes answered, “You can make Eunuchs out of men, but you can’t make men out of eunuchs.” According to tradition, he died the same day as Alexander.
Many older science textbooks now contain incorrect information because in 2006 astronomers decided to bounce Pluto off the list of known planets. Although Pluto is a small object, its size wasn't the only the reason it lost its coveted status as a planet. Objects in space must now meet at three criteria before scientists can classify them as planets. A discovery in 2003 helped change the classification of Pluto. While observing that planet, an astronomer found a larger object near it. He named it Eris. Astronomers who name celestial objects reflected upon Pluto's location and size and eventually downgraded Pluto's status to that of a dwarf planet. Other dwarf planets include Ceres and Eris. Naming Planets in Ancient Times For years, Pluto met the traditional definition of a planet because there was no formal definition until 2006. Ancient sky watchers simply called objects planets if they saw them wandering in a way that stars do not. The word "planet," in fact, comes from a Greek word that means wanderer. The year 2006 marked the beginning of a new planetary naming era when the International Astronomers Union created a definition of a planet. New Planetary Definitions Astronomers in the IAU offer several explanations about how their planetary classification system works. They note that people no longer have to call an object a planet simply because it "moves against the background of fixed stars." To qualify as a planet today, an object that is not a star must revolve around a star. That definition rules out small stars that might orbit another in a binary system. An object must also be large enough to have enough gravity to mold itself into a sphere. That definition rules out large asteroids that do not have spherical shapes. Additional Planetary Definition The IAU also includes a third definition of what a planet is. To qualify as a planet, an object must have "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit." To do that, an object must have the ability to pull other objects into itself or send them flying around itself and into space. According to NASA, "It is this third part of the definition that has sparked debate." Regardless of whether everyone agrees with this third definition, it is now part of the IAU's official ruling. Welcome to the New Planets The Earth, which looks round, is actually not a perfect sphere -- it bulges at the equator. That's OK because according to the IAU, an object doesn't have to perfectly spherical to meet the planetary definition. After a long debate, the IAU decided that only eight planets exist in the solar system since Pluto is now simply a dwarf planet. - Gary Cornhouse/Photodisc/Getty Images
NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray space telescope, which discovered mysterious Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes about a year ago, has discovered beams of anti-matter arcing through the Earth’s atmosphere. The anti-matter particles are created high above ordinary storm clouds by bolts of lightning. Recent studies of lightning, using high-speed cameras, have revealed a whole world of activity in the upper atmosphere that nobody ever suspected. Phenomena such as Blue Jets, Elves and Sprites are all associated with lightning and dance in the upper atmosphere above thunderstorms to altitudes as high as a hundred kilometers! In February last year the Fermi space telescope, built to observe GRB’s (Gamma-ray Bursts), surprised scientists by detecting tremendously powerful bursts of gamma radiation coming from our own atmosphere. Current research suggests a strong link between GRF’s and lightning bolts. On December 14 2009, while Fermi was over Egypt, it detected gamma radiation from a thunderstorm some 4500km south in Zambia – far below the horizon, and therefore out of sight of any GRF’s. What’s more, the energy of the gamma radiation was precisely 510,000 electron volts, characteristic of an antimatter annihilation! Thunderclouds generate powerful electric fields, through a mechanism which is not yet fully understood, which discharge in bolts of lightning. Scientists had long theorised that a big enough thunderstorm could generate an electric field strong enough to drive an avalanche of electrons upwards through the upper atmosphere and into space. When these electrons collide with air molecules, the energy of the collision is released as a photon. The light from these photons is visible as the elusive Sprite. However, if the collisions are energetic enough, we get a photon with an energy of 510,000 electron volts, which can spontaneously transform into an electron and a positron (the anti-matter equivalent of electrons) as predicted by quantum mechanics. Normally the two particles would instantly annihilate each other producing another photon, but in this case the two particles are moving so fast that they’re deflected away from each other by the Earth’s magnetic field. So we have a stream of antimatter positrons, directed northwards by the Earth’s magnetic field, colliding with Fermi. They strike individual electrons within the space telescope itself and annihilate, producing gamma radiation of the characteristic 510,000 electron volt energy, producing the signal which Fermi detected! And the most astonishing fact of all is that is is suspected that these Gamma-Ray Flashes are creating anti-matter in our atmosphere hundreds of times every day and have been doing so since the Earth first solidified!
Changing the diet of cows and sheep could reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, according to new research funded by Defra. The study, which aims to help farmers cut their contribution to climate change, shows that feeding these animals foods such as maize silage, naked oats and higher sugar grasses can reduce the amount of methane they produce. Agriculture Minister Jim Paice said: “We are committed to supporting the farming industry as it faces the challenge of reducing its greenhouse gas emissions. It is very exciting that this new research has discovered that by simply changing the way we feed farm animals we have the potential to make a big difference to the environment.” Agriculture contributes about nine per cent of all UK greenhouse gas emissions and half of this comes from sheep, cows and goats. Recent figures show that farming accounts for 41 per cent of the UK’s overall methane emissions. The new research, which was carried out by Reading University and the Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS), showed that it is nutritionally possible to reduce methane emissions and nitrogen excretion from cattle and sheep. For example: - increasing the proportion of maize silage from 25 to 75 percent in a short-term trial was found to reduce methane emission per kg milk by six percent; - high-sugar grasses could reduce an animal’s methane emissions by 20 per cent for every kilo of weight gain; - naked oats could reduce methane emissions from sheep by 33 per cent; and - crushed rapeseed could reduce methane production from dairy cows by 20 per cent per litre of milk produced. In the longer term the benefits gained by changing animals’ diets will need to be considered against other environmental impacts as well as how practical or costly they are for the farming industry to implement.
The word ‘Tulu’ itself is of remote antiquity. Online search shall convince you that the word Tulu is more global in dimension than we can imagine.It appears that the word 'Tulu' originally meant 'water and water related aspects' in the language of its origin, but might have acquired additional meanings subsequently due to changes in environmental situations. In the ancient Sumerian language“tu” morpheme represented ‘water spring or well’ or ‘water connected activities like bathing or washing’ and the morpheme “lu” was indicative of quantity or abundance, people etc. There was another Sumerian word “tulu” or “tule” that meant ‘soft or placid’. (Compare similarity of the latter meaning with our ‘tuluve’ jack fruit.).Tulu is found in the list of African personal names and the word means ‘spread out in different directions’, possibly implying migratory character of the Tulu tribes. Another vocally analogous African word ‘Zulu’ also means water. I believe that the word ‘Tulu’ existed since Sumerian period of early civilization (ca. 6000-4000 BC) in north African-Mediterranean region, where from these original ancient Tulu tribes migrated. The ancient Sumerian and related languages form the basis for the evolution of many of the Afro-Asiatic languages of present day. The word 'Tulu' originally meant (1) water or activities connected with water (2) placid and soft.These ancient meanings still survive today in spite of the passage of several millenia in the time scale. These Sumerian meanings are analogous to those interpreted by Sediyapu Krishna Bhat and Manjeswar Govinda Pai in the context of present Tulu in Tulunad. The Ethiopia can be described as cradle of human race, since the earliest human fossils (Homo sapiens) Omo I and Omo II dated back to 165,000 years were found in Ethiopia. As reconstructed by the genome studies complemented with archeology and paleontology, human migrations started out of Ethiopia and Africa in several phases. Tulu place names Tulu is the name of several Ethiopian towns and settlements. ‘Tulu’ is also a surname or part of the name among the Ethiopian people. For example, Derartu Tulu is an Ethiopian female athlete. There are at least four places (towns, settlements) called ‘Tulu’ in Ethiopia, at least one each in the other neighboring African countries like Kenya, Sudan, Nigeria and Zaire. In Ethiopia there are more than 12 places in the online maps with ‘Tulu’ as prefix, such as Tulu Bolo, Tulu Bora, Tulu Ferda, Tulu Guracha etc. On the basis of these data I suggest that the original Tulu tribes originated in Ethiopia in northern Africa and migrated out of Africa under adverse environmental conditions.Based on environmental geological data scientists have interpreted that around 2000 BC, wide spread desertification of northern Africa prompted many tribes to migrate out of Africa. Tulu place names in other African countries are suggestive of migration of early Tulu tribes in different directions. The present African meaning of ‘spread in different direction’ for the word ‘Tulu’ could have been the result of migrations. The exact nature of the language of the primary Tulu tribes hailing from Ethiopia is difficult to conjecture now but we can presume some of the original words are still preserved as fossils in present Tulu language. The Tulu language has grown or evolved independently of African languages during the last 6000 years in such a way that they have entirely separate identities and characteristics. A lot of things change as a result of divergent evolutionary trends. But some fossil root words may exist still! Outside the African continent, Tulu place names can also be found in Pakistan (‘Thulu’), Afghanistan, Mynamar, China, Bolivia, Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Phillipines. The Afghan Television channel, at present, is called ‘Tulu TV’, the word ‘Tulu’ in the present Afghan language means something like ‘the rising’ or ‘the dawn’. Note that Afghan meaning of ‘Tulu” is different from the African roots. Afghanistan is close to Pirak where many of the tribes settled during the period ca.2000 to 500 BC. The Pirak episode of Tulu tribes has been discussed in several earlier posts in this blog. The Tulu tribes settled and lived in the Pirak area for some 1500 years, then again migrated (ca 500-300 BC) to their present homeland in Tulunad. The original ‘Tulu’ may have been the name of the mother who migrated from Africa to Pirak along with her family. The original ‘Tulu’ family carried several root words along with them during the migration from their early homeland. A few such Tulu families or clans were active in the last millennium also around Kundapur, Honavar and Banavasi region. And Krishnadevaraya who ruled Vijayanagar was product of one such family that called itself Tulu clan. Books for Reference - A Comparative Study of Tulu Dialects By Dr. Padmanabha Kekunnaya. Govinda Pai Reserach Centre, UDupi. 1994 - Koti Chennaya: Janapadiya Adhyayana. By Dr. Vamana Nandavar. Hemanshu Prakashana ,Mangalore.2001. - Male kudiyaru. Dr B. A.Viveka Rai and D.Yadupathi Gowda, Mangalore University,1996. - Mogaveera Samskriti By Venkataraja Punimchattaya. Karnataka Sahitya Academy.1993. - Mugeraru:Jananga Janapada Adhyayana. By Dr Abhaya Kumar Kaukradi.Kannada & Culture Directorate,Bangalore & Karnataka Tulu Academy, Mangalore,1997. - Puttubalakeya Pad-danagalu. Ed: Dr B.A.Viveka Rai,Yadupati Gowda and Rajashri, Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheswara Tulu Peeta. Mangalore University.2004 - Se'erige. Ed:Dr K.Chinnapa Gowda.Madipu Prakashana,Mangalagangotri,2000. - Studies in Tuluva History and Culture.by Dr P Gururaja Bhat (1975).Milagres College,Kallinapur,Udupi. - Taulava Sanskriti by Dr.B.A.Viveka Rai, Sahyadri Prakashana,Mysore 1977 - TuLu naaDu-nuDi By Dr.PalthaDi Ramakrishna Achar, Puttur. - TuLu NighanTu. (Editor in Chief: Dr U.P.Upadhyaya, Govinda Pai Research Centre,Udupi. Six volumes. 1988 to 1997 - Tulu Patero-A Philology & Grammar of Tulu Language by Budhananda Shivalli.2004.Mandira Prakashana Mangalore. p.317. (The book is in Tulu Language using Kannada script) - TuLunadina ShasanagaLa Sanskritika Adhyayana. By Shaila T. Verma (2002) Jnanodaya Prakashana,Bangalore, p.304.(Kannada) - Tuluvala Baliyendre. Compiled by N.A.Sheenappa Hegde,Polali,Sri Devi Prakashana,Parkala,1929/1999 Copy? Right - but kindly remember to acknowledge! This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Activity 2E: Crossword Puzzle Students will review sections of the Bisbee Deportation website and complete the crossword puzzle Standard: Strand 1 American History Grade 7: Emergence of the Modern United States PO 5 c. Analyze the impact of industrialization on the United States - Unions Concept 7: Emergence of the Modern United States PO 1: Analyze how the following transformed the American economy d: labor movement (e.g. Bisbee Deportation) - Students will read the Historical Context and Who's Who and or view the The Bisbee Deportation of 1917: A Management-Labor Conflict in Arizona video. - If students are using paper copies they should be encouraged to underline important information. - If working from the Web, they should take notes of important information. - After studying the information sources they will complete the crossword puzzle either alone or in groups. Sources to Consult
By Tom Royer, OSU Extension Entomologist Our Plant Disease and Insect Diagnostic lab received samples of wheat that were damaged by brown wheat mites. Producers need to remain alert so that they don’t mistake damaged wheat from brown wheat mite for drought or virus disease. Brown wheat mite is small (about the size of this period.) with a metallic brown to black body and 4 pair of yellowish legs. The forelegs are distinctly longer that the other three pair. Brown wheat mites can complete a cycle in as little as 10-14 days. Brown wheat mite causes problems in wheat that is stressed from lack of moisture. They feed by piercing plant cells in the leaf, which results in “stippling”. As injury continues the plants become yellow, then dry out and die. They are very susceptible to hard, driving rains which many areas have now experienced, but until then they can cause yield loss when present in large numbers. We typically experience 3 generations per year. However, in this sample, the mites had already caused considerable damage and had laid significant numbers of diapausing white eggs that tell us they have completed their last generation of the growing season and these eggs will oversummer. Research suggests that a treatment threshold of 25-50 brown wheat mites per leaf in wheat that is 6-9 inches tall is economically warranted. An alternative estimation is “several hundred” per foot of row. If you find active brown wheat mites in your field, check CR-7194, Management of Insect and Mite Pests in Small Grains for registered insecticides, application rates, and grazing/harvest waiting periods. It can be obtained from any County Extension Office, or found at www.wheat.okstate.edu
Independence is the hallmark of the second grade student. Children take greater responsibility for organizing and completing school projects. They continue to strengthen decoding skills, and expand their choice of reading material to emphasize more complex comprehension of what they read. Second graders choose high interest, “just right” books and practice a variety of comprehension strategies. Books cover many genres, both fiction and non-fiction. Additionally, the children write in multiple genres, including narrative, opinion, and information writing by tapping into their own schema and personal experiences. Our teachers build strong, personal relationships with their students, helping them navigate through academic and social challenges that come with maturation. Mathematics becomes more abstract, and delves into place value exploration. Using a hands-on, differentiated workshop model, the 2nd graders use multiple addition and subtraction strategies and build the foundations for multiplication and division concepts. Math problem solving includes algebraic reasoning, time, money, data, measurement and fractions. The curriculum provided in the second grade recognizes that each child is an individual with a unique style and approach to learning. It is responsive to the differences in stages of development, interests and learning styles. Each child is challenged to use his or her own innate sense of curiosity to explore the learning environment. Various strategies are used to increase each child’s self-esteem, sense of achievement and positive feelings towards learning. The learning atmosphere addresses the needs of the whole child, with a goal of developing skills, knowledge, and positive feelings, that instill a desire to explore their own learning. A variety of instructional strategies are used to increase interest and reach all learning styles. Some diverse strategies used are: - Short term and long term projects - Teacher-initiated and child-initiated activities - Individual and collaborative tasks - Variety of ways to present information using all senses The program is based on knowledge of child development and providing a safe, nurturing and challenging environment for the child to explore. The opportunity for hands-on experiences and the availability of expanded opportunities in languages, music, art, library, and physical activity greatly enhance the classroom environment. The second grade curriculum provides opportunities for integration across subject areas. For example, their study of family, immigration, and migration integrates the following areas: - Science – Developing maps to represent land and bodies of water in an area. - Social Studies – Tracing family history through the use of primary and secondary sources including photographs, interviews and documents. - Mathematics – Reading graphs and statistics regarding immigration data as well as placing relevant dates on timelines of events. - Language Arts – Creating photo journals, biographies and “Day in the Life” recountings in order to compare and contrast their daily lives with those of their parents, grandparents, and ancestors. - Arts – Investigating, designing and creating a paper doll representative of a cultural heritage. - Technology – Interweaving this tool into all subject areas to reinforce content skills, create final products, and expose them to concepts of digital citizenship. Curriculum integration allows for a stimulating and flexible teaching and learning that increases participation, appreciation, and application of all concepts. By leading children to discoveries that all knowledge is connected, their learning becomes more real, meaningful and memorable.
Worlds of David Darling > Children's Encyclopedia of Science > Could You Ever Dig a Hole to China? > Glossary COULD YOU EVER DIG A HOLE TO CHINA? a book in the Could You Ever? series by David Darling A light metal that is common in rocks of the Earth's crust. A dark-colored and fairly heavy type of rock that is formed from cooling magma. Basalt makes up most of the thin crust beneath the oceans. The solid, unbroken layer of rock that lies just below the Earth's surface. One thousand million. Written as 1,000,000,000. A gas which human beings and other animals breathe out. It occurs in both the air and the soil of our planet. A weak acid that is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. The central part of the Earth. The core is divided into two parts: a solid inner core and a liquid outer core, both containing iron and nickel. The outer "skin" of the Earth made up of cool, mainly lightweight rocks. A fuel, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, that formed in the Earth's crust from the squashed remains of animals and plants that died hundreds of millions of years ago. A hard, grainy rock, common in the Earth's crust, made up of tiny crystals of various substances. A force exerted by any object that has mass (the amount of material it contains). The Earth's gravity is the force that prevents the atmosphere, and people, from floating away into space. The second lightest and second most common gas in the universe. The lightest, most common substances in the universe. A heavy metal that makes up much of the Earth's core. A whitish or yellowish rock formed from the hard parts of sea animals and plants that died millions of years ago. The thin boundary layer that separates the mantle from the core. Its full name is Mohorovicic discontinuity after the Yugoslavian scientist who discovered Molten rock that comes from a hot, liquid layer at the top of the mantle. Magma reaches the Earth's surface in great cracks under the world’s oceans A lightweight metal commonly found in rocks of the Earth's crust. A region in which a force of magnetism can be felt. The Earth's magnetic field is caused by currents circulating through the liquid iron of the outer The middle layer of the Earth lying between the core and the crust. A heavy metal, similar to iron, that occurs at the Earth's core. The name given to a large piece of the Earth's crust that can move about on the molten rocks of the mantle below. A scientific theory that explains how plates are formed, move about, and interact with one another. An instrument for measuring shock waves that have traveled through the Earth, usually following an earthquake. A substance that is common throughout the Earth's mantle and crust. It is often combined with oxygen to form a group of minerals called silicates. Sand also contains a large amount of silicon. The name given to the Sun and everything that goes around it, including the planets and their moons. A layer, between a few inches and a few feet below the surface. which is coarser than the topsoil and contains pieces of rock broken off from the The uppermost layer of the Earth's surface, made largely from decayed plants. A large machine that uses powerful cutting teeth to bore through earth and The invisible gas that forms from water.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or ADHD affects children and teens and can continue into adulthood. ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed mental disorder of children. Children with ADHD may be hyperactive and unable control their impulses, or they may have trouble paying attention. ADHD is a common disorder that impacts focus, self-control and other skills important in daily life. It’s caused by differences in brain anatomy and wiring, and often runs in families. As part of this course we will investigate what ADHD is, its causes, symptoms and a range of strategies that can be used by childcare practitioners when working with those who have ADHD. As part of the National Nursery Training Aspergers’ Awareness course your will gain an understanding of: - What Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is and its challenges to practitioners - What can cause ADHD. - Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - The positives of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Strategies for practitioners working with those with ADHD Successful candidates will be awarded the National Nursery Training Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Course Completion Certificate. Duration: 1 hour Course access is valid for 365 days from date of purchase. This certificate is valid for 1 years.
Resistors and Capacitors are types of passive electronic components. The basic unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω) and capacitance is Farad. Standard base resistor values are given in the following tables for the most commonly used tolerances (1%, 2%, 5%, 10%), along with typically available resistance ranges. In 1952 the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) decided to define the resistance and tolerance values into a norm, to ease the mass manufacturing of resistors. These are referred to as preferred values or E-series, and they are published in standard IEC 60063:1963. These standard values are also valid for other components like capacitors, inductors and Zener diodes. The preferred values for resistors were established in 1952, but the concept of the geometric series was already introduced by army engineer Renard in the 1870s. Continue reading Standard Resistor Values The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Standard Resistor and Capacitor values with IEC and EIA code is explained in previous post. This tool is used to decode information for color banded axial lead resistors. Select their colors to determine the value and tolerance of the resistor. Continue reading Resistor Color Code Calculator The circuit given here is of digital voltmeter with LED 7-segment display using the ICL7107. It measures voltage from 0.00V to 99.9V. ICL7107 is a 3 1/2 digit A/D converters with LED 7-Segment Driver. The Intersil ICL7106 and ICL7107 are high performance, low power, 31/2 digit A/D converters. Included are seven segment decoders, display drivers, a reference, and a clock. The ICL7106 is designed to interface with a liquid crystal display (LCD) and includes a multiplexed backplane drive; the ICL7107 will directly drive an instrument size light emitting diode (LED) display. Continue reading ICL7107 Digital Voltmeter In this tutorial we are discussing on how to use arduino with Proteus simulation software. We assume that you have installed Arduino Library in your Proteus software. for installing arduino library in Proteus visit “How to add library in Proteus?” We will learn it by taking led blink example. Continue reading Getting Started with Proteus Proteus is simulation and PCB designing software. Many times we need to simulate different circuits before we actually develop it, This tutorial shows how to add library in Proteus 7 and Proteus 8. Following are the simple steps to add Library in Proteus Step 1: Download Proteus library zip file example ARDUINO Proteus library Step 2: Unzip library folder. You will see two files names as .IDX and .LIB in some cases third file is *.HEX. In our example it is ARDUINO.IDX and ARDUINO.LIB Step 3: Copy and paste these files in LIBRARY folder of Proteus If you are using Proteus 7 Professional, then the library folder link will be something like this: “C:\Program Files (x86)\Labcenter Electronics\Proteus 7 Professional\LIBRARY“ If you are using Proteus 8 Professional, then the library folder link will be something like this: “C:\Program Files\Labcenter Electronics\Proteus 8 Professional\Data\LIBRARY” Step 4: Close Proteus Software and reopen it to check it. That’s all. You can find that adding library to Proteus, Arduino, Eagle is same just copy and paste the library files at proper location.
Describing Things that Make You Happy - To identify and describe feelings - To build vocabulary Drawing paper and markers or crayons Read Bunny Cakes by Rosemary Wells, or any book with happy characters. Ask children what they do when they are happy. Have them tell you in words and then show you. (Examples: smile, laugh, giggle, jump up and down, turn around in a circle, clap) - Read the book. - Ask children what makes the characters in the story happy. - Look at the illustrations and talk about the characters' feelings and actions. - Ask children how they can tell how the characters are feeling. - Ask children to describe a favorite thing to do at your program and why it makes them happy. Ask for volunteers, but encourage every child to participate. - If necessary, prompt children by naming activities you've seen them enjoy. Write children's names and the activities they mention on drawing paper and have children draw themselves and what makes them happy. Then add text to the pictures as children dictate what their pictures show. - Proficient - The child clearly says a sentence or two about an activity and explains why it makes them happy. - In Process - The child tries to talk about an activity, but gets distracted or starts to mumble, making it difficult for most people to be sure what the child is talking about. - Not Yet Ready - Child does not yet focus on the activity, cannot describe the activity, or speaks inaudibly. More on: Learning Activities for Preschoolers Excerpted from School Readiness Activity Cards. The Preschool Activity Cards provide engaging and purposeful experiences that develop language, literacy, and math skills for preschool children.
To understand how periscopes extend vision beyond the line of sight. Students at this level should have their attention called to the use of tools and instruments in science and the use of practical knowledge to solve problems before the actual underlying concepts are understood. They should develop the ability to use increasingly sophisticated tools and techniques and improve their skills in measurement, calculation, and communication. Activities that have students make observations and measurements using instruments such as periscopes and microscopes help reinforce the relationship between technology and science. These activities also give students skill and confidence in using tools in their everyday lives. In addition to experimenting with technology, students should begin to think and write about how technology helps people. They should be encouraged to consider alternative ways of doing something and to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the various options. (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, p. 45.) In this lesson, students will explore the concept of line of sight by recording the conditions under which they can and can't see an object. They will then build a periscope and experiment with it to determine how this tool helps them extend their line of sight around corners, over walls, and beyond. This activity is based on instructions and information on the Exploratorium website. To begin this lesson, ask students if everyone sees things exactly the same way. Have them discuss differences they are aware of such as not being able to see things that are far away (nearsightedness) or close up (farsightedness), or not seeing certain colors (color blindness). Also ask them where they would go in the classroom if they didn't want you to see them. Answers may include behind you, under a desk, or behind a door or wall. Have students consider these questions: - What tools or instruments help people see better? - What do these tools do? Common answers may include glasses, binoculars, telescopes, and magnifying glasses. Students may indicate that these tools make things seem closer or farther away. Continue the discussion by asking these questions: - At what times or in what situations is it impossible for anyone to see anything? - Why is this so? Answers may include when there is no light and when something is not directly in line with their eyes. Explain to students that when we see an object, we are actually seeing the light it gives off. So when it is dark or when an object is not in line with our eyes, we can't see it. Point out that light travels only in straight lines—it can't bend around corners. That's why we can only see what is in a straight line from our eyes—or in our line of sight. Have students experiment with line of sight by testing at what locations around the room they can and can't see each other. Then ask students if they know of any tool that can help them see an object that is out of their line of sight. Some students will probably mention periscopes. If they don't, introduce periscopes at this point. Then ask these questions: - What do you know about periscopes? - What are they used for in the real world? Allow students to discuss their understanding of how periscopes are used in submarines. You might ask if they have heard the expression "Up periscope." Explain that this command is used to request the raising of a submarine's periscope. Tell students that periscopes bring what is around corners, over walls, and beyond into view. Add that they will now have a chance to make their own periscopes and see how they work. Have students access the Seeing Around Corners student esheet. Tell students that the esheet will direct them to a website that includes information about periscopes as well as instructions for building one. Note: Alternate assembly instructions can be found at the Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics & You website. Have students follow the instructions outlined in Step 1 of the esheet. Students might mention words such as perimeter, microscope, and telescope when brainstorming words that contain the roots peri or scopus. If you wish, have them speculate on the meanings of those words. As noted in Step 2 and Step 3 of the esheet, have students work in small groups to construct a periscope, following the instructions on the website. (Do not distribute knives or let students do any cutting themselves.) Note: To save class time, you might want to complete Steps 1 and 2 outlined on the website beforehand and give each group two milk cartons with the lids and viewing holes already cut out. Then you could direct students to Step 3 and read Steps 3–9 with them. You could circulate throughout the room and cut the mirror slits as soon as each group has measured and marked them. Have students complete Steps 4 and 5 of the esheet. Give them plenty of time to experiment with the periscope, looking at objects around the room (including samples of writing) and standing in the same places they did in the Motivation section. Once students have experienced what the periscope can do, have them return to the Up Periscope! site and scroll down to "How Does My Periscope Work?" (in the "What’s Going On?" section) and discuss how the periscope works. To facilitate the discussion, you might want to reproduce the diagram on the chalkboard (or ask a student volunteer to do it). Make sure students understand how the angled mirrors bend light rays and allow them to see objects that are out of the line of sight. Make sure that the information you present is appropriate to your students' knowledge and ability level. In an effort to assess understanding, have students answer the questions on the Seeing Around Corners student sheet. Following are sample answers to the assessment questions: - How does a periscope let you see around corners and over and under things? (The angled mirrors in the ends of the periscope bend light rays. When you look through a periscope, light coming from objects at right angles to your eye is bent so the object comes into your line of sight.) - How does the periscope affect the size and shape of the objects you see? (The periscope doesn't affect the size or shape of objects viewed through it. It only allows you to see objects that are out of your line of sight.) - How could you make a periscope that would let you see behind you? Hint: Look at the diagram of how a periscope works and think about where the light has to enter it. (You could tape the two milk cartons together with the holes facing in the same direction.) - What ways could periscopes be used in real life? (Answers may include situations in which someone needs to see something that is out of the line of sight, such as underwater in submarines, for security in buildings, or inside the body.) - CHALLENGE QUESTION: Can you read writing through your periscope? Why or why not? Hint: Think about what writing looks like in a mirror. (You can read writing with a periscope because it is reflected in two mirrors. The first mirror makes it appear backwards and the second makes it look normal again.) Discuss students' answers to the questions to make sure they understand how a periscope helps them expand their senses—essentially giving them eyes all over their heads. This lesson may be supplemented by another Science NetLinks lesson, Color Burst, in which students extend their knowledge of light by exploring the separation of colors in water and other solvents. This lesson is part of a series of Science NetLinks lessons dealing with optical technology. The other lessons in the series include Magnify It! (K–2), Looking into Space (6–8), and Watch Your Thoughts! Diagnostic Imaging and the Brain (9–12). To reinforce the practical applications of periscopes, suggest that students research their use in submarines. Excellent information can be found at the following websites: - How Photonics Masts Will Workis a student-friendly and easy-to-understand presentation of how a submarine periscope works. - Submarine Periscopes and Approach Techniques includes very interesting and detailed information about submarine periscopes, but is more appropriate for advanced readers.
Presentation on theme: "Elements of Emotion Emotion - the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by : physical arousal = physiological arousal Expressive behavior: reveals."— Presentation transcript: 1 Elements of EmotionEmotion - the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by :physical arousal = physiological arousalExpressive behavior: reveals the emotion to outside worldConsciously experienced thoughts: inner awareness of feelingsDisplay rules - learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings.control or display?With these rules, it doesn’t matter what you’re really feeling, you just have to show the right emotions. For example, when I teach, I don’t mind knowing that some of the students are bored out of their skulls, but I don’t want them showing it with loud yawns and constant eye-rolling.Japanese men more likely than American men to mask negative expressions with a smile. 3 Common Sense tells us…a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal. 4 James-Lange Theory of Emotion FIRST…physiological reaction, THEN…labeling of an emotion.different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion.feel sad because you cryfeel angry because you strikefeel happy because you smileSupport: Neck-level spinal cord injuries…reduce intensity of emotions 5 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Challenged JL since similar patterns of physiological activity associated with diff emotional states. (ex. anger & fear)NOT cause…effectphysiological reaction & the emotion occur at the same time.Cerebral cortex = subjective awareness of emotion…Sympathetic nervous system = physiological arousalPeople can experience physiological arousal without experiencing emotion, such as when they have been running. (The racing heart in this case is not an indication of fear.)Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of emotion, which occur very rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley alone, a sudden sound usually provokes an immediate experience of fear, while the physical“symptoms” of fear generally follow that feeling.People can experience very different emotions even when they have the same pattern of physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing heart and rapid breathing both when he is angry and when he is afraid. 6 Schachter and Singer’s Study of Emotion Emotion results from physiological arousal plus a cognitive label.Two-FACTOR: 2 ingredientsCognitive label: based on perceptions, memories, interpretationExplains arousal in emotional termsPhysical arousal fuels emotionCognition channels itIf a person finds herself near an angry mob of people when she is physiologically aroused, she might label that arousal “anger.” On the other hand, if she experiences the same pattern of physiological arousal at a music concert, she might label the arousal “excitement*Schachter and Singer agree with the James-Lange theory that people infer emotions when they experience physiological arousal. But they also agree with the Cannon-Bard theory that the same pattern of physiological arousal can give rise to different emotions. 7 Spillover EffectTendency of one person's emotion to affect how other people around them feel.Emotional VolatilityFor example, the teacher received a phone call that his wife was pregnant with a much-awaited baby.He goes into class happy and excited, & although he doesn't tell his class about the good news, his good mood rubs off on his students & they feel happy as well.Experiment: injected with adrenalineAn emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousalSame physical arousalExposed to “angry” man, interpreted physical arousal as angerexposed to “happy” man interpreted arousal as happiness 8 Romeo and Juliet Effect Misattribution of emotions~assign arousal to passionate love instead of anger from lack of freedomTendency for parental opposition to a relationship to intensify the romantic feelings of those in the relationship.The effect involves an increased commitment to persevere in the midst of parental opposition & interference. 9 Donald Dutton and Arthur Aron (In support of 2 Factor Theory) Male subjects were asked to meet an attractive female interviewer in the middle of one of two bridges.safe-looking bridge vs. dangerous (high & narrow).An attractive female researcher interviewed the male passers-by in the middle of the two bridges.She gave them her telephone number in case they wanted to ask about the results.They were then more likely to call her back, looking for a date.Men on the less safe-looking bridge were more aroused by the height of the bridge, and were likely to confuse their feelings for being 'lovestruck'. 10 Cognitive Mediational Theory of Emotion Cognitive appraisal of a stimulus determines your emotional response to it, physiological arousal follows the cognitive appraisal.both the physical arousal & the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environmentmust occur before the emotion is experienced.stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response & an emotional reaction.Dual processing: The brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal.Equipped? 12 Theories of Emotion Opponent Process Our emotions tend to trigger opposing emotions. Then there is balance.A way to maintain a steady state—homeostasisAs experiences are repeated wide swings in emotion are lessened, and things become more manageable!Costs of pleasure & the benefits of painExamples:You almost get into a car accident—you are afraid—once it’s over you feel reliefYou yell at your boyfriend and are angry; later to feel guilty and you apologizePost partum depressionPost concert depressionAfter the holidays 14 Duchenne's investigations mapping the muscles of the face 15 The Old Man "The Mechanisms of Human Facial Expression", (published in French 1862)experimentation in the perception and communication of human facial affect. 16 Duchenne's principal photographic subject "The Old Man“Duchenne's principal photographic subjectafflicted with almost total facial anesthesia.ideal subject for this investigation,stimulating electrodes used were ‘certainly somewhat uncomfortable, if not actually painful’. 17 ‘Electrization apparatuses’ electrical stimulation served as the diagnostic test in localization."faradism," the application of electricity to the skin for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.stimulate the nerves and muscles of patients.map the muscles of the body and note their functions 18 Duchenne electrically stimulates the musculature of the face of an actress of the French Comedy with the purpose of modifying emotions expressed by her face. 19 mapped 100 facial muscles in 1862. false, or even half-hearted, smiles involved only muscles of the mouth.But "the sweet emotions of the soul," he said, activate the pars lateralis muscle around the eyes. 22 Detecting EmotionHard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal. A fake smile may continue for more than 4-5 seconds while a genuine smile will have faded by then.Unique individuals within cultures acquire differences affecting displays of emotions emphasized by one's status, role, and diverse behaviors.Ekman’s (1971) neuro-cultural theory of facial expression of affectinnate neural links between emotional states and specific facial musclessocial learningoverlay of cultural/social learning can intervene between a felt and expressed emotionthe individual comes to learn a set of display rules (personal, situational, and cultural norms) that govern the presence and form of facial expressionsdisplay rules involves knowledge about the do’s and don’ts of expressing particular feelings in particular social contexts as well as the motivation and ability to control one’s own behavior in accordance with that knowledge.Simulation -- acting like you feel an emotion when no such emotion is present.Examples:1) Smiling with out experiencing happiness.2) Expressing guilt when you have not remorse.3) Showing surprise when you fully expected an event to occur.Inhibition: (Neutralization) -- giving the impression of having no feelings when one truly experiences emotion. Reverse of simulation.1) Keeping a straight face when something strikes one as funny.2) Hiding attraction to a third party when one’s significant other is present.3) Suppressing anger at one’s boss.Intensification -- giving the appearance of having stronger feelings than one actually has.1) Showing more grief at a funeral than one actually feels.2) Laughing heartily at your boss’s joke when you barely think it is funny.3) Communicating love to a distant relative for whom one only feels slight affection.Deintensification – giving the appearance of experiencing an emotion with less intensity than one actually is feeling. Similar to inhibition except with inhibition you show no emotion and with deintensification you show emotion but to a lesser degree.1) Children raising their voices slightly rather than yelling when angry.2) Teens trying to act cool by smiling instead of laughing at a very humorous joke.Masking -- communicating an emotion that is entirely different than the one a person is experiencing. This type of display rules occurs later in a person’s developmental cycle because it is easier to moderate an emotion (ex. Acting less angry than you actually feel) than it is to express an emotion entirely different than you feel (ex. Acting happy when you’re really upset).1) Looking brave when you are afraid.2) Looking confident when you are anxious.3) Looking humble when you are proud.Dr. Paul Elkman, University of California at San FranciscoWhich of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine? 24 Ekman: Universal expressions of emotions: Fore People Many members of this group experienced little or no contact with modern cultureFacial expressions were limited to their own people due to the fact they have never been in contact with a westernerNever saw any movies, did not speak English, & only lived in their settlementCan conclude that identifying facial expressions are hardwired biologically 29 Detecting EmotionMost of us are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al, 2000).Classroom Exercise: Fear of Negative Evaluation ScaleThe text notes that when we feel included, accepted, and loved by those who are important to us, our self-esteem is high. Thus, much of our social behavior is aimed at increasing our social acceptance and inclusion. The complement is that we fear a loss of social approval. Handout 8A–13 is the Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) Scale designed by David Watson and Ronald Friend. Its use provides a helpful introduction to the text discussion of how we act to increase social acceptance and to avoid social disapproval. In scoring, students should assign one point for “True” answers to statements 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, and 30. They should assign one point for “False” answers to the remaining 13 items. They should then calculate their score, which can range from 0 to 30, with higher scores reflecting greater fear of negative evaluation. For a sample of 297 college students, the authors obtained mean scores of and for males and females, respectively.Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448–457. 30 Figure Cross-cultural comparisons of people’s ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions 31 Ekman: Facial Feedback Hypothesis Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion.Botox injections may be designed to reduce wrinkles but they also may leave you feeling blue.Cosmetic injections of botox for crows' feet around the eyes may cause feelings of depression, according to a British researcher. Why? Because these injections impact the strength of the eye muscles, which are essential in the face's overall formation of a smile.The small study, led by Dr. Michael Lewis of the School of Psychology, Cardiff, Wales, involved 25 people who had received Botox for wrinkles and examined how their facial expressions produce, as well as reflect, emotions because they reinforce them.Lewis said it all boils down to this: people smile when they are happy and smiling can make a person happy."Treatment with drugs like Botox prevents the patient from being able to make a particular expression," he said. "The new finding being reported [this week] concerns the impact of treatments for crows’ feet. The muscles around the eyes are used when forming a real smile and so it was predicted that treatment of the muscles that cause these will reduce the strength of a smile."With the help of a questionnaire, Lewis found that those people who had a harder time smiling reported greater feelings of depression.Previous research has found that when people smile -- even if it's a fake smile -- they actually feel less stress and happier in general 32 The Effects of Facial Expression If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowingbrows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures.Preview Question 7: Do our facial expressions influence our feelings?Courtesy of Louis Schake/ Michael Kausman/The New York Times PicturesAttaching two golf tees to the face and making their tips touch causes the brow to furrow. 39 Gender, Emotion, & Nonverbal Behavior Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. When shown sad, happy, & scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men.Introverts better than extrovertsEmotional contagion:Automatically imitate other’s facial expressions, gestures, & postures,We come to feel as others do as well as look the same way. 40 Gender, Emotion, & Nonverbal Behavior EmpathyYou identify with others and imagine what it must be like to walk in their shoesFemales are more likely to express empathySympathyPerception, understanding, and reaction to the distress or need of another human beingEmpathy refers to the understanding and sharing of a specific emotional state with another person. Sympathy does not require the sharing of the same emotional state. Instead, sympathy is a concern for the well-being of another. 41 Cultural & Gender Differences Boys respond to anger by moving away from that situation, while girls talk to their friends or listen to music.Anger breeds prejudice. The 9/11 attacks led to an intolerance towards immigrants and Muslims.The expression of anger is more encouraged in cultures that do not promote group behavior (individualistic) than in cultures that do promote group behavior (collectivist).Wolfgang Kaehler 42 Expressed EmotionEmotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this nonverbal language of emotion universal?Preview Question 5: How do we communicate nonverbally? 43 Expression of emotions JoyDisgustLeft frontal lobePositive emotions – Left hemipositive personalitiesupbeat, alert, enthusiasticRight prefrontal cortexNegative emotions – Right hemiDepression prone 45 Looking Glass Self We use others as a mirror for perceiving ourselves. Who provided the most memorable reflected appraisals in your life—parents, teachers, classmates, friends?Which of these appraisals was the most positive?How have they served to threaten or boost your sense of self-esteem?Do you have any personal traits, abilities, or physical characteristics that have been socially distinctive?Did you like or dislike being distinctive?Feature Film: The Mirror Has Two Faces and the Looking-Glass SelfThe text notes that our self-esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel. We see ourselves reflected in others’ appraisals. Sociologist Charles Cooley used the concept of the “looking-glass self ” to describe how we use others as a mirror for perceiving ourselves.You can introduce this important topic with a three-minute clip from the feature film The Mirror Has Two Faces. Eighty-six minutes into the film the central character, Rose Morgan (played by Barbra Streisand), leaves her husband, returns to her childhood home late at night, and has a poignant exchange with her mother. Struggling with her self-concept because of a recent blow to her self-esteem, she asks, “When I was a baby, did you think I was pretty?” When her mother avoids answering the question, she reflects on how as a child she experienced the pain of her mother’s negative evaluations. Finally, she asks her mother, who at one time had been very beautiful, “What was it like to have others admire you?” Now her mother’s response is immediate and straightforward: “It was wonderful.” After showing this clip, you might have students reflect on the following questions in small groups: 46 Analyzing EmotionAnalysis of emotions are carried on different levels. 47 Causes of AngerPeople generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches and pains. 48 Catharsis HypothesisVenting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.”Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming. 49 Happiness People who are happy perceive the world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more cooperative, rate job applicants more favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives.Preview Question 10: What are the causes and consequences of happiness? 50 Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon When we feel happy we are more willing to help others.Altruism 51 Subjective Well-Being Subjective well-being is the self-perceived feeling of happiness or satisfaction with life. Research on new positive psychology is on the rise. 52 Emotional Ups and Downs Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same throughout the day. 53 Emotional Ups and Downs Over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance.Although grave diseases can bring individuals emotionally down, most people adapt.Courtesy of Anna Putt 54 Wealth and Well-beingIn affluent societies, people with more money are happier than people who struggle for their basic needs.People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries.A sudden rise in financial conditions makes people happy.However, people who live in poverty or in slums are also satisfied with their life. 55 Does Money Buy Happiness? Wealth is like health: Its utter absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of happiness. 56 Happiness & Satisfaction Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries shows Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list. 57 Happiness & Prior Experience Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels. “Satisfaction has a short half-life” (Ryan, 1999). 58 Happiness & Others’ Attainments Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with.The Law of Diminishing Returns states that the more we experience something, the less effect it has on us. 59 Predictors of Happiness Why are some people generally more happy than others?
So if k > 4, so then in the equation y=mx+b it will be y=2x+4..I THINK so thats 2 roots so how do we solve for only one root or no roots because if we make both equations equal to each other, we will get 4 every time :s this is where i am confused WHAT WE ARE TRYING TO SOLVE FOR IS THE VALUE OF B IN y=mx+b for 3 equations soo 3 different values of b If there aren't any intersection points then the value of is ANYTHING LESS THAN 4. So use a letter like and say that . If there is only one intersection point then the value of IS 4. If there are two intersection points then the value of is ANYTHING GREATER THAN 4. So use a letter like and say that .
“Holes,” Louis Sachar’s Newbery Medal and National Book Award-winning novel, features yellow-spotted lizards. These highly venomous reptiles live in holes in the desert. While their names are similar, though, these fictitious lizards have almost nothing in common with the shy, elusive yellow-spotted night lizards of Central America. These reptiles inhabit rain forests throughout Central America. They spend their lives concealed in damp areas that have plenty of insects and other prey. They're usually shy but can become fierce when people try to handle them. Because these lizards are so reclusive, scientists don’t have reliable population numbers. As their name indicates, these reptiles have black or dark brown backs spotted with yellow. Their bellies also are yellow, usually with brown patches. As adults, they measure between 2 1/2 and 5 inches long. Yellow-spotted night lizards live in the subtropical and tropical rain forests of Central America. They’re found along both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts and at elevations up to 2,265 feet. Temperatures in their home ranges average between 71 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit, and humidity usually remains from 70 to 85 percent. Yellow-spotted night lizards are microhabitat specialists, which means they remain in or near the same spot throughout their lives. They’re often found in decaying logs or under leaf litter on the forest floor, but some also live beneath rocks or in crevices. Their flat heads and bodies help them squeeze into narrow cracks. Ants, centipedes, flies, scorpions and spiders make up most of the lizards’ diet. While they often find prey without leaving their microhabitat, yellow-spotted night lizards can emerge to hunt, if necessary. Because these lizards remain in their microhabitats, populations tend to be isolated. Fortunately, they don’t have to venture out to find mates; most yellow-spotted night lizards are females who reproduce through parthenogenesis -- their eggs develop without being fertilized. Some populations include males, and in those cases, the lizards reproduce sexually. In either case, the young are born alive rather than hatched from eggs. - Encyclopedia of Life: Lepidophyma flavimaculatum -- Yellow-spotted Night Lizard - Davidson College: Biology at Davidson: Herp Expedition to Tortuguero, Costa Rica: Lepidophyma flavimaculatum - University of Texas at Austin: Digimorph: Lepidophyma flavimaculatum, Yellow-spotted Night Lizard: Jessie Maisano - Reptile Rescue Orange County: Yellow Spotted Night Lizard (Lepidophyma flavimaculatum): John F. Taylor - Holes: Louis Sachar (PDF) - Louis Sachar

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