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Presentation on theme: "AP Phys B Test Review Electrostatics, Circuits, and Magnetism 4/29/2008."— Presentation transcript: AP Phys B Test Review Electrostatics, Circuits, and Magnetism 4/29/2008 Overview Electrostatics Electric Potential Dielectrics and Capacitance Electric Current DC Circuits Magnetism Electrostatics Charge is carried by subatomic particles (protons, electrons) 99% of all charged effects caused by electron transfer Charging by Conduction Physical contact Charging by Induction No physical contact Coulombs Law This law determines the force of attraction or repulsion between 2 charged objects 0 is a constant – permittivity of free space Positive force = repulsive, negative force = attractive Remember: force is a vector! Electric field lines A visual representation of an electric field. More lines = stringer force Point away from positive, toward negative. Electric Fields and conductors The electric field inside any conductor is zero The electric field is always perpendicular to the surface of a conductor Gauss Law Electric Flux: The amount of an electric field passing through an area Gauss Law: The total electric flux passing through a closed surface is proportional to the charged enclosed in that surface. Electric Potential Energy Electric Potential energy can be determined using mechanics Electric potential is defined as the electric potential energy per unit charge Equipotential lines or surfaces An equipotential surface is a surface over which all points have the same potential. An equipotential surface must be perpendicular to the electric field! Potential due to a point charge Remember: potential is a scalar! Capacitance A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge. The capacitance of an object is defined as: Capacitance is measured in farads. Parallel plate capacitors and dielectrics For a parallel plate capacitor (two conducting plates with a vacuum between the plates) Often, an insulator known as a dielectric is placed between the plates to enhance capacitance Dielectric constant: measures the strength of the dielectric Capacitors and energy A charged capacitor stores an amount of electric energy given by This energy can be thought of as stored in the electric field between the plates. Electric Current Electric current is defined as the amount of charge that flows past a given point in a second Ohms Law Ohms Law related the resistance of an object to the decrease in electric potential across a point and the current flowing through that point. Electric Resistance Electric resistance is the innate ability of a material to inhibit the passage of electrons. Measured in ohms. Given by the resistivity as well as the geometry of the object. Circuits – emf and terminal voltage A device that transforms one type of energy into electrical energy is a source of electromotive force emf: the potential difference between the terminals of a battery when there is no current flowing to an external source. A battery has some internal resistance The real voltage of a battery is then Resistors in series Voltage and resistance are additive Current is constant everywhere in a series circuit Resistors in parallel Current additive Voltage is constant everywhere in a series circuit More resistors = smaller equivalent resistance Kirchhoffs rules Junction rule: At any junction point, the total current into the junction has to be equal to the total current out of the junction. Loop rule: The sum of changes in potential around and closed loop is zero. Magnetism Every magnet has two poles: north and south Magnetic field & magnetic field lines: analogous to electric field Direction: points north to south Electric current (moving charge) produces a magnetic field! Force due to magnetic fields The force on a charged particle moving through a magnetic field The force in a current carrying wire immersed in a magnetic field Right hand rule Amperes Law A moving charge (current) creates a magnetic field. For a long wire, l = 2 r Two wires can attract or repel due to this effect. A solenoid is a long coil of wire. Faradays Law A changing magnetic field induced an emf. A current produced by an induced emf moves in a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the original change in flux (Lenzs Law) A coil rotating in a magnetic field is a good example of this.
Deforestation and the general despoliation of the planet continue to accelerate. It is often contended that overpopulation, playing itself out via a ‘Tragedy of the Commons’, is the primary cause. It is not. The ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ is a quite pernicious myth. A resource ‘free-for-all’ can and does lead to environmental disasters. But throughout history, communal use and management of land and forests has often been extremely sustainable. One example can be seen in the ‘Women’s War’ in the 19th century Pyrenees. In 2006, in his magisterial book Deforesting the Earth, the Oxford historical geographer Michael Williams wrote: ‘the area cleared since 1950 has only just about come near the amount cleared before that.’ He was illustrating the fact that deforestation has been going on for centuries, indeed for millennia. Williams’ work has performed a great service by minutely and exhaustively showing us how and when deforestation occurred in different parts of the world. But what is perhaps more arresting is that it quite literally means that over the last half-century humans have cut down as many trees as they did in the whole of history before! Major episodes of deforestation have happened at different times in different regions. Quite early on in the (at one time) fertile crescent, during the first millennium in China, in the Middle Ages and the early modern period in Europe, in the 18th and 19th centuries in North America, and in the 20th century in much of the rest of the world. There is no doubt that deforestation and ‘civilization’ have always gone hand in hand. The more advanced the civilization the faster the trees fall. One persisting and pernicious myth about environmental degradation in general, and deforestation in particular, is that the root cause is almost always overpopulation. According to Berkeley biologist Garrett Hardin this is manifested or played out in what he called The Tragedy of the Commons. In his original 1968 paper, Hardin was quite explicit: The tragedy of the commons develops in this way. Picture a pasture open to all. It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. Such an arrangement may work reasonably satisfactorily for centuries because tribal wars, poaching, and disease keep the numbers of both man and beast well below the carrying capacity of the land. Finally, however, comes the day of reckoning, that is, the day when the long-desired goal of social stability becomes a reality. At this point, the inherent logic of the commons remorselessly generates tragedy. He goes on to assume that ‘each herdsman seeks to maximize his gain’ and makes a rational calculation. If he adds another animal to the commons he will receive all the benefit and, even though his adding more and more animals might contribute to overgrazing, these negative consequences do not just fall on him, they are shared by all. As Hardin concludes, the logic of this is that: The rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course for him to pursue is to add another animal to his herd. And another; and another. But this is the conclusion reached by each and every rational herdsman sharing a commons. Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit – in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all. Hardin’s main purpose was not just to examine the history of the English commons, nor the long process of their Enclosure (i.e. privatization). He didn’t do this at all. Instead, following in the footsteps of Thomas Malthus, his programme was to argue that the only answer to the Tragedy was, wherever practical, to move all common lands or rights to use the land, into private ownership – thereby establishing clear ‘property rights’. But Hardin had another agenda as well. He was a eugenicist and had earlier argued for the forced sterilization of ‘genetically defective’ people. In The Tragedy of the Commons he was quite explicit that we needed to ‘relinquish the freedom to breed: The only way we can preserve and nurture other and more precious freedoms is by relinquishing the freedom to breed, and that very soon. "Freedom is the recognition of necessity"–and it is the role of education to reveal to all the necessity of abandoning the freedom to breed. Only so, can we put an end to this aspect of the tragedy of the commons. To be sure, it wasn’t rich property owners who would have to stop breeding. He made it quite clear that the onus was on the poor, whether at home in the United States or in the Third World. What is more, the poor would need to be ‘coerced’ to do so. In 1997, the Wall Street Journal reported: Mr. Hardin expressed alarm about 'the next generation of breeders' now reproducing uncontrollably in Third World countries. The problem, according to Mr. Hardin, is not simply that there are too many people in the world, but there are too many of the wrong kind of people… It would be better to encourage the breeding of more intelligent people rather than the less intelligent. In this short essay, I will try to highlight four things: That the so-called Tragedy of the Commons is a myth; that more often than not ecological tragedies have been caused much more frequently by the ruthless pursuit of short-term capitalist profit-maximization than they have by the exercise of communal rights; that the legacy and acceptance of Hardin’s Tragedy has had pernicious consequences; and, finally, that the ‘population question’ isn’t as simple as neo-Malthusians might suggest. Towards the end I will also present a small ‘micro-history’ of events in the Ariège region of the French Pyrenees in the early 19th century. This, I believe, can illustrate some of the some of the general issues surrounding The Tragedy of the Commons. The ‘Myth’ of the Tragedy of the Commons: As his primary historical example Hardin used the supposed overgrazing of the ‘commons’ in England in the period leading up to the 19th century. He based his contentions on the work of the English mathematician and political economist William Foster Lloyd. But, as many scholars have since shown, the English commons never really afforded unrestricted or unfettered access to common land or resources. It was never a ‘free-for-all.’ The English commons consisted in a number of ancient rights that individuals and communities had either enjoyed for centuries or had managed to extract – often against fierce resistance – from feudal Lords. The types of rights, for example to fish, to forage for wild produce, to gaze sheep and cows or to collect wood or cut down trees, and the extent of these rights, was never vague. Sometimes rights were written down but often they were just well-known customary practices – finding their origin in times ‘immemorial’ – but everyone knew who had rights and to what. It was the American political economist Susan Cox who first described The Tragedy of the Commons as a ‘Myth’. She concluded her excellent study of the English commons’ issue, No Tragedy on the Commons, with the following observation: Perhaps what existed in fact was not a ‘tragedy of the commons’ but rather a triumph: that for hundreds of years – and perhaps thousands … – land was managed successively by communities. Contrary to what Hardin and others implied, it is quite clear that the English Enclosure Movement was not some sort of beneficial event that saved the commons from being completely despoiled and denuded. In reality, it was a forced privatization, taking place over several centuries and often in the face of fierce opposition. It was quite simply an exercise through which powerful elites tried, and succeeded, in grabbing more power for themselves. Ultimately, whether or not the history of the English commons and the Enclosure Movement, as it was presented by Garret Hardin, was true or false, might seem only to be of interest to historians of the period. But this is not the case. He implied that such tragedies of the commons were absolutely inevitable, and that they had happened throughout history. In 2009, the American political economist Elinor Ostrom (jointly) won the Nobel Prize for Economics for her decades’ long work, which had showed that this had not been so –at least not most of the time. She and her collaborators have presented dozens, if not hundreds, of historical and contemporary examples highlighting where communities have been able to manage communal resources sustainably, without any environmental tragedy. Ostrom writes that Hardin’s ‘conclusion of an inevitable tragedy was too sweeping’. Ostrom acknowledges that what she refers to as ‘open-access common-pool resources’ have sometimes been ‘overharvested’. But only in the cases where the commons concerned were a ‘free-for-all’ – which has only been the case in a certain number of situations. Even the Columbia University economist Joseph Stiglitz, himself a Nobel Prize winner, commented that Conservatives ‘have used the Tragedy of the Commons to argue for property rights, and that efficiency was achieved as people were thrown off the commons’. He adds that what Ostrom has demonstrated is the ‘existence of social control mechanisms that regulate the use of the commons without having to resort to property rights’. So while a ‘free-for-all’ can lead to environmental tragedies, communal ownership, management and use mostly has not. The Tragedy of the Commons is a Myth. Who really causes the Tragedies? Nobody, I daresay, would deny that the world has witnessed and is still witnessing innumerable examples of environmental tragedies or even catastrophes. ‘If you’re looking for a tragedy’, writes Raj Patel, ‘you can find it everywhere, from the scrambling coltan-mining communities in the Congo to the increasingly desperate actions of farmers applying inorganic fertilizer to the soil to replace the fertility that their monoculture has destroyed.’ I use the word tragedy here in is usual everyday sense, rather than with the classical Greek meaning implied by Hardin – i.e. some sort of logical and inevitable playing out of forces beyond the understanding of the protagonists. As has already been stated, it is certainly true that sometimes these tragedies have had their roots in instances of overpopulation and even in instances of an unfettered free-for-all to derive profit from ‘open-access’ resources –whether they be forests, rivers or seas. Yet in the bulk of cases it has not been groups of rural communities with common rights in the land or forests that have caused these tragedies. What is striking is that the bulk of contemporary commentary on ecological degradation is that it completely removes itself from the question of ‘who’ exactly caused it. Even from the question of what, in concrete terms, were the underlying causes. It does this by employing such abstract and vague terms as ‘humans’. Sometimes it even reifies this term to ‘Humankind’. We are told ‘human’ population growth is causing environmental damage and resource depletion; ‘humans’ are cutting down the rain forests; and ‘humans’ are causing global warming. In one way this is the logical result of the dominant neo-classical economic model. For the sake of mathematical simplicity, this model abstracts from all aspects of geography (space), all aspects of history (time) and even from all aspects of group interaction and dynamics. It does this by constructing a fictive super-rational single ‘representative agent’ who makes decisions based solely on prices given by an equally fictive market. In such a world there really is no place for individuals, groups, classes or even enterprises. The singular fictive representative agent subtly morphs into the plural ‘humans’. As an economist, I would like to stress that this ‘neo-classical’ economic model is not the only one available. For centuries many wonderful economists have examined and analyzed space, time and all manner of group interactions. Yet it unfortunately remains true that nowadays these rich parallel economic traditions remain marginalized. To return to our theme; throughout history it can be shown, again and again, that it was not the overexploitation of the commons by local rural communities that led to environmental tragedies. Rather, in pre-capitalist times, it was overexploitation by the power elites and, in capitalist times, overexploitation by capitalist companies, that generally caused such environmental catastrophes. In the second half of this essay I will present one such example, the deforestation of a part of the French Pyrenees in the early 19th century. As Raj Patel has commented, I think justly: The environmental tragedies from the Dust Bowl to the mass extinctions of rainforest and ocean are the result of the behavior of corporations, of capitalist agriculture and forestry and fishing. The Dust Bowl happened because while individuals knew full well the value of the topsoil, their induction into capitalist agriculture turned them into exploiters of the very land on which their survival depended, transforming their connection to the world around them into one solely of short-term profit. Why the Myth is Pernicious Garrett Hardin clearly wasn’t the first person to highlight the supposed negative consequences of communal rights and practices. Aristotle even talked about it in the fourth century. In more recent times, and perhaps more pertinently, we can clearly see the company Hardin was keeping in the work of Ludwig von Mises – the conservative ‘Austrian School’ economist. Together with his somewhat more famous compatriot Friedrich von Hayek, von Mises did much to provide the philosophical underpinnings of modern American and Western Neo-Conservatism. In his 1947 work Human Action, von Mises wrote: If land is not owned by anybody, although legal formalism may call it public property, it is utilized without any regard to the disadvantages resulting. Those who are in a position to appropriate to themselves the returns—lumber and game of the forests, fish of the water areas, and mineral deposits of the subsoil—do not bother about the later effects of their mode of exploitation. For them the erosion of the soil, the depletion of the exhaustible resources and other impairments of the future utilization are external costs not entering into their calculation of input and output. They cut down the trees without any regard for fresh shoots or reforestation. In hunting and fishing they do not shrink from methods preventing the repopulation of the hunting and fishing grounds. Regardless of its antecedents, it was Hardin’s own essay, and his coining of the term The Tragedy on the Commons, that has since become so supremely influential in both academic debate and, more importantly, in economic policy decision-making. This influence has been both insidious and pernicious. I have already alluded to the fact that Hardin’s Tragedy tends to ‘blame the victims’. I think this was best put in an insightful article written a few years ago by the Canadian Ian Angus: The fact that Hardin’s argument also blames the poor for ecological destruction is a bonus. Hardin’s essay has been widely used as an ideological response to anti-imperialist movements in the Third World and discontent among indigenous and other oppressed peoples everywhere in the world. For decades, international agencies, such as the IMF and World Bank, have based their policy prescriptions for the Third World, and elsewhere, on the implicit or explicit acceptance of the reality of the Tragedy of the Commons. Assuming it to be true, the corollary has been the necessity for countries to privatize all forms of collective ownership or use, and to better define and strengthen property rights. Such an approach has wreaked havoc around the globe. More recently, we have even witnessed efforts to institute and profit from property rights in our planet’s genetic inheritance. Large agri-businesses sell (sometimes give) non-reproducing seeds to African farmers. No longer can they set aside some seed from each year’s crop to plant next year. They have to go back and buy the seed from the agri-businesses every year. Western companies are also claiming property rights in numerous natural gene sequences; extracted from plants, flowers and trees in the Amazon and elsewhere. Now many such companies couldn’t care less whether what they are doing can be justified morally or economically – they just want to make more profit. But whenever justifications are offered, they are, as often as not, couched in terms of The Tragedy of the Commons. The Population Problem It was Thomas Malthus, in his 1798 publication entitled: An Essay on the Principle of Population, who first popularized the idea that population growth will tend to outrun the available food supply. If unchecked, populations will always grow geometrically (i.e. exponentially), whereas ‘the means of subsistence’ can only increase arithmetically. The world’s population would always tend to expand until famine, war, and disease eventually kept it in balance. He argued that there should be no relief measures for the poor, because they these would encourage excessive population growth and lead to disastrous social and environmental consequences. Two hundred years later, when we consider the sheer numbers involved it is hard not to be both concerned and discouraged. The human population of the Earth today is nearing seven billion, two hundred years ago is was only around one billion, and if we go back to Roman times it is estimated that there were only about 231 million people on the whole planet – roughly one fifth of the population of India today! Nowadays, we are constantly reminded, though sadly to little effect, that we are living beyond the means of the earth, its natural resources and the sustainability of its eco-systems. The best estimate at present is that we would need two planets to sustainably support our present level of population, consuming at current levels. Though many many more if everyone consumed like the rich countries. When looking back into history, many writers and commentators have presented past ecological and societal collapses as being predominantly caused by overpopulation. Jared Diamond is one of these. I will leave to one side some of the rather debatable analysis that Diamond presents for a number of his ‘collapses’; plus the fact that he seems to accept the ‘truth’ of the concept of The Tragedy of the Commons hook, line, and sinker. In his book, Collapse – How societies choose to fail or survive, he writes: Population growth forced people to adopt intensified means of agricultural production… and to expand farming from the prime lands first chosen onto more marginal land, in order to feed the growing number of hungry mouths. Unsustainable practices led to environmental damage… Of importance here is not so much the validity or otherwise of the historical analysis, rather it is the fact that Diamond sees all environmental collapses, in the past and still today, as being brought on by overpopulation. Garrett Hardin was also of this Malthusian overpopulation school. That is why he wrote his seminal essay. He tells us: ‘Man's population problem is this: the commons, if justifiable at all, is justifiable only under conditions of low-population density. As the human population has increased, the commons has had to be abandoned in one aspect after another.’ So while it might be the case that his whole rhetoric against the ‘commons’ was something of a red-herring, the growth in population was the absolutely central. As we have seen, his answer was firstly to privatize everything that could conceivably be passed into private or corporate hands; when that wasn’t possible then either draconian regulation was required: The tragedy of the commons as a food basket is averted by private property, or something formally like it. But the air and waters surrounding us cannot readily be fenced, and so the tragedy of the commons as a cesspool must be prevented by different means, by coercive laws or taxing devices that make it cheaper for the polluter to treat his pollutants than to discharge them untreated. The ultimate aim of Hardin’s plea was expounded in a long section of his essay called: Freedom to Breed Is Intolerable. One of his objectives was to eliminate any form of welfare support: If each human family were dependent only on its own resources; if the children of improvident parents starved to death; if, thus, over breeding brought its own "punishment" to the germ line–then there would be no public interest in controlling the breeding of families. But our society is deeply committed to the welfare state, and hence is confronted with another aspect of the tragedy of the commons. He suggested that ‘poor’ people needed to be coerced into stopping breeding. Being a fair man he recognized that coercion can sometimes be unjust: We must admit that our legal system of private property plus inheritance is unjust—but we put up with it because we are not convinced, at the moment, that anyone has invented a better system. The alternative of the commons is too horrifying to contemplate. Injustice is preferable to total ruin. Yet again, the question here is justice and injustice for whom? It’s not in fact the millions of people living in the ‘third world’ who are causing the environmental disasters we are continuing to witness today. It is rather the massive level of consumption of people in the Western world and in certain industrialized parts of Asia. The average American consumes dozens of times more resources than the average African. Just in the area of energy consumption, it has been calculated that each year a person in the United States has used as much energy by 2 am on the 2nd of January as a person in Tanzania uses in the whole year! The problem here isn’t just overpopulation but gross global inequalities as well. A short micro-history – La Guerre des Demoiselles Many European mountain communities held on to their common rights to use the forest well into the 19th century. Elinor Ostrom is fond of highlighting the example of how this was the case in the Swiss Alps – where viable and long-standing communal use and ownership patterns in the highlands co-existed with private ownership in the valleys. Such was also the case in the French Pyrenees in the early decades of the 19th century. This was still a highly forested and remote world. Local historian Georges Labouysse describes it thus: ‘The conditions of life of these mountain dwellers were hard. They live in autarky in remote valleys where the means of communication were difficult…. They didn’t know what was happening in the outside world. Most of the time they weren’t even aware of the successive changes of regime since the Revolution: from 1815 to 1830 as follows: Napoleon 1st, Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis-Philippe: four sovereigns in fifteen years!’ He goes on to tell us: From times immemorial, the poor country people of the Pyrenees had freely used the forest to survive: tree trunks to construct their houses, dead wood to warm themselves, grazing for small herds, poaching and wild foraging and clearing and burning to create a few pastures. These community rights of usage (usufruct) were coupled with quite widespread communal ownership of land and, particularly, of forests. In fact, French historians have shown that, in contrast to the situation in the rest of France, in the Pyrenees forests were, in the majority of cases, owned in common by the local communities who lived in them. Some such communal rights and ownership patterns went back to Roman and Visigoth times, but others had had to be extracted in the early Middle Ages from the local Lords – either voluntarily or often after long fights. What is more, these rights of use did not constitute a free-for-all. Just as with the English ‘commons’, these mountain communities knew precisely who had a right to what and the extent of these rights in terms of how much could be used or taken. Mostly these rights were not written down, which was to cause problems later on, but they were explicit and informal mechanisms had evolved to ensure that the rights were not abused. In terms of the Tragedy of the Commons, the first important point here is that there wasn’t one. The local communities had used the forests for centuries, and although they had carved out a few small plots to cultivate agricultural products, or on which to graze their cattle, there had been negligible impact on the extent of forest cover and on the health of the trees. Such communities led a rather meager life to be sure, but it had certainly been, to use a modern word, ‘sustainable’. Yet things were changing in the outside world, and not just in terms of monarchs. In the early days of the French Revolution, communities were turned into ‘communes’, but these communes remained the proprietors of the forests. Things soon changed when Napoleon took charge of the country. He called the Ariège, the Pyrenean region with which I will be primarily concerned, ‘the land of iron and of men’. He had need of both – the men for his armies, and the iron mines to supply his forges. He also needed the Pyrenean forests to supply charcoal for these forges. So he nationalized them all – they all became the property of the state. It was at this time, and over the next few decades, that deforestation in the Pyrenees started to pick up. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the ‘national’ forests were privatized. They were sold, often at knock-down prices, to the ‘rich bourgeoisie’. They became private property. The new proprietors of the forests, who were often also the owners of the large iron forges of the region, didn’t want to have any truck with the local communities’ ancestral forest rights, which they vehemently contested. Their sole interest was their own profit. Many significant fortunes were made by cutting down the trees ‘sans pitié’ to feed a rising French industry and its steam engines. It should be added that French industry was at this time (the 1820s and 1830s) still almost totally dependent on charcoal – only much later did coal come into general use. The new regime was brought into law in 1827, with the passing of a national Forest Code. All rights of forest usage were suppressed and any ‘paysan’ who continued to exercise such rights would in future be considered, literally, an outlaw and be liable to huge fines or imprisonment. During the debates, one Deputy explicitly stated why the Forest Code was necessary: Industry whose prosperity is growing every day demands immense resources from our forests, (resources) that mining in the entrails of the earth can’t replace, above all for reasons of combustible quality. No question here of any Tragedy of the Commons or such like. Industry needed the wood and thus the forests would fall. To enforce their private property rights the new proprietors kicked the local people off the land and recruited ‘forest guards’ to keep them off. For the local communities all this was a disaster. For generations they had relied on the forests to survive; now they were facing destitution. Most local people couldn’t be expected to fully understand the larger political and economic forces that were starting to play out, but they could see what the consequences were for themselves in their own locales. They had been kicked out of their ‘ancestral’ forests, hated forest guards had been employed to keep them out, whole swathes of forest were being felled and more and more charcoal burning forges were appearing everywhere. They had to resist. Starting 1n 1828 they did so. This was the famous (at least locally) Guerre des Demoiselles. The new forest proprietors, who were usually also the owners of the forges, had contested the communities’ right to use the forests. When the communities had sought redress in the local courts they were asked to show written documentary proof. Of course such ‘charters’ granting these rights had either never existed or had long since been destroyed. But the locals looked for them in any case. On the 4th September 1828 they broke into the Town Hall of Sentein in the Ariège and broke open chests looking for such documentary proof – but in vain. Labouysse describes what happened next, in despair: They undertook actions which were to mark the collective memory of this country (pays). Thus in February 1829, in the forest of Bethmale, the agents of repression – the famous forest guards paid by the private proprietors or by the State and whom the population called Salamanders (because their uniforms were black and yellow) roughly searched the houses of a few isolated peasants. Suddenly eight men appeared, disguised and armed with various instruments, who chased them away. This is the start of a permanent insurrection. In 1829 and 1830 the resistance grew and spread over the whole region. Eventually it is estimated that 150,000 people were involved. In general, the resistance was comprised of young men, usually under twenty, joined by numerous veterans of the Napoleonic Wars. The bands became larger, and local leaders emerged. The most famous of these was called ‘Vidalou’ – in reality a certain Jean-Baptiste Lafforgue. Wherever they went, the forest guards, the Salamanders, were confronted by groups of such ‘disguised’ young men, who tried to stop them preventing access to the forests. They were in fact disguised as women or ladies (Demoiselles), hence the name given to the insurrection: La Guerre des Demoiselles. On eyewitness has left us this description of the Demoiselles: The leader with whom I spoke was very tall, wore a underskirt over his … grey trousers, had a sheep’s skin on his head which covered his whole face, (and) where he had made three openings to be able to see and breath; he wore a light cavalry sabre. Another, armed with an axe and of normal height, was covered with a dress tightened with a red belt to which was attached a pistol; his face was smeared black, with pig bristles implanted all over his face, and mainly in his eyebrows and top lip; he was ‘coiffured’ with a ‘shako’ (a hussar’s helmet). The rest of the band was more or less dressed in the same manner. The bizarre disguises were necessary to prevent the Demoiselles from being identified. When individuals were brought before the courts they were often released because there was no solid evidence as to true their identity. Yet the manner in which they were dressed also finds echoes in the history of the local carnivals when, similar to the tradition in much of Europe, for a few days each year the world really was ‘turned upside down’. Lords served the peasants and women lorded it over men. The Demoiselles had the support of nearly all the local population, including most of the village Mayors. The prefect of the Ariège wrote to the French Minister of the Interior in 1830 that it wouldn’t be of any use to try to plant spies or informers in the communities because: The interests of the country people of the Ariège, in matters that concern the forests, are so linked that one can’t hope to find secret agents for the authorities, other than by buying them at a very high price. But the central government needed to act to protect the rights of private property. They had been told that ‘the inhabitants of the Ariège were ‘as savage and brutal as the bears they raise’. They sent in thirteen companies of infantry and eight brigades of gendarmerie. But to little effect, despite instituting the notion of ‘collective responsibility’ even for individual ‘subversive’ acts. Not only did the Demoiselles have the support of the local populace – even the local freemasons, clergy, postmen and customs men were on their side – but they were also employing classic hit and run guerilla tactics, which the French troops found difficult to counter. As military repression didn’t seem to be working, the government decided to negotiate. Finally, on the 23rd February 1831, the French Interior Ministry issued an ordinance revoking all the statutes of the 1827 forest code. A general amnesty was proclaimed; all convicted offenders were released and all trials stopped. Ancestral rights to the use of the forest were restored. The people of the Ariège had won a significant, historic, but ultimately Pyrrhic, victory! By the 1830s, many regions of the Pyrenean uplands were indeed experiencing significant deforestation. Michael Williams quotes several contemporary reports that described the scene ‘with phrases and words like “landscapes of desolation,” “blasted,” “terrible aspect,” and “terrible nudity of bare and sterile rock.”’ But, as we have seen, this deforestation, at least in the Pyrenees, was not the result of local communities having had common use of the forests, it was quite clearly the result, first of Napoleon’s need to wood to supply his armies and, later, of the privatized forests being exploited by private owners to supply wood and charcoal for the French industrial revolution. The Demoiselles were to return sporadically over the course of the next forty years. But in the long-term they weren’t able to stop the private felling and exploitation of the Pyrenean forests. This went on. The local people found it more and more difficult to survive, as their forests were cut down and their access and use was increasingly hampered. Like millions of Europeans in the 19th century, they emigrated in their droves to the growing towns and cities of France. There to become new members of the burgeoning urban proletariat. As regards the forests of the Pyrenees, what is left of them today can’t be put down to later French reforestation efforts, of which there were many, but rather they owe their existence to the fact that eventually French industry shifted to the use of coal, and later imported oil, and away from charcoal, as its primary source of energy. In this sense fossil fuels did save some of Europe’s forests. What I hope is clear from this modest micro-history is that the deforestation that took place in the French Pyrenees was not caused at all by a Tragedy of the Commons. It was the result of political and economic developments in France as a whole and, at the local level, the deforestation was carried out by the new private owners of the forests, not by the local communities who had lost their rights to use the ‘commons’. Sources and references Michael Williams, Deforesting the Earth, Chicago, 2006; Garret Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 1968; Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge University Press, 1990, Susan Jane Buck Cox, No Tragedy on the Commons, Environmental Ethics, 1985 ; Ian Angus, The Myth of the Tragedy of the Commons, Socialist Voice, 2008; Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798; Ludwig von Mises, Human Action: A Treatise on Economics, 1949; Georges Labouysse, D’étranges demoiselles, Occitania, 2006 ; François Baby, La guerre des Demoiselles en Ariège (1829-1872), Montbel, 1972; Jean-François Soulet, Les Pyrénées au XIXe siècle. L'éveil d'une société civile, éditions Sud-Ouest, Luçon, 2004;René Dupont, La guerre des Demoiselles dans les forêts de l'Ariège (1829-1831), Travaux du laboratoire forestier de Toulouse; Toulouse ; Prosper Barousse, Les Demoiselles, La Mosaïque du Midi, 1839 ; Michel Dubedat, Le procès des Demoiselles. Résistance à l'application du Code forestier dans les montagnes de l'Ariège (1828-1830), Bulletin de la société ariégeoise des sciences lettres et arts, 1899-1900.
Advocacy For K-12 Students With Disabilities: How To Get Everything Except a Bad Rep The Americans with Disabilities Act and IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997) may say that students with disabilities have the right to accessibility and accommodations in the classroom, but that doesn't necessarily mean that students automatically get what they need. K-12 students with disabilities, their parents and service providers often have to lobby for the technology, support and services that are necessary to get what's promised to students by the law - a Free and Appropriate Education (FAPE). Students and parents often run into situations where the school administrators are not aware of the potential of students with disabilities, and further, are not aware of the types of technology and accommodation that are readily available today. And that's why advocacy is so important. Students with disabilities, their parents, and service providers have to know how to get the technology, physical accommodations, support and services the students need - and how to get those services quickly enough so that the student isn't held back in the educational process while waiting for the services. IMPORTANT AREAS FOR ADVOCATES Several issues face students with disabilities as they move through the educational process, and in each of the four areas discussed below, self- advocacy, parental advocacy, and service-provider advocacy become critical for educational success. Six years after the implementation of the Americans with Disabilities Act, there's a great deal more awareness about the potential of people with disabilities than there ever has been. Unfortunately, there's still a great deal of negative attitudes among people who believe that students with disabilities can't "do" the same things that other students can. How can a blind student do math, when he can't see the equation? How can a deaf student follow directions in a science lab, when she can't hear? How can a student with a learning disability analyze literature, when she can't keep the words straight on a page? How can a student in a wheelchair use a computer, when he can't fit his chair under the computer table? The fact is that students with all kinds of disabilities can do all kinds of things. Step one for an advocate is to help make school faculty and administrators aware of the potential of students with disabilities and - equally as important - aware of the adaptations and accommodations that are necessary for students with disabilities to succeed in the school setting. Although many people believe that mainstreaming students with disabilities into the general population is the only way to ensure an equal educational opportunity, the truth is that mainstreaming is sometimes contrary to the best interests of particular individuals. Whether or when K-12 students with disabilities are mainstreamed into the general school population is an issue that must be addressed for each child. Some students do just fine entering the general population at a young age. Others benefit by going to special classes for a few years and then moving into mainstream classes. The critical factor is whether mainstreaming is right for an individual student, rather than moving the student into a mainstreamed setting because it's a good idea in theory. This is another issue in which parent and student advocacy becomes critical. A student and his or her family have to step up and take responsibility for making a case to school administrators as to what is best for the individual. LOWERED EXPECTATIONS AND WAIVED REQUIREMENTS The perception that students with disabilities are not capable of doing the same work as their classmates is often reinforced by parents and teachers. Too often students with disabilities are not held responsible for the work that is being done by their peers, and teachers from preschool on will often have lower expectations for students with disabilities. Many teachers in early grades are so pleased that a student with a disability can do any of the class work. "She is just amazing," is the attitude. And, "We do". . . don't want to make her work harder than her friends," is the justification for lowering expectations and waiving requirements for students with disabilities. Later, after students have in effect, been cheated out of a full K-12 education because of those lowered expectations, the students suffer when college courses and demands of the workplace are too stringent. This becomes one of the hardest places for students and their parents to be good advocates for themselves. Because in this case, students must demand the same work and expectations from their teachers that the rest of the class gets - and often that means more work than the teacher required of the student in the first place. Students with disabilities have to demand that they be graded according to the same standard as their peers. And, when it becomes necessary, students and their parents have to demand that they be held back until they meet the same standards as the rest of the class. Some schools have been experimenting with extending the time that elementary and secondary schools provide for students with disabilities to learn basic skills. This can include doing one year's worth of work in two year's time. However, some parents and teachers have raised the issues of the importance of having students with disabilities move ahead with their social groups and of the perception that retention is only for students who are in real trouble at school. It's time to rethink these issues and to realize that more time is a likely option for many students with disabilities. Over the long run, it's worth it for students to take the extra time when they are young to get the skills and foundations they need, rather than having to start college and enter the workplace unprepared. This advocacy issue may be the most challenging to students and their parents. A FOUNDATION OF ADAPTIVE TECHNOLOGY K-12 students with disabilities must be trained on adaptive computing technology as early and as much as possible. As computers permeate the general education setting, we see students as young as five being introduced to and working on computers in the classroom. Yet, students with disabilities, especially young students, are sometimes kept away from classroom computers because teachers don't understand how students with mobility or vision impairments can operate computers. And, even when students with disabilities do get their fair share of computer time, it often does not include adaptive accommodations that can both make their computer-use more efficient and provide a method where the computer can actually help the student complete tasks that aren't usually done on the computer. If students with disabilities are introduced to - and become proficient at using - computers at a young age, it makes the entire educational process more valuable, more efficient, and often less costly over the long run. GENERAL TIPS FOR ADVOCATES 1. If no one at your (or your child's) school is knowledgeable or interested in adaptive computer technology, bring the information to the school. Do the research yourself. Find a computer resource center in your area (colleges and universities are a good source of information), and bring brochures and other information on adaptive computer technology to the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) team or Special Education Counselor. 2. Research and share success stories about students with disabilities who have benefited by using adaptive computer technology. See what other K-12 schools and local colleges and universities are doing, and suggest a similar path for your school. 3. Discuss adaptive technology with teachers, library personnel, and computer specialists at the school, and give them information on picking accessible software and integrating the computer into regular classroom curriculum. 4. Invite faculty and staff to come and see a demonstration of students with disabilities working on adaptive equipment. 5. Encourage school administrators to seek help from federal, state and private agencies to pay for adaptive equipment and training. 6. Keep informed of assessment and funding sources that are available to help obtain the best possible education for students with disabilities. In particular, there are many resources available for adaptive computing technology information and funding. Parents and students themselves must work to find the best path for their specific situations. They must find what is legally mandated. They must find resources that are available, and they must successfully lobby for the services they need. There are hundreds of organizations, funds and laws that support services for students with disabilities. The problem is that getting appropriate services almost never happens automatically. And that is why becoming a good self-advocate is so important. LAWS THAT MANDATE EQUAL EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES There are several legislative initiatives aimed at providing equal educational opportunities for all American students. Here are a few that are particularly important to students with disabilities. INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT OF 1997 Originally passed in 1975 and then amended in 1986, this comprehensive legal package mandates a free and appropriate education for all students, regardless of the severity of their disabilities. It also mandates that education must be made available at public expense and provides federal grants to states for this purpose. The 1997 version mandates that Individualized Education Programs must relate more clearly to the general curriculum and requires that regular progress reports and assessments be made. The new law also directs more federal dollars to school districts and allows them greater flexibility to meet the needs of school children with disabilities. THE EDUCATION OF THE HANDICAPPED ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1983 The Act provides for secondary education and transitional services for individuals with disabilities from 12 to 22 years old. It authorizes funding for research and training for the development of transitional strategies and establishes demonstration models that emphasize vocational, transitional, and job placement services. This Act also provides demographics studies on the numbers and types of disabling conditions and the services required by students with disabilities. AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT This umbrella civil rights law is in response to the movement to provide access to mainstream education, employment, recreation, and all of society for people with disabilities. The ADA generally takes the provisions of previous disability laws, updates them and extends them to society as a whole. As regards education, this law provides that all students must have an equal opportunity to education and that reasonable accommodations must be made for disabled students.
Please help answer the following problem regarding intellectual disabilities. The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities presented a definition of learning disabilities in 1998. What are the major components of this definition and discuss the discrepancies in the fields of exceptionality particularly in the area of learning disabilities. The students with learning disabilities may also be assessed using formal, informal, norm-referenced, or criterion-referenced means. What do these approaches have in common and how would they need to be changed to meet the needs of adolescents. A learning disability is a neurological condition that interferes with a person's ability to store, process, or produce information. Learning disabilities can affect one's ability to read, write, speak, spell, compute math, reason and also ... The following discusses learning disabilities and the various approaches for assessment such as formal, informal, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced means of learning.
History of Toys and Games Students research history of popular toys to learn when those toys were first introduced. They use measurement skills to create an accurate timeline. 52 Views 92 Downloads Mathematics Activities from Diverse Cultures Connect probability and odds with different games from around the world. Pick from games like Dreidel, Mancala, and a Navajo stick game called Ashbil. All 12 games include probability questions to encourage a discussion before or after... 6th - 10th Math CCSS: Adaptable Cold Case Files: Solving the Mystery of the Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials provide a perfect opportunity to connect English language arts and US history classes. Here's a resource that provides a wealth of essential questions, activities, and materials. Class groups assume the role of... 5th - 10th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable The Road to Proportional Reasoning Just how big would it really be? Young mathematicians determine if different toys are proportional and if their scale is accurate. They solve problems relating scale along with volume and surface area using manipulatives. The last day of... 6th - 8th Math CCSS: Adaptable In the Olympics, are Women Improving Faster than Men? Will the time come when women outperform men at the Olympic Games?Scholars investigate gender differences in Olympic Games performances. They study the historical participation of women and then analyze data to determine if women will... 6th - 9th Math What Leads to Revolution? From the essential question about the cause of the American Revolution to a Town Hall meeting hosted by and for your social studies class, a set of American history lessons are a great addition to your Revolutionary War unit. After... 7th - 12th Social Studies & History CCSS: Adaptable Primary History: Children of Victorian Britain - Toys and Games In this world history worksheet, students research information about Victorian toys and game. They collect pictures of Victorian toys, and compare the amount of fun Victorian children had with that of contemporary children. 4th - 6th Social Studies & History Hands On Activities and Projects in Algebra 1, Algebra 2, Geometry, & Personal Finance Your learners will enjoy this conglomerate of hands-on activities and projects that can be used in algebra one and two, geometry, and personal finance. Rich in math standards, these projects reach into learners' lives to motivate and... 9th - 12th Math CCSS: Adaptable
Dark Energy One of the most stupendous discoveries in astronomy came with the recent application of supernovae -- the explosions of massive stars -- to study the shape and fate of the universe. The shocking results: The universe seems to be pervaded with a previously unknown, and still unexplained, "dark energy" that works against gravity and is apparently accelerating the universe to a bleak fate of eternal expansion. The roots of this development go back to the 1960s when cosmologists sought two numbers: the Hubble constant (related to the age of the universe) and the "deceleration parameter" (related to the total density of matter in the universe). Astronomers assumed that the universe's expansion was slowing down because all of the mass in the universe would be pulling on all the other mass with enormous gravity. The total mass would then indicate whether the universe would expand forever or eventually re-collapse. In the 1960s, supernova researchers Stirling Colgate and Robert Wagoner recognized a possible way to measure the deceleration parameter: study the light from distant supernovae. When the light from a supernova is spread out into its component wavelengths (called a spectrum), scientists can look at the shift in wavelength (the redshift) of certain features in the spectrum to see how fast that part of the universe is expanding. Coupled with a measurement of the distance to the supernovae, they could determine whether the supernova light showed that the universe expanded faster in the past. If so, then the expansion must now be slowing down, perhaps enough to some day stop and begin contracting. To test this theory, astronomers needed automated search programs to find a lot of faint, distant supernovae. Supernovae explode at random, so thousands of galaxies have to be searched to find a single one. It would take decades for the necessary technology to catch up with the dream. It began to bear fruit in the mid-1990s. A team of scientists led first by Rich Muller and later by Saul Perlmutter began to search for distant supernovae on a shoestring budget, using new cameras mounted on modest-sized telescopes. They could survey enough galaxies in one shot that they were nearly guaranteed to find supernovae. They began to discover them by the dozens. Another team led by Brian Schmidt decided they could more carefully obtain the data needed to determine the deceleration parameter. The race was on. The shock came when both teams, virtually independently and simultaneously, found that their data suggested that the distant supernovae were a little dimmer than expected. This implied that they were farther away than expected, and hence that the universe must have expanded faster than expected. The universe must have accelerated, not decelerated! This is akin to throwing a ball toward the ceiling, and having it proceed ever faster upward rather than falling back to the floor. The accelerating, anti-gravitating factor has been labeled "dark energy." It is, somehow, an energy associated with empty space, with the vacuum itself. No fundamental theory of physics yet explains how this energy arises.
Writing Workshop in a First Grade Classroom - How We Plan Our Stories The teacher introduces her class to a new strategy they can use to help them plan out the events of their stories before they start writing Writing Workshop in a First Grade Classroom - How We Plan Our Stories Director’s Cut This version of the How We Plan Our Stories lesson for additional "look fors" and tips. Teaching children to write - to express their ideas clearly and creatively, and to find joy in the process - is a complex task. To grow as writers, children need explicit instruction in the craft, mechanics, and process of writing, choice in what to write about, and plenty of time to practice. Writing Workshop is an instructional practice designed to help children become confident and capable writers. During Writing Workshop, children have time to work independently and with their peers. They engage in the writing process by selecting topics, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing their original work. They receive explicit instruction in the craft of writing from exploring genre, to organizing their pieces, to word choice, style, and mechanics. The workshop structure encourages children to think of themselves as writers and take their writing seriously. It gives children the skills to express their important thoughts and celebrates the fact that their stories and ideas matter and are worth expressing. What is Writing Workshop? Writing Workshop is an organizational framework for teaching writing. The framework consists of three components: the mini-lesson, work time, and share time. The Writing Workshop structure is an efficient and effective way to deliver writing instruction to meet the needs of all learners. Each Writing Workshop session begins with a mini-lesson, during which you explicitly teach the children a specific writing skill or strategy over the course of five to 15 minutes. Use the mini-lesson to address the writing needs of your children as determined by your curriculum, state and local standards, and most importantly, formative assessment. Your conference notes and the children’s writing help you identify a primary literacy objective for the mini-lesson. During the mini-lesson, explain what you are teaching and how it will help the children become better writers. Model and demonstrate the use of the skill or strategy, thinking aloud throughout the process. Give the children a chance to try out the skill or strategy right there on the carpet. The mini-lesson is immediately followed by work time, the component that is the heart of Writing Workshop and occupies its largest block of time. During work time, the children write – both independently and with partners. They apply what they’ve learned from the current and past mini-lessons to their writing. It is during work time that you can differentiate your writing instruction. To do this, conduct one-to-one writing conferences with children, taking careful notes throughout each conference. You might also work with small groups of children who have similar instructional needs in writing. Increase the amount of writing time as the children’s stamina increases. Share time comes at the end of the workshop. During share time, two or three children share their writing with the class. Writing deserves an audience, and share time is one of the ways to provide it. The “authors” might show how they’ve applied the day’s mini lesson to their own writing. They might show what they’ve learned about writing or about themselves as writers. Usually only a few sentences will be shared, but sometimes a child will share a completed piece of writing. Share time is motivating for the children, and it provides peer models for them. Why Writing Workshop? Being a capable, confident writer is a necessary skill for children to be successful in school and in life. As they progress through the grades, they’ll need to write summaries, reports, critiques, and essays. To be functioning adults, they’ll need to write in both their working lives (e.g., letters, memoranda, and reports) and their daily lives outside of the workplace (e.g., shopping lists, emails, and notes). Through daily writing in a workshop, children can learn to effectively communicate in writing. Writing Workshop is uniquely structured to help children develop positive attitudes about writing and progress as writers. Through writing, children have voice and agency – a way to express their ideas. This can be a deep source of satisfaction. The Writing Workshop structure provides manageable amounts of direct, explicit instruction that meets the developmental needs of our K-3 children: a lot of support, targeted feedback, and an audience for the children’s writing. Most importantly, the Writing Workshop gives children plenty of writing time. Children can only grow as writers if they have repeated practice and opportunities to write independently. Children are often eager to express their thoughts, ideas, and experiences. Sharing what we know and telling stories is an important part of learning and living in a community. Writing provides a suitable venue for children to share their thinking and ideas. As an additional bonus, writing helps children make sense of, clarify, and develop new learning and thinking. Our carefully planned lessons can facilitate children’s ability to have the voice that they crave. In a Writing Workshop, unlike in settings where K-3 children often copy the teacher’s writing, the children are the authors. Finally, audience is a critical component of writing. That is, writing is meant to be read. An audience is often found for some of the children during work time, when pairs or small groups of children will read their writing to each other. But most of all, this is the primary focus of share time, the final component of the Writing Workshop. Each day during share time, two to three children have an opportunity to sit in the “author’s chair” and share what they’ve written with others. In classrooms not using the workshop model, the teacher is often the only one who is an audience for writing, sharply reducing the opportunities for children to read their writing to others. This turns writing into a “written assignment” rather than a true mode of communication. Writing and Reading Connection Writing and reading are reciprocal processes: reading affects writing, and writing affects reading. When children read a lot, they become better writers. Each reading experience represents another encounter with writing, which builds knowledge of writing and helps children to understand what good writing looks like and sounds like. This in turn helps to make them more critical readers of their own writing. Reading books across genres helps children learn story grammar, narrative structures, and informational text structures. Then they apply this knowledge to their own writing. Favorite books that are read and reread become mentors for children’s writing. Writing helps to build and develop reading skills. Our kindergarten and first grade children are actively involved in developing phonemic awareness and phonics skills. When they are working through the spelling of a word during their writing, often using developmental spelling, they are actively applying phonics skills. This has a powerful impact and is much more effective than isolated practice using worksheets. When children access the word wall to use a high frequency word in their writing, they are getting additional exposure to the word. The act of writing the word, which gets reinforced when they encounter it again while rereading their writing, helps the word become part of their sight word vocabulary. Leverage the reading-writing connection in your read alouds, Reading and Writing Workshop mini-lessons, and shared writing. During read alouds, make a point of talking about the author’s craft and the characteristics of different genres. Draw children’s attention to word choice, style, and the structure of different texts you read and create together. Gradually build anchor charts to capture what you are discovering about writing together and connect the ideas you are learning about to children’s own writing. Highlight the efforts of children who are experimenting with different writing styles and genres during share time. Find books to use in your mini-lessons to support children’s instructional needs in writing. For example, if your children are ready for a lesson in punctuation, read Yo! Yes? by Chris Raschka. If the children are overusing the same words in their writing, read aloud Come On Rain! by Karen Hesse. Explicitly teach children to chunk words for both reading and writing by using a book like One Duck Stuck by Phyllis Root. Collaboratively write a text with the children using the shared writing approach. You are doing the actual writing, but the children are contributing ideas and “helping” with the spelling and conventions to the extent of their abilities. Shared writing produces readable text for all children. Display the text of your completed shared writing lesson and encourage the children to read it when they “read the room.” Different Types of Writing Instruction The components of a balanced writing program include modeled writing, shared or interactive writing, guided writing, and independent writing. These four components are based on the principal of the gradual release of responsibility developed by Pearson and Gallagher in 1993. During modeled writing, you are demonstrating how writing works. You write in front of the children, thinking aloud throughout the entire process. Be sure that all the children can see the writing. Modeled writing is likely to occur in mini-lessons and, of course, Message Time Plus. Shared writing is a practice in which the teacher and the children share the responsibility for writing a text. The children’s role is to verbalize the ideas in the text and to contribute to the spelling and writing conventions to the extent of their abilities. The teacher holds the pen and does the physical writing. The writing is usually done on chart paper and written large enough for all the children to see. The level of child responsibility in shared writing can be increased by employing interactive writing instead. Interactive writing follows the same structure as shared writing, except that the children and the teacher “share the pen.” The teacher selects individual children to come up to write a word or even a letter in the message. When shared writing or interactive writing is completed, the teacher and children usually do a shared reading of the text. Guided writing is a notable shift in teacher/child responsibility. In guided writing, the child “holds the pen” and is responsible for doing all of the writing. The teacher’s role is that of support. Teachers coach, scaffold, and support children while they are writing. Guided writing usually occurs during one-on-one writing conferences and small group writing sessions. Finally, independent writing is when children apply all of the important lessons that we have taught them to their own writing. The teacher’s role in independent writing is just to supply time and resources for writing. Independent writing occurs during the work time component of Writing Workshop, in class writing centers, and during journal writing. Reflect on Your Writing Workshop Like any instructional practice, Writing Workshop will benefit from your reflection. Take some time to think about your current writing instruction. What are you doing that is effective? Where do you want to improve your practice? \|1. I have Writing Workshop every day.\| \|2. There is a large meeting area in my classroom to convene mini-lessons and share time.\| \|3. My workshop is predictable and the children know the routines.\| \|4. Materials for writing are organized, labeled, and within the children’s reach.\| \|5. There is a word wall to support the children’s writing.\| \|6. I plan mini-lessons with one primary literacy objective informed by anecdotal notes taken during writing conferences and the children’s writing.\| \|7. When appropriate, I co-create anchor charts with the children to support them during work time. The anchor chart is posted where all the children can see it.\| \|8. Children transition smoothly from the mini-lesson to work time.\| \|9. During work time, I have conferences with two or three children or convene a small writing group.\| \|10. I take careful notes during writing conferences and keep them in an assessment binder.\| \|11. I focus on one teaching point during each writing conference.\| \|12. The children are building their writing stamina over time.\| \|13.There is a five to 10 minute share time at the end of each workshop session.\| \|14. During share time, two or three children get to share their writing.\| \|15. I display writing representing all of the children’s developmental levels.\| Frequently Asked Questions My children don’t like to go back and revise their work. How do I help them improve their pieces? Children who can write narratives with beginnings, middles, and ends (transitional writers) are ready to add revision to their writing process. Make sure children understand the difference between editing and revision. Explain that editing is about making sure a reader can understand the piece by reviewing the mechanics and conventions. Revising is about making a good piece of writing even stronger. Devote a number of mini-lessons to revision. Through shared writing, co-create a text. Spend two or three sessions revising it (better opener, vivid verbs, awesome adjectives, no tired words, etc.). Compare the first draft to the finished piece. Try devoting one workshop session a week to revision (Revision Wednesday?). For share time, pre-select children who made a special effort to revise their writing. Have them share the “before” and “after” of their pieces. I model my writing for my students, and then they just copy what I wrote. How can I help them come up with their own ideas? It’s normal for children to copy writing. It’s part of how they learn! As they gain confidence in their own abilities, and become eager to share their own ideas, they will branch out from the “safety” of copying. You can help children gain confidence by celebrating children’s attempts, showing interest in their lives, and encouraging them to use their own invented spelling. You can also help children by having them brainstorm a list of topics and display it, so the children can refer to the list. Have the children “turn and talk” to tell their partners what they plan to write. Ask the children who exhibit exceptional difficulty coming up with ideas to stay on the rug for an extra minute or two. Check in with each of the children to make sure they have decided upon an idea. You might even ask them to tell the first sentence of their piece. How does spelling and grammar instruction fit into Writing Workshop? Writing Workshop lends itself to the teaching of spelling and grammar because these lessons are taught within the context of actual writing for an authentic purpose rather than through isolated skill practice. Identify which lessons your children need by examining their writing. Then teach mini-lessons to target and address the children’s instructional needs. Co-create anchor charts with the children to help them remember high utility grammar and spelling strategies and concepts. Teach children to use the resources in the room to check their spelling. My children are still working on forming letters and writing their names. Can I still do Writing Workshop? Absolutely! It sounds like your children are in the pre-emergent and emergent stages of writing. One of the things that helps them to grow as writers is many experiences with writing. In your mini-lessons and your daily Message Time Plus lessons, explicitly teach lessons like directionality, word boundaries, and matching sounds with symbols. Be sure to have individual-sized alphabet charts for the children to refer to while they are writing. Encourage them to draw a picture and label it. Many children will start out by labeling their picture with a single letter, but their labels will become more advanced over time. Have one-on-one conferences to zero in on individual needs. Don’t forget share time, an opportunity for the children to show each other what they have accomplished. Do I need to review and grade everything that my children produce? Looking at children’s writing is going to give you the information that you need to provide targeted instruction. So, although you don’t need to grade everything, you really do have to find a way to see as much of their writing as you can. Consider providing each child with a writing folder. Have the children keep all of their writing from Writing Workshop in their folders. Create a schedule that allows you to examine writing folders at regular intervals. The number of papers in a folder indicates the volume of writing that the child is producing. Select one piece to assess with a rubric. Be sure to share the rubric with the children, so they will know how they are being assessed. Using this method, you should be able to assess one piece of writing a week for each child. That is usually enough to document the children’s growth over time. You can also try asking the children to select one piece from their writing folders to submit for assessment. Clear out the writing folders after each unit or once a month. Make sure to preserve the pieces that you assessed with the rubric. How do I manage independent writing time so that everyone is “on task”? To ensure a productive independent writing time, the children must know the routines and procedures of Writing Workshop. Teach procedural lessons, practice and rehearse, and co-create anchor charts. Resist attempting conferences or convening small writing groups until the children know the routines. You must also be aware of the children’s stamina for writing. This is simple to assess. Have them write, and note the starting time. When they become distracted, begin looking around, or start asking to go to the drinking fountain, they’ve reached their limit. Note how long they were able to write. Be assured that their stamina will increase over time. Nevertheless, the amount of time you allocate for independent writing must always be appropriate for their current level of stamina for writing. Walk around between conferences to be aware of what is happening. Make adjustments and offer options for children who need extra support. Finally, have the children self-assess and make goals or plans for improving their productivity during independent writing time. What do I do with children when I meet with them one-on-one in a writing conference? The architecture of the writing conference is research, decide, compliment, teach (Calkins, 2006). During the research part of the conference, you will need to find out what the writer needs. This can be discovered by having the child read their writing to you and have a conversation with the child. Then find something to compliment (i.e., point out something that the child is doing well) and decide what you are going to teach. Remember to teach only one thing. Try to find a concept that the child has partially mastered, and teach that concept. Close the conference by reiterating the teaching point and linking it to the child’s ongoing work.
Nuts are different from most other food items. When planted, the nut contains substances, such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals within the nut kernel to survive and nourish the embryonic nut tree until the roots, stems, and the leaves are developed enough to independently maintain the developmental aspects, such as intake of water and minerals by the roots, and the formation of chlorophyll within the leaves and stems, thus developing into a living organism, that can survive as a perennial tree and reproduce more of its kind. The remarkable, internal, compressed potential within a shelled nut seed offers to the health of mankind a perfect food, containing all the necessary elements to successfully survive for short periods of time. The nuts contain protein, fats, and carbohydrates, being themselves capable of sustaining life for short periods, but the high concentrations of these products can make them somewhat difficult to digest if eaten exclusively in a diet. The nutritional value of nuts is obvious when compared to the completeness of survival capability of nut trees, compared with the nutritional composition and content of such vegetative foods as cabbage, apples, tomatoes, or other leafy annuals. In 1789, George Washington, the nations very first President, made a trip by river barge to Flushing, NY, to visit the nations very first nursery, that was established in the year, 1737. Contained inside this pioneering nursery were nut trees such as: pecan trees....'Carya illinoinensis,' which were among the plants that were protected by troops sent to surround and barricade Prince nursery and to prevent it from being destroyed during the war, and from potentially eradicating this rare collection the pecan species that were growing there.. Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and George Washington shows that successfully, Jefferson grew Carya illinoinensis, pecan trees that produced nuts, some of which he had sent ahead to George Washington who responded to Jefferson from his Mount Vernon, VA., home, "Agriculture is the noblest of all professions. "During the era of the Thomas Jefferson's Presidency, Lewis and Clark, on expeditions of the Northwest territories of the United States, brought back specimen plants roots and seeds, that could be examined and used as quality root stock at the Prince nursery, New York location. William Bartram wrote that in 1793, in his botanical book, Travels, page 38, that identified American plants and animals names and Indians that he had formally encountered and were located just west of Augusta, Georgia. There Bartram also identified the nut tree, 'Juglans exaltata.' When traveling near Mobile, AL. in l773, Bartram wrote, page 437, that he "Observed growing in a garden in Mobile, two large trees of the Juglans pecan, and the Dioscorea bulbifera." Although it is common knowledge that nuts grow on trees, few people know that nuts also grow on bushes. Through the analyzing of the fossil record, it can be proven that on three of the seven continents...America, Asia and Europe, that nuts have been foraged and eaten fresh, or preserved in a cool dark places for centuries. In ancient burial mounds it has been shown that some cultures ground the nuts up into a power, and combined it with flower to add flavor to breads. Also overlooked by many is the medicinal use of the nut and berry plants as a whole. Often in the fossil record is proof that all parts of many kinds of plants were used to make medicines, and to try and homeopathically cure common illnesses and ailments. The geographical range of nut trees covers most of the United States and pecan trees, American chestnut trees, California walnut trees, and shagbark hickory trees are native trees, some occurring as widely distributed natural forests. Hickory trees perhaps cover a wider range, because of the cold hardiness, than any of the other nut trees. Despite the fact of the pecan tree's Southern origin, the nut shows a surprisingly resilient resistance to cold. The pecan tree will live through low temperatures of zero degrees Fahrenheit and other drastic, sudden weather changes. The most satisfactory nut trees grown in the United States on a commercial scale, by backyard gardeners, or by tree collectors are Almond tree, 'Prunus dulcis,' American chestnut tree, 'Castanea dentata,' Chinese chestnut tree, 'Castanea sativa,' Allegheny chinquapin (chinkapin) tree, 'Casanea pumila,' American filbert (hazelnut) tree, 'Corylus americana,' shagbark hickory tree, 'Carya ovata,' pecan tree, 'Carya illinnoinensis,' Butternut walnut (white walnut) tree, 'Juglans cinerea,' California walnut tree, 'Juglans hindsii,' black walnut tree, 'Juglans nigra,' English (Persian) walnut tree, 'Juglans regia,' and Heartnut walnut tree, 'Juglans ailantifolia.' Many tropical nut trees, such as cashew trees, macadamia nut trees, and Brazil nut trees, can not be grown in most climate zones of the Unite States except Hawaii, extreme southern Florida, and extreme southern California. Most nut tasters and food gourmets agree that the shelled pecan is a much more desirable nut in respect to the flavor, cost of production , and an available nut supply over almonds, but the aggressive and cooperative superior marketing promotion of the Almond Nut Association has left the bureaucratic and primitive marketing strategies of the Southern Pecan Association far behind. One advantage gained by almond tree promoters is that all European and Mideastern countries grew and used almond nuts in their food supply for centuries, and pecan nut promoters have not properly distributed and advertised this unfamiliar American product to a massive market exposure, and to those foreign markets to the sampling of the pecan that is necessary to be successful. Pecan shelled nuts also offer tremendous benefits to healthy bodies since their kernels contain extremely high concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids, that are so high in antioxidants, and they protect the heart by removing clogging cholesterols that interfere with blood flow in veins and arteries. A recent cost comparison of shelled nuts showed that almonds cost $6.00 per pound, walnuts $4.50 per pounds, and pecans $9.00 per pound. Nuts offer a delicious, healthy product to world markets with profitable financial rewards to those who choose to plant nut trees and market the the shelled product.
This lesson plan, created by the Center on Congress at Indiana University, is designed to teach students about the federal budget, federal deficit and how deficits and surpluses affect our economy. Students will experience some of the trials and tribulations that members of Congress experience when trying to balance the budget. - The UFR Network - Professional Development Videos - Games and Interactive Media - Other Perspectives - Glossary of Common Terms - Supporting Documents - Mini Lessons Lesson PlansCheck out these links for ready-to-use lesson plans about fiscal responsibility. These lessons include whole-class activities, self-guided simulations, individual assignments and small group projects. The United States Department of the Treasury and the Department of Education recently announced an exciting program for high school students. The National Financial Capability Challenge is “an initiative designed to engage educators in the teaching of personal finance, and to increase the financial knowledge and capability of high school aged youth across the United States so they can take control over their financial futures.” At the Challenge website, teachers can download the Educator Toolkit including free, ready-to-use classroom resources. The registration deadline is March 14, 2010, and the challenge is administered March 15 – April 9, 2010 (educators can choose which day to administer the exam). Educators and the top-scoring students at each school will receive personalized award certificates. The QuickQuest on Federal Budget is a short that WebQuest will lead students to think about the problem of having a national debt, to play the interactive online application Budget Explorer and to write a persuasive essay. In the Balancing Budgets: From Reagan to Today lesson, students will learn the concept of a balanced federal budget, and discuss how two different approaches, a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution and a balanced budget act, address this concept.
Most animals and plants that ever lived died out long before the present. The fossil record reveals that there are several periods of time in the earth's past when the extinction rate was very high (e.g., at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, and the Permian/Triassic boundary) - causing mass extinctions of a large percentage of the species. This category contains sites dealing with the subjects of extinction and mass extinctions in the fossil record. Related categories 3 Animal Extinctions in the Fossil Record: A Developmental Paradigm Article by Vaclav Petr discussing the possible causes of extinctions. The Cosmic Clock, the Cycle of Terrestrial Mass Extinctions Paper by J. A. Marusek. A dual cycle of extinction events is observed and well ordered in geological time. Two primary mechanisms, Oort cloud comet impacts and nearby supernova events are synchronized to the passage of the solar system through the spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. [PDF] Extinctions: Cycles of Life and Death Through Time Covers patterns and periodicity of extinction, with discussions of major mass extinctions and minor extinction events. The Late Devonian Mass Extinction A professional technical paper discussing whether the Late Devonian (Frasnian-Famennian) mass extinction was initiated by an extraterrestrial impact or an earth-bound event. [PDF] Article on a paper by David Raup and John Sepkoski, two respected paleontologists, making the remarkable claim that great catastrophes occur on the Earth every 26 million years, The Role of Extinction in Evolution Paper by David M Raup, Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago. [PDF] Last update:September 8, 2016 at 12:27:28 UTC
Elliott Wave Analysis is a method of technical analysis used to analyze financial market cycles and predict future price movements. It is based on the idea that the market moves in predictable waves or patterns, and that these waves can be used to identify potential price levels and trends. Where Elliott Wave came from Elliott Wave Analysis is a method of technical analysis that was developed by Ralph Nelson Elliott in the 1930s. Elliott was a professional accountant and a student of the stock market. He observed that the market moves in waves or patterns, and that these waves can be used to predict future price movements. Elliott’s theory was based on the idea that the market moves in five waves in the direction of the trend, followed by three corrective waves against the trend. He believed that these waves were driven by the psychology of market participants, and that they could be used to predict future market trends. Elliott’s work was initially met with skepticism by the financial community, but it gained popularity over time. Elliott published his theory in a book called “The Wave Principle” in 1938. He continued to refine and develop his theory throughout his life, and it has since become a popular method of technical analysis among traders and investors. Today, Elliott Wave Analysis is used by traders and investors around the world to analyze financial markets and make trading decisions. It is often used in conjunction with other technical indicators and fundamental analysis to gain a more complete picture of market trends and potential trade opportunities. Chart Waves in details The Elliott Wave theory is based on the idea that the market moves in five waves in the direction of the trend, followed by three corrective waves against the trend. The five waves are labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, while the three corrective waves are labeled A, B, and C. Here is an example of Elliott Wave Analysis applied to a stock chart: In this chart of Apple Inc (AAPL), we can see the five-wave pattern labeled as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, followed by the three corrective waves labeled as A, B, and C. Wave 1 is the initial move up, followed by Wave 2, which is a corrective wave down. Wave 3 is the strongest and longest wave, followed by Wave 4, which is a corrective wave. Wave 5 is the final wave in the direction of the trend. After the completion of Wave 5, the market goes through a correction, which is labeled as Wave A. This is followed by Wave B, which is a corrective wave up. Finally, Wave C is the final corrective wave down, which completes the correction. Traders who use Elliott Wave Analysis look for patterns like this in financial markets and use them to predict future price movements. By identifying the waves and the direction of the trend, traders can determine potential entry and exit points for their trades. It is important to note that Elliott Wave Analysis is a complex and subjective method of analysis, and requires a significant amount of practice and experience to use effectively. What timeframes to use to trade with Elliott Wave strategy The timeframe for Elliott Wave Analysis depends on the trading style and strategy of the trader. Elliott Wave Analysis can be used on any timeframe, from intraday charts to weekly or monthly charts. However, the longer the timeframe, the more reliable the analysis is likely to be. Short-term traders may use Elliott Wave Analysis on hourly or daily charts to identify short-term trends and potential entry and exit points. Medium-term traders may use Elliott Wave Analysis on daily or weekly charts to identify longer-term trends and potential trade opportunities. Long-term investors may use Elliott Wave Analysis on monthly or quarterly charts to identify major market cycles and long-term investment opportunities. It is important to note that Elliott Wave Analysis is not a foolproof method of analysis and should be used in conjunction with other technical indicators and fundamental analysis to make trading decisions. Traders should also use proper risk management techniques to manage their trades and minimize potential losses. Overall, the timeframe for using Elliott Wave Analysis depends on the trader’s personal preference and trading style, and should be tailored to their individual needs and goals.
New Onboard Converter Technology Harvests Auto Engine Exhaust to Generate Electricity The key is something called skutterudite Future cars may eat their own exhaust, converting heat from their emissions into electricity. The conversion can improve fuel economy by reducing an engine’s workload. Purdue University researchers are working with General Motors to build thermoelectric generators, which produce an electric current when there is a temperature difference. Starting in January, the team will install an initial prototype behind a car’s catalytic converter, where it will harvest heat from exhaust gases that can reach 1,300 degrees F. The prototype involves small metal chips a few inches square. The process requires special metals that can withstand a huge temperature differential — the side facing the hot gases stays warm, and the other side must stay cool. The difference must be maintained to generate a current, explains Xianfan Xu, a Purdue professor of mechanical engineering who is leading the research. One of the group’s biggest challenges is finding a metal that conducts heat poorly, so heat is not transferred from one side of the chip to the other. GM researchers are currently testing something called skutterudite, a mineral made of cobalt, arsenide, nickel, or iron. Rare-earth metals can reduce skutterudite’s thermal conductivity even more, but we all know how problematic rare-earths can be; to solve the problem, researchers are hoping to replace them with “mischmetal” alloys. Thermoelectric technology has applications beyond powering cars — they could also be used to harness waste heat in homes and power plants, and they could power new generations of solar cells, Xu said. The work is being funded with $1.4 million from the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy.
History of the HolocaustLunds universitet History of the Holocaust Are you interested in the events that led to the Holocaust and how it is discussed afterwards? Learn more on how the Holocaust influenced political and cultural language in the post-war era discussions, and how the Holocaust relates to other genocides before and after WWII. Selected topics: Background to the Holocaust; the victims of the Holocaust and explaining the Holocaust. The aim of the course is to offer an introduction to the study of the Holocaust, the destruction of the European Jews, its causes and mechanisms. It will offer a basis upon which to seek answers to difficult questions, such as why this tragedy occurred. But, by surveying the circumstances and mechanisms leading to genocide, and especially to the Holocaust, students are also oriented in post-war interpretations and debates. A second aim is to introduce the effects of the Holocaust; in what ways has the Holocaust affected post-war political and cultural discourses, why did interest in this tragedy take so long to develop, and how did it come to occupy such a paradigmatic position in the contemporary West? Related to these questions is the third aim, which is to place the Holocaust in the context of other genocides, committed before and after. Lectures, readings and seminars provide an overview of the Holocaust through empirical and chronological, theoretical and political as well as other perspectives. These are related to each other in order to provide a deeper understanding of the causes and consequences of the Holocaust. The course is given in our humanities and theology centre, LUX. This offers an exciting campus environment with a vibrant student life. Lund University has one of Swedens oldest and largest research library, and the library at LUX is one of 30 libraries within this network. The course is given as a part-time course once a year, during the spring semester (day-time). The course is a free-standing course for beginners. It can be included in a first or second-cycle degree. Lunds universitet har sin naturliga plats bland Europas främsta lärosäten. Som Skandinaviens största enhet för högre utbildning och forskning bedriver universitetet idag verksamhet inom ett brett spektrum av ämnen. På Lunds universitet arbetar cirka 6 800 personer – lärare, forskare, administrativ... Hitta till utbildaren Det finns inga recensioner för History of the Holocaust Var finns framtidens jobb & hur mycket kommer jag att tjäna? Få koll på vad du kan tjäna efter din utbildning och om den branschen är värd att investera din tid i.
New research reveals how the arrival of the first plants 470 million years ago triggered a series of ice ages. Led by the Universities of Exeter and Oxford, the study is published in Nature Geoscience. The team set out to identify the effects that the first land plants had on the climate during the Ordovician Period, which ended 444 million years ago. During this period the climate gradually cooled, leading to a series of ‘ice ages’. This global cooling was caused by a dramatic reduction in atmospheric carbon, which this research now suggests was triggered by the arrival of plants. Among the first plants to grow on land were the ancestors of mosses that grow today. This study shows that they extracted minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and iron from rocks in order to grow. In so doing, they caused chemical weathering of Earth’s surface. This had a dramatic impact on the global carbon cycle and subsequently on the climate. It could also have led to a mass extinction of marine life. The research suggests that the first plants caused the weathering of calcium and magnesium ions from silicate rocks, such as granite, in a process that removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming new carbonate rocks in the ocean. This cooled global temperatures by around five degrees Celsius. In addition, by weathering the nutrients phosphorus and iron from rocks, the first plants increased the quantities of both these nutrients going into the oceans, fuelling productivity there and causing organic carbon burial. This removed yet more carbon from the atmosphere, further cooling the climate by another two to three degrees Celsius. It could also have had a devastating impact on marine life, leading to a mass extinction that has puzzled scientists. The team used the modern moss, Physcomitrella patens for their study. They placed a number of rocks, with or without moss growing on them, into incubators. Over three months they were able to measure the effects the moss had on the chemical weathering of the rocks. They then used an Earth system model to establish what difference plants could have made to climate change during the Ordovician Period. One of the lead researchers, Professor Tim Lenton of Geography at the University of Exeter said: “This study demonstrates the powerful effects that plants have on our climate. Although plants are still cooling the Earth’s climate by reducing atmospheric carbon levels, they cannot keep up with the speed of today’s human-induced climate change. In fact, it would take millions of years for plants to remove current carbon emissions from the atmosphere.” Professor Liam Dolan of Oxford University, one of the lead researchers, said: “For me the most important take-home message is that the invasion of the land by plants — a pivotal time in the history of the planet — brought about huge climate changes. Our discovery emphasises that plants have a central regulatory role in the control of climate: they did yesterday, they do today and they certainly will in the future.” The study was carried out by a team from the Universities of Exeter, Oxford and East Anglia and the John Innes Centre.
Published on 11th March, 2023, in Times of India. Nationalists on social media argue that the Mahabharata war took place 5,000 years ago, in 3,000 BCE, based on verses from 2,000-year-old manuscripts. They believe that Krishna and Arjuna rode a chariot drawn by horses. These ‘textual’ scholars are mostly upper-caste Hindu men, who ignore hard evidence of archeology and ancient DNA from around the world. Anyone who challenges them is ‘Hinduphobic’. Be that as it may, the earliest clear evidence of a horse-drawn chariot is 4,000 years old, and found in burials of Sinthastha culture of southern Russia. The horse entered India, with men who called themselves Arya, around 3,500 years ago, long after Harappan cities had ceased to be. They moved from southern Afghanistan through Punjab and Haryana towards Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh between 1,500 BCE and 1,000 BCE March of horses The Rig Veda contains the world’s oldest poetry on horses. The poets called themselves Arya. The poetry reveals a patriarchal pastoral, and rather violent, people, mostly men. Genetic evidence indicates they began crossing the Hindu Kush mountains and entering the Indus river valley from around 1,500 BCE, and reached the Ganga river basin around 1,000 BCE. This migration happened over centuries and began around 3,000 BCE from present-day Ukraine through Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, to Afghanistan. From north of the Black Sea, they travelled eastwards to the basins of the Ural river, and then via the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor (IAMC) to the Oxus river basin before entering India. To truly understand the Aryas, we must appreciate their pre-historic development in the following cultures: - Yamnaya culture of Ukraine (3,000 BCE) who raised burial mounds, were the first to breed horses for food, and used copper. Burials show men holding copper clubs, inspiring tales of heroes who held clubs and hammers – like Thor and Indra. Did they ride horses? There is scanty evidence. If there was riding, it was primitive, enabling some degree of transport but not war. - Corded Ware culture of Europe (2,500 BCE) known for pots with impressions of cords i.e. ropes, that introduced violent patriarchy to the world. These even stretched eastwards towards the Ural mountains. This culture had a peculiar burial, men lying on the right side facing west and women lying on the left side facing east. Did they ride horses without a saddle or stirrup? Scholars are divided on this. - Sinthastha culture of southern Russia (2,000 BCE) has the credit of truly domesticating horses. They lived in circular settlements, and have the earliest horse-chariots in burials. They probably invented the horse-driven chariot. Before this, carts and wagons were pulled by oxen, donkeys and mules. - The Inner Asian Mountain Corridor (IAMC) of Kazakhstan, a C-shaped path along mountains, going around cold deserts, connecting Altai mountains of Siberia to Hindukush of Afghanistan, suitable for pastoral life, was a major source of bronze, and so key to Bronze Age trading. This corridor took wheat, barley and tin towards China. It introduced the world to trousers, the oldest of which is found in 1,200 BCE. Invented by horse-riding sheep- herding people, it is perhaps the earliest Silk Road connecting to China. - Oxus civilisation (1,700 BCE) of Uzbekistan traded with Harappan cities. Here we find the cities with three walls (tripura) described in the Rig Veda. This region is connected to mountains which grow Ephedra plants known as Soma in Veda and Homa in Avesta. This is where the word ‘bija’ comes from, the Rig Vedic familiarity with agriculture, worship of fire in altars and the use of the word Arya as self-identification. Here we find images of eagles holding serpents. Both the Avesta and the Veda refer to the Hindukush mountains as home of Soma and mountains that could not be crossed by eagles. But the Vedic Aryans clearly did – and never looked back. Generations of foreign wives Steppe pastoralists were nomads. They generally took their wives with them wherever they went. However, men who could not get wives would break away from the family, travel to new lands, with their horses, in search of new wives. This explains the spread of Indo-European languages from Eurasia westwards towards Europe and eastwards towards India. This spread was accompanied by the spread of the Y-chromosome of men, not mitochondrial DNA of women. In other words, the men were foreigners who married local women, and this explains how the language and the stories changed over time. Some parts remained constant; but much changed. Hence Indian culture is very different from European culture, though there is similarity in the grammar and vocabulary of Sanskrit and Latin and a common male DNA strand. Those who left Eurasian Steppes around 3,000 BCE were not exactly the same people when they entered India around 1,500 BCE. In these 1,500 years, 60 generations had passed. Another five centuries i.e., 20 generations would pass as the men we refer to as Vedic Aryas migrated from Indus to Ganga within South Asia itself. Each of these 80 generations involved marriages to local women, foreign women, women who influenced them, changed their culture dramatically with new ideas and stories and technology. But some things were clearly sacred to be transmitted only from father to son – like the Vedas. Note: The idea of endogamy or caste (jati) became widely prevalent in India less than 2,000 years ago. It did not exist when the Aryans arrived 3,500 years ago. Steppe pastoralists were familiar with lands where nights were long and cold, closer to the Arctic, and of times when the Pleiades constellation could be seen before the rising of the Sun, in spring, i.e. 3,000 BCE. As the Steppe nomads travelled, their mothers told them new stories about the arrangement of stars and the movement of planets. The violent hero god who inspired characters like Indra in Vedas and Thor in Europe became one who is fond of Soma, and for whom battles became less about cows and women, and more about releasing water and sunlight. Much of this research was done by Russian scientists in the 1970s. Since this work was in Russian, until its translation two decades ago, much of this knowledge was overshadowed by the works of European and American scholars. But now this knowledge is freely available thanks to the internet.
Andrea can still pump air in the party balloon even though it is already inflated. What explains this phenomenon? A. The air inside the balloon is hot B. Air molecules can be compressed C. Balloons look better if its size is bigger. D. Balloons are made up of plastic. E. The air inside the balloon is light. Compound A is composed of polar molecules while compound B is compressed of nonpolar molecules. If both molecules have the same molecular mass, you would expect that __________. A. Compound A will boil at a higher temperature than Compound B. B. Compound A will boil at a lower temperature than compound B. C. Both compounds will boil at the same temperature. D. Compound A and compound B will remain constant and not boil when subjected to high temperature. E. Compound A and compound B will almost at the same time.
Since July 2022, Europe has been going through severe heat waves. In the United Kingdom, temperatures hit over 40 degrees Celsius, leading to at least 1,500 heat-related deaths and becoming the highest recorded in the country’s history. Europe’s efforts in the heat wave crisis are tackling devastating fires and negative impacts on the health, energy and economy sectors. In addition to the war in Ukraine and subsequent global economic crisis, heat waves most affect low-income populations. Economic Impact of Heat Waves in Europe Europe’s heat waves are occurring in a tense time: The world is still experiencing the coronavirus’ hit to the economy and the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. Europe saw a devaluation in the euro for the first time in 20 years along with skyrocketing inflation. In Italy, farmers state that they are seeing the worst drought in 70 years. In Germany, a major transportation river’s water level has dropped so low that slow shipping is stalling the supply chain. In France, a major utility company stated that three power reactors could not run at total capacity due to the high water temperatures of surrounding rivers. Extreme temperatures are leading to wildfires all over the continent and are becoming expensive. In 2019, the World Wildlife Fund reported that Mediterranean countries spend more than $2 million yearly on fire management, about 80% on suppression and only 20% on prevention. The report also notes that growing wildfires negatively impact workers in forestry and land cultivation, and tourism. Poverty and Heat Waves in Europe The heat wave, drought and wildfires in Europe have also severely impacted the economy for daily living. Prices soared for basic commodities like wheat, rice, maize, potatoes and beets, which need much water for production. Allianz, a financial services company, reports that food and drink prices have risen by about 14% in European countries since 2021. Calling it “heatflation,” Allianz estimates Europeans will soon pay about $243 more per grocery trip. Heat waves are exacerbating energy poverty. Skyrocketing costs in energy products and bills most affect low-income households. They often contend with poorly insulated homes, unshaded neighborhoods and a lack of air conditioning access. Consequently, heat waves negatively impact their health. Europe’s Efforts on Heat Wave Crisis To combat the heat wave, European countries undertook various actions. In southern France, firefighters are evacuating residents from critical areas and creating fire buffer zones by preemptively burning terrain and cutting down trees. Portugal asked for European Union assistance, calling on the EU Civil Protection Mechanism, which delivered emergency help for its wildfires. Other nations are working on financial relief plans to help people with rising inflation. In France, the parliament approved a $20 billion relief package, and nongovernment organizations are aiding vulnerable people who lack access to heat-relief facilities. Despite the scorching temperatures and related deaths, Europe continues these efforts on the heat wave crisis at local and international levels. – Youssef Yazbek
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a common health condition that can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender. They occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract, which includes the bladder, kidneys, urethra, and ureters. We will explore with you the symptoms and causes of UTIs and how they can be treated and prevented. Symptoms of UTIs The symptoms can vary depending on the location and severity of the infection. The most common symptoms include: - Pain or burning sensation during urination: This is often the first symptom of a UTI. It can be accompanied by a feeling of urgency to urinate. - Frequent urination: If you feel like you have to urinate more often than usual, it could be a sign of a UTI. This is because the bacteria in the urinary tract irritate the bladder, causing it to contract more frequently. - Urgent need to urinate: You may feel like you have to urinate urgently, but only a tiny amount of urine comes out. This is because the bacteria in the urinary tract irritate the bladder, causing it to contract before it’s complete. - Blood in urine: If you notice blood in your urine, it could be a sign of a UTI. This is because the bacteria can irritate the lining of the urinary tract, causing it to bleed. - Strong-smelling urine: Urine that smells strong or foul could indicate a UTI. This is because the bacteria in the urinary tract can produce a strong odor. If you experience any of these symptoms, seeing a healthcare provider for diagnosis and treatment is essential. Causes of UTIs UTIs are caused by bacteria that enter the urinary tract. The most common bacteria that cause UTIs is Escherichia coli (E. coli), which is found in the digestive system. Other bacteria that can cause UTIs include Klebsiella, Proteus, and Staphylococcus Saprophyticus. UTIs can occur for several reasons, including: - Sexual activity: Sexual activity can introduce bacteria into the urinary tract, increasing the risk of a UTI. - Urinary catheters: Urinary catheters are tubes inserted into the bladder to drain urine. They can increase the risk of a UTI by providing a pathway for bacteria to enter the urinary tract. - Anatomical abnormalities: Some people may be born with an anatomical abnormality that increases their risk of developing UTIs. For example, a woman may have a shorter urethra, which allows bacteria to enter the bladder more easily. - Menopause: Menopause can cause changes in the urinary tract, increasing the risk of UTIs. - Immune system problems: People with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or diabetes, are more susceptible to UTIs. Prevention of UTIs Preventing urinary tract infections (UTIs) is essential to maintaining good urinary tract health. Here are some practical ways to prevent UTIs: - Drink plenty of water: Staying hydrated is essential for flushing bacteria out of the urinary tract. Drinking at least eight glasses of water a day can help prevent UTIs. - Practice good hygiene: Wiping from front to back after using the bathroom can help prevent bacteria from the anus from entering the urethra. It is also essential to keep the genital area clean and dry. - Urinate frequently: Urinating frequently can help flush bacteria out of the urinary tract. It is vital not to hold urine for long periods. - Practice safe sex: Using condoms and practicing good hygiene before and after sexual activity can help prevent the spread of bacteria that can cause UTIs. - Avoid irritating products: Avoid using harsh soaps, feminine hygiene sprays, and douches, as they can irritate the urethra and increase the risk of UTIs. - Take probiotics: Probiotics are beneficial bacteria that can help maintain a healthy balance of bacteria in the gut and urinary tract, reducing the risk of UTIs. If you are prone to UTIs, working with your healthcare provider to develop a personalized prevention plan is vital. By taking these steps, you can significantly reduce your risk of developing UTIs and maintain good urinary tract health. Cleveland Clinic. “Urinary Tract Infections: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment.” Cleveland Clinic, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9135-urinary-tract-infections. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Urinary Tract Infection.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 6 Oct. 2021, www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/uti.html. NHS choices. NHS Choices, NHS, www.nhs.uk/conditions/urinary-tract-infections-utis/.
This information is intended only to provide general guidance. It does not provide definitive medical advice. It is important that you consult your doctor about your specific condition. What is the stomach and what does it do? The stomach is the hollow organ where food begins to be digested. The stomach produces acid and a digestive enzyme called pepsin, which breaks down protein into smaller substances (digestion). Below the inner lining of the stomach (the mucosa) is a layer of muscle which squeezes and grinds food into thick liquid. The partially digested food then enters the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine, where the digested nutrients from food are absorbed into the bloodstream and the rest of the body. There is a thick layer of mucus that coats the lining of the stomach and, along with special characteristics of the lining, protects the lining of the stomach from injury from the acidic digestive juice inside the stomach. What is gastritis? Gastritis is a disease in which there is inflammation (swelling or irritation) of the inner lining (the mucosa) of the stomach. Gastritis is described as acute if it starts suddenly and lasts a short time and chronic if it lasts a long time. Some gastritis is erosive, in which small breaks (erosions) occur in the lining of the stomach. Gastritis may also be nonerosive, in which there are no gastric erosions. Sometimes the duodenum, the part of the small intestine just beyond the stomach, is also inflamed; this is called duodenitis. What are ulcers (peptic ulcers)? When the gastritis or duodenitis is particularly severe or is left untreated, more extensive injury can develop, resulting in a peptic ulcer, or sore, in the lining of the stomach or duodenum. Gastric ulcers occur in stomach, and duodenal ulcers in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine just beyond the stomach. What causes gastritis and ulcers? - H. pylori (Helicobacter pylori), a bacteria that chronically infects the stomach, usually beginning in childhood, remains dormant for many years until it results in ulcers or symptoms of gastritis or duodenitis. H. pylori is present in 20-30% of Americans and up to 90% of people from developing countries. Many people with H. pylori do not develop problems because of the infection. - Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID's) or aspirin taken frequently for weeks or longer. Some NSAID’s are ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, and meloxicam (brand names: Advil, Motrin, Aleve, Voltaren, Mobic). Alka-Seltzer often contains aspirin and may cause or worsen ulcers. - Severe physical stress such as major trauma, critical illnesses, severe burns, and major surgery. - Alcohol abuse or cocaine use. - Autoimmune gastritis, in which the immune system reacts against normal stomach tissue. - Other diseases such as Crohn's disease, sarcoidosis, food allergies, and syphilis. What are the symptoms of gastritis and peptic ulcers? - Upper abdominal pain (burning, gnawing, dull, or gripping), often worse when the stomach is empty: several hours after a meal or at night. - Nausea and/or vomiting. - Loss of appetite. - Fullness or bloating in the upper abdomen. - Black stools (melena) due to internal bleeding. You should see a doctor immediately if there is unexpected weight loss or signs and symptoms of bleeding or severe anemia, such as: - Shortness of breath. - Black, tarry stools (melena). - Passing red blood from the rectum. - Dizziness or feeling of fainting. - Pale skin. How is gastritis or peptic ulcer diagnosed? Dr. Albert Harary, in his New York City office, may suspect the diagnosis of gastritis or ulcers by taking a medical history. The best way to confirm the diagnosis, check for H. pylori bacteria, and exclude other diseases that can cause similar symptoms, is often the diagnostic test called upper GI endoscopy, or esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy (EGD).) The diagnosis of H. Pylori infection can be made by: - taking biopsies during an EGD. - A stool test for H. pylori. - A urea breath test, in which a liquid containing specially labeled urea, a chemical, is drunk by the patient, after which the patient breathes into a container. The exhaled air in the container is then sent from Dr. Harary's office to a commercial laboratory for analysis. - A blood test for antibodies to the H. pylori bacteria. This test is less useful because it does not distinguish a past infection from an active, current infection and does not reveal how seriously the H. pylori is affecting the stomach. What are the complications of gastritis or peptic ulcers? Most cases of gastritis or peptic ulcers do not result in complications, but they can result in: - Hemorrhage (excessive bleeding), usually manifest by passing black stool (melena) or red blood from the rectum, or vomiting either red blood or blackish (coffee grounds) material. - Anemia, due to gradual, long-term blood loss resulting in iron deficiency. This can result in fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, dizziness, or fainting. - Vitamin B12 deficiency, which can lead to anemia or neurologic disease. - Atrophic gastritis, in which chronic gastritis leads to loss of the stomach lining and glands that manufacture acid and digestive enzymes. This may be accompanied by intestinal metaplasia, in which the cells in the stomach begin to resemble the cells of the intestine. - Gastric cancer or lymphoma. - Obstruction, in which scarring causes narrowing of the junction of the stomach and duodenum, resulting in getting full easily during meals (early satiety), nausea, or vomiting. How are gastritis and ulcers treated? Medications to reduce stomach acid: - H2 blockers such as ranitidine (Zantac), famotidine (Pepcid), nizatidine (Axid), and cimetidine (Tagamet). These must be taken at least twice a day for 1-4 weeks or longer. They are available by prescription or in lower doses over the counter. - PPI’s (proton pump inhibitors). These drugs decrease acid production more effectively than H2 blockers. They include omeprazole (Prilosec, Zegerid), esomeprazole (Nexium), lansoprazole (Prevacid), pantoprazole (Protonix), rabeprazole (Aciphex), and dexlansoprazole (Dexilant). If they need to be taken for more than 2 weeks, it should be under the supervision of a doctor. The over-the-counter forms of these medications are usually not as strong as the prescription forms. - Antacids such as Mylanta, Maalox, Gaviscon, TUMS, Rolaids, and Pepcid Complete. These provide quick relief of symptoms because they neutralize existing acid, but they do not heal the underlying gastritis. Treat H. pylori if present. Treatment requires a proton pump inhibitor plus 2-3 antibiotics taken for 7-14 days. Some treatment programs also include bismuth (Pepto-Bismol). Dr. Albert Harary, in his New York City office, prescribes the appropriate medications and detailed instructions on how to take them. No single treatment program will successfully eliminate all H. pylori infections, so repeat testing for H. pylori is needed if the symptoms come back. Decrease or eliminate NSAID’s or alcohol. Alternatives to NSAID’s include acetaminophen (Tylenol) and celecoxib (Celebrex), which is similar to NSAID’s but less toxic to the stomach. Avoid spicy, fatty, or fried foods, alcohol, and acidic foods/liquids such as coffee, citrus, tomatoes. Stop smoking tobacco. To learn more about gastritis and ulcer treatment and diagnosis offered by Dr. Harary, please contact our New York City office.
Nebraska Literacy Plan The Nebraska Literacy Plan is a tool to guide instruction for students in preschool through high school programs. The Plan is meant to assist districts in developing policies, procedures, and practices that have been proven to make a difference for students who are struggling or are educationally disadvantaged. It is also designed to help identify, support, and move forward those children for whom there is an achievement gap—the very striving readers for whom the grant is named—through quality literacy instruction in the classroom, effective interventions, and a family, community, and school partnership that supports each student in their endeavors. The Nebraska Literacy Plan provides support for districts regarding a balanced system of assessments to inform instruction. The Plan is intended to be a yardstick for educators and administrators to measure the effectiveness of their instruction and interventions, and to plan for future instruction. The Nebraska Literacy Plan is not a state curriculum map, nor does it dictate a specific curriculum. Rather, it has been designed to provide continued support for local control, and to allow district and building leaders to tailor it to suit the needs of their individual districts and schools.
MWC Eco-brief: Pied Billed Grebe Pied-billed grebes are charismatic wetland birds that dive underwater to catch food, such as crayfish, fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic invertebrates. Their nesting habit is especially interesting. In the Midwest, grebes mound wet, decaying plant material to make a nest that is approximately 3 inches above the wetland's surface water level. A parent will sit on the eggs for 15 minutes or so, then completely cover the nest and eggs with wet, decaying vegetation. After about an hour, a parent returns to the nest, completely re-lines the nest cup with wet vegetation, then sits on the nest for 15 minutes again. The temperature in the nest cup is much warmer than the surrounding air and water. It is believed that the wet, decaying vegetation is functioning like a compost bin, which generates stable levels of heat as the vegetative material decays. Covering the eggs with vegetation before leaving the nest also protects the eggs from solar heating. Because the nest is sopping wet, and may even pool water at the bottom of the nest cup, grebe eggs have many more pores than the typical egg. This allows for adequate gas and moisture exchange as the egg develops.
By Casey Honniball, Paul Lucey, and Joan Schmelz Paper: Molecular water detected on the sunlit Moon by SOFIA C.I. Honniball, et al., Nature Astronomy 2020. Researchers using SOFIA have made the ﬁrst-ever detection of the water molecule (H2O) on the sunlit surface of the Moon. This discovery reﬁnes our understanding of the behavior of water and how volatile elements and compounds interact with airless bodies throughout the Solar System and beyond. Water and other volatiles can inﬂuence the internal processes and surface expression of planets. Water suppresses the melting point of rock, promoting volcanism, and reduces the viscosity of planetary interiors, enabling more efﬁcient internal circulation and heat transfer. Water and other volatiles tend to concentrate on planetary surfaces, creating atmospheres, hydrospheres, and cryospheres, and can even dominate the surface geology. The Moon likely formed in a giant impact, stripping it of its initial volatile inventory and allowing it to begin as a "blank slate" for volatiles. This made the Moon a natural laboratory for the study of volatile elements and compounds added later in Solar System history. The hydrogen-rich solar wind and water-bearing meteorites are thought to be the principle conveyors of water to planetary surfaces, but their relative contributions as well as the space-surface chemistry interactions are poorly known. Water has been detected previously in trace amounts in the lunar exosphere and in sparse occurrences as ice in permanent shadow at the lunar poles, but the possible pathways of water through the lunar environment are poorly understood. For decades, laboratory studies have shown that water's cousin, hydroxyl (OH-), can form from the hydrogen in the solar wind and oxygen in lunar minerals. Lunar hydroxyl has been detected remotely in reﬂectance spectra at 3 µm by spacecraft. Recent laboratory experiments have shown that it is possible to form H2O vapor from hydrogen irradiation by adding the energy simulating a meteorite impact. Studies have also shown that water from meteorites can be trapped in the glass formed during the impact. But H2O has never been detected directly on the sunlit lunar surface. In fact, the H2O and OH signals are blended at 3 µm, so these spacecraft observations cannot separate water from drain cleaner. Direct detection of water on the Moon had, therefore, eluded scientists, and new methods were needed to continue the search. The unambiguous water detection was made possible by SOFIA’s unique capabilities and the sensitivity of the FORCAST spectrometer. The fundamental bending vibration of the H-O-H molecular bond occurs at 6.1 µm in the infrared. This region of the spectrum is completely obscured from the ground by water in the Earth's atmosphere, but is highly transparent from SOFIA's operational altitude in the stratosphere. In addition, the spectral feature at 6.1 µm is unique to H2O and does not suffer from blending from other OH-related compounds. SOFIA targeted high lunar latitudes near the South Pole, where the low temperatures could allow migrating water to transiently remain on the surface, and the high hydroxyl abundances could promote creation and trapping of water by impacts of small meteorites. Comparing the 6.1 µm emission band intensity to those of carefully calibrated water-bearing glasses, the team found water abundances of a few hundred parts per million. It is the extreme sensitivity of SOFIA that allowed scientists to detect this miniscule amount of water, which is 100 times less than that in the Sahara Desert. But even this amount of water is high by lunar standards, more in fact than can be adsorbed on lunar grains at the surface temperatures recorded by SOFIA. This result indicates that much of the water must be trapped in impact glasses or within/between grains sheltered from sunlight. These results indicate that the water has a meteoritic origin or is produced on the lunar surface itself from pre-existing hydroxyl. The team also found that the abundance of water varies with latitude, suggesting that meteorites may not be the only source of water. Further observations with SOFIA will create water maps of the nearside lunar surface and gather evidence supporting theories of the origin of lunar water. Observations covering large areas obtained at various times of the lunar day will enable scientists to learn about the storage, retention, and migration of water on the surface of the Moon. Studying lunar water remotely with SOFIA is critical for future NASA missions, including the VIPER lunar rover, a mobile robot that will explore the landscape near the moon’s South Pole in 2022, and the Artemis program that will return humans to the moon by 2024.
In Unpacked, Brookings experts provide analysis of Trump administration policies and news THE ISSUE: After reports that President Trump may have pressed former FBI Director James Comey to end an investigation into the Trump campaign’s ties to Russia, the possibility of impeachment is being discussed by political commentators and even some members of Congress. But history makes it clear that this would involve a long, delicate, and complicated process fraught with significant political and legal ramifications. Presidential impeachment is a very delicate process, and it can take months or even years, but it’s the ultimate way that we can hold the president accountable. THE THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW Founding Director - Center for Effective Public Management Senior Fellow - Governance Studies - Article II of the United States Constitution states that the president can be impeached for bribery, treason, or high crimes and misdemeanors. - Impeachment is triggered by an investigation that begins in the House Judiciary Committee. As a result of its investigation, the committee draws up articles of impeachment, which are then sent to the floor of the House of Representatives for a vote. If the House votes for impeachment, the process moves to the United States Senate for a trial. - There are three examples of presidential impeachments in U.S. history: - The first was President Andrew Johnson in 1868. His impeachment was the result of a serious disagreement with Congress over reconstruction and other political issues associated with it. - Since then, there has been a feeling that a president should not be impeached due to political disagreement, which can weaken the separation of powers. - The next presidential impeachment was Richard Nixon. With Nixon, the issue dealt with obstruction of justice. - The third impeachment vote was for President Clinton over his affair with Monica Lewinsky, which was also related to obstruction of justice. - Presidential impeachment is a very delicate process because of the separation of powers, but it is the ultimate way that we can hold the president or a member of the judiciary accountable. - There are many issues in the Trump administration that could conceivably result in the creation of articles of impeachment. - One issue is the possible violation of the Emoluments Clause, an obscure piece of the Constitution, which states that no person holding office can accept any present (or payment) from a foreign government. President Trump’s continued involvement with his businesses could be seen as a violation of this clause. - If it’s discovered that the president was personally involved in the Russian hacking of the Democratic National Committee that could be grounds for impeachment. - If it can be proved that the president tried to obstruct justice in any way (for instance, by telling the director of the FBI that he should back off his investigations into the Russian connections), that could also be grounds for impeachment. - In order for an impeachment to move forward, a president’s own party has to get on board with an impeachment vote. For that to happen, it would mean that the president’s supporters in the electorate have lost faith in him. This demonstrates that beyond the legal grounds, impeachment has a political dimension. - Impeachment is very difficult. It can take months or even years. - For example, Democrats were calling for Nixon’s impeachment in the summer of 1972, but it took until August of 1974 before articles of impeachment were brought out of the Judiciary Committee and Richard Nixon resigned. His approval ratings were 22 to 25 percent at the time of his resignation. - The legal and political components of impeachment have to move in tandem. - It requires a length of time for people to understand the charges and the issues, and then to decide whether or not they think the problems are serious enough for a president that they elected to be turned out of office. That’s why this takes a while to play out. Trump fires Comey: Shades of Watergate What exactly was Watergate and is it happening again? Elaine C. Kamarck is a Senior Fellow at the Brookings Institution and author of Primary Politics: Everything You Need to Know about How America Nominates Its Presidential Candidates. She is a member of the Democratic National Committee and a superdelegate to the Democratic convention.
By: Ungke Anton Jaya In March 2022, cases of severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology occurred in many countries beginning in the UK and reported in other countries, including Indonesia. Interestingly, those cases turned out negative after a series of testing to diagnose hepatitis A-E and other common pathogens related to hepatitis infection. In some cases, the preliminary test gave a positive result for SARSCoV2, HHV-6, HHV-7, and Adenovirus. Due to the uncertain etiology of the outbreak, an untargeted metagenomics attempt was made, resulting in the most abundant reads of Adeno-associated virus2 (AAV2). The findings were confirmed by PCR-specific assay. (1) This was an excellent example of metagenomics sequencing as an important tool to identify the etiology of infection. Here we will explore further the potential of this method. Metagenomics Next Generation Sequencing (mNGS) DNA sequencing is the method to identify the order of nucleotide sequence of an organism’s genome. This sequence is unique for each organism and can be used to identify a particular organism. If we can identify a piece of DNA fragment sequence and compare it to the GenBank DNA database, we can identify the organism to which the DNA fragments belong. This method can be developed as a tool to diagnose the etiology of infection. Shotgun sequencing is a laboratory technique for determining the DNA sequence of an organism’s genome. The method involves randomly breaking up the genome into small DNA fragments that are sequenced individually. Later, a computer program looks for an overlapping sequence in the DNA fragments, using them to reassemble the fragments in their correct order to reconstitute the genome. (picture 1) Primer is not always required in sequencing with the shotgun method, in contrast with conventional Sanger sequencing which primer is always needed. This shotgun approach is the basic principle for metagenomics sequencing. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology is the second generation of sequencing after Sanger sequencing. NGS generates massive, ultra-high throughput sequences and can be done without pre-knowledge of the sequence target or unbiased sequencing. NGS technology can sequence in parallel any DNA template present in a sample. The platform becomes a revolutionary breakthrough that excites scientists to identify what organisms live in samples as we can identify the organisms simply by detecting the presence of their DNA without culturing. Metagenomics NGS (mNGS) is the study of the structure and function of genome sequences analyzed from all the organism’s microbe, i.e., bacteria, viruses, parasites, in a bulk sample such as on human skin, in the soil, or in water. mNGS platform opens the possibility to reveal 98% of the previously unstudied and uncultured microbiome in the environmental sample, drastically adding new information. The sequence data generated from metagenomics NGS is massive and conducted without the need for prior knowledge of a specific pathogen, which is why it is known as unbiased or agnostic high throughput sequencing. mNGS is a powerful technique that enables the detection of the full spectrum of pathogens present in any specimen in a single test. mNGS can also provide information on the relative abundance of the organism in the sample containing a community of organisms such as the human intestine or skin. The relative abundance can lead to drawing conclusions on the pathogen that may cause the disease. In contrast to metagenomics NGS, the conventional Sanger sequencing requires a primer to start the sequencing process and generates a sequence of 500 to 1000 nucleotide bases length in one direction, forward or reverse only (Picture 2). To sequence a long fragment of a genome, many primers are pre-designed using a reference sequence of the target organism. Sanger sequencing requires both forward and reverse primers to obtain complete sequencing of the targeted genome. Sanger sequencing requires a DNA template that is homogeneous and abundant from a targeted organism that is usually generated through PCR amplification. If DNA templates contain DNA mixtures from many organisms, the Sanger sequencing reaction will generate an unspecific sequence peak that is interpretable. The condition that makes metagenomics sequencing using the Sanger method will be extremely difficult. Sanger sequencing is more suitable to sequence targeted specific pathogens from PCR products. Clinical metagenomics NGS (mNGS) for pathogen identification The metagenomics NGS platform has strong advantage and power to be used as a diagnostic tool for the etiology of infection, including bacterial, fungal, and viral. In reality, it remains a very challenging process until now. The clinical sample is over-whelmed by human cells with a genome size of 3.200 Mb (Megabase) per cell that outnumber compared to microbes, viruses (4 kb to 1.3 Mb), bacterial (0.6 to 8.0 Mb), or fungal (8.97 – 177.57 Mb). The throat swab specimen always contains both human epithelial cells and commensal bacteria that make detection of the viral genome as potential etiology like finding a “needle-in-a-haystack” situation. The effort will be less complicated if clinical samples come from sterile body sites such as serum and cerebrospinal fluid, which normally contain no pathogens. In the attempt to detect the viral genome, following nucleic acid extraction, human genomic can further be depleted by enzymatic reaction, leaving the viral RNA more exposed for detection. Application of metagenomics NGS for diagnosis of bacterial infection can be conducted by targeted sequencing using PCR amplification targeting universal bacterial 16s ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene to increase sensitivity and specificity. This method is not unbiased sequencing but a targeted metagenomics NGS. It is very common that mNGS output normally detects multiple bacterial genome. To determine the etiology of infection, complex bioinformatics analysis and algorithm will be followed, such as whether the bacterial is known as a human pathogen or not and the relative abundance of certain bacterial genomes reflected as the abundance of sequence read/fragment. A similar approach can be used to identify suspects of fungal infection using universal PCR amplification targeting 18s rRNA and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene. The more challenging process is identifying viral infection with unknown etiology since virus does not have a universal sequence. The viral metagenomics approach can be made by PCR amplification using multiplex primer followed by an mNGS assay. For example, mNGS used 285 and 256 primer pairs to identify 46 virus species causing hemorrhagic fevers. (3) or sequencing whole genome virus SARSCoV2 using ARCTIC primer set from clinical respiratory sample. Another approach is using random primer PCR approach that was successfully used to identify viruses in samples from Sepsis cases with unknown etiology. (4) Another viral metagenomics approach is using capture probe enrichment VirCap Seq-VERT that employs ~2 million probes covering the genomes of members of the 207 viral taxa known to infect vertebrates, including humans. The probe set has been commercially available. (5) All approaches apply untargeted or unbiased high throughput sequencing. Development of metagenomics NGS for detection of infection improves very fast along with the growing capacity to do NGS and the decrease in the cost of NGS reagents and consumables. Metagenomics NGS still faces major challenges to becoming a reliable diagnostic tool, with main challenges like assay validation, reproducibility, high cost, long turnaround time, and obtaining regulatory approval. In fact, several groups have successfully validated mNGS in Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)-certified clinical laboratories for diagnosing infections, including meningitis or encephalitis, sepsis, and pneumonia, and these assays are now available for clinical reference testing of patients. In Indonesia, metagenomics NGS for bacteria has been initiated in researching the human gut microbiome and antibiotic resistance gene of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Recently NGS has been used in massive efforts for targeted sequencing of genomic surveillance of SARSCoV2. The activity has provided the country with the infrastructure capacity, instrument, reagent, bioinformatics skills, and experience in NGS application. The NGS capacity has the potential to switch to metagenomics NGS if needed to identify the diagnosis of infection, such as in the diagnosis of acute hepatitis cases with unknown etiology in Indonesia. Clinical metagenomics NGS application for identification of infection still faces many challenges in becoming a diagnostic tool for patient treatment. However, referring to the promising potency, the development of mNGS is currently on the fast track to becoming a powerful tool for diagnosing infection. - Morfopoulou S, et al. GENOMIC INVESTIGATIONS OF ACUTE HEPATITIS OF UNKNOWN AETIOLOGY IN CHIL-DREN. medRxiv [Internet]. 2022 Jan 1;2022.07.28.22277963. Available from: http://medrxiv.org/content/early/2022/07/28/2022.07.28.22277963.abstract - Eric G. Shotgun sequencing definition. National Human Genome Research Institute. (https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Shotgun-Sequencing). - Brinkmann A, et al. Development and preliminary evaluation of a multiplexed amplification and next generation sequencing method for viral hemorrhagic fever diagnostics. PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2017 Nov;11(11): e0006075. - Anh NT, et al. Viruses in Vietnamese Patients Presenting with Community-Acquired Sepsis of Unknown Cause. Journal of clinical microbiology. 2019 Sep;57(9). - Thomas B, et al. Virome Capture Sequencing Enables Sensitive Viral Diagnosis and Comprehensive Virome Analysis. mBio [Internet]. 2015 Sep 22;6(5): e01491-15. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01491-15.
May 7, 2009 A weekly feature provided by scientists at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. Sightseers jam roads and airspace during Mauna Loa's 1949 summit eruption On the afternoon of January 6, 1949, scientists at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 32 km (20 miles) from Mauna Loa's summit, couldn't see the top of the volcano due to heavy cloud cover but they heard deep rumbling sounds from it. Around the same time, island residents with clear views of Mauna Loa saw puffs of fume rising above the volcano's summit. These sights and sounds signaled the beginning of Mauna Loa's second longest summit eruption since 1874. Lava initially erupted from a series of fissures 5 km (3 miles) long that extended across the southwest floor of Moku`aweoweo (Mauna Loa's summit caldera), through the steep caldera wall, and down the upper southwest rift zone. A segment of the caldera fissure also cut through the cinder cone formed during Mauna Loa's 1940 summit eruption. During the first few hours, a nearly continuous line of lava fountains up to 30 m (100 feet) high gushed from the entire length of fissures. By the morning of January 7, only four short fissures remained active. Yet, within 24 hours of the eruption's onset, most of the southern half of the caldera floor had been buried beneath new pahoehoe flows, leaving the 1940 cone protruding as an island above a sea of molten lava. Small fissures outside the caldera—on the uppermost part of Mauna Loa's southwest rift zone-erupted fluid, fast-moving lava flows that advanced westward about 10 km (6 miles). This activity resulted in a short-lived evacuation of Honaunau residents on January 7. By January 9, the eruption was confined to two lava fountains at the southwest edge of Moku`aweoweo. These fountains grew more vigorous over the next two weeks, reaching heights of more than 150 m (500 feet) on January 23, with some lava bursts estimated to be over 240 m (800 feet) high. Frothy lava fragments ejected in the high fountains piled up against the caldera wall and on the caldera rim, creating a conspicuous cone of pumice and fine cinder. Much of the ejecta was also blown west of the cone, where it formed a blanket of pumice several meters (yards) thick, 0.8 km (0.5 mile) wide, and 1.6 km (1 mile) long. Lava flowing eastward from the fountains breached the east side of the cone, forming a pool of molten lava that fed open channels and lava tubes across the caldera floor. Some south-moving flows cascaded into South Pit, a crater adjoining the south side of the caldera. Lava gradually filled South Pit until it overflowed on January 25, spilling to the southeast. This flow advanced almost 9 km (5.5 miles) down the volcano's flank—to about 10 km (6 miles) upslope of Wood Valley—before stalling on January 31. Direct and continuous observation of the eruption was hindered by the difficulty of reaching Mauna Loa's summit at 4,170 m (13,680 feet) above sea level, especially during harsh winter storms, but people flocked to the island to view it from afar. Swarms of planes circled Moku`aweoweo while hundreds of vehicles jammed roads leading to the volcano. There was even a special steamer excursion from Honolulu to allow passengers to view the eruption from the sea. Eruptive activity began to weaken in early February. As the fountains decreased in size, they erupted denser lava fragments, creating a small, double "conelet" of spatter and coarse cinder within the breached pumice cone. On February 5, the lava fountains ceased, and, for a time, the eruption seemed to be over. However, fume rising from the summit was frequently observed through the rest of February and March. On several occasions, a distinct glow could also be seen, indicating that magma remained high in the conduit. Around April 1, the eruption resumed in Moku`aweoweo and continued through the end of May. During this period, continuous quiet effusion of lava built a steep-sided lava cone east of the pumice cone and sent sluggish `a`a flows across the eastern caldera floor and into South Pit. Exactly when the 1949 summit eruption ended is uncertain, but it's estimated to be on June 1. If so, it lasted 147 days—second only to the 560-day-long summit eruption in 1873-74. To see Webcam images of Mauna Loa's summit, go to http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/cams/MLcam/. The Waikupanaha and Kupapa`u ocean entries remain active. After months of surface flows, the lava tube feeding the Kupapa`u entry has established itself. There have been no new breakouts on the coastal plain in nearly two weeks, but there was a minor breakout near the top of the pali in the past week. At Kīlauea's summit, the vent within Halema`uma`u Crater continues to emit elevated amounts of sulfur dioxide gas, resulting in high concentrations of sulfur dioxide downwind. Bright glow and loud vent noises during the past week indicate that a small lava lake is still present at shallow levels below the floor of Halema`uma`u Crater. Visit our Web site (http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov) for detailed Kīlauea and Mauna Loa activity updates, recent volcano photos, recent earthquakes, and more; call (808) 967-8862 for a Kīlauea summary; email questions to [email protected]. Updated: May 12, 2009 (pnf)
The following post is from Australian photographer Neil Creek who will soon be teaching a class in portrait photography in Melbourne Australia, and is developing his blog as a resource for the passionate photographer. Welcome to the seventh lesson in Photography 101 – A Basic Course on the Camera. In this series, we cover all the basics of camera design and use. We talk about the ‘exposure triangle’: shutter speed, aperture and ISO. We talk about focus, depth of field and sharpness, as well as how lenses work, what focal lengths mean and how they put light on the sensor. We also look at the camera itself, how it works, what all the options mean and how they affect your photos. This week’s lesson is The Light Meter. Here’s What We’ve Covered Previously in this Series: In previous lessons we have talked about the basic theory of how a camera works, including some basic optics, and introduced the idea of exposure and how we control it with the exposure triangle. Now that we have covered each of the points of the exposure triangle, it’s time to bring them all together with the tool at the core, the light meter. What is the Light Meter? For as long as people have been taking photos, there has been a need to determine how bright a scene is. Any method of recording light can only work in a relatively narrow band without over or under exposing the image. To find the correct exposure that will record the image without over or under exposing it too much, photographers need to know how bright the scene is. An extremely talented photographer may be able to guess a near-enough exposure, but a light meter is a far more accurate and convenient way to do it. Light meters in cameras react to how intense the light is as seen from the camera. SLRs measure the light (called metering) through the lens – TTL. They collect light that has actually passed through the camera’s lens and measure its intensity. There are problems when the scene has parts that are much brighter or darker than others, for example shadows on a sunny day. This can trick the light meter into measuring the intensity of the light incorrectly, depending on which part of the scene was illuminating the sensor. Modern SLR cameras use multi-point light meters, meaning that several light meters are actually scattered around the projected scene, each measuring the light intensity at that point. Very sophistocated cameras may have dozens of metering points. How much the measured intensity of the light at each point influences the final meter reading depends on the metering mode selected by the photographer. For a more detailed look at metering modes, you can read: Introduction to metering modes. How to Use the Light Meter As we now know, the correct exposure is created by juggling the three points of the exposure triangle: aperture, shutter and ISO. The light meter is the tool that puts us in the right neighbourhood for how these should be set. If you are shooting on full auto, then when you meter the scene – usually done at the same time as focusing, by half pressing the shutter – the light meter gives its best guess for each of these variables. If you want to take creative control of the photo, you can manually set each of the three variables yourself. Typically ISO is left at the default, or previous setting, and you take control by choosing aperture priority or shutter priority. On most DSLRs that’s done by turning the exposure mode dial. If you set the dial to Av – aperture priority, the photographer chooses what the aperture will be, and the light meter adjusts the shutter speed to mantain the correct exposure. The reverse is true for Tv – shutter priority. When using these modes, it’s useful to refer to the exposure meter display on the camera. The exposure meter (display) shows the result of the measurement taken by the light meter (sensor). It will typically look something like this: Each number represents a stop change in the light, as indicated, with the central mark being the “correct” exposure, as determined by the light meter. Each pip between the numbers represents one third of a stop. The arrow underneath indicates how close the current settings are to the correct exposure. Usually in priority modes, the arrow will stay in the middle as the light meter will be able to set the exposure correctly. However, if for example you set your aperture to 1/400sec in Tv (shutter priority mode) and the light meter indicated that you needed an aperture of f4, but your lens was only capable of f5.8, then the exposure meter will display one stop of underexposure. You will need to compensate for this by setting a longer shutter time, or increasing the ISO. The juggling act becomes more complicated, and the light meter’s assistance more valuable, when you go to full manual control of the exposure. Here the exposure meter simply displays whether the current settings will under or over expose the image, according to the light meter. The photographer can freely change any of the values on the exposure triangle, and see the change to the predicted versus recommended exposure. Even though the light meter in your camera is pretty sophistocated, sometimes it can get it wrong, especially with harsh contrasts, or highly reflective surfaces. Changing metering modes may help this, but a more controlled approach is to use exposure compensation. Imagine you are photographing a person against a large bright sky. The light meter thinks the sky is the most important part, and exposes correctly for that, leaving the person a dark silhouette. By using exposure compensation, you can tell the camera to take the metered exposure and make it brighter by a chosen amount. This will then allow the photographer to correctly expose the person. I’ll look at exposure compensation in more detail in a future post. To show you how the different exposure modes might work in real world situations, here are some scenarios. The settings given below are what they happened to be for the examples shown. Settings for your own photo will be different. Scanario 1 – Sports - High speed is needed to freeze action - Use Shutter Priority - Set shutter speed to 1/800sec - The light meter sets the aperture to f10 - If under exposed, change ISO to compensate – ISO400 Scanario 2 – Portrait - An artistic narrow depth of field is desired - Use Aperture Priority - Set aperture to f5.6 - The light meter sets the shutter to 1/160sec - If under exposed, change ISO to compensate – ISO100 Scenario 3 – Night scenery - Ambient light is too low to accurately meter - Use full Manual - Set aperture to suit scene, erring to wider – f11 - Set a long shutter speed to light meter’s best guess – 20sec - Set ISO to lowest possible for correct exposure – ISO100 - Take a test shot and adjust settings if the light meter got it wrong Scenario 4 – Off-camera manual flash - On auto, meter the scene and note settings - Set camera to one or two stops under exposed - Set up flashes and tweak power to expose correctly - Tweak the flashes exposure by adjusting aperture - Tweak the ambient light by adjusting shutter speed - Settings for example shot: 1/160sec f8 ISO125, click image for flash details. - Put the camera in auto mode and half press the shutter. While looking through the viewfinder, pan around a scene and see how the automatically selected camera settings – f ratio and shutter speed – change. This preview will disappear after a few seconds, so half press the shutter again for another look. - Set the camera in shutter priority mode and choose a shutter speed for effect, eg: short for sports, long for motion blur. Shoot different scenes and note how the camera adjusts the aperture to balance the exposure. - Do the same as above for aperture – wide for shallow depth of field, narrow for focus detail at all distances. - Get adventurous and put the camera on full manual. Adjust the camera settings yourself, and watch the arrow below the exposure meter. Tweak the settings to get the arrow in the middle of the meter – half press the shutter while looking at your scene to take a meter reading. - Try to apply what you have learned to make creative photos that take advantage of the different exposure modes.
Ocean & Sea Life: Climate Change Impacts Beneath the Surface 9 minute read Updated on: 14 Dec 2020 Even though our planet is called Earth, 71% of its surface is covered by water. For most of our history, the ocean has been regarded as a nearly inexhaustible resource, so large that we could never affect it. This has led us to mistreat the ocean, filling it with waste and sewage . Combined with the effects of climate change, these represent a serious threat to life in the ocean . You probably don’t live underwater, and maybe you can imagine a diet without fish. So why should you care? The ocean absorbs 90% of global warming It takes much more heat energy to warm 1kg of water by 1°C than it takes to warm 1kg of air by 1°C. In scientific terms, this means water has a very high specific heat capacity. The ocean has absorbed over 90% of the heat energy gained by the planet over the last 50 years. If this energy had been absorbed by the air in the lowest 10km of our atmosphere, we would have seen a temperature increase of around 36°C already! Instead, all that energy has warmed the ocean. Most warming has occurred in the top 75m of the ocean surface, which gained 0.4-0.5°C in 40 years . This is much less than 36°C because of the water’s heat capacity. But that’s not all! The ocean also stores almost 25% of the carbon we emit into the atmosphere. This storage is driven by life within the ocean , and by CO₂ dissolving in seawater . Storing both energy and CO₂ allows the ocean to keep Earth’s climate stable despite human activities. This is known as buffering climate change .
In a previous worksheet on the nervous system, we learned that we need our nervous system to pee! And we also learned that our nervous system consists of nerves and neurones. A neurone has many special adaptations that allow it to be suited to its function. One of these special features is the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is a blanket of fatty cells that cover neurones. This helps to protect the nerve cell from damage and really helps to speed up the transmission of nerve impulses. Neurones don't actually touch. Where neurones meet, there is a gap called a synapse. It's here that a specific chemical passes on the impulse to the next neurone in line. This chemical is called a neurotransmitter. Let's have a look at this process in more detail below: 1. The nerve impulse arrives at the synapse. 2. The chemical messenger (a neurotransmitter) is released into the synapse. 3. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse. 4. The neurotransmitter binds with a receptor on the membrane of the second neurone. 5. The binding of the neurotransmitter and receptor stimulates the impulse down the second neurone. Once the impulse has been passed along, the neurotransmitter is released from the receptor, where it's often degraded by enzymes or taken up again by the neurone it was released from - ready to be used again! In the following activity, you will be describing the function of the synapse.
Many people know the five human senses: sight, sound, touch, smell and taste. However, few have heard about what is widely considered our sixth processing sense: the vestibular sense. This sense controls our visual-motor coordination. The vestibular system constantly provides our brains with information regarding head position and movement, the effects of gravity on our body, and our experiences of acceleration or deceleration. This vestibular sensory input controls much of our physical function, including: - Ability to pay attention - Behavior and impulsivity The vestibular organ is located within the inner ear, deep inside the skull. It communicates with the brain to send signals to the eyes, as well as down the spinal cord to the arms and legs. As you can imagine, this means that our vestibular system helps us maintain balance, posture, coordination, and productive movement. Many people are surprised to learn that our vestibular senses can also affect our ability to pay attention, control our behaviors, and manage impulsivity. The vestibular sense is the first sense to develop in utero, and by the fifth month of gestation, the vestibular system is typically well developed. The movement of the mother’s body provides a great deal of information to the growing fetal brain. Unfortunately, when pregnant mothers are placed on bedrest or babies are born prematurely, the babies’ access to this important movement-based information is reduced. These circumstances can delay a child’s development of key vestibular input systems. Luckily, these delays may be improved through physical therapy and early intervention visual-motor exercises. Once babies are born, they continue to develop their vestibular systems throughout adolescence, which offers plenty of opportunity for pediatric early intervention. Vestibular Functions: What is VOR? The vestibular system works with the eyes to maintain a very important reflex called the VOR (Vestibular Ocular Reflex). The VOR keeps whatever you are looking at in focus, even when you move your head. To better understand this reflex, clasp your hands together and hold your arms out straight. Focus on your thumbnail. As you move your head left, right, up, or down, notice how your thumbnail stays in focus. This is your VOR at work. For those with vestibular difficulties, an underdeveloped VOR would mean that nothing in the child’s visual focus would stay in place whenever his or her head moved. At birth, the VOR is poorly developed. However, if a baby lacks the VOR by 10 months, that is considered abnormal and may require vestibular therapy. VEstibular Function: What is VSR? Another vestibular function is the VestibuloSpinal Reflex (VSR). This allows for automatic, reflexive responses in your arms and legs to help keep your overall balance. These responses develop in the arms first; when a baby is first learning to sit, they start to place their arms forward to catch and prevent themselves from falling forward. This forward reflex is first seen around 6 months of age. At about 7 months old, the baby should be able to put his or her arms out to either side to also prevent falling sideways. At about 9 months old, the baby should be able to place hands behind to prevent falling backwards. Once these responses are developed, the child is very steady in a sitting position, and parents are no longer worried about needing support behind their child for protection. Next, a child develops similar VSR responses in their legs. While learning to walk, toddlers develop balancing techniques such as toe raising (ankle strategy), hip movement, or step taking to adjust their balance and prevent falls. Toddlers often experiment with using these balancing techniques as they develop, and these strategies may remain present for longer in children with delayed motor development. Vestibular Exercises for Early Intervention with Visual Motor Coordination If you’re concerned about your child’s visual motor skill development, here are some ideas to help you stimulate his or her vestibular system. Please use caution for safety with any of these ideas and monitor your child for their reaction to the movement. Some children love movement, while others may be very sensitive and want minimal movement. Watch for your child’s response to determine how to proceed. Start slowly and remember that more is not always better. The age ranges are suggestions, as many of these exercises may be used with different age groups. Vestibular Exercises for Infants Age 0-6 months - Infant swing - Baby wearing - Rocking or cradling - Tummy time, time on back, lying on side - Limit baby’s total time in “containers” i.e. car seat, bouncy seat to 2 hours maximum each day Vestibular Exercises for Infants Age 6-12 months - Roll baby on tummy over a large play ball or small exercise ball to encourage reaching hands towards floor - Encourage rolling on the floor - Rocking chair or rocking horse - Swinging on lap of parent or in outdoor baby swing - Swinging in a hammock Vestibular Exercises for Toddlers 12-24 months - Use of age-appropriate toddler slide - Sit and bounce on ball - Child-safe mini trampoline with handle - Baby yoga - Wheelbarrow walking - Walking outside on grass and gentle slopes Vestibular Exercises for Toddlers 24–36 months - Use of Hippity Hop (a sit-on bouncy ball or animal) - Rolling across the floor - Rolling down a hill - Riding push toys Vestibular Exercises for Toddlers 36+ months - Scooter (wear helmet and protective gear) - Strider bike (wear helmet and protective gear) - Singing songs with motions (i.e. Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes) - Tire swing - Playground activities - Playing Twister - Supervised gymnastics activities For more information or if you have specific questions about your child? Ask our physical or occupational therapists for guidance.
4—Student research on the life of a well-known migrant Ask students (in groups) to research the life of a well-known migrant to Australia. Brainstorm and list headings to guide and categorise their research. The text type will become a combination of a recount of a life and an information report. Discuss features of different types of graphics which could support the written and spoken part of the presentation, such as maps, photographs and media reports. Using the information they find, students construct a multimodal presentation (for example, PowerPoint with music, video, Claymation) to tell the life story of their subject. After viewing the presentations, highlight the contribution of migrants to Australian life. In general, in the Australian Curriculum: English, texts can be classified as belonging to one of three types: imaginative, informative or persuasive, although it is acknowledged that these distinctions are neither static nor watertight and particular texts can belong to more than one category. More on text types can be found on the Australian Curriculum website. Global citizenship in action Najeeba’s story concludes with the words, ‘I have the freedom to tell my story, to raise my voice.’ In Australia we are free to tell our stories, to raise our voices. One way that we can ‘raise our voices’ is to write informative and persuasive letters to our Federal Members of Parliament asking them to ensure that the Australian Government takes good care of asylum seekers and refugees to Australia. Use the information you have learned about asylum seekers and refugees to write a jointly constructed letter. Invite your Federal MP to school and present an informative and persuasive PowerPoint or digital presentation about refugees and asylum seekers and their rights under the 1954 Refugee Convention; see especially material from Get Connected: Issue 8 on The Refugee Convention and The Role of Government.
Protecting species requires an understanding of their population biology and their ecology. The Conservation Research program studies population growth rates, age structures, sex ratios and mortality rates of species of concern including southern sea otters, bluefin tuna and sharks. Those data inform models of future population growth and the vulnerability of these species to harvests, pollution, climate change and other threats. Population Biology of Sharks Sharks are top predators in marine ecosystems around the world, from coral reefs and kelp forests to the open ocean. They reproduce slowly and can't keep up with fishing that claims tens of millions of sharks each year. The Aquarium collaborates with other shark researchers to study the life history of sharks, with a current focus on white sharks in the eastern Pacific Ocean. We use unique markings on sharks to count them, develop sophisticated instruments to record swimming behavior and obtain at-sea video images, document migrations and use our knowledge to inform conservation policies. Tracking the population size of marine animals with large oceanic ranges requires sophisticated methods. We are refining and using a "mark-recapture" method that relies on resightings of sharks identifiable by natural markings on their skin. Population Biology of Bluefin Tuna Bluefin tuna are fast, wide-ranging animals, capable of crossing the Pacific Ocean in 21 days. They can maintain body temperatures warmer than the waters through which they swim, giving them wide access to feeding grounds that are unavailable to cold-blooded fishes. They are also the target of incredibly lucrative global fisheries. And fishing pressure has pushed Pacific Bluefin tuna populations to less than 5 percent of their historic levels. The Aquarium operates the Tuna Research and Conservation Center (TRCC) as a joint enterprise with Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station. The TRCC conducts field and laboratory studies to inform conservation of bluefin tuna. The TRCC is documenting the physiology and migrations of Pacific Bluefin tuna. And we're using this rigorous science to help policymakers understand how best to restore healthy tuna populations across the Pacific. Populations are subsets of species and the most appropriate units for conservation. Distinguishing between populations is often challenging, especially in the ocean. We are using molecular genetics to determine the boundaries of populations and the amount of gene flow between tuna populations. Large seawater tanks at the TRCC and the Aquarium's Animal Research and Conservation Center allow scientists to improve animal care and veterinary techniques, investigate the physiology of swimming and test telemetric tags prior to use in the field. Studies of the cardiac physiology of tunas have provided important new information on habitat use and the impacts of oil contamination on tuna species. Population Biology of Sea Otters Southern sea otters once ranged from Baja California to the Pacific Northwest. Today, they're a threatened species, recovering slowly from near-extinction due to intensive hunting by 19th century fur traders. The species is at 95 percent of the number targeted by a recovery plan but only 20 percent or less of its historical numbers. Recent research by the U.S. Geological Survey and the Aquarium suggests that the sea otter population growth rate is limited in the center of the range by food availability and at the periphery of the range by shark attacks. The risk of a major oil spill in their limited range along California's Central Coast also remains a threat. Population recovery depends on accurate assessment of threats to the health of the population. Our animal care specialists and research veterinarian monitor the health of southern sea otters and their prey. They monitor disease and other health threats and assess the impacts on population recovery. The team has also developed the ability to foster orphaned pups using sea otters from our exhibit as surrogate mothers. Someday, orphans raised in captivity may contribute to population recovery.
The Woolly Mammoths and Saber Toothed Tigers didn't go extinct because of other species. The animals from the Pleistocene perished under unusual circumstances. Hans Krause has published one of the most extensive online researches on the Woolly Mammoth anywhere. He also covers the extinction of other species. Mr. Krause investigates the eating habits, diet, populations, and local conditions of the Woolly Mammoth and other species in great detail. He shows that there were enormous populations of all kinds of wildlife in Siberia just 11,000 years ago. These animals were healthy and had healthy appetites. We know the Woolly Mammoth populations existed for over a million years yet there are relatively few fossil records except for certain periods of time. For the Younger Dryas Period ending just 11,500 years ago, there are thousands of fossils. In fact, most of these fossils are fresh tissue specimens, some complete with hair, skin, muscles, internal organs, and even the food the animal was eating the day it died. It is necessary to ask how there were suddenly thousands of well preserved Mammoth carcasses just 11,500 years ago and not for the 8,000 years prior to then? Why is it that at the time the Woolly Mammoth went extinct we suddenly have an enormous number of well preserved carcasses but not before, except at other times roughly 11,500 years apart? And it isn't just the fact that the carcasses are found around the world, but the conditions in which the carcasses are found are also curious. Not one, but many Woolly Mammoths in Siberia were found frozen solid, suspended in ice and in the upright position. Many Woolly Mammoths were found with legs, tails, trunks, and tusks ripped from their bodies, some were found whole. The mammoths were found near rhinoceroses, tigers, ferrets, reindeer, and many other species. A tail here, a leg there, body parts everywhere and mixed with crushed vegetation and broken trees. In most cases the body parts are otherwise not disturbed (as by predators.) And then suddenly the animal species no longer exist or are extremely decimated, in spite of the large populations just prior to the time of their extinctions. This scenario is not limited to Siberia, but extends around the entire globe. The same species goes extinct in North America, South America, Australia, Africa, Europe, and Asia all at roughly the same time. How is it that we are finding whole Woolly Mammoths frozen in ice in Siberia that are 43,000 years old, 23,000 years old, and 11,500 years old, but not in the intervening years? How can Woolly Mammoths exist in huge numbers (millions in Siberia alone) and leave frozen carcasses only at certain intervals of history? The National Park Service tells us, "The Wisconsinan stage covered much of the northern United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains as recently as 12,000 years ago." But the Illinois State Museum shows us that the Upper Midwest was temperate 16,000 years ago, "This reconstruction is based on the work of many different types of scientists who study various aspects of past environments." According to the Illinois State Museum the climate must have been temperate between the glacial peaks of 20,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago. There's not enough time for a gradual shift from fully advanced ice sheet to temperate climate to another advanced ice sheet according to the current theory of climate change. Given a clean sample, science can nearly pinpoint the year an animal or plant dies based on Carbon 14 dating. So why is there such a disparity of dates for ice sheet coverage? According to the Illinois State Geological Survey, "Because the time of cooler conditions lasted tens of thousands of years, thick masses of snow and ice accumulated to form glaciers." How does the climate go from temperate to peak ice advance in 4000 years when science believes it takes "tens of thousands of years" for continental glaciers to form? According to the Terracycles theory a super storm, having tremendous convection and evaporation causes air to liquefy and fall in pools in the upper atmosphere. It is this sudden rush of liquid air during an intense wet weather disturbance that causes the sudden advance of ice. And if this were the case we would expect to see continental glaciations as radiating from a central source. If the present model of glaciations were correct we would expect to see a more or less even distribution of ice across the continent. The following sketch from the Illinois State Geological Survey shows the glaciers begin from a point and radiate outward as in the liquefied air hypothesis. Look at the sketch above carefully. Does it stand to reason that weather patterns would dump all the snow in one place over a period of tens of thousands of years? Here is another graphic from the University of Southern California depicting ice sheet cover during the Wisconsin. One has to question why it was cold enough and wet enough over Labrador, Canada to form continental ice sheets, but not in Alaska? It doesn't make sense that over tens of thousands of years that it wouldn't snow in Alaska and would only snow over Labrador. We would see signs of deserts in Northern Alaska if it were true. Now let's assume the present scientific hypothesis for glaciations is true. Wouldn't it be reasonable to expect the entire Northern Hemisphere to be under glaciers or ice sheets? Well, that isn't the case. Back 18,000 years ago when North America is covered by an ice sheet, paleoclimatologists tell us Siberia and Alaska are not. According to the Paleo Map Project the earth looked like this. The graphic is deceiving. It almost appears as though the glaciations cover the entire Arctic Circle. But look at the regions on a globe. Only half the Arctic Circle has glaciations! The other half does not. Now what weather model would allow ice to build up on half the planet over tens of thousands of years forming ice sheets while the other half remains with bare ground? There is more solid evidence of the liquefied air theory. If indeed there were a sudden accumulation of ice in a localized spot, and that ice had enough mass to spread from Labrador, Canada to Illinois, then there must have been a terrific strain on the earth's crust along the flow of ice. The Digital Tectonic Activity Map recently published by NASA and GSFC shows several fault features in the Polar Regions of the globe that point to sudden ice flows. Below is a portion of the total DTAM image (on the left) for comparison to the ice flow graphics above. The image on the right is a merged image composed of the DTAM image and ISGS sketch from above. The maps were drawn to different scales so the ISGS image was stretched to show a rough approximation for alignment. It is very clear that the "normal fault or rift" under the St. Lawrence River is in line with the glacial flow from under the Labrador, Canada spill zone. The New Madrid Fault under the Mississippi River corresponds with the glacial ice flow that peaked about 20,000 years ago. The full DTAM image shows three present-day major "normal fault or rift" zones in the northern latitudes. One of these rifts occurs directly under the area of Siberia where the Woolly Mammoths are found. The other is under the North Sea between the United Kingdom and Norway. I speculate that Gulf Stream extent just before the time of the super storm would cause a super storm in these particular areas, which also lead to sudden freezing. The earth has likely bent and rebounded along the rift zones through several ice advances, thus weakening the crust in these areas. The extinctions of at least 11 species of large mammals took place in a very short period of time about 11,500 years ago. The paleoclimate evidence clearly shows that ice sheets began in very specific spots and spread outwards. Even though scientists tell us on the one hand that it takes tens of thousands of years to form ice sheets, other scientists are telling us that North America was temperate 16,000 years ago. And still more scientists tell us the Wisconsinan ice advance peaked just 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Copyright 2000-2018 by Volantis, David
A healthy diet avoiding frequent consumption of food and drink with a high sugar content is key to reducing your risk of tooth decay. It will also help reduce your risk of being over-weight. Using fluoride also helps prevent tooth decay. Everyone should brush their teeth twice a day using a fluoride containing toothpaste. Fluoride strengthens the surface of tooth enamel making it more resistant to acid attack and helping to reverse early decay. It also reduces the ability of plaque bacteria to produce the acid which damages the tooth, causing tooth decay. For children there is also an effect on the growing teeth that are yet to erupt – making the whole tooth enamel stronger and more resistant to decay. Tooth brushing should be supervised for children at least up to the age of seven years. Supervision helps to ensure the correct brushing technique is used and prevents children from swallowing large amounts of toothpaste. Children under three years of age should use only a smear of a toothpaste containing 1,000 ppm (parts per million of Fluoride). Children over three years old, and adults, should use a pea sized amount of a toothpaste containing 1,350-1,500 ppm of Fluoride. Children over 6 years of age, and adults, may benefit from using a daily Fluoride mouthwash containing 0.05% Sodium Fluoride (225 ppm Fluoride), particularly if they are at greater than average risk of tooth decay (e.g. during orthodontic treatment). For children over 10 years of age and adults we can prescribe higher strength fluoride toothpaste if we think you are at greater than average risk of tooth decay. We can also apply topical fluoride treatments using a Fluoride varnish. This can help reduce the risk of early decay progressing to a cavity. It can also be helpful in treating sensitive teeth caused by receding gums or acid erosion.
Have you ever taken the opportunity to marvel at an intricate painting, relax to a delicate piece of music, or ponder a complex poem? Humans pursue creative expression and enjoy creatively produced material every day. Creativity is essential for the arts, for new inventions, and for human expression. How does the brain support creativity? While creativity is all around us and a fundamental aspect of our lives, asking scientific questions about creativity has been difficult. While we can identify creative acts and processes, there has been some trouble testing and measuring creativity. Here, we explore the scientific research of creativity. In particular, we ask what is happening in the brain and in our thoughts in order for us to pursue creative activities. Finally, we explore some myths surrounding the brain and creativity and the benefits that being creative has in your life. Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they didn’t really do it, they just saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while—Steve Jobs What is Creativity? Creativity has long fascinated everyone from artists to philosophers to psychologists. Why do humans feel the need to be creative and enjoy creative material? While creativity is a basic part of human thinking, what counts as creativity and how do we measure it? Creativity is often viewed as a subjective field, meaning that everyone’s personal opinion about creativity is different, so we need to have a really clear definition in order to understand what creativity is. So, what exactly is creativity? While there are many components of creativity, including originality, pleasure, value, process, and imagination, the definition that scientists use to study creativity puts those components together to say that creativity is an ability to produce something that is both novel (or original) and has utility (is valuable to someone). This definition allows scientists to develop of testable hypotheses about how creativity arises from the human brain. How Do We Define Creativity? We all interact with, process, and produce creativity differently, which makes creating a universal definition of creativity very challenging. As Steve Jobs reminds us, even creative people have a hard time seeing the things they think and create as creative! The difficulty in recognizing and defining creativity might stem from the various forms of creative outlets (from the performing arts such as dance and music to the visual arts such as drawing, painting, sculpture, design, photography, and filmmaking). The difficulty may also be due to differences in how people think about the creative thinking processes (Box 1). However, no matter how different our approaches in understanding creativity may be, forming a definition of creativity will help us to understand its various benefits, processes, and expressions. Box 1 - The creative process Steps of the creative process, as defined by the scientist Wallas are as follows: Preparation (or Discover and Listen)—in the first phase, you reflect on your past experiences and any creative work you have made previously in order to prepare to use your creativity in a new way. Incubation (or Design and Create)—after working on the new creative project for a while, sometimes it is a good idea to take a step back and not work on the project for a little bit. Wallas and others have found that many ideas arise after a period of time away from the problem. This phase may be called the Archimedes or Newton phase, where ideas come to you in unexpected places, such as in the bath or under a tree. Illumination (or Develop and Implement)—coming back to the idea, you may find that the problem or creative project “clicks” and the pieces of the idea come together. This is also the time to keep working on the idea or try different variations. Verification (or Deploy and Deliver)—finally, check and see if the idea is new and/or “good.” This may be the stage where a writer looks at the page he has written and crumples up the paper before starting in a new direction. Creativity Can Show Up Unexpectedly Have you ever had an AHA! Moment—one where an idea or solution came to you seemingly out of nowhere? This feeling, defined as insight and sometimes called an epiphany, is one form of creativity. Epiphanies also happen as what we call a “eureka feeling.” The “eureka feeling” actually refers to an ancient Greek scientist named Archimedes, who was tasked with figuring out how to determine whether a crown was made of solid gold or gold mixed with other metals, without breaking the crown. He actually discovered the solution while he was taking a bath! Archimedes noticed that the water level of the bath changed as he got in and out of the tub. He realized that he could calculate the volume of an object by submerging it in water (which is especially helpful for objects with irregular shapes such as crowns). With the mass of the crown already established, Archimedes used the bath water method and the mass/volume = density equation to determine whether the gold crown was pure gold or had less dense (less valuable) metals added. How Do Creative People Think? Creativity does not only make itself known as random ideas and thoughts that seem to come out of nowhere. Other forms of creative thinking include convergent and divergent thinking. In convergent thinking, you combine multiple, sometimes very different, pieces of information and find one solution/thing that links them. The creativity test best known for determining convergent thinking abilities is called the Remote (or far away) Associates (or things that are similar) Test (RAT for short). During the test, you are given three words and asked to think of a word that is related to all three. For example, you would be given the words blue, cake, and cottage. Can you think of a word that links all of them? Was it cheese—as in blue cheese, cheese cake, and cottage cheese? Divergent thinking, on the other hand, involves generating multiple different ideas or solutions from a single starting point. An example of a divergent thinking test is the Torrance Test of Creativity. This test asks you to do a number of tasks with both picture- and word-based problems. Across all of the tasks, you are asked to think of as many solutions as possible within a time limit. In one task, you may be shown a picture (such as that in Figure 1) and asked to think of as many answers to the question “how many uses can you come up with for this object?” What Happens in the Brain During Creative Thinking? So now that you know about three different types of creativity, insight, convergent thinking, and divergent thinking, you might think that the brain processes must be complicated. Previous research has demonstrated that several different thought processes in the brain, including processes called working memory, abstraction, planning, and cognitive flexibility, are all critical to creative thinking. This research has also shown that the ability to develop strategies is a key part of creativity (like thinking of new or unusual ways to use common objects such as unflavored floss to cut cake or cheese when you do not have a knife). Neuroscientists (scientists who study the brain), in their attempt to make a connection between creative thought processes and the parts of the brain that may process them, have defined creativity as requiring the mixing and remixing of mental representations to create novel ideas and ways of thinking If you look back to Steve Jobs’ quote, you will see that he describes creativity in a similar way. Combining and recombining mental representations is simply connecting things in the brain in the way that the brain stores information. In order to understand what combining and recombining mental representations means, think back to your own process while solving the RAT question. How did you search for the answer—cheese? Did you try a few words that did not work at first? What did you do next? Your process of trying some words and then others is an example of mixing and remixing mental representations. Similarly, think back to your process of solving the divergent thinking question. With the cardboard box shown in Figure 1, did you think of ways that you could use a cardboard box? You could make a fort, or store things, or make a sign, or make a giant cardboard robot, or do any number of other things. Creativity in the Brain Recently, the ways we think and the parts of the brain that contribute to creativity have become of interest to cognitive neuroscientists. Since creativity is among one of the most complex of human behaviors, it likely requires the coordination of multiple brain regions and types of thinking. Because creativity is so complex, it seems naive to think that creativity can be localized to a single region in the brain. In fact, only a few neuroscience studies have tried to investigate the regions of the brain responsible for creativity. For a long time, scientists thought that creativity was processed only in the right hemisphere (side) of the brain. However, studies that looked at the activity in the brain while people were doing creative tasks, or in patients who had brain damage that resulted in difficulty with creativity showed that an area of the brain called the frontal cortex (Box 2; Figure 2) was associated with creativity. This seemed to make sense because the frontal cortex processes the previously mentioned cognitive processes (for example, working memory, abstraction, planning, and cognitive flexibility). Box 2 - The human brain does not have one creative center Frontal cortex—the frontal cortex has long been thought of as the hub or center of creativity, as it seems to be responsible for many of the functions that contribute to creative thinking (such as working (or short-term) memory). Hippocampus—the hippocampus is best known for memory of things that you can declare, such as facts and experiences. The processes that the hippocampus performs to process these memories involve storing and retrieving the pieces of these memories from where they are stored in the cortex. In the creative process, similar to remembering experiences by pulling together different parts of the experience, the hippocampus may be used in imagination to pull together ideas in ways that you have not thought of in the past. Basal ganglia—the basal ganglia is a structure deep within the brain. The basal ganglia process the memory of skills and how to do things—often things that we do not have to think about directly, such as riding a bike. With time and practice doing creative tasks, you get better at them. White matter—white matter makes up the connections between various brain structures. The better connected the areas of the brain are, the better and faster the brain can processes information. In the creative process, having a well-connected brain may allow you to bring together more ideas, more quickly. New research has demonstrated that the hippocampus (Box 2; Figure 2) is also critical for creativity. In one study, it was shown that participants who had damage to their hippocampus had lower scores of divergent thinking as measured by the Torrance Test of Creativity . In a second study, it was shown, using the RAT, that convergent thinking was also impaired in patients with hippocampal damage (described above) . Earlier, we mentioned that neuroscientists can define creativity as the mixing and remixing of mental representations. The hippocampus does just this in the mental process that it is best known for, memory. Think back to one of your favorite memories. Maybe it is your last birthday celebration. The hippocampus combines your feelings (joy and happiness to be celebrating with your friends), the scene where it took place (the science museum in your hometown), the actions (blowing out the candles, opening presents), and all of your experiences (seeing all of your friends, smelling the candles burn, hearing Happy Birthday sung) into the memory of your last birthday. How Do Scientists Look at Creativity in the Brain? Previously, we discussed studies that investigated what happens when damage occurs to a particular part of the brain and how that affects the brain’s abilities. Those studies allow researchers to look at the necessity of a particular brain area for a certain ability. In other words, if a part of the brain is damaged or missing, can a person still do certain activities? Another method of investigating the brain uses something called functional mapping, which involves the use of technologies to measure activity in the brain. Two functional mapping technologies are called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which uses magnetic fields to observe movement of blood bringing fuel materials to parts of the brain that have been active, and electroencephalography (EEG), which measures the electrical activity of the brain. In one study, scientists looked at both fMRI and EEG images taken of participants while they worked on different tasks that involved coming up with creative ideas . The EEG study showed that when they were coming up with creative ideas, study participants had synchronized (firing together) brain activity in the frontal cortex and the parietal lobes. In the fMRI study, more creative responses were related to increased activation (or usage) of the frontal cortex in the left hemisphere. Combining the results from the patient studies and functional imaging studies, we see that there are a lot of parts of the brain involved with creative thinking. Brain Myths of Creativity #1: Left Brain and Right Brain? Have you ever been asked if you are left brained or right brained (Figure 3)? This question refers to the idea that each hemisphere of the brain is specialized for different abilities. In general, the left hemisphere has been thought to specialize in understanding words, processing mathematical information, and thinking analytically (the “rational” brain). The right hemisphere, on the other hand, was thought to specialize in processing non-verbal information, spatial information, music, emotions, and creativity. As we see in creativity and other complex functions, a number of specialized structures in the brain work together to accomplish something. Localization of certain abilities to one side of the brain or the other was first found in certain individuals who had the main communication between their hemispheres, the corpus callosum, cut so that each hemisphere was essentially working independently. In most people, however, the two sides of the brain are able to communicate, so while brain structures may have some specialization, most complex brain functions require many parts of the brain working together. Brain Myths of Creativity #2: Creativity and Intelligence Do Not Go Together Similar to the myth that you can only be either left brained or right brained, some think that you can only be intelligent or creative. Intelligence is usually defined as the ability to obtain and use knowledge. While intelligence and creativity are somewhat related, they are not the same thing and people can be both creative and intelligent, or one or the other . Important factors that make people highly creative probably have something to do with personality—things such as openness to new experiences. Brain Myths of Creativity #3: Mental Illness Makes People Creative Some people have suggested that there is a link between creativity and mental illness. This link could be best described as the “crazy creative hypothesis” or the “mad genius hypothesis.” While it may be easy to think of highly creative historical figures who may have been suffering from mental illness, such as the artist Vincent Van Gogh (1853–1890, Dutch painter of The Starry Night), poet Sylvia Plath (1932–1963, American Pulitzer Prize winning poet, author of The Collected Poems, The Bell Jar, and Ariel), writer Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910, Russian author, regarded as one of the greatest authors of all-time, known for War and Peace and Anna Karenina), or others, they represent a small percent of individuals with mental illness and a small percent of people who are creative. Mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, depression, and alcoholism have been studied for their potential link to creativity. The findings suggest that highly creative people are not necessarily mentally ill, but may often think in ways similar to individuals with mental illness. In fact, Nancy Andreasen, a leading scholar on the neuroscience of creativity, who has worked with some of the most intelligent and creative people in modern science and the arts, has suggested that many highly creative individuals who were diagnosed with mental illness were not creative because of the mental illness but were creative despite the mental illness working against them . The Future of Your Brain and Creativity While creativity may be a fundamental human ability and pursuit, the study of the source of creativity in the brain has only just begun, so we still have a lot to learn. While scientists continue to learn more about creativity, one thing we already know is that being creative has a number of benefits (Box 3). So even if we do not know exactly which mental processes or parts of the brain are involved with creativity, we can still suggest that you and your friends should go out and be creative, because it will help you and your brain. Box 3 - Being creative has a number of benefits Helps relieve stress: by becoming involved in a creative practice, you can enter a mental state called “flow” or “the zone” which can help reduce stress levels and leave you feeling calm. You may have experienced a flow state if you have ever lost track of time while doing something you enjoy. Energizes you: by pursuing something that you enjoy, being creative can help give you energy by focusing your attention on something that you like rather than dwelling on the worries or bothers of the day. Helps your emotions: a number of recent therapies, including music therapy, dance therapy, and art therapy, are being used to help patients with different emotional disorders, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. By being creative, you can work through your own emotions and feelings. Increases your empathy and tolerance: viewing art has been shown to increase people’s feeling of empathy and tolerance toward other people who are different from themselves. By being creative and pursuing creative activities, you can learn more about other people and cultures. Increases brain plasticity: your brain makes connections and changes throughout your lifetime. Creating art can stimulate communication between different parts of the brain and having a well-connected brain is thought to be more important for things such as intelligence than the sheer size of various brain structures. So now that you have all this information about creativity—go out and exercise and showcase your own creativity! Many of us think that we are not creative because we might not be good at drawing or do not have great musical abilities, but everyone possesses some degree of creativity within them. The thing that separates the truly creative people is how they chose to showcase their creativity. Some might illustrate their creativity in art forms such as writing, music, dance, and drawing, others might think about and question the natural world in new ways, but all creativity stems from a specific way of thinking. Push your brain to draw connections between seemingly different ideas, as creativity is just thinking outside the box—anyone can do that. Being creative in your thinking will help you lead a more interesting, healthier, and happier life. Subjective: ↑ Based on personal opinions, interpretations, points of view, emotions, and judgment. The opposite of subjective information is objective information—analysis that is fact-based, measurable, and observable. Working memory: ↑ A memory system in the brain with a limited capacity that is responsible for the short-term holding, processing, and manipulation of information. Abstraction: ↑ A thought process that is characterized by adaptability and flexibility. Abstraction involves considering things that may not have concrete things, or specific objects. Example of an abstract concept is, “freedom” and “law.” Planning: ↑ A set of brain functions necessary for the control of behavior. Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing activities required to achieve a goal. Cognitive flexibility: ↑ Allows you to either easily switch between thinking about two different concepts or to think about multiple concepts at the same time. Mental representations: ↑ Hypothetical symbols in the brain that represent the external reality. Mental representations can be thought of as mental imagery, or the ability to imagine things in your mind like traveling to a place you have never visited or doing things you have never done like fly like super hero. Corpus callosum: ↑ A bundle of nerve cells that connect the two hemispheres of the brain. Bipolar disorder: ↑ A mental disorder that involves periods of depression followed by periods of elevated mood. Schizophrenia: ↑ A mental disorder that has a number of different symptoms, some involving abnormal social behavior and problems understanding what is real. Depression: ↑ A mood disorder that involves low mood that affects a person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. ↑ Wallas, G. 1926. The Art of Thought. Turnbridge Wells: Solis Press. ↑ Duff, M. C., Kurczek, J., Rubin, R., Cohen, N. J., and Tranel, D. 2013. Hippocampal amnesia disrupts creative thinking. Hippocampus 23(12):1143–9. doi:10.1002/hipo.22208 ↑ Warren, D. E., Kurczek, J., and Duff, M. C. 2016. What relates newspaper, definite, and clothing? An article describing deficits in convergent problem solving and creativity following hippocampal damage. Hippocampus 26(7):835–40. doi:10.1002/hipo.22591 ↑ Fink, A., Grabner, R. H., Benedek, M., Reishofer, G., Hauswirth, V., Fally, M., et al. 2009. The creative brain: investigation of brain activity during creative problem solving by means of EEG and fMRI. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30(3):734–48. doi:10.1002/hbm.20538 ↑ Welter, M. M., Jaarsveld, S., van Leeuwen, C., and Lachmann, T. 2016. Intelligence and creativity: over the threshold together? Creat. Res. J. 28(2):212–8. doi:10.1080/10400419.2016.1162564 ↑ Andreasen, N. 2006. The Creative Brain: The Science of Genius. New York, NY: Plume.
Cell growth (or interphase) is shorthand for the idea of "growth in cell populations" by means of cell reproduction. It is the stage which cells are preparing for the next division, biochemical activities and reactions are taking place, however no obvious changes can be seen at this stage. Until cell division, a parent cell divides to form two or more new daughter cells. Phase[change \| change source] - First growth phase (G1) - In this phase, new organelles like mitochondria or chloroplasts are made. These organelles help store and provide energy. It also has mechanism to ensure everything is ready for DNA synthesis. - Synthesis phase (S) - DNA molecules are replicated. - Second growth phase (G2) - The cell continues to grow until to its maximum size, therefore energy stores can be increased at the same time. Cell populations[change \| change source] Cell populations go through a type of exponential growth called doubling. Thus, each generation of cells should be twice as numerous as the previous generation. But not all cells survive in each generation, as written by Richard Dawkins in 1997. Cell reproduction[change \| change source] Cell reproduction is asexual. The process of cell reproduction has three major parts. The first part of cell reproduction involves the replication of the parental cell's DNA. The second major part is the separation of the duplicated DNA into two equally sized groups of chromosomes. The third major aspect of cell reproduction is the physical division of entire cells, usually called cytokinesis. Cell reproduction is more complex in eukaryotes than in other organisms. Prokaryotic cells such as bacterial cells reproduce by binary fission, a process that includes DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and cytokinesis. Eukaryotic cell reproduction either involves mitosis or a more complex process called meiosis. Mitosis and meiosis are sometimes called the two "nuclear division" processes. Comparison of the three types of cell reproduction[change \| change source] The DNA content of a cell is duplicated at the start of the cell reproduction process. Prior to DNA replication, the DNA content of a cell can be represented as the amount Z (the cell has Z chromosomes). After the DNA replication process, the amount of DNA in the cell is 2Z (multiplication: 2 x Z = 2Z). During Binary fission and mitosis the duplicated DNA content of the reproducing parental cell is separated into two equal halves that are destined to end up in the two daughter cells. The final part of the cell reproduction process is cell division, when daughter cells physically split apart from a parental cell. During meiosis, there are two cell division steps that together produce the four daughter cells. Immediately after DNA replication a human cell will have 46 "double chromosomes". In each double chromosome there are two copies of that chromosome's DNA molecule. During mitosis the double chromosomes are split to produce 92 "single chromosomes", half of which go into each daughter cell. During meiosis, there are two chromosome separation steps which assure that each of the four daughter cells gets one copy of each of the 23 types of chromosome. Sexual reproduction[change \| change source] Cell reproduction that uses mitosis can reproduce eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes bother with the more complicated process of meiosis because sexual reproduction such as meiosis confers a selective advantage. Related pages[change \| change source] References[change \| change source] - Morgan DO. (2007) "The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control" London: New Science Press. - Climbing Mount Improbable (1997) Richard Dawkins. ISBN 0-393-31682-3
When my children first started playing travel sports, I made many mistakes. I forgot pieces of their uniform, I learned that I should always bring swimwear in case there was a pool, I took a wrong turn on numerous occasions, and I felt the stress of constant travel. I reached out to the more experienced parents on the team and asked for advice. What shouldn’t I forget to pack? What was the best app for directions? How do you manage the “Are we there yet?” queries? Although I was learning along the way, I knew there were challenges that I had yet to discover and that, quite frankly, I did not want to. I needed a few guiding principles to ensure a more successful traveling team experience. As a literacy coach, I find that teachers have just as many questions about small-group word study and alphabetic instruction as I did about traveling sports: How do we know what letter or pattern to teach first? What order do I teach alphabetic skills in? What instructional routines are most effective? As someone who spends much of her time planning differentiated intervention lessons to strengthen students’ alphabetic knowledge, I offer you the following principles to guide your small-group, differentiated word work instruction: You cannot wing it. Teachers know the importance of a carefully constructed lesson, but when it comes to word study, they may have only a general idea of what they hope to accomplish, such as to build words with long- and short-i patterns or to focus on digraphs. Yet, creating an effective word study lesson involves much more. Every decision we make matters, from the goal we choose to the words we select for students to build and the sequence we have students build them in. Ensure that you give your word study lessons the careful planning they deserve. Understand the trajectory of development. To plan thoughtful lessons, we must understand how alphabetic skills develop. If your school uses a word study program, you should plan to follow that scope and sequence to ensure alignment and consistency for your students. But if you are not required to use a program, I recommend following the guidance from Scanlon, Anderson & Sweeney (2017): Typically, students first learn beginning consonants, then ending consonants, and finally, medial vowels. When learning vowels, a suggested sequence of instruction is to start with long and short a, then i, then o, then e, and finally, u. Teachers should understand that letters with stretchable sounds (such as m, s, and f) are easier for students to attend to than letters with stop sounds (such as t, p, and b), and it is beneficial to teach students both sounds of each vowel at once for comparison. If we understand how words work and the typical sequence of development, we can use that knowledge to choose a starting point for our instruction, based on the data we have from the students in front of us. Choose words carefully. Once you have chosen a goal for a group of students, you plan for the words they will work with. If you decide students need to work with digraphs such as ch and sh, you create a list of words that contain those features, such as ship, shin, shop, chop, chin, and chip. But in your brainstorming, you might also list chill, chalk, shout, and show. Those seem like appropriate choices, but if we understand how alphabetic skills develop, we realize that those four words would be inappropriate to include, because development of digraph knowledge comes long before more-challenging vowel combinations. The students would not be ready to build those kinds of words. Once you have brainstormed an appropriate list of words, choose a handful of them to use in your lesson based on your knowledge of the students’ stamina and the lesson time available. Make available only the letters needed to build that particular set of words, to avoid loss of instructional time hunting through a mound of letters. The sequence of word building matters. This is often the most overlooked step in planning word study instruction. It is imperative that you carefully sequence word building to help students attend to the feature you are working on. If working with sh and ch digraphs, many teachers will have students build a sequence of words that might look something like this: ship, shin, shop, chop, chin, chip. Let’s think about this for a minute. Here is what we know about word work: the part of the word that moves is the part that students attend to. If students move from ship to shin to shop and then move from chop to chin to chip, they are primarily moving the rime (ending part) of the word, giving that their attention. To focus students’ attention on the digraph, they must move the digraph. If we reorder the list of words to have students build ship to chip to chin to shin to shop to chop, then we are moving the digraph as well, something we must do to call students’ attention to it. If working with vowels, many teachers have students build all the words with the short-vowel sound first and then words with the long-vowel sound: mat, hat, fat, mate, hate, fate. Here, students are focused only on moving the initial consonants, not on the vowels, which inadvertently places their attention there. Instead, try something like mat to mate to fate to fat to hat to hate. See how students’ attention is now focused on how the e changes the vowel sound? The order in which we have students build words is critical. Students must build, read, and write words. Simply building words in our lessons is not enough: students must also read and write them. Developmentally, building words from a select group of letters is easier than reading them, and reading them is easier than writing them. So, a good rule of thumb when planning lessons is to have students first build words, then read words the teacher has built, and finally, write them. This way, students are engaging with words in multiple ways and across different contexts. Just be sure to vary the words across building, reading, and writing to encourage problem-solving and application. This is essential if we are going to have students apply their new learning to future reading and writing situations. Here is an example for working with long and short i: Words to build: bit, bite, kite, kit, hit, him, dim, dime Words to read after the teacher builds them: dim, dime, time, tide, hide, hid Words to write: kite, kit, sit, site, side How do we put it all together? Over time, and with practice, I devised a traveling template to remind me of all the items I had to pack and remember for each weekend trip. This printed reminder was critical to my traveling success. Similarly, planning templates can support our teaching lives. Whether your small-group instruction is explicitly focused on word study skills or is embedded within a larger guided reading or supported reading setting, you might find this template handy. Notice the simplicity of it. I did not adorn it with chevrons or cute graphics. Instead, I focused on the most important elements of our teaching so they could take center stage, an important lesson for our teaching as well. Avoid lesson materials that are patterned, colorful, or “prettified,” because students will focus their attention on those items rather than the actual letters and sounds. Although those kind of selective cues might initially be helpful for emerging readers, they do not sustain more complex literacy work later on. So, there you have it. Just as I benefited from tips from fellow traveling parents, I hope these guiding principles help you successfully plan for your small-group word study lessons with greater expertise and ease.
What’s Your Child’s Learning Style? If you put three people in a classroom and ask them to memorize an informational list, it is very likely that they will each go about it in different ways. That’s because we all gather and retain information best based on our own unique learning styles. These styles are fairly evident even from a young age, so at Apple Tree, we do our best to pinpoint a child’s ideal learning style and teach to it. The three basic learning styles that education experts agree on are visual, auditory and kinesthetic or tactile. Visual learners say, “seeing is believing.” They do best when they can look at the board, write down notes and use flashcards. It may be difficult for visual learners to pay attention and retain information that the teacher simply says. Visual learners are often strong readers but exhibit less reading comprehension when listening to audiobooks. Auditory learners, on the other hand, are often the sort of people who have to “talk it out” in order to remember. While their visual brothers and sisters prefer to read the instructions before a test, auditory learners do better when the teacher gives them the steps orally. Kinesthetic/Tactile learners are the most hands-on of the basic three types. Manipulatives, memory games and science experiments make it easier for kinesthetic learners to absorb information. There are, of course, many variations in the way that children and adults learn most effectively. Some people are an even mix of all three main learning styles, but most are dominant in one or the other. Teachers and staff at Apple Learning Centers are trained in observing children to understand how they learn best. From there, we provide age-appropriate instruction through diverse mediums so that visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners get the most out of their Apple Tree education. Call or contact your nearest center today to schedule a tour.
Martin McCoustra, ScotCHEM Chair in Chemical Physics, Heriot-Watt University Since the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the lower orbit around the Earth has become an increasingly congested environment with more than 2,200 satellite launches to date. Those satellites — along with launch vehicle components and debris from mechanical disintegration, collisions and explosions — now fill this region with a "fog" of space debris. And it's getting busier. In the last few weeks, SpaceX has launched 60 new satellites as part of its Starlink program. This brings the total to more than 500 Starlink satellites in low Earth orbit as part of a program that aims to bring cheap, satellite-based internet access to everyone. Eventually, this program could place nearly 12,000 satellites in orbit around the Earth. The debris ranges in size from a few microns to many meters. Stuart Grey, an aerospace engineer at the University of Strathclyde, has produced a stunning visualization that highlights the more than 20,000 objects over 4 inches (10 centimeters) in size now orbiting the Earth (see video above). But there are many millions of particles 0.04 inches (1 millimeter) in size and smaller. Closing our window on the universe? Amateur astronomers are already expressing concern over the increasing number of bright, moving objects in the night sky. But the worry is perhaps much greater for the professionals. Crowding in low Earth orbit has inevitable consequences for ground-based astronomers. Bright surfaces on satellites can reflect rays from the sun — giving rise to a burst of sunlight directed towards the surface of the Earth. Such intense bursts of light are much stronger than the weak light sources typically being observed by astronomers and will impede observations of distant objects in space. Billions have already been spent on existing optical telescopes, and many more billions will be poured into new platforms in the next decade, such as the European Extremely Large Telescope being built on the Atacama plateau in Chile. There is intense competition for observing time on such resources, so any potential threat from satellite reflections must be taken seriously as they may make some of the observations driving our understanding of the evolution of the universe impossible. SpaceX has assured the public that Starlink will not contribute to this problem and says it has been taking steps to mitigate the impacts of its satellites on observational astronomy — even to the extent of testing whether a black coating on its satellites can reduce visibility, and adjusting some of the satellites' orbits if necessary. With some 3% of its planned constellation launched, SpaceX is at least responding to the concerns raised by astronomers. Hopefully other agencies planning satellite constellation launches will also be upfront with their plans to reduce this serious problem to astronomical observation. But crowding in low Earth orbit also has consequences for satellites and other space vehicles, including those designed to carry humans. To achieve orbit, satellites seek a balance between their speed and the effect of Earth’s gravity on them. The speed with which a satellite must travel to achieve this balance depends on its altitude above Earth. The nearer to Earth, then the faster the required orbital speed. At an altitude of 124 miles (200 kilometers), the required orbital velocity is a little more than 17,000 miles per hour (about 7.4 km/s). Any object shed by a satellite or other vehicle in orbit will maintain the same orbital speed. Collisions between such objects can therefore occur at combined speeds of potentially up to 34,000 mph at 124 miles (if it is head-on). The effects of such impacts can be serious for astronauts and space stations — as the dramatic opening scenes of the 2013 movie "Gravity" depict. There is impact shielding on satellites and space vehicles which is designed to stop objects smaller than 0.4 inches (1 cm) crashing into them. At best, the shielding will do so — though the electromagnetic impulse created may interfere with electronic systems. At worst, larger pieces of space junk could penetrate the vehicles. This could result in internal damage and disintegration that threaten the safety of the mission. Space agencies such as NASA and ESA have therefore established orbital debris research programs to observe such debris and develop strategies to control its effects. There is little doubt that, with the increasing use and commercialization of space, we boost the risk of catastrophic events associated with orbital debris. Agencies, both state and commercial, must recognize this and support efforts to reduce the likelihood of such events by taking steps to remove existing debris and reduce the potential for further debris by removing redundant satellites and other space vehicles. For example the RemoveDEBRIS satellite uses an on-board harpoon to capture junk. Only when we resolve the problem of space junk will our window on, and pathway to, space be truly fully open. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher.
Indian-Origin Scientist Helps Develop Technique to Identify Stressed Corals A school of fish swim above a staghorn coral colony as it grows on the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Cairns, Australia. REUTERS/Lucas Jackson/Files Coral reefs provide habitat which support much of the ocean's biodiversity and anchor the food chains and ecosystems. Additionally, coral reefs are vital to some of the most important fish stocks in the world. - Trending Desk - Last Updated: January 05, 2021, 15:40 IST - FOLLOW US ON: Scientists have developed a novel technique to identify heat-stressed corals. The new way found by researchers could prove helpful to marine biologists. The information can help the scientists pinpoint and diagnose what makes the coral species the most vulnerable to global warming and what can protect them from climate change and its repercussions. The Rutgers-led study, published in the journal Science Advances in January, will aid conservationists to forge targeted marine protections. Professor Debashish Bhattacharya from the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology in the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, said in a news release that it is the same as taking a blood test to assess human health. The senior author elucidated that the coral health can be assessed by measuring the amount of metabolites produced by them. Warming waters result in coral bleaching which is a global ecological disaster. Sensitive diagnostic indicators need to be developed to ensure reef health. It gives room for pre-emptive conservation efforts and can be helpful in monitoring reef health before the visible stage of bleaching. Coral reefs provide habitat which support much of the ocean's biodiversity and anchor the food chains and ecosystems. Additionally, coral reefs are vital to some of the most important fish stocks in the world. Coral reefs provide coastline protection from flooding, storm surges and erosion. Threats to the corals brought by the warming ocean waters include coral bleaching and disease, sea-level rise, unsustainable fishing, a more acidic ocean, damage from vessels, marine debris, invasive species and tropical cyclones. For the new study, researchers examined how Hawaiian stony corals react to heat stress, with a goal of recording metabolic, or chemical and indicators of stress. The produced metabolites were analysed and compared with other corals not subjected to heat stress. Algae, which live in symbiosis, abandon their coral homes to flee when the water temperatures are very high. Coral gets colour from the algae which forms a mutualistic relationship with them. So, when the algae leaves the residing skeletal cavities, the corals are left vulnerable losing colour. This results in a white appearance, potentially, the loss of reefs and this phenomenon is what we know as coral bleaching. The recent lab experiments, performed on heat-resistant as well as heat-sensitive coral species, revealed they respond to heat stress by producing unique metabolites. The research team is currently busy validating their coral diagnosis results and developing a "coral hospital" featuring a new lab-on-a-chip device, which could monitor coral health in real-time.
A chaotic classroom can hamper a teacher’s ability to educate and hinder a child’s ability to learn. Our resources provide tested and proven strategies for prevention and intervention of disruptive classroom behaviors. Our goal is to help teachers create and maintain a classroom community that is respectful, engaged and learning. From advice on how to help a child who is acting out, to helping a child cope with the loss of a loved one, to bullying prevention activity ideas, both new and seasoned early childhood educators will benefit from the creative strategies for addressing problematic behaviors in the classroom featured in our resource books. With the transition to more inclusive classrooms, general education teachers are often co-teaching children with special needs including autism and ADHD. Inclusive classrooms offer many benefits but can also pose unique challenges and behavioral concerns. In our resources, you’ll find practical approaches to managing behavior problems in children with special needs. In addition to strategies for addressing problematic behavior, our resources provide insight on how to design a classroom environment to positively influence all areas of young children's development. Our resources for teachers are filled with ideas and suggestions for learning centers that will create rich exploration opportunities and enhance any educational environment.
Syllabus for Electrical & Allied Engineering Exam Group – JE Basic concepts: Concepts of resistance, inductance, capacitance, and various factors affecting them. Concepts of current, voltage, power, energy and their units. Circuit law: Kirchhoff‘s law, Simple Circuit solution using network theorems. Magnetic Circuit: Concepts of flux, mmf, reluctance, Different kinds of magnetic materials, Magnetic calculations for conductors of different configuration e.g. straight, circular, solenoidal, etc. Electromagnetic induction, self and mutual induction. AC Fundamentals: Instantaneous, peak, R.M.S. and average values of alternating waves, Representation of sinusoidal wave form, simple series and parallel AC Circuits consisting of R.L. and C, Resonance, Tank Circuit. Poly Phase system – star and delta connection, 3 phase power, DC and sinusoidal response of R-Land R-C circuit. Measurement and measuring instruments: Measurement of power (1 phase and 3 phase, both active and re-active) and energy, 2 wattmeter method of 3 phase power measurement. Measurement of frequency and phase angle. Ammeter and voltmeter (both moving oil and moving iron type), extension of range wattmeter, Multimeters, Megger, Energy meter AC Bridges. Use of CRO, Signal Generator, CT, PT and their uses. Earth Fault detection. Electrical Machines: (a) D.C. Machine – Construction, Basic Principles of D.C. motors and generators, their characteristics, speed control and starting of D.C. Motors. Method of braking motor, Losses and efficiency of D.C. Machines. (b) 1 phase and 3 phase transformers – Construction, Principles of operation, equivalent circuit, voltage regulation, O.C. and S.C. Tests, Losses and efficiency. Effect of voltage, frequency and wave form on losses. Parallel operation of 1 phase /3 phase transformers. Auto transformers. (c) 3 phase induction motors, rotating magnetic field, principle of operation, equivalent circuit, torque-speed characteristics, starting and speed control of 3 phase induction motors. Methods of braking, effect of voltage and frequency variation on torque speed characteristics, Fractional Kilowatt Motors and Single Phase Induction Motors: Characteristics and applications. Synchronous Machines: Generation of 3-phase e.m.f. armature reaction, voltage regulation, parallel operation of two alternators, synchronizing, control of active and reactive power. Starting and applications of synchronous motors. Generation, Transmission and Distribution: Different types of power stations, Load factor, diversity factor, demand factor, cost of generation, inter-connection of power stations. Power factor improvement, various types of tariffs, types of faults, short circuit current for symmetrical faults against earth leakage / over current, etc. Buchholz relay, Merz-Price system of protection of generators & transformers, Switchgears and Protection: Rating of circuit breakers, Principles of arc extinction by oil and air, H.R.C. Fuses, Protection protection of feeders and bus bars. Lightning arresters, various transmission and distribution system, comparison of conductor materials, efficiency of different system. Cable – Different type of cables, cable rating and derating factor. Estimation and costing: Estimation of lighting scheme, electric installation of machines and relevant IE rules. Earthing practices and IE Rules. Utilization of Electrical Energy: Illumination, Electric heating, Electric welding, Electroplating, Electric drives and motors. Basic Electronics: Working of various electronic devices e.g. P N Junction diodes, Transistors (NPN and PNP type), BJT and JFET. Simple circuits using these devices.
What is hematuria or blood in the urine? Hematuria is a medical term which indicates the presence of blood in the urine. This condition is described as gross hematuria when the blood is visible to the eye, or microscopic hematuria when the blood is undetectable by the human eye, but is seen under a microscope during laboratory testing. Microscopic hematuria is generally discovered incidentally (as a by-product) during a urinalysis. What causes blood in the urine? Men, women and children can all experience incidents of blood in their urine. Blood in the urine should never be ignored, but should be diagnosed as soon as possible. In reality, there are several factors that may cause this condition: - Urinary tract infection - Infections or disease in the kidneys, bladder or prostate gland - Kidney stones - Bladder stones - Intense exercise - Injury to a kidney or other organ in the urinary system - Sickle-cell disease (a common type being sickle-cell anemia) - Kidney cancer - Bladder cancer - Catheter use - Menstruation cycle How is blood in the urine diagnosed? When blood is found in the urine, a urologist will look for an underlying cause. Depending on the type of hematuria a patient has (gross or microscopic), testing may include: - Physical exam - Urine test (Urinalysis) - Urine cytology - Pelvic exam - Rectal exam – For men who might have an enlarged prostate. - Blood test - Imaging – CT scan - Cystoscopy – A scope that allows the physician to look into the bladder. How is blood in the urine treated? Treatment options will depend on the the underlying condition that is producing the blood. This is best determined by a thorough examination, a review of symptoms, the patient’s medical history, and laboratory results. Depending on findings, treatment options may include: - Antibiotics or other medications to treat infection or a disease state. - Referral to a specialist – if a blood disorder is detected. - Treatment of kidney or bladder stones. - Treatment of kidney or bladder cancer. - No treatment – if it is related to the menstruation cycle. If you can visibly see blood in your urine, you should schedule an appointment as soon as possible. Contact Urology Austin to schedule an appointment at one of our convenient locations.
Perched on a mountain ridge overlooking the Urubamba Valley in the high Peruvian Andes, Machu Picchu is one of the most famous archeological discoveries in the world. This World Heritage site, constructed by the ancient Incas, receives thousands of visitors per day looking to explore the legacy of the largest empire of pre-Columbian South America. While the allure of this site can be attributed in part to its remarkable state of preservation and impressive archeological qualities, it also stems from the mysterious history of “The Lost City of the Incas.” The Incas built Machu Picchu in approximately 1462 AD at the height of their power, but the site was abandoned less than 100 years later during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. However, despite the invasion, the sacred site was unknown to the Spanish due to its carefully hidden and well-protected location in the high Andean terrain. While other Incan establishments in the lower Urubamba Valley were raided and plundered by the Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro, Machu Picchu remained concealed amidst the jungle – where it would remain hidden for the next 400 years. While Andean locals knew of Machu Picchu’s existence, the ancient citadel wasn’t revealed to the rest of the world until American explorer and historian Hiram Bingham “rediscovered” the site in 1911. Bingham, who was in search of the Inca city of Vilcapampa, was led to the hidden citadel by a local Quechua boy. After his discovery, the historian referred to the incredible archeological find as “The Lost City of the Incas.” Despite a century of examination and scholarship, the purpose of Machu Picchu remains a mystery. Located 80 kilometers northwest of the Peruvian city of Cusco, the ancient capital of the Inca Empire, the most common theory proposes that the site was used as a retreat for the Incan emperor Pachacuti. Due to its location on an impassable ridge 1,300 feet above the Urubamba River, it remains unlikely that the Incas would have used the complex for any type of administrative or commercial purposes. Other theories maintain that the site was used as a military outpost, or as an important religious center. While the exact function of Machu Picchu remains shrouded in mystery, the ancient site’s superb archaeological ruins and breathtaking Andean setting will surely continue to entice visitors for many years to come.
The relationships you build with students will impact their performance. The six pictures activity can help you get to know them while increasing student engagement and enhancing your instruction. This versatile strategy helps students: - Consider multiple aspects of the content - Organize and remember information - Distinguish key information from supporting details - Provide support for an answer - Deepen their understanding of content - Demonstrate organized planning As you select instructional strategies based on desired outcomes and intentional use, you’re sure to find that there’s no “one best way” to approach instruction. A specific strategy may not always be connected to a particular element, but this versatile technique is useful for multiple applications. Let Students Do What They Love Best: Talk About Themselves! Instruct them to: - Fold their papers in half vertically and then in thirds horizontally to create six boxes. - Identify six key events or experiences that have impacted their lives. (Inform them that they will be sharing their responses with the class.) - Draw pictures and/or write phrases about these key events or experiences, recording one per box. - Share their responses in a small group or with the entire class. This is a great way to establish a sense of community and level the playing field for struggling learners. Not only are you developing positive relationships and building students’ enthusiasm for content, but you’re also gaining valuable information that you can use for intentional planning. English language arts teachers can use the six pictures activity to explore literary works. Put students in small groups or in pairs, or have them work individually, and ask them to use the six-picture framework to process, elaborate on, and review information. This strategy is both flexible and adaptable. You can give younger learners choices between pictures or phrases, or ask struggling students to come up with headings for the boxes before they start citing evidence from the text. They can examine similarities and differences as well. Have them: - Use the top of the paper for information about specific text and the bottom for generating descriptions of how these key events or traits relate to their lives. - Use the bottom to make comparisons between additional texts, such as poetry or works of different genres (this skill is required by college and career readiness standards). - Compare two outcomes, characters, or approaches to a problem described in the text. If you’re teaching a social studies class about why the United States and Russia are considered “superpowers,” students might use the six-picture format to compare leaders, government systems, or events. Identifying and Processing With six pictures, students can identify the critical content in the lesson and record it in the boxes. Sorting and identifying main ideas and listing supporting details helps them work through all of the verbiage and helps you connect the work to the learning goals for the unit or chapter. If you’re introducing new information, break the content into appropriate chunks, allowing students to complete a box or two at key intervals as they process the information. Once everyone becomes accustomed to the six-picture format, you’ll really be able to perfect your use of this strategy, but plan carefully ahead of time, determining how you will: - Incorporate it into intentional planning to reach desired outcomes - Group students for the activity - Differentiate or mediate scaffolding for struggling students Would you like more insight and classroom strategies to increase rigor? Grab your team and join us for an upcoming webinar. They’re free, they’re fun, and we promise you’ll take away fresh ideas that you can put to immediate use in the classroom. See them here.
The Lines of Nasca, or geoglyphs, are giant geometric shapes (triangles, trapezoids, parallel lines) and biomorphs (birds, plants, and mammals) delineated on the surface of the desert. The geoglyphs were constructed by clearing the surface of small stones darkened by desert varnish, exposing the lighter-colored soil beneath. The majority of the geoglyphs have been dated to the Nasca Culture which inhabited southwestern Peru 0 to 700 A.D. In 1996, David Johnson proposed a new explanation for the function of some of the geoglyphs based on his fieldwork and observations in the Nasca River drainage. This new hypothesis is based on the strong spatial correlation observed between faults crossing the alluvial valleys, the positions of archaeological sites, the locations of aqueducts, springs and high-yield wells and the geoglyphs, particularly the geometric forms (Figure 1). Johnson argues that some of the geoglyphs mark the path of aquifers that carry water through geological faults. This is not an unreasonable explanation given the geologic setting. This area of Peru is located in one of the most active seismic zones of the world. Faults are common. These faults are an integrated and interconnected network that can collect water in one part of the region and conduct it across the valleys to locations where it can be reached by digging puquios or wells, or to locations where the water table is high enough for springs or seepage to be present on the surface (Figure 2). Due to insufficient surface water in the river system, the ancient inhabitants of the drainage settled in locations adjacent to geological faults because the springs and water resources associated with these features provide a more reliable source of fresh water during the dry season than the rivers. Thus, the ancients marked their water supply distribution system with geoglyphs just as a modern city delineates its underground utilities with maps. The purpose of this research is to test Johnson's hypothesis. This research will examine the relationship between the geoglyphs and the limited water resources in this arid region of Peru. return to top Development of the Hypothesis The hypothesis proposed by Johnson has evolved over four years of field work. During the summer of 1996, Johnson began his study of the water resources of the Nasca Valley. The purpose of his work was to help the local people find new sources of water to augment existing supplies. Up to this point, the prevailing thought concerning groundwater availability was that most of the groundwater obtained from local wells or from the aqueducts (puquios) in the region was derived from water flowing in the gravels of the river valley a few meters below the ground surface (Schreiber and Lancho, 1995). They also argued this water was moving down valley parallel to the rivers in an east-west direction. Schreiber and Lancho (1995) have also suggested that many of the hills adjacent to the valleys have promontories that jut out into valleys in the subsurface. These subsurface promontories consist of impermeable bedrock causing the subterranean water moving in the gravels beneath the rivers to be become ponded or temporarily redirected. They contend the ancients utilized this natural damming effect by constructing aqueducts at these locations thereby creating infiltration galleries to capture some of this ponded groundwater. The fact that much of the groundwater moves parallel to the river in the gravels is reasonable except Johnson found some inconsistencies that could not be explained by this model. For example, the puquios (age uncertain), which are located throughout the Nasca valley, always flow continuously even when other wells which tap the subterranean water in the river gravels have long since failed. Why would the puquios continue to flow unless they were tapping an independent source of water? Johnson began mapping the location of all the puquios and the position of all the high yield wells in the area. What he found was a strong spatial correlation; where there were puquios there were clusters of high-yield wells that were reliable sources of water throughout the year. Wells having very low yields or that dried up periodically were not associated with the puquios. This led Johnson to speculate that there must be an alternative source of groundwater entering the river valleys other than the subterranean water moving down the valley in the river gravels. Water levels in high yield wells located near the valley walls were substantially higher than the water levels in wells constructed near the river. This suggested that groundwater was moving north-south or perpendicular to the river rather than east-west or parallel to the river and indicated that some of the water entering the valley may be discharging from the north or south through the bedrock. The only way groundwater could be entering the valley from the bedrock is through a fault or discontinuity that exhibits a high degree of permeability and transmits water. Faults or fractures are often very transmissive and can supply large quantities of fresh water to local inhabitants. Field work in the foothills adjacent to the valleys indicated evidence of fault activity including striated fault plane surfaces, fractured rock and extensive mineralization. The faults traversed the foothills in a north-south direction until they intersected the river valleys. For example, one fault was observed extending from the Socos river valley, across the Aja and Tierras Blancas river valleys to Cerro Blanco (see Figure 1 for locations). At Coyungo water was observed discharging from a fault into an aqueduct cut into the valley wall. So a second pattern emerged; where there were puquios and reliable, high-yield wells, there were faults entering the valley at those locations. Soon another correlation began to emerge. Everywhere there were faults, high-yield wells and/or puquios, Johnson found that the faults and availability of fresh water were clearly marked by geoglyphs. For example, trapezoids were found to lie directly over the trace of faults and the width of the trapezoids defined the width of the fault zone capable of transmitting groundwater as concentrated flow. Triangles, referred to as pointers, pointed to areas where the faults crossed the ridges or hilltops. Examination of the bedrock exposures at these locations usually revealed evidence of faulting. Numerous examples of geoglyphs marking the path of faults and subterranean water can be found in the Río Grande de Nasca drainage including Cantalloc, Aja, Orcona, Vista Alegre, Usaca, and Cerro Colorado to mention a few (Figure 1). The last correlation that Johnson noted was that there were always archaeological sites affiliated with the geoglyphs, geologic faults, puquios and wells. Over the course of four years, a systematic survey of archaeological sites has been conducted in the vicinity of the city of Nasca and from Usaca on the Río Trancas, down the Río Nasca to its confluence with the Río Grande, and then down the Río Grande, past Coyungo, to the oasis of Maijo Grande (Figure 1). Over 128 archaeological sites were recorded over this period, many of which were at or adjacent to natural springs emanating from faults high above the valley floor. The most important of these were at Usaca, Coyungo and along the lower Nasca Valley near Agua Dulce. Thus, the strong spatial correlation among archaeological sites, aquifers, high yield wells/puquios, geologic faults and geoglyphs was solidified into one unifying hypothesis: some of the geoglyphs mark the location and path of subterranean water. In other words, the ancients simply made a map of these features much like a municipality in modern times assembles a utility map of its water supply distribution system. In addition, the juxtaposition of faults, subterranean water and geoglyphs is evident in every drainage of the Río Grande basin in southwest Peru. return to top For additional reading, see Bibliography
Published at Saturday, May 04th 2019. by Eglantina Gregoire in Worksheet. Printable Synonyms and Antonyms Worksheets, In these worksheets, students are tested on their ability to identify a synonym (a word that has nearly the same meaning) or antonym (a word that has the opposite meaning) of a given word. While it helps to have knowledge of word meanings, this is not completely necessary in most cases. Rather, students can rely on their use of logic and verbal reasoning skills to answer questions correctly. Divided Syllables Worksheets. Below you’ll find our complete list of divided syllables worksheets. In these worksheets, students must find the word that has been divided into syllables correctly based on how it is spoken or pronounced. It is important to note that this is often different than how the word is simply broken down into syllables as listed in a dictionary. Learning to divide words into spoken syllables teaches students to identify words based on their vocal parts. It also shows them the correct pronunciation of a range of various word sounds when written in conjunction. Using these worksheets with your students will enable them to more readily pronounce new words correctly in the future, even those they have never seen before. We hope you found everything you needed on our website. Just remember that this is copyrighted work to be used only by teachers in school or at home. Binding, bookmaking, and or collation of our worksheets, reproduction and or duplication of our worksheets on other websites, and or use of our worksheets for commercial gain is strictly prohibited. People often wonder about the effectiveness of analogies. What do they teach? How do they work? Why are they so useful? What makes analogies so effective is their ability to get students to think critically. In order to answer an analogy question correctly, the student has to form a logical relationship, or ”bridge” between two words. They must think about how the words are related. Since words represent particulars (not universals), there is a nearly infinite number of ways they might be related. It is the student’s job to narrow this number, and focus on the most essential relation — the most basic aspect of the word’s function or definition. This page contains analogies worksheets. In these worksheets, students must be able to recognize the relationship between the words in a word pair and to recognize when two word pairs display parallel relationships. To answer an analogy question, you must formulate the relationship between the words in the given word pair and then select the answer containing words related to one another in most nearly the same way. Each question has five answer choices, and 12 questions total. Download our free guide, “120 Grammar and Vocabulary Mistakes to Avoid,” by entering your information into the signup form. This grammar guide, updated for 2019, is our most complete offline resource. I don’t think it’s a bad thing to teach kids to sit for a few minutes and complete a simple pencil-and-paper assignment. And for young kids, I mean it when I say “a few minutes.” Thirty minutes is not a few. Worksheets might be a useful assessment tool. If your child is doing a worksheet on a learned skill, you might see what he understands and what you need to revisit. In the early childhood community, however, some educators believe that worksheets are inappropriate for this age level and may not tell you what a student truly understands. My kids like them. Wait, doesn’t this contradict a point I made above? Not really. If my kids want to sit at the table while I’m making dinner and do a few worksheets, I don’t have a problem with that. It can be relaxing for them. It’s not a replacement for other learning because I wouldn’t be teaching right then anyway… and I don’t have the space or time to set up a big hands-on learning center while the stove is on, the baby is crying, and the toddler is hanging on my leg. This understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text. Humans are thought to have a set reserve, an established threshold for attention and absorption of information, commonly referred to as processing capacity. This being the case, it is generally believed that proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. Many educators in the United States believe that students need to learn to analyze text (comprehend it) even before they can read it on their own, and comprehension instruction generally begins in pre-Kindergarten or Kindergarten. But other US educators consider this reading approach to be completely backward for very young children, arguing that the children must learn how to decode the words in a story through phonics before they can analyze the story itself. The reason why reading comprehension is such an effective learning tool is that, like art, it teaches students to manipulate particulars in attempt to represent the universal. Worksheets do not teach. They check what kids know. If someone handed me a basic calculus worksheet and said, “Here you go. This will help you learn calculus,” I’d be at a complete loss. Now if I got on the phone and called my twin brother (for whom calculus is simple math), he could talk me through it and I might have a chance of understanding it. Please keep this in mind when handing your child a worksheet. If it’s a new skill, sit right there and coach him through it. Worksheets can be a cop-out. Sound a little harsh? My opinion is that teachers and homeschooling who rely on worksheets are choosing not to find ways to really challenge and interest their kids. It’s the easy way out.Worksheets might not allow higher level thinking. Most worksheets have just one right answer, or one way to complete them. If we consistently keep our kids inside a box, they won’t be able to stretch. Teachers who use worksheets may not be teaching what their students are ready to learn. It really, really makes me cringe when a teacher or homeschooling parent has an entire year’s worth of worksheets printed and ready to go before the school year starts. (And yes, I’m including per-printed workbooks here.) How do you know that’s what your child will need to learn? Maybe your first grader struggles with addition in August. But she could have a firm grasp on it by December. Are you still going to give her all those per-printed worksheets or have her complete every page in that workbook? Challenge her with something new. These word definition worksheets will help your students to practice and learn the most useful vocabulary words at their grade level. Not only will these words make your students better readers and writers, but they will also enable them to score higher on the most popular standardized tests. Below you will find our full list of printable word definition worksheets to be used by teachers at home or in school. Just click on a link to open a printable PDF version of the desired worksheet. We hope you find them useful. Oh hey, and don’t forget: the following are samples taken from our sister site, Read Theory. This is a powerful educational tool created to improve reading comprehension for all ages and ability levels. On this website, students can take quizzes, earn achievements, track their progress, and more. And better still, we’ve implemented a teacher login where teachers can monitor students progress using powerful statistical analysis. Any content, trademark’s, or other material that might be found on the Kiches website that is not Kiches’s property remains the copyright of its respective owner/s. In no way does Kiches claim ownership or responsibility for such items, and you should seek legal consent for any use of such materials from its owner. Copyright © 2019 Kiches. All Rights Reserved.
Do you have 5 minutes? Select from the following a topic your child has shown interest in. Here are ideas for starting conversations, extending purposeful play, capitalizing on curiosity, and having fun in day-to-day interactions. Don’t try everything in these lists at once. Follow your child’s lead, building on that inquisitiveness incrementally, revisiting a topic with new suggestions for an observation, a comparison, measurement, or experiment. Repetition and practice promote learning. These ideas should help you to stay one-step-ahead in helping to grow wonder and understanding. For more information, please also read the “What is Guiding Curiosity” page, or the our book for sale titled “Guiding Curiosity: Nurturing the Young Scientist.” We hope you enjoy sharing these activities with your child. Consider exploring the world of frozen water. This time of year, your child can discover fascinating things about ice and snow (snow flakes) – especially if you live where winter brings this delight right to your doorstep. If not, then maybe some creative fun putting things into the refrigerator can work too. Snow, specifically individual snowflakes, is actually geometric arrangements of tiny particles of ice. They are typically not single crystals but complex geometric arrangements of many ice crystals [...]
Reading for IELTS is divided into 12 units. Each unit focuses on a topic area that you are likely to meet in the IELTS exam. This helps you to build up a bank of vocabulary and ideas related to a variety of the topics. As in the IELTS test, the texts are taken from authentic sources. These may contain narratives, logical arguments, descriptions or discussions. Some of texts contain visuals. Unit 1-11 cover the types of question that you will see in the IELTS test. Each unit focuses on a particular type of question, for example, matching question, short-answer questions, completion questions, multiple-choice questions, questions asking you to identify information or identify writers' views or claims. The exercises in the unit are relevant to the test. The aims listed at the start of each unit specify the key skills, techniques and language covered in the unit. You work towards Unit 12, which provides a final practice IELTS Reading test. Additionally, the book provides examination strategies telling you what to expect and how best to succeed in the test. Exam information is presented in clear, easy-to-read chunks. "Exam tips" in each unit highlight essential exam techniques and can be rapidly reviewed at a glance.
Shapes are everywhere! A few basic shaped include a rectangle, circle, triangle and octagon. There are many more than just these four but in this lesson we will focus on how often you see these four shapes! 1) A RECTANGLE is a 4 sided figure with 4 right angles. The sides are not all the same length, the two sides parallel to each other are the same length and the other 2 parallel sides are also the same length. If all the sides were the same, it would be a square. 2) A CIRCLE is a shape with a set of points in a plane that are a given distance from a given point (the center of the circle). 3) A triangle is a 3 sided figure with 3 corners or vertices. 4) An OCTAGON is a polygon with 8 sides of the same length and 8 angles the same size. I hope you learned a lot about four of the basic shapes we see each and every day and next your outside, see how many shapes you can find!
Quicksand and other non-Newtonian fluids share properties with both liquids and solids. Non-Newtonian fluids consist of tiny grains suspended in liquid, with the appearance of a solid or gel. Stand on quicksand and you will sink (though not as rapidly as movies and cartoons suggest). But strike it quickly and it will briefly harden. Previous explanations of quicksand behavior relied on the presence of containment walls and effects like grain dilation under stress. However, a new experimental study challenges prior assumptions, showing that new concepts may be needed to explain non-Newtonian fluids. Scott R. Waitukaitis and Heinrich M. Jaeger at the University of Chicago created a quicksand-like substance called "oobleck" out of cornflour and water, which they then struck with an aluminum rod. By measuring the position, speed, and acceleration of the rod as it interacted with the oobleck, they determined that its solidification arises from compression that propagates away from the impact point. By using a huge amount of fluid (25 liters), the researchers showed the bizarre non-Newtonian effects were independent of the size of the container, so the presence of confining walls is irrelevant. Through X-ray imaging, they discovered a nearly cylindrical solid region forms directly below the impact point. The detailed analysis led the authors to develop a simple model for the impact, which bears striking similarity to models for objects falling into liquids, but produces very different effects. This may have been the most carefully monitored bowl of starch ever devised. In the experiment, the researchers mounted the aluminum rod using guide rails to make sure it impacted along a single axis. For different trials, they either dropped the rod (free fall) or used a slingshot to drive it more quickly downward. The rod was fixed with an accelerometer, and the whole process was recorded on high-speed video to measure the instantaneous position, speed, and acceleration. The grains of the cornflour in the oobleck are irregularly shaped and range in size from 5 to 20 microns (0.005 to 0.02 millimeters), which is typical of quicksand and other non-Newtonian fluids. Additionally, the suspension contained tracer particles that could be imaged with X-rays; motion within the oobleck could be tracked with the tracers. The authors positioned a force sensor directly below the rod at the bottom of the container to examine how the impact distributed itself through the fluid. They also used a laser line across the surface to determine how its shape changed. To measure the effect of container size, the researchers tested fluid containers ranging from 8.5 cm to 20.5 in depth. They found that the rod experienced a rapid deceleration upon impact with the surface at the same point in time, regardless of the container depth. However, shallower containers experienced a rebound effect: after a time, the rod began accelerating upward again. Additionally, X-ray images showed the tracer particles didn't spread much to the sides in the region immediately below the rod. Instead, they moved as a nearly cylindrical unit, acting almost like a second rod within the suspension. This plug of material was surrounded by a conical region where the suspension flowed outward and upward in response, lifting the surface slightly beyond the impact zone (as shown in the image above). After some time, the plug "melted," restoring the suspension to its usual quasi-liquid state. Combining their data, the researchers constructed a simple model for the suspension, including the size of the solid-like plug and the conical displaced mass. The equation bore some similarities to ordinary fluid displacement models, again demonstrating the hybrid nature of suspensions. It also contrasts greatly with the usual approach to non-Newtonian fluids, where the walls of the container play a role and, instead of generating a nearly cylindrical plug, the force distributes itself along angles. The physical picture of the process is clear: momentum from the impact was carried directly downward, and rebounded when it hit the bottom of the container (if it had sufficient time to do so before melting). While the study used cornflour for simplicity and cost-effectiveness, the authors argued the similarity in grain size and shape should make their model applicable to other suspensions.
Chinese scientists say they’ve accomplished something that’s long been a goal in the world of regenerative medicine—giving someone a new, perfectly compatible (external) ear, freshly grown in the lab. What makes the feat a world-first is that the ear was made using that person’s very own cells. The experimental procedure was performed on five children, ages six to ten years, with an underdeveloped ear, a condition known as microtia. Currently, the only cosmetic treatments available involve grafting on a synthetic ear, which can be rejected by the body, or an ear roughly sculpted out of rib cartilage by a surgeon, which often looks less than natural. The researchers created a 3D-printed replica of each child’s normal ear (obtained via a CT scan), but with the dimensions reversed. This replica was then used to create a mold littered with tiny holes and made out of biodegradable material. The mold was filled in with precursor cartilage cells taken from the children’s deformed ear that were further grown in the lab. Over 12 weeks, the cells started to grow into the shape of the mold, replacing bits of it that had already disintegrated. This part-ear/part-mold was then grafted onto the children, some of whom required their own 12-week long procedure that stretched out their skin wide enough to accommodate it. The first surgery was performed two and a half years ago on a six-year-old, with the latest operation taking place just two months ago. So far, the ears have stayed put, with no signs of the body inadvertently absorbing or rejecting the material. Cartilage has also continued to gradually replace the mold, resulting in a more natural-looking ear over time. The team’s results were published in the journal EBioMedicine. “It’s a very exciting approach,” Tessa Hadlock, a reconstructive plastic surgeon at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary in Boston, told New Scientist, which first reported on this research. “They’ve shown that it is possible to get close to restoring the ear structure.” Scientists have been trying to grow the perfect ear replacement for decades. They’ve been partly inspired by the so-called earmouse: A photograph taken from a 1997 study (which at least one of the current study’s researchers co-authored) that seemingly showed a lab mouse with a human-looking ear growing out of its skin. The ear was actually just cow cartilage shaped to look like one that was grown on a ear-shaped scaffold and grafted onto the mouse, but it nevertheless seeded the idea (and for some people, fear) of someday being able to mass-produce needed body parts and organs. According to Professor Bruno Peault, a regenerative medicine expert based at the University of Edinburgh in the U.K. as well as at UCLA, creating a new ear from scratch has also been a tantalizing goal because of how relatively simple it would be. Ears are basically just cartilage and skin, so it’d be a stepping stone in learning to bioengineer tissue that can be readily accepted by the body. “It’s a relatively low-hanging fruit,” Peault said, who is unaffiliated with the current study. Peault and his colleagues in the U.K. and U.S. have been working on a similar project using 3D-printed scaffolds to grow new ears. Their method, however, uses stem cells purified from the patient’s fat tissue that can be guided into becoming cartilage cells. Ideally, Peault said, these cells, rather than the precursor cells taken from the ear that the Chinese scientists used, would make for a more stable base on which to build a new ear from. “They’re using something that’s not as pure, but may still work,” he said of the Chinese team’s methods. There is one advantage scientists living in China might have over other researchers like Peault. “In general, things progress faster in countries like China, because the regulations needed to get to clinical trials are much more looser than they are in the U.S. or Europe,” he said. “In the U.S., it’s a long, difficult, sometimes very frustrating, and expensive [process].” Peault’s team is still collecting the research needed to win approval for human trials of their method; it might be another one to two years before that might become a reality. Regardless, he is ultimately heartened by the new findings and what they mean for his field. “Certainly there is a bright future for these strategies,” he said. Meanwhile, the scientists behind the current study plan to monitor their patients for at least five years, in order to make sure the ears stay intact even after the scaffold has completely broken down. They also hope to refine the procedure to avoid the complications seen with some of their patients, like scarring and a slight deforming of the new ears over time.
Clouded leopards—named for their large, cloud-like spots—are rare. They are medium-sized (a bit bigger than a housecat) tree dwellers with big teeth and big paws that let them hang upside down among the foliage. In 2006, scientists used DNA studies to determine that there were two species of clouded leopards: Neofelis nebulosa, which lives on the Asian mainland and is the subject of a breeding program at the National Zoo (producing some of the world's most adorable kittens), and Neofelis diardi, the Sunda clouded leopard, found on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Now a group of researchers led by the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in Germany has determined the the Borneo and Sumatra populations are really two separate subspecies, splitting this rare kitty into two even rarer varieties. The scientists, reporting in Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, analyzed DNA from 15 leopards on Borneo and 16 on Sumatra and also examined the skulls and coats of museum specimens. They found that the kitties on the two islands looked very similar on the outside but had significant differences in skull shape and in their genetics. The scientists aren't certain about the events that led to the evolution of the various species and sub-species, but here's what they propose: The ancestor species to all modern clouded leopards was living in Southeast Asia when the super-volcano Toba erupted on Sumatra around 75,000 years ago, possibly plunging the Earth into a years-long volcanic winter. Two populations of clouded leopards survived—one in southern China, which evolved into the modern-day clouded leopard, N. nebulosa, and one on Borneo, which became the Sunda clouded leopard, N. diardi. When sea level was low, some of those Sunda clouded leopards were able to travel back to Sumatra, but when the last Ice Age ended, around 10,000 years ago, and sea levels rose, Borneo and Sumatra were once again isolated from each other and the two populations were left to evolve into sub-species apart from each other.
A western art movement popular during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Primitivism employed images and subject matter associated with non-western peoples and locations. As a major step on the path to Modern Art, Primitivism embodied the notion of “returning to nature.” The artistic movement is associated with artists like Paul Gauguin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Klee, and, to some extent, Pablo Picasso among other notable artists. In many ways, the movement was a retaliation against seventeenth-century beliefs in the superiority of Western civilization to other peoples encountered during the period of colonialism. To a large extent, Primitivism might be said to glorify the ‘noble savage.’ While its subject matter, like Orientalism, tended to revere the lifestyle and imagery of non-European cultures (largely informal societies–not Chinese or Islamic, for example), its works also showed a marked departure from technique based on centuries of Western-style art. Artists employed tribal techniques and experimented with new shapes and lines. Cubism is associated with the movement and, of course, Picasso is especially noted for its works in the Cubist style. Nature is important to the concept of Primitivism. Since many of the tribal societies featured in works of Primitivism lived closely within the context of their natural world, art works of the movement typically feature elements of the natural work–the sea, jungle, and natural materials used in the construction of home–thatched roofs, for example. Simplicity of subject and technique was also a cornerstone of the Primitivism movement. Artists often strove to abandon formality and embrace, instead, a more human sincerity. Getting back to basics was an underlying theme for artists aligned with the movement. Artists working in the Primitivism were very influenced by primitive works of art form Oceania, Africa, and even Native America to a large extent. Objects like African tribal masks and ancient Iberian sculptures (Bronze-Age era), influenced the development of modern primitivism. Many celebrated works of Primitivism are quite bold and captivating like Rousseau’s “The Sleeping Gypsy.” Others celebrate the free and more open lifestyles of Oceanic peoples like Gauguin’s “Two Women of Tahiti.” Both of these paintings and many others in the Primitivism style celebrate the costume of native cultures which greatly served to contrast the more rigid and formal garments of Western culture. Some of the best known works of Primitivism include works like “The Dance” by Henri Matisse, “Young Men from Papua” by Emil Nolde, and “The Moon and the Earth” by Paul Gauguin.
Neural-linguistics programming (NLP) is a way to understand how people experience their world. When you understand how people view the world differently, you can communicate with them more effectively. Whether you're a manager or staff, NLP will help you work with your peers more effectively. Perception is Based on Sensory Preferences Each person uses all of their senses to experience their world, but each has one or more preferred senses. The preference is manifested in how the person expresses themselves and communicates with other people. There are three primary senses used in this way: - Seeing - A visual person is focused on what they see. - Hearing - An auditory person prefers what they can hear. - Feelings - The kinesthetic person bases their decisions on feelings. These preferences are obvious when you watch and listen to a person for awhile. The visual person loves going to movies and may have their own collection of DVDs. They may have their office walls lined with favorite photos. When you listen to them speak, their visual preference comes through: - When describing a vacation, they may say, "I love the way the blue ocean looks as it rolls up on the beach." - When speaking in a business meeting, they may say, "This looks like a good plan and I see no reason not to proceed with it." The auditory person loves concerts and may own thousands of songs. They prefer to have long conversations and silence may irritate them. They often have their headphones on listening to music, radio or podcasts. - When describing their vacation, they'll say "The sound of the ocean waves and wind through the palm trees energizes me." - In a work meeting, they may say, "This sounds like the right plan and the timeline really struck a chord with me." The kinesthetic person is not only concerned with the physical touch, but the feelings associated with an experience. They may surround themselves with textures. They prefer motivational posters in their office that make them feel a certain way. For this person, the other senses are used to illicit feelings inside. - When describing their vacation, they may say "The warm sand on my feet as I walk on the beach puts me in a blissful state." - When in a meeting, they may say "This feels like the right direction, but I have a hunch that there will be challenges ahead." Using NLP in Your Workplace When you understand a person's preferences, you'll know more about how the person communicates and how you can effectively engage with them. Once you have an idea of a person's preferences, mirror their language back to them. You'll find that they respond to you as if you are speaking their language, which you now are: - To a visual co-worker, you might ask, "How does this plan look to you? Do you see any problems with the initial startup activities?" - To the auditory person, ask "Does this plan ring true to you or do you sense another way this could be played?" - To the kinesthetic person, "What does your gut tell you about this plan and how do you feel about the budget?" Getting a Foundation in NLP When looking for the best NLP training, you'll want a class or workshop that gives you the most hands-on experience using the tools with other people. Part of the power of NLP is interpreting the non-verbal part of how people communicate. How they move their head and eyes, hold their body, and react to their environment give you more clues as to how best to work with them. These skills require practice and a class that lets you try out all of the skills is important to understanding the use of NLP.
What Is It? The salivary glands contain a network of tiny tubes called ducts. Saliva flows through them into the mouth. If the flow is reduced or stopped for some reason, bacteria can grow. This can cause an infection called sialadenitis (sigh-a-lah-den-EYE-tis). Sialadenitis is most common in the parotid gland (in front of your ear) and the submandibular gland (under your chin). It usually is caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Sialadenitis occurs most often in people with a combination of the following: - Older age (past 50) - Debilitated from illness or dehydrated - Dry mouth (xerostomia) Saliva flow can be reduced in people who are sick or recovering from surgery, or in certain elderly people. A stone (sialolith) or a kink in the duct also can diminish saliva flow. Diseases that reduce salivary flow (such as Sjögren's syndrome) may lead to sialadenitis. People having treatment for cancer also are susceptible to this infection. Sialadenitis may cause a tender, painful lump in one cheek or under your chin. Pus may drain through the gland into your mouth. If the infection spreads, you may have fever, chills and malaise (a general sick feeling). Your dentist will feel the affected gland and see if it is swollen. If the gland discharges pus, this may be tested for bacteria. You also may get other tests that will show images of your salivary glands and ducts. Sialadenitis usually goes away within one week if treated. A low-grade infection can become chronic (long-lasting). In this case, it will continue for weeks to months and get worse from time to time. Always drink plenty of fluids. This is especially important after surgery, during illness or in elderly people. The first step is to make sure you have enough fluid in your body. You might need to receive fluids intravenously (through a vein). Next, you will be given antibiotics to destroy the bacteria. Once fluid balance has been restored, your dentist may recommend sugarless sour candies or gum. They can stimulate your body to produce more saliva. If the infection is not improving, you may need surgery to open and drain the gland. If the sialadenitis is caused by a stone in the duct, the stone may need to be removed by surgery. When To Call a Professional If you notice a red, tender lump in front of your ear or under your chin, call your dentist, particularly if you are in a high-risk group for sialadenitis. With prompt diagnosis and appropriate and aggressive treatment, the outlook is very good. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD 20892-2190 01/01/2013© 2002- 2017 Aetna, Inc. All rights reserved.
Researchers at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis and Harvard University have successfully manufactured insulin-secreting cells that resemble normal beta cells, and they did it using stem cells of patients with type 1 diabetes—a disorder which makes these individuals unable to produce their own insulin. Since they cannot produce insulin, they require regular insulin shots in order to control their blood sugar. Notably, the insulin-secreting cell cultures were also tested in mice. “In theory, if we could replace the damaged cells in these individuals with new pancreatic beta cells — whose primary function is to store and release insulin to control blood glucose — patients with type 1 diabetes wouldn’t need insulin shots anymore,” Jeffrey R. Millman, PhD, an assistant professor of medicine and of biomedical engineering at Washington University School of Medicine says. “The cells we’ve manufactured sense the presence of glucose and secrete insulin in response. And beta cells do a much better job controlling blood sugar than diabetic patients can.” Similar experiments have been done before using stem cells from people without diabetes, but this time they decided to use beta cells from the skin tissue of diabetes patients to see if they could obtain similar results. “There had been questions about whether we could make these cells from people with type 1 diabetes,” Millman explained. “Some scientists thought that, because the tissue would be coming from diabetes patients, there might be defects to prevent us from helping the stem cells differentiate into beta cells. It turns out that’s not the case.” While the research shows promise, Millman says more tests are needed in order to make sure that tumors will not form as a result of using stem cells from diabetic patients in humans, even though the trials with the mice did not end in tumors up to a year after the cell implants. He says the procedure should be refined and ready for human trials in three to five years. The cells would then be implanted under the skin, where it would enter the patient’s bloodstream, making it a minimally invasive surgical procedure. “What we’re envisioning is an outpatient procedure in which some sort of device filled with the cells would be placed just beneath the skin,” he said.
Sleep and Hibernation Food, water, and shelter always top the list when we think about the things most important to our well-being. We often seem to forget something that is absolutely essential—sleep. A lack of sleep disturbs the mental processes. The person deprived of sleep loses energy, becomes irritable, has difficulty concentrating, makes numerous mistakes with routine tasks, hallucinates, and will doze off if not kept active. When we go to sleep, our muscles relax, our heartbeat and breathing rate slow down slightly, and our body temperature drops a couple of degrees. Measurable changes also occur in the brain-wave patterns. Sleep is defined as the “natural periodic suspension of consciousness during which the powers of the body are restored.” The amount of sleep required daily varies with age and the individual. Newborn babies may need as many as twenty-two hours, while their grandparents often sleep only five or six. Men generally need more sleep than women, but the average human spends seven to nine hours sleeping—about one-third of his or her life. Sleep in wildlife is even more varied. Both long and short sleepers can be found among mammals, birds, and reptiles. As a general rule, animals that sleep the most are more secretive creatures with protective dens, burrows, or caves, or they are predators with few enemies. Prey species, which must be alert for predators, get by on less. Bats are real sleepyheads, averaging about twenty hours a day. Safe and secure in their dark caves, they sleep away the daylight hours and then usually take another nap on a convenient roost outside the cave between their two nightly feeding periods. A close runner-up to the bat is the opossum. Snuggled into a hollow tree, woodpile, rocky crevice, or abandoned underground burrow, the opossum may not stir all day. Venturing forth to feed shortly after dark, this marsupial (pouched animal) may have slept as many as nineteen hours. Members of the cat family can fall asleep anytime during the day or night. Easily awakened, they appear to take only short catnaps, but these predators actually manage to sleep some sixteen hours a day—twice as much as a human. They have few enemies to bother them while they are asleep, and they manage to be very active in the few hours they are awake. The dog family, which includes the elusive coyote, may snooze twelve to fourteen hours a day. Dogs, like all other mammals, dream while they are asleep. What they dream is anyone’s guess, but they often show responses to the dreams. You probably have heard one yelp or whine and perhaps have noticed its muscles and legs jerk and twitch during sleep. As one of the main prey species for many different animals, rabbits must be extremely alert to their surroundings both day and night. Therefore, it is not surprising that they sleep very little, relying on short, dozing naps for their required rest. They may manage as many as twenty of these light naps in a single day. Hoofed mammals, such as deer and antelope, also are among the short sleepers. During the day they may take brief naps while standing, but they continue to open their eyes occasionally to look around for danger. Their noses and ears remain active when they bed down on the ground to sleep. Any sign of danger immediately awakens them for flight. These mammals usually sleep about four hours a day, but they can get by on less. An interesting fact researchers have discovered about cattle, which also are hoofed mammals, is that although they can sleep standing up, they dream only while lying down. Perhaps the same is true for wild hoofed mammals such as deer. Bottle-nosed dolphins sleep during the night, floating about a foot under the water with their tails dangling down. Every half-minute or so a few slow strokes of the tail bring the dolphin’s head to the surface so this marine mammal can breathe. Its eyes seldom remain closed for longer than thirty seconds when it sleep. Most birds sleep when the sun goes down. They perch securely on a branch with their beaks tucked into their feathers and await the dawn. Their body design makes it impossible for them to fall off their perch while they are asleep. All of the bird’s toes are connected to a main tendon that runs up the foot, bends behind the ankle and passes in front of the knee. When the bird stands, the tendon is loose and the toes are relaxed. However, when the bird settles into a sitting position, the tendon stretches tightly, pulling the toes into a curled position around the branch. The bird cannot uncurl its toes until it stands up. The hummingbird stays busy, dining fifty or sixty times a day to provide energy for a body power plant that must be refueled every ten to fifteen minutes. Its only rest comes at night when it sleeps. Lacking the energy reserves needed to stretch through the night, the hummingbird passes into a condition bordering on suspended animation. While it is in this state, called torpor, its body temperature drops, and its energy output is reduced to one-twentieth of that which would be used during normal sleep. Although most animals cannot be awakened from torpor quickly, the hummingbird’s arousal is almost instantaneous. Owls, recognized as highly efficient night predators, spend the major portion of the daylight hours sleeping. Since a sleep-dulled owl would be easy prey for a daytime predator, the owl must choose its sleeping place carefully. Attics, rock crevices, hunters’ deer blinds, and shaded, leafy trees provide sheltered roosts where the bird can safely tuck its head into its feathers and dream the day away. On dreary, cloudy days when the sun is hidden from view, the owl may spend part of its sleeping time hunting for food. Some birds gather together for mutual warmth or protection. A sudden dip in temperature may cause several small cavity-nesting birds to snuggle in one nest. On one occasion when unseasonably low temperatures occurred, a birder discovered more than twenty dead bluebirds huddled in one nesting hole. Their combined warmth was not enough. Quail sleep in a circle on the ground with their tails pointing toward the center, and cold winter nights find goldeneye ducks sleeping together in tight, floating bunches. Ducks can sleep either on water or on land. Not being able to close your eyes might make it difficult for you to sleep, but it doesn’t bother snakes. The length of time these reptiles spend sleeping varies with food requirements and weather conditions. After eating, a snake may crawl into its den and sleep all day or several days while digesting its food. When it awakens, it is ready to search for another meal. Since a snake can doze off shortly after becoming motionless, it usually conceals itself whenever it is not active. The sleep of fish and amphibians is quite different from ours. They do have periods when they become less aware of their surroundings, but they still remain slightly in touch. There is no evidence that they experience any brain wave changes or dreams. Perhaps it would be best to describe what they do as merely resting rather than sleeping. Divers have found schools of perch resting on lake bottoms and other fish species suspended motionless among the weeds. Now that we have touched on the subject of sleep as it relates to animals on a daily basis, let’s go one step further and take a look at winter sleep—hibernation. Hibernation has been described as a condition somewhere between sleep and death—a time when life all but stands still. The warm-blooded animal becomes almost cold-blooded as its body temperature drops close to that of the surrounding air. Its breathing may slow to one breath every five minutes; its heartbeats may occur as infrequently as four or five times a minute; and it may lie completely motionless for days on end. Researchers have found that a hibernator will scarcely bleed when cut, does not react to being stuck with needles, and can be shaken or rolled across a table without awakening. However, when it is the proper time, the animal awakens in a short period. If exposed to moderate warmth, the animal will be completely alert in little more than an hour. Texas has few if any true hibernators because of its mild climate with temperatures rarely staying below freezing for any length of time. However, some animals found in our state do hibernate when they live in areas where temperatures drop to low levels and remain there for the season. Bats, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels are such winter sleepers. The little brown bat hibernates when temperatures in its cave or roosting area remain between thirty and forty degrees Fahrenheit. As it passes into hibernation, the bat’s body temperature drops until it is only a little higher than the surrounding air—sometimes no more than one degree warmer. Its energy consumption in this condition is so low that it can live off stored body fat throughout the winter. If the cave air grows warmer than forty degrees, the bat’s body temperature rises and its energy consumption increases. If this situation occurs too often, the bat may starve before the hibernation period ends. A sudden drop below thirty degrees may cause the bat to freeze to death, but a gradual drop in temperature sounds an internal alarm that awakens the bat so it can look for a warmer roost. If successful, it relocates and goes back into hibernation. Of course, the energy needed for this activity also reduces the body’s stored food supply, shortening the time the bat can remain in hibernation. People who enter caves in the winter and disturb hibernating bats endanger the creatures’ survival. In some parts of the country the ground squirrel is one of the longest sleepers around. It may spend as many as seven or eight months in hibernation, living off the thick layers of body fat it acquired before retiring to its grass-lined den. A scarcity of green foods caused by a summer shortage of rain or heat so intense as to make the squirrel uncomfortable will force the creature to drag its fat, drowsy body into its sleeping burrow and pack loose dirt into the opening to shut the world out. Half asleep, the squirrel sits back on its hips and bends its nose down to its tummy, forcing most of the air out of its lungs. Its breathing and heartbeat almost stop, and its body temperature drops from ninety to forty degrees. Although it goes to sleep in midsummer when there is no danger of freezing, its hibernation period extends through the winter. Periodically throughout its long sleep, the squirrel awakens, stirs, and then drops back into deep hibernation. If conditions within the sleeping den cause its body temperature to drop below forty degrees, the animal stirs and the movement increases its breathing rate, heartbeat, and circulation. This produces a slight rise in body temperature and prevents the squirrel from freezing. Failure to respond to this built-in warning is fatal. When the danger is past, the animal’s biological functions slow back down to their former level. Bears always come to mind when we think about hibernators because everyone knows they sleep all winter. But do they? Although the bear is a cold-weather sleepyhead, it is not a true hibernator. When it beds down for the winter, its body temperature drops a few degrees below the normal summer level; however, its temperature still is high enough (eight-eight to ninety-six degrees) to melt any snow that may drift into the den. Its breathing remains normal, there is no noticeable difference between the heartbeat of the active or inactive animal and, unlike the true hibernator, the bear responds to touch and is easily awakened from its winter nap. It may even come out of its den and prowl around. Even though the bear is not a true hibernator, its body does make changes that prepare it for winter sleep. Just before it is time to bed down, the bear usually eats some kind of laxative-type food to clean out its intestines. It then eats a last meal of tough, fibrous roots that form an intestinal plug that remains in place until spring. This plug, called the tappen, also may be composed of pine needles mixed with hair licked from the bear’s coat. The stomach then contracts into a tight, hard knot to prevent any further intake of food, and the bear is ready to sleep. Cubs are born while the female bear is still half asleep, and they remain in the den, nursing and sleeping until time to emerge in the spring. Nonhibernators such as raccoons, badgers, and skunks also use sleep to escape from stormy weather and below-freezing temperatures. While they may sleep for several days, their bodily functions, like those of the bear, remain normal. Body fat provides nourishment during this time, but they will be hungry and in need of food when they wake up. Hibernation in the bird world was not accepted as fact until the 1940s, when a professor in California discovered a poor-will snuggled into a rock cavity in the Chuckawalla Mountains. The bird’s body temperature was more than forty degrees below normal, no heartbeat could be detected, no moisture appeared on a cold mirror placed in front if its nostrils, and there was no response to light shined in its eyes. The results of these tests left little doubt that the bird actually was hibernating. An identifying band was placed on its leg, and each year for the next four years the same poor-will was found hibernating in its rocky niche. Since that discovery, several other reports of hibernating poor-wills have been confirmed. An interesting sidelight to this is that the name given to the poor-will by the Hopi Indians is Holchko, which means “the sleeping one.” The condition experienced by the hummingbird at night is not really hibernation, but it is similar since the bird’s bodily functions are slowed down to such a low, energy-saving level. When daily temperatures drop below fifty degrees Fahrenheit, snakes find a place to sleep until the climate is more hospitable. They crawl into cracks and burrows or tunnel under rocks if the ground is soft enough. They may emerge from their dens and bask in the sun on warm, windless winter days or search for something to eat. Turtles, frogs, and toads burrow into the ground or bury themselves in mud when temperatures become too cold. Alligators sink to the bottom of their water holes, rising to the surface to breathe or emerging to sun when temperatures are warm enough. Hot, dry weather and its resulting droughts also can cause some animals to seek sleep as an escape. Summer sleep is called estivation, a Latin word that means “to pass the summer in a torpid or resting state.” What Texas lacks in true hibernators, it more than makes up for in estivators. When the hot summer arrives and the small creeks and farm ponds start drying up, the resident amphibians (frogs, toads, and salamanders) burrow into the dirt until they reach soil that still retains moisture. Here they stay, awaiting the rains that may be weeks in arriving. To reduce their individual surface area, from which moisture escapes, some salamanders mass together underground, forming a ball. Only the outer surfaces of a few individuals lose moisture, and the web bodies of those on the inside provide enough moisture to enable the outer ones to survive. Both land and water turtles also indulge in estivation, digging into loose soil and leaf matter or burying themselves in muddy creek banks as the water level drops. When cooling rains arrive, they once more resume their normal lives. Whether an animal estivates during periods of heat and drought, hibernates to endure periods of cold, or takes advantage of both, as the northern ground squirrel does, the results are the same—survival. 1983 Sleep and Hibernation. Young Naturalist. The Louise Lindsey Merrick Texas Environment Series, No. 6, pp. 43-46. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.
\|Return to the ALL LANGUAGES Archive\|\|Forward to the Current ALL LANGUAGES discuss\| \|senator16\|\|Thursday 26th of May 2005 04:16:28 PM\| \|LANGUAGE OR DIALECT: - Language or dialect?: Short definition: a language is a dialect promoted by élites. Sometimes one can hear people speaking about "those tribes in Africa with all their dialects" while the same people speak about "European nations with their languages". Without necessarily intending to do so, one can in this way hierarchise people and what they speak. In Debi Prasanna Pattanayak's view (1991: 27-28), "the developed countries treat their respective dominant languages as resources, call them world languages, and use them to further their national interest', while those of the 'third world élites' who follow the West 'deride the mother tongues' in their own countries 'as dialect, slang, patois, vernacular, and condemn them to marginal use, or completely ignore them" (ibid., 28). But we can also hear a genuine question: is what XX speak a "language", or is it a "dialect"? Can the question be answered? What is the difference between a language and a dialect? There are no linguistic criteria for differentiating between a language and a dialect (or vernacular or patois). Structural similarity or dissimilarity can only tell apart very dissimilar languages. It is easy to confirm that, for instance, Chinese and English, or Kurdish and Turkish are clearly different languages because their linguistic structures are so dissimilar. But despite being structurally very close to each other, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian are called different languages. Serbian and Croatian may be even closer to each other but they are now (again) called two different languages. Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi are both structurally and lexically very similar, Kannada and Marathi are structurally almost the same but lexically dissimilar -- all are called different languages. Structural similarity can thus mainly be used to differentiate between two languages in cases which are so clear that no linguists would be needed anyway to solve the problem. In other cases, linguistic criteria are not of much help. "Mutual intelligibility" has also been used as a criterion: if you understand a "language", A, without being taught that "language", it is a dialect (or another variety) of your own "language", B. Or your own "language" B is a dialect of the one you can understand, A. Or what both of you speak (A & B), are dialects of some third entity, C, which is then called "a language". But if you don't understand A, it is a different language. But the criterion of mutual intelligibility is also far from unambiguous. Let us say that speaker A understands B, and speaker B understands C, who in her turn understands D. On the other hand, speaker A does not understand C, and speaker B does not understand D. Where is the boundary then between language and dialect. Or if A understands B but B does not understand A (non-reciprocal intelligibility), are A and B dialects of the same language for speaker A who understands both, but two different languages for speaker B who does not understand both? In situations where languages are oral (spoken) languages and have not been reduced to writing, people in neighbouring villages often understand each other, either well, or at least to some extent, despite the differences, but they may not understand people from villages much further away. These in turn understand their close neighbours, etc. How well do the speakers need to understand each other? Is "semi-communication" enough (Haugen 1966: 102) or must the understanding be "complete" (and is it ever complete even between speakers of the same language)? Should the speakers who test the criteria be monolingual? It is, for instance, easy for me (Tove Skutnabb-Kangas), knowing other Indo-European languages like Danish, English, German, Latin, Norwegian and Swedish, to understand some Dutch, without having ever been taught Dutch. Would Dutch then be a separate language for a monolingual Swedish-speaker who does not understand Dutch, but a dialect of Swedish, or German or English, for me? Is oral understanding enough, or should we rather use understanding of writing as a criterion? Or the opposite: is understanding writing enough, or should one also understand the oral mode? A Finn who has studied Swedish at school, understands some written Danish, but does not understand spoken Danish at all. Is oral Danish then a separate language from Swedish, while written Danish is a dialect of Swedish? And what about the deaf population? Should the criterion be used only with language spoken by a native speaker, with normal speed, or can a second language speaker who speaks slowly also be used? Age, amount of formal schooling, degree of metalinguistic awareness, amount of exposure to the language or to other languages in general, learning styles, courage, motivation, fatigue, etc, obviously also affect intelligibility, in many situations much more than the "same language/different languages" question. Mutual intelligibility as a criterion thus discriminates well only in situations with structurally unrelated languages, as was the case with the structural linguistic criterion too. Neither similarity or dissimilarity of structure, nor mutual intelligibility or lack of it can therefore differentiate between languages. The social functions of languages, measured, for instance, by the speakers' own views on what are different languages, are based partly on the two linguistic criteria (structural similarity, mutual intelligibility), but mainly on extra-linguistic criteria. One possible criterion which has been suggested is standardization. Only dialects which have been reduced to writing (a prerequisite for standardization) and been standardized are languages, everything else is something else (dialect, vernacular, patois). Peter Trudgill's old definition (1983: 16) reflects this; for him "languages" were "independent, standardized varieties ... with, as it were, a life of their own". This would drastically reduce the number of "languages" in the world. Very few indigenous languages and only a handful of sign languages would qualify as languages according to this definition. But it can be understood in the sense that it only becomes natural to speak about a language as a specific, discrete unit, distinct from other similar units, when there is a written form of that language, claims Tore Janson, earlier Professor of Latin, now Professor of African Languages, at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden (1997: 125). The written forms of today's languages in Europe displaced and replaced other ways of writing. In most cases, a written form came first and a name for the language only afterwards. One or some of the dialects were chosen as the basis for the written form, and the choice was obviously made by those or to benefit those who "needed" the written form in the first place: the élites, the state builders, the church representatives. These choices were also decisive for inclusion and exclusion: the rulers decided where the borders would be placed in the dialect continua between what was called one language and what another language. Thus, the main criterion for whether something is a dialect of another language or a separate language (and what is being standardized, what not) is the relative political power of the speakers of that language/dialect. The decisions about what are "languages" and what are not, are thus political decisions. Those with enough power can claim that what they speak is a language and what less powerful groups speak are dialects. Political definitions of a language would be: "a language is a dialect with an army (and a navy)" or "a language is a dialect with state borders" or "a language is a dialect promoted by elites". (TSK) \|kea\|\|Thursday 26th of May 2005 06:01:37 PM\| \| - I can bring an example about languages and dialects around here. In Estonia we speak Estonian, which is called a language but in South part of Estonian country they still speak vőru keel, which is clearly related closely to standard Estonian but still different enough that standard Estonian speakers don't understand the speakers of vőru keel really. But officially it is a dialect of Estonian. But at the same time there are two very small languages (around 10 speakers left of each language) that are very closely related to Estonian - Livish and Votjan. And the distance between Estonian and those two languages is no bigger than the difference between Estonian and the South Estonian dialect Vőru. But Livish and Votjan are called languages. I think the reason is geographical, because when Vőru dialect is spoken inside Estonian borders, where the official language is closely related to this dialect then Livish speakers (the number of them is many, many times smaller than the speakers of Vőru dialect) live in Latvia and the Votjan speakers live in Russia. And Latvian and Russian are not related to Livish and Votjan at all. \|Ulven\|\|Saturday 28th of May 2005 02:45:10 PM\| \| - If you haven't already Senator, see this thread---> [url]http://phrasebase.c../../discuss/read.php?TID=6201[/url], called The Mis-use of the term 'Arabic', by Ashlee. Myself and Ashlee have run into major dilemnas in our pursuit of the Lebanese language (aka Arabic). There is a website link which shows the extreme shortcoming of the mis-labelling of all Arabic script languages as 'Arabic'. There's no doubt in my mind that the Arabic tongues are languages, not dialects. I also pursue the Scandinavian languages, and they're no voids compared to Arabic tongues. But, you do need seperate learning material for each of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian. But whether they're dialects or languages, I could go either way. I'll wait till I'm better at them before I decide. But as for Arabic tongues, that's a no-brainer, really. I'd say there are at least three seperate languages under the title 'Arabic'. But when it cuts close, dialect vs language comes down to the difficulty level for the individual. I don't think the label can ever be gospel,(as you yourself seem to have pointed out). \|Teup\|\|Saturday 28th of May 2005 04:30:02 PM\| \| - For those interested, there's been a topic on it in the Dutch discuss [url=http://www.phrasebase.c../../discuss/read.php?TID=3121]here[/url]. Labeling is indeed rather arbitrary, in reality there is no "language" or "dialect", everone speaks a littlebit different, it's all on a continuum. There are no clear cut boundaries and it depends on your point of view. Many variants of Dutch could be considered different languages for example, because they're as far apart as for example Swedish and Norwegian or Serbian and Croatian (therefore generally Serbo-Croat is preferred). Afrikaans is considered a different language, although it's about just as far away from Dutch as some dialect variants. It depends on politics, or rather social factors in general - here the goal is preserving a unity (and Afrikaans is spoken in a different country anyway), in the Balkans it's about creating a seperate group identity.\| \|Ulven\|\|Sunday 29th of May 2005 01:01:34 AM\| \| - You're right Teup. Naming something a language can represent a goal for the future of a community. Even if the difference between two dialects now are small, if they intend to go their seperate ways, like Serbia and Croatia, and form seperate identities, it makes sense for them to get the ball rolling and label their intent from the outset. Politics certainly can polute the passion behind any drive for seperateness, but that doesn't mean there isn't a legitimate passion in forming one's own identity. It's exciting forming uniqueness, and it has to start somewhere. I suppose the Arabic world hasn't strived to name their languages seperately because they have more concern seperating themselves from western society. If things calmed down there, then we'd see a pusuit for Arabic's so-called dialects to assert their seperateness. They'd have greater freedom to sit with their language and contemplate. But at the moment, they have more pressing needs than thinking about what to name their speech patterns. There's quite some complexities involved. Even I admit to missing alot of them. 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This resource is a collection of interactive animations designed to help kids learn how forces and simple machines can work together to create the compound machine. Child-centered animated activities enhance understanding of how compound machines function and how they are differentiated from simple machines. Additionally the site includes a glossary of important terms, lesson plans, a teacher's guide and information about professionals who work with compound machines. This page is part of a larger collection of animated education resources for the elementary level. Metadata instance created August 2, 2007 by Mandy Staff March 20, 2014 by Caroline Hall Last Update when Cataloged: August 6, 2007 AAAS Benchmark Alignments (2008 Version) 4. The Physical Setting 3-5: 4F/E1bc. The greater the force is, the greater the change in motion will be. The more massive an object is, the less effect a given force will have. 6-8: 4F/M3a. An unbalanced force acting on an object changes its speed or direction of motion, or both. 11. Common Themes 3-5: 11A/E1. In something that consists of many parts, the parts usually influence one another. 6-8: 11A/M2. Thinking about things as systems means looking for how every part relates to others. The output from one part of a system (which can include material, energy, or information) can become the input to other parts. Such feedback can serve to control what goes on in the system as a whole. 3-5: 11B/E4. Models are very useful for communicating ideas about objects, events, and processes. When using a model to communicate about something, it is important to keep in mind how it is different from the thing being modeled. 6-8: 11B/M4. Simulations are often useful in modeling events and processes. Next Generation Science Standards Disciplinary Core Ideas (K-12) Forces and Motion (PS2.A) Each force acts on one particular object and has both strength and a direction. An object at rest typically has multiple forces acting on it, but they add to give zero net force on the object. Forces that do not sum to zero can cause changes in the object's speed or direction of motion. (Boundary: Qualitative and conceptual, but not quantitative addition of forces are used at this level.) (3) The motion of an object is determined by the sum of the forces acting on it; if the total force on the object is not zero, its motion will change. The greater the mass of the object, the greater the force needed to achieve the same change in motion. For any given object, a larger force causes a larger change in motion. (6-8) Crosscutting Concepts (K-12) Systems and System Models (K-12) A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (3-5) Models can be used to represent systems and their interactions. (6-8) NGSS Science and Engineering Practices (K-12) Developing and Using Models (K-12) Modeling in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to building and revising simple models and using models to represent events and design solutions. (3-5) Use models to describe phenomena. (5) This resource is part of a Physics Front Topical Unit. Topic: Dynamics: Forces and Motion Unit Title: Applications of Newton's Laws This is a collection of interactive animations that depict how forces and simple machines work together to create the compound machine. The authors designed it for Grades 3-6 to help children understand how compound machines function and how they are different from simple machines. It would be a good follow-up to the resource directly above -- Edheads: Simple Machines. %0 Electronic Source %D August 6, 2007 %T Edheads: The Compound Machine %I Edheads %V 2014 %N 30 July 2014 %8 August 6, 2007 %9 application/flash %U http://www.edheads.org/activities/odd_machine/ Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
According to the Webster dictionary the term “Negro” is defined as a member of a race of humankind native to the continent of Africa and usually classified according to physical features such as dark pigmentation. In the American context many African Americans become defensive when this term is used to describe their racial identity especially older African -Americans that endured racial discrimination under the Jim Crow laws. At the University of West Indies we were introduced to a student named Danni and she gave us a tour of the university. During the campus tour we asked Danni questions about race within the social context in Trinidad. She explained to us that people of African descent in Trinidad preferred to be called “Negro” instead of “Black” when they are asked to identify their racial identity; in addition to this form of racial identity she emphasized that many natives of Trinidad have a strong sense of nationalism. Many people of African descent in Trinidad prefer not be identified as a “Black” person. Everyone in Trinidad identifies themselves as Trinidadians instead of African- Trinidadians or Indian-Trinidadians. This piece of information resonated with us as students because in our native country America race is an important yet sensitive subject because structural racism has impacted our lives in various ways. Our tour guide Danni was surprised to learn that we African-Americans become offended when they are identified as “Negroes” in the racial context although after we explained the history behind the word in the American context she appreciated being able to understand this concept from our perspective.
Native artists used pigments made from natural ingredients, chiefly minerals. Iron ores, hematite, and limonite produced red, yellow, and orange tones. Carbon, derived from charcoal, and manganese were used for black tones, and white clay and gypsum used for white. The more rare colors—such as green and blue—may have been derived from copper oxides or ground turquoise. The pigments were ground to a powder using a grinding apparatus, either metate and mano, or in bedrock mortars and cupules, with a stone or pestle for grinding. To this powdered pigment was added a binder such as egg yolk, plant juice, animal fat, or even urine. Paint was applied in a variety of imaginative ways: using brushes made from human hair, shredded yucca leaves, sticks, or with fingertips. Mineral or charcoal crayons also may have been used; researchers noted several locations where it appeared that a burning stick was used to create a charcoal drawing. In some pictographs, such as handprints, paint may have been blown through hollow bone or reeds to create "negative" impressions. Some researchers believe some of the solid masks, with their crisp outlines, may have been created using a stencil. Former TPWD archeologist Ron Ralph recalls seeing built up paint around the edges of some of the solid masks that might have resulted from use of stencils. He suggests the artists may have applied a layer of mud or clay to a rock wall, then "carved" out the design while the mud was still wet. They likely would have allowed the design to dry before painting it. Alternatively, artists may have used dried animal hides in which they had cut out designs. Archeologists also have documented hundreds of circular bedrock mortars and smaller cupules throughout the rocky hills, particularly at the base of ledges and inside rock shelters containing rock art. Whether these grinding features were used pulverizing pigment or for plant processing (or both) is not known.
Sometimes a giant leap forward in scientific knowledge raises more questions than it answers. Take dinosaurs, for instance. For decades conventional wisdom held that these prehistoric creatures, who "ruled" the Earth for many millions more years than humans have, were basically oversized cold-blooded reptiles, whose distant descendants may be crocodiles or lizards. Then this month a startling discovery was reported. North Carolina researchers found in South Dakota a fossilized, grapefruit-sized heart of a plant-eating dinosaur estimated to have died more than 65 million years ago, about the time the species suddenly became extinct. Not only was this Mesozoic-age dinosaur's heart a rare find, it also yielded some highly valuable, and surprising, information. After being subjected to the wonders of the modern era's scientific technology -- a computer-enhanced CAT scan -- the heart was revealed to have had four chambers and an aorta. What this means, say scientists, is that this vegetable-eating dinosaur, a Tescelosaurus, had warm oxygen-rich blood coursing through its veins. It was not an overblown, cold-blooded reptile dependent on the environment for its body heat, but was a warm-blooded mammal, not unlike humans. And like warm-blooded animals, it was more energetic, active and smarter than cold-blooded creatures, capable of journeying great distances and adjusting to different climates. If this dinosaur had descendants, they would be birds, not crocodiles. But what does all this dinosaur research matter, and why should anyone care? Well, first, there's just sheer curiosity. On a more practical level, what we learn about our "rulers of the planet" predecessors and why they inexplicably became extinct may help us protect our own species from suffering a like fate. © 2017. All Rights Reserved. \| Contact Us
2 6.1 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 6.2 Gram–Mole Conversions6.3 Mole Relationships and Chemical Equations6.4 Mass Relationships and Chemical Equations6.5 Limiting Reagent and Percent Yield 3 Goals 1. What is the mole, and why is it useful in chemistry? Be able to explain the meaning and uses of the mole and Avogadro’s number.2. How are molar quantities and mass quantities related?Be able to convert between molar and mass quantities of an element or compound.3. What are the limiting reagent, theoretical yield, and percent yield of a reaction?Be able to take the amount of product actually formed in a reaction, calculate the amount that could form theoretically, and express the results as a percent yield. 6 Counting molecules: Conceptually The reactants in a chemical reaction must be balancedOne molecule of hydrogen (H2) reacts with one molecule of iodine (I2), creating two hydrogen iodide molecules (HI) 7 Of course, we can’t visually count molecules to achieve this one-to-one ratio In fact, the only tool available is an analytical mass balance (using grams!) 8 Molecular WeightBut how do we relate a sample’s mass in grams to the number of molecules it contains?We begin with the concept of ‘molecular weight’ (molecular mass)Let’s start by utilizing the Ch 2 concept of mass by ‘amu’Note: We will be focusing on molecules for a while 9 Recall, atomic weight is the average mass of an element’s isotope atoms (review next slide) By analogy, molecular weight (MW) is the mass of a compound’s moleculesA molecule’s molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights for all the atoms in the moleculeA salt’s formula weight is the sum of the atomic weights for all the atoms in the formula unit 10 fyi: Atomic Weight Calculation C-12 is 98.89% of all natural carbonC-13 is 1.11% of all natural carbonThe mass of C-12 is: 12 amu (by definition)The mass of C-13 is: amuAtomic weight = [(% isotope abundance) × (isotope mass)][98.89% x 12 amu] + [1.11% x amu] =(0.9889)(12 amu) + (0.0111)( amu) =0.144312.01 amu 11 fyi: Disambiguation For molecules, these terms are identical molar weightmolar massmolecular weightmolecular massFor atoms, these terms are identicalatomic weightatomic mass 13 Molecular weightSo if the mass (atomic weight) of one atom of hydrogen (H) is amuthen the mass (molecular weight) of one hydrogen molecule (H2) is amuIf the atomic weight of one iodine atom (I) is amuthen the molecular weight of one iodine molecule (I2) is amuFinally, the molecular weight of each HI molecule must be:1.008 amu amu = amu 15 Here is where we left our reaction making two HI molecules from H2 and I2 16 We learned in chapter 2 that the iodine atom (I) is approximately 126 times heavier than the hydrogen atom (H)H = amuI = amuSo mathematically, it is necessary that the iodine molecule (I2) is approximately 126 times heavier than the hydrogen molecule (H2)H2 = amuI2 = amu 20 Mass / Number relationship for I2 & H2 So in order control the number ratio of I2 to H2 molecules at 1:1 we can measure out any of the followingso long we keep the mass ratio at 1:126H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)2.016 amu amu2.016 g g1.00 g gg g 21 But how many molecules is that? We know that:2.016 amu of H2 contains one molecule, andamu of I2 contains one moleculeOur final question is, how many molecules are contained in:2.016 g of H2g of I2 23 The mole (NA) has now been measured A mole is the amount of substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular weight2.016 g of H2 contains one mole of H2 moleculesg of I2 contains one mole of I2 moleculesThe mole (NA) has now been measuredOne mole of any molecule contains × 1023 moleculesOne mole of any salt contains × 1023 formula units 24 Getting from amu to grams The number ‘ ,’ typically placed as shown, functions BOTH:as the mass in amu per atomand the mass in grams per mole of atomsSo I has a mass of grams per mole of I atomsI = g/mol 28 fyi: SynonymsThe terms Molecular Weight (section 6.1) and Molar Mass (this section – 6.2) are identicalAlso, the term Molecular Mass is allowedAlso, the term Molar Weight is allowedWhen we defined Molecular Weight in Section 6.1, we had not yet define the Moleso you couldn’t have understood the more common term “Molar” Mass 29 The molar mass of water is 18.02 g/mol So how many moles of water are there in 27 grams?Most importantly, molar mass serves as a conversion factor between numbers of moles and mass in grams for use in dimensional analysis 30 Molar Mass: Mole to Gram Conversion Worked Example 6.3Molar Mass: Mole to Gram ConversionIbuprofen is a pain reliever used in Advil. Its molecular weight is g/mol.If a bottle of Advil contain mole of ibuprofen, how many grams of ibuprofen does it contain? 31 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.3 Molar Mass: Mole to Gram Conversion (Continued) 32 We now have the tools to convert: grams → moles → number of atomsgrams → moles → number of moleculesgrams → moles → number of formula unitsAnd we can go backwards 34 What is the mass in grams of 3.2 × 1022 molecules of water? 35 6.3 Mole Relationships and Chemical Equations Molar coefficients:using Mole ratios asconversion factors 36 Coefficients in a balanced chemical equation tell us the necessary ratio of moles of reactants and how many moles of each product are formed 37 Especially useful, coefficients can be put in the form of mole ratios which act as conversion factors when setting up dimensional analysis calculations 38 Mole to moleThis reaction represents the reaction of A2 (red) with B2 (blue)Chapter 6, Unnumbered Figure 2, Page 174a) Write a balanced equation for the reactionb) How many moles of product can be made from 1.0 mole of A2? From 1.0 mole of B2? 39 How many moles of NH3 can be produced from 5 How many moles of NH3 can be produced from moles of H2 according to the following equation? N2 + 3 H2 2 NH30.67 mol2.00 mol3.33 mol7.50 mol 40 6.4 Mass Relationships and Chemical Equations Putting it alltogether 41 The actual amounts of substances used in the laboratory must be weighed out in grams Furthermore, customers generally want the quantity of product reported in terms of grams 42 We already have the necessary tools Mass to mole conversionsMole to mole conversionsMole to mass conversions 43 Mole to mole conversions (section 6 Mole to mole conversions (section 6.3) are carried out using mole ratios as conversion factorsIf you have 9.0 moles of H2, how many moles of NH3 can you make? 44 2) Mole-to-mass and mass-to-mole conversions (from section 6 2) Mole-to-mass and mass-to-mole conversions (from section 6.2) are carried out using molar mass as a conversion factor 45 3) Mass to mass conversions cannot be carried out directly If you know the mass of A and need to find the mass of Bfirst convert the mass of A into moles of Athen carry out a mole to mole conversion to find moles of Bthen convert moles of B into the mass of B 46 So after collecting the fundamental data, always follow this three step process for mass to mass 1) convert grams of A to moles via molar mass2) convert moles of A to B via mole ratio3) convert mole of B to grams via molar mass 47 Let’s go back to our hydrogen / iodine reaction giving hydrogen iodide 48 10.0 grams of HI requires how many grams of H2 I2 = g/molH2 = g/molHI = g/mol 49 How many grams of oxygen are needed to react with 25 How many grams of oxygen are needed to react with 25.0 g of K according to the following equation? K(s) + O2(g) 2 K2O(s)10.2 g O22.56 g O28.66 g O25.12 g O2 50 6.5 Limiting Reagent and Percent Yield Vocabulary:Reactant = Reagent 51 limiting reactant (reagent) Reactants are not always perfectly balancedWhen running a chemical reaction, we generally ‘overcharge’ one of the reactantsAs our mechanic has ‘overcharged’ tires 52 limiting reactant (reagent) The limiting reactant is the reactant that runs out firstThe reactant that never runs out is called the excess reactantSo which is ‘limiting here?’ Tires or car bodies. 53 limiting reactant (reagent) In order to make this ‘reaction’ balanced stoichiometrically, how many tires should our mechanic actually have on hand?32 tires would perfectly ‘balance’ this ‘reaction’ 58 A limiting reactant mixture on the other hand, contains an excess of one of the reactantsThe other reactant is thus limitingN2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)Which reactant is inexcess in thisreaction mixture?Which reactant islimiting? 62 10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of B Example10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of BWhat information do you need to calculate the mass of the product (C) that will be produced?A + 3B 2Cmolar masses:A is 10.0 g/molB is 20.0 g/molC is 25.0 g/mol? 63 10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of B Example10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of BA + 3B 2C1) Convert known masses of reactants to moles 64 10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of B Example10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of BA + 3B 2C2) Convert to the number of moles of productSo B is limiting reactant 65 10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of B Example10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of BA + 3B 2CChoose the least number of moles of product formed as limiting reactant: B is limiting 66 10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of B Example10.0 g of Chemical A are reacted with 10.0 g of BA + 3B 2C3) Convert moles of C to grams of C using the molar mass 67 shortcut to limiting reactant How do we determine quickly which reactant is limitingand by deduction, which is in excess?Three step programCalculate the number of moles of each reactantdivide the number of moles of each reactant by its coefficient from the balanced equationthe reactant with the smaller result is limiting 68 If 56 g of K is reacted with 56 g of oxygen gas according to the equation below, indicate the mass of product that can be made and identify the limiting reactant K(s) + O2(g) 2 K2O(s)K2O = 94.2g/mol67g K2O; K is the limiting reactant.270 g K2O; K is the limiting reactant.270 g K2O; O2 is the limiting reactant.67g K2O; O2 is the limiting reactant. 69 Theoretical vs actual yield Theoretical YieldThe maximum amount of a given product that can be formed once a limiting reactant has been completely consumed – it is a calculationActual yieldThe amount of product that is actually produced in a reaction – it is a measurementIt is usually less than the maximum expected (theoretical yield) 70 FYITheoretical yield is found by using the amount of limiting reactant calculated in a mass-to-mass calculationFor the chemist in the lab, the actual yield is found by weighing the amount of product obtained 71 Theoretical Yield Actual yield For our auto mechanic, the theoretical yield is 8 finished carsActual yieldIf one car body was damaged beyond repair, the actual yield would have been 7 finished cars 72 Percent yield is the percent of the theoretical yield actually obtained from a chemical reaction For our car mechanic: 73 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.8 Percent Yield The combustion of acetylene gas (C2H2) produces carbon dioxide and water as indicated in the following reaction 2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g) When 26.0 g of acetylene is burned in sufficient oxygen for complete reaction, the theoretical yield of CO2 is 88.0 g Calculate the percent yield for this reaction if the actual yield is only 72.4 g CO2 Analysis—The percent yield is calculated by dividing the actual yield by the theoretical yield and multiplying by 100 75 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.9 Mass to Mole Conversions: Limiting Reagent and Theoretical Yield The element boron is produced commercially by the reaction of boric oxide with magnesium at high temperature. B2O3 (l) + 3 Mg (s) → 2 B (s) + 3 MgO (s) What is the theoretical yield of boron when 2350 g of boric oxide is reacted with 3580 g of magnesium? The molar masses of boric oxide and magnesium are 69.6 g/mol and 24.3 g/mol, respectively 76 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.9 Mass to Mole Conversions: Limiting Reagent and Theoretical Yield (Continued) 77 If 28. 56 g of K2O is produced when 25 If g of K2O is produced when g K is reacted according to the following equation, what is the percent yield of the reaction? K(s) + O2(g) 2 K2O(s)87.54%95%94.82%88% 79 What is the mole, and why is it useful in chemistry? A mole refers to Avogadro’s number × 1023 formula units of a substance.One mole of any substance has a mass (a molar mass) equal to the molecular or formula weight of the substance in grams.Because equal numbers of moles contain equal numbers of formula units, molar masses act as conversion factors between numbers of molecules and masses in grams. 80 How are molar quantities and mass quantities related? The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation represent the numbers of moles of reactants and products in a reaction.The ratios of coefficients act as mole ratios that relate amounts of reactants and/or products.By using molar masses and mole ratios in factor-label calculations, unknown masses or molar amounts can be found from known masses or molar amounts. 81 What are the limiting reagent, theoretical yield, and percent yield of a reaction? The limiting reagent is the reactant that runs out first.The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be formed based on the amount of the limiting reagent.The actual yield of a reaction is the amount of product obtained.The percent yield is the amount of product obtained divided by the amount theoretically possible and multiplied by 100%. 82 The official name for what we are doing is Stoichiometry
Design Patterns provide easy to recognize and use OOP solutions to common problems. Design Patterns also solve specific programming challenges regarding usability and maintainability. Creational patterns: Creational design patterns are design patterns that deal with object creation mechanisms, trying to create objects in a manner suitable to the situation. Structural patterns: Structural design patterns are design patterns that ease the design by identifying a simple way to realize relationships between entities. Behavioral patterns: Behavioral design patterns are design patterns that identify common communication patterns between objects and realize these patterns. By doing so, these patterns increase flexibility in carrying out this communication. - Design Patterns and Definitions
5. Physical Description The calliope hummingbird is believed to be the smallest bird in North America. In terms of their size, an adult calliope hummingbird tends to measure between only around 2.8 and 4 inches (7 and 10 centimeters) in length, has a span of about 4.33 inches (11 centimeters) across the wings, and weighs under a tenth of an ounce (between 2 and 3 grams). When it comes to their appearance, these birds are glossy green on the crown, with dark bodies and white underparts. They have a relatively short bill and tail. Adult females and immatures have a pinkish wash over their flanks, a dark tail with white tips, and dark-colored streaks on their throats. On the other hand, the adult males have wine-red colored streaks on their throats, a dark tail, and green flanks. In terms of their diet, the omnivorous calliope hummingbirds are both insectivores and nectarivores. The birds are known to prey and feed on insects. For this, they initially hawk the insects, and then zoom out from a perch to catch them in the air. The smaller insects that they eat are inclusive of ants, beetles, bees, flies, and wasps. Apart from that, observations of this bird’s behavior has shown that they also feed regularly at sap wells or holes in trees that are created by other sapsuckers. They basically lick out nectar from flowers by using their long tongues. It is believed that they regularly visit red tubular shaped flowers, although they feed on blue, yellow, white and purple flowers as well. 3. Habitat and Range The breeding habitat of the calliope hummingbird is believed to vary greatly in terms of altitude, though they generally appear to prefer open shrub areas. It is normal for nesting to occur at higher altitudes, particularly in the mountains. Nest heights typically tend to vary from 2 to 65 feet above the ground. Open montane forests, alder thickets, willows and mountain meadows are used by the bird as breeding grounds. They may also be seen in deserts, semi-desert regions, chaparral and lowland brushy areas during winter and migration. From what is known, calliope hummingbirds nest in western North America from Southern British Columbia to southwestern Alberta, through Washington, Nevada, Oregon and California to northern Baja California and east to Wyoming, Utah and Colorado. During the winters, they can also be seen in northern to central Mexico. They move mainly through Arizona and New Mexico and northern Mexico during spring and summer. The overall behavior of calliope hummingbird resembles that of may other species of hummingbirds. These are solitary migratory birds that only interact with individuals of the same species during mating season. However, they normally share their range with the rufous hummingbirds. The calliope hummingbirds make long-distance migrations every year from their summer range to their winter range and back. As they make stops to refuel on nectar, there is a good chance that they may be sighted in a variety of locations along their routes. When it comes to reproduction, it is normal for the adult males to arrive on the breeding ground before females, during mid-April and early May. The males are rather vigorous in defending their nesting territories where they continue to breed with many females, which means they are polygynous. The males pursue females during the breeding season to which the females reply by either fleeing or hiding. When catching a female, the adult male exhibits territorial displays such as buzzing, diving, hovering and vocalizing. By the time the young hatch from the eggs, the males vacate the breeding grounds and take no part in raising the young. On the other hand, the females build an open cup nest in a conifer tree under an overhanging branch. They may also use alder and apple trees depending on their habitats. These constructions are important, as the female may use the same nest repeatedly over the course of several years. The female then lays two eggs between late May and early July, which are then incubated for 15 to 16 days. The young typically start flying 20 days after hatching.
Far beyond the orbit of Neptune in a region of the outer solar system known as the Kuiper Belt float thousands of icy, moon-sized bodies called Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs). Astronomers think they are the remnants of the bodies that slammed together to form the planets more than 4 billion years ago. Unlike Earth, which has been continually eroded by wind and water since it was formed, KBOs haven’t changed much over time and may hold clues about the early solar system and planet formation. Until now, astronomers have used telescopes to find KBOs and obtain their spectra to determine what types of ices are on their surface. They have also used thermal-imaging techniques to get a rough idea of the size of KBOs, but other details have been difficult to glean. While astronomers think there are about 70,000 KBOs that are larger than 100 kilometers in diameter, the objects’ relatively small size and location make it hard to study them in detail. One method that has been has been proposed for studying KBOs is to observe one as it passes briefly in front of a bright star; such events, known as stellar occultations, have yielded useful information about other planets in the solar system. By monitoring the changes in starlight that occur during an occultation, astronomers can determine the object’s size and temperature, whether it has any companion objects and if it has an atmosphere. The trick is to know enough about the orbit of a KBO to be able to predict its path and observe it as it passes in front of a star. This was done successfully for the first time last October when a team of 18 astronomy groups led by James Elliot, a professor of planetary astronomy in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, observed an occultation by an object named “KBO 55636.” As Elliot and his colleagues report in a paper published June 17 in Nature, the occultation provided enough data to determine the KBO’s size and albedo, or how strongly it reflects light. The surface of 55636 turns out to be as reflective as snow and ice, which surprised the researchers because ancient objects in space usually have weathered, dull surfaces. The high albedo suggests that the KBO’s surface is made of reflective water-ice particles, and that would support a theory about how the KBO formed. Many researchers believe there was a collision that occurred one billion years ago between a dwarf planet in the Kuiper Belt known as Haumea and another object that caused Haumea’s icy mantle to break into a dozen or so smaller bodies, including 55636. More importantly, the research demonstrates that astronomers can predict occultations accurately enough to contribute to a new NASA mission known as the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) that completed its first in-flight observations in May. A Boeing 747SP aircraft that has a large telescope mounted in its rear fuselage, SOFIA can record infrared measurements of celestial objects that are not possible from the ground. Elliot hopes his research will help guide future flights of SOFIA to observe stellar occultations in detail. Betting on an occultation Elliot, who has been studying 55636’s orbit for five years, thought it would most likely pass in front of an unnamed star on Oct. 9, 2009. But the KBO’s small size made it difficult to predict exactly where the object would travel, and so, to be on the safe side, he and his colleagues assembled a network of 18 observation stations along a 5,900-kilometer stretch of the Earth’s surface that corresponded to the KBO’s predicted shadow path. Such a strategy “covered our uncertainty about where the path would go, both to the north and to the south,” Elliot explains. “It was our way of hedging our bets.” While some of the stations couldn’t observe because of weather, and others simply didn’t detect the occultation, two stations in Hawaii captured data on the changes in starlight that occurred during the roughly 10-second occultation. After measuring the exact amount of time that the star was blocked from view, as well as the velocity with which the shadow of 55636 moved across Earth, the researchers calculated that the KBO has a radius of about 143 kilometers. Knowing this, they could then calculate the object’s albedo. The highly reflective surface of 55636 is perplexing because the surfaces of celestial bodies in the outer solar system are supposed to darken over time as a result of dust accumulation and exposure to solar radiation. John Stansberry, an astronomer at the University of Arizona, says that if Elliot’s “solid piece of work” can be confirmed in follow-up research, then the results show that 55636 is “an extremely unique” KBO because similarly sized KBOs are thought to have significantly smaller albedos. “The result suggests that it would be worthwhile to try to measure the albedos of other Haumea family members to see if they are also very high,” says Stansberry. Although other highly reflective bodies in the solar system, such as the dwarf planet Pluto and Saturn's moon Enceladus, have their surfaces continuously renewed with fresh ice from the condensation of atmospheric gases or by volcanic activity that spews water instead of lava, 55636 is too small for these mechanisms to be at work, says Elliot. He has no plans to investigate the cause of the high albedo but will continue to collect data about the orbits and positions of the largest KBOs in order to predict future occultations with enough accuracy that he doesn’t have to rely on a vast network of observers.
The Atwood Machine is a common classroom experiment showing the laws of motion of two coupled systems undergoing constant acceleration. An Atwood Machine consists of two masses mA and mB, coupled together by a inextensible massless string over a massless pulley. When the two masses are equal, the system is in equilibrium and no motion occurs. The two masses will remain stationary. When the two weights are not equal, the system will move where the heavier mass is pulled down while the lighter mass is pulled up. This example problem shows how to derive the acceleration of the system and the tension in the string. a) Find the acceleration of an Atwood Machine if mA = 3 kg and mB = 5 kg. b) Find the tension in the string connecting the two masses. Here is an illustration of the setup. We will ignore the values of mA and mB at this point to show the derivation of the answer. Block B is heavier than Block A, so the overall direction of motion will be down on Block B’s side of the pulley and up on Block A’s side. Choose your coordinate system so the acceleration is always positive. This system is coupled together by the massless string. The heavier Block B pulls down on the string a distance Δd in some time t. In the same time, Block A moves up Δd. That means each block’s velocities are the same. vA = Δd⁄t = vB The velocity directions can be adjusted by the coordinate system chosen for each system. Since the velocities are always the same, their accelerations are the same. a = aA = aB Since the string is massless and inextensible, the tension is uniform throughout the system. The tension pulling Block A up is the same as the tension pulling Block B up. This means the acceleration and tension is the same for both blocks. Now find the forces acting on each block. For Block A, the weight mAg is pulling down while the tension force T is pulling up. ΣF = T – mAg Since these forces are in motion, these forces are equal to mAa. ΣF = mAa = T – mAg For Block B, the forces are nearly the same. The difference is the overall acceleration is in the opposite direction of Block A. ΣF = mBg – T = mBa We now have two equations and two unknowns, T and a. Add these two equations together and T will drop out leaving only acceleration. mAa = T – mAg mBa = -T + mBg mAa + mBa = mBg – mAg Factor out the acceleration and gravity variables on each side. (mA + mB)a = (mB – mA)g Divide both sides by (mA + mB) to solve for a. Now that we have the acceleration, we can find the tension using either of the two force equations. Let’s use Block A. mAa = T – mAg Solve this for T and get: T = mAa + mAg Substitute the value of a into the equation. Rewrite the equation as Factor out mAg Now that we have derived formulas for acceleration and tension, we can find the answer to the initial problem. Part a) Find acceleration when mA = 3 kg and mB = 5 kg. a = 2/8 g a = 0.25 (9.8 m/s2) a = 2.54 m/s2 The blocks are accelerating at 2.54 m/s2. Part b) Find the tension in the string. T = 36.75 kgm/s2 T = 36.75 N The tension in the string is 36.75 Newtons. Tip: The key to this type of problems is to choose your coordinate system so the direction of the acceleration is always in the positive direction. As long as your accelerations are all acting together, sign errors will not be a problem. In the case of the Atwood machine, acceleration always runs towards the larger mass. Last modified: August 18th, 2014 by
Traditional Korean thought has been influenced by a number of religious and philosophical thought-systems over the years. As the main influences on life in Korea, often Shamanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, as well as Taoism are mentioned. These movements have shaped Korean life and thought. See also the article Religion in Korea. - See main article: Korean Shamanism Traditional rites and shamanistic practices have developed in Korea for millennia. Throughout Korean history, native shamanism deeply influenced and was influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. In contemporary Korean, a shaman is known as a mudang Even though belief in Korean shamanism is not as widespread as it once was, the practices are kept alive. The mudang seeks to solve human problems through a connection to the spirits. This can be seen clearly in the various types of gut that are still widely performed. Korean Buddhist thinkers - See main articles: Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Temples refined ideas originally introduced from China into a distinct form. The Three Kingdoms of Korea introduced Buddhism to Japan, from where it was popularized in the West. Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Seon lineage, which is derivative of the Chen(Zen ) Buddhism of China and precursor to "zen" Buddhism known in the West through Japan. Buddhist temples can be found in most parts of Korea and many are considered national treasures. - See main article: Korean Confucianism One of the most substantial influences in Korean intellectual history was the introduction of Confucian thought as part of the cultural exchange . Today the legacy of Confucianism remains a fundamental part of Korean society , shaping the moral system, the way of life, social relations between old and young, and high culture, and even survived the modernization of legal system - See main article: Korean Taoism is largely shaped by the writings of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu
Play can help children understand the many concepts and different ideas. One of the benefits that can bring fun to help children reach their own understanding by exploring, understanding their own emotions. When a new child development from toddlers to know go to preschool age, children gradually more conscious about playing with other children. The bigger, better they know to share their toys, play games with other children and took comfort in role-playing game scenario imagined with their friends. Whether young usually disharmony with each other, there is still a perfect opportunity for children collided with the situation, help them feel that way when these circumstances occur, how they deal with emotion .. . all is an important part of the road inevitably grow up, develop social skills and feelings of the child. Playing with role as the others. Children also learn about mood and emotion when they play with yourself. Imagination and play in the game follow theme help they action to different scenarios and explore the emotions of other people see is how. In the early years, children find it hard to capture the different perspectives of those around them. But as they grow and continue to grow, the ability to understand that each person can feel different and have different views in the same situations and circumstances … children will become more sensitive. Understanding feelings through books and reading Another way through which children can learn more about emotions is through books and reading. Sharing stories with children from a young age is good and there are many books give children the idea of dealing with situations mood, different types of emotions. For example, children may themselves be jealous and gives early retirement when a new brother was born, but there are also children’s books talk about this subject, support them realize that emotion that is normally very nature, not threaten our current position. Many other cases: first school, losing a social relationship because someone died, or their parents divorced a very easy problem causing emotional and appeared a series of complex emotions . By choosing an age appropriate book is referring to the situation and solving method, parents can help children understand their feelings and find effective measures to deal with them. Playing as a means to deal with emotions. The children’s play is also used as a teaching valuable method helps them learn of dealing with emotions. If they’re feeling sad, depressed, angry or frustrated … playing with toys, self-satisfied with the fantasy game, the game can serve as an enjoyable pastime. They can be absorbed in the game form of love, fleeing from the real world in a moment. It also brought the children time to accept the situation or circumstance occurs, often provide opportunities for children themselves and the role eventually understand the nature of events. Children’s emotions is a complex problem. There are many things around the brain and understanding of children, and the best thing you can do, as parents is to support them, demonstrate your interest and let them know that normally only if you have many different feelings, and best to express that emotion, rather than restraining them in their hearts
by Craig Stellpflug (NaturalNews) “Cancer found in mummies is very rare,” say professors Rosalie David and Michael Zimmerman from the University of Manchester. Their investigation of hundreds of Egyptian mummies found only one case of cancer. Searching for evidence of cancer in fossils and ancient medical texts, they uncovered only five cases of tumors, mostly benign. They conclude that cancer among ancient people “was extremely rare. There is nothing in the natural environment that can cause cancer. So it has to be a man-made disease, down to pollution and changes to our diet and lifestyle.” “Cancer appears to be a modern disease created by modern life.” The ancient Egyptians were very adept at the use of herbs and drugs for disease treatments and made meticulous notes for every physical specialty of their day. During the following centuries, there were many fathers of medicine that recorded human maladies and treatments, building on the foundation of the great Egyptian physicians. The scarcity of references to cancer in ancient literature seems to confirm the rarity of cancer in olden times. But since then, cancer rates have risen almost exponentially, beginning with the Industrial Revolution. This is particularly true with childhood cancer, proving that the rise is not simply due to people living longer. Professors Zimmerman and David determined that the average life expectancy of the mummies they inspected was 25 to 50 years. Critics of this modern cancer disease hypothesis suggest that the short life span of individuals in antiquity precluded the development of cancer. Although this statistical construct is true, individuals in ancient Egypt and Greece did live long enough to develop age-related conditions like atherosclerosis, Paget’s disease of bone, and osteoporosis with childhood cancers never mentioned. Another argument is that tumors may have disintegrated over the millennia, making it impossible for the scientists to come to their conclusion to which Professor Zimmerman pointed out that his work indicates that tumors actually are better preserved than normal tissue. Zimmerman states “in an ancient society lacking surgical intervention, evidence of cancer should remain in all cases.” History of cancer The oldest description of cancer dates around 3000 BC in an Egyptian textbook describing eight cases of supposed tumors of the breast that were treated by cauterization. The origin of the word cancer comes from Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who used the terms carcinos and carcinoma to describe non-ulcer and ulcer-forming tumors. Galen (130-200 AD), used the word oncos (Greek for swelling) to describe tumors. Read the rest of the article here: Natural News
Evolution is the theory that species descended from more ancient forms of life by structural and physiological modifications. If the theory is true, then the world we observe should contain evidence supporting the idea that species change. Let us examine the natural world to see if such evidence exists. If today's species have come from more ancient forms, then we should be able to find remains of those species that no longer exist. Scientists have found such evidence in the form of fossils. Fossils--traces of once-living organisms-- are found most commo nly in layers of sedimentary rock. This type of rock begins to form when water and wind form layers of sand and silt. These and other decomposers are sealed off, preventing decomposition. After time the sedimentary layers become rock. The most common fossils found in sedimentary rocks are from the hard parts of organisms, including shells, bones, teeth, and woody stems. Sometimes minerals replace the original remains, often molecule by molecule. Such replacement preserv es the microscopic structure of the organism. Fossils can form in other ways. For instance, insect fossils have been found trapped in hardened resin. Such fossils show details as small as the insect's tiny leg hairs. In another instance, woolly mammoths that were frozen in Arctic ice have been dug up with their skin, bones, and muscles perfectly preserved. Fossils are not always the body parts of an organism. An imprint is a type of fossil in which a film of carbon remains after the other elements of an organism have decayed. A mold is a type of fossil in which an impression of the shape or track of an organism has survived. The relative age of fossils is determined from their position in sedimentary rock. In undisturbed sedimentary rock the bottom layers are the oldest and the top layers are the youngest. Fossils found in the lower layers are older. Those found in the u pper layers are younger. Thus a fossil's position in sedimentary rock beds gives its age relative to other fossils. The absolute age of a fossil is determined by dating the fossil with radioactive isotopes. Radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclei that break down, or decay, and form other elements. These isotopes decay at a constant, known rate. The period of time it takes for one-half of the radioactive material to decay is called the half-life of the isotope. Remember that isotopes of an element differ in number of neutrons. Carbon-12, the most common and stable isotope of carbon, has 6 protons and 6 neutrons an d therefore has an atomic mass of 12. Carbon-14, an unstable, radioactive isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 8 neutrons and an atomic mass of 14. Carbon-14 decays to nitrogen-14. The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5,700 years. The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in the atmosphere is assumed to be constant over time. Organisms take up the two isotopes of carbon in about the same ratio that the isotopes are found in the atmosphere. Thus, when an organism dies, the ratio of c arbon-14 to carbon-12 in its remains will be the same as that in the atmosphere. As time goes by, the amount of carbon-14 will decrease as it changes into nitrogen-14. However, carbon-12 does not decay. By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a fossil with the ratio of these isotopes in the atmosphere, scientists can date fossils that are up to 50,000 years old. Scientists use other radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40, to date older fossils. Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.28 billion years. Uranium-238 is another radioactive isotope with a long half-life that can be used to date older fos sils. Uranium-238 is used to determine the age of cores of silt taken from seabeds. Fossil evidence indicates that over time organisms of increasing complexity appeared on the earth. Bacteria and blue-green bacteria are the first fossils that were preserved from the Precambrian era. During the beginning of the Paleozoic e ra, complex multicellular invertebrates dominated life in the oceans. By the end of the Paleozoic era, plants and animals has colonized the land surface of the earth. The fossil record contains many examples that could be interpreted to mean that species evolved from more ancient organisms.
This week's content is provided by Jon Orr, the author of Math Before Bed (and tons of other cool ideas). If you have not yet checked out his book, do it now! From Jon: The benefits of reading stories to our children at nighttime have been shared countless times over, and for good reason. Reading improves literacy skills. Why is it that we don’t do math with our children before bed? The book Math Before Bed is a collection of prompts that can inspire mathematical discussions that you and your children can have before bed, at dinner, or anytime. Each page in this book shows you and your child a perplexing problem. Sometimes there is one right answer and sometimes there are many right answers. The purpose of each question is to generate a discussion about HOW you determined an answer. If you find one answer, try to find another. You could complete one page a night, or many pages. For example, you turn to this page: Read the prompt out loud and let your child think. He/she may say 20. Ask them to describe how they counted them. He/she may say: The pages will prompt you to count, predict, follow a pattern, reason, and order. Get ready, snuggle up, and start the math! Read more about Math Before Bed and get the new pages over at http://mrorr-isageek.com/math-before-bed/ The book is in print and you can get a copy at cost here http://www.blurb.com/b/7431419-math-before-bed If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me on Twitter (@TableTalkMath) or comment below. Maybe you can create some of your own. If so, toss them my way and share!
What is Attachment? Attachment is the trust, security, and affection a child feels for an adult who is responsible for their well-being. Adults provide positive attachment for their child when: - The adult can effectively read the signal coming from the child and responds in a timely and caring way when the child is hungry, tired, or uncomfortable in any way. - The adult provides positive emotional support when a child feels scared, mad, or sad. - The adult provides positive reciprocal social interactions. - The adult allows the child to explore within safe boundaries. Why is Attachment important? Attachment can have significant short and long term effects on development. Children who have a positive attachment feel safe, comfortable, and loved. They feel connected and safe in interacting with others. This provides a stable healthy foundation as their social world grows and more people become a part of their life. Ways to promote a positive attachment: - Connect with your inner child…when you have fun with your child, your child has fun! - Sing songs and dance with your child. - Establish predictable routines for your child. - Validate emotions and help them work through negative emotions. - Snuggle up to a sweet nightly bedtime story together.
Some places on Earth are extreme: the North and South Poles with their freezing temperatures, the deep sea where sunlight cannot reach, and the inside of fiery hot volcanoes. But none of these regions come close to comparing to the harsh conditions found on some other planets in the Universe. For example, using an X-ray space telescope called Chandra, astronomers have recently found a distant planet that is being blasted with X-ray radiation from the star that it orbits (see illustration below). This X-ray radiation is 100,000 times more intense than what the Earth gets from its nearest star, the Sun! Since this planet is found outside our Solar System, it is called an 'extra-Solar planet', or 'exo-planet' for short. This exo-planet is massive - about 3 times heavier than Jupiter, or 1000 times that of Earth. It is also much closer to its star than the Earth is to the Sun, putting it directly in the firing line of those intense X-rays. To find out more about this exo-planet, astronomers combined observations made with Chandra with those made with another telescope that is based on the ground, called the Very Large Telescope. In doing so, astronomers have discovered that the X-ray radiation is destroying about 5 million tons of matter from the planet every second! Astronomer Sebastian Schroeter says: "This planet is being absolutely fried by its star." Cool fact: Life forms, such as bacteria, which can survive in extreme environments on Earth are called extremophiles (you say it like "extreme-o-philes"). Could we find alien extremophiles living in even harsher environments in the Universe? \|Children & Online Privacy\|
General outline of texts in context: topics and connecting ideas A SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY INTO THE RATIONAL BASIS FOR The biological basis of human nature, human values and human education or 'PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF PEDAGOGY' "A scientific inquiry should be characterized by a faith in the truth of a rational vision; faith in the hypothesis as a likely and plausible proposition; faith in the final theory ...This faith is rooted in one's own experience, in the confidence in one's power of thought, observation and judgement... rational faith is rooted in an independent conviction based upon one's own productive observing and thinking." (Erich Fromm, Man For Himself 205) "Is there some sense in which principles of pedagogy can be derived from our knowledge of man as a species - from knowledge of his characteristic growth and dependence, of the properties of his nervous system, of his modes of dealing with culture?" (Jerome Bruner (1971) Relevance of Education. p.118) Part I The human organism is a social organism which depends for survival on accurate perception of reality i.e. 'intelligence'in order to adapt to changing environmental conditions i.e. 'adaptabiliy'. chapter 1. Definition of Science: science as a human activity involving perception as a function of human consciousness. ... 'scientific method' as manifestation of species maturity... limited cognition of 'immaturity'... Perception of 'reality' is a function of human consciousness and therefore a function of human growth and development. chapter 2. Science of man: the human organism as a social organism: human nature defined in terms of human development in the context of freedom. An inquiry into the 'science of man' is also an inquiry into the 'science of ethics' and therefore forms the basis for a valid theoretical construction of a 'rational ethics'. chapter 3. Science of ethics: Human development and human values as 'operative values'... natural valuing process is function of as a part of normal human development... moral development as development of moral consciousness or 'conscience'. Normal human development depends on appropriate conditions for proper development of the 'mind'i.e. 'education'. chapter 4. Science of education: Education as instruction is a function of culture and therefore has a political function . The growth of the individual depends on the extent to which the culture facilitates the growth process. chapter 5. American cultural context chapter 6. American education... chapter 7. American 'educational crisis' chapter 8. Paradigm shift Part V Normal human growth depends on conditions provided by an education which is based on the real understanding of 'human nature'. Complete 'humanness' depends on the fulfillment of developmental human needs... including the 'higher' psychological needs or 'metaneeds'. Denial or frustration of human needs and human yearnings leads to psychopathology and human wickedness or 'evil'. chapter 9. 'holistic education' as education for 'wholeness of mind'... for moral development... for understanding which depends on goodness or 'virtue'... chapter 10. new education chapter 11. 'biological model': Dr. Ovide Decroly (1871-1932) Holistic education is validated by brain research or 'neuroscience'. Teaching methods are effective because they comply with the natural holistic functioning of the brain and the learning process become an integral part of personal growth and development. chapter 12. Holistic education as natural education: brain as organ of the 'mind'... biology of learning... 'brain-based learning'... home introduction biographical statement Part I Chapter 1 'Science' as a human activity involving perception as a function of human consciousness. What is a 'science'? "Any 'science' is a 'science' because it brings to our awareness an aspect of nature which exists already but the existence of which we were unaware before the 'science' discovered it and made us aware of it. In the 'science of 'physics' Newton made us aware of the force of gravity. Like other 'sciences, the 'science' of creative intelligence brings to our awareness the existence of an aspect of human nature which already exists. Freud's scientific discoveries made us aware of the unconscious level of the human 'mind.'" Science as philosophy: look at the history of science from the holistic perspective of human development. As human beings living in different periods of human history, philosophers and scientists make their inquiries within the context of a prevailing scientific worldview or 'paradigm'. Scientific method as maturity... The method of mature science - systematic investigation using experiment - is the 'scientific method'.... manifestation of maturity in human development Definition of 'science': science is a human activity involving observation and rational analysis. 'Science' is common sense inquiry - the primary tool for thinking - required for survival of the individual and survival of the species... Survival depends on adaptation to changing environmental conditions... i.e. 'adaptability'. Adaptability depends on accurate evaluation of perception of 'reality' or 'intelligence' a function of curiosity and inquiry leading to complete cognition of 'maturity'... rational thought of 'reason'. "The most recent of the great insights that have invited man to maturity came with the development of science. The scientific method is not commonly regarded as an insight into human nature; but this, in its essence, is what it is. It is a systematized expression of the fact that man is a species capable of transcending his own limitations of sense and of subjectivity."(H. Overstreet The Mature Mind) Perception of 'reality' is a function of human consciousness and therefore of human development... Perception of 'reality' (social, philosophical, 'scientific' etc.) as a function of the individual's level of consciousness or.. level of awareness... awareness of error... a function of the ability to perceive error and to correct for distortion of perception ...'critical consciousness' - a function of human development and extent of psychological, spiritual and therefore 'moral' growth i.e.'sociocognitive stage'. Moral growth is mature growth or 'maturity' a result of normal biological and psychological development... also described as 'maturity of mind' (Henry Overstreet)... 'normalisation' (Maria Montessori)... 'self-realisation' (Karen Horney)... 'productive character orientation' (Erich Fromm)... 'personality congruence' (Carl Rogers)... 'individuation' (Carl Yung)... 'self-actualisation' (Abraham Maslow). Maturity is characterised by accurate perception of reality i.e. critical consciousness or 'intelligence' - a product of 'freedom to learn and freedom to make mistakes. This is the 'inner freedom' required for adaptation to changing environmental conditions i.e. 'adaptability'... hence the necessity for 'freedom in education'. "For adjustment to the environment, one must learn to control and evaluate perceptions, and to extract information necessary for survival. For intellectual and spiritual growth, one must be prepared to change one's ideas in the face of new evidence. People cannot be expected to be confidently adaptable at such a basic level unless they have the security of a stable self-image, a reasoned and realistic awareness of their own powers and their individual worth, tempered by an equal respect for the worth of others." (N. Goble, 'The Changing Role of the Teacher', The Function of Teaching, Paris: UNESCO 1977, 57) Accurate perception of reality as freedom: (Krishnamurti Total Freedom) Freedom is a function of perception which is free of distorting effects of ignorance and fear... freedom to learn 'inner freedom' and freedom to make mistakes i.e. 'science'. Freedom as accurate perception of reality is characteristic of optimal mental health or 'wellness'... a level of consciousness... (Lack of freedom results in neurotic development or 'neurosis' the source of human wickedness or 'evil' ) Incomplete or thwarted human development... 'abnormal' development: psychoanalysis as source of knowledge of human nature. The inner biological core of human nature - human values and therefore 'science of ethics' - is revealed and exposed by the 'uncovering therapies' of psychoanalysis. The overemphasis of traditional psychology on the pathologies, neuroses, psychoses etc. has provided a bundant evidence that men's bad and evil behavior results from frustration in his efforts toward self-actualisation. Providing important data in the search for values, psychoanalysis could be regarded as a significant process in the efforts of philosophers to formulate a 'science of values' or 'science of ethics.' "Psychoanalytic therapies help the individual uncover the biologically based intrinsic values with which he naturally prefers to identify. They help the individual to 'search for his identity'... An individual's search for identity is essentially a search for his own intrinsic value system, his own authentic nature, his humanness, the human core which he shares with other members of the human species." (Maslow Psychology of Being p. 177) Perception of dichotomies as the 'incomplete' or 'limited cognition' of immature mind... immaturity: "It is as if less developed people lived in an Aristotelian world in which classes and concepts have sharp boundaries, and are mutually exclusive and incompatible, e.g. male-female, selfish-unselfish, adult-child, kind-cruel, good-bad etc. A is A and everything else is not-A in the Aristotelian logic, and never the twain shall meet. But seen by self-actualizing people is the fact that A and not-A interpenetrate and are one, that any person is simultaneously 'good' and 'bad', 'male' and 'female', 'adult' and 'child'. One cannot place a whole person on a continuum, only an abstracted aspect of a person. Wholenesses are non-comparable." (Abraham Maslow. Toward a Psychology of Being. 40) The immature mind... 'immaturity' ...is the product of thwarted growth psychological development or 'neurosis', psychosis etc... problem of 'evil'... Immature mind is also a function of social context ... 'semantics' (Korzybski) and effect of language... its potential for distortion... 'cultural context' ... see American culture- distortion of reality in the cultural myths... 'marketing character orientation' of modern 'economic man'... "It is important to build a scientific study of 'man-as-a-whole'. Such a study would be possible with the recognition that language is a fundamental psychophysiological function which reflects the structure of the world - the structure of 'reality'." (Korzybski Science and Sanity) Part II The human organism: chapter 2 'Science of man': human nature can be defined in terms of human development of the human organism as a social organism which depends on spiritual values for social cohesion... 'self-transcendance'. Survival depends on communication via language and spiritual life incorporating the human values. human instincts are weaker than instincts of other species of animal... the power of language is in the impact on the mind; the product of language is culture... individual in cultural context ... normal psychological development: "The old philosophical question 'what is the nature of man?' cannot be answered unless man's conscious mind is expanded to its full capacity. Then the answer can be found scientifically." (Abraham Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being " p.128) . Human nature as a function of normal human development in terms of human motives for behaviour or 'human needs'... 'human values'.... human needs as basis for human motiivation... 'lower' psychological needs or 'ego needs'... 'deficiency needs'... 'higher' psychological needs or 'spiritual needs' i.e. 'metaneeds'... 'metamotivation' The human is the only species with language... semantics and effect of language the power of language is in the impact of language on the mind can result in psychopathology: Traditional mistrust of human needs: "Traditionally, throughout the history of philosophy, theology, psychology, natural desires have been considered annoying and even threatening...Theologians, political philosophers and economic theorists have conceived of various strategies to remove, deny or avoid people's 'unwanted' desires and needs. People's happiness has been considered in terms of improving their conditions with a view to eliminating their needs." (Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being p. 28) "Human evolution is rooted in man's adaptability and in certain indestructible qualities of his nature which compel him never to cease his search for conditions better adjusted to his intrinsic needs." (Fromm Man For Himself 23). "The human aspects of human nature did not develop by accident, they developed because they were of survival value." (Eric Kandel. 'Nerve Cells and Behavior' Scientific American. 1970 See Readings from Scientfic American. W.H. Freeman and Co., 1976 278-320) "The living human being has, at the outset, a clear approach to values. He prefers some things and experiences and rejects others. We can infer from studying his behaviour that he prefers those experiences which maintain, enhance, or actualize his organism, and rejects those which do not serve this end." (Carl Rogers. Freedom To Learn. Chapter l2 "A modern approach to the valuing process" 242) Human survival depends on communication via language and spiritual life - the 'higher level of consciousness - 'transpersonal level'... . the level of functioning of the 'human values'... the level of optimal well-being or 'wellness'... with optimal mental health and full self-realization ('self-transcendance')..perception of reality is free from distortion. This is 'true freedom'. "In the dimension of perception, attributes of health might include perceptual sensitivity, clarity, and relative freedom from distortion. The individual has the ability to see things as they are, free from distorting influences of desire, aversion, ignorance and fear. 'The fully realized human is one whose doors of perception have been cleansed.' (See Smith,H "The Sacred Unconscious." In R. Walsh and D.Shapiro eds. "Beyond Health and Normality": Explorations of Extreme Psychological Well-being.) ." (l20) "The healthy person's sense of identity would be expected to extend beyond the usual ego self-sense. On one hand we would expect health to be associated with recognizing, owning and integrating the shadow, that component of the psyche comprising attributes judged to be negative and inconsistent with one's self-image. On the other hand we might expect the very healthy to live in the presence of the numinous (filled with a sense of the presence of divinity), the 'sacred unconscious,' the transpersonal self, or pure awareness, and to realize that they are that too." (Walsh 120) "...beyond the divisiveness among men there exists a primordial unitive power since we are all bound together by a common humanity more fundamental than any unity of dogma." (Ruth Nanada Anshen in preface to Deschooling Society by Ivan Illich) "...our deepest needs are not in themselves dangerous, evil or bad. Consequently we can reject the almost universal mistake that the interests of the individual and of the society are of necessity mutually exclusive and antagonistic, or that civilization is primarily a mechanism for controlling and policing human instinctoid impulses. All of these age-old axioms are swept away by the new possibility of defining the main function of a healthy culture as the fostering of universal self-actualization." (159 Maslow Psychology of Being) Connection: The problem for a 'science of man' is to formulate a scientific definition of the human personality or 'human nature'. This involves the study of natural valuing processes as part of normal human development i.e. 'science of ethics' chapter 3 The human organism: SCIENCE OF ETHICS: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND NATURAL HUMAN VALUES ...development of valuing process is a function of development of conscience BIOLOGY OF HUMAN VALUES ... 'natural ethics' or 'rational ethics' Organismic valuing process...The 'science of ethics' refers to the study of the development of the individual's intrinsic value system... natural valuing process as a part of normal human development... 'operative values' are related to the organism's inborn capacities and talents... data on the valuing process in the developing human being... "The living human being has, at the outset, a clear approach to values. He prefers some things and experiences and rejects others. We can infer from studying his behaviour that he prefers those experiences which maintain, enhance, or actualize his organism, and rejects those which do not serve this end." (Carl Rogers. Freedom To Learn. Chapter l2 "A modern approach to the valuing process" p. 242) universal human ethics human values of human nature or 'natural ethics'... 'humanistic ethics' .. humanistic conscience... valid ethical norms of a naturally human ethics is based on the respect for the dignity of human existence . 'human values' of naturalistic value system, organismic valuing process... 'operative values'... humanistic conscience... morality as function of moral development or 'intelligence'... "An individual's search for identity is essentially a search for his own intrinsic value system, his own authentic nature, his humanness, the human core which he shares with other members of the human species." (Erich Fromm Man For Himself) 'science of ethics': definition of ethics... Ethics is defined as both "the science of moral values and duties" and "the study of the ideal human character, actions, and ends". (Webster) Codes of ethics are separate from a universal human ethics... "The word 'ethics' comes from a root which means, originally, custom, and eventually, ethics comes to mean the science dealing with the ideal of human relatedness. This confusion between custom and ideals still exists in the minds of many people... Sometimes the term 'ethics' is used to refer to a code of behavior which is desirable for a given situation. There is a code of medical ethics, business ethics, military ethics. In the great philosophical tradition, "ethics is not a code of behavior valid in reference to this or that person or to this or that situation but to all human beings ...and for everything that is alive... There is only universal human ethics applied to specific human situations. Separated from universal human ethics, a 'code of ethics' for a specific situation can easily degenerate into a code which serves the interests of those within that situation. 'Medical ethics' can become a code of ethics which serves the interests of those in the medical 'profession.' 'Business ethics' can become a code of ethics serving the interests of those in 'business.' Ethics is a matter of 'conscience' - not the authoritarian 'conscience' or 'superego,' the internalized power of the father and 'society.' Ethics is a matter of 'humanistic conscience' - an inner voice that calls us back to ourselves... the inner core common to all men or 'human nature.'" ( Erich Fromm, Man for Himself p.171) 'authoritarian' conscience and authoritarian ethics. The problem for a 'science of ethics' is to formulate a scientific definition of man's intrinsic value system... moral consciousness or 'conscience'. The 'science of ethics' refers to the study of the development of the individual's intrinsic value system..... An individual's value system is the product of the totality of the individual's thought processes within the context of experiences in a changing social environment. The values which form the guidelines for living result from the individual's educational experiences. "Happiness is not the reward of virtue but is virtue itself." (Spinoza, Ethics) "The looking within for the real self is a kind of 'subjective biology' for it must include an effort to become conscious of one's own constitutional, temperamental, anatomical, physiological and biochemical needs, capacities and reactions i.e. one's biological individuality. It is also the path to experiencing one's specieshood, one's commoness with all other members of the human species. That is, it is a way to experiencing our biological brotherhood with all human beings no matter what their external circumstances." (Maslow Psychology of Being, 185) Every child is born with the biologically inherent potential for the realization of the natural capacities of a 'productive' character. Human nature as manifested in the full maturation of the naturally inherent potential in the 'productive' character, self-realization, is the aim of natural human development, natural educational process and of natural humanistic ethics. The individual who is mentally and emotionally crippled is incapable of the attitude characteristic of the 'productive' character. A 'science of man' and science of ethics' constitutes a basis for the formulation of a 'science of education'. ETHICS IN CULTURAL CONTEXT : individual in cultural context 'conceived' values : correlation between character orientation and social structure ... the product of language is culture... individual in cultural context... semantics and effect of language: the power of language is in the impact on the mind... can result in psychopathology: human instincts are weaker than instincts of other species of animal... human instinct for internalisation of cultural influence...or education as 'instruction' (traditional paradigm)... conditioned 'learning'... 'introjective instinct'... POLITICAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION "It is questionable whether pedagogical theory is principally a scientific theory in the explanatory sense... A theory of instruction is a political theory in the proper sense that it derives from consensus concerning the distribution of power within the society - who shall be educated and to fulfill what roles? In the very same sense, pedagogical theory must surely derive from a conception of economics, for where there is division of labor within the society and an exchange of goods and services for wealth and prestige, then how people are educated and in what number and with what constraints on the use of resources are all relevant issues. The psychologist or educator who formulates pedagogical theory without regard to the political, economic and social setting of the educational process courts triviality and merits being ignored in the community and in the classroom." ( Jerome Bruner Relevance of Education 1971 p.100) Politics of education: cultural values or 'ethics' establish the 'aims of education' "The relations (of ethics) to education are clear. Ethics is central to the educational enterprise since it is concerned with establishing a basis for determining the ends of education, the relation of means and methods to those ends, and a general classification of educational values." (xxi Reginald Archimbault, introduction to Dewey, Philosophy and Education) Education for power as a form of domination: education as expression of power and politics... power as mystification (mythification) of reality: propaganda... 'banking' education as cultivation rrational thinking... declining motivation ... social myth: myths of schooling... Authoritarianism and licence... student-teacher 'contradiction'... 'education industry'... ... problem of motivation ...'brain antagonistic' education-work for extrinsic cultural values extrinsic motivation... leads to reduced motivation... declining motivation... growing up in American culture: cultural implications of failure in sucess oriented culture 'growing up absurd'... 'reform' as aggravation / continuation of the educational crisis... "If we are to accept our commitments seriously, educators have a special concern for helping us to be liberated from the various conditions that oppress us, particularly those of ignorance and illiteracy. There is a powerful relationship between power and knowledge... People hold on to their domination in part because the oppressed do not have the critical intellectual skills to overcome the powerful continued forces of acculturation which lead the weak to internalize the ideology of the strong." (Freire 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed,. Trans. Myra Bergman Ramos, New York: Herder and Herder. 124) Part III chapter 4. 'science of education' as rational analysis of the human activity of fostering natural human development... 'educating' for human development and human values... The problem for a 'science of education' is to formulate a scientific definition of the 'aim of education'. ...human activity of 'educating'...'education' to foster natural human development ('holistic education'.) f. philosophy of education - aims of education 6f. Philosophy of Education There can be no philosophy of education apart from philosophy as a whole. Syntopicon essay 6h Aims of education aims of education to foster natural human development C. the 'new education': education for development of human nature and human values.. .education for development of the mind.... motivation: needs and psychological value of work... metaneeds and metamotivation... individual in cultural context: individual integrity in cultural context requires individual's critical consciousness for accurate perception of reality d. semantics and effect of language history of education... philosophy of education: Traditionally, throughout the history of philosophy, theology, psychology, natural desires have been considered annoying and even threatening. "Theologians, political philosophers and economic theorists have conceived of various strategies to remove, deny or avoid people's 'unwanted' desires and needs. People's happiness has been considered in terms of improving their conditions with a view to eliminating their needs." (Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being 28) Connection between science of man, science of ethics and science of education: The guiding principles for formulation of a scientific definition of human nature, ethics and education are found in the natural laws of human development... laws of nature. What are these laws? .... working for one's personal growth or 'self-actualisation'. The maintenance of individual integrity in cultural context - 'adaptability' - depends on critical consciousness for accurate perception of reality. spontaneous and natural process of full maturation... self-realisation of the naturally inherent potential of the 'productive' character orientation recognizing its powers, identifying with them and putting them to productive use. A 'science of ethics' and a 'science of education' are both concerned with the full development of the individual's powers and potentialities in the process of becoming fully human. In order to achieve his full human potential as a human being, the individual is instinctively aware of his own basic biological and psychological needs which must be satisfied in order for him to achieve his full humanness, his potential as a 'whole' human being. Consequently a 'science of ethics' and a 'science of education' both depend on the knowledge of human development for the knowledge of the real needs of the developing human being. Both depend on the 'science of man' (science of human nnature) as a basis for determining what constitutes man's natural and real 'self-interest, his natural interest in his real self, not in terms of material success but in terms of living an ethical life of human fulfillment. The common denominator for the three sciences is the natural process of human development... perception of 'reality' as function of human development; scientific method as manifestation of maturity in development of the human species 'Traditional' and 'progressive' education a. 'Banking' versus problem-solving education b. Social myth versus true nature of 'reality' c. Irrational versus rational thinking d. Freedom and authority versus authoritarianism e. Student-teacher 'contradiction' versus 'cooperation'. f. History of progressive education in America g. today's crisis in education application of wholistic education individual in cultural context.... normal psychological development "We must not forget that much of what happens in the school is in the context of a larger society in action... the impact of the world beyond the school cannot be underestimated. In terms of immersion and how the brain learns, all of society participates in education. We need to think in new, global ways about education generally." (Caine Making Connections 125) Connection: Education is a function of culture. Growth of the individual depends on the extent to which the culture facilitates the growth process. Part IV Education as function of culture... education in 'cultural context' Instruction is a specialized artifact of human culture. It reflects the species-typical character of human culture and the requirement of passing on that culture by extragenetic means." Kevin Harris. Education and Knowledge: The Structured Misrepresentation of Reality. p. 118 Education in American cultural context ... AMERICAN CULTURE American cultural context.. . "We must not forget that much of what happens in the school is in the context of a larger society in action...the impact of the world beyond the school cannot be underestimated. In terms of immersion and how the brain learns, all of society participates in education. We need to think in new, global ways about education generally." (Caine Making Connections 125) chapter 5. American cultural context: a. historical perspective:Protestantism... moralism... capitalism... 'consumer society' and cultural myths... packaging of values 'traditional' paradigm justified by behaviorism... 'education industry' and myths of schooling... aims of education in terms of political ideology and education for 'citizens of democracy'... 'reform' as counterreform... adult education... distorting influences of language and culture American culture- distortion of reality in the myths Individual in cultural context - individual in American culture ..: American culture does little to assist the individual's growth. The individual must struggle to grow in spite of the negative forces of capitalism which inhibit individual growth. concept of 'work' in American culture - Protestant 'work ethic' (Weber Protestantism and Capitalism) Martin Luther translated Latin for 'work' as God's 'calling'... individual integrity in cultural context depends on cultivation of critical consciousness for accurate perception of reality and subsequent adaptability. Traditional education as 'banking education' and social myth which for the cultivation of irrational thinking... 'student-teacher contradiction' "...myths of schooling - nonmaterial needs are transformed into demands for commodities... education is defined in terms of the results of 'services.' Institutions are created for the 'services' required for education. Focusing on the reproduction of the values of a consumer culture, the schools have been unprepared to meet the challenges of a changing global community. The resulting 'educational crisis' has inspired discussion and debate about the wider issues of the nature and purposes of education. (Ivan Illich Deschooling Society) chapter 6. American education: historical perspective: 'traditional' education... 'education industry' 'traditional' curriculum - myths of schooling... schools focus on the reproduction of the values of a consumer culture. The values of the consumer culture are institutionalized in the curricula of educational institution 'reform' as counterreform... aims of education - political ideology and education for 'citizens of a democracy'... behaviorism 'progressive' education... adult education chapter 7. American 'educational crisis' chapter 8 paradigm shift "Very important to a 'science of ethics' is the study of the correlation between character orientation and social structure. As well as explaining some of the causes for the formation of character, the study of a specific character orientation which is common to most members of the culture tells us which powerful emotional forces are instrumental in molding the social character and the functioning of the society". (Fromm, Erich.Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, New York, l947 To a large extent, it is the cultural norms which determine people's state of awareness and their perception of reality and human nature. Certain states of awareness are appropriate and acceptable for an individual in a given social situation depending on the existent cultural norms with respect to the accepted constructs or paradigms of the culture. Thus the different perspectives of the various 'psychologies' are not to be regarded as contradictory. More likely, they represent different viewpoints emphasizing different dimensions of a complex multidimensional human personality as a whole. Individual in cultural context: distorting influences of language and culture... American culture- distortion of reality in the cultural myths. "...The main function of a healthy culture (is) the fostering of universal self-actualization." (Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being p.15) 'Progressive' movement "From the beginning, the PEA was conscious of being a part of an international movement, and it early sought ties with its counterparts abroad. ...The initial issue of Progressive Education carried accounts of experiments with the Dalton Plan in England and the Decroly Plan in Belgium." (Lawrence Cremin. Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education 1876-1957 New York: Vintage Books 1964 page 248) American politics and ideals interfere with the aim of education of children which is the complete development of their humanity (mature personality and moral character) so they become autonomous and responsible human beings who know how to live to the fullest, maintaining their desire for learning in order to be able to adapt to a continually changing society and a changing world. Chapter 7 EDUCATIONAL CRISIS: 'Educational crisis' 'education industry' cultural implications of failure in sucess oriented culture 'growing up absurd' g. 'reform' as aggravation /continuation of the 'crisis' 'Banking' education and irrational thinking e. social myth: myths of schooling nonmaterial needs are transformed into demands for commodities; education is defined in terms of the results of 'services.' Institutions are created for the 'services' required for education.top Irrational thinking and social myth d. Authoritarianism and student-teacher 'contradiction' dichotomous concept: individual freedom/social responsibility Education for the 'needs' of the society becomes task oriented, lacks vision and wisdom, inhibits intellectual and emotional growth. Education for the needs of each individual human organism fosters growth and results in vision and wisdom. A wholistic view of education is based on the elimination of dichotomies such as individual/society. Wholistic education based on the biologically based needs and metaneeds of the individual automatically accomodates the needs of the society. 'Banking' education declining motivation (problem of motivation)...Students do not cooperate because they are not encouraged to experience motivation while learning. "You know, kids really like to learn; we just don't like to be pushed around." (sixth grader Anna) "So let's stop pushing them around!" (John Holt. Why Children Fail 180).. . 'reform' as aggravation and continuation of the 'crisis'...They cannot begin to conceive of educational reform. Under the power of the ritual of the educational 'machine', they remain under the spell of the economy (capitalism- consumerism). Once that spell is broken and only after it is broken, can they reform the educational system within a new paradigm.(Purpel) Connection: need for paradigm shift - institutionalized education with its emphasis on conditioning and behavioral outcomes is no longer relevant in the times of mass communications and the 'global village'. chapter 8 PARADIGM SHIFT: Paradigm shift: Mechanistic paradigm to holistic paradigm... ethics: anti-ecological to anti-ecological to ecological to ecological - wholistic perspective...ethical relativism to universal humanistic ethics science: mechanistic paradigm to wholistic paradigm; reductionist scientific objectivity and dualism 'reductionism' and 'scientism to systems approach and holism and 'holistic science; Newtonian mechanics to quantum theory... The scientific study of a holistic reality emphasizes the 'whole-system perspective'... 'global perception'... 'holistic perception'.. 'systems theory' and 'holistic science'... Gaia hypothesis'. This approach requires an understanding of the interrelationships between the parts of the whole system. As an example, the evolution of organisms and the environment can best be understood within the context of a whole system in which the parts develop and evolve together. scientific worldview (implies a rational value system or 'ethics') becomes the basis for philosphical assumptions. philosophy: organic worldview "...characterized by the interdependence of spiritual and material phenomena and the subordination of individual needs to those of the community." (Capra Turning Point 12) to mechanical to wholistic (worldview implies a value system) "The organic world view of the Middle Ages implied a value system conducive to ecological behavior...The Cartesian view of the universe as a mechanical system provided a'scientific' sanction for the manipulation and exploitation of nature that has become typical of Western culture. Descartes himself shared Bacon's view that the aim of science was the domination and control of nature....." (Capra Turning Point 61) psychology: mechanistic paradigm of behaviorism to holistic paradigm of transpersonal psychology... educational theory ... learning theory... based on theories of psychology A fundamental shift is taking place in the philosophical paradigm of education. The institutionalized form of education with its emphasis on conditioning, and behavioral outcomes is no longer relevant in the times of mass comunications and the 'global village'...etc. aim of education: development and fulfillment of human potential philosophy of education: education as instruction ('formalism') to education for holistic human development ('holism') ... passive learner to active learner, teaching as facilitation of learning - ... teacher as 'mediator' or 'facilitator of learning' ... student-teacher 'contradiction' to humanisation of authentic dialogue and 'cooperation'.education as schooling to education as individual empowerment i.e. 'holistic education'... theories of learning: student as 'passive' learner to student as 'active' learner; theories of intelligence: intelligence as curiosity and inquiry; experiential learning as 'global learning'; rational thinking and accurate perception of 'reality'; freedom and authority versus authoritarianism...freedom in education... libratory pedagogy... adult education... pedagogy for humanisation - 'pedagogy of the oppressed'(Freire); 'banking' education to problem posing education... problem-posing education de-mythisizes reality... transforms reality by unveiling its 'true' nature and thereby fostering rational thinking. (see Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 1971 . 'freedom' in education: freedom and authority versus authoritarianism; Experiential learning and integrated curricula and thematic teaching thematic teaching: role of teacher: distributor of instruction to 'facilitator of learning via authentic dialogue ' ... learning of content in context... thematic teaching; integrated curricula etc. social myth irrational thinking to rational thinking and true nature of 'reality'.. . supposed 'dichotomy' individual freedom/social responsibility As well as the sequential printed word, information is derived from multisensory sources of various forms and intensities. The complexity of information requires the brain to process simultaneously multitudinous stimuli - sights, sounds, images, ideas and others. For the purpose of survival, the brain must be able to derive meaning from a complex environment. The educational paradigm of industrialsism and behaviorism has become too limited. The educational experience for growing children is no longer a matter of simple preparation for a future working life. The educational experience must enable them to adapt to a changing environment and changing circumstances. It must prpeare them for personal fulfillment and a life of change. It must engage their full capacity for learning, and for learning to learn. For a future of change and a global perspective in the global village, their subjective life must become of paramount concern in education. It is no longer possible to ignore their inner experience. "The discoveries of Rudolf Steiner concerning the interrelationships of body, soul and spirit represent a new educational paradigm which ... can provide a secure theoretical and practical foundation for a holistic education that directs itself to educate the whole person for the whole of life." ("Gerald Karnow "Educating the Whole Person for the Whole of Life" Holistic Education Review, Spring, 1992) Connection: need for depth education... as education of the 'whole' individual... "In dealing with problems of society and education, the tendency is to deal with outer structures and forms. But the structures and forms are created by individuals and depend on their levels of consciousness. Thus a more intelligent approach would be to deal with the implementation of methods which would enable individuals to improve themselves through their own inner development, the basis for their success and happiness. Education should provide the individual with a foundation for successfully living in the world. There is a need for depth education - education of the 'whole' individual. Specialization of knowledge must be accompanied by full human development."(Dewey, 'My Pedagogic Creed' quoted in Wade Baskin, ed. "Classics in Education", New York: Philosophical Library, 1966) "Surely an education designed for the nineteenth century industrial society does not address the needs of our time. Our schools do not speak to the confused, fearful condition of the young generation who must inherit this troubled culture and this threatened planet. Consequently, American education has entered a period of upheaval and conflict from which it cannot emerge unchanged.....A radically different paradigm, not yet clearly defined, is emerging." ( Ron Miller, 1993. Renewal of Meaning in Education: Responses to the Cultural and Ecological Crisis of Our Times. Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press.) For four hundred years the goals of science have been directed to the control of nature and human nature. Scientific paradigms have produced the root metaphors of modern Western culture. Overemphasis on the metaphors of a man-centered mechanistic universe, dualistic reality, neutral technology and individualism has resulted in today's multifacted global crisis. The major purpose of schooling until now has been to preserve the hegemony of the established culture to induct each new generation into the dominant worldview. (Miller R. et al. The Renewal of Meaning in Education: Responses to the Cultural and Ecological Crisis of our Times Brandon,VT: Holistic Education Press, 1993) PART V Chapter 9 HOLISTIC EDUCATION: Education for 'wholeness of mind'... for moral development... for understanding which depends on goodness or 'virtue'... "Education is identical with helping the child realize his potentialities. Education in this sense results in 'existence' which means literally 'to stand out' to have emerged from the state of potentiality into that of manifest reality." (Erich Fromm Man For Himself, 207) "Virtues and the value life are of survival value and therefore biologically based. The philosophical analysis of 'virtues' becomes equivalent to the biological analysis of the social values." (Maria Montessori Absorbent Mind 231) "Holistic education returns us to the Latin ('educare') meaning of the word 'education' - to lead forth what is naturally within the human being.... The recent so-called 'holistic education movement' is the manifestation of the concern for an education which 'leads forth' or 'draws forth' the latent capacities and sensitivities of the individual". (Miller R. et al. The Renewal of Meaning in Education: Responses to the Cultural and Ecological Crisis of our Times 1993) Holistic education is based on a holistic perspective of nature and human nature... holistic education fosters mature moral judgement... eliminates the dichotomies implied in such terms as 'value free science', 'scientific objectivity', 'individual freedom', 'responsibility to society' and so on... incorporates the individual's normal growth to maturity... 'normalization'... education is raised to a higher level of consciousness... creative intelligence. Traditional education for possession and destruction is transformed holistic education for knowledge, understanding and love - not possession... depends on freedom... 'Freedom' in education: freedom to learn from mistakes... freedom to learn... freedom to develop human potential... freedom to maximize learning...freedom for optimal learning or 'optimalearning'. Optimal learning depends on ability to make associations and perceive the parts which make up the whole. The learner needs to be able to 'orchestrate' all learning experiences. Each new learning experience is embedded in the totality of previous experiences in a natural process of 'immersion'. With each new piece of information processed by the brain, increasing number of associations are made with the other current and past experiences and knowledge. The natural immersion process can be hindered or helped depending on the teaching methods being used. If the immersion process is hindered, fewer associations are made. If the immersion process is helped, more associations are made. Those teaching and learning methods which inhibit learning inhibit the formation of connections between nerve cells or 'neurons'... the 'synapses'. Holistic education is based on a reconceptualization of the 'traditional' teaching methodologies involving acknowlegement of the brain's natural rules for meaningful learning. Holistic learning uses to full advantage the brain's capacity to make connections.. 'brain-based learning'. A reconceptualization of teaching for brain-based learning "requires a framework with 'bottom line' integrity.... that means it must integrate human behaviour and perception, emotions and physiology... borrowing heavily from cognitive psychology, education, philosophy, sociology, science and technology, the new physics, and physiological responses to stress, as well as the neurosciences." (Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine, in "Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain" Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, Virginia 1991. p.viii ) Based on the worldview of holistic science, holistic education involves the natural learning functions of the human brain. As the biological organ of learning, the brain is the the basis for human self-development and self-fulfillment. a. experiential learning b. curiosity and inquiry d. maturity and 'congruence' of personality c. 'freedom' in education d. globalisation thematic teaching integrated curricula- learning of content in context History of holistic education Holistic education... freedom' in education c. experiential learning d. curiosity and inquiry e. teaching as facilitation of learning - authentic dialogue f. maturity and 'congruence' of personality a. history of education b. philosophy of education: aims of education c. education for development of human nature and human values. d. motivation: human needs and psychological value of work e. metaneeds and metamotivation c. individual in cultural context: critical consciousness and perception of reality ... freedom as 'inner freedom'. Freedom as full self-realization or 'self-actualisation'... (aim of education). New Education ... evolution of 'new education in Europe'.. 'free' education '... freedom in education... Education for human development... values "The recognition of the child as a unique entity is relatively recent in Western culture". (Phillipe Aries, Centuries of Childhood, New York: Knopf, 1962) Education as the fostering of natural human development. "Not in the service of any political or social creed should the teacher work, but in the service of the complete human being, able to exercise in freedom a self-disciplined will and judgement, unperverted by prejudice and undistorted by fear." Maria Montessori. To Educate the Human Potential. 1961.p. 3) progressive education (corrupted by interpretation of 'freedom' as authoritarianism of licence'... 'feminist pedagogy' as 'libratory pedagogy'... "The looking within for the real self is a kind of 'subjective biology' for it must include an effort to become conscious of one's own constitutional, temperamental, anatomical, physiological and biochemical needs, capacities and reactions i.e. one's biological individuality. It is also the path to experiencing one's specieshood, one's commoness with all other members of the human species. That is, it is a way to experiencing our biological brotherhood with all human beings no matter what their external circumstances... It should be possible to design an educational program around the instinctive needs of 'subjective biology', the 'metaneeds' as well as the basic physiological and psychological needs." (Abraham Maslow Psychology of Being p.185) Connection: The Decroly 'plan' is such an 'educational program'. Part V chapter 11 Holistic curriculum: Dr. Ovide Decroly (1871-1931) Decroly was influenced by Montessori... Piaget... Dewey "The difficulties that present themselves within the development of an experience are to be cherished by the educator, not minimized for they are the natural stimuli to reflective inquiry". (Dewey) The Decroly plan is a biological program or biological model centered on the the biological needs of the human organism ('subjective biology') for adaptation to the natural and social environment - the 'metaneeds' of the value-life as well as the basic physiological and psychological needs for self-preservation and self-esteem. The guiding principles of the Decroly method are based on the recognition and respect for intrinsic human needs The school (Decroly School... Ecole Decroly in Brussels) was founded by Decroly in his capacity as experimental pedagogue... it is based on educational policies which foster the maturation of intellect, of personal potential, of social intelligence, of individual capacities and sensitivites. In the Decrolyen biological educative system the child is considered as a behaving organism... education is considered in terms of its function 'for life through life (pour la vie par la vie)... the curriculum is designed around themes of human needs for survival: food (cultivation, preparation, nutrition etc.); water (ecology, physiology); defense (health, protection etc.) and human needs for adaptation through cultivation of intelligence (holistic perception or 'globalisation') and its application in productive work - problem solving, decision making, planning, research, expression etc. Pedagogical method: The new 'method' of education based on biological and psychological principles... 'psychopedagogy'..Decroly on true 'science of education' and a 'natural' pedagogy. . reasoning and his approach were both scientific and pragmatic. He focused on the convergence... the interrelationships education with biology, sociology and psycholgy. Education is a continous process which involves the growing child's changing psychological and social needs. Like any other science, the science of education would comprise both pure science, called 'pedology', science of the child based on objective methods, and applied science, called 'pedotechnie', techniques for the improved education of the child. are considered in terms of integrated curricula, experiential learning of content in context, thematic teaching... Decroly's 'method' was valid because it was not meant to be connected with any political or social doctrine but was based on the biological needs of the human organism to adapt successfully to a rapidly changing environment. Dr. Decroly's pedagogy is significant as empirical evidence for a scientific rationale for holistic education. Connection: Holistic education is natural education based on brain functioning. "In general the findings in brain research indicate that effective learning results from the wholistic response of the whole brain to incoming stimuli... The research of the neuroscientists and psychobiologists, together with the knowledge and intuition of educators and psychologists, points to the need for a more deliberate involvement of the whole brain in the process of learning." (Caine Making Connections p.7) PART VI chapter 12 Brain research... 'neuroscience': the biological basis of learning or biology of learning... Education for human self-development and self-fulfillment...self-determination...'self-empowerment' is based on the natural functioning of the human brain. Brain as organ of learning... organ of the 'mind'... biology of learning Brain-compatible pedagogy .... teaching to the brain... pedagogical 'method'... brain-based pedagogy... Brain-based learning Intelligence as curiosity and inquiry: experiential learning ...learning as a physiological process: ...natural brain function is the search for meaning in a complex environment... spatial memory system in the hippocampus, learning as a function of the modification of synapses... Learning methods based on the natural funtioning of the brain enhance learning because they enhance the formation of synaptic connections between nerve cells. "Methodologies of so-called 'brain-based' learning teach to the brain's natural functioning. They teach to the brain's natural capacity for making associations. Teaching methods based on the natural funtioning of the brain enhance learning because they enhance the formation of synaptic connections between nerve cells. They teach with a view to the optimal use of the brain's capacity to organize information and perceive relationships. They teach to the learner's ability to perceive relationships between new experiences and previous experiences. They teach for meaningful learning in contextual frameworks. They formulate contextual frameworks in terms of unifying themes which connect different ideas and different knowledge areas or 'subjects'. Pedagogies based on the natural functioning of the brain are described as 'brain-compatible'. Methodologies for educators of natural knowledge provide opportunities for learners to see global relationships, to make connections, to extract meaningful patterns. The function of the teacher is to facilitate learning by organizing educational experiences through a process of 'orchestrated immersion.' The learner experiences 'immersion' in an orchestrated educational environment". (Caine. Making Connections) intrinsic motivation ...psychological value of work ... Successful teaching methodologies are those which recognize and encourage the learning process as a natural phenomenon. Taking advantage of the brain's natural functions and natural potential, they orchestrate complex learning experiences. They teach to the brain's innate drive to search for meaning. They teach to its natural capacity to organize information and recognize patterns and interrelationships. They provide the learner with experiences which enable them to perceive the 'patterns which connect.' They teach to the brain as a pattern detector which perceives parts and wholes simultaneously. They teach to the brain's natural capacity to integrate new experience with learned experience. They are formulated on the basis of interconnecting themes which unify different 'subjects' and 'disciplines.' They are designed around the meaningful interpenetration and interrelationships between facts and between subjects. They teach with the understanding that knowledge of one 'subject' is embedded in knowledge of other subjects and that all knowledge is embedded in life experience. They are based on the relevance of real life learning experiences in the classroom, in the school setting, the local community, the national community and the global community. They utilize the brain's natural capacity to make connections when immersed in context and content in the learning process. They provide a rigorous and intellectually challenging content in a meaningful context. They teach to the brain's innate drive to relate to others and encourage the social interaction which is crucial to effective learning. They promote teacher attributes which facilitate the brain's natural capacity to make connections. They promote the student's natural capacity to grow through learning. They provide a rational context for brain-based learning and wholistic education. Validated by recent findings in brain research, pedagogical methods which teach to the brain are known as 'thematic teaching methods.' A. human evolution B. brain evolution: a. bipedalism - upright posture tool use cranial capacity B. brain evolution - 'intelligence', rational thinking.cognitive 'skills'. C. brain research - 'neuroscience'... biological mechanisms of brain function 1. brain anatomy 2. cerebral hemispheres 3. neuron - nerve impulse - structural unit of psychology. 4. synapse The biological mechanisms of the brain result in the mental functions of the 'mind' The integration of behavior, perception, emotions and physiology is a natural outcome of the integrated functions of the human brain. A theoretical framework for wholistic education is based on the biological knowledge of the human organism and the functioning of the human brain. "Learning occurs as a result of changing the effectiveness of synapses so that their influence on other neurons also changes. Learning is a physiological function of the brain involving the transmission of signals along nerve cells and across their junctional connections. It is a function of the effectiveness of synapses to propagate signals and initiate or 'fire' new signals along neighboring neurons. (Geoffrey Hinton, "How Neural Networks Learn from Experience," Scientific American, 267:3, September 1992, 145) 'Brain-based learning' is confluent with the brain's natural rules for meaningful learning. (Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine, Making Connections 79-88.) The brain's natural capacities for learning are driven by its natural function of searching for meaning in experience. Optimal brain-based learning depends on the stimulation of the brain's natural function of global learning. It depends on the activation of the brain's natural functions of comparing, patterning and categorizing. It engages the brain's natural capacity for making connections betweeen the parts and the whole. It engages the brain's natural capacity and potential for creativity and involves the emotions as well as the intellect. Naturally stimulated by challenge and difficult learning, brain-based learning is correlated with very high self-motivation. Successful teaching methodologies are those which recognize and encourage the learning process as a natural phenomenon. Taking advantage of the brain's natural functions and natural potential, they orchestrate complex learning experiences. They teach to the brain's innate drive to search for meaning. They teach to its natural capacity to organize information and recognize patterns and interrelationships. They provide the learner with experiences which enable them to perceive the 'patterns which connect.' They teach to the brain as a pattern detector which perceives parts and wholes simultaneously. They teach to the brain's natural capacity to integrate new experience with learned experience. They are formulated on the basis of interconnecting themes which unify different 'subjects' and 'disciplines.' They are designed around the meaningful interpenetration and interrelationships between facts and between subjects. They teach with the understanding that knowledge of one 'subject' is embedded in knowledge of other subjects and that all knowledge is embedded in life experience. They are based on the relevance of real life learning experiences in the classroom, in the school setting, the local community, the national community and the global community. They utilize the brain's natural capacity to make connections when immersed in context and content in the learning process. They provide a rigorous and intellectually challenging content in a meaningful context. They teach to the brain's innate drive to relate to others and encourage the social interaction which is crucial to effective learning. They promote teacher attributes which facilitate the brain's natural capacity to make connections. They promote the student's natural capacity to grow through learning. They provide a rational context for brain-based learning and wholistic education. Known as 'thematic teaching methods,' they are validated by recent findings in brain research.
Definition of FBN1 FBN1: The fibrillin 1 gene. This gene is mutated in Marfan syndrome, the MASS syndrome, and related disorders of connective tissue. The FBN1 gene produces a protein called fibrillin-1 which is transported out of the cell and deposited in the extracellular matrix, the intricate lattice in which cells are embedded to build tissues. In this matrix, fibrillin becomes part of small threadlike filaments called microfibrils, which in turn help build elastic fibers. Elastic fibers are essential for the function of flexible structures such as blood vessels, the lungs, and skin. FBN1 is a very large gene, and more than 300 mutations in it have been identified that can cause Marfan syndrome. A mutation in the FBN1 gene alters the production of the fibrillin-1 protein or changes its structure. Patients with Marfan syndrome show decreased production of fibrillin-1, delayed transport of the protein out of the cell, or reduced amounts of the protein in the extracellular matrix. Ultimately, a mutation can lead to weakened structural support in key structures such as blood vessels, heart valves, cartilage, and ligaments. Fibrillinopathies (type 1) are caused by defects in the fibrillin-1 protein, which is produced by the FBN1 gene. While Marfan syndrome is the most common type of fibrillinopathy, not all mutations in the FBN1 gene cause this syndrome. FBN1 mutations cause a spectrum of connective tissue disorders, with a broad range in severity and age of onset. Some FBN1 mutations cause a severe disorder that is fatal to newborns, while other mutations cause adult onset fibrillinopathies with a single abnormality, such as a dislocated lens in the eye or an abnormal aorta. The FBN1 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 15 in band 15q 21.1.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary Last Editorial Review: 5/13/2016 Medical Dictionary Definitions A - Z Search Medical Dictionary
We will later use the output of the comparator circuit as an input to the MicroStamp11. There is, however, a big problem with this approach. The problem is that the voltage levels generated by the comparator circuit are too large. Recall that for the op-amp to work well, the supply voltage must be around 9 volts. This means that the output voltage of your comparator will be either 0 or 9 volts. If we were to apply the 9 volt output to an input pin of the MicroStamp11 we would immediately destroy the MicroStamp11. The MicroStamp11 is only designed to accept voltages that are either zero or 5 volts. Any applied voltages outside of this range will destroy the delicate circuitry within the device. So if we are to use the output of the comparator, we will need some way of reducing the 0-9 volt range produced by the comparator to a 0-5 volt range. This can be done using a clamp circuit. A clamp circuit is a special type of circuit that is used to limit or clamp the output voltage to a specified range. The clamping action is accomplished through the use of diodes. Remember that a diode is like an electronic valve. When it is forward biased, it acts like a short circuit and when it is reverse biased it acts like an open circuit. Figure 10 depicts the schematic for a clamp circuit. When is greater than 5 volts, then the bottom diode is reverse biased and the top diode is forward biased. As a result, the circuit can be replaced by the equivalent circuit shown in the top righthand drawing. In this case, we see that the input source is connected directly to the 5 volt supply and it is disconnected from the resistor . This means, therefore that will equal zero. The resistor is put in here to limit the current drawn out of voltage source . If is less than 5 volts, then the bottom diode is forward biased and the top diode is reverse biased. The equivalent resistive network is shown in the bottom righthand schematic diagram. We now see that the source is connected to ground through resistors and . Once again we choose to be larger than so that most of drops over the second resistor. The choice of and in the above circuit is dictated by two concerns. First we see that is essentially a current limiting resistor that prevent the source from being unduly stressed if . A logical value for this would be around 1 k-ohm. is then chosen to be much larger than in order to drop most of the input voltage across this second resistor. Choosing an order of magnitude greater than is a realistic choice.
The Mayan Civilization, a Mesoamerican culture who built their cities in present day Mexico and Central America, were once of the most sophisticated civilizations of their time period. Scientists believe the Mayan civilization was established somewhere between 2000 and 250 B.C., with the culture thriving and flourishing between 250-900 A.D. and dying out after the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. The Mayan civilization had a fully developed written language and they also made significant contributions to architecture, astronomy, math, and art. Today, we only have ruins to remind us of the once great Mayan culture. Here is an overview of some of the most famous and frequently visited Mayan ruins in existence today. Tikal was one of the Mayan civilization’s largest and most developed cities. Archaeologists have discovered over 3000 structures in the 10 square miles that have currently been excavated, including many tombs and monuments dedicated to the Mayan royalty. The ruins in Copan, just across the border from Guatemala are characterized by ornate stone carvings and hieroglyphics as well as a large ball court. Chichen Itza, Mexico As the former capital of the ancient Maya Empire, Chichen Itza is one of the most impressive and renowned Mayan cultural sites. The ruins include a 75 foot pyramid known as the Temple of Kukulcán and an ancient Ball Court where Mayans once played a mysterious ball game. Archaeologists believe that Tulum, the only Mayan city located directly on the ocean, might have been one of the most significant Mayan ceremonial centers. Characterized by the hauntingly beautiful pyramid El Castillo perched on a cliff directly above the sea, visitors to Tulum can explore the remains of this ancient thriving city that once included homes, business, and roads. To visit these monuments just find some cheap flights operator and adventure is ready to go.
By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans. The origin of modern humans is a topic that is hotly debated. A leading theory, known as "Recent African Origin" (RAO), postulates that the ancestors of all modern humans originated in East Africa, and that around 100,000 years ago some modern humans left the African continent and subsequently colonized the entire world, supplanting previously established hominids such as Neanderthals in Europe and Homo erectus in Asia. In the new work reported this week, researchers Franck Prugnolle, Andrea Manica, and François Balloux of the University of Cambridge show that geographic distance from East Africa along ancient colonization routes is an excellent predictor for the genetic diversity of present human populations, with those farther from Ethiopia being characterized by lower genetic variability. This result implies that information regarding the geographic coordinates of present populations alone is sufficient for predicting their genetic diversity. This finding adds compelling evidence for the RAO model. Such a relationship between location and genetic diversity is indeed only compatible with an African origin of modern humans and subsequent spread throughout the world, accompanied by a progressive loss of neutral genetic diversity as new areas were colonized. The loss of genetic diversity along colonization routes is smooth, with no obvious genetic discontinuity, thus suggesting that humans cannot be accurately classified in discrete ethnic groups or races on a genetic basis. Franck Prugnolle, Andrea Manica and François Balloux: "Geography predicts neutral genetic diversity of human populations" The other members of the research team include Franck Prugnolle, Andrea Manica, and François Balloux from the University of Cambridge. The research was supported by the BBSRC and a Lavoisier Fellowship from the Ministère Français des Affaires Etrangères (F.P.). Publishing in Current Biology, Volume 15, Number 5, March 8, 2005, pages R159-R160. http://www.current-biology.com Materials provided by Cell Press. Note: Content may be edited for style and length. Cite This Page:
As a kid growing up in Missouri, I would’ve said the best way to get down a hill depends on the season. A sideways roll worked well during the summer when the ground was dry, but winter called for a speedy trip on a Flexible Flyer sled with steel runners. The bumpy, dizzying nature of the roll technique meant only a couple of trips down the hill. In contrast, the smooth ride on a snow sled provided hours of entertainment—until it got too dark or cold outside. Let’s consider a similar scenario in the tiny world of quantum mechanics that suggests purposeful creation. Quantum mechanics is an attempt to understand the behavior of matter and energy on the minute scale of atoms and subatomic particles. Recently, scientists discovered quantum mechanical processes in plants and bacteria that allow photosynthesis to operate like a snow sled instead of a bumpy roll. Plants use photosynthesis to extract energy from sunlight and then convert the energy to a form usable by other life-forms. It starts when certain wavelengths of light dislodge electrons in plant proteins, imparting energy to the electrons in the process. The energy stored in those electrons must move along the protein where other chemical processes store the energy in molecules for future use. For many years, biologists thought random molecular motion provided the mechanism for transporting that energy along the photosynthetic proteins. As the molecules “bumped into” one another, the energy passed from one molecule to the next. However, experiments during the last couple of years demonstrate a far more efficient process in operation.1 From a classical perspective, electrons behave like independent balls. Quantum mechanics allows the electrons to couple together and move in coherent fashion. Like the runners on a snow sled moving over packed snow, these coupled electrons would move energy along the protein much more quickly than uncoupled electrons (which would make for a bumpy ride). A team of scientists from the United Kingdom devised a clever experiment using multiple lasers to test which process operated in photosynthetic proteins. They found strong evidence for quantum coupling between electrons. Photosynthetic organisms played a critical role in transforming Earth from a formless, uninhabitable planet to one teeming with life in a diversity of habitats. One of the most important steps in that transformation involved the generation of a permanent oxygen component in the atmosphere. Diatomic oxygen (O2), efficiently coupled via quantum mechanics, provides—like no other molecule—the capacity to extract the energy required by large-bodied, complex organisms. This research indicates that photosynthesis would not proceed efficiently enough for life’s requirements without the coupling that quantum mechanics allows. As bizarre as quantum mechanical processes appear, they play an essential role in ensuring that this universe can support complex life like human beings. It’s a smooth operation that points to purposeful creation. 1 Ian P. Mercer et al., “Instantaneous Mapping of Coherently Coupled Electronic Transitions and Energy Transfers in a Photosynthetic Complex Using Angle-Resolved Coherent Optical Wave-Mixing,” Physical Review Letters, 102 (2009): 057402. See also Michael Schirber, “The Quantum Dimension of Photosynthesis,” Physical Review Focus (February 13, 2009); https://focus.aps.org/story/v23/st5 (accessed April 24, 2009).
Newly discovered planet could hold water 18 March 2010The Corot satellite strikes again with another fascinating planet discovery. This time, the newly discovered gas giant planet may have an interior that closely resembles those of Jupiter and Saturn in our own Solar System. (This article was originally posted on the ESA Space Science Portal.) More than 400 exoplanets have been discovered so far and 70 of them have been found by the 'transit' method. A transit is a kind of eclipse and occurs when a celestial body passes in front of its host star and blocks some but not all of the star's light. This temporarily dims the apparent brightness of the star and enables the planet's mass, diameter, density and temperature to be deduced. The time between similar transits gives the orbital period of the planet. Corot-9b is the first transiting planet to have both a longer period and a near-circular orbit. Its orbit is slightly elliptical but at closest approach to its parent star it reaches a distance of 54 million kilometres. Although that is only about the distance of Mercury in our Solar System, it is by far the largest orbit of any transiting planet found so far. Because it orbits a star cooler than our Sun, calculations estimate that Corot-9b's temperature could lie somewhere between –23°C and 157°C. Corot-9b has a radius around 1.05 times that of Jupiter but only 84% of the mass. This leads to a density of 0.90 g/cc, or 68% that of Jupiter. "Corot-9b is the first exoplanet that is definitely similar to a planet in our Solar System," says Hans Deeg, a researcher at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, whose paper on the discovery is published today in Nature. The similarity is caused by the fact that Corot-9b is sufficiently far from its star to prevent tidal forces from heating its interior. Tidal forces are created by the strength of gravity weakening from the front to back of the celestial body. When the difference between the near side and the far side is great, the tidal force can prevent the planet from spinning quickly, forcing it to only show one face to the star. It can also provide heat to the interior of the planet, changing its physical condition. Based on calculations, neither of these is possible in this case. "Although we don’t know, because we can’t see the planet directly, there is reason to believe that this planet has a normal day-night cycle,"says Malcolm Fridlund, ESA Project Scientist for Corot. It means that lacking a tidal heat source, Corot-9b's interior is likely to have remained similar to the gas giants in our Solar System. There is also one other tantalising possibility about this world. Although the planet itself is a gas giant and hence has no solid surface to stand on, what if it possessed a moon like Saturn's Titan? If the temperature were towards the lower end of the estimated range, then any moon would be an ice ball. If it were towards the upper end, it would be rather too hot for liquid water. But what if it were somewhere in the middle? ... Notes to Editors Corot (Convection rotation and planetary transits) is a mission led by the French space agency, CNES, with contributions from ESA, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Spain and Brazil. 'A transiting giant planet with a temperature between 250 K and 430 K' by H. J. Deeg, et al. is published today (18 March 2010) in Nature (doi: 10.1038/nature08856) For more information Hans J. Deeg Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias +34 922 605 244, +34 619 360 054 (mobile) Malcolm Fridlund, ESA COROT Project Scientist
A study published in Psychological Science, by Pam A. Mueller and Daniel M. Oppenheimer, suggests that taking notes by hand, and forgoing the tablet or laptop makes for better learning in the long run. The study suggests that since those who take notes via computer can take more down, electronic note-takers tend to write down too much information. On the other hand, when participants were taking notes by hand, they couldn't write as fast, and therefore had to be “more selective” with what they took down, which meant they tended to take down only the most important aspects of the lecture, according to an article on NPR. The study puts forth that there are two main reasons why old-fashioned note-taking makes information stick better. “Encoding hypothesis” is the first idea that the study points to. This is the idea that as a person writes words, there is a sort of processing that takes places that enhances retention. “External-storage hypothesis” is the second one, which deals with being able to look back at your notes to help with retention and learning for longterm recall. In the study, the researchers looked at these two hypothesis and which one is thought to be “better.” On one hand, you had the ability to process information, if you took notes by hand, but on the other, you had more to look back on and study, if you were capable of taking down more, as laptop users are able to do more efficiently then hand-writers. What the researchers found was that for hard facts like dates, names and places, both parties did equally well. But on “conceptional-application” of the lectures, the students who had written notes by hand did significantly better than the ones who took notes on a laptop.
The Evolution of Music: Middle Ages – Baroque A limited time offer! Get a custom sample essay written according to your requirements urgent 3h delivery guaranteedOrder Now The evolution of music during the Middle Ages through the Renaissance into the Baroque period played an essential role in the music of the modern era. Each time period was unique in the style of music that is attributed to it, attesting to the political, historical and cultural developments of the eras. The Middle Ages was a very important period of time for music. In essence, music of the Middle Ages came in two forms: music of the church and music on the battlefield. Classified as the time period of 450 A.D. – 1450 A.D., the Middle Ages saw the development of many changes where music was concerned. Music of the middle ages was characterized as a result of the spread of Christianity, the development of European culture as well as the influence of Islamic culture. During the first half of the Middle Ages, music was found in the courts and churches all throughout Europe. The Christian and Muslim crusades changed that. Impressed by the Saracens’ use of military bands as both a means of instantly transmitting orders to distant formations the Christian knights began to copy them. The instruments utilized to accomplish this were the anafil, a straight, valveless trumpet; the tabor, a small drum, sometimes snared; and the naker, a small, round kettledrum, usually deployed in pairs (Trotter 68). When the soldiers had completed their service time in battle and returned to Europe, they brought their instruments with them. The instruments were then absorbed into feudal armies as different soldiers adapted the music to fit their own needs. At the same time, bands were organized to accompany armies and played aboard ships or added entertainment to their tournaments, festivals and other functions (Trotter 69). Songs and lyrics of the Middle Ages focused mainly on the rise of courtly culture and the birth of polyphony. At the same time, music of the church was of central importance to the development of music. There is much continuity to be found in music of the Middle Ages, though the music was still very unique from that of other ages. The music is easily classified into both monophonic and polyphonic styles. The evolution of music easily flowed into the Renaissance period. The Renaissance Period is classified as the time period from 1450 A.D. – 1600 A.D. As was the case during the Middle Ages, the historical and political setting during the Renaissance is consistent with the type of music that emerged from this time period. Historically speaking, the Renaissance Period saw the rebirth of classical learning. There became a new emphasis on intelligence, education and the arts. As a result of this, there was a new change in the view of the world. Politically, nations began to develop from the feudal system to the modern state. The breakaway started in Italy, which was, during the Middle Ages, the most hierarchical state. Democracy was introduced in many nations. Government began to take greater roles in influencing the people, as territories were expanded and neighborhoods developed. The ever-feuding Middle Age lower versus upper class system began to fade away, as an emerging middle class began to take interest in new developments of society (Sony Entertainment). Musicians of the Renaissance period capsized on the growing interest in humanist learning. An appreciation and understanding of aesthetics and the arts, including music, were of priority to people and were often attributed with wealth. Musicians began to draw focus away from simply composing music for the church. The ability of large groups of people to travel worldwide was introduced, and so musical exchanges that arose from the travel led to a more international music style. Two extremely popular instruments of the Renaissance Period were the organ and harpsichord. During the Renaissance, instrumental music was written for dances. The piano was yet to be invented (Capistrano School). Also during the Renaissance Period, arrangements of music became more complex. Additionally, the rise and rapid spread of music printing increased as authors and composers were able to reach out to masses of people. Books about music were introduced. New instruments were developed and improved. At the same time, as territories expanded, so did the types and styles of music that emerged from this time period. Music during the Renaissance can easily be classified into three categories: sacred music, secular music and instrumental music. Sacred music composers worked mainly with the older forms of music. However, it is in the sacred music that the focus shifted to more of international style. Composers continued to work with the older forms such as the motet and Mass. It is in this music that we find the clearest international style. Composers of secular music focused more on national trends, as was seen in the Italian madrigal and the French chanson (Sony Entertainment). Instrumental music is attributed to the rise of music printing, and strongly encouraged many amateurs to learn to perform Of the periods of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque, the Baroque Period of 1600-1750 had the greatest overall influence on the evolution of music. The world “Baroque” by definition means highly decorated. This word was borrowed from architecture to describe the elaborate music of the day, consisting of several instrumentalists performing together. Historically, there was an increasing importance placed on scientific investigation. Additionally, rising out of the feudal system of the Middle Ages and the introduction of state in the Renaissance was a culmination on royal deposition in the world, as a small group of leader held large amounts of power over society. At the same time, the New World was being formed and development, so musical themes began to focus on the negative ideologies of royalty and emphasized new hopes of success as colonists began to associate more strongly with their new home. Around the world, the Baroque period became a time for dreamers. Due to this, artificiality and marvelous effect were of value to arts and music. The Baroque period was a time for experimentation. New roles for music were introduced. At the same time, culture began to take shape, as there became a growing awareness to different national styles of music, particularly in Italy, France and Germany. Not affected by the cultural developments in music, there became a full equality of instrumental music, as musicians sought to move the listener in the real way. During this time period, there is a main focus on operatic music and music for the stage. Concert forms such as the concerto and sonata developed. There was also a strong emergency of the use of the harpsichord. As a supplement to style, Baroque music used a lot of ornamentation to draw in the listener (Capistrano School). When compared to one another, the music of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque period are very unique in their styles and themes. However, when considered as a unit, the music of these ages are merely stepping-stones to the wonderful and diverse music of modern day. Capistrano School. “Baroque Period.” N.d. Sony Music Enterntainment. “Eras Online”. 2001. http://www.essentialsofmusic.com. Trotter, William. “The Music War”. Military History. June 2005. Vol. 22 Issue 3.
How do you write a system of equations as a matrix equation? In section 3.2, you learned how to multiply two matrices. This process involved multiplying the entries in the row of one matrix by the columns of another matrix and then adding those products. For instance, suppose we multiply Since we are multiplying a 2 x 2 matrix by a 2 x 1 matrix, the product is a 2 x 1 matrix. Working out the product, we get When the product is written this way, we can easily identify the product of the numbers in the rows of the first matrix with the numbers in the second matrix as well as the sum. Instead of multiplying the first matrix by a constant column matrix, let’s try multiplying by a matrix containing two variables x and y, When we carry out the multiplication now, we get The entries in the product look a lot like the part of a system of equations. In fact, if we set this equal to a 2 x 1 matrix with constants, we can write the matrix equation as an equivalent system of equations. These matrices are equal when the corresponding entries are equal or when In other words, When a system of equations is written in terms of matrices, we call it a matrix equation. In this matrix equation, the three matrices are typically called A, X and B. The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix and it entries are the coefficients on the variables when they are written in the same order in each equation. The matrix X is called the variable matrix and contains the two variables in the problem. The matrix B is called the constant matrix and contains the constants from the right hand side of the matrix equation. To match the different matrices with their entries, each equation must have the variables on the left side with the variable terms listed in the same order. The constants must be on the right side. Once each equation has this format, we can read the entries in each matrix. Example 1 Write a Linear System as a Matrix Equation Write the system of linear equations as the matrix equation AX = B. Solution The system is in the proper format to determine the coefficient matrix and the constant matrix. The variable matrix for this system is Using the coefficients on the variables, define the coefficient matrix and constant matrix as With these definitions, the product AX is equal to When this matrix is set equal to the constant matrix B, we get These matrices are equal when x + y = -5 and 3x + 4y = 1. This means the matrix equation is equivalent to the original system of equations. We can use the same strategy to write larger systems of equations as matrix equations. This leads to larger matrices. We incorporate different variable names into the variable matrix X as shown in the next example. Example 2 Write a Linear System as a Matrix Equation Write the system of linear equations as a matrix equation AX = B. Solution Before we can define the matrices, we need to put each equation in the proper format. In the first and second equations, all variable terms are on one side of the equation and the constant terms are on the other side of the equations. In the third equation, there are variable terms on both sides of the equation. We can put the third equation in the proper format by subtracting from both sides of the equation, This leads to the system The variable matrix is The coefficients on the variables give the coefficient matrix, Note that any signs are included in the coefficients and variables that are missing correspond to a coefficient of zero. The constant matrix, matches the constants on the right hand of the system. We can check to see that the matrix equation AX = B is equivalent to the system by carrying out the product AX: If we set this matrix equal to B, the corresponding entries must be equal. This is equivalent to the original system after it had been modified to put it into the proper format. Once a system of linear equations is written as a matrix equation , we can use the inverse of the matrix A to find the solution to the system. In the next question, we’ll learn how to do this and use it to solve an application.
Are you curious to know what is single citizenship? You have come to the right place as I am going to tell you everything about single citizenship in a very simple explanation. Without further discussion let’s begin to know what is single citizenship? In the realm of governance, the concept of citizenship is a fundamental pillar. It defines the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of individuals within a nation. However, in some countries, such as federal states, the concept of citizenship can be a bit more complex. One such aspect is “Single Citizenship.” In this blog post, we will explore what Single Citizenship is, its significance, and how it operates within federal states. What Is Single Citizenship? Single Citizenship, also known as Unitary Citizenship, is a concept in federal states where all citizens of the country hold a single and uniform citizenship, regardless of the specific state or province in which they reside. In contrast, in countries with dual or multiple citizenship, individuals may hold additional citizenship at the state or provincial level in addition to their national citizenship. Key Elements Of Single Citizenship: - Uniformity: Under Single Citizenship, all citizens of the country are subject to the same set of national laws and regulations, and they enjoy the same rights and privileges, irrespective of their state or province of residence. - National Identity: Single Citizenship reinforces the idea of a unified national identity. It emphasizes the collective identity of the nation as a whole, rather than emphasizing the distinct identities of individual states or provinces. - National Government: Citizens under Single Citizenship are primarily governed by the central or national government. The central government is responsible for issues such as immigration, foreign policy, defense, and national citizenship laws. - State or Provincial Residency: While citizens may reside in specific states or provinces within the federal country, their legal status as citizens remains uniform and consistent throughout the nation. Significance Of Single Citizenship Single Citizenship carries several significant implications and advantages: - Simplicity: It simplifies the legal framework for citizenship, reducing administrative complexity and eliminating the need for citizens to navigate different state-level citizenship laws and regulations. - National Unity: Single Citizenship reinforces the idea of a united and cohesive nation, fostering a sense of belonging to the entire country rather than individual states or provinces. - Streamlined Governance: With uniform citizenship, the national government can more effectively and efficiently manage matters of national importance, such as immigration and foreign affairs. - Equal Rights: All citizens, regardless of their state of residence, enjoy the same rights, ensuring equal treatment under the law. - Consistency: Single Citizenship helps maintain consistent standards for citizenship and legal rights across the entire nation. Examples Of Single Citizenship Countries Several countries around the world practice Single Citizenship. Some notable examples include: - India: India follows the concept of Single Citizenship, where all citizens are subject to the same national laws and regulations. - United States: The United States practices Single Citizenship, with all citizens being subject to federal laws and regulations, irrespective of their state of residence. - Australia: Australia is another example of a country with Single Citizenship. Australian citizens have uniform national citizenship, regardless of their state or territory. Single Citizenship is a concept that promotes national unity and simplifies the legal framework for citizenship within federal states. While it ensures equal rights and privileges for all citizens, it also underscores the collective identity of the nation as a whole. By eliminating complexities associated with state or provincial citizenship, Single Citizenship contributes to a more streamlined and cohesive governance structure within federal countries. What Is Meant By Term Single Citizenship? Single citizenship refers to the citizenship of all Indians irrespective of their state of domicile. It has been provided by the Indian Constitution. It states that a person born in any state of India will only be considered only as a citizen of India. Why India Is Single Citizenship? The Indian constitution allows its citizens to hold single citizenship. They cannot claim separate citizenship of their states or provinces. The aim behind the implementation of such a doctrine is to develop a sense of nationalism among the native people. What Is Meant By Single Citizenship Class 9 Icse? Solution. Single Citizenship means that all Indians irrespective of the State of their domicile are the Citizens of India. In India, a person born in Punjab or in Kerala can only be a citizen of India and not a Citizen of the State of their domicile like in the USA. Concept: Single Citizenship. Where Is Single Citizenship? Detailed Solution. The concept of single citizenship is adopted from England. Single citizenship means all people, regardless of the state in which they are born, enjoy Indian citizenship as a single citizen, unlike the United States where there is dual citizenship. I Have Covered All The Following Queries And Topics In The Above Article What Is Single Citizenship What Is The Meaning Of Single Citizenship What Is Meant By The Term Single Citizenship What Is Meant By Single Citizenship What Is Single Citizenship In India What Is Single Citizenship Class 9 What Is Single Citizenship In Indian Constitution What Is The Meaning Of Single Citizenship? What Is Single Citizenship As Per Constitution Of India What Is Single Citizenship? What Is Single Citizenship In Hindi What Is Mean By The Term Single Citizenship What Is The Single Citizenship What Is A Single Citizenship What Is Meant By Single Citizenship In India What Is Mean By Single Citizenship What Is Meant By Term Single Citizenship What Is Single Citizenship
The gallbladder is a small organ located directly under the liver. It acts as a bile reservoir, concentrating the bile that the body uses to digest fats. Bile contains cholesterol, bile salts, lecithin, and other substances. Cholecystitis is the inflammation of the gallbladder. It may be acute or chronic. Cholelithiasis is the formation or presence of calculi or bilestones (gallstones) in the gallbladder or common duct of the gallbladder. Acute cholecystitis is almost always caused by gallstones. Other causes may include bacteria or chemical irritants. Chronic cholecystitis can occur with or without stones. But not all patients with gallstones experience cholecystitis. Gallstones are concretions formed in the gallbladder or bile ducts. Traditionally gallstones have been classified according to their composition. This information was then used to demonstrate the cause of the stone formation. This is no longer considered valid. Generally the core of all gallstones contains a mixture of cholesterol, bilirubin, and protein. In acute cholecystitis there is fever, gradually developing or sudden pain in the upper abdomen, nausea, vomiting, visible jaundice in about 25% of patients. Frequently pain is referred to back or right shoulder. Approximately 10% of the patients do not have pain. In chronic cholecystitis symptoms are usually less severe than in acute cases, but recurring stones may or may not be present. Gallstone symptoms include digestive disturbances, heaviness in right upper abdomen, and tenderness on pressure over the gallbladder. Gallstone colic occurs when a stone obstructs the bile duct. Jaundice is flow of bile is obstructed. Pain may be associated with vomiting and sweating. If distended, the gallbladder is palpable. Treatment may include surgery. See the doctor, whether acute or chronic condition. Stones may remain dormant and give little distress unless inflammation and distention of the gallbladder take place or unless it enters and is unable to pass through the biliary ducts, when colic ensues. The pain usually starts several hours after eating and when the stomach is empty (often after eating fried or fatty foods). Flatulence is a common symptom. If left untreated, the inflammation of the gallbladder can be life threatening. Often a patient with gallstones will have no symptoms. Herbal Medicine Formulas and Recipes Alfalfa, 10 tablets 3 times per day, is a liver cleanser, rich in vitamins and minerals. Lecithin, 1 tbsp. before meals or capsules as directed on the label, aids fat (cholesterol) digestion and is a fat emulsifier. Multienzymes (containing ox bile), taken with meals (Caution: if heartburn is present, use pancreatin after meals. Do not use products containing hydrochloric acid (HCL)). Unsaturated fatty acids, taken as directed on the label. Vitamin A, 25,000 IU capsules daily (emulsified vitamin A is more easily assimilated. Vitamin B complex with B12 and choline, 500 mg. per day, is important in cholesterol metabolism and liver and gallbladder function. Inositol, 500 mg. per day, usually comes added to the vitamin B complex. Vitamin C, 3,000 mg. per day (a lack of vitamin C can cause gallstones). Vitamin D, 400 IU per day (gallbladder malfunction interferes with vitamin D absorption. Vitamin E, 600 IU per day, prevents fats from becoming rancid. - Allspice, Carolina - Baldo leaves - Balsam fir - Barberry, root bark - Birch, leaves - Buckthorn bark - Cactus, prickly-pear - Carrot, wild - Cascara sagrada - Castor bean - Cheese plant - Clover, red - Corn silk - Cramp bark - Dandelion, roots (note dandelion should not be used with inflammation or blockage of the common bile ducts!) - Dock, yellow - Elm bark - Fennel, seed - Fringe tree - Ginger, root - Goose grass - Indian sage - Indigo, wild - Licorice, Russian - Milk thistle, fruits - Nettle, stinging, leaves - Olive oil - Queen of the meadow - Radish, black or Spanish - St. Benedict's thistle - St. John's wort - Sassafras bark - Shepherd's heart - Shepherd's purse - Wafer ash - Witch grass - Yam, wild For inflammation: Eat no solid food for a few days, only distilled or spring water. Then begin to drink juices such as pear, beet root juice, and apple juice for 3 more days. Then add solid foods: shredded raw beets with 2 tbsp. of olive oil, fresh lemon juice, and freshly made uncooked applesauce. For gallstones: Use 3 tbsp. olive oil with the juice of a lemon before retiring and upon awakening. Many stones pass in the stool with this technique. Look for them! Grapefruit juice can be used instead of lemon juice. Try a castor oil pack on the gallbladder area. Soak a multifolded cotton flannel cloth in castor oil; heat to very warm but not hot enough to burn the skin. Place the pack on the gallbladder area, cover with plastic and a light towel and apply a heating pad to retain warmth. Leave in place for one hour. Apply pack twice a day or more if desired. With gallbladder diseases, do not overeat. Obesity and gallbladder disease are related. The female who is forty and overweight and who has had children is more likely to suffer from these disorders. Avoid surgery if the stones show up on x-ray but are without symptoms. A gallstone may slip into a bile duct, which drains the gallbladder and the liver. If this occurs, then extraction or surgical removal might be needed. Sometimes stones can be fragmented without surgery. Bile acid preparations used to dissolve stones work very slowly and can be used only on small stones. Eat 75% raw foods. Include each day in the diet: applesauce, eggs, yogurt, cottage cheese, broiled fish, fresh apples, and beets. Avoid sugar and products containing sugar. Avoid all animal fat and meat, fried foods, spicy foods, margarine, soft drinks, commercial oils, coffee, chocolate, and refined carbohydrates. For 5 days consume as much pure apple juice as possible, pear juice occasionally and beet juice (beet juice will cleanse the liver). Rapid weight change may cause gallbladder problems. For gallbladder problems the following tea is recommended: Alder buckthorn bark (1 part) Restharrow root (5 parts) Yellow gentian root (5 parts) Peppermint leaves (10 parts) Steep 1 tsp. in 1/2 cup boiling water. Take 1 to 1 1/2 cups a day, in mouthful doses. For gallstones, here is a tea to assist in passing small stones and gravel: St. Benedict thistle Mix in equal parts. Steep 1 tsp. in 1/2 cup boiling water. Take 1 to 1 1/2 cups per day, unsweetened, in mouthful doses.
Nosebleeds are one of the most common medical problems in teenagers. They can be caused by a number of factors, and require different treatments depending on what is causing them. When should you see a doctor? And just how long will it take for your nose to stop bleeding? We'll answer all these questions and more in this article: What are the different types of nosebleeds? Nosebleeds (epistaxis) are classified by the location of where they occur and there are two types: 90% of nosebleeds are caused by an anterior nosebleed. The bleeding begins in the front portion of the nose and is often a result of allergies, nasal picking, or dry air. Posterior nosebleeds usually originate from deeper regions of the nose and are difficult to treat; airway obstructions, high blood pressure, or trauma are some of the causes of these types of bleeding. Causes Of Nosebleeds In Teenagers What are the common causes of nosebleeds in teenagers? Nosebleeds can be caused by a number of factors, including but not exclusive to: - Dry air (e.g., wind) - Dry air is one of the most common reasons for nose bleeds, especially during winter months when heating systems use indoor air to warm rooms. When cold air is blown through heated elements it becomes extremely dehydrating which leads to nasal drying out. This makes our noses more susceptible to irritation which could lead to an anterior bleed if rubbed too hard with tissues! - Allergies to pollen or dust mites - Allergic reactions to airborne allergens such as pollen or dust mites can cause irritation and inflammation of the nasal membranes which leads to redness, itching, sneezing. These factors combined could lead to a nose bleed if you're rubbing your nose too hard from allergies! - Sneezing fits - There's nothing worse than having an allergy induced sneeze fit and bleeding all over yourself in public... but it is possible! If you have severe allergies that trigger lots of sneezes this could be another reason for causing an anterior nosebleed. - Injury - Severe trauma, such as car accidents with airbag deployment or sports related injuries (i.e., football), is one of the most common causes for nosebleeds. - High blood pressure - If you have high blood pressure this could also cause nose bleeds as it can lead to ruptured vessels inside the nostrils that are only visible during a bleed! This is why if your doctor has ever told you that you have high blood pressure, or hypertension, make sure they check for any signs of bleeding afterwards. - Smoking cigarettes - Smoking causes chronic inflammation in the nasal cavity which leads to dryness and flaking skin (a little like when our lips get chapped!). A build up of these tiny flakes on your tissues acts like sandpaper and will irritate/damage the membranes in your nose making them more susceptible to erythema (redness). Irritated blood vessels in the nose will then start to leak tiny amounts of blood, which if enough builds up could lead to a bleed. - Trauma - Nose picking or rubbing can cause trauma and trigger a bleed... ouch! This is why it's so important not to pick your nose too hard when you have allergies or other conditions that make them hurt/itch! If you have an allergic reaction try using antihistamines before touching your face at all. How To Stop Nosebleeds In Teenagers? Depending on the cause of your nosebleed, different treatments will be required. For anterior bleeds there are several steps below which may help with stopping an episode! These include holding direct pressure at the top end for five minutes. This can be done by pinching both nostrils together, ensuring they stay firmly shut. This will stop the bleeding in most cases and if not, you can then place a cold compress on your nose for ten minutes. You could also try placing an ice pack over both of your eyes at the same time which should help with any swelling around the eye sockets! If these treatments do not work or there is still blood present after 20-30 minutes it's important that you visit your nearest A&E department to receive further treatment such as cauterising (burning) of vessels inside your nose using silver nitrate sticks/sprays. There are many other techniques within this procedure but this method has been proven successful thus far by stopping bleeds in their tracks during anterior episodes! If posterior bleeds occur then applying firm pressure behind each of your ears for five minutes will encourage the blood to clot and stop the bleeding. You should also speak with your doctor if you feel that they are severe enough to interfere with daily life or become constant, as there is likely an underlying cause which could be worsened by ignoring it! This can sometimes be due to high blood pressure, allergies or stress etc. If this is not treated then over time symptoms of these conditions may worsen (i.e., nose bleeds becoming more frequent). When To See A Doctor? If you are experiencing nose bleeds for no reason then it is important that you speak with your doctor to find out why this may be happening. They will ask about any symptoms, medical history and medications you are taking which could all lead towards a cause of the problem... If you suffer from a posterior bleed it's important that you see a doctor immediately if: - You cannot breathe through one side of your nose or mouth - You have lost feeling around the base of your skull and back into your neck - There is numbness or weakness down one side (extension) - Your eyesight becomes affected (e.g., double vision). How To Prevent Nosebleeds In Teenagers? There are several ways to prevent nosebleeds in teenagers... If you suffer from allergies, try using antihistamines before touching your face. If this doesn't work then be sure to speak with your doctor about other options such as nasal sprays or drops which may help (this is also a great reason why it's important not to pick or rub at your nose too hard). Make sure that if you touch/pick the inside of your noses that they're clean and free from any flakes etc., these can scratch and irritate skin leading towards redness and ultimately bleeding! Be careful when blowing your nose too - for example, don't blow into tissues but rather hold them against the sides so your nose isn't forced up under your eyes. If you have ever had a cut inside your nose it's important that you don't blow too hard at all as this could cause the skin to become weak and tear again - if this does happen, be sure to see a doctor immediately! If you are under stress or find yourself struggling with school/college work then try speaking to someone about these issues which may help ease some of the tension in your life...stress can definitely play its part in many health problems so learning how to deal with it is one of the most effective ways of managing your well being. Keep an eye on any medications that you take for allergies etc., they should always be taken as directed by either yourself or prescribed by a healthcare professional (e.g ., the last thing you want to do is take too much medication and end up harming your body) Get a good night's sleep, this will help with many things such as keeping blood pressure levels healthy which can reduce nosebleeds if they are caused by high blood pressure. Make sure that you eat well but don't overdo it on sugary foods - most of us know how bad these are for our health! Finally, make time every day to exercise... a quick half-hour jog may not sound like fun at first but once you begin seeing results from your efforts then it definitely becomes worth doing! Your brain function improves when exercising so this is another key way in maintaining top notch physical and mental health.
What is protocol? What are the main elements of a protocol? A protocol is a set of rules which is used to govern all the aspects of information communication. The main elements of a protocol are: - Syntax: It specifies the structure or format of the data. It also specifies the order in which they are presented. - Semantics: It specifies the meaning of each section of bits. - Timing: Timing specifies two characteristics: When data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
How to prepare for the corona virus: Be aware of the symptoms which range from mild to severe, including fever, dry cough and shortness of breath. These may appear 2-14 days after exposure according to the CDC. Initial symptoms can be similar to those of the common cold and flu. If you notice any of these you should seek medical help. How Does Coronavirus Spread? Coronavirus occurs when an infected person sneezes or coughs, sending droplets containing the virus to a person nearby. It can also spread when a person touches a surface with these droplets on it and then touches his/her eyes, nose or mouth. What symptoms can children expect, if they become sick? They are likely to experience fever, cold and flu-like symptoms, cough, and poor appetite. What precautions can kids and families take to stay healthy? Good hand washing, sanitizing your hands frequently and disinfecting surfaces. Follow respiratory etiquette and cover your nose and mouth while coughing or sneezing using a tissue. Avoid touching your face, eyes, nose, or mouth. Avoid close contact with others, especially outside of your household. This includes shaking hands, hugging and kissing. Stay home if you are not feeling well and follow your doctor’s instructions. What should I do if my child is sick and has a fever? If your child looks sick and has a fever you should take them to your paediatrician. Paediatricians are not allowed to do any Coronavirus tests, however statistically most children with fevers these days will end up not having corona. Within minutes, your paediatrician will know if the fever is caused by flu or strep throat for example and they will prescribe the proper treatment before there are any further complications. Should I take my child straight to hospital if he/she has a fever? Parents should take their children to their paediatrician first if they just have a fever rather than hospital, as they may be exposed to more viruses at hospital. Better to take them to their private paediatrician as he/she will decide whether the child should be hospitalised or not. How to talk to your kids about Coronavirus: Get yourself prepared first with all the facts from a trustworthy source. Then decide how much you want to tell your child based on their age and without scaring them. If my child is not feeling well should I just take him to our pediatrician? Better to call the clinic first - To make sure he/she is actually at the clinic and you don’t have a wasted journey. Clinic timings have changed and many are running to a different schedule. - So that the clinic and pediatrician are well prepared before your arrival as children with fevers are taken to a specific area. - If you are not sure reach out to your pediatrician / clinic so they can advise whether to bring your child in. For example if the fever is suspected to be related to flu or strep throat they should be checked and treated immediately. - When the pediatrician finds the cause of the fever, many parents are relieved when it’s not Coronavirus. - If your child has fever we dont recommend you see our Pediatric Dentist. If the dental work is non essential we recommend postponing it until your child is feeling better. - Sometimes dental infection can decrease the immunity of your child, that is why we recommend seeing a dentist for children or the best pediatric dentist in Dubai for all your child’s dental health care needs. Remember a simple check up in time prevents major infection later on. The following information is a Q&A done with Dr. Medhat Abu-Shaaban , the pediatrician and medical director of myPediaclinic (@myPediaclinic). You can contact the clinic on 0547188123 Do get in touch with your questions and share with us your experience.“To a lifetime of healthy happy smiles!”So don’t delay your child his first Pediatric dentist visit, at our pediatric dentistry clinic in Dubai health care city you can schedule an appointment, we will be happy to give you your child the best dental care.“To a lifetime of healthy happy smiles!”
Pencil code program: Lady MacBeth Chat Bot About this lesson Use this program to create an interactive chat bot who answers questions as if she is Lady Macbeth. Have students analyze, fill in or change parts of, or use the program to create their own variation and rendition of a character. This program could be used to further your understanding of how you could use Pencil Code in the classroom, as a demonstration or discussion with your students, or as a way to introduce various CT concepts. Year band: 7-8, 9-10Curriculum Links Links with Digital Technologies Curriculum Area \|7-8\|\|Processes and Production Skills\|\| Implement and modify programs with user interfaces involving branching, iteration and functions in a general-purpose programming language (ACTDIP030) \|9-10\|\|Processes and Production Skills\|\| Implement modular programs, applying selected algorithms and data structures including using an object-oriented programming language (ACTDIP041) Links with English Curriculum Area \|9-10\|\|Literature / Literature and context\|\| Interpret and compare how representations of people and culture in literary texts are drawn from different historical, social and cultural contexts (ACELT1633) Provide the quote: ‘Thy bones are marrowless, thy blood is cold Thou hast no speculation in those eyes’ Have students guess which literature character said those words. (Lady Macbeth) Lady Macbeth is a character from Shakespeare that students may be familiar with through studies of English literature. In programming we can use this context to create a chatbot that responds to a user’s text input in a style that would reflect the Lady Macbeth character. To acheive this, we will be using the pencil code program new.pencilcode.net Ask students to recall particular scenes or quotes from the famous Shakespeare play. To refresh students’ memory use this study guide Lady Macbeth. Provide students with the chatbot pencil code program. Copy/Paste the program into a ‘Blank Editor’ on the Pencil Code website (new.pencilcode.net). Explore how the chatbot responds to particular text inputs. Can you work out what words the chatbot will respond to? Have students analyze or fill in or change parts of the pencil code program. Ways to remix the program - Change or add to the chatbot responses for each user input. - Add new keywords and chatbot responses. - Change the introductory text to invite the user to enter text. - Create their own code in python to respond as Lady Macbeth. Learning reflection: Refining an algorithm based on new constraints (10 minutes) How well did the pencil program work? What changes or modifications did you make? How well did these changes work? Computational Thinking Concepts \|Abstraction\|\|Identifying and extracting relevant information to define main idea(s)\| \|Pattern Recognition\|\|Observing patterns, trends, and regularities in data\| * Explore the Computational Thinking Concepts Guide for a list of the CT concepts noted on ECT, including tips for implementing each concept in your classroom. Pencil code program Copy/Paste the following program into a ‘Blank Editor’ on the Pencil Code website (new.pencilcode.net) # Copyright 2015 Google Inc. All Rights Reserved. # Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); # you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. # You may obtain a copy of the License at # http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 # Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software # distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, # WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. # See the License for the specific language governing permissions and # limitations under the License. replyto = (words) -> for word in words switch word when "hello" return "Hello. I'm waiting." # For example, if asked "Who are you?" when "name", "who" return "Lady Macbeth." # E.g.: "Have you heard about the murder?" when "power", "kill", "duncan", "murder", "king" return """ I love power. I will do anything for power. """ when "prophecy" , "prophesy" , "prophesies" return """ I think the prophesies are true, but I think that we have to make them come true. We can't just rely on fate. We have to take matters into our own hands. """ when "witches", "fair", "foul" return """ They say that Fair is foul, and foul is fair, and I agree. """ when "blood", "hand" return """ All we have to do is wash our hands of it. """ when "plan", "idea", "plans", "plot" return """ All we have to do is wash our hands of it." """ return random [ "Are you a man?" "Was hope drunk wherein you dressed yourself?" "Only look up clear. To alter favor ever is to fear. Leave all the rest to me." ] while true await readstr "Ask me anything.", defer t words = t.toLowerCase().split /[\s\.,!?]+/ write replyto words Additional information and resources - Visit http://pencilcode.net/ to explore the Pencil Code development environment. - See Pencil Code: A Programming Primer for more than 100 example programs written in CoffeeScript
Despite earth’s majority of the cover is filled by water 97% by oceans, freshwater only about 3% in which 85% is available as a glacier. The 3% of drinkable water is suitable for living organisms including humans. In almost 40 countries more than 650 million people suffer from water scarcity. That’s why it is more than important to conserve our water resources. Sustainable water conservation is a very good solution that we need to do wherever we can home, office, industries or farms. You can learn more about Sustainable water management, Self-sustaining homes and Autonomous Homes for more information. More than 36 countries are facing extremely high water stress, including many countries in the Middle East, Sub Saharan region. Mostly Indian deserts contribute to the looming crisis from African and Asian continents. Due to heavy water shortage, energy production and economic development in India and China have been affected seriously for the last few years. The Main goal of water conservation effort can be focused to reduce unnecessary water waste and to alter the flow to the places where physical and chemical resources of the water are encouraging to reuse. The Water conservation plans can be implemented by new technology, new planning, management regulatory and enforcement in water supplying systems and rehabilitate in water usage habit to people. The ultimate key point in water conservation plans is monitoring the natural water sources and reservoirs of stream flows, surface water resources, and groundwater levels. First, we need to secure the drinking water from the water scarcity. Because of over-consumption, degradation, natural damage like; drought, flood damage, waste of rainwater, prolonged unsustainable management and most importantly pollution sources should be delineated and avoided from safe water recourses. During water emergency crisis situations prohibition should be implied for watering for a landscape, nurseries, driveways, garage, parking areas, golf course, lawns, gardens, streets, sidewalks, crematories, and paved ways. Besides, artificial waterfalls, fountains, filling of swimming pools, washing vehicles and large water usages areas such as hotels and restaurants should be ban or restriction. Pricing and metering Water supply, water efficiency, integrated and general water supply and land use planning programs, water use regulation, assured supply law, water utility measures (example: water pressure management, information, and teaching to public, water use audits, replacement and promotions, water accounting and loss control, recycling municipal effluent) water market, are additional source of water conservation plans. By conservation of the water resources, we will also reduce the amount of energy that is required in water treatment facilities. Since there will be less amount of water to purify through these facilities due to water resource conservation, hence less energy will be spent to bring the water to a household or industry.
Astrophotography is a unique form of photography that requires specialized equipment and techniques to capture the beauty of the night sky. One of the most important tools for astrophotographers is adaptive optics (AO), which can be used to improve image resolution and reduce aberrations caused by atmospheric turbulence. AO can be used to correct the effects of atmospheric distortion on images taken with a telescope, allowing astrophotographers to capture sharper and more detailed images of distant celestial objects. In this article, we will discuss the basics of AO technology, how it works, and its benefits for astrophotography. Adaptive optics is a computer-controlled system that uses mirrors and lenses to measure and correct distortions in images caused by atmospheric turbulence. The system works by measuring the distortions in an image taken through a telescope, then correcting them using specialized software. This process allows astrophotographers to capture higher-quality images with less noise, which can make for stunning photos of distant galaxies and nebulae. AO also helps reduce chromatic aberration, which occurs when light from different parts of the spectrum is distorted due to atmospheric conditions. One of the primary advantages of using AO in astrophotography is that it allows for longer exposure times without introducing additional noise into the image. Without AO, astronomers would have to limit their exposure times due to the distortion caused by atmospheric turbulence; however, with AO, they can extend their exposure times significantly without introducing additional noise into their images. This increased exposure time allows astrophotographers to capture more detail in their images than would otherwise be possible. In addition to increasing exposure times, AO also helps reduce eye strain when viewing photos taken through a telescope. This is because AO corrects aberrations that cause eyestrain when viewing photos taken through a telescope without it. This makes it easier for astronomers to observe faint objects that may not be visible without AO correction. Finally, adaptive optics also has applications outside of astronomy; in particular, it can be used to enhance medical imaging technologies such as OCT (Optical Coherence Tomography). OCT is a technique used by doctors to diagnose diseases such as macular degeneration and glaucoma. By using adaptive optics, physicians are able to obtain more accurate images than would otherwise be possible. In conclusion, adaptive optics technology has revolutionized the field of astrophotography by allowing astronomers to capture higher quality images with fewer aberrations. By correcting distortions caused by atmospheric turbulence, AO enables astronomers to take longer exposure times without introducing additional noise into their photos. Additionally, adaptive optics has applications outside of astronomy; it can be used in medical imaging technologies such as OCT to obtain better diagnostics results.
May 2, 2018 mcgraw hill grade 5 spelling practice book pdf. Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and text comprehension. Spelling practice book grade 5 treasures displaying top 8 worksheets found for this concept some of the worksheets for this concept are ab5 sp pe tpcpy 193638, ab4 sp pe tpcpy 193637, spelling practice book, practice book, treasures phonics spelling grade 2 practice book by, grammar practice book, reading comprehension work, grade 1. The worksheets on this page help your kids with the more complex spelling rules, such as multiple syllables, contractions, consonant blends. Trophies, spelling practice book, teachers edition, grade 5 1st edition by harcourt school publishers author 5. What are the answers to spelling practice book grade 5 lesson 17 page 68 and 69. Grade 5, student practice book 5pack, new revised edition. Vocabularyspellingcity has transformed these vocabulary lists into an interactive audio visual tool. Our engaging spelling games for 5th graders are fun, educational, and make students want to practice and learn. These are 30 word units, each of which has a word list and accompanying worksheets. Free fifth grade spelling word list curriculum with 36 weeks of printable worksheets, a master word list, and dictation sentences for testing. Spelling practice book grade 5 treasures worksheets kiddy math. Displaying all worksheets related to 5 th grade spelling practice book. Aaaspell features a comprehensive set of interactive spelling lessons, games and exercises. They practice making nouns plural and changing spelling when adding suffixes. Each book contains 30 spelling units comprised of a grade level spelling list and four reproducible pages that cover grade level spelling skills. Mcgrawhill wonders 5th grade resources and printouts. Change some of the endings in this sentence to put the verbs in the past tense. I work on these late at night and make many mistakes. Letter o writing practice worksheet free kindergarten english worksheet for kids. These worksheets provide organized lists of grade 2 spelling words. Spelling workbooks are excellent for classroom do nows and spelling lesson reinforcement. Another mark has been added in this book to indicate a sound of o where it precedes r. In unit 5, students begin learning spelling alternatives that make up the advanced code. Lisa calls out to her family, and then walks down the trail to meet them. Practice to spell words correctly practice with 312 activites. This teacher answer key accompanies the soldseparately sitton grade 5 practice book 5pack. Each book contains 30 spelling units comprised of a gradelevel spelling list and four reproducible pages that cover gradelevel spelling skills. Ask students to spell words frequently aloud, even from their seats, for a bit of performance. Play word search play fill in the blank play spelling soup. Although originally written to complement bridges in mathematics first. Treasures spelling practice book grade 5 by macmillanmcgraw. Dictate words and have your child say and spell the word. The student anthology is available to view at home. The workbook is designed to reach the different learning strengths of children through a process of seeing, hearing, tracing, and writing. Explore a range of concepts from sound blends and digraphs, long and shortvowel sounds, and suffixes to more complex rules of the silente and homophones. Building spelling skills, grade 5 student workbook 5. With our spelling worksheets and printables, students from preschool to fifth grade can build their spelling skills and confidence with ease. You should not request or provide answer keys to educational programs. Our worksheets complement our k5 reading and k5 spelling online programs. Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and text comprehension vocabularyspellingcity has transformed these vocabulary lists into an interactive audio visual tool. A comprehensive resource for helping students increase their spelling competencies. You wont find a better free selection of 5th grade spelling words. Building spelling skills, grade 5 student workbook. Harcourt spelling practice book grade 4, lesson 5 flashcards. To take full advantage of the program, consider using the spelling program. Jan 01, 2007 grade 5 treasures spelling practice book grade five mcdougal littell on. Grade 5 treasures spelling practice book grade five. Make practicing math fun with these inovactive and seasonal 5th grade math ideas. Grade 5, student practice book, new revised edition. Reading street comprehensive reading program provides educators with materials for the five core areas of prek6 reading instruction. This workbook provides practice for children in spelling 102 words found in spelling and reading texts for fifth grade, words that research has shown to be most frequently misspelled or misused at the elementary level. You may print materials for your classroom or distribute them to parents for home use. Macmillanmcgrawhill unit 5 achievements north pole, south pole spirit of endurance words with soft g fantastic foods weslandia homophones learning from nature. Sitton spelling student practice book, grade 2, set of 5. Start studying harcourt spelling practice book grade 4, lesson 5. In grammar, students identify sentence types statements, questions, and exclamations and practice creating longer sentences. Worksheets are ab5 sp pe tpcpy 193638, ab5 gp pe tpcpy 193604, 5th grade spelling words, spelling practice book, spelling practice book, spell master grade 5, fourth and fifth grade student center activities, 4th and 5th grade writing folder. Trophies, spelling practice book, teachers edition, grade. Mirroring an electronic format, this worksheet gives students practice in evaluating spelling suggestions given in word processing and making corrections to selected words. Journeys, our nusd adopted core reading curriculum material from houghton mifflin harcourt, was designed to meet the diverse needs of all students. Give students lots of practice in oral spelling before competitions. These grade 2 worksheets are intended to improve word usage and spelling. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. The fifth grade spelling words curriculum below spans 36 weeks and includes a master spelling list and five different printable spelling activities per week to help support learning. Grade 5 treasures spelling practice book grade five mcdougal littell on. Unlimited practice is available on each topic which allows thorough mastery of the concepts. The fifth grade spelling words curriculum below spans 36 weeks and includes a master. Spelling test for 5th grade using 5th grade spelling words and spelling bee words for grade 5 5th grade spelling listening test and exercises listening activities for elementary school students and esl learners spelling dictation test and quiz for year 5, spelling bee test for grade 5 hard spelling words for grade 5, practice and lessons. Fifth grade spelling words free 5th grade weekly list. This program is used in grades 4 and 5 and is aligned with the common core standards. Several versions of each exercise are provided for extra practice. Evanmoor offers spelling lesson plans and resources in print and ebook editions to allow teachers to pick the format that works best in their classroom setting. Treasures spelling practice book grade 5 by macmillan. Take a peak at all the grade 5 math worksheets and math games to learn addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, measurement, graphs, shapes, telling time, adding money, fractions, and skip counting by 3s, 4s, 6s, 7s, 8s, 9s, 11s, 12s, and other fifth grade math. Short vowel vccv, vcv words in context complete each sentence with a list word. Trophies, spelling practice book, teachers edition, grade 5. Fullsized student pages are reproduced with the correct answers overlaid. Word study and spelling practice book, grade 5 by scott foresman abebooks. We have free fifth grade spelling lists plus practice these spelling words for 5th graders online or make your own custom lists. Mcgraw hill grade 5 spelling practice book pdf mcgraw hill. Mcgraw hill grade 5 spelling practice book pdf with images. Please practice handwashing and social distancing, and check out our resources for adapting to these times. Please be advised that vocabularyspellingcity only uses the actual vocabulary words contained in houghton mifflin. Grade 5 by scott foresman and a great selection of related books, art and collectibles available now at. Spelling lessons for grade 5 practice your spelling. Trophies, spelling practice book, teachers edition, grade 5 9780153235542. Consumable student spelling workbooks are also available. What are the answers to spelling practice book grade 6. Answers for harcourt 5 grade spelling book answers. Mcgrawhill wonders fifth grade resources and printouts. Unlimited practice is available on each topic which allows thorough. Worksheets are ab5 sp pe tpcpy 193638, practice book o, 5th grade spelling words, spelling practice book, spelling practice book, fourth and fifth grade student center activities, fifth grade reading street unit, martha ruttle. Bju press spelling grade 5 introduces new spelling words organized by phonetic word sorts. Practice books, grades k5 the math learning center. May 2, 2018 mcgraw hill grade 5 spelling practice book pdf stay safe and healthy. Practice 2 unit 1 week 1 day 2 spelling practice book home activity your child wrote words that have short vowels. Play mouse maze play word scramble play word chopper. Please be advised that vocabularyspellingcity only uses the actual vocabulary. Sitton spelling student practice book, grade 5, set of 5. This teacher answer key accompanies the soldseparately sitton grade 5 practice book 5 pack. Practice book unit 4 vocabulary 155 home activity your child identified and used endings added to base words, such as s, ed, ing, and. Displaying all worksheets related to 5th grade spelling practice book. Fifth grade spelling words free 5th grade weekly list, worksheets. Review the word study steps above to help the student spell new words. Vocabulary lessons for grade 5 practice your spelling. They plan, draft, and edit a letter in which they express their opinions to the main. Journeys guided, comprehensive reading program provides educators with materials for k5 english language arts instruction. Spelling practice book grade 5 treasures worksheets. Our journeys reading program can be directly linked through this website by clicking on the think central link. Each volume also includes answer keys and a complete listing of the student pages grouped by skill. In grade 5, spelling becomes increasingly challenging. Students will sort their pattern words under the correct letter pattern, write each word in syllables, complete words, complete sentences, match words with their definitions, proofread passages, and practice. The worksheets on this page help your kids with the more complex spelling rules, such as multiple syllables, contractions, consonant blends, rule exceptions and alternate word endings.1118 1421 892 200 472 1575 1603 1188 619 1128 987 283 113 245 1550 180 597 1566 647 462 1101 1534 810 565 1329 972 619 1199 863 1208 799 176 344 93 802 291 614 1170 664 31 1183 1214 1330 259 1070 150 795 829 920
Students take a 72 question online abbreviated adaptation of the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The questionnaire yields a letter code and percentage preference for each of the 4 letters of that code (i.e. INTJ 78% 78% 75% 22%) A lesson follows in which students are introduced to their "type" and how to interpret each letter. The lesson emphasizes the questionnaire as a tool for fostering insight and skeptical self-reflection. Students are taught that this is one of many questionnaires used to attempt to understand the complexities of human personality. The research behind this learning style inventory comes from the Keirsey-Bates, and Myers-Briggs work, both of which are adapted from Carl Jung's extensive research into human tendencies. Students reflect on the lesson and demonstrate connections to their lives. Past successes have enabled and allowed students to... -understand behavior of family, peers, and teachers for the sake of more harmonious relationships and personal growth -understand reasons as to why some individuals seek solitude, or smaller groups over larger ones (or vice versa.) In May of 2013, two students presented a talk on the differences between introverts and extroverts to the Board of Education as their service learning project. The goal was to promote greater social acceptance and awareness of introversion. Students were motivated by Susan Cain's book Quiet and TED talk. Susan Cain's assistant is a graduate of Montgomery High School. [Susan's TED Talk http://www.ted.com/talks/susan_cain_the_power_of_introverts?language=en] For those interested, it is my hope that the use of the Myers Briggs learning style inventory in the classroom will offer students one more tool for navigating their social/emotional development.
Armed with these guiding principles, you’ll be able not only to plan your own space but also to impress friends with brief but impressively knowledgeable lectures on how to plant specifically for honeybees! - QUANTITY, QUALITY AND VARIETY Plentiful supplies of varied forage are essential to help honeybees withstand the impact of disease and harmful environmental factors. In a single foraging trip, a honeybee will visit around 100 flowers, and she (all worker bees are female) will make around 10 to 15 trips in a day. So that’s at least 1,000 flowers a day, and this is a conservative estimate – it’s said that a honeybee might visit up to 5,000 flowers on a productive day. - FOUR-SEASON PLANTING Although March to September are the key months for honeybees, they will fly whenever the temperature is above 50 degrees Fahrenheit, even in the depths of the winter. So early- and late-flowering plants are especially valuable. Ideally, plant ‘sequentially’ so that there is always something in the flower. - MOW LESS AND LOVE WEEDS Many so-called lawn ‘weeds’ provide precious forage. Mow lawns but less often and leave some areas to grow wilder. This encourages useful species to grow, such as daisies, trefoil, clovers and especially dandelions, which are vitally important as an early season nectar source.’ - BEES SEE BLUE The photoreceptors in honeybees’ eyes see from yellow, blue and green right up into the ultraviolet (UV) light scale. This makes blue, violet, purple and white flowers especially attractive to them. They can also distinguish orange blooms, but the color red looks black to a bee, making red flowers unappealing. Some flowers exploit UV light to alert bees. The outer edges of the petals reflect UV light, while the nectar-rich centers absorb it to present a dark patch (rather like a bull’s eye), signaling the perfect landing pad. - ‘FLOWER FIDELITY’ Honeybees only visit one type of flower in any one foraging trip. This is called ‘flower fidelity’ and is what makes them such effective pollinators. By planting large clumps or ‘drifts’ of single species you can save the bees’ energy and optimize each of their trips. - NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE Honeybees have evolved alongside certain flower species in every region. The flowers, too, are perfectly attuned to that region. For these reasons, some people favor using only native plantings in their gardens. However, widespread climate change means that many non-native species have now become very valuable additions to our pollinator forage and are widely accepted by honeybees as part of a changing flora. - THINK BUSHES AND TREES Bees are naturally tree dwellers and feeders and, if space allows, bee-friendly plantings should always start with a framework of durable, perennial forage from bushes and trees. A single lime (linden) tree in flower provides the same amount of forage as 3000 sq m (32,292 sq ft) of wildflower meadow (which is about half the size of a football pitch)! - KEEP IT SIMPLE With shorter tongues than bumblebees or butterflies, honeybees often can’t feed from complex flower structures. Showy, highly bred ornamental flowers often give little or no forage. Generally, stay close to the original wild or simpler forms of flowers where nectar and pollen are easily accessible. - WATER, WATER Bees don’t store water in the hive. They forage for it as needed and they often choose surprising sources. If you don’t have a pond, a bowl of pebbles full of rainwater provides a good stop off. In hot weather, water brought back by forager bees is sprinkled over the brood cells (nests) and then fanned by worker bees to cool the area through evaporation. Honey stored in the hive is diluted before being eaten, so water gathering is often the reason for bees flying on warm winter days. - GARDEN ORGANICALLY Read up on organic gardening techniques. There are many wildlife-friendly alternatives, but if you absolutely must use chemicals, follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully to prevent overdosing. As far as is possible, source your seeds, plants bulbs and potting compost from organic nurseries, this will ensure that they have never been treated with insecticides. Excerpted with permission from Planting For Honeybees by Sarah Wyndham Lewis, published by Quadrille March 2018
7 OFDM- IntroductionThe major requirement of modern wireless communication systems are high capacity and variable bit rate transmission with high BW efficiency.But, the wireless environment signal usually impaired by fading and multipath delay spreading .The traditional single carrier mobile communication systems do not perform well because it suffers extreme fading of the signal and Inter Symbol Interference(ISI).This leads to a high probability of errors and the system’s overall performance becomes very poor.Because of its high-speed data transmission and effectiveness in combating the frequency selective fading channel, OFDM technique is widely used in wireless communication nowadays.Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a multi-carrier transmission technique, which divides the available spectrum into many subcarriers, each one being modulated by a low data rate stream. 8 Introduction to ofdmOrthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a frequency division multiplexing (FDM) scheme used as a digital multi carrier modulation (MCM) method.OFDM is a method of digital modulation in which a signal is split into several narrowband channels at different frequencies.The main idea behind the OFDM is that since low-rate modulations are less sensitive to multipath, the better way is to send a number of low rate streams in parallel than sending one high rate waveform.A large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers are used to carry data.OFDM is a promising technique for achieving high data rate and combating multipath fading in Wireless Communications. 9 OFDM DEFINITION OFDM = Orthogonal FDM Carrier centers are put on orthogonal frequenciesORTHOGONALITY - The peak of each signal coincides with other signalsSubcarriers are spaced by 1/Ts 12 OFDM-Introduction Contd.. OFDM can be viewed as either a modulation technique or a multiplex technique.Modulation techniqueViewed by the relation between input and output signalsMultiplex techniqueViewed by the output signal which is the linear sum of the modulated signals 13 Why OFDM? Single Carrier Multicarrier Uses the entire bandwidth OFDM – Orthogonal Frequency Division MultiplexingSingle CarrierMulticarrierUses the entire bandwidthSplits bandwidth into subchannelsShort symbol timesSends information in parallelThis causes ISIOFDM: orthogonal subcarriersOFDM is a considerable option when the channel introduces ISIApplications: ADSL, DAB, DVB, Hiperlan/2, ... 14 Modulation techniques: monocarrier vs. multicarrier ChannelChannelizationN carriersBPulse length ~ N/BSimilar toFDM technique– Data are shared amongseveral carriersand simultaneously transmittedGuard bandsBPulse length ~1/B– Data are transmited overonly one carrier– Selective Fading– Very short pulses– ISI is compartively long– EQs are then very long– Poor spectral efficiencybecause of band guardsDrawbacks– It is easy to exploitFrequency diversity– Flat Fading per carrier– N long pulses– ISI is comparatively short– N short EQs needed– Poor spectral efficiencybecause of band guardsAdvantagesFurthermore– It allows to deploy2D coding techniques– Dynamic signallingTo improve the spectral efficiency:To use orthogonal carriers (allowing overlapping)Eliminate band guards between carriers 15 OFDM and Multicarrier Transmission 2/8Single and multicarrier transmission 16 Orthogonality Orthogonality in OFDM Time domain frequency domain Band pass signalWhere is the equivalent low pass signal ofif , n is an non-integer i.e Then 17 OFDM and Multicarrier Transmission 4/8OrthogonalOrthogonal, n=3Orthogonal, n=2(OFDM)Orthogonal, n=1Non-orthogonal 18 OFDM and Multicarrier Transmission 5/8Time domainFrequency domain 21 Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation N carriersBSymbol: 2 periods of f0TransmitSymbol: 4 periods of f0+ffSymbol: 8 periods of f0Channel frequencyresponse.Data coded in frequency domainTransformation to time domain:each frequency is a sine wavein time, all added up.BDecode each frequencybin separatelyReceivetimefTime-domain signalFrequency-domain signal 22 Principles OFDMSome processing is done on the source data, such as coding for correcting errors, interleaving and mapping of bits onto symbols. An example of mapping used is QAM.The symbols are modulated onto orthogonal sub-carriers. This is done by using IFFT.Orthogonality is maintained during channel transmission. This is achieved byadding a cyclic prefix to the OFDM frame to be sent. The cyclic prefix consists ofthe L last samples of the frame, which are copied and placed in the beginning ofthe frame. It must be longer than the channel impulse response.Synchronization: the introduced cyclic prefix can be used to detect the start of each frame. This is done by using the fact that the L first and last samples are the same and therefore correlated. This works under the assumption that one OFDM frame can be considered to be stationary.Demodulation of the received signal by using FFTChannel equalization: the channel can be estimated either by using a trainingsequence or sending known so-called pilot symbols at predefined sub-carriers.Decoding and de-interleaving 23 Advantages of OFDM High spectral efficiency Simple implementation by FFTLow receiver complexityRobust ability for high-data rate transmission over multipath fading channel.High link in terms of link adaption.OFDM eliminates Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) through the use of a cyclic prefix.OFDM is less sensitive to sample timing offsets than the single carrier systems.OFDM eliminates the need for equalizers 24 Disadvantages of OFDM Synchronization Need FFT units at transmitter, receiverSensitive to carrier frequency offsetHigh peak to average power ratio 25 Application of OFDM Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX).Terrestrial Digital Audio Broadcasting (DVB-T).Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).(IEEE d).Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). ETSI HiperLAN.Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB).Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB).High Definition Television (HDTV).Broadband Internet Access
The word "mature" is an adjective used to describe people and things that have aged or grown to a stage of full development. - There are several mature trees in our front yard. - It took a long time for the trees to become mature. - Sarah is very mature for her age. She’s only fifteen. - Ronald is twenty-three, but he’s not very mature. He’s really immature. (immature = not mature) - Polar bears are mature by the age of two. This polar bear is fully mature. You can use "mature" as a verb: - Polar bears mature very quickly. - Those plants have not yet matured. - Sarah is maturing very quickly. - How long will it take for that tree to mature? The word "maturity" is a noun: - The level of maturity among students in Mr. Thompson’s third hour class is very low. - Taking responsibility for one’s own actions is a sign of maturity. - When the plants reach full maturity, they will be harvested. "Maturation" is also a noun: - The maturation process is slow and painful for some teenagers. - Artificial hormones can accelerate the maturation process in some animals. Click here for more vocabulary words. July 22, 2019
He was born Philip Schwarzerdt (Black Earth) in Bretten, Germany on Feb. 16, 1497. His father was a master of armory in Saxony and his mother came from a well-to-do family of merchants. Philip excelled in the study of Latin and Greek. Because he was such a good student his uncle gave him the name “black earth” in Greek, Melanchthon . He was ready to take his Masters exam at age 15, but his professors didn’t think he would be accepted as a teacher at such a young age. He did receive his Masters degree two years later and began to teach. He was urged to get married because others thought it would aid him in his life. In 1519 he stated that marriage would interfere with his studies and teaching. However, he did get married in November of the next year. He joined Martin Luther at the University of Wittenberg in 1518. Melanchthon was a popular lecturer with as many as 2,000 students attending. He and Luther became lifelong friends and associates. He founded schools, wrote textbooks and systematized Lutheran theology. In April 1530, Emperor Charles V called a meeting between representatives of Lutheranism and Roman Catholicism hoping to reach an agreement. Luther was still under the papal excommunication issued in 1521 and under imperial ban. He was still officially an outlaw. Therefore, Melanchthon was appointed the chief Lutheran representative at the meetings at Augsburg. He was the primary author of the Augsburg Confession, which was presented to the Emperor on June 25. The confession defined Lutheran doctrine and teaching. It demonstrated how Lutherans were not a renegade heretical group, but their teachings were based on Scripture and in accord with the historic teachings of the church. The Augsburg Confession is still the defining document of Lutheranism place in the Christian church. Melanchthon continued to work for the church until his death on April 19, 1560.
On November 6, 1860, the six-year-old Republican Party elected its first president. During the tense crisis months that followed — the “secession winter” of 1860–61 — practically all observers believed that Lincoln and the Republicans would begin attacking slavery as soon as they took power. Democrats in the North blamed the Republican Party for the entire sectional crisis. They accused Republicans of plotting to circumvent the Constitutional prohibition against direct federal attacks on slavery. Republicans would instead allegedly try to squeeze slavery to death indirectly, by abolishing it in the territories and in Washington DC, suppressing it in the high seas, and refusing federal enforcement of the Slave Laws. The first to succumb to the Republican program of “ultimate extinction,” Democrats charged, would be the border states where slavery was most vulnerable. For Northern Democrats, this is what caused the crisis; the Republicans were to blame for trying to get around the Constitution. Southern secessionists said almost exactly the same thing. The Republicans supposedly intended to bypass the Constitution’s protections for slavery by surrounding the South with free states, free territories, and free waters. What Republicans called a “cordon of freedom,” secessionists denounced as an inflammatory circle of fire. The Southern cooperationists — those who opposed immediate secession — agreed with the secessionists’ and Northern Democrats’ analysis of Republican intentions. But they argued that the only way the Republicans would actually have the power to act on those intentions was if the Southern states seceded. If the slave states remained within the Union, the Republicans would not have the majorities in Congress to adopt their antislavery policies. And if the South did secede, all bets would be off. The rebellious states would forfeit all the constitutional protections of slavery. The South would get something much worse than a cordon of freedom. It would get direct military intervention, leading to the immediate and uncompensated emancipation of the slaves. The slaves themselves seem to have understood this. They took an unusual interest in the 1860 election and had high hopes for what Lincoln’s victory would mean. They assumed that Lincoln’s inauguration would lead to war, that war would bring on a Union invasion of the South, and that the invading Union army would free the slaves. But to read what historians have been saying for decades is to conclude that all of these people — the Democrats, the secessionists, the cooperationists, and the slaves — were all wrong. The Northern Democrats were just demagogues. The secessionists were hysterical. And the slaves were, alas, sadly misguided. Unwilling to take seriously what contemporaries were saying, historians have constructed a narrative of Emancipation and the Civil War that begins with the premise that Republicans came into the war with no intention of attacking slavery — indeed, that they disavowed any antislavery intentions. The narrative is designed to demonstrate the original premise, according to which everyone at the time was mistaken about what the Republicans intended to do. It’s a familiar chronology: Under the terms of the First Confiscation Act of August 1861, disloyal masters would “forfeit” the use of their slaves, but the slaves were not actually freed. Lincoln ordered General John C. Frémont to rescind his decree of that September freeing the slaves of rebels in Missouri, and several months later the President rescinded General Hunter’s order abolishing slavery in three states. As late as the summer of 1862, we are reminded, Lincoln was writing letters to Horace Greeley saying that if he could end the war without freeing a single slave, he would do so. Even after the President finally promised an emancipation proclamation, in September 1862, several months elapsed until the proclamation actually came on January 1, 1863. Only then, according to the standard narrative, was the North committed to emancipation. Only then did the purpose of the Civil War expand from the mere restoration of the Union to include the overthrow of slavery. In one form or another, this narrative is familiar to all scholars of the period. Historians who agree on little else will agree on this version of the story, even when they have entirely divergent interpretations of what it means. But what if the original premise is wrong? What if, during the secession winter of 1860–61, everybody was right about what the Republicans intended to do about slavery? What if the Republicans came into the war ready and willing to destroy slavery? What does that do for a narrative of emancipation? For one thing, it flies in the face of the prevailing neo-revisionism in contemporary Civil War scholarship. The old revisionist interpretation, which reached its zenith of influence in the 1930s and 1940s, came in many varieties. But it always rested on an essentially negative proposition: whatever else the war was about, it was not about slavery. This viewpoint required one set of claims about the South, and another about the North. Revisionists claimed that slavery was already dying in the South, that it was unprofitable, that it wasn’t important to Southern economy and society, that it had reached the natural limits of its expansion, and that Southern leaders were more concerned about defending state rights than protecting slavery. Most contemporary historians, though not all of them, now reject these old revisionist claims. Slavery was thriving and the Southern states seceded to protect it. But revisionists also claimed that the North did not go to war over slavery. If there were “interests” involved, they were the interests of Northern capitalists against Southern agrarians. The Civil War was an accident brought on by bungling politicians. The abolitionists were a tiny, beleaguered minority; most Northerners shared the general conviction of black racial inferiority. The South had slavery, the argument went, but the North was racist too. This argument, in turn, was really just a revival of the antebellum Democratic Party’s relentless efforts to shift the terms of debate from slavery to race. Today, this revisionist interpretation of the North is alive and well. Indeed, it is pervasive among historians. We are repeatedly told that the North did not go to war over slavery. The Civil War is once again denounced as morally unjustified on the grounds that the North was not motivated by any substantial antislavery convictions. Emancipation itself is described as an accidental byproduct of a war the North fought for no purpose beyond the restoration of the Union. A recent study of the secession crisis states that during the war, slavery was abolished “inadvertently.” Contemporary scholarship is saturated by this neo-revisionist premise. Like the antebellum Democrats and the Civil War revisionists, neo-revisionists have insistently shifted the terms of the debate from slavery to race. Virtually any Republican in 1860 would have recognized this argument as Democratic Party propaganda. If I sound skeptical, that’s because I am. On the basis of my research, I can no longer accept the thesis that the Union did not begin emancipating slaves until January 1, 1863. It was never my intention to overturn the conventional narrative. I began by accepting the standard assumption that that the first Confiscation Act achieved nothing. But I still wanted to know what Republicans thought they were doing when they passed the law. Why did the Act turn out to be so toothless? Why did it fail to free any slaves? Secondary accounts usually pass over this question; they couldn’t provide me with the answers I needed: who wrote the law, where did it come from, how did people talk about it? To my astonishment, I discovered that Section Four of the Act, the clause specifically authorizing the forfeiture of slaves, was written by Senator Lyman Trumbull, chair of the Judiciary Committee, as an emancipation clause. Indeed, it was understood by everyone in Congress to be an emancipation clause. Trumbull’s proposal was denounced by Democrats and border-state congressmen as an emancipation clause, defended almost unanimously by congressional Republicans as an emancipation clause. These men thought they were writing an emancipation bill. That’s what they said at the time. A full-scale congressional debate erupted in July of 1861, focusing on the legitimacy of the emancipation that Republicans were undertaking. When I read those debates I wondered where the arguments for emancipation had come from. I went back to the secession debates. And sure enough, everything critics had accused the Republicans of planning to do was exactly what Republicans themselves were saying they were going to do. The great mistake that historians have made, I realized, was a misreading of the constitutional premises of the Republican antislavery agenda. I doubt anything Lincoln said is more commonly repeated by historians than the promise he made in his inaugural address not to interfere with slavery in the states where it already existed. That little quotation is all the proof historians seem to require to demonstrate that when the war began, neither Lincoln nor the Republicans had any idea of emancipating slaves. In fact, nearly every abolitionist (and just about every historian I can think of) would agree with Lincoln: the Founders had made a series of compromises resulting in a Constitution that did not allow the federal government to abolish slavery in any state where it existed. William Lloyd Garrison wrote that consensus into the founding document of the American Anti-Slavery Society, the 1833 Declaration of Sentiments, which flatly declared that the power to abolish slavery rested exclusively with the states. Theodore Dwight Weld said the same thing. So did Joshua Giddings, Salmon Chase, and Charles Sumner. The federal government had no power to interfere with slavery in the states where it already existed. Which raises the obvious question: how did the abolitionists expect to get slavery abolished? A small group of nonpolitical abolitionists argued for moral suasion. An even smaller faction of antislavery radicals argued that the Constitution was an antislavery document. But most abolitionists believed, on the one hand, that the Constitution did not allow the federal government to abolish slavery in the states, but that on the other hand, political action was necessary for slavery to be abolished. Given the Constitution’s restrictions, what did opponents of slavery think could be done? Coming out of the 1860 election, Republicans declared that there were two possible policies. The first was to make freedom national and restrict slavery to the states where it already existed. Republican policymakers would seal off the South: they would no longer enforce the Fugitive Slave Clause; slavery would be suppressed on the high seas; it would be abolished in Washington DC, banned from all the Western territories, and no new slave states would be admitted to the Union. A “cordon of freedom” would surround the slave states. Then Republicans would offer a series of incentives to the border states where slavery was weakest: compensation, subsidies for voluntary emigration of freed slaves, a gradual timetable for complete abolition. Slavery was intrinsically weak, Republicans said. By denationalizing it, they could put it on a course of ultimate extinction. Surrounded on all sides, deprived of life-giving federal support, the slave states would one by one abolish slavery on their own, beginning with the border states. Each new defection would further diminish the strength of the remaining slave states, further accelerating the process of abolition. Yet because the decision to abolish slavery remained with the states, Republican policies would not violate the constitutional ban on direct federal interference in slavery. The South would simply have to accept this. And if it couldn’t tolerate such a federal policy, it could leave the Union. But once it seceded, all bets would be off — it would lose the Constitutional protections that it had previously enjoyed. The Republicans would then implement the second policy: direct military emancipation, immediate and uncompensated. Republicans said this openly during the secession crisis. And that’s what they were saying in Congress as they debated the Confiscation Act. It’s time to start rethinking our fundamental assumptions about the causes as well as the trajectory of the Civil War. And we can start by taking the perceptions of its contemporaries a great deal more seriously.
Fever in a young infant is often the only clinical sign of an underlying serious infection. This is particularly true for infants younger than 2–3 months, since they lack many of the clinical signs typically used by clinicians to judge general appearance. Although most well-appearing febrile infants in this age group have a benign; self-limited illness, as many as 10% have serious bacterial illness, including 3% with bacteremia and bacterial meningitis.1–9 Thus, fever is an important symptom for identifying infants who need immediate evaluation and treatment. The definition of what constitutes fever in this age is debatable. Normal body temperature varies with a variety of factors including age, sex, and time of day. There may be as much as a 0.5°C difference between the physiologic nadir in the early morning and the peak in the early evening. Older infants appear to have slightly higher basal body temperature compared to infants younger than 1 month.10 However, despite this individual variation, several studies have shown that rectal temperatures more than 38.0°C are greater than two standard deviations above the mean for age.2,3,10 It is important to emphasize that rectal temperature is the standard method for fever determination at this age. Other temperature-taking methods such as axillary or forehead measurements are unreliable and should not be used. Often, the parent will report a subjective fever because the infant “felt warm” or had “fever to touch.” In these cases, if the infant was afebrile when examined by the clinician, there was no increase in serious bacterial illness.11 However, if the infant had a documented fever at home by rectal thermometry, the infant remains at risk for serious bacterial illness regardless of the presence or absence of fever when the infant presents to the clinician.11 One important caveat is the possibility of environmental factors as a cause of elevated body temperature in the infant, which often happens in the summer especially if the infant is bundled in warm clothing. The most common organisms associated with fever in young infants are shown in Table 51–1. In infants younger than 4 weeks, infection is usually caused by organisms acquired perinatally—group B Streptococcus (GBS), gram-negative bacilli (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella), Listeria monocytogenes, and herpes simplex virus (HSV). By 6 weeks of age, the etiology shifts to community-acquired organisms—Streptococcus pneumoniae and less commonly Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae type B. During the winter months, common viral causes are influenza type A or type B and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Table 51–1. Common Bacterial Pathogens in Cases of Bacteremia & Bacterial Meningitis \|Favorite Table\|Download (.pdf) Table 51–1. Common Bacterial Pathogens in Cases of Bacteremia & Bacterial Meningitis - E. coli - Staphylococcus aureus - Streptococcus pneumoniae - Less Common: - Enterococcous faecalis - Enterobacter cloacae - Group A Streptococcus - Klebsiella pneumoniae - L. monocytogenes

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